Perspectives and Trends in Education and Technology: Selected Papers from ICITED 2021 (Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies, 256) 9811650624, 9789811650628
This book presents high-quality, peer-reviewed papers from the International Conference in Information Technology &
134 13 21MB
English Pages 1048 [1003] Year 2021
Preface
Contents
About the Editors
1 Qualitative Research Methodology Applied to Studies in Administrative Sciences
1.1 Introduction
1.1.1 Qualitative Research Methodology
1.1.2 Scientific Rigour in Qualitative Research
1.1.3 Qualitative-Naturalistic Research Route
1.2 Application Proposals
1.2.1 Future Advances and Limitations
1.3 Conclusion
References
2 Cybersecurity in Smart Cities: Technology and Data Security in Intelligent Transport Systems
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Context and Related Works
2.2.1 Consequences
2.2.2 Security Risk Within Smart Cities
2.2.3 Cybersecurity Challenges on IoT Devices
2.3 Intelligent Transport Systems (ITS)
2.3.1 ITS Infrastructure
2.3.2 ITS Security Architecture
2.3.3 ITS Security Threats
2.3.4 ITS Security as Technology
2.4 ITS Technology and Data Security
2.4.1 Sources and Data Types of Transport Systems
2.4.2 Vulnerabilities and Security Risks
2.4.3 Threat Modeling
2.4.4 Discussions and Conclusions
2.5 ITS Threat Analysis and Classification
2.5.1 Entities Involved
2.5.2 Technical Approach and Modeling
2.5.3 Classification of ITS Attacks
2.5.4 Collision Hazard Warning
2.6 Assessment and Conclusion
2.6.1 Difficulties and Opportunities
2.6.2 Results
2.6.3 Conclusion
References
3 Youth Associations in Academia: Their Implications for the Creation and Development of an Entrepreneurial Profile
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Young Entrepreneurship and Academic Associations in Portugal
3.3 Methodology
3.3.1 Sample and Data Collection Procedure
3.3.2 Survey by Questionnaire
3.4 Presentation and Discussion of Results
3.4.1 Generic Sample Characterization
3.4.2 Survey Results
3.4.3 Potential Entrepreneurship Index
3.4.4 Discussion
3.5 Final Considerations
References
4 Modular Educational Ecosystem as Academic Support During COVID-19 Emergency at Mexico City-IPN in 2020
4.1 Introduction
4.1.1 Ecosystems
4.1.2 Instituto Politecnico Nacional Ecosystem
4.2 Academic Continuity Plan (ACP). At Mexico City-IPN
4.2.1 Methodological Proposal for Distance Learning Assessment with IPN Modular Ecosystem
4.3 Discussion and Results
4.4 Conclusions
References
5 The Incidence of Abuse and School Harassment Among Foreign and Spanish Students in Extremadura
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Method
5.2.1 Sample
5.2.2 Instruments
5.2.3 Procedure
5.3 Results
5.3.1 Witnesses
5.3.2 Victims
5.3.3 Aggressors
5.4 Discussion/Conclusions
References
6 Tití App, an Interactive Psycho-Pedagogical Recovery Tool: A Pilot Study
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Method
6.2.1 Participants
6.2.2 Instruments
6.2.3 Procedure
6.2.4 Structure of the Tool and Exercises
6.3 Results and Discussion
References
7 Accessibility and Usability in Learning Objects
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Objectives and Methods
7.2.1 Eligibility and Selection of References Criteria
7.3 Results
7.4 Accessibility and Usability in Learning Objects
7.5 Discussion
7.6 Final Considerations
References
8 Museum, School and Augmented Reality, a Way to Preserve the Ethnic Identity of an Ancestral Culture
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Theoretical Bases: History and Uses of Augmented Reality (AR)
8.2.1 Historical Concepts of Augmented Reality
8.2.2 Requirements and Types of Augmented Reality
8.2.3 Use of the Augmented Reality at School and Museum Levels
8.3 Materials and Methodology
8.4 Results
8.4.1 Perception of the Community About Their Self-Identity
8.4.2 Characterization of the Archaeological Objects
8.4.3 Modelling of the Pieces and Augmented Reality
8.4.4 Design of the Pieces in Augmented Reality
8.4.5 Design of the Web Platform
8.5 Conclusion
References
9 Multinomial Logistic Regression Model for Prioritization of COVID-19 Vaccination in Portoviejo—Ecuador
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Multinomial Logistic Regression
9.3 A Brief Overview of Relevant Function
9.4 Stochastic Gradient Descent
9.5 Result
9.6 Discussion and Conclusions
References
10 Visual Metrics for Educational Videogames Linked to Socially Assistive Robots in an Inclusive Education Framework
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Materials and Methods
10.2.1 Sample
10.2.2 Data Collection
10.2.3 Visual Control Tool
10.2.4 Required Settings
10.2.5 Stage
10.3 Analysis and Results
10.3.1 OpenFace Results
10.3.2 Dashboard Results
10.4 Discussion and Conclusion
10.4.1 Future Work
References
11 How Teams Learn Agility, a Beginner’s Guide for Software Development
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Background
11.2.1 Agile Methodologies
11.2.2 Agile Methodology Learning
11.3 Materials and Methods
11.3.1 Development Phase
11.3.2 Survey Evaluation Phase
11.3.3 Problem Detection Phase
11.3.4 Application of Good Practices Phase
11.4 Results
11.4.1 Evaluation of Methodology Surveys
11.4.2 Evaluation of Quality Surveys
11.4.3 Consolidated Results
11.5 Conclusion
References
12 Didactics Strategy Using ICT, for Kids with Trisomy of Pair 21
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Context
12.3 Materials and Method
12.4 Characteristics of the Target Population
12.5 General Structure Design
12.6 Results
12.7 Conclusion
References
13 Can We Assess Creativity? The Use of Rubrics for Evaluating Transcreation in the Undergraduate Program of Translation and Interpreting
13.1 Background
13.2 Methodology
13.2.1 Transcreation Briefs
13.2.2 Rubrics for Evaluating Transcreation
13.3 Proposed Assessment Tool
13.4 Conclusions
References
14 The Place of Latin American Universities in International University Rankings. A Multivariate Statistical Analysis
14.1 Introduction
14.1.1 Latin American Universities in International Rankings
14.2 Methodology
14.3 Results
14.3.1 Latin Ratio
14.3.2 International Perspective
14.4 Discussion
14.5 Conclusion
References
15 Technology’s Impacts in the Students of Higher Education in the Covid-19 Pandemic Period
15.1 Introduction
15.2 The Impacts of Technology in the Students of Higher Education in the Covid-19 Pandemic Period
15.3 Method
15.4 Results
15.5 Final Remarks
References
16 Escape Rooms: Mathematical Challenges Available to Educators
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Related Research
16.3 Methods
16.3.1 Participants
16.3.2 Materials
16.3.3 Procedure
16.4 Escape Rooms Design for Mathematics
16.4.1 Escape Rooms Formulation
16.4.2 Challenge Design
16.4.3 Route Maps
16.4.4 Final Rescue
16.5 Results and Discussion
16.6 Conclusions
References
17 Kriging Prediction for Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 in Portoviejo—Ecuador
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Variogram
17.2.1 Parametric Semivariogram
17.3 Data of Continuous Variation
17.3.1 Kriging
17.3.2 Forecasting Models Accuracy
17.4 Result
17.5 Discussion and Conclusions
References
18 Learning the Role of Museums as Drivers of Development
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Guggenheim Museum Bilbao
18.3 Oskar Schindler Enamel Factory Museum in Krakow
18.4 Louvre Lens and Pompidou-Metz
18.5 Conclusions
References
19 Charting a Path for Industry 4.0. An Industry and University Experience
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Objectives and Methodologies
19.2.1 Reference Architecture Model Industry 4.0 (RAMI 4.0)
19.2.2 Preventive Maintenance Model for Industry 4.0 Proposal
19.3 The Proof of Concept (PoC)
19.4 Conclusions
19.5 Limitations and Future Research Work
References
20 Qualitative Research Applied to Organisations. An Approach to Business Reality
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Materials and Methods
20.3 Analysis and Discussion of the Results
20.4 Conclusion
References
21 Smart Production Planning and Control Model
21.1 Industry 4.0 Definitions
21.2 Change Forces for a Smart PPC: The Industry 4.0 Role
21.2.1 Smart PPC Organizational Processes
21.3 Results
21.3.1 Main Industry 4.0 Technologies and Their Requirements
21.4 Production Planning and Control and Industry 4.0 Ecosystems Synthesis
21.5 Conclusions
References
22 Investment Decisions According to the Miller and Markowitz Models. A Look at Smart Cash Management
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Literature Review
22.2.1 Intelligent Treasury Management (ITM)
22.2.2 Miller and Orr Models
22.2.3 Markowitz Model
22.3 Materials and Methods
22.3.1 Livestock Sector Scenario
22.3.2 Data Collection
22.4 Analysis and Discussion of the Results
22.5 Conclusion
References
23 Technology 4.0 in Accounting: What Future for Education?
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Literature Review
23.3 Methodology
23.4 Discussion of Results
23.5 Final Considerations
References
24 The Importance of Opinion Leaders and Social Networking on Destination Brand Development—The Case Study of Discover Melgaço Brand
24.1 Introduction
24.2 Literature Review
24.3 Methodology
24.4 Discussion—“Discover Melgaço” Brand Destination
24.5 Conclusion
References
25 Ecuador and the Virtual High School Education in Pandemic Times
25.1 Introduction
25.1.1 Virtual Education and COVID-19
25.2 Materials and Methods
25.3 Results
25.4 Conclusions
References
26 Total Quality Management and Social Responsibility an Approach Through Their Synergies in Higher Education Institutions
26.1 An Approach to Total Quality Management and Social Responsibility
26.1.1 Total Quality Management
26.1.2 Social Responsibility
26.2 Synergies Between Total Quality Management and Social Responsibility
26.3 Final Considerations
References
27 Application of Gamification in Higher Education in the Teaching of English as a Foreign Language
27.1 Introduction
27.2 Method
27.2.1 Participants
27.2.2 Design
27.2.3 Techniques for Data Analysis
27.3 Results
27.4 Discussion and Conclusions
Appendix 1: Sample of Satisfaction Questionnaire According Likert Scale
Appendix 2: Entrance Test to Measure the Acquisition of the Foreign Language Before the Application of Gamification Tools
Appendix 3: Exit Test to Measure the Acquisition of the Foreign Language After the Application of Gamification Tools.
References
28 Convexity in the Design of Bounded Surfaces and Unconventional Solids Using GeoGebra AR
28.1 Introduction
28.2 Basic Definitions
28.2.1 Parametric Curves
28.2.2 Parametric Surface
28.2.3 Convex Set
28.3 Convexity in Surface Design
28.3.1 Case 1
28.3.2 Case 2
28.4 Conclusions
References
29 forScrum, a Lesson to Learn for the 21st Century
29.1 Introduction
29.2 State of the Art
29.2.1 Project-Based Learning
29.2.2 eduScrum
29.3 Characteristics of the Study
29.3.1 Sample Features
29.3.2 Methodology Used
29.4 Analysis and Discussion of Results
29.5 Conclusion
References
30 Knowledge Management and Individual Job Performance in Higher Education: Proposal of a Conceptual Model
30.1 Introduction
30.2 Literature Review
30.2.1 Knowledge Management
30.2.2 Individual Job Performance
30.3 Methodology
30.4 Conclusion
References
31 Spatial Skills Training Through Drawing Architectural Spaces Inside Immersive Virtual Reality
31.1 Introduction
31.1.1 Spatial Skills
31.1.2 Training Spatial Skills
31.1.3 Importance of the Spatial Skills in Architecture
31.1.4 Objective
31.1.5 Hypothesis
31.2 Methodology
31.2.1 Measurement Tools
31.2.2 Training Design
31.2.3 Participants
31.2.4 Equipment
31.2.5 Study Description
31.3 Results
31.4 Discussion
31.5 Conclusions
References
32 FunEasyLearn: An App for Learning Pronunciation?
32.1 Introduction
32.2 Pronunciation Training: Some Important Ideas
32.3 The FunEasyLearn App
32.3.1 General Description and Evaluation
32.3.2 Potential for Pronunciation Learning
32.4 Final Remarks
References
33 The Influence of Higher Education Institutions on the Digital Development of the Regions
33.1 Introduction
33.2 Theoretical Background
33.2.1 The Portuguese Economy and the Digital Transformation
33.2.2 The Role of Higher Education in Digital Transformation
33.3 Research Issues, Objectives, and Methodology
33.4 Data Collection Process
33.5 Discussion of Results
33.5.1 Motivations and Challenges
33.5.2 Skills and Participation
33.5.3 Contribution
33.6 Conclusion
References
34 Autonomous Control of an Electric Vehicle by Computer Vision Applied to the Teaching–Learning Process
34.1 Introduction
34.2 Problem Formulation
34.3 Construction of the Prototype
34.4 Image Processing and Control Algorithm
34.4.1 Horizontal Signage Processing
34.4.2 Image Classifier
34.5 Experimental Results
34.6 Conclusions and Future Work
References
35 Web Accessibility for Socioeconomic and Education Development in Excluded Areas of Eastern Ecuador
35.1 Introduction
35.2 Material and Methods
35.2.1 Foundation of Wireless Networks
35.2.2 Standards
35.2.3 Wi-Fi Network Elements
35.2.4 Security in Telecommunications Networks
35.3 Results
35.3.1 Analysis of the Land
35.3.2 Network Architecture
35.3.3 Network Coverage
35.3.4 Data Speed
35.3.5 Performance.
35.3.6 Equipment
35.4 Discussion
35.5 Conclusions
References
36 New Accountant Curriculum Requirements in the Age of Robot Process Automation
36.1 Introduction
36.2 Literature Review
36.3 Method
36.4 Results and Discussion
36.5 Conclusion
References
37 Challenges and Policy in Times of Crisis—STEM in Digital Education
37.1 Introduction
37.2 Material and Methods
37.3 Results and Discussion
37.4 Conclusion
References
38 Design and Evaluation of a Mobile Application for Interactive Reading
38.1 Introduction
38.2 Background and Related Work
38.2.1 Interactive Reading
38.2.2 Learning and Children Apps
38.2.3 Similar Apps
38.2.4 HCI Techniques
38.3 The Mobile Application Prototype
38.3.1 Design Process
38.3.2 The Solution Architecture
38.3.3 Development Process
38.3.4 Main Features of the Mobile App Prototype
38.4 Evaluation
38.4.1 Results of the Evaluation
38.4.2 Discussion
38.5 Conclusions
References
39 Digital Twins in Contemporary Education: Virtual Workshop
39.1 Introduction
39.2 Digital Technologies for Megascience Facilities
39.3 Practical Course on Synchrotron Research Using Digital Twins of Megascience Facilities. Russian Case
39.4 Goals and Objectives of an Educational Product Based on the Digital Twin of Unique Scientific Facility
39.5 Conclusion
References
40 Digital Footprint and Education: Some Remarks
40.1 Introduction
40.2 Some Peculiarities of Digital Footprint in Educational Process
40.3 Conclusion
References
41 From Alternative to Scientific Conceptions in the Learning of Physics of Sound: Students’ Perceptions of Learning Using Active Methodologies and Computer Simulators
41.1 Framework
41.1.1 Introduction
41.1.2 Learning Physics in the Twenty-First Century
41.1.3 Teaching for Conceptual Understanding
41.1.4 Computer Simulators in the Educational Context
41.2 Methodology
41.2.1 Research Question and Objectives
41.2.2 Intervention Design
41.2.3 Educational Resources
41.2.4 Research Design
41.3 Results and Discussion
41.3.1 Involvement in Activities
41.3.2 Disorientation During Activities
41.3.3 Surprise Effect During Activities
41.4 Conclusions
References
42 Pre-service Teachers’ Knowledge and the Use of Different Technologies to Teach Mathematics
42.1 Introduction
42.2 Knowledge for Teaching Mathematics with Technology—The Model
42.3 Methodology
42.4 Results—AB Pair
42.4.1 Task 1
42.4.2 Task 2
42.4.3 Task 3
42.4.4 Task 4
42.4.5 Task 5
42.5 Conclusion
References
43 When Assessment Moves Home: The Digital Panopticon in Higher Education
43.1 Introduction—Mirror Mirror on the Wall, Who is the Most Honest of Us All?
43.2 Methods—The Actors in the Mirror
43.3 The context—The Broken Mirror
43.4 Results—The Other Side of the Mirror
43.4.1 Students in the Mirror
43.4.2 Teachers in the Mirror
43.5 Discussion—Parallel Mirrors
43.6 Conclusion
References
44 Online Impulse Buying—Integrative Review of Psychological Factors
44.1 Introduction
44.2 Theoretical Framework
44.2.1 Stress Reaction
44.2.2 Self-esteem
44.2.3 Materialism
44.2.4 Boredom
44.2.5 Positive Affect
44.2.6 Absorption, Shopping Pleasure and Need for Hedonic and Utilitarian Consumption
44.2.7 Habit
44.3 Final Remarks
References
45 Teaching and Learning in Tourism: The Case of Tourism Laboratory
45.1 Introduction
45.2 Literature Review
45.2.1 Project-Based Learning
45.2.2 Simulation (S)
45.2.3 PbL and S in Tourism Laboratory
45.3 Methodology
45.4 Findings
45.4.1 CU Characterization
45.4.2 Frequency and Evaluation of the UC
45.4.3 Students’ Opinion
45.5 Conclusion
References
46 “Cannot Stop Buying”—Integrative Review on Compulsive Buying
46.1 Introduction
46.2 Theoretical Framework
46.2.1 Contextualization of Compulsive Buying
46.2.2 Impulsive Buying and Compulsive Buying
46.2.3 Compulsive Buying and Contingent Self-Esteem
46.2.4 Etiology
46.2.5 Epidemiology
46.2.6 Diagnosis
46.2.7 Family History
46.2.8 Medical Screening
46.2.9 Psychological and Pharmacological Treatment
46.3 Final Remarks
References
47 LoopAcademic: Helping the Learning and Teaching of Introductory Programming
47.1 Introduction
47.2 The Platform LoopAcademic
47.2.1 Surface
47.3 Evaluation
47.3.1 Usability Test and Usability Inspection
47.3.2 Execution of the Usability Test
47.4 Analysis and Discussion of Results
47.5 Related Work
47.6 Conclusion
References
48 3D Virtual Training System for a Bioreactor Using Hardware-in-the-Loop
48.1 Introduction
48.2 System Structure
48.3 Hardware-in-the-Loop Structure
48.4 Modeling and Control
48.4.1 Modeling
48.4.2 Controller Design
48.5 Results
48.6 Conclusions
References
49 Level Process Control with Different Tank Configurations: Hardware-in-the-Loop Technique
49.1 Introduction
49.2 System Description
49.3 Virtual Environment
49.4 Mathematical Modeling
49.5 Control Algorithms
49.5.1 Model-Based Predictive Control
49.5.2 Numerical Method-Based Control
49.6 Analysis and Results
49.7 Conclusions
References
50 Strategic HRM Practices, Innovation Performance and Its Relationship on Export Performance: An Exploratory Study of SMEs in an Emerging Economy
50.1 Introduction
50.1.1 Exploring Strategic Human Resource Management Practices.
50.1.2 Exploring Innovation Performance
50.1.3 Exploring Export Performance and Its Determinants.
50.2 Statement of Hypotheses
50.3 Methodology
50.4 Research Instrument
50.5 Conclusions
References
51 Soda Bottling Process Through the Virtual Hardware in the Loop Technique
51.1 Introduction
51.2 Virtual Environment
51.3 Process Modeling
51.3.1 Control Algorithm
51.4 Experimental Results
51.5 Conclusions
References
52 Virtual Training System of a Horizontal Three-Phase Separator
52.1 Introduction
52.2 Oil Separation Process
52.3 Virtual Environment
52.4 Controller Structure
52.5 Analysis and Results
52.5.1 Virtual Environment
52.5.2 Process Control
52.5.3 System Usability
52.6 Conclusions
References
53 An Analysis of the Current and Future Needs of the Job Market Impacted by the Covid-19 Pandemic for MBA Graduates
53.1 Introduction
53.2 Literature Review and Methodology
53.3 Results and Discussion
53.3.1 Global Context
53.3.2 Current and Future Trends in the Global Labor Market
53.3.3 The Mexican Context
53.3.4 Current and Future Trends in the Mexican Labor Market
53.3.5 Regional Context
53.3.6 Analysis of the Labor Market in Baja California
53.3.7 Characteristics of the Job Market for the MBA Graduate in Mexico and Baja California
53.3.8 Conclusions
References
54 Virtual Learning Environment for a Multivariate System
54.1 Introduction
54.2 Problem Formulation
54.3 Modeling and Control
54.4 Process Virtualization
54.5 Experimental Results
54.6 Conclusions
References
55 Virtual Environments to Fuzzy Control Applied to Nonlinear Autoclave Reactor
55.1 Introduction
55.2 Autoclave Reactor
55.3 Controller Fuzzy
55.4 Environment Virtualized
55.5 Results
55.6 Conclusions
References
56 Temperature Control of an Electric Through Virtual Hardware in the Loop Technique
56.1 Introduction
56.2 Virtual Hardware in the Loop
56.2.1 Virtual Environment
56.3 Modeling
56.4 Controllers Design
56.4.1 PID Controller
56.4.2 Fuzzy Controller
56.4.3 Predictive Control Based on Model
56.5 Experimental Results
56.5.1 Controllers Comparison
56.6 Conclusions
References
57 Modeling and Control of Omnidirectional Robots with Displaced Center of Mass
57.1 Introduction
57.2 Omnidirectional Robot
57.2.1 Kinematic Model
57.2.2 Dynamic Model
57.3 Control Schemes
57.4 Experimental Results
57.5 Conclusions
References
58 Virtual Environment of an Industrial Process for Learning and Teaching
58.1 Introduction
58.2 Problem Formulation
58.3 Virtualization of the Industrial Environment
58.4 Immersion and Control
58.4.1 PID Control
58.4.2 MPC Control
58.4.3 Fuzzy Control
58.5 Analyses and Results
58.6 Conclusions
References
59 Advanced Controllers for Level Processes: Hardware-in-the-Loop Technique
59.1 Introduction
59.2 Level Processes
59.3 Control Strategies
59.3.1 MPC Controller
59.3.2 Control Fuzzy
59.4 Experimental Results
59.5 Conclusion
References
60 Internet Access and Acceptance of a Scholar Information System in Mexican University Students
60.1 Introduction
60.1.1 The Technology Acceptance Model
60.1.2 TAM in Universities
60.1.3 Internet Access as an External Variable of the TAM
60.2 Method
60.2.1 Participants
60.2.2 Instrument Design
60.2.3 Data Analysis
60.3 Results
60.3.1 Measurement Model
60.3.2 Hypothesis Testing
60.4 Discussion
60.4.1 Conclusions
References
61 Oral Communication Apprehension in Portuguese Accounting Students
61.1 Introduction
61.2 Methodology
61.2.1 Sample and Its Characterisation
61.2.2 Measuring Instruments
61.2.3 Validity and Reliability of PRCA
61.3 Results
61.3.1 Higher Education Institutions
61.3.2 Gender
61.3.3 Higher Education Institutions vs Gender
61.3.4 Age
61.3.5 Higher Education Institutions vs Age
61.3.6 Curricular year
61.3.7 Higher Education Institutions vs Age
61.4 Final Considerations
References
62 Information Science, Museology, and the Management of the ISEP Museum Collection—Theoretical Framework of the Information professional's Performance
62.1 Introduction
62.2 Problem
62.3 The Relationship Between Information Science and Museology
62.4 Methods
62.5 Results
62.6 Final Considerations
References
63 Translation Fit for Purpose: A Digital Collaborative Experience Using Project-Based Learning
63.1 Introduction
63.2 Theoretical Framework
63.2.1 Project-Based Learning
63.2.2 Project-Based Learning in Translation
63.3 Methodology
63.4 Results and Discussion
63.4.1 Pretest Survey
63.4.2 Posttest Survey and Portfolios
63.5 Future Research
References
64 Entrepreneurial Projects in the Classroom of the 1st Cycle of Basic Education (1st CEB): Solving Problems and Developing Reasoning
64.1 Introduction
64.2 Problem Under Study and Objectives
64.3 Mathematical Reasoning, Problem-Solving and Mathematical Communication
64.4 Research Methodology
64.5 Data Collection Techniques and Tools
64.6 Intervention Project- Trash Value Challenge
64.7 Results Presentation and Analysis
64.8 Conclusions
References
65 Education and Innovation: Challenges for Teacher Continuing Education in Light of Post-pandemic Demands
65.1 Introduction
65.2 Perspectives on Teacher Education
65.3 Digital Information and Communication Technologies “in” Teacher Education and Practice
65.4 Final Considerations
References
66 From the Classroom to Digital Platforms—A Study with Teachers and Families
66.1 Introduction
66.2 Method
66.2.1 Participants
66.2.2 Survey
66.3 Results
66.4 Discussion
66.5 Conclusions
References
67 Main Training Needs of the School Principal: An Integrative Literature Review Between Brazil and Portugal
67.1 Introduction
67.2 Methodology
67.2.1 Aim and Research Question
67.2.2 Approach
67.2.3 Literature Search
67.2.4 Data Evaluation
67.3 Data Analysis
67.3.1 Results
67.4 Discussion
67.4.1 Factors in Brazilian Articles
67.4.2 Factors in Portuguese Articles
67.5 Conclusions
References
68 Characteristics of Remote Education in a Time of Pandemic: An Analysis of Transformative Teaching Practices in a Higher Education Institution
68.1 Introduction
68.2 Methodology
68.3 The Information and Communication Technologies Applied to Distance Education
68.4 Presentation and Discussion of Results
68.5 Final Considerations
References
69 Innovative Pedagogical Practices: A Longitudinal Study Conducted at the ESE of Fafe, Portugal
69.1 Introduction
69.2 Method
69.2.1 Sample
69.2.2 Material and Methods
69.2.3 Procedures
69.3 Results
69.4 Discussion
69.5 Conclusions
References
70 The School Library and the Promotion of Reading and Writing: Evaluation of the Reading and Writing Project “Small Readers/Future Writers”
70.1 Introduction
70.1.1 The Role of the School Library in Promoting Reading and Writing
70.1.2 Reading and Writing Project: “Small Readers/Future Writers”
70.2 Method
70.3 Results
70.4 Discussion
70.5 Conclusions
References
71 Emergency Remote Teaching and Learning: An Experience Report
71.1 Introduction
71.2 Literature Review
71.2.1 Defining Technology
71.2.2 Cyberculture and Technologies in Education
71.2.3 Distance Learning, Distance Education, and Emergency Remote Education: What Are the Differences?
71.2.4 Learning Process
71.3 Methods
71.3.1 Resources
71.3.2 Sample Description
71.3.3 Procedures
71.3.4 Data Analysis
71.3.5 Type of Research
71.4 Results
71.5 Discussion
71.6 Conclusions
References
72 Contribution of the Emergence of Distance Learning in Times of the COVID-19 Pandemic: Perspectives of Pre-school and Primary School Teachers
72.1 The Development of Learning with Technologies
72.1.1 Distance Learning as the Response to the Pandemic
72.2 Issues, Methodological Options, and Research Objectives
72.2.1 Instruments and Data Analysis Techniques
72.2.2 Contextualization and Characterization of Participants
72.3 Methodological Options and Research Objectives
72.4 Conclusion
References
73 Accessible Music for Everyone: Discovering Resources
73.1 Introduction
73.2 Purpose of Study
73.3 Methodology
73.4 Findings
73.5 Conclusions
References
74 Parental Mediation of the Use of the Internet: A Psychometric Study with Portuguese Pre-adolescents
74.1 Introduction
74.1.1 Pre-adolescents’ Use of the Internet
74.1.2 Parental Mediation of Sons/Daughters’ Use of the Internet
74.2 Method
74.2.1 Participants
74.2.2 Measures
74.2.3 Procedures
74.3 Results
74.3.1 Internal Structure and Reliability
74.3.2 Variations for Groups and Associations with Other Variables
74.4 Discussion
References
75 Extreme Value Theory—Application of the Peaks Over Threshold Method and the Generalized Pareto Distribution to Athletics Decathlon and Heptathlon
75.1 Introduction
75.2 Preliminaries
75.2.1 Threshold Choice in a POT Approach
75.2.2 Estimation of the Extremal Parameters
75.2.3 Choose Between GPD or Exponential Model
75.2.4 Select the “Best” Model
75.2.5 Diagnostics
75.2.6 Estimation of Other Important Quantities
75.3 The Data
75.4 Results
75.4.1 Randomness and Stationarity
75.4.2 Sample Characterization
75.4.3 Threshold Choice
75.4.4 Parameters Estimates
75.4.5 Select Exponential Versus GPD
75.4.6 Select Model
75.4.7 Diagnostics
75.4.8 Estimation of Other Relevant Quantities
75.5 Conclusions
References
76 Distance Learning in an International Context: A Case of Success
76.1 Introduction
76.2 Distance Professional Training
76.3 Technologies Related to Distance Learning
76.4 Portugal—Brazil Relationship in the Context of Distance Professional Training
76.5 Methodology
76.5.1 Case Study
76.5.2 Partnership Between IF/CE-CPLP, EM/UFRJ and FUNARTE
76.5.3 Structuring and Production of the Photography and Digital Image Course
76.6 Outcomes
76.7 Discussion and Reflection
References
77 Virtual Lab Virtues in Distance Learning
77.1 Introduction
77.2 Identifying the Problem
77.2.1 Lack of Practice on Virtual Labs
77.2.2 Potential Solution Analysis
77.3 Proposed Solution
77.3.1 Objects Manipulation
77.3.2 Lab Experience Description
77.3.3 Chemical Experience Protocol Procedures in the Virtual Lab
77.4 Evaluation of the Proposed Solution
77.4.1 Real-World Chemical Experience Evaluation
77.5 Final Remarks
References
78 Rivers Flowing Toward the Sea: Education Inequalities During COVID-19 Identified Through a Quality and Satisfaction Questionnaire to Students Concerning E-Learning
78.1 Introduction
78.2 Theoretical Framework
78.2.1 Features of the Situation
78.2.2 Education and Mental Health
78.3 Methodology
78.3.1 Scales Validation of QSQS
78.3.2 First Exploratory Factor Analysis
78.3.3 Second Exploratory Factor Analysis
78.3.4 Third Exploratory Factor Analysis
78.4 Results
78.5 Conclusions
References
79 Digital Adaptation of the Portuguese Museums Educational Service in a Pandemic Context—Case Study
79.1 Introduction
79.2 Literature Review and Contextualization
79.3 Method and Data Collection: Case Study
79.4 Digital Adaptation and Accessibility of the Portuguese National Museums Educational Services Websites
79.5 Discussion and Final Ideas
References
80 Contemporary Education, Technologies, and Human Connectivity: From Native Generations to Digital Immigrants
80.1 Introduction
80.2 From Technological Society to Contemporary Education
80.2.1 From Human Connectivity to Education
80.2.2 From Digital Natives to Immigrants: An Intergenerational Relationship
80.3 Information and Communication Technologies and the School of the Twenty-First Century
80.3.1 Childhoods in the Digital Age and the Transformation of Education
80.3.2 Teaching, Technological Environments, and Innovative Pedagogies
80.4 Methodology
80.5 Analysis and Discussion of Results
80.6 Conclusion
References
81 Distance Learning in Pandemic Times: A Case Study of the Portuguese Tourist Sector
81.1 Introduction
81.2 Information Technology, Communication, Education and Tourism
81.3 National and Regional Tourism Organisation in Portugal
81.4 Methods
81.5 Results
81.6 Discussion and Final Remarks
References
82 Distance Learning Has a High Training Potential in the Workplace—Executive MBA, EaD, Business Management
82.1 Introduction
82.2 The Workplace as a “Space” for DE Training
82.3 Data Collection Techniques Used
82.3.1 The Data Collection
82.3.2 The Observation
82.3.3 The Interview
82.3.4 The Report
82.3.5 The Diary
82.4 The Data Analysis
82.4.1 Diversity of Learning Stories, Spaces, and Times
82.5 Strategic Implementation
82.6 Control and Strategic Monitoring
82.7 Limitations
82.8 Suggestions for Future Research
82.9 Conclusion
References
83 Digital Transformation in the Teaching and Learning Process: Case Study of a School of the Future
83.1 Introduction
83.2 Context
83.2.1 Purpose of the Study
83.2.2 Legal Framework and the Education System in the Municipality of Fafe
83.2.3 Educational Innovation
83.2.4 The New Technologies in the Teaching-Learning Process
83.2.5 Innovative Learning Environments
83.3 Methodological Approach
83.4 Case Study Analysis
83.4.1 Conception of the School of the Future Project
83.4.2 Implementation of the Project “School of the Future”
83.4.3 Validation and Monitoring of the Escola do Futuro Project
83.5 Conclusion
References
Author Index
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Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 256
Anabela Mesquita António Abreu João Vidal Carvalho Editors
Perspectives and Trends in Education and Technology Selected Papers from ICITED 2021
Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies Volume 256
Series Editors Robert J. Howlett, Bournemouth University and KES International, Shoreham-by-Sea, UK Lakhmi C. Jain, KES International, Shoreham-by-Sea, UK
The Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies book series encompasses the topics of knowledge, intelligence, innovation and sustainability. The aim of the series is to make available a platform for the publication of books on all aspects of single and multi-disciplinary research on these themes in order to make the latest results available in a readily-accessible form. Volumes on interdisciplinary research combining two or more of these areas is particularly sought. The series covers systems and paradigms that employ knowledge and intelligence in a broad sense. Its scope is systems having embedded knowledge and intelligence, which may be applied to the solution of world problems in industry, the environment and the community. It also focusses on the knowledge-transfer methodologies and innovation strategies employed to make this happen effectively. The combination of intelligent systems tools and a broad range of applications introduces a need for a synergy of disciplines from science, technology, business and the humanities. The series will include conference proceedings, edited collections, monographs, handbooks, reference books, and other relevant types of book in areas of science and technology where smart systems and technologies can offer innovative solutions. High quality content is an essential feature for all book proposals accepted for the series. It is expected that editors of all accepted volumes will ensure that contributions are subjected to an appropriate level of reviewing process and adhere to KES quality principles. Indexed by SCOPUS, EI Compendex, INSPEC, WTI Frankfurt eG, zbMATH, Japanese Science and Technology Agency (JST), SCImago, DBLP. All books published in the series are submitted for consideration in Web of Science.
More information about this series at https://link.springer.com/bookseries/8767
Anabela Mesquita · António Abreu · João Vidal Carvalho Editors
Perspectives and Trends in Education and Technology Selected Papers from ICITED 2021
Editors Anabela Mesquita Polytechnic Institute of Porto Porto, Portugal
António Abreu Polytechnic Institute of Porto Porto, Portugal
João Vidal Carvalho Polytechnic Institute of Porto Porto, Portugal
ISSN 2190-3018 ISSN 2190-3026 (electronic) Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies ISBN 978-981-16-5062-8 ISBN 978-981-16-5063-5 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5063-5 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721, Singapore
Preface
This book—Perspectives and Trends in Education and Technology: Selected Papers from ICITED21—from the SIST series is composed of the best selected papers accepted for presentation and discussion at the 2021 International Conference in Information Technology and Education (ICITED21). ICITED is a multidisciplinary conference with a special focus on new technologies and systems in the education sector and was held between July 15 and 17, 2021. ICITED21 was supported by the Higher School of Advertising and Marketing (ESPM), Sao Paulo, Brazil, by the Institute of Higher Studies of Fafe (IESF), Braga, Portugal, and by IADITI— International Association for Digital Transformation and Technological Innovation. The International Conference in Information Technology and Education is an international forum for researchers and professionals in the education sector, which enables the discussion of the latest innovations, trends and concerns in several areas, in the education sector, associated with information technologies and systems. It is an event for professionals in the sector, in search of technology solutions, where academics, IT experts and business managers meet to discuss new ideas that help them maximize the potential of learning processes through technology. The ICITED21 Scientific Committee is composed of a multidisciplinary group of 89 experts who assessed some 187 papers from 14 countries, received for each of the main topics proposed for the conference: (a) ICT and virtual learning; (b) pedagogical and didactical innovations; (c) technologies issues in education in the different scientific areas; (d) quality in education; (e) technological Issues in education and research; (f) educational software and serious games; (g) curriculum design and innovation and (h) university–industry collaboration. The papers accepted for presentation and discussion at the conference are published by Springer and will be submitted for indexing by ISI, SCOPUS, EICompendex, Google Scholar and SpringerLink. We thank all those who contributed to the ICITED21 (authors, committees, workshop organizers and sponsors).
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We deeply appreciate your involvement and support, which were crucial to the success of the conference. Porto, Portugal June 2021
Anabela Mesquita António Abreu João Vidal Carvalho
Contents
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Qualitative Research Methodology Applied to Studies in Administrative Sciences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Romel Ramón González-Díaz
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Cybersecurity in Smart Cities: Technology and Data Security in Intelligent Transport Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nuno Miguel Carvalho Galego and Rui Miguesl Pascoal
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Youth Associations in Academia: Their Implications for the Creation and Development of an Entrepreneurial Profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Adalmiro Pereira, Carlos Mota, Ângela Vaz, and Andreia Cunha Modular Educational Ecosystem as Academic Support During COVID-19 Emergency at Mexico City-IPN in 2020 . . . . . . . Vladimir Avalos-Bravo, Chadwick Carreto Arellano, and Jorge Toro González The Incidence of Abuse and School Harassment Among Foreign and Spanish Students in Extremadura . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ana Isabel González-Contreras, David Pérez-Jorge, María del Carmen Rodríguez-Jiménez, and Eva Ariño-Mateo Tití App, an Interactive Psycho-Pedagogical Recovery Tool: A Pilot Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Jacqueline Gordón, Andrés Caicedo, and Andrés Subía Accessibility and Usability in Learning Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Carlos Luís and Maria José Marcelino
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Museum, School and Augmented Reality, a Way to Preserve the Ethnic Identity of an Ancestral Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Garcia Medina Maria Angélica, Lengua Cantero Claudia Cristina, and Acosta Meza David de Jesús Multinomial Logistic Regression Model for Prioritization of COVID-19 Vaccination in Portoviejo—Ecuador . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cedeño Jennifer and Sánchez Luis
10 Visual Metrics for Educational Videogames Linked to Socially Assistive Robots in an Inclusive Education Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nayeth I. Solorzano Alcivar, Luis C. Herrera Paltan, Leslie R. Lima Palacios, Dennys F. Paillacho Chiluiza, and Jonathan S. Paillacho Corredores 11 How Teams Learn Agility, a Beginner’s Guide for Software Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Giannina Costa, Oscar Pinto, Diego Fuentealba, Rubén Baeza, Paulina Lagos, Lilian San Martin, and Gustavo Gatica 12 Didactics Strategy Using ICT, for Kids with Trisomy of Pair 21 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rubén Jerónimo Yedra, María Alejandrina Almeida Aguilar, Eric Ramos Méndez, Gerardo Arceo Moheno, Arturo Corona Ferreira, and Ricardo Avila Alexander 13 Can We Assess Creativity? The Use of Rubrics for Evaluating Transcreation in the Undergraduate Program of Translation and Interpreting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mar Díaz-Millón and Irene Rivera-Trigueros 14 The Place of Latin American Universities in International University Rankings. A Multivariate Statistical Analysis . . . . . . . . . Marcelo Ruiz-Toledo, Claudio Ruff-Escobar, Luis Benites, Joe Alexis González, and María-Purificación Galindo-Villardón 15 Technology’s Impacts in the Students of Higher Education in the Covid-19 Pandemic Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Osvaldo Silva, Áurea Sousa, and Jerónimo Nunes 16 Escape Rooms: Mathematical Challenges Available to Educators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Marcos Chacón-Castro, Luis Aimacaña-Espinosa, and Janio Jadán-Guerrero
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17 Kriging Prediction for Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 in Portoviejo—Ecuador . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cedeño Omar and Sánchez Luis 18 Learning the Role of Museums as Drivers of Development . . . . . . . Sara Pascoal, Laura Tallone, and Marco Furtado 19 Charting a Path for Industry 4.0. An Industry and University Experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Vitor Manuel de Lemos Dinis, Francisco Joaquim Madeira Esteves, and Pedro Fernandes da Anunciação 20 Qualitative Research Applied to Organisations. An Approach to Business Reality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Romel Ramón González-Díaz, Cecilia Margarita Lugo-Báez, Yurkyna Xiomara Medina-Patron, Roxana Janette Valdez-Rodríguez, Daniela Uriarte-Soto, and Yanira Soledad Díaz Moreno 21 Smart Production Planning and Control Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Adauto Bueno, Moacir Godinho Filho, João Vidal Carvalho, and Mario Callefi 22 Investment Decisions According to the Miller and Markowitz Models. A Look at Smart Cash Management . . . . . Romel Ramón González-Díaz, Luis Armando Becerra-Pérez, Santos Lucio Guanilo, Luiz Vicente Ovalles-Toledo, and Katiusca Cruz-Ayala 23 Technology 4.0 in Accounting: What Future for Education? . . . . . . Susana Moreira Bastos, Samara Girardi, and Eliandro Schvirck 24 The Importance of Opinion Leaders and Social Networking on Destination Brand Development—The Case Study of Discover Melgaço Brand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sónia Nogueira, Gysele Xavier, and Laurentina Vareiro 25 Ecuador and the Virtual High School Education in Pandemic Times . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Lilia Carpio-Jiménez, Abel Suing, and Rosario Puertas-Hidalgo 26 Total Quality Management and Social Responsibility an Approach Through Their Synergies in Higher Education Institutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . T. Nogueiro, M. Saraiva, and F. Jorge
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27 Application of Gamification in Higher Education in the Teaching of English as a Foreign Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Kevin Mario Laura De La Cruz, Osbaldo Washington Turpo Gebera, and Stefany Juliana Noa Copaja 28 Convexity in the Design of Bounded Surfaces and Unconventional Solids Using GeoGebra AR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Alejandro Isaías Flores-Osorio, Nielce Meneguelo Lobo-da-Costa, Dennis Alberto Espejo-Peña, and Lenin Rolando Cabracancha-Montesinos 29 forScrum, a Lesson to Learn for the 21st Century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Carlos Luís, Sónia Mauricio, and Maria José Marcelino 30 Knowledge Management and Individual Job Performance in Higher Education: Proposal of a Conceptual Model . . . . . . . . . . . Daniela Matté Amaro Passos, Anabela Mesquita Sarmento, and Paulo Jorge Pinheiro Gonçalves 31 Spatial Skills Training Through Drawing Architectural Spaces Inside Immersive Virtual Reality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hugo C. Gomez-Tone, Jorge Martin-Gutierrez, and Betty K. Valencia-Anci 32 FunEasyLearn: An App for Learning Pronunciation? . . . . . . . . . . . . Adelina Castelo 33 The Influence of Higher Education Institutions on the Digital Development of the Regions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Filipa da Rocha Teixeira, Maria José Angélico Gonçalves, and Maria de Lourdes Machado Taylor
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34 Autonomous Control of an Electric Vehicle by Computer Vision Applied to the Teaching–Learning Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E. Fabián Rivera and Víctor H. Andaluz
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35 Web Accessibility for Socioeconomic and Education Development in Excluded Areas of Eastern Ecuador . . . . . . . . . . . . . Diego Cordero, Zlata Borsic, Daniel Icaza, and Camilo Farfán
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36 New Accountant Curriculum Requirements in the Age of Robot Process Automation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tiago Monteiro Lopes and Helena Costa Oliveira
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37 Challenges and Policy in Times of Crisis—STEM in Digital Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ana Branca Soeiro de Carvalho, Nídia Menezes, and Fernando Mamede Santos
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38 Design and Evaluation of a Mobile Application for Interactive Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Jose Andrés Mejías, Christian Quesada-López, Alexandra Martínez, and Ana M. Carmiol 39 Digital Twins in Contemporary Education: Virtual Workshop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A. A. Balyakin, N. N. Nurakhov, and M. V. Nurbina 40 Digital Footprint and Education: Some Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A. A. Balyakin, M. V. Mamonov, M. V. Nurbina, and S. B. Taranenko
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41 From Alternative to Scientific Conceptions in the Learning of Physics of Sound: Students’ Perceptions of Learning Using Active Methodologies and Computer Simulators . . . . . . . . . . Bruno Conde, Filipe Santos, Maria Antónia Barreto, Maria Isabel Alves Rodrigues Pereira, and Marta Fonseca
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42 Pre-service Teachers’ Knowledge and the Use of Different Technologies to Teach Mathematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Helena Rocha
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43 When Assessment Moves Home: The Digital Panopticon in Higher Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Paulo Peixoto, Joana Gomes Almeida, and Cristina Pinto Albuquerque 44 Online Impulse Buying—Integrative Review of Psychological Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Daniel Costa Pacheco, Ana Isabel Damião de Serpa Arruda Moniz, Suzana Nunes Caldeira, and Osvaldo Dias Lopes Silva 45 Teaching and Learning in Tourism: The Case of Tourism Laboratory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G. Dinis, C. Melo, and J. Sousa 46 “Cannot Stop Buying”—Integrative Review on Compulsive Buying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Daniel Costa Pacheco, Ana Isabel Damião de Serpa Arruda Moniz, Suzana Nunes Caldeira, and Osvaldo Dias Lopes Silva 47 LoopAcademic: Helping the Learning and Teaching of Introductory Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dyego Souza, Jarbele Coutinho, and Reudismam de Sousa
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48 3D Virtual Training System for a Bioreactor Using Hardware-in-the-Loop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Kevin J. Gutiérrez, Jimmy J. Pilicita, César A. Naranjo, and Víctor H. Andaluz 49 Level Process Control with Different Tank Configurations: Hardware-in-the-Loop Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Gissela F. Lozada, Jazmín K. Pruna, César A. Naranjo, and Víctor H. Andaluz 50 Strategic HRM Practices, Innovation Performance and Its Relationship on Export Performance: An Exploratory Study of SMEs in an Emerging Economy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Eithel F. Bonilla-Chaves and Pedro R. Palos-Sánchez 51 Soda Bottling Process Through the Virtual Hardware in the Loop Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Edison J. Araque, Alex A. Cajamarca, Daniela E. Paredes, Jenny A. Segovia, Willam W. Tumbaco, Mario Miranda, and Víctor H. Andaluz 52 Virtual Training System of a Horizontal Three-Phase Separator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Zahira Proaño C. and Víctor H. Andaluz 53 An Analysis of the Current and Future Needs of the Job Market Impacted by the Covid-19 Pandemic for MBA Graduates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Reyna Virginia Barragán-Quintero and Stefania Pareti 54 Virtual Learning Environment for a Multivariate System . . . . . . . . Oscar I. Rodríguez, Edy I. Panchi, Marco V. Catota, and Víctor H. Andaluz 55 Virtual Environments to Fuzzy Control Applied to Nonlinear Autoclave Reactor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Lenin I. Chimbana, Javier A. Villagómez, Alexander P. Moya, Alba M. Moreno, Edison A. Mosquera, Belén Ruales, and Víctor H. Andaluz 56 Temperature Control of an Electric Through Virtual Hardware in the Loop Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Jéssica D. Mollocana, Byron S. Jorque, José Varela-Aldás, and Víctor H. Andaluz 57 Modeling and Control of Omnidirectional Robots with Displaced Center of Mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Luis V. Gallo, Byron D. Paste, José Varela-Aldás, and Víctor H. Andaluz
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58 Virtual Environment of an Industrial Process for Learning and Teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Carlos A. Cueva, Kerly G. Erazo, César A. Naranjo, Fernando Saá, and Víctor H. Andaluz 59 Advanced Controllers for Level Processes: Hardware-in-the-Loop Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Manuel A. Quispe, Martha C. Molina, Franklin Castillo, and Víctor H. Andaluz 60 Internet Access and Acceptance of a Scholar Information System in Mexican University Students . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Felipe Machorro, David Andrade Aguilar, Maria Vanessa Romero, and Eva Mora Colorado 61 Oral Communication Apprehension in Portuguese Accounting Students . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Francisco Carreira, Rui Silva, Amélia Ferreira da Silva, and Anabela Martins Silva
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62 Information Science, Museology, and the Management of the ISEP Museum Collection—Theoretical Framework of the Information professional’s Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Catarina Neves, Milena Carvalho, Susana Martins, and Maria João Castro
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63 Translation Fit for Purpose: A Digital Collaborative Experience Using Project-Based Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sandra Ribeiro, Graça Chorão, and Célia Tavares
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64 Entrepreneurial Projects in the Classroom of the 1st Cycle of Basic Education (1st CEB): Solving Problems and Developing Reasoning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dárida Maria Fernandes, Paula Maria Flores, and Maria Inês Pinho
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65 Education and Innovation: Challenges for Teacher Continuing Education in Light of Post-pandemic Demands . . . . . . . Gláucio Roberto Bernardo de Cara, Gerson Tavares do Carmo, and Danielle Ferreira Bastos 66 From the Classroom to Digital Platforms—A Study with Teachers and Families . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rosa Martins, Eusébio Costa, Estrela Paulo, and João Pascoinho 67 Main Training Needs of the School Principal: An Integrative Literature Review Between Brazil and Portugal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Joana Pereira, Susana Sá, João Pascoinho, Estrela Paulo, and Rosa Martins
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68 Characteristics of Remote Education in a Time of Pandemic: An Analysis of Transformative Teaching Practices in a Higher Education Institution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Humberto M. Ferreira, Carla Winter Afonso, Uelinton da Costa Leonídio, and Agostinho Sousa Pinto 69 Innovative Pedagogical Practices: A Longitudinal Study Conducted at the ESE of Fafe, Portugal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Aldina Sofia Silva, Inês Oliveira Gonçalves, Joana Rodrigues-Carvalho, Dimas Pinto, and Joana Costa 70 The School Library and the Promotion of Reading and Writing: Evaluation of the Reading and Writing Project “Small Readers/Future Writers” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Carla Pedro, César A. M. Miranda de Freitas, João Pascoinho, Estrela Paulo, and Sofia Gonçalves 71 Emergency Remote Teaching and Learning: An Experience Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sandra Cristina Batista Martins, Carla Luciane Blum Vestena, Enrique Vázquez-Justo, and Cristina Costa-Lobo 72 Contribution of the Emergence of Distance Learning in Times of the COVID-19 Pandemic: Perspectives of Pre-school and Primary School Teachers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Teresa Santos, Palmira Alves, and Susana Sá 73 Accessible Music for Everyone: Discovering Resources . . . . . . . . . . Davys Moreno and Ana Maia 74 Parental Mediation of the Use of the Internet: A Psychometric Study with Portuguese Pre-adolescents . . . . . . . . . . Ângela Sá Azevedo, Íris M. Oliveira, and Paulo C. Dias 75 Extreme Value Theory—Application of the Peaks Over Threshold Method and the Generalized Pareto Distribution to Athletics Decathlon and Heptathlon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Domingos Silva and Frederico Caeiro 76 Distance Learning in an International Context: A Case of Success . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Catarina Freitas Mota, José Fernando Mota, Katia Augusta Maciel, and Marcelo Jardim de Campos 77 Virtual Lab Virtues in Distance Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tiago C. Pereira, Filomena Soares, Eusébio Costa, and Henrique Santos
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78 Rivers Flowing Toward the Sea: Education Inequalities During COVID-19 Identified Through a Quality and Satisfaction Questionnaire to Students Concerning E-Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cândido Gomes, Cristina Costa-Lobo, Dulce Noronha-Sousa, Enrique Vázquez-Justo, Eusebio Costa, and Susana Sá 79 Digital Adaptation of the Portuguese Museums Educational Service in a Pandemic Context—Case Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fátima Matos Silva, Isabel Borges, Eusébio Costa, Agostinho Sousa Pinto, and António Abreu 80 Contemporary Education, Technologies, and Human Connectivity: From Native Generations to Digital Immigrants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dulce Noronha-Sousa, Eusébio Costa, Cristina Mateus, Ana Raquel Noronha, and Enrique Vasquez-Justo 81 Distance Learning in Pandemic Times: A Case Study of the Portuguese Tourist Sector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . José Luís Braga, Isabel Borges, José Carlos Meneses, Catarina Mota, and Sandra Brás 82 Distance Learning Has a High Training Potential in the Workplace—Executive MBA, EaD, Business Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Miguel Magalhães, Laurentino Guimarães, Cristina Costa-Lobo, Enrique Vázquez-Justo, and Ricardo Matos
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83 Digital Transformation in the Teaching and Learning Process: Case Study of a School of the Future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1015 Pompeu Martins, Agostinho Pinto, Eusébio Costa, and António Abreu Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1027
About the Editors
Anabela Mesquita is Professor at the Porto Accounting and Business School/Polytechnic of Porto since 1990, Vice Dean between 2007–2018, President of the SPACE European network, Member of the Algoritmi Research Centre (Minho University), and the former Director of CICE (Research Centre for Communication and Education). She is Member of MAERA and President of the External Evaluation Committee for the A3ES (Agency for Evaluation and Accreditation in Higher Education) in the area of Executive Management. She has been (and is) involved in many European and National research projects both as Researcher and as Coordinator. She has published numerous papers in various international journals and conference proceedings. She is Member of the Programme Committee and Scientific Committee of several national and International conferences. She serves as Member of the Editorial Board and referee for IGI Global. She also serves as Associate Editor of the Information Resources Management Journal and is co-Editor-in-Chief of the International Journal of Technology and Human Interaction and Associate Editor of Helyion. She has also been Evaluator and Reviewer for Erasmus+ National Agency and European Commission projects. Her interests include education, e-learning, technologies and information systems, knowledge management, innovation, and intellectual capital. António Abreu is Adjunct Professor at the Instituto Superior de Contabilidade e Administração do Porto, Instituto Politécnico do Porto. He completed his PostDoctorate in Information Technologies and Systems, University of Coimbra, Department of Computer Engineering, Faculty of Sciences and Technology, University of Coimbra, Ph.D. in Software Engineering based on reusable components with Human–Machine Interface applications, by the University of Vigo, and Master in Management Informatics by the University of Minho and Degree in Applied Mathematics Informatics by the Lusíada University. He currently works as Lecturer, in the scientific area of Information Systems, at Instituto Superior de Contabilidade e Administração do Porto/Politécnico do Porto, ISCAP/PPorto. He is Full Member of the CEOS.PP—Centro de Estudos Organizacionais e Sociais do Politécnico do Porto (Oporto Polytechnic Centre for Organizational and Social Studies) and Associate Researcher at Centro de Investigação CISUC—Center for Informatics and xvii
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Systems of the University of Coimbra. Between 2015 and 2018, he was Coordinator of the Professional Higher Technical Courses (CTeSP) of Instituto Superior e Contabilidade e Administração do Porto (ISCAP) and Market Development Coordinator of Centro de Formação e Serviços ao Exterior do ISCAP. He is currently responsible for the Information Systems disciplinary group of CTeSP. He is Member of the scientific commission of several national and international conferences and initiatives in the area of Information Systems and Technologies (CISTI—Conferencia Ibérica de Sistemas y Tecnologías de Información; WORLDCIST—World Conference on Information Systems and Technologies; CAPSI—Conference of the Portuguese Association of Information Systems; COMETEL—Congresso Internacional de Computación y Telecomunicaciones; RISTI—Revista Ibérica de Sistemas e Tecnologias de Informação); MICRADS—Conferência Internacional Multidisciplinar de Pesquisa Aplicada à Defesa e Segurança. He is General Chair of ICOTTS— International Conference on Tourism, Technology and Systems and Author of several books published in the area of Information Systems. João Vidal Carvalho is Adjunct Professor at Institute of Accounting and Administration of Porto, Polytechnic of Porto (Portugal) and has completed Post-Doctorate in Technologies and Information Systems from University of Coimbra (Portugal), Ph.D. in Information Systems and Technology from University of Santiago de Compostela (Spain), and M.Sc. in Information Technology Management from University of Minho (Portugal), and Bachelor in Computer Science. He is Vice Director of the CEOS.PP Research Center—Center for Organizational and Social Studies of the Polytechnic of Oporto and Member of LIACC Artificial Intelligence and Computer Science Laboratory—FEUP. He is Member of the Iberian Systems and Information Technology Association (AISTI) and Effective Member of the ISCAP/Polytechnic of Porto Skills Recognition/Certification committee. He is Conference General Chair of the ICOTTS—The International Conference on Tourism, Technology and Systems and published some books in computer science/Database Management. He is Scientific Committee Member of several conferences in the area of Information Systems and Technologies. He is currently involved in an international quality assurance research project for Higher Education Institutions’ information systems.
Chapter 1
Qualitative Research Methodology Applied to Studies in Administrative Sciences Romel Ramón González-Díaz
Abstract In recent years, qualitative methodology has been criticized for its weaknesses in the systematization of information analysis. Consequently, the present study describes a methodological proposal that addresses the techno-operative procedures in naturalistic qualitative research. It presents an empirical-theoretical effort of reconstruction of the social phenomenon. For this purpose, a procedural and applied description is presented in a study that aims to unveil the factors that generate job satisfaction in the Acosta footwear factory in the city of Monteria, Colombia. Three workers were selected with their selection criteria (inclusion and exclusion) until the data were sorted according to their quality. They were subjected to a process of codification, analysis (Semantic Network, Co-occurrence and Emergence) to interpret the significant findings of the study in the light of the context developed (relativization). The main results reveal poor working conditions, few job benefits, relationships between colleagues with little trust and little possibility of personal growth.
1.1 Introduction History has been marked by the presence of great thinkers, who in their process of reflection on truth have gone through different onto-epistemic positions that demarcate the way of doing science [1]. On the one hand, the realists state that objects exist independently of the observer and configure a way of perceiving reality as it is in context and without nuances [2]. On the other hand, for the idealists, they consider the reality associated with the mind and, other positions such as Agnosticism, declare that truth is unknown and unknowable [3, 4]. According to Montoya et al. [5], these ways of facilitating the emergence of the truth implicit in a given reality is a way of seeing what has been called paradigm or ways of responding to the structuring dimensions of the reality being questioned. In the scientific literature, it can be appreciated through Polomoshnov et al. [6], Rodríguez Zoya [7], Guba and Lincoln [8] R. R. González-Díaz (B) Centro Internacional de Investigación y Desarrollo—CIID, 230001 Montería, Colombia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 A. Mesquita et al. (eds.), Perspectives and Trends in Education and Technology, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 256, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5063-5_1
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that the approach of the researcher to the phenomenon of study should be framed in three aspects: Ontological (nature of the relationship between the phenomenon and the researcher), epistemological (nature of the phenomenon of study) and methodological (a procedure to discover the cognizable). This approach allows us to identify the research paradigm associated with onto-epistemic positioning. The research paradigms in their traditional and straightforward meaning are classified into positivism and postpositivism. The logical positivism represented by Augusto Comte takes realistic aspects and asserts to generate scientific knowledge in the function of cause and effect, where it tries to explain and predict the phenomenon of study. With the so-called crisis of science defined widely by Thomas Kuhn, who describes the insufficiency of normal science to respond to new contemporary needs, among them trying to study the social phenomenon with logical positivism. All this allowed the emergence of new forms of doing social science (postpositivism) through the naturalist paradigm (Husserl, Heidegger, Gadamer, among others) who were characterized by studying reality from a multiple, holistic perspective and characterized by the construction of meanings through the interrelationship of subjects, fundamentally descriptive and interpretative and used logical phenomenology to account for the understanding of the phenomenon studied. In this paradigmatic separation, the word naturalism or naturalist appears as a methodological dimensionalism that discards or at least avoids statistics as a source of analysis and interpretation of the results. The essence of qualitative-naturalistic research is mainly framed in two divergent positions about being and its search for truth (phenomenology). On the one hand, Husserl develops a philosophical scaffolding that defines his phenomenological position oriented towards reflection. On the other hand, Heidegger projects himself towards a phenomenology oriented towards hermeneutics. This paper does not intend to deepen on the nuclear thoughts of such thinkers, who, without any doubt, marked a milestone in the history of contemporary philosophical thought. Instead, it attempts to describe a research design that fully executes the central idea of naturalism. The lack of understanding of such philosophical aspects keeps some beginning qualitative researchers restless. Recent studies on the qualitative research designs used in recent years in academic (non-indexed) publications in the management area reveal shortcomings in the systematization, objectivation, and transparency of data processing, analysis, and interpretation [9, 10].. Therefore, they tend to be confused and lack scientific rigour, which makes acceptance in the scientific community impossible [10, 11]. This methodological gap has generated a lack of confidence on the part of editors, reviewers and readers. According to Aguinis and Solarino [12], Lazazzara et al. [13] consider scientific research (understood from naturalism) as the most expeditious and valid way to access knowledge, it follows that there should not be any kind of limitation to it, either for moral, political, ideological or religious reasons to research, obeying the loss of possible benefits for humanity and the opportunity to increase knowledge. From this point of view, the limitation to research, for whatever reason, does not compensate for the loss of possible benefits. Therefore, a qualitative-naturalistic
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research route is presented through its exemplification in a study in the management sciences, where a straightforward, concise, and precise procedure is described to obtain consistent results.
1.1.1 Qualitative Research Methodology The research methodology refers simultaneously to both how problems are approached and how answers are sought [14]. In that sense, the onto-epistemic positions demarcate the way reality is conceived [11]. In qualitative research, it is considered that reality can never be apprehended in its totality and requires the existence of a cognitive subject influenced by its cultural aspects and personal social relations, which make epistemic reality dependent for its definition, understanding and analysis, on the knowledge of the ways of perceiving, thinking, feeling and acting, proper to those cognitive subjects. Qualitative research generates knowledge from guided inquiry, also called “emergent design” as opposed to a previous design [15]. This emergent design is structured from the successive findings that are made during the research. The validation of the conclusions obtained is done through dialogue, interaction, experience and living; those that are made concrete through consensus born from the sustained exercise of the processes of observation, reflection, dialogue, construction of shared meaning and systematization. Qualitative research methodology recognizes the human being as a producer of knowledge, in order to understand reality through the construction of meanings, rescuing the heterogeneity of society. Its methodological structure is neither linear nor previous, it emerges in the development of the study through an inductive process, reconstructing the realities of the subjects researched from their natural environment. For this study, the phenomenology of Husserl [16], Heidegger [17], Merleau-Ponty [18] trace an argumentative axis towards the defence of the specific character of human reality, this makes it irreducible to categories of analysis of physical reality whose essence is the objects or material things.
1.1.2 Scientific Rigour in Qualitative Research The scientific rigour is one of the critical issues against the positivist positions (Newtonian, based on reductionism and universality) and postpositivist (naturalism, based on phenomenology), their ontological differences reconfigure the methodological processes and thus, the way to give rigour to the research, which cannot be the same due to the differences in the relationship between the subject-object of study [19]. One of the criticisms of qualitative research is related to scientific rigour, to the point of affirming that “it is not the hallmark of naturalism” [20]. The naturalist paradigm demands different criteria from those applied in quantitative research, given that the instrument of data collection is the researcher himself [21]. Therefore,
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Ventura-León and Barboza-Palomino [22] suggest granting scientific rigour through credibility (internal validity), transferability (external validity) and confirmability (objectivity), and with this, we hope to advance in clarity against the lack of relevance of conventional terms when applied to naturalism and provide alternatives that support logically the relationships derived from naturalist axioms. For a better understanding, the criteria of scientific rigour of qualitative naturalist research are detailed: • Credibility: it is related to internal validity and the guarantee that what is recorded in the study is a faithful and exact copy of what exists in the conscience of the key informant through his or her feelings, anecdotes and experiences. • Transferability: it is related to the specificities of the scenarios and informants that allow the scientific community to recognize the situations in which the study was developed. Qualitative research focuses on the study of complex social phenomena, their conditions, quality of information and scenarios where the study is developed, which distorts the findings because of their emergence. These studies are unique and cannot be generalized or transferred to other contexts to obtain the same results. • Confirmation: it refers to the levels of objectivation, that is to say, of perceiving the world as dehumanized. In phenomenology, the “epojé” is needed as a foundation that prevents any prejudice of the researcher before the studied, in other words, the researcher must have neutrality in the processes of interpretation of the data. On the other hand, qualitative-naturalistic research requires other processes that strengthen its scientific rigour. Among them, triangulation in its different typologies can validate significant findings. Similarly, the selection criteria of key informants give the quality of the data obtained, leaving the possibility of profiling the data during the process of saturation, this guarantees an adequate volume and quality of the coded information. Finally, in order to provide further confidence, processes of socialization of the findings before the scientific community must be generated.
1.1.3 Qualitative-Naturalistic Research Route This study presents a methodological proposal as a product of the experience and analysis of comparatives of different qualitative-naturalistic routes in the management sciences [23, 24], which allowed detecting methodological gaps characterized by lack of scientific rigour from the construction of the guiding categories to the presentation of the results. To this end, a detailed methodological proposal is presented in Fig. 1.1.
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Fig. 1.1 Procedural diagram of the qualitative-naturalist path
1.1.3.1
Research Question
The study question must be congruent with the assumed methodology and reflects the onto-epistemic positioning of the researcher. Asking a qualitative question involves a process in which the area, the subject of analysis, the question and the site of analysis are determined. It must be formulated as the centre of the whole process of consequent and pertinent study. In this route of naturalistic qualitative research, the question involves a process, often disordered, with stages that interact with each other, overlap, or change in their order. The process is based on deciding: a) the area of inquiry; b) the matter to be investigated; c) the question of inquiry; and d) the site of analysis. All these pieces influence each other in such a way that they are adjusted to make a coherent, essential and possible analysis. Therefore, the process is not linear but interactive [25]. To give procedural detail, the following question is presented in the management sciences: What are the factors that generate job satisfaction in the Acosta shoe factory in the city of Montería, Colombia?
1.1.3.2
Spontaneous Interviews Categories
According to González-Díaz and Polo [26], the Spontaneous Interviews Categories is a procedure that emerges from the need of qualitative researchers when formulating the guiding categories of the study. Empirical evidence, according to Carrera [27], comments that researchers lack arguments to select them. Sometimes it is approached from theoretical reductionism; that is, it is approached through state of the art, and the categories of the study are determined. This procedure, widely applied in qualitative research, cracks the inductive process proper to the emergence of the studied reality [28]. For example, through a review of the updated scientific literature (2019–2020) in terms of job satisfaction factors in factories, one can find studies related to robotics training processes, non-wage compensation such as trips to different continents and social relations through virtual reality [29, 30]. Socio-cultural differences generate a significant gap in terms of study problems. The problems are unique and must be
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Fig. 1.2 Procedure for Spontaneous Interviews Categories
studied in their natural context; therefore, importing categories in other contexts into the one being studied can distort and make the social phenomenon unrealistic. Therefore, once the research question is known, Spontaneous Interviews Categories are carried out as a kind of pilot test for key informants who meet the criteria for inclusion and exclusion from the study. This allows us to reveal the needs of the phenomenon under study and to specify the priority areas of attention. The Spontaneous Interviews Categories are the first contact with the research subjects, and for this, it is necessary to establish a procedure to maintain scientific rigour (Fig. 1.2). This question sets the horizon for open-ended conversational interviews between research subjects selected for the Spontaneous Interviews Categories. After the answers to this question, they are analysed through software for the analysis of qualitative data (Atlas.ti9). For this purpose, density and rooting must be considered in order to determine the emerging codes (they constitute the guiding categories of the study). From these, the process of categorization of the research and questions for the interaction process between study subject and research subject (data collection instrument) can be derived. For the case example analysed, the Spontaneous Interviews Categories were applied to 3 (three) workers of the footwear factory, who maintain more than 5 (five) years of experience in the factory (selection criteria). Once the research question was formulated, and the hermeneutic analysis of the discourses was carried out, the following guiding categories could be determined: Working Conditions, Labour Benefits, Human Relations, Promotion and Training and Personnel Supervision (Fig. 1.3).
1.1.3.3
Guiding Categories
Figure 1.3 shows the connection between the Spontaneous Interviews Categories and the questions in the data collection instrument. Among them, we can see the Guiding Categories, defined by Cabrera [31] as those aprioristic topics, i.e. constructed before the process of collecting the data that arise from the survey of significant references from the survey itself. These topics emerge within the research from the convergence
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Fig. 1.3 Application of the Spontaneous Interviews Categories, example: management sciences
of perspectives (pilot informants) of the emergent-preliminary categories (Spontaneous Categorical Interviews) and from there the specific purposes of the study and the questions that configure the data collection instrument are constructed. The specificity of the research focus is given by the concrete problem to be investigated. From this point of view, qualitative research always has a phenomenological character that expresses the dialectic relationship that emerges in the intersubjective relationship between the people who make up the unit of study Cabrera [31]. For the case study in management sciences, the Spontaneous Interviews Categories applied to key informants through a pilot project yielded the following a priori categories (code group): working conditions, labour benefits, human relations, promotion and training, and personnel supervision. The questions in the data collection instrument are then inductively configured to be applied to the unit of study.
1.1.3.4
Selection Criteria for Key Informants
It is the researcher who gives meaning to the results of his study. To do so, he must guarantee the quality of the information according to the selection criteria of the key informants (inclusion and exclusion). The inclusion criteria are those properties whose fulfilment identifies the subjects of studies and the exclusion criteria refer to the properties that could generate biases in the information to be collected according to the primary purpose of the research. These criteria should guarantee the saturation of the information, understood as the point at which a specific diversity of ideas has already been heard and with each additional interview or observation other elements no longer appear [32]. However, according to [32], he warns against what he calls false saturation, which can originate from a too restricted approach, a misguided search, or even a lack of insight on the part of the researcher. Therefore, it is suggested that the inclusion of new observation units should continue until the researcher has the necessary elements to build a comprehensive and convincing theory on the subject.
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In the case of management sciences, the criteria for inclusion were: workers in the shoe factory, who maintain more than five years of experience in the factory, and workers located in offices are excluded.
1.1.3.5
Codification
Coding refers to the process of parameterization of citations from documents (video, audio, texts, images and photographs), where an extract of them gives an account of significant classes, drawing and blurring the whole and its particulars while deepening the information, underlying meanings to give meaning to what is examined. These are emerging various shadows that then determines its structure integrator [34]. For the proposal, this stage requires the following processes: • Free Coding: It is related to the assignment of codes to new quotations in the documents studied. • List coding: Refers to existing codes, previously cited. • Code Groups: Refers to the set of codes that share similarities to the extent that they can be categorized and related in groups. Within qualitative logic code groups also take on the name of guiding categories. • Document Groups: Documents can also be grouped according to their origin or typology depending on the methodological design. For example, Key informant interviews (groups all informant interviews), Multimedia evidence (groups images, photos, videos and audios), Theoretical evidence (groups papers about the area of study). This will facilitate convergence in its different forms and combinations. The development of the coding process starts with the creation of code groups and document groups; and proceeds to the assignment of free codes within the documents studied taking into account the expertise of the researcher, who must homogenize and parameterize the codes according to the discourses. The use of codes by list should also be taken into account in the future. Once the codes are assigned in the documents studied, a systematization process is initiated. This process consists of relating (between and within) the codes, which is executed in three phases (see Fig. 1.4): • Phase 1—Rooting: refers to the relationship of the quotations within the codes, i.e. it represents the number of quotations that make mention of the code. • Phase 2—Density: This is related to the linkage and type of relationship between the codes, i.e. it represents the number of times a code is related to others. • Phase 3—Group-code linkage: refers to the linkage of the codes with the code groups.
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Fig. 1.4 Application of codification, for example, management sciences
1.1.3.6
Convergency or Hermeneutic Triangulation
Once the codification is completed, the process of convergence or hermeneutic triangulation begins understood as the action of gathering and dialectical crossing of all the information relevant to the object of study, which arises in an investigation using the corresponding instruments, and which in essence constitutes the corpus of research results [35]. This procedure can take place in one of the following ways: • Data triangulation: it considers the temporal and spatial dimensions and the subjects to make comparisons. • Researcher Triangulation: refers to the different perspectives of the research subjects towards the same study phenomenon, in order to minimize the interpretative error of the researcher’s value judgements. • Theoretical Triangulation: refers to the study of the phenomenon from different theoretical positions. • Methodological triangulation: attempts to generate convergence through different methodological perspectives. In the case of the study, data triangulation was carried out considering the key informants. In other words, a convergence of perspectives of the workers of the footwear factory was made in order to reveal the factors that intervene in the job satisfaction of the workers of the Acosta footwear factory.
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Analysis
In this stage of the study, we intend to carry out different analyses that will confer rigour to the analytical process of the qualitative data presented through the key informants, who were subjected to a codification process for a subsequent convergence of workers’ perspectives. For this purpose, it was used as a computer tool for the analysis of qualitative data (Atlas.ti9), which is a sophisticated tool that helps to organize, reassemble and manage its material in a systematic way. In this sense, the following analyses were carried out:
1.1.3.8
Semantic Network
A semantic network constitutes an interconnected representation scheme as a form of linguistic knowledge representation where a network illustrates codes and their interrelations. In the case of a study in management sciences, the behaviour of codes according to code groups (guiding categories), key informants (documents) and interconnections between codes can be seen in Fig. 1.4.
1.1.3.9
Co-Occurrence
In this section, a code-document analysis is performed. Specifically, the documents (key informants for the case study) are evaluated on their interaction with the assigned codes generating the following results (Fig. 1.5): Figure 1.5 allows us to detect the frequency of the codes before the key informants and their percentage concentration, for example, the case on work satisfaction shows that it represents 39.47% of the total speeches analysed and was focused on teamwork (66.67%) and horizontal trust (57.14%), among the rest of the codes. Key informant 3 (34.21%) with a speech focused on supervisory support (60%), order and cleanliness
Fig. 1.5 Co-occurrence code-document and Sankey diagram, example: management sciences
1 Qualitative Research Methodology Applied to Studies … Table 1.1 Emerging categories according to the emergency index
Code
11 Grounded
Density
EI
Horizontal trust
7
4
11
Supervision support
5
5
10
Vertical Relationship
4
6
10
Labour Recognition
4
4
8
Protection equipment
3
4
7
Equipment and furniture
3
4
7
Factory lighting
2
5
7
Factory ventilation
2
5
7 6
Worker equity
3
3
Salary compensation
4
1
5
Cleanliness and Order
1
3
4
(100%) and vertical relationship (60%). Key informant 1 (26.32%) a speech focused on lighting (50%) and ventilation (50%).
1.1.3.10
Emergency
In order to determine the emerging categories in the hermeneutic analysis, the socalled Emergency Index (EI) must be calculated by codes, for which Grounding (G) AND Density (D) must be added. Then it is necessary to find the arithmetic mean () of the EDI, where all EI by code > () is considered as Emerging Category, defined as that reconstructive process of the study that reveals the underlying aspects according to the triangulation. This allows differentiating between ordinary codes (EI ≤ ) of those extraordinary codes (EI>). For purposes of the example in management sciences = 7 (Table 1.1).
1.1.3.11
Interpretation and Answers
Once the Semantic network, Co-occurrence and Emergency analyses have been completed, there is sufficient information to interpret the significant findings of the study in the light of the context in which they were developed (relativization). In that sense, Taylor et al. [36] define the relativization of data as the process of interpretation in the context in which they were collected, responding to the following: observer influence on the scenarios, differences between what key informants say and do when they are alone and when there are others in the place, direct and indirect data, the distinction between the perspective of a person and those of a group, and critical self-reflection [37–40]. As for its application in the example used (case study in management sciences), whose primary purpose was to reveal the factors involved in the job satisfaction of workers in the Acosta shoe factory in the city of Montería,
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Colombia, the factory has been in the footwear market for more than 35 years and is recognized for the quality of its products [41, 42]. The study is conducted between July/2019 to December/2020 in a period of prosperity. Since the discursive interpretations based on emerging contexts and categories are manifested inadequate working conditions for the development of operational activities, however, there are some difficulties such as lighting and ventilation [43–45]. On the other hand, the salary earned by employees allows them to cover their own and family needs. The supervisors continuously evaluate the work, guide and teach when some task is not known, but they do not receive recognition from the boss when a good job is done. As far as human relations are concerned, the factory workers consider that their bosses encourage good relations among the collaborators, there is trust among the co-workers, and the roles and responsibilities are well defined. On the other hand, there are doubts as to the fairness of career development. As well as, they consider that the promotion in work does not involve a remunerative improvement, and the seniority is not a criterion to promote to other jobs.
1.2 Application Proposals The qualitative-naturalistic research route constitutes a techno-methodological strategy to address complex research problems in the social sciences and management. It conceives the integration of techniques, tools and sequential analysis to interpret and understand the social phenomenon. Therefore, it is an innovative form of social research that manages to adjust the integration of data through the phases described above, managing to confirm the findings of both types of data, expand (divergence between data and expand knowledge) and discordance (inconsistencies between data), revealing multiple phenomena that are entangled in the problematic framework through the smoothing of discursive triangulation.
1.2.1 Future Advances and Limitations Recently, several ongoing qualitative studies are using the qualitative-naturalistic research route to bring consistency and scientific rigour to their research. It constitutes a proposal that covers different fields of social sciences. However, this procedure requires the support of software to facilitate the analysis of qualitative data. Currently, studies related to the Predictive Sequential Research Design (DISPRE) are being carried out. This design is based on the qualitative-naturalistic research route and aims to predict the study phenomenon by resorting to data analysis (artificial intelligence), which represents a methodological alternative to improve techno-operative strategies in social research.
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1.3 Conclusion This article presents a procedural alternative for qualitative-naturalistic research. It describes the systematization of data based on phenomenology and hermeneutics using extracts from a study related to work satisfaction in the footwear factory. In particular, phenomenology was discussed as a way of continuing to be oriented towards the inductive through spontaneous categorical interviews that demarcate a route for the formulation of interview questions addressed to key informants previously selected in order to guarantee the quality of the data. Likewise, discursive coding procedures are deepened by taking into account the degree of rooting and density of the codes. This constitutes the meta-analytical arguments needed by the researcher in order to achieve a descriptive and interpretative phenomenological reflection of lived experiences, materialized in the relativization of spatiality, corporeality, communality and temporality, which can be superimposed to provide greater depth and knowledge of the phenomenon being studied.
References 1. Migliori, M.: “The onto-epistemic scheme of the line. Elenchos 27(2), 459–484 (2020). https:// doi.org/10.1515/elen-2006-270209. (In Italian) 2. Marchese, E.: Realism and anti-realism at trial. Mater. Stor. Cult. Giurid. Rev. 50(1), 263–288 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1436/96633 3. Moraes, D.: Transcendental idealism according to Schopenhauer: from Berkeley to beyond Kant. Rev. Filos. Aurora 30(49), 42–63 (2018). https://doi.org/10.7213/1980-5934.30.049. DS02. (In Portuguese) 4. Thomé, S.C.: Intersubjectivity and transcendental idealism in Husserl. Rev. Filos. Aurora, 53, 520–535 (2019). https://doi.org/10.7213/1980-5934.31.053.DS08. (In Portuguese) 5. Montoya, C., Guasch, J.C., de Guerrero, M.G.: Naturalismo o antinaturalismo en la investigación. Revista de Ciencias Sociales (Ve) 13(2), 346–354 (2007). [Online]. Available http://ve. scielo.org/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1315-95182007000200011&lng=es&tlng=es 6. Polomoshnov, A.F., Lavrukhina, I.M., Glushko, I.V., Maslova, E.S.: National character research paradigms. Opcion 34(87), 1119–1143 (2018). [Online]. Available https://www.sco pus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-85059506911&partnerID=40&md5=637b6ce44c03 25301ba68bd41e4d525b. (In English) 7. Rodríguez Zoya, L.: A contribution to the critique of Edgar Morin’s complex thought: bases for a research program on paradigms. Gaz. Antropol. 33(2) (2017) Art no. 05. [Online]. Available https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-85044650078&partnerID= 40&md5=b2dab97e2dba5e576feffe16a35ae1e2. (In Spanish) 8. Guba, E., Lincoln, Y.: Paradigmas en competencia en la investigación cualitativa,” Por los rincones. Antología de métodos cualitativos en la investigación social 113–145 (2002) 9. Mallett, O., Wapshott, R., Vorley, T.: How do regulations affect SMEs? A review of the qualitative evidence and a research agenda. Int. J. Manage. Rev. 21(3), 294–316 (2019). https://doi. org/10.1111/ijmr.12191.(In English) 10. Reis, J., Amorim, M., Melão, N.: “Multichannel service failure and recovery in a O2O era: A qualitative multi-method research in the banking services industry”, (in English). Int. J. Prod. Econ. 215, 24–33 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpe.2018.07.001
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11. Ashworth, R.E., McDermott, A.M., Currie, A.M.: Theorizing from qualitative research in public administration: plurality through a combination of Rigor and Richness. J. Pub. Adm. Res. Theor. 29(2), 318–333 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1093/jopart/muy057. (In English) 12. Aguinis, H., Solarino, A.M.: Transparency and replicability in qualitative research: The case of interviews with elite informants. Strateg. Manage J 40(8), 1291–1315 (2019). https://doi. org/10.1002/smj.3015. (In English) 13. Lazazzara, A., Tims, M., de Gennaro, M.: The process of reinventing a job: A meta–synthesis of qualitative job crafting research. J. Vocat. Behav. 116 (2020) Art no. 103267. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.jvb.2019.01.001. (In English) 14. Ynoub, R.: Epistemología y metodología en y de la investigación en Diseño. Cuadernos del Centro de Estudios en Diseño y Comunicación. Ensayos, no. 82, pp. 17–31 (2020). [Online]. Available http://www.academia.edu/download/59103806/Ynoub_articulo_ Epistemologia_en_diseno.pdf 15. Gómez, D.C.P., Nery, R.L.M.: La investigación cualitativa: un camino para interpretar los fenómenos sociales. J. Mendoza y NS Esparragoza (Coords.) Educación: aportaciones metodológicas, pp. 85–101, 2019. [Online]. Available https://www.uo.edu.mx/sites/default/files/revista/ recurso/Libro%20Jocelyn%20COMPLETO.pdf#page=86 16. Husserl, E.: The essential Husserl: Basic writings in transcendental phenomenology. Indiana University Press (1999) 17. Heidegger, M.: The basic problems of phenomenology. Indiana University Press (1988) 18. Merleau-Ponty, M.: Phenomenology of perception. Routledge (1982) 19. Valencia, M.M.A., Mora, C.V.G.: El rigor científico en la investigación cualitativa. Inv. educación en enfermería 29(3), 500–514 (2011). [Online]. Available https://dialnet.unirioja. es/descarga/articulo/3845203.pdf 20. Cadenas, D.: El rigor en la investigación cuantitativa: Técnicas de análisis, credibilidad, transferibilidad y confirmabilidad. Rev. Venez. inv. 7(1), 17–26 (2016). [Online]. Available http://www.academia.edu/download/58912361/El_Rigor_en_la_Investiga cion_Cualitativa_Articulo_Cientifico20190415-2767-1cash29.pdf. 21. Kane, M.: Validating score interpretations and uses. Lang. Test. 29(1), 3–17 (2012). https:// doi.org/10.1177/0265532211417210 22. Ventura-León, J.L., Barboza-Palomino, M.: ¿ Es posible generalizar en estudios cualitativos? Cien. Saude Colet. 22, 325–325 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1590/1413-81232017221.31682016 23. Brown, J., Wäppling, A., Woodruffe-Burton, H.: Questionnaire design: a weak link in corporate identity? Qual. Mark. Res. 23(1), 87–107 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1108/QMR-06-20180058.(In English) 24. Hernández García de Velazco, J.J., Ravina Ripoll, R., Chumaceiro Hernandez, A.C.: Relevance and social responsibility of sustainable university organizations: analysis from the perspective of endogenous capacities. Entrep. Sustain. 7(4), 2967–2977 (2020). https://doi.org/10.9770/ jesi.2020.7.4(26). (In English) 25. De la Cuesta-Benjumea, C.: ¿Por dónde empezar?: la pregunta en investigación cualitativa, Enfermería Clínica 18(4), 205–210 (2008, July 1). https://doi.org/10.1016/S1130-8621(08)721 97-1 26. González-Díaz, R.R., Polo, E.A.S.: Entrevistas Espontaneas Categoriales (EEC) para la construcción de categorías orientadoras en la investigación cualitativa. J. Latin Am. Sci. 1(2), 1–11 (2018). [Online]. Available https://lasjournal.com/index.php/abstract/article/view/2 27. Carrera, R.M.H.: La investigación cualitativa a través de entrevistas: su análisis mediante la teoría fundamentada,” Cuestiones Pedagógicas. Rev. Cienc. Educación 23, 187–210 (2014) 28. Elliott, K., Roberts, S.: Balancing generosity and critique: reflections on interviewing young men and implications for research methodologies and ethics. Qual. Res. 20(6), 767–783 (2020/12/01). https://doi.org/10.1177/1468794120904881 29. Mosquera-Dussan, O., et al.: Decision making, stress assessed by physiological response and virtual reality stimuli. Rev. Colomb. Psicol. 29(2), 89–103 (2020). https://doi.org/10.15446/ rcp.v29n2.74280
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30. Wood, K., Cisneros, R.E., Whatley, S.: Motion capturing emotions. Open Cult. Stud. 1(1), 504–513 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1515/culture-2017-0047. (In English) 31. Cabrera, F.C.: Categorización y triangulación como procesos de validación del conocimiento en investigación cualitativa. Theoria 14(1), 61–71 (2005). [Online]. Available https://www.red alyc.org/pdf/299/29900107.pdf 32. Martínez-Salgado, C.: El muestreo en investigación cualitativa: principios básicos y algunas controversias. Ciência saúde coletiva 17, 613–619 (2012). [Online]. Available https://www.sci elosp.org/article/csc/2012.v17n3/613-619/ 33. Saunders, B., et al.: Saturation in qualitative research: exploring its conceptualization and operationalization. Qual. Quant. 52(4), 1893–1907 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11135-0170574-8 34. Miguélez, M.M.: Validez y confiabilidad en la metodología cualitativa. Paradigma 27(2), 7– 33 (2006). [Online]. Available https://www.academia.edu/download/57428506/confiabilidad_i nterna-externa.pdf 35. Abdalla, M.M., Oliveira, L.G.L., Azevedo, C.E.F., Gonzalez, R.K.: Quality in qualitative organizational research: Types of triangulation as a methodological alternative. Administração: Ensino e Pesquisa 19(1), 66–98 (2018). [Online]. Available https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/ 208576511.pdf 36. Taylor, S.J., Bogdan, R., DeVault, M.: Introduction to Qualitative Research Methods: A Guidebook and Resource. Wiley (2015) 37. González-Díaz, R.R., Gómez, S.L.G., Vegas-Ochoa, J.C., Vargas, E.C.: Teaching accompaniment in Colombia’s Official Educational Institutions. Education 1, 2 (2021) 38. González-Díaz, R.R., Acevedo-Duque, Á.E., Flores-Ledesma, K.N., Cruz-Ayala, K., Guanilo Gomez, S.L.: knowledge management strategies through educational digital platforms during periods of social confinement. In: Trends and Applications in Information Systems and Technologies, pp. 297–303. Springer International Publishing, Cham (2021). https://doi.org/10. 1007/978-3-030-72651-5_29 39. González-Díaz, R.R., Becerra-Perez, L.A.: Stimulating components for business development in Latin American SMEs. In: Trends and Applications in Information Systems and Technologies, pp. 366–374. Springer International Publishing, Cham (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/ 978-3-030-72651-5_35 40. Gonzalez-Diaz, R. Acevedo-Duque, Á., Guanilo-Gómez, S., Cruz-Ayala, K.: Ruta de Investigación Cualitativa-Naturalista. Una alternativa para estudios gerenciales. Revista de Ciencias Sociales 28(1), 34–52 (2021, April 31) 41. González-Díaz, R.R., Acevedo-Duque, Á.E., Flores-Ledesma, K.N., Cruz-Ayala, K., Guanilo Gomez, S.L.: Knowledge management strategies through educational digital platforms during periods of social confinement. In: Rocha, Á., Adeli, H., Dzemyda, G., Moreira, F., Ramalho Correia, A.M. (eds.) Trends and Applications in Information Systems and Technologies, pp. 297–303. Springer International Publishing, Cham (2021)https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3030-72651-5_29 42. González-Díaz, R.R., Becerra-Perez, L.A.: Stimulating components for business development in Latin American SMEs. In: Rocha, Á., Adeli, H., Dzemyda, G., Moreira, F., Ramalho Correia, A.M. (eds.) Trends and Applications in Information Systems and Technologies, pp. 366–374. Springer International Publishing, Cham (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-726515_35 43. González-Díaz, R.R., Acosta-Moltó, E.M.: ExPro as psycho-affective stimulators through experiential marketing in nonprofit organizations. CIID J. 1(1), 01–27 (2020) 44. Hernández-Julio, Y.F., Meriño-Fuentes, I., González-Díaz, R.R., Guerrero-Avendaño, A., Toledo, L.V.O., Bernal, W.N.: Fuzzy knowledge discovery and decision-making through clustering and Dynamic tables: application in Colombian business Finance. In: 2020 15th Iberian Conference on Information Systems and Technologies (CISTI), 24–27 June 2020 2020, pp. 1–5. https://doi.org/10.23919/CISTI49556.2020.9141117
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45. Gonzalez-Díaz, R.R., Becerra-Peréz, L.A., Acevedo-Duque, Á.E.: Narco-marketing as a strategy for local tourism development. Rev. Ibérica Sistemas Tecnologias Informação 36(E36), 71–85 (2020) 46. González-Díaz, R., Vásquez Llamo, C.E., Hurtado Tiza, D.R., Menacho Rivera, A.S.: Plataformas interactivas y estrategias de gestión del conocimiento durante el Covid-19. Revista Venezolana de Gerencia, vol. 25, no. 4, pp. 68–81 (2020, 1 December). [Online]. Available https://produccioncientificaluz.org/index.php/rvg/article/view/35177
Chapter 2
Cybersecurity in Smart Cities: Technology and Data Security in Intelligent Transport Systems Nuno Miguel Carvalho Galego and Rui Miguesl Pascoal
Abstract With the use of technologies, ‘cities’ are able to control everything from traffic lights to the distribution of water in the city, traffic, environment, social actions, health, education, urban planning, security, and public administration, are some of the main areas of activity. The implementation of technology also brings other concerns such as data security and vulnerability and the privacy of individuals. The evolution of intelligent transport systems (ITS) has been accelerated, multifaceted, and often based on the technological advances considered revolutionary for the Urban Mobility sector. Recently, the widespread use of ITS in the operation and management of urban mobility is part of everyday life. Numerous tools are now available for a variety of contexts and scales, with applications that directly impact both locally and globally. This dissertation seeks to analyze the security risk within smart cities. It addresses the theme of what are intelligent transport systems and what are the main solutions to ensure the safety of these systems. To this end, is performed an analysis and classification of ITS threats. With the help of the NS-3 network simulator to model, the ITS communications architecture and the Simulation of Urban Mobility (SUMO) traffic simulator an urban road area scenario was generated. Finally, lessons learned and future research challenges to improve the security of ITS systems are presented.
2.1 Introduction Smart Cities are cities where digital infrastructure is widely available and provide access to value-added services as well as data analysis tools that will enable greater decision-making, problem anticipation, and action. Proactive in managing public resources that have a direct impact on people’s lives such as: traffic, environment, social actions, health, education, urban planning, security, and public administration. The dangers of cities that have their systems pirated and have increased over the last N. M. C. Galego (B) · R. M. Pascoal (B) ISTEC Instituto Superior de Tecnologias Avançadas, Alameda das Linhas de Torres, 179, 1750-142 Lisboa, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 A. Mesquita et al. (eds.), Perspectives and Trends in Education and Technology, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 256, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5063-5_2
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few years. The aim of this dissertation is to investigate and understand threats and to help to model and analyze cyber threat attacks in a smart city and in particular, intelligent transport systems (ITS).
2.2 Context and Related Works Technology is one of the main aspects in the development of Smart Cities project, acting as an integral part of the various dimensions that encompass this process, facilitating innovation and also the generation, integration, and/or modification of new dynamics within cities. Many smart cities are implementing new technologies to generate integrated information systems. These technologies include telecommunications (Wi-Fi, 3/4G, Digital TV), eGovernment, E-Health, Creative Economy, Smart grids, Big Data, IoT, and artificial intelligence.
2.2.1 Consequences Nowadays, in Portugal, cities are taking their first steps in smart transport within the concept of smart city. The key points are: city planning and the organization of mobility and transport are changing, with more and more sustainable mobility becoming increasingly favored. The population living in cities is increasing, with the prospect of a larger population imbalance in the territory. The current public transport offer does not meet the needs of the population, either in terms of range, frequency, and quality. The management of urban mobility is not yet done in an integrated method, which is reflected in an increase in the ownership and use of the individual motor vehicle, generating several negative impacts on the environment and on the citizens’ quality of life [12]. The transport sector is still excessively dependent on road transport and accounts for 24% of national CO2 emissions.
2.2.2 Security Risk Within Smart Cities There are some key areas of concern from a cybersecurity perspective when it comes to smart cities. Recent DDoS attacks demonstrate the challenge that unprotected IoT devices can create. Smart cities will depend on IoT devices, sensors, and a range of smart devices and are likely to have some of the highest and fastest growing IoT device concentrations. The best possible protection against hacking attacks is a security solution built into the IoT application. The problem of traffic, one of the biggest problems facing large cities, is the concern of traffic congestion, which brings other problems, including ecological and the efficiency of public transport. Also, in this area, technology used in safety, such as
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cameras, is also used for traffic surveillance and thus can be more effectively monitored, improving the conditions of assistance. Synchronized traffic light timers are also a great help in traffic regulation, adjusting public transport schedules to reduce the amount of congestion. Ecological problems in cities have as their main source traffic congestion on public roads, generating unnecessary and easily avoidable CO2 emissions and noise pollution. Safety is a very important factor in our daily lives.
2.2.3 Cybersecurity Challenges on IoT Devices Homes, cars, public places, and other social systems are on the road to full connectivity through the IoT. To benefit from them, the city’s infrastructure and services are changing with the new interconnected monitoring, control, and automation systems. Intelligent transport accesses a network of interconnected GPS location data for weather and traffic updates. Its implementation is essential for a smart city.
2.3 Intelligent Transport Systems (ITS) ITS are considered as the key technology to improve road safety, traffic efficiency, and driving experience. Currently, there is a tendency to implement this new technology in vehicles so that they can communicate not only with hotspots, but also with other nearby entities through direct short-range communications (DSRC), such as vehicle-to-vehicles (V2V), vehicle-to-infrastructure (V2I), vehicle-to-pedestrian (V2P), and vehicle-to-anything (V2X). This new reality of transport systems will leverage different types of vehicular communications (VC) and telematics services to enable the emergence of innovative active road safety applications, driver assistance, mobility, and traffic management services.
2.3.1 ITS Infrastructure The physical components of an ITS infrastructure can be divided into 3 types: field equipment such as inductive loop detectors, magnetic detectors, infrared detectors, acoustic detectors, and video imaging. Wired (fiber optic, twisted pair) and wireless (microwave, radio, mobile technology [1]) communication, Traffic management center with basic signal control (hardware, software), traffic surveillance, traffic control road, regional control integration, incident detection, incident response, information dissemination, electronic tools, and crossing monitor. Connectivity unleashes the potential of automated vehicles.
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2.3.2 ITS Security Architecture To efficiently manage ITS security features, WAVE and ETSI standards defined the security architecture. IEEE 1609.2 in WAVE and ETSI TS 103 097 in ETSI specifies key security components, including security headers, certificate format, and security profiles. Security specifications in both standards are similar and suggest the use of elliptic curve cryptography (ECC). ETSI TC ITS defines security as a vertical layer, adjacent to the access, network, and installation layers. Corresponding security services are provided on a layer-by-layer basis through specific service access points (SAP). In this context, ETSI TS 103 097 specifies key security components, including security headers, certificate format, and security profiles, as well as the existing IEEE 1609.2 security standard.
2.3.2.1
Security Profiles
The security algorithm analyzed in this document is ECDSA for signing and verifying exchanged messages whose purpose is to ensure the integrity, authenticity, and non-repudiation of exchanged data. In this context, the ETSI TC ITS standard recommends using the ecdsa_nistp256_with_sha256 public key algorithm, even though the standard is flexible enough to support other algorithms. Depending on the ETSI ITS security profile, Secured Message content can also be checked against security profile rules.
2.3.3 ITS Security Threats The use of elliptic curve cryptography (ECC)-based algorithms has been proposed for digital signatures and ITS message encryption in these standards. Specifically, for digital signature, the Elliptic Curve Digital Signature (ECDSA) algorithm is an advanced elliptic curve encryption scheme (ECIES) with Advanced Encryption Standard (AES), it is the standard encryption algorithm. Higher packet size increases security packet end-to-end delay and wireless channel occupancy. This can cause congestion, particularly in high-density traffic scenarios. Key standards, vehicles form the core component of ITS along with TCC. Using vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V) and vehicle-to-infrastructure (V2I) communications, important traffic, and mobility information is shared between the different components of ITS. There are currently two main ITS standards known as Wireless Access for Vehicle Environments (WAVE) and European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) in the United States and Europe, respectively. Both standards define the
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complete network architecture of MAC/PHY layer functions, network layer transport and mechanism, data traffic and application layer, and security and management procedures for ITS applications. Vehicles periodically transmit mobility and traffic data between them, these being designated basic safety messages (BSM’s) in standard WAVE consent messages and Cooperative Awareness Messages (CAM’s) in the standard ETSI. In addition, the ETSI standard defines a special message for warning notification dissemination called decentralized environmental notifications (DENM’s). Using information received in CAM’s, each ITS station develops a local dynamic map (LDM), which is a traffic database. With the help of LDM, vehicles can make driving decisions, RSU’s can broadcast geographic alert notifications, and CBT can manage city-level traffic. LDM accuracy holds the key to vehicle traffic awareness accuracy. The key requirements for a secure system for secure data transmission are provided through lightweight overload cryptographic algorithms. The list of security attacks, security requirements that mean a threat, and possible countermeasures are shown in Table 2.1. Table 2.1 Security attacks, compromised security requirements, and countermeasures Security attack
Compromised security requirement
Countermeasure
Demal of Serv ice (DoS)
Availability
Digital signature
Jamming, flooding
Availability
Digital signature
Sybil
Availability, authentication
Digital signature
Malware, spamming. black hole, grey hole, sink hole, warm hole availability, authentication
Digital signature
Eavesdropping
Confidentiality
Encryption
Data interception
Confidentiality
Encryption
Falsified entities
Authentication, authorization Digital signature and encryption
Cryptographic replication
Authentication, authorization Digital signature and encryption
GNSS spoofing
Authentication, authorization Digital signature and encryption
Timing
Authentication, authorization Digital signature and encryption
Masquerading
Data integrity*
Digital signature with certificate
Data playback
Data integrity*
Digital signature with certificate
Data alteration
Data integrity*
Digital signature with certificate
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To overcome these attacks, encryption is required for critical messages with sensitive information.
2.3.4 ITS Security as Technology Current security solutions directly affect quality of service (QoS) and security awareness in vehicle applications, in terms of packet delays, packet loss, cryptographic loss, and reduced security applications. The concept of this system is a vehicle connectivity that forms a vehicle-Internet (VoI), providing a clear view of road traffic. Together with vehicle-to-vehicle connection, data is gathered from road infrastructure units (MSW) and various other roadside sensors, buildings, and humans that constitute a smart city paradigm. There are many applications in ITS-based smart cities, including cooperative awareness, safe lane shifting, safe intersection, traffic light control, emergency warning notifications, smart parking, and multimedia download from the internet. The participating vehicle is equipped with an on-board computer system, communication interfaces, sensors, and user interfaces. A roadside network infrastructure, called the road side unit (RSU), is also part of Vehicular Ad-Hoc Network (VANET’s) and facilitates communication of network nodes and access to the Internet. Additionally, passenger handheld devices and the vehicle system can be connected to the internet via the RSU infrastructure. A management system can be used to control and authenticate the entry of vehicles into the network, especially in the area of computer security, such as cryptographic key distribution and authentication servers. Thus, vehicular networks can be considered as a type of MANET’s (mobile ad-hoc network). The types of communication in vehicular networks can be divided into the following characteristics, vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V), allows direct communication of vehicles without relying on fixed infrastructure support. In this type of communication, vehicles can exchange road condition data, detect the presence of other vehicles, and even information about vehicles in unsafe movement. Infrastructure Vehicle (V2I) allows a vehicle to communicate with road infrastructure, so the vehicle can receive information on obstacles and pedestrians, road condition data, announcements, and also safety information that will assist in safe driving. Hybrid architecture, combines V2V and V2I solutions. In this case, a vehicle can communicate with the road infrastructure in a single jump or multiple hops according to its location relative to the infrastructure connection point for different purposes. Security is a key challenge in deploying ITS applications.
2.3.4.1
Vehicle Communication Standards
The WAVE standard is divided into two parts: (i) RoadSide Unit (RSU) that can be installed on streetlights, traffic lights, and so on; and (ii) On-board Unit (OBU) which
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are installed on vehicles (car, motorcycle, truck, bus). Parts of the pattern operate independently and vehicles can be organized into small networks called WAVE Basic Service Set (WBSS). The WBSS may consist only of OBU’s or a mixture of OBU’s and RSU’s. Members of a particular WBSS exchange information through some service (SCH) and control (CCH) channels. However, Internet Protocol (IP) packets are allowed only on the SCH channel and vehicles must be members of the same WBSS.
2.4 ITS Technology and Data Security Intelligent transport has access to a network of interconnected data including features, GPS, vehicle status, weather, and traffic updates. Vehicles are data sources from a variety of subsystems that produce different types of information. This data is collected locally but can also be transmitted and collected in central repositories for analysis and use.
2.4.1 Sources and Data Types of Transport Systems Vehicles and their systems can be an important source of various types of data. Within a car, the various systems represent different data sources with different types of data. Global positioning satellite (GPS) systems for location and navigation and telephone devices and messaging services have become commonplace in vehicles. Some of the sources and types of data these systems collect and store on local instrumentation are OBD/EDR (on-board devices, event data recorders) speed, acceleration, braking, seat belt use, vehicle condition, airbag deployment; telephone and hands-free messaging; GPS navigation systems (trip data, start and end location, backtrack data).
2.4.2 Vulnerabilities and Security Risks There are two main security vulnerabilities in smart cities. The first is related to the security of newly installed smart technologies. The second is the security of data generated, stored, and shared by these technologies and infrastructures. It is related to the first because incorrect access to data is usually caused by security deficiencies in the components, architecture, and operation of the systems. There are three distinct forms of attacks: availability seeking to close a system or denying service, confidentiality seeking to extract information and tracking activities, and integrity seeking to enter a system to change information and settings (so that components outperform) erasing critical software through malware and viruses).
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In general, they seek to exploit one of the top five vulnerabilities of digital technologies that are critical to smart city systems. (1) Poor software security and data encryption. (2) Using insecure and poorly maintained legacy systems. (3) Intelligent city systems are generally large, complex, and diverse, with many large and complex interdependencies and attack surfaces. (4) The interdependencies between smart city technologies and systems have the potential to create cascading effects where interconnected entities quickly transmit adverse consequences to each other. (5) There are multiple vulnerabilities arising from human error or intentional error. The typical approach to securing smart city systems has been to use a set of well-known technical solutions and software security approaches to try to prevent access and enable recovery. Using these techniques, the goal is to reduce the possibility of attack as much as possible and make the system robust and resilient as possible, as well as quickly recoverable in the event of a failure. Phishing, for example, is a common social engineering technique by which a hacker goes through a reputable person or organization.
2.4.3 Threat Modeling To achieve a goal, an organization must identify the various actors who will ensure that the goal is met or not. The threat agent may intend to attack the system and exploit vulnerable points using TTP methods to manipulate it. Requirements are used to ensure the security goal, and restrictions are met to meet the organizational goal. The attacking entity is linked to the threat agent, TTP, risks, and threats because properties determine the nature of the likely attacks and threats. The requirements, risks, controls, and reporting of cyber incident can affect the organizational purpose as well as the input and output data. This interrelationship provides evidence of the degree of threat or cascading effect of how a specific risk could impact data. The likelihood of an attack being a likely threat is determined by the threat intelligence gathered. The underlying process involves a systematic approach to identify the organization’s data system, internal infrastructure, business processes, attack context, and relevant controls. The process consists of five main phases, as shown in Fig. 2.1. Phase 1, the purpose of this phase is to identify the overall organizational environment, including goals and requirements. It includes two activities, the first consists in identifying organizational objectives. The second is the definition of the results. Phase 2 identifies the threat agent’s activities and the TTP used to implement the attack. The threat agent explores the organizational system and the information input and output chains, as shown in Fig. 2.2. The attack steps are as follows: reconnaissance, trial, exploit and command and control.
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Fig. 2.1 Threat model process
Phase 3, the likelihood of attack and its cascading effects on a cyber-attack. Phase 4, threat model, in this phase, can be observed, among others, the following characteristics: observables, indicators, threat agent, exploitation, and TTP, to describe the interrelationships and actions that an attack can perform to penetrate and manipulate the system. Phase 5, to ensure adequate security controls, a strategic team should be formed to identify, investigate, review and evaluate system processes and applications.
2.4.4 Discussions and Conclusions There are several threats and vulnerabilities that the threat agent can exploit. These attacks include malware, redirection script, or SQL injection. The root causes of these types of attacks may be the motivation and intent of the threat actor, and it is possible to use the attacker’s implemented TTP to determine the reason and intent. Attacking cyber-physical components, opponents can breach source code by using malware or spyware on the system and remotely manipulate software. Threat modeling and analysis examines the various instances of how threat agents pursue and exploit an
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Fig. 2.2 Attack steps
intent (reasons, opportunities, and methods). The intelligence gathered provides an understanding of the capabilities, actions, and intentions of opponents. This chapter tried to analyze systems security at a general level by considering an attack model using concepts such as objective, agent, attack, and TTP, along with their interdependencies. The objective of the opponent is to penetrate and manipulate data. The motives and methods of the threat actors, as well as the cascading effects of the attacks, were observed. The findings showed that attack modeling and analysis of observed behavior patterns help to understand security risks.
2.5 ITS Threat Analysis and Classification This chapter seeks to explore the main threats and attacks that affect ITS systems by first analyzing the ITS entities involved and attacker profiles. Then, the key ITS security requirements are discussed in more detail, and finally, existing ITS attacks
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are analyzed and ranked along with their main countermeasures. There are many threats that can affect its operation and lead to incidents. Radio communication can carry telemetry data, audio, video, and control information. In addition to what the radio communication link carries, the satellite link allows to carry GPS and weather information. Information routing on the network should be performed by wireless sensors that meet high availability as well as indispensable security requirements [3].
2.5.1 Entities Involved The on-board unit (OBU) refers to the driver and the vehicle, the road side unit (RSU), third party entities, and attackers. Building ITS applications requires special attention and is characterized by specific challenges and requirements, such as confidentiality, authenticity, integrity, authorization, non-repudiation of origin/receipt, anti-replay, availability, and privacy.
2.5.2 Technical Approach and Modeling The model can be used as a test for the possibility of system penetration, validating as the system evolves [4]. Figure 2.3 shows a simple model of a vehicle showing some of the various systems involved. The basic ITS model can be defined as a combination of six separate but dependent systems: data acquisition module, reference and location system, NAV (navigation) system, control module, data logging module, and module. telemetry [5]. In designing the ITS system architecture, an attempt was made to include all communication channels for the system that are important for safety. As can be seen in Fig. 2.4, the different system components rely on wireless communication channels to communicate with each other. Ground control stations (GCS) can be of two types, local or at a station control center (HQ). HQ GCS may be located in a command and control center of the relevant agency/department. Portable GCS is a subclass of local GCS that can be Portable Control Stations (smartphones, computers, etc.). The link between a satellite and a vehicle is Line of Sight (LOS) radio communication while vehicle, PDA-vehicle, and GCS (local) communicate via radio or GPRS/EDGE-based communication using the existing communication infrastructure. Components such as Satellite and HQ GCS may be subject to certain threats but are not very vulnerable due to security measures in these systems [6].
2.5.3 Classification of ITS Attacks Availability attacks, denial of service (DoS) attacks are currently recognized as the most dangerous threat to the availability of ITS systems due to their large impact
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Fig. 2.3 ITS system architecture
Fig. 2.4 ITS communication model
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on network resources. The main purpose of these attacks is to prevent legitimate users from using network services and resources. In addition, an important variant of DoS attacks is distributed denial of service (DDoS) [7], which is a distributed attack ordered by an attacker with other agents who may also be unknowingly victims. Attacks on authenticity/identification—The digital signature represents the most commonly used cryptographic countermeasure to ensure authentication of ITS entities, allowing recipients to verify the source of data. The integrity of a system can be compromised by using two basic operations, modifying existing information and building new information. The main purpose of integrity protection is to ensure that exchanged messages are not altered during transmission by malicious users. In addition, it gives the ability to resist data destruction, unauthorized creation, and alteration mechanisms. A typical cryptographic countermeasure is to use digital certification to properly authenticate legitimate users [8]. Confidentiality Attacks—ITS messaging confidentiality may be required by some specific applications to provide secure internet payments and services by encrypting messages transmitted between vehicles and RSU’s. However, if messages exchanged do not contain confidential information, confidentiality is not required. Privacy Attacks—A typical attack consists of tracking vehicles and/or users while traveling. In fact, ITS entities are generally equipped with Wi-Fi or Bluetooth-enabled devices, which transmit various information in clear text (egg identifiers, MAC addresses, device types, etc.). The main purpose of non-repudiation is to gather, maintain, make available and validate undeniable evidence about a claimed event or action. Nonrepudiation depends on authentication, but it provides solid evidence because the system can identify attackers who cannot deny their actions in this way [9].
2.5.4 Collision Hazard Warning One vehicle (or unit on the road) detects the risk of collision between two or more vehicles and transmits a DENM message to all neighboring vehicles. The general detection and notification process can go through fourteen main steps, Fig. 2.5. At time T0, a vehicle (on the left side) performs sudden braking due to a threat of danger. At time T1, information related to this sudden braking event is available on the vehicle’s ECUs. At time T2, this information is received by the vehicle’s OBU. At time T3, a DENM message is created at the installation layer, including all information requirements (for example, timestamp, location, speed, event type, etc.). At time T4, the DENM message is received and processed by the network and transport layer. At time T5, the DENM message is signed by the security layer using an elliptical digital curve signing algorithm (ECDSA) [10] and encapsulated (Encap) into a secure message, which includes the ITS station certificate. At time T6, the signed DENM message is received again by the network layer. At time T7, the packet is transmitted by the IEEE 802.11p MAC and PHY layers. Eventually, the packet may be retransmitted multiple times due to collisions and/or severe propagation conditions in the PHY layer.
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Fig. 2.5 Collision hazard warning
At time T8, the packet is finally received by the OBU from a neighboring vehicle (vehicle on the right side of Fig. 2.5). From time T9 to T13, the message is decapsulated and verified (using ECDSA) by the security layer and is made available to the ITS, T13 application layer. At T14, a warning message is displayed to the vehicle driver to immediately take action, or an automatic action is triggered by the vehicle’s ECUs (egg emergency brake, speed reduction, etc.). As shown in Fig. 2.5, the availability and real-time processing of information is an essential requirement, especially in life-threatening scenarios. If we assume that the second vehicle (on the right) has a speed of 120 km/h (about 33 m/s), maintaining a safe minimum distance of 66 m with the first vehicle (on the left), the collision time (TTC) will be about 2 s. This period is the minimum time required to perceive a particular hazard (i.e., by humans or machine-based / ITS systems) and react accordingly to avoid collision.
2.6 Assessment and Conclusion With the evolution of technologies, vehicular networks, and also the communication of metropolitan networks, it becomes possible to create environments in which vehicles interact with each other and also be influenced by their surroundings. In this context, it is possible to monitor the entire trajectory of vehicles, the density in each region of the city, and also the evolution of traffic throughout the day, reacting according to the demand and events of the city. Smart cities may include services to coordinate traffic lights, parking, location services, weather services, tourist services, and emergency services. All services should be integrated to improve the accuracy of information delivered to the end user. To this end, it is important to standardize vehicle-to-vehicle-to-infrastructure communication protocols to ensure connectivity between. In addition, cooperation between vehicular networks, other
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networks, and computing devices in the task of collecting environmental data and improving services to citizens is essential. Smart cities can also work to provide streets with sensors that track and alert the driver of hazards on the route. In addition, autonomous vehicles can make use of these sensors to guide passengers to their destination.
2.6.1 Difficulties and Opportunities It is not possible to consider all the advantages and disadvantages of such a complex proposal; however, it is possible to identify as major difficulties the fact that not all technologies are mature and their prices are not yet competitive; issues such as data security and data protection must be scrupulously followed by Smart initiatives while being internalized by the population; The major opportunities are the potential economic and infrastructure savings; the possibility of automatic management of certain infrastructures and services opens with the consequent savings associated with efficiency. reduction of infrastructure operating expenses.
2.6.2 Results The best cryptographic performances were obtained using the NIST recommended ecdsa_nistp192_with_sha256 method with 41 SN-DECAP and 281 SN-ENCAP operations per second. However, in application security, each vehicle is expected to transmit a maximum of 10 CAM safety messages per second. Depending on the density of the vehicular network, each ITS station can receive several hundred (or thousands) CAM’s per second from neighboring vehicles, whose signatures must be verified before scanning by upper layers or ITS applications. The recipient should always send their own certificate (or certificate chain) if they find their own hashId8 certificate in an unrecognized certificate message. Malicious users may thus continue to send spoofed packets to force the recipient to send their certificate continuously, which may deplete local resources and allocated network bandwidth.
2.6.3 Conclusion Vehicle networks enable a number of applications that can make the driving experience safer as they avoid collisions, are more efficient as they reduce travel time, avoid traffic jams and increase road capacity, and make travel safer enjoyable as they provide new entertainment applications. However, the characteristics of these networks bring challenges to their development. In addition to the problems inherent
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to the wireless transmission in vehicular networks, there is also the high mobility of the nodes. This latter feature can make vehicular networks highly unstable as the number of link breaks tends to be higher. This scenario demonstrates the need for new protocols and mechanisms that take into attention at first the limitations of these networks. Otherwise, the performance obtained may be lower than required by the new applications. However, the success of wireless networks and the rapid enhancement that related technologies are achieving indicate that this path is viable. Throughout this dissertation, some concepts related to intelligent transport systems were presented. Existing architectures, vehicle network communication patterns, and systems integration with different types of communication were analyzed, showing the need for standardization and integration of these systems. In addition, some types of existing applications in ITS were seen, in order to show the works found in the literature that already employ these concepts in order to leave some directions of new work. Decisions relevant to the application of new tools and procedures should be preceded by evaluations of existing experiences and results. A security assessment of the technology involved and the data that is part of the ITS was made, namely data sources and types, vulnerabilities, and security solutions. Today, ITS systems are considered the key technologies for improving road safety, traffic efficiency, and driving experience. Detailed system threat analysis has helped to identify various vulnerabilities so that appropriate mitigation and recovery measures can be taken. Over the coming decades, smart cities will be defined primarily as those that are capable of acting within national and global constraints; those who work well with others serve the elderly and the poor, and those who try to provide a local environment for all. Doing this is smart.
References 1. Pascoal, R.M., de Almeida, A., Sofia, R.C.: Mobile pervasive augmented reality systems the role of user preferences in perceived quality of experience (2019) 2. Pascoal, R.M., de Almeida, A., Sofia. R.C.: Activity recognition in outdoor sports environments: smart data for end-users involving mobile pervasive augmented reality systems. In: ACM International Symposium on Wearable Computers (2019) 3. Engineering Security and Performance Aware Vehicular Applications for Safer and Smarter Roads (SafeITS) 4. Mejri, M., Ben-Othman, J., Hamdi, M.: Survey on VANET security challenges and possible cryptographic solutions. Veh. Commun. 53–66 (2014) 5. Raya, M., Hubaux, J.: Securing vehicular ad hoc networks. J. Comput. Secur. 39–68 (2007) 6. Rappaport, T.S., Annamalai, A., Buehrer, R.M. and Tranter, W.H.: Wireless communications: Past events and a future perspective. In: IEEE Communications Magazine 50th Anniversary Commemorative Issue (2002). [Online]. Available https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/100 6984. Access on 15 Nov 2020 7. Geis, J., Dietrich, S., Reed, T.: SkyNET: a 3G-enabled mobile attack drone and stealth botmaster (2011). [Online]. Available https://www.usenix.org/legacy/events/woot11/tech/ final_files/Reed.pdf. Access 19 Ago 2020
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8. Warner, J. Johnston, R.: GPS spoofing countermeasures, pp. 1–8 (2003) 9. Sharma, S., Krishna, C.: An efficient distributed group key management using hierarchical approach with elliptic curve cryptography. In: 2015 IEEE International Conference on Computational Intelligence Communication Technology (CICT), pp. 687–693 (2015) 10. Nowdehi, N., Olovsson, T.: Experiences from implementing the ETSI ITS SecuredMessage service. In: IEEE Intelligent Vehicles Symposium Proceedings, pp. 1055–1060 (2014) 11. Jadranka, D., Müller, B., Meyer, G.: European roadmap smart systems for automated driving (2015) 12. Felipe Cunha, A.V.: Extrac¸ao de Propriedades Sociais em Redes Veiculares [Online]. Available http://sbrc2014.ufsc.br/anais/files/wp2p/ST2-1.pdf. Access 15 Nov 2020. F. Author, S., Author, T.: Book title. 2nd edn. Publisher, Location (1999)
Chapter 3
Youth Associations in Academia: Their Implications for the Creation and Development of an Entrepreneurial Profile Adalmiro Pereira , Carlos Mota, Ângela Vaz , and Andreia Cunha Abstract Entrepreneurship now plays an important role on society for the consequences that come with it, economically and socially speaking. Aware of this fact, and influenced by this reality, there are many young people who desire creating their own business, despite the difficulties of doing so. However, one of the limitations on this issue is, precisely, the lack of experience on young people, reflected upon their lack of qualifications and technic capabilities. Having said this, the overall purpose of this paper is, precisely, to analyze the contribution of participating in juvenile academic associations on the creation of an entrepreneur profile. It is aimed, by doing this, to analyze which are the personal and technic skills more developed throughout the associative experience and if this one is important to develop, in the people involved, an entrepreneur character. The survey of this study evaluates the profile from these individuals, their perception regarding entrepreneurship and the skills developed throughout the associative journey. The results demonstrated that almost half of these people are potential entrepreneurs, making a point about their entrepreneur profile and with a great positive attitude towards entrepreneurship.
3.1 Introduction In recent years, youth entrepreneurship has attracted the attention of public policy makers and the media, getting the idea that creating a company is a positive and aspiring economic activity and encouraging young people to consider a business career.
A. Pereira (B) · C. Mota · A. Cunha ISCAP-PPorto, Porto, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] Â. Vaz U. VIGO, Vigo, Spain © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 A. Mesquita et al. (eds.), Perspectives and Trends in Education and Technology, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 256, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5063-5_3
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The focus of this study is on potential young entrepreneurs from academic associative movements. Its main objective is to identify and assess the skills and knowledge developed by the leaders of academic associative movements that can enhance their skills to create business. This means investigating the development of human capital among participants in student associations and its implications for youth entrepreneurship. Timmons and Spinelli [12] demonstrate that young entrepreneurship must be taken seriously as a significant part of the development process of some of the current main global entrepreneurs. One of the great limitations of the young entrepreneur is the lack of entrepreneurial skills and abilities, due to the lack of experience [5]. In this sense, the relevance of an analysis of the academic associative reality and its role in the creation of skills at the level of entrepreneurship is indisputable. From this reflection emerged the interest in investigating student associations and assessing the usefulness that, in the perspective of its leaders, have the knowledge and skills acquired in academic practice for the purpose of developing entrepreneurial skills. Realize if the relationship between the two phenomena is derived only from the context and personal reality, or if there is indeed a strong relationship between them, and can thus be generalized.
3.2 Young Entrepreneurship and Academic Associations in Portugal Aware of the relationship between job creation and entrepreneurship, policy makers in Portugal have invested in its promotion, through the creation of opportunities and conditions for the development of new projects. In particular, public policies to support young entrepreneurship have been strengthened in recent years, with an emphasis on education for entrepreneurship and encouraging young people to start their own businesses. In an attempt to synthesize the characteristics of youth, Catani and Gilioli [2] argue for criteria that help to define the definition of youth: demographic, namely the age group, psychological, which include the maturity of individuals and socioeconomic, referring, for example, economic independence, marriage or education. To define youth associations, the “Libro Blanco del Asociacionismo juvenil de la CAPV” [13] mentions three criteria that help to understand the concept: (i) It is an entity formed by young people; (ii) The activity is aimed at young people; iii) Young people participate in the decisions of that entity. The three criteria do not always have to coexist, but in many cases they combine. Gasteiz [13] complements the concept by referring to the purpose of these associations, which, in his opinion,
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A report recently produced by RNAJ1 indicates that 1159 youth associations of various natures are registered in Portugal—cultural, sports, local development, musical, agrarian, among others. With regard to student associations—bodies that play an important role in defending the interests of students and their representation on school management bodies—there is a considerable growth trend (increased from 120 to 141 between 2010 and 2017). Stefanan et al. [11] define student associations as entities in a departmental and non-profit structure, promoting the integration and qualification of students. The authors see associations as a “laboratory” for leaders since for the vast majority it is the opportunity to assume responsibilities in leadership positions, and apply their knowledge in practice. The greatest motivation of students to participate in this volunteer work is the perceived opportunity for personal and professional development, as they value the putting into practice of the materials learned and the challenge that implies the organization of activities with which they identify. As for the projects developed, a vast number of areas of activity of these associations are known, including sports, cultural, recreational activities, Associativism is developed in spaces where a dynamic of learning, interaction and sharing of interests predominates, strengthening the spirit of cooperation and the sense of responsibility of its members, in the projects to be developed [10]. One of the important aspects to retain from the associative experience is the promotion and conduction to participation in society, resulting in the transformation of the people involved [1]. The individual dimension is transcended after this participatory process, converting its members into more active and critical people. The following research hypotheses derive from the literature review: Hypothesis 1: The entrepreneur’s attributes and attitudes are positively related to the skills developed in academic associations. Hypothesis 2: Participation in academic associations is positively related to the entrepreneurial skills of its leaders. Hypothesis 3: The entrepreneurial potential of young associative leaders is positively associated with the skills and knowledge acquired in the practices of academic associations.
3.3 Methodology 3.3.1 Sample and Data Collection Procedure The sampling frame was extracted from the members that integrate the 26 student associations of the Academic Federation of Porto, in the mandatory year of 2017. The total number of respondents, to whom the questionnaires were destined, was 845 1
It includes youth associations in Portugal, in the years 2010 and 2017, distributed by district and type of association. (Available at: https://joven.gov.pt/Associativismo/DadosEstatisticos/Paginas/ Lista-de-entidadesinscritas-RNAJ.aspx).
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associative leaders. The operation was carried out by email and the period of data collection in the online survey system started on September 4, 2017 and continued until October 5, 2017, when it was deactivated, receiving responses on the Google Drive platform. Of these, 159 were validated, which translates into a response rate of 18.8%.
3.3.2 Survey by Questionnaire As a research instrument, a questionnaire survey was used, a frequent methodology in social sciences [8] and its design and implementation is a process whose objective is to collect relevant information, obtained from the answers given to the group questions by a representative group of respondents, around which conclusions are produced that can be generalized to the universe of the study population. In investigation by survey, data collection can be conducted through interviews (in person or by phone) or by applying a questionnaire [4]. The questions were formulated in order to be uniformly understood, to avoid bias and very demanding questions and grouped in order to create a logical and continuous flow in the questionnaire. In addition to the introductory text, which sets out its objective and the commitment to confidentiality of the data obtained, the first section is intended for the demographic characteristics of the respondents. Then the questions related to the respondent’s personality traits are successively presented, the questions that aim to understand if the respondents have entrepreneurial attributes or attitudes, Only closed questions with ordered choices are included. The questions were designed to analyze the respondent’s degree of agreement, measured using Likert scales, with five points where 1 = “Totally Disagree”; 2 = “Disagree”; 3 = “Indifferent”; 4 = “I agree”; 5 = “I totally agree”. The use of the scale is essential to measure the level of agreement in relation to a given statement, not being limited to a simple “agree” or “do not agree” [3].
3.4 Presentation and Discussion of Results 3.4.1 Generic Sample Characterization It is mainly composed of individuals aged between 20 and 30 years old (81.8%) with a predominance of females (56.6%), mirroring their representativeness in the frequency of higher education in Portugal.2 It is preponderant to attend a degree 2
A report developed by the General Directorate of Statistics for Education and Science, states that of the 53,479 students attending higher education in the district of Porto, 47.2% are male and 52.8% female (Student Registration Survey Higher Education Registrants and Graduates, DGEEC, 2017).
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(81.3%) and the rest are pursuing a master’s degree. As for the professional situation, 63.5% of the respondents only study (63.5%), although there is a not insignificant percentage of “workers / students,” for others (26.4%) or their own (5.7%). One of the questions measures the time that respondents take to be involved in associative activities, quantified by the number of mandates. The distribution is relatively equal, with 30.2% of respondents having been part of an association for less than a year, onethird claiming to have two terms and 35.8% with three or more years of associative experience. The area with the highest incidence of respondents is the Presidency (16.4%), followed by the Sports (15.7%), Communication (14.5%), Cultural (12, 6%), and Recreational (11.3%). Eight associative leaders (5%) declared themselves to be founders of an academic association.
3.4.2 Survey Results The distribution of responses, in the range between 1 and 5, shows relatively high average values for the various dimensions under study: “Personality traits” (4.02); “Attributes and attitudes of an entrepreneur” (3.77); Attitudes towards entrepreneurship (4.34); and Capacities developed in student associations (4.05). The internal consistency of the questionnaire was verified using Chronbach’s Alpha, which presented acceptable values in the dimensions “Personality traits” (α = 0.773) and “Entrepreneur attributes and attitudes” (α = 0.707). The dimension “Attitudes towards Entrepreneurship” (α = 0.506) showed a value lower than what was considered reasonable in contrast to the dimension “Capacities developed in student associations” (α = 0.871), which showed good internal consistency such as the total of the questionnaire (α = 0.896) (Table 3.1).
3.4.2.1
Personality Traits
In the responses to personality traits (by level of agreement), the result indicates that the majority of respondents are in harmony with the included statements, with Table 3.1 Cronbach’s alpha coefficient (α) of the questionnaire sections
Number of items Cronbach alpha (1) Personality traits
15
0.773
(2) Entrepreneur attitudes and attributes
15
0.708
0
0.506
(4) Capacities Developed in Associations
10
0.871
Questionnaire total
45
0.896
(3) Attitudes towards entrepreneurship
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which it is sought to understand whether the personality of academic leaders fits into an entrepreneur profile. The statement “I feel the need to achieve goals,” deserved the maximum score of 82.4% of the respondents, followed by “I like a challenge” (67.3%) and “I don’t give up easily” (57.7%), obtaining an average weight of 4.80, 4.63, and 4.48, respectively. The result is in line with Mcclelland’s [9] theory, which refers to the need for individuals to define and achieve challenging goals. On the other hand, from the analysis to the personality traits of the managers, the taste for change and the ability to deal with uncertainty stand out.
3.4.2.2
Attributes and Attitudes of Entrepreneur
In the third section of the questionnaire, the statements were formulated in order to understand whether the associative leaders have entrepreneurial characteristics. The answers that showed the highest frequency of high agreement (5) were “I always wanted to challenge myself” (46.5%) and “I always wanted to lead and motivate others” (45.3%). The average response was also high. As far as the taste for the challenge is concerned, there are interesting statistics. On the one hand, the first statement—“I always wanted to challenge myself”—presents an average level of agreement of 4.38, emphasizing the entrepreneurial spirit of the respondents, on the other hand, the second statement—“Risk situations challenge me” records an average (3.79) that exposes the greatest caution of respondents when challenges imply risks.
3.4.2.3
Attitudes Towards Entrepreneurship
There is a strong positive attitude towards entrepreneurship. The statement that deserved the highest level of agreement was “I admire people who start their own business” with 73.6% of academic leaders converging to the maximum (5). They say mostly that they would strongly encourage a family member or friend to start a business and that entrepreneurs who fail their business clearly deserve a second chance. They indicate that they have no difficulty in understanding people who are continuously striving for new goals (4.52), demonstrating that they do not discredit successful people in business. The average of the average responses to this group of questions (4.34) clearly confirms that respondents perceive entrepreneurship at a high level and express a clearly concordant feeling.
3.4.2.4
Capacities Developed in Associations
In the last section of the questionnaire, an attempt was made to understand what skills were developed throughout the associative experience, from the perspective of young associative leaders. Among the most recognized skills promoted by associative participation, organizational capacity stands out (4.65) and the increase in knowledge in management of organizations (4.53).
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As for the entrepreneurial ambition of the managers surveyed, the answers are different: 51.6% say that the associative participation did not cause them to start their business; 10.1% started their own business and AE contributed in some way to this; 11.9% thought about starting a business; 18.2% are working on an entrepreneurial idea; 8.2% already have the idea, however, it remains to be put into action.
3.4.3 Potential Entrepreneurship Index In order to reinforce the analysis and identify the entrepreneur profile, a Potential Entrepreneurship Index (IEP) was created, based on the total average results obtained in three dimensions (personality traits, attributes, attitudes of entrepreneur, and attitudes towards entrepreneurship). Table 3.2 presents the distribution of the IEP, whose statistics indicate that the sample presents high values in relation to the possibility of the participants being potential entrepreneurs (considering the range between 1 and 5). As observed in a histogram and confirmed through the Kolmogorv-Smirnov test (sig = 0.200), the IEP follows a normal distribution. In the bolx-plot, it is observed that although the median is around 4, there are about 50% of the participants who have lower values, showing that half of the participants have IEP values below the sample average. To verify the existence of correlation between the dimensions under study, Spearman’s correlation coefficient (cf. Table 3.3) was used, which indicates the existence of statistically significant correlations (p < 0.01). The “Personality Traits” are positively associated with the “Attributes and attitudes of an entrepreneur” (r = 0.508) and with “Capacities developed in associations” (r = 0.311), while the “Attributes Table 3.2 Distribution of IEP Percentiles Average IPE 4.04
Median Frequent Standarddesviation Minimum Maximum 25 value 4.04
380*
0.35
2.80
4.89
75
3.82 4.33
*Value that appears most frequently in a dataset
Table 3.3 Spearman’s correlation coefficient between the dimensions under study IPE
(1)
(2)
(1) Personality traits
0.656**
(2) Attitudes and attributes of the entrepreneur
0.743**
(3) Attitudes towards entrepreneurship
0.608**
0.0004
0.124
(4) Capacities developed in associations
*0.385**
0.311**
0.433**
** The
correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (bilateral)
(3)
0.508** 0.046
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and attitudes of an entrepreneur” are positively associated with the “Capacities developed in associativism” (r = 0.433). In contrast, there is no significant relationship between the “Attitudes towards entrepreneurship” and the “Capacities developed in associativism,” suggesting the dissociation between the two latent variables.
3.4.3.1
Potential Entrepreneur
To segment the sample in terms of (potential) entrepreneur characteristics, a criterion was defined for the IEP cutoff point, which was based on the fact that the participant had a score above or below the average of the total sample (4.04); however, this difference was not statistically significant (p = 0.475) (Student’s t-test for independent samples). To trace the characteristics of the entrepreneurial potential, sociodemographic variables were tested according to the prevalence of their categories as well as according to the values obtained in the IEP (chi-square adjustment test). The results indicate statistically significant differences in age, education, professional status, the variable “founder of association,” and the number of terms (Table 3.4).
3.4.4 Discussion The attributes and attitudes of the entrepreneur are positively related to the skills developed in academic associations, that is, H1 is supported by the results, highlighting the strong correlation between the variables “Attributes and attitudes of entrepreneur” and the “Capacities developed in association.” According to Karimi et al. [7], participation in extracurricular activities favors the development of entrepreneurial attitudes, of which highlight self-confidence, risk-taking, and the need for achievement. With regard to H2, the survey results provide evidence that associative leaders have characteristics typical of entrepreneurs. The average values of the responses are high for the personality traits (4.02), “Attributes and Attitudes of Entrepreneur” (m = 3). The degree of perception of the knowledge and skills acquired in academic practices and their contribution to the entrepreneurial potential, as measured by the opinion of the leaders, confirm the importance attributed to the experience as an explanatory variable for higher IEPs. The estimation of the regression models suggests that the main variables considered are, in fact, those with the greatest explanatory power. In this way, the assumption in Hypothesis 3 is confirmed: the potential for entrepreneurship in young associative leaders is positively related to the skills and knowledge acquired in academic associations.
3 Youth Associations in Academia: Their Implications … Table 3.4 Estimation results| IEP
43
Variables
Template 1 Model 2
Model 3
Q5.1
0.6674** (0.1832)
0.6507*** (0.1473)
Q5.2
−0.2821* (0.1582)
−0.2950* – (0.1712)
Q5.3
−0.0462 (0.1293)
0.0187 (0.1157)
–
Q5.4
0.0286 (0.0635)
−0.0664 (0.0680)
–
Q5.5
0.2854** (0.0768)
0.2442*** – (0.0870)
Q5.6
−0.0108 (0.1833)
0.0440 (0.1514)
–
Q5.7
−0.0676 (0.0747)
−0.0212 (0.0996)
–
Q5.8
0.1895** (0.0985)
0.1600* (0.0989)
–
Q5.9
0.0357 (0.1253)
0.0232 (0.1116)
–
Q5.10
−0.1227 (0.1116)
−0.1858 (0.1134)
–
CD
–
–
0.7033*** (0.1233)
Age
–
0.0481 (0.2162)
−0.1476 (0.2221)
Genre
–
0.1051 (0.1500)
0.0826 (0.1573)
Education
–
−0.3760* −0.3776* (0.2118) (0.2176)
Professional situation
–
0.3258*** 0.3431*** (0.0777) (0.0772)
Intercity
9.2396*** 9.3775*** 9.0928*** (0.7740) (0.7071) (0.5757)
Nº of observations
159
159
159
Determination coefficient 0.3604 (R 2Ajust )
0.4237
0.3261
Teste F (p-value)
0.0000
0.0000
0.0000
The ***, ** and * indicate the significance levels of 1%, 5% and 10% respectively
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3.5 Final Considerations The aim of the study was to investigate the contribution of participation in academic youth associations to the development of an entrepreneurial profile based on a questionnaire survey promoted by the associations that belong to the Academic Federation of Porto. The conclusions contribute to the understanding of the role of student associations as an instrument to promote youth entrepreneurship and the use of the concept of human capital in this context. The study confirms that the bet on entrepreneurship education, by theoretical but also practical means, is crucial. One of the biggest gaps in entrepreneurship has been the lack of relevant experience before starting a business, so the potential associated with training combined with work and management experiences, as is the case with young association leaders, should not be missed. The study has some methodological limitations. First of all, it is important to emphasize the use of a sample for convenience. The fact that we chose to confine the sample to student associations within the Academic Federation of Porto, resulted in a more homogeneous group of respondents, at the expense of the representativeness of the study, reducing the possibility of comparing and generalizing the conclusions. Another methodological limitation that conditioned the explanatory capacity was the absence in the study of a comparison group (for example, the remaining students of the academy), to measure and compare profiles.
References 1. Bordenave, J.E.: O que é Participação. Editora brasiliense (1983) 2. Catani, A.M., Gilioli, R.D.S.P.: Administração Escolar: a trajetória da Anpae na década de 1960. DP & A Editora (2004) 3. Costa, F.D.: Mensuração e desenvolvimento de escalas: aplicações em administração. Rio de Janeiro: Ciência Moderna (2011) 4. Coutinho, C.P.: Metodologia de Investigação em Ciências Sociais e Humanas, Edições Almedina (2011) 5. IFDEP Research.: Empreendedorismo Jovem - Um olhar sobre Portugal. Coimbra (2014) 6. Jayawarna, D., Jones, O., Macpherson, A.: New business creation and regional development: enhancing resource acquisition in areas of social deprivation. Entrep. Reg. Dev. 23(9–10), 735–761 (2011) 7. Karimi, S., Biemans, H.J., Lans, T., Chizari, M., Mulder, M.: The Impact of entrepreneurship education: A study of Iranian students’ entrepreneurial intentions and opportunity identification. J. Small Bus. Manage. 54(1), 187–209 (2016) 8. Maciel, O., Nunes, A., Claudino, S.: Recurso ao inquérito por questionário na avaliação do papel das Tecnologias de Informação Geográfica no ensino de Geografia. GOT, Rev. Geogr. Ordenamento Território 6, 153–177 (2014) 9. McClelland, D.: The Achieving Society. Free Press, New York (1961) 10. Putnam, R.D.: Comunidade e democracia: a experiência da Itália moderna. FGV Editora, Rio de Janeiro (2002) 11. Stefanan, A.A., Aguiar, V.L., dos Santos Salvi, G., Costa, V.M.F., dos Santos, A.S.: Motivação sem remuneração: um estudo de uma associação de estudantes de graduação da cidade de Santa Maria/RS. Simpósio de Excelência em Gestão e Tecnologia (2012)
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12. Timmons, J.A., Spinelli, S., Tan, Y.: New venture creation: Entrepreneurship for the 21st Century, vol. 4. Irwin, Burr Ridge, IL (1994) 13. Vitoria-Gasteiz: Libro blanco del associacionismo juvenil de la CAPV, Publicaciones del Gobierno Vasco, 1ª edn (2003) 14. Wood, S.: Prone to progress: Using personality to identify supporters of innovative social entrepreneurship. J. Public Policy Market. 31(1), 129–141 (2012)
Chapter 4
Modular Educational Ecosystem as Academic Support During COVID-19 Emergency at Mexico City-IPN in 2020 Vladimir Avalos-Bravo , Chadwick Carreto Arellano , and Jorge Toro González Abstract Pandemics all over the world have come to modify daily life of all citizens, the new coronavirus outbreak spread through different countries, who like Mexico had to choose to change education methodology in order to not affect learning process on students. It is due to Mexico education current situation, which not being prepared for an extreme provision such as quarantine measures, had to find options to ensure learning and establish an academic continuity plan in one of the most prestigious education institutions in the country, such as Instituto Politecnico Nacional (IPN). This paper presents the results of creation and use of a modular educational ecosystem at Instituto Politecnico Nacional (IPN) as a support to education problems in the country due to COVID-19 pandemic. The results obtained show the great participation of students and teachers in the ecosystem, basing their activities on the use of digital technologies. The statistics presented in this document show that the academic continuity plan implemented in this institution can be replicated to improve the learning models currently used in educational institutions in the country.
4.1 Introduction Major pandemics are not a new phenomenon. They are part of humanity’s collective memory (plague, cholera, Spanish flu, etc.) and have devastated certain regions of the world [1]. V. Avalos-Bravo (B) Instituto Politécnico Nacional, DEV, SEPI-ESIQIE, UPIEM, SARACS Research Group ESIME Zacatenco, Mexico City, Mexico e-mail: [email protected] C. C. Arellano Instituto Politécnico Nacional, DEV, SEPI-ESCOM, Mexico City, Mexico J. T. González Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Secretaría Académica, ESFM, Mexico City, Mexico e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 A. Mesquita et al. (eds.), Perspectives and Trends in Education and Technology, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 256, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5063-5_4
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As the world becomes increasingly interconnected, so do the risks we face. The COVID-19 pandemic has not stopped at national borders. It has affected people regardless of nationality, level of education, income or gender. The COVID-19 pandemic has created the largest disruption of education systems in history, affecting nearly 1.6 billion learners in more than 190 countries and all continents. Closures of schools and other learning spaces have impacted 94% of the world’s student population, up to 99% in low and lower-middle income countries [2], Accordingly, the World Health Organization (WHO) has named the disease caused by SARS-CoV-2 as COVID-19.[3] The first people affected have been examined further to find the source of the infection. The findings had indicated that they were linked to seafood and the livestock market so that initially only animal-to-human transmission of the virus was proposed and disease prevention was limited to this level. Over time, we have seen an increasing trend in the number of patients, not only in China but also in the continents of Europe and the United States. In addition to animal-to-human transmission of the COVID-19 virus, human-to-human transmission has been also revealed [4]. Only in Mexico, 217,000,000 cases have been detected with 195,000 deaths [5]. The crisis is exacerbating pre-existing education disparities by reducing the opportunities for many of the most vulnerable children, youth and adults those living in poor or rural areas, girls, refugees, persons with disabilities and forcibly displaced persons to continue their learning. But the same has not been true for its consequences, which have hit the most vulnerable hardest. Education is no exception. Students from privileged backgrounds, supported by their parents and eager and able to learn, could find their way past closed school doors to alternative learning opportunities [6]. In relation to technological services, several educational institutions have opted for the creation of technological ecosystems, which are analogues of biological ecosystems, where a set of living organisms are related through a physical medium. Translated this definition to the technological field, a technological ecosystem is a set of components that can be adaptable and flexible. An educational ecosystem is a set of learners, trainers, resources, principles, methods, systems and processes [7]. Basic innovation in all forms of education today must be guided by simple and forceful ideas [8]. One of the edges involved in this transformation is the technology industry, which generates new labor, social, economic, educational and cultural contexts. The high technology and automation that the technology industry is targeting is aimed at giving efficient, fast and congruent answers with the demands of the diversity of users. It is at the forefront of a cultural and technological context from which reconstruction takes place social world today [9]. Specifically, it has been observed that having isolated computer systems, oriented to the solution of specific situations, favors the underutilization of the infrastructure and the duplication of the data used in the different services offered. This has led to the search for new models to relate users, systems, services and infrastructure, thus giving way to technological ecosystems [10].
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4.1.1 Ecosystems In recent years, there is a significant technological acceleration, with various sectors having been affected [11], and the modern ecosystems are mainly founded on the basis of informational flows being generated as a result of intellectual labor. The definition of ecosystem has been used to describe biological systems [12] and economical systems [12–14]. Recently, the use of this term has grown in frequency, and it has entered into the lexicon of technological [14, 15] and commercial companies and business areas [16] (Fig. 4.1). Considering that education 4.0, for industry 4.0, responds to the needs of a context external to the educational institution, it is convenient to integrate other actors into educational ecosystems: experts, companies, strategic allies, parents, the local community and those who can make some contribution to the achievement of the desired learning. In this way, a technological-educational ecosystem is a set of components organized by means of a technological platform in which users converge (students, teachers, researchers, administrative personnel, authorities, community local, experts and graduates), resources (digital didactics, educational applications, information systems, repositories, libraries, services and regulations) and infrastructure (equipment computer, software, communications equipment and educational technology) in order to collaborate to acquire knowledge through formal and informal procedures and methods. The roles of these stakeholders have been remodeled, which in turn profoundly influences the way a new-age learner learns. The seamless union of the vision of Industry 4.0 and Education 4.0 demands the establishment of platforms where each stakeholder will play out their assigned roles [18]. Fig. 4.1 Modular educational ecosystem [17]
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Fig. 4.2 Learning ecosystem [17, 21]
An educational ecosystem is a set of learners, trainers, resources, principles, methods, systems and processes [19]. A modular and easy scalable ecosystem is the main principle used on any multi-agent system [20], and it means that the ontologies of a semantic web have been used to have a complete semantic description of shared information and communication promotion between different software in order to facilitate community learning (Fig. 4.2).
4.1.2 Instituto Politecnico Nacional Ecosystem Instituto Politecnico Nacional (IPN) is the state educational institution created to consolidate, through education, economic, scientific, technological, cultural and political independence in order to achieve nation social progress, in accordance with Mexican Revolution historical objectives, which are contained in Mexican United States Political Constitution [22]. Likewise, it is considered the most important technological education institution in Mexico due to the quality of its graduates, their contributions to country development and their social commitment. IPN serves three educational levels such as high school level with almost 68,000 students, undergraduate level with almost 135,000 students and postgraduate with almost 4500 students through its different academic units and that serves three branches of knowledge, such as physical and mathematical sciences, administrative and social sciences and biological and medical sciences. The predominant being is mathematical and physical sciences, and its strength is based in teaching engineering.
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Fig. 4.3 IPN educational programs per area
IPN has incorporated new content into the study plans of its academic programs to ensure its relevance. At the end of 2020, it had an educational offer of 299 programs: 57 at the high school level, 78 at the undergraduate level and 164 in postgraduate; the latter distributed in 46 doctorates, 80 masters and 38 specialties. IPN offers a greater number of options in the Engineering and Physical–Mathematical Sciences area due to its origin as a technological education institution. The academic units that IPN has are 20 high school level units, 38 undergraduate level units and 19 research centers, 19 postgraduate areas for a total of 90 support and linkage academic units located on 35 municipalities of 24 federal entities (Fig. 4.3). Teaching and learning processes have not experienced major changes during the last centuries. However, eLearning platforms may transform these processes, turning the classroom from a teacher-centered and standardized space into a student-centered, customizable and highly scalable environment. To fully understand the adoption process of innovation such as eLearning, it is necessary to use traditional technology adoption models like modular educational ecosystems [23]. Ecosystem architecture is the logical view of how components, applications, workflow interactions and the types of users are organized (Fig. 4.4). The ecosystem is made up of: (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h)
Learning Elements Web Page (Service Hub) Data analytics system (reports, reports, metrics) Technological platforms (virtual classrooms, videoconferencing services, collaboration tools) Digital didactic resources (repositories by LU and institutional repository) and institutional services (support, school management, general services, etc.) Technological and support tools (libraries, social networks, analytical systems, simulators, etc.) Technological infrastructure (support services and institutional connectivity) Training and instruction services Virtual and simulator-based laboratories.
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Fig. 4.4 IPN modular educational ecosystem
4.2 Academic Continuity Plan (ACP). At Mexico City-IPN On the occasion of pandemic declaration by the World Health Organization on March 11 regarding the disease caused by the COVID-19 virus [24]. According to data from National Institute for Education Evaluation (INEE), the quarantine to prevent COVID-19 virus rapid spread generated that approximately 30 million students, of all educational levels, had to stop going to their schools because classes were suspended [25], as of March 2020 the state of contingency was declared in Mexico, for this reason, Instituto Politecnico Nacional General Director, established confinement measures and some other actions recommended by health authorities, implementing them in order to advance in academic work through the so-called academic continuity plan (ACP). Instituto Politecnico Nacional (IPN) is in an institutional transformation process toward Education 4.0 implementation, as a need to respond to Industry 4.0 and Society 4.0 needs. The trends resulting from Industry 4.0 development have triggered educational institutions adaptation in order to generate the new professional profiles. However, their graduates are expected to be inserted in new jobs and in existing ones that are being updated. This is a challenge that requires various resources to train and prepare students with the skills that allow them to adapt to changing environments; work as a team in person and remotely; generate solutions that pay off benefits for the economy and the environment and act with proactivity and reflective thinking.
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Fig. 4.5 IPN distance education model stages
4.2.1 Methodological Proposal for Distance Learning Assessment with IPN Modular Ecosystem Students evaluation in learning process to face COVID-19 pandemic had to attend to four fundamental principles: flexibility, inclusion, equity and priority to vulnerable groups [26]. Therefore, the general regulation of studies and pertinent and applicable regulations were taken to the implementation of evaluation actions for students at IPN. An example of this was the academies of each academic unit, who developed an evaluation plan for students considering educational model and study plans and programs particularities. Academic units made use of IPN distance education model with help of many instruments like modular educational ecosystem, that made it possible to appreciate the progress of each student in different areas of knowledge and technological literacy thanks to its main characteristics: • • • • •
Adaptable and flexible Contextualized Formative Encouraging and motivating Collaborative (student–student, teacher-student, teacher-teacher, communitysociety)
With these characteristics, four stages were defined with specific activities to be carried out (Fig. 4.5; Table 4.1). (I) (II) (III) (IV)
Initial stage: the teacher and the academic unit proposed the scope with the teaching strategies implemented. Planning and definition stage: the teacher and the academic unit proposed solutions based on the context and the evaluation was planned. Application stage: the work strategy is started, the learning evidences obtained during the content development are valued. Evaluation and registration stage: review of evaluations and registration with tools to evaluate learning evidences located at modular educational ecosystem.
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Table 4.1 Tools to evaluate learning evidences Competences
Methods
Resources
Appropriation of knowledge and application capacity in contextual situations
Project-based learning Problem-based learning Cognitive maps and schemes Modeling Programming Generation of diagrams Gamification Problem-based learning Conceptual maps Virtual laboratories Simulators Digital portfolios
Google classroom® Moodle®
Decision making, ethical practices and operating frameworks (legal, organizational, institutional, etc.)
Project-based learning Study of cases Role playing Management models
Google classroom® Facebook® Wiki® Youtube®
Communication processes for the socialization of knowledge and the construction of professional communities
Reconstruction of cases Narratives (storytelling) Debate Simulation Multimedia production
Google Meet® Zoom® Jitsi® Webex®
Analytical, inductive/deductive thinking
Analysis Synthesis Prospective
Youtube® Google classroom® Moodle® Google docs®
Table 4.2 Total amount of visits in IPN educational ecosystem
Period
Visits
Downloads
March 16, 2020 – March 15, 2012
2,373,264
4,002,262
4.3 Discussion and Results From March 20 to November 6, 2020, period, it has been detected that the most accessible means used by the community are mobile devices like phones and tablets (42.95%), followed by desktop computers or laptops (52.32%) and other devices like entertainment systems (4.73%). Most of the visitors to Learning Elements ecosystem were connected to virtual classrooms in Google Classroom® or Microsoft Teams®, to review or resume digital activities available on Learning Elements ecosystem through monitoring tools. In order to improve Learning Elements ecosystem, and its impact, a survey was applied to teachers and students, and teachers reported that the most used tools are e-mail, WhatsApp® groups, virtual classrooms and video conference rooms; students highlighted advantages in flexibility of schedules, availability of content, more self-taught and autonomous learning. A survey called digital teaching was
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carried out in October and November 2020 in UK, and 520 respondents were selfselected, 62.43% (334), that is, from four countries and the rest 37.57% (186) from 46 different countries of the world [27], but no survey from Mexico or IPN was registered. First data that survey yielded is that most of the teachers were frustrated at not having a command of the existing tools to show empathy with the students through the use of emoji, but in Mexico IPN proposed the use of video conference as a complement to show commitment and empathy with students. The entire community participated and was supported by their coordination areas, and some of the survey results obtained allowed us to know that: • More than 210 thousand students and 10 thousand teachers of all IPN education levels were supported in order to develop their classes remotely and checked with data analytics software. • From March 20 to November 6, 2020 period, 1 million 852 thousand 747 visits were accumulated, with 3 million 397 thousand 154 pages consulted by users, as well as 382 thousand 537 materials download in the Learning Elements ecosystem. • A digital resources repository from each IPN academic unit was implemented, and 227 learning units were released for high school community and 480 learning units for undergraduate community. • More than 8,500 virtual classrooms and 756 videoconference rooms were opened, and a total amount of 18,157 users per week, 4,907 advice and accompaniment services were reported. • Around 21,145 IPN teachers have been trained through tutorials and personal attention via multiple media like Webinars and working with their students using various tools and platforms with an absenteeism of less than 16%. • Professor academies and colleges have been able to hold coordination meetings through videoconferences in order to provide support to actions carried out. • Support for the development of new remote assessment models. • IPN students interacting with their teachers through different means and the use of an exam simulator to self-assess their knowledge, let them identify their opportunity areas and improve their preparation for the Admission Process. • A security model has been implemented to protect information integrity, like personal data encryption and cyberattacks monitoring through IT security policies and mechanisms.
4.4 Conclusions The ecosystem has supported the actions of students and teachers together with associated services and academic activities continuity. Among the metrics observed and monitored are: number of enrolled students, number of students served, teachers serving groups, groups served, virtual classrooms created, users served, users trained, technologies used, platforms applied, among many others. Before starting the project, a community of 5200 students and 350 teachers were served in Polivirtual (IPN virtual campus) distance education platform. When
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academic ecosystem implementation at contingency period occurs, it was possible to cover IPN entire academic community with distance education, which consists of 210,000 students enrolled in its three educational levels, plus 400,000 indirect students and 10,000 teachers, who used training services such as innovation courses. An educational ecosystem was implemented with a modular, flexible and scalable services architecture, which allows expansion, process improvement and academic services automation, all this, in order to implement education 4.0 main aspects (such as flexible education, customizable, measurable and self-managed). All available institutional resources like telecommunications infrastructure, educational TV, institutional repositories were used, all of them were strengthened with external resources from international companies like Microsoft® and Cisco® that generated collaboration agreements and provided advantages in this pandemic time. The project developed affected Government and Social Policy guidelines, established at National Development Plan 2019–2024. It looks for ecosystem implementation in order to guarantee education, supporting student services expansion, coverage with equality and inclusion and strengthening educational institution capacities. Instituto Politecnico Nacional (IPN) participated in National Digital Agenda and Educational Digital Agenda development published by Education Ministery (SEP). Educational Digital Agenda was incorporated into constitutional third article in the reformed on May 15, 2019, agenda added the State obligation to provide education to every citizen, to provide science and technological innovation benefits development, to information and communication technologies access, and radio broadcasting and telecommunications services, including broadband and Internet. The project applies aspects of training and access to Knowledge and Digital Learning Information and Communication Technologies (KDLICT) through academic ecosystems. The barrier of preparation and the lack of resources availability continue to slow down migration to these new educational modalities, although it has been proven that many significant advantages will always have some disadvantages too. Besides, a lot of issues will be argued under the premise of not continuing promoting virtual education for some authors, but new developments require to focus on them in order to improve academic community life. It is important to highlight the role of different academic unit’s directors for the achievement of the results presented in this paper, because thanks to the support and supervision of IPN Academic Secretariat and IPN General Direction, the objectives proposed in academic continuity plan were achieved. Acknowledgements This project was funded under the following grants: SIP-IPN: No-20210303, and the support of DEV-IPN Instituto Politecnico Nacional.
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References 1. Grünewald, F., Maury, H.: Epidemics, pandemics and humanitarian challenges: lessons froma a number of health crises, pp. 6 Groupe URD (2020) 2. United Nations, Policy Brief: Education during COVID-19 and beyond, (2020) 3. Binnicker, M.J.: Emergence of a novel coronavirus disease (COVID-19) and the importance of diagnostic testing: Why partnership between clinical laboratories, public health agencies, and industry is essential to control the outbreak. Clin Chem. 66, 664–666 (2020) 4. Gralinski, L.E., Menachery, V.D.: Return of the coronavirus: 2019-nCoV. Viruses 12, 135 (2020) 5. Google COVID-19 cases in Mexico report, https://www.google.com/search?q=casos+de+ covid+en+mexico&oq=casos+de+covid+en+&aqs=chrome.0.0i433j0i20i263i433j69i57j0i 433j0i131i433j0i433j0l3j0i433.13633j0j7&sourceid=chrome&ie=UTF-8, last accessed 2021/03/12 6. Schleicher, A.: The impact of COVID-19 on education-insights from education at a glance 2020. OECD (2020) 7. Martí, R., Gisbert, M., Larraz, V.: Technological learning and educational management ecosystems. Edutec. Rev. Electrónica Tecnología Educativa 64(384), 1–17 (2018) 8. Luksha P., et al: Ecosistemas Educativos para la Transformación de la Sociedad. Glob. Educ. Futures 2018 (2018) 9. Martín-Barbero, J.: La educación desde la comunicación. Gustavo Gili, México (2002) 10. Sergey, Y., et al.: Economics of digital ecosystems. J. Open Innov. MDPI (2020) 11. Fumagalli, A., Lucarelli, S., Musolino, E., Rocchi, G.: Digital labour in the platform economy: The case of Facebook. Sustainability 10, 1757 (2018) 12. Tansley, A.G.: The Use and Abuse of Vegetational Concepts and Terms; Sage Publications: Thousand Oaks, pp. 517–522. CA, USA (2007) 13. Jacobides, M.G., Cennamo, C., Gawer, A.: Towards a theory of ecosystems. Strateg. Manag. J. 39, 2255–2276 (2018) 14. Moore, J.F.: Predators and prey: a new ecology of competition. Harv. Bus. Rev. 71, 75–86 (1993) 15. Marazzi, C.: Capitalismo digitale e modello antropogenetico del lavoro. L’ammortamento del corpo macchina. In: Laville, J.L., Marazzi, C., La Rosa, M., Chicchi, F. (eds.) Reinventare il lavoro. Sapere, Rome, Italy (2005) 16. van Rijnsoever, F.J.: Meeting, mating, and intermediating: How incubators can overcome weak network problems in entrepreneurial ecosystems. Res. Policy 49, 103884 (2020) 17. Choque, R.: Ecosistema Educativo y Fracaso Escolar.: Rev. Iberoamericana Educ. 49(4), 1–9 (2009) 18. Koul, S.l, Nayar, B.: The holistic learning educational system: a classroom 4.0 perspective. Higher Educ. Quaterly 75(4), 98–112 (2021) 19. McPherson, M., Baptista, M.M.: The role of tutors as an integral part of online learning support. Eur. J. Open Distance E-learning (2004) 20. Haji, E.E., Azmani, A.: Proposal of digital Ecosystem based on big data and artificial intelligence to support educational and vocational guidance. Int. J. Educ. Comput. Sci. 12(4), 1–11 (2020) 21. Wilkinson, D.: The intersection of learning architecture and instructional design in e-learning. In: 2002 ECI Conference on e-Technologies in Engineering Education: Learning Outcomes Providing Future Possibilities (2002) 22. IPN Homepage, IPN Mission, www.ipn.mx/mision. Last accessed 2021 Mar 7 23. De Souza Rodrigues, M.A., Chimenti, P., Nogueira, A.R.R.: An exploration on elearning adoption in the educational ecosystem. Educ. Inf. Technol. 26(1), 585–615 (2021) 24. WHO Homepage, WHO News Timeline. https://www.who.int/news/item/27-04-2020-whotimeline---covid-19. Last accessed 7 Mar (2021)
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25. The challenges of education in Mexico in the face of a pandemic, https://www.cetys.mx/ trends/educacion/los-retos-de-la-educacion-en-mexico-ante-una-pandemia/. Last accessed 15 Mar 2021 26. UNESCO, Education in the time of COVID-19, COVID-19 Report ECLAC-UNESCO (2020) 27. Jump, P.: Times Higher Education’s Digital Teaching Survey Results: THE (2021)
Chapter 5
The Incidence of Abuse and School Harassment Among Foreign and Spanish Students in Extremadura Ana Isabel González-Contreras, David Pérez-Jorge, María del Carmen Rodríguez-Jiménez, and Eva Ariño-Mateo Abstract The objective of this work is to verify the incidence and the characteristics of bullying in the 6th grade and 1st year of compulsory secondary education (ESO) students of foreign and Spanish students in the Autonomous Community of Extremadura. 1077 subjects from Extremadura participated, of which 48 were foreigners, and based on the characteristics of this group of foreigners, a sample of Spanish students was selected that was equated with foreign students in academic level and gender. A descriptive quantitative method was used, and the abbreviated questionnaire used by the 2007 Ombudsman was applied. From the total number of Spanish students surveyed, a random sample (n = 48) was selected, matched with foreign students in academic level and gender. Comparative percentages are obtained in the total incidence and type of harassment. In conclusion, there are no relevant differences between the average percentages in the different forms of harassment, from the point of view of the victims, witnesses, and aggressors, the correlation coefficients being very high (between 0.91 and 0.94) in the different forms of harassment. This confirms that the frequencies of the type of harassment between both groups are very similar, so it is concluded that there are personal factors of greater importance than origin or race that contribute to being aggressors or victims.
5.1 Introduction One of the individual factors related to the dynamics of peer bullying is the different origins of the students. According to [1], belonging to ethnic minorities or being an A. I. González-Contreras Extremadura University, 06006 Badajoz, Spain D. Pérez-Jorge (B) · M. del Carmen Rodríguez-Jiménez La Laguna University, 38200 Tenerife, La Laguna, Spain e-mail: [email protected] E. Ariño-Mateo Europea of Valencia University, 46010 Valencia, Spain © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 A. Mesquita et al. (eds.), Perspectives and Trends in Education and Technology, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 256, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5063-5_5
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immigrant is a risk factor, although what is not clear is their profile. They reach the same conclusion [2], by pointing out that subjects of other nationalities are implicated as victims, the racist insult being the type of aggression most suffered. The fact of being an immigrant or of another nationality is not in itself, and exclusively, a relevant factor, but there are other factors such as sex, age, some personal characteristics (intelligence, self-esteem, etc.) that outline the subject as a victim or aggressor [2–4]. In the research of [5], it was expected that students from ethnic-cultural minority groups would show lower levels of social adaptation compared to their peers from the majority group. However, the results show that this only occurs with first-generation immigrants, although with a small effect size, while it does not occur with secondgeneration immigrants. Taking into account the Social Identity Theory of [6], this result could be interpreted as the existence of a certain cultural confrontation between students born in Spain and first generation immigrants, other studies reach similar results [7–9]. For their part, [10] and [11] support these results by concluding in their studies that discrimination among schoolchildren is related to low self-esteem, difficulties in social adaptation, and having very few or no friends at school [15–17]. In Spain, the incidence of abuse in schools was studied [12] and reflects the incidence in the different types that exist. In the educational environment of Extremadura, there are three references of interest on this subject. [13] concluded in their studies that, according to the witnesses, verbal aggression occupies the first group of incidence (insulting, calling names, and speaking ill of him/her), followed by some manifestations of social exclusion (ignoring and not letting participate) mixed with indirect physical aggression (hiding things, stealing things, and breaking things) and direct. Finally, forcing with threats and sexually harassing occupy the last places in the frequency in this order. From the point of view of the victim, behaviors that involve direct physical or psychological abuse such as hitting, forcing with threats, sexual harassment, or threatening with weapons are scarcely perceived. And this proportion decreases even more (between 0.7% and 0.2%) when the victim is asked to express himself if it occurs “very frequently.” Based on the information provided by the aggressors, the percentages of occasional abuse (“sometimes”) are approximately 10%, while high-frequency abuse (harassment) is close to 3% in the form of social exclusion and verbal aggression. On the other hand, indirect physical aggression (hiding things, breaking things, and stealing things) and direct (hitting) occurs between 1 and 2%. These percentages decrease when the intensity is very frequent. When considering the most serious behaviors of school abuse, we found that there is an inverse relationship between them and their incidence. In this sense, sexually harassing, threatening with weapons, and compelling with threats are the least frequent forms of abuse, while verbal abuse and social exclusion behaviors are the most frequent. An assessment of the global incidence of abuse and harassment in Extremadura, manifested by both victims and aggressors, indicate that abuse occurs between approximately 9% and 11%, while in bullying (the most intense and persistent form of abuse) is between 2 and 3%.
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In relation to the victims [14], verbal aggression is the most frequent form of harassment, establishing approximately 30% of the aggressions in the different modalities (they insult me, give me nicknames, speak ill of me), while that direct physical aggression (hit me and threaten me to scare me) occurs approximately 6%. The less frequent types of harassment are the following: they force me with threats, they threaten me with weapons, and they sexually harass me, which occurs between 1 and 2% of the cases of harassment. Furthermore, the aggressors also show higher percentages in the types of verbal aggression that fluctuate between 33 and 41%, indirect physical aggression (hiding things, breaking things, and stealing things) occurs between 4 and 14%, while threats and sexual harassment are the least frequent (around 3%). Interestingly, much higher than that found by [12] (between 0.3% and 0.6%). Control percentages increase dramatically as is usual in these studies. Verbal attacks (around 85%) and social exclusion (from 64 to 77%) are the most frequently observed forms of harassment. While threats with weapons and sexual assault are the lowest (between 7 and 8%). The objective of this work was to compare the incidence and characteristics between bullying and abuse among foreign and Spanish students aged 12 to 14 years corresponding to the 6th grade of Primary Education and 1st grade of Secondary Education belonging to the Autonomous Community of Extremadura. To carry out the study, the abbreviated questionnaire used by the Defensor del Pueblo of 2007 [12] was applied to a large sample (10% of the population of students aged 12 to 14 years of the school population of Extremadura having taking into account a balance in the geographical distribution—north, south, east, and west—socio-economic-rural and urban centers, and ownership of the center-public and private that allowed the identification of different types of abuse and harassment from the point of view of witnesses, victims, and aggressors. From a quantitative and descriptive method, comparative percentages were obtained on the incidence and type of abuse and harassment between Spanish and foreign students. In addition, Spearman’s correlations were obtained of the order (according to percentage) in which the different forms of abuse and harassment are located in both groups.
5.2 Method 5.2.1 Sample The sample consisted of 48 foreign and 48 Spanish students selected from the study by González et al. (2020). The students in both groups are matched according to gender (19 foreign boys and 29 girls, and 18 Spanish boys and 30 girls) and academic level (20 from 6th grade and 28 from 1st year of ESO foreigners, and 29 from 6th grade and 19 of 1º of Spanish ESO). This comparative sample was obtained from a larger sample obtained from a proportional sample made up of around 22,000 students
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Paraguay Poland Peru Dominican Republic Argenna Germany Bolivia Pakistan Israel Colombia Cuba China Ecuador Romania Sub-Saharan Africa Russia Morocco France Portugal
2,10% 2,10% 4,20% 4,20% 2,10% 2,10% 8,30% 2,10% 2,10% 2,10% 2,10%
Country 10,20%
4,20% 14,60% 2,10% 8,30% 16,70% 2,10% 8,30% 0%
5%
10%
15%
20%
Fig. 5.1 Origin of foreign students
between 12 and 14 years of school enrolled in 6th grade of primary education and 1st grade of Secondary Education in Extremadura. Taking these data into account, and considering a sampling error of 3%, the size of the sample needed for a finite population should be 1018 subjects. Finally, we obtained a slightly larger sample (1077 subjects), of which 48 subjects were foreigners. For this reason, a similar sample of matched Spanish subjects was selected, as explained. Both Spanish and foreign students are fluent in the language and have no difficulties in understanding the questions asked.
5.2.2 Instruments The abbreviated questionnaire used by [12] was applied. This is a well-known questionnaire used in research on bullying in the Spanish context. The reliability values (Cronbach’s Alpha) of the scale in this study were the following: victim (0.83), witness (0.5), and aggressor (0.81).
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5.2.3 Procedure Permission and the corresponding authorization were requested from the Ministry of Education of the Extremadura Board, and once authorized, the centers were contacted; the objectives of the investigation were reported to the management team and the questionnaires by post. The questionnaires were applied by the center’s counselor or by the teacher-tutor to the group. Prior to the application, the necessary instructions were given and any doubts in the application that arose from the teachers were resolved. This preparation took place at the meeting of tutors that they usually have at the secondary school. In primary schools, the application was carried out by the teacher-tutor. Once the questionnaires were received, the data entry process was carried out in the SPSS statistical package (version 22), and the statistical analyzes were carried out in accordance with the objectives of the research.
5.3 Results To make the comparison of harassment between Spanish and foreign students, two complementary procedures are used. On the one hand, the frequencies and percentages of total and partial incidence were analyzed according to the modality of mistreatment, and on the other, the Spearman coefficient was used to obtain the correlation in the order (according to percentage) between the different modalities of harassment. A comparative analysis of the total frequency of bullying was carried out, according to the students with Spanish and foreigners. On the one hand, the percentages of total frequency were studied; in other words, considering the sum of all the options in the questionnaire in which it appears: “Sometimes” + “Often” + “Always.” The total frequency is presented in contingency tables where the percentages of frequency between each of the forms of abuse and harassment are observed. These frequencies are compared using the Chi-square test, and we assume significant differences between the frequencies and percentages of those whose probability associated with the Chi-square value was less than 0.05.
5.3.1 Witnesses Although in the vast majority of types of bullying there are no significant differences between the response of Spanish (ESP) and foreign (EXT) witness students, we do observe some differences. The total incidence percentages observed by the Spanish student-witness is higher than that of foreigners in the following types of abuse or harassment: ignore (ESP: 79.2%–EXT: 66.6%) and do not allow participation (ESP: 72.9%–EXT: 45.8%). While the foreign student-witness observed a higher
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percentage of threats with weapons compared to the Spanish (ESP: 0.0%–EXT: 8.3%). In Table 5.1, we present the percentages of incidence of bullying from the point of view of the witnesses, as well as the percentage of total incidence. In addition, the Chi-square values are shown with the significance values in the three types of abuse where significant differences are found (in bold in Table 5.1). On the other hand, Table 5.2 shows the total incidence from highest to lowest percentage of occurrence according to controls. It is verified that the most frequent types of abuse or harassment are verbal (insulting, speaking badly, putting nicknames). While the less frequent types of harassment are those related to direct or indirect physical aggression (sexually harassing, threatening with weapons, etc.) (Table 5.3). Using the Spearman correlation coefficient (rs), we found a high association between the abuse observed by the witnesses in foreign and Spanish students (rs = 0.935; sig. 0.000). That is, practically the same type of abuse or harassment observed by one or the other students is repeated, and this is also seen in the scatter graph, in which we see how the percentages of foreign and Spanish students practically overlap, except in the three types of abuse with significant differences.
5.3.2 Victims We appreciate significant differences in the percentage expressed by victims in the action of “breaking things.” 18% of foreign victims state that things break, compared to 0% of Spaniards. It is the only type of abuse in which significantly differentiating percentages are found, while in the rest, they are not significant. However, we found that in all manifestations of abuse and harassment, there are higher percentages in foreign students. Using the Spearman correlation coefficient, we found a high association between the modalities of total incidence of abuse and harassment manifested by foreign and Spanish victims (rs = 0.91; Sig. 0.000) (Table 5.4).
5.3.3 Aggressors According to the aggressors, the percentages are very similar between Spanish and foreign students. There are no significant differences between the percentages, as is shown in Table 5.5. On the other hand, in Table 5.6 the percentages of bullying are ordered from highest to lowest, obtaining a correlation coefficient between the order established in the two groups of 0.92 (sig. 0.000).
35.4 75.0 54.2 56.3 91.7 91.7 91.7 56.9
Threaten for scarring
Break things
Steal things
Sexually harass
Force to do things with threats
Threaten with weapons (3)
TOTAL% AVERAGE
27.1
Hide things 70.8
29.2
Ignore
Do not let participate
29.2
Putting nicknames that offend or ridicule you
Hit
33.3 54.2
53.4
100
89.6
95.8
60.4
56.3
68.8
75.0
33.3
18.8
29.2
18.8
27.1
20.8
24.7
8.3
8.3
8.3
25.0
31.3
12.5
20.8
33.3
39.6
27.1
37.5
20.8
47.9
EXT
Insult (2)
Sometimes
EXT
ESP
Never
Speak ill of him or her (1)
Forms of harassment
Table 5.1 Percentage of total incidence of harassment, point of view of witnesses
29.5
0.0
4.2
2.1
29.2
35.4
22.9
20.8
54.2
35.4
35.4
33.3
50.0
60.4
ESP
12.7
0.0
0.0
0.0
16.7
10.4
8.3
4.2
22.9
20.8
35.4
22.9
14.6
8.3
EXT
Often
10.4
0.0
6.3
0.0
6.3
2.1
6.3
4.2
6.3
25.0
18.8
27.1
14.6
18.8
ESP
5.8
0.0
0.0
0.0
2.1
4.2
4.2
4.2
8.3
12.5
8.3
10.4
10.4
10.4
EXT
Always
6.7
0.0
0.0
2.1
4.2
6.3
2.1
0.0
6.3
20.8
16.7
20.8
8.3
0.0
ESP
43.1
8.3
8.3
8.3
43.8
45.9
25.0
29.2
64.5
72.9
70.8
70.8
45.8
66.6
EXT
Total incidence
46.7
0.0
10.5
4.2
39.7
43.8
31.3
25.0
66.8
81.2
70.9
81.2
72.9
79.2
ESP
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Table 5.2 Percentage of total incidence of harassment ordered according to witnesses Forms of harassment
EXT
ESP
Badmouth him or her
72.9
81.2
To insult
70.8
81.2
Putting nicknames that offend or ridicule you
70.8
70.9
Ignore (1)
66.6
79.2
Hide things
64.5
66.8
Hit
45.9
43.8
Do not allow to participate (2)
45.8
72.9
Threaten for scarring
43.8
39.7
Break things
29.2
25.0
Steal things
25.0
31.3
Sexually harass
8.3
4.2
Force to do things with threats
8.3
10.5
Threaten with weapons (3)
8.3
0.0
5.4 Discussion/Conclusions Taking into account the results obtained, and contrary to what might be thought, there are no relevant differences between the average percentages in the different forms of harassment, from the point of view of the witnesses (Spanish: 43.1%, foreigners: 43, 7%), victims (Spanish: 13.6%, foreigners: 23.6%) and aggressors (Spanish: 15.6%, foreigners: 15.1%), and in all cases, the correlation coefficients between the percentages exceed 0.90, which confirms that the type of harassment between both groups is very similar. These results could be explained by the fact that bullying is a phenomenon that goes beyond the cultural differences that may exist at any given time, and the cultural diversity derived from race or country mitigates the possible effects of bullying from the second generation. In addition, we live in a multicultural society, and the students are used to experiencing this multiculturalism in the classrooms, reinforced by the values transmitted at school. Given this fact, we estimate that there are other personal factors much more influential than being Spanish or foreigner in the phenomenon of harassment. Therefore, there are personal factors of greater importance such as self-esteem, intelligence, social adaptation difficulties, and having very few or no friends other than origin or race that contribute to being aggressors or victims (Fig. 5.1).
4.2 18.1
9.931
86.4
100
Value of Chi-cuadrado
76.4
Total% average
6.3
2.1
8.3
18.8
12.5
14.6
29.2
33.3
27.1
29.2
22.9
1
95.8
Threaten with weapons
100
97.9
91.7
89.6
91.7
100
79.2
58.3
79.2
66.7
85.4
Variables
93.8
Force to do things with threats
81.3
Break things 85.4
83.3
Threaten for scarring
97.9
81.3
Do not let participate (1)
Sexually harass
62.5
Hit
Steal things
62.5 52.1
Hide things
58.3
Putting nicknames that offend or ridicule you
Ignore
70.8
Insult
27.1
EXT
83.3
ESP
EXT 68.8
Sometimes
Never
Speak ill of him or her
Forms of harassment
11.4
0.0
0.0
2.1
8.3
10.4
6.3
0.0
14.6
37.5
18.8
25.0
10.4
14.6
ESP
Table 5.3 Percentage of total incidence of harassment, point of view of the victims
3.4
0.0
0.0
0.0
4.2
0.0
2.1
2.1
6.3
8.3
4.2
6.3
6.3
4.2
EXT
Often ESP
1.6
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
2.1
0.0
4.2
4.2
2.1
4.2
2.1
2.1
2.1
0.0
0.0
0.0
2.1
0.0
2.1
2.1
2.1
6.3
6.3
6.3
0.0
0.0
0.019
Sig
EXT
Always ESP
0.6
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
2.1
0.0
0.0
4.2
2.1
0.0
23.6
4.2
6.3
2.1
14.6
18.8
16.7
18.8
37.6
47.9
37.6
41.8
29.2
31.3
EXT
Total incidence ESP
13.6
0.0
0.0
2.1
8.3
10.4
8.4
0.0
20.9
41.7
20.9
33.4
14.6
16.7
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Table 5.4 Percentage of total incidence of harassment ordered according to the victims Forms of harassment
EXT
ESP
Speak ill of him or her
47.9
41.7
Insult
41.8
33.4
Putting nicknames that offend or ridicule you
37.6
20.9
Ignore
37.6
20.9
Hide things
31.3
16.7
Hit
29.2
14.6
Do not let participate (1)
18.8
0.0
Threaten for scarring
18.8
10.4
Break things
16.7
8.4
Steal things
14.6
8.3
Sexually harass
6.3
0.0
Force to do things with threats
4.2
0.0
Threaten with weapons
2.1
2.1
85.4 93.8
Break things
Steal things
84.5
100
Threaten for scarring
TOTAL % MEDIO
100
Do not let participate
97.9
83.3
Hit
Threaten with weapons
62.5
Hide things
97.9
66.7
Ignore
100
64.6
Putting nicknames that offend or ridicule you
Force to do things with threats
81.3
Sexually harass
64.6
84.9
100
100
100
93.8
93.8
97.9
100
83.3
66.7
66.7
62.5
87.5
52.1
14.1
2.1
0.0
2.1
4.2
14.6
0.0
0.0
14.6
33.3
31.3
33.3
18.8
29.2
EXT
Insult
Sometimes
EXT
ESP
Never
Speak ill of him or her
Forms of harassment
13.6
0.0
0.0
0.0
6.3
6.3
2.1
0.0
14.6
29.2
29.2
33.3
12.5
43.8
ESP
Table 5.5 Percentage of total incidence of harassment, point of view of the aggressors
1.5
0.0
0.0
0.0
2.1
0.0
0.0
0.0
2.1
4.2
2.1
2.1
0.0
6.3
EXT
Often
1.5
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
2.1
4.2
4.2
4.2
0.0
4.2
ESP
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
EXT
Always
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
ESP
15.6
2.1
0.0
2.1
6.3
14.6
0.0
0.0
16.7
37.5
33.4
35.4
18.8
35.5
EXT
Total incidence
15.1
0.0
0.0
0.0
6.3
6.3
2.1
0.0
16.7
33.4
33.4
37.5
12.5
48.0
ESP
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Table 5.6 Percentage of total incidence of harassment ordered according to the aggressors Forms of harassment
EXT
ESP
Speak ill of him or her
37.5
33.4
Insult
35.5
48.0
Putting nicknames that offend or ridicule you
35.4
37.5
Ignore
33.4
33.4
Hide things
18.8
12.5
Hit
16.7
16.7
Do not let participate
14.6
6.3
Threaten for scarring
6.3
6.3
Break things
2.1
0.0
Steal things
2.1
0.0
Sexually harass
0.0
0.0
Force to do things with threats
0.0
2.1
Threaten with weapons
0.0
0.0
References 1. Unnever, J.D. Cornell, D.G.: Bullying, self-control, and ADHD. J. Interpersonal Violence, 18(2), 129–147 (2003) 2. Wolke, D., Woods, S., Stanford, K., Schulz, H.: Bullying and victimization of primary school children in England and Germany: prevalence and school factors. British J. Psychol. 92(4), 673–696 (2001) 3. Farrington, D.: Childhood origins of antisocial behavior. Clinical Psychol. Psychother. 12(3)177–190 (2005) 4. Woods, S., Hall, L., Dautenhahn, K., Wolke, D.: Implications of gender differences for the development of animated characters for the study of bullying behavior. Comput. Hum. Behav. 23(1), 770–786 (2007) 5. Rodríguez, A.J., Ortega, R., Zych, I.: Victimización étnico-cultural entre iguales: Autoestima y relaciones en la escuela entre diferentes grupos culturales de estudiantes en Andalucía (España). Rev. Psicodidáctica, 19-1, 191–210 (2014) 6. Tajfel, H.: Social-psychology of inter-group relations. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 33, 1–39 (1982) 7. Coker, T.R., Elliott, M.N., Kanouse, D.E., Grunbaum, J.A., Schwebel, D.C., Gilliland, M.J., Schuster, M.A.: Perceived racial/ethnic discrimination among fifthgrade students and its association with mental health. Am. J. Public Health 99, 878–884 (2009) 8. Hunter, S. C., Durkin, K., Heim, D., Howe, C., y Bergin, D.: Psychosocial mediators and moderators of the effect of peer-victimization upon depressive symptomatology. J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry 51, 1141–1149 (2010) 9. Seaton, E., Yip, T.: School and neighborhood contexts, perceptions of racial discrimination, and psychological well-being among african american adolescents. J. Youth Adolesc. 38, 153–163 (2009) 10. Eccles, J.S., Wong, C.A., Peck, S.C.: Ethnicity as a social context for the development of African-American adolescents. J. Sch. Psychol. 44, 407–426 (2006) 11. Dotterer, A.M., McHale, S.M., Crouter, A.C.: Sociocultural factors and school engagement among African American youth: the roles of racial discrimination, racial socialization, and ethnic identity. Appl. Dev. Sci. 13, 61–73 (2009)
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12. del Pueblo, D.: Violencia Escolar: El maltrato ente Iguales en la Educación Obligatoria Secundaria 1999–2006. Publicaciones de la Oficina del Defensor del Pueblo, Madrid (2007) 13. Cuadrado, I., Fernández, I, Ramos, J.L.: Enseñar y aprender a convivir en los centros educativos. Junta de Extremadura: Mérida (2011) 14. León, B., Felipe, E., Gómez, T.: Acoso escolar y ciberbullying. Grupo de investigación GIPES: Cáceres (2011) 15. González, A.I.: Acoso escolar y necesidades educativas especiales. Tesis doctoral. Universidad de Extremadura (2017) 16. Pérez-Jorge, D., Rodríguez-Jiménez, M.D.C., Ariño-Mateo, E., Sosa-Gutiérrez, K.J.: Perception and attitude of teachers towards the inclusion of students with hearing disabilities. Educ. Sci. 2021(11), 187 (2021). https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci11040187 17. González-Contreras, A.I., Pérez-Jorge, D., Rodríguez-Jiménez, M.C., Bernadette-Lupson, K.: Peer bullying in students with and without special educational needs. Education 3–13(48), 1–12 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1080/03004279.2020.1817965
Chapter 6
Tití App, an Interactive Psycho-Pedagogical Recovery Tool: A Pilot Study Jacqueline Gordón , Andrés Caicedo , and Andrés Subía
Abstract The acquisition of reading and writing is a complex and decisive process for the knowledge appropriation of children and their culturalization; similarly, the number of children who do not achieve the expected literacy level for their age and schooling is also a matter of concern. One of the explanations lies in the learning situation, which regularly develops in a classroom. Nowadays, the incorporation of new technologies that include smartphones and tablets as learning-enhancing resources is crucial. Due to the absence of contextualized tools for the Ecuadorian population, Tití application is proposed. It is focused on reducing the errors in children’s reading by solving tasks that are based on the errors determined in the literacy analysis test, TALE, in a contextualized and motivating digital scenario. The user-centered design is the basis for the construction of this tool with characteristics that are specific to Ecuador such as the use of the Spanish language in an Ecuadorian context, navigation on a map of Ecuador, and rescue of endangered endemic animals. This allows children to identify with their environment and engage in the dynamics of the tool. In the research, a repeated measures study design was applied to assess statistically significant differences between a first and second evaluation. A marked decrease in the number of errors in the elements of the TALE test can be observed.
6.1 Introduction The acquisition of reading in children during the first years of school is a permanently monitored requirement, and, at the same time, a basic tool for the acquisition of new J. Gordón (B) · A. Caicedo · A. Subía Universidad Tecnológica Indoamérica, Quito, Ecuador e-mail: [email protected] A. Caicedo e-mail: [email protected] A. Subía e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 A. Mesquita et al. (eds.), Perspectives and Trends in Education and Technology, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 256, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5063-5_6
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information, assimilation of culture, and even social interaction [1]. Many students with apparently appropriate age, schooling, and learning conditions fail to assimilate the reading process. Writing [2] points out that between 5 and 10% of children from any social group fails to reach the average level of reading and writing skills, and even more worrying is that those children have a normal intellectual level, without diagnosed neurological alterations and under a regular school system. One of the explanations for this phenomenon is the learning situation that usually takes place in a classroom space. In detail [3], currently, the education system has gone through a shift in which activities centered on the needs of the student are prioritized, so ICTs are incorporated as resources that enhance learning. The association of technological elements with the learning process can be transformed into a motivational factor that, at the same time, breaks everyday life [4]. The use of technology in teaching and learning today is unquestionable. The challenge is how to promote development through the technologies that children and teenagers use daily with effectiveness [5]. The use of technological applications to intervene in children’s reading and writing difficulties is progressively increasing; however, few programs demonstrate effectiveness in practice [6]. Trasdyslexia is a 3D video game that works in perceptual, orthographic, phonemic, and semantic processes with elementary school students to fourth grade of secondary. Dyseggxia is a mobile application available for iOS and Android for English and Spanish speakers made for dyslectic children; a research with 12 children confirmed that the game was more attractive than another resources used for reading and writing recovery because it encourages the user’s motivation[7]. Binding is a program made for reading, writing, and behavior re-education, includes games, regular work in classrooms, individual homework, and teachers intervention [8]. The intervention programs in non-specific learning difficulties that use computer programs show that an experimental group obtained up to 40% statistically improved against the traditional methods; specifically, the number of errors is decreased in the different reading and writing areas of evaluation [9]. The quality of applications related to learning processes must be adapted to the needs of the user and has an interactive design that ensures understanding and interaction. A specific analysis concludes that several mobile applications have problems centered on visual design, interaction, adaptability, navigation, and adaptation to child development needs [10]. Although there is a wide range of applications for children in general, the psycho-pedagogical criteria, design, and interaction do not always converge; therefore, the goal with which the applications are generated is not met [11]. User-centered design, UCD [12], is a methodology that, focused on the design of mobile applications, is directed by the needs and characteristics of users, in this case, schoolchildren. The importance of in-depth knowledge of the user, that is, the use that they will give to the application, their reaction to the narrative, the design, among others that allow a continuous evaluation and redirection of the actions of the tool construction, this triggers a better user experience [13].
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The process of building the mobile app is cyclical and involves the user’s reality and the objective that the application pursues. Specifically, the UCD phases for mobile application design, so the process takes place in stages of conceptualization, user definition, iterative design, development, and publishing [10]. Since an approximation and in-depth understanding of the user’s reality are necessary, it becomes pertinent to analyze the language that will be used in the interactive tool, in this case, Spanish, and the game navigation dynamic in context to facilitate the identification of the child with his reality, his knowledge, and the mobile application challenges. The notable differences of Spanish in Spanish-speaking countries can be considered as a reflection of the universal development of culture, that is, the reflection of people in constant movement and the influence of Spanish with the characteristics of each country and region which determines different national languages [14]. It becomes complex to refer to a general language, in this case, Spanish, in the same country when it is seen that people do not speak it the same way in the cities of the coast than in the mountains, for example, or in the same city in the urban and rural areas. Moreover, we can find differences according to communities and not only to geography. An example of the diversity of the lexicon is interesting when he mentions the example of a fruit that in Argentina is “banana,” in Venezuela it is “cambur,” in Ecuador it would be “plátano,” and in others it is “guineo” [15]. In a study of the lexicon used in Ecuador, it reflects the importance of the study of speech in context. Through the use of surveys, it is shown that the words that are restricted to provinces of Ecuador are few and that the differences are phonetic, that is, for the different accents. About 14% of the words studied by Santos, compared with the dictionary DRAE, refers to the particular use of those words in Ecuador or the South American Zone, and of that total, 52% of words are used only in Ecuador [16]. Consequently, the recognition of regional diversity in the language should result in understanding. These understandings of the historical influence, geographical areas, native languages, histories of countries, among other aspects enrich and renew the language [15]. Thinking about people’s stories, their experiences, what attracts them, what connects them in experiences, is fundamental in the so-called pedagogy of experience. This pedagogy requires that the teaching tasks have a thought guided by a narrative thread, in which, from empathy, it is possible to connect learning with the experience of children and their lives [17]. After reflections on user-centered design and the needs of individuals, the creation of tools that focus on children’s realities appears as an obvious need from the point of view of motivation and empowerment of the learning processes that are accompanied by other particular knowledge of those realities. Specifically, the psycho-pedagogical recovery option that is proposed in this study aims to reduce the number of reading and writing errors that children make, by solving exercises with psycho-pedagogical support in a contextualized and motivating narrative.
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6.2 Method 6.2.1 Participants The participants were children between 7 and 11 years old (7 girls and 4 boys), who received academic assistance in a foundation dedicated to supporting children from families with limited financial resources and needs associated with academic processes. Finally, three kids did not complete all levels of the application. The final sample consisted of eight kids.
6.2.2 Instruments The literacy analysis test, TALE [1], was used to measure reading and writing errors because it allows a standard data collection of general levels and specific reading and writing characteristics. A previous analysis of the internal consistency of the instrument was performed through the Cronbach alpha index with a value of 0.80 Standards for the assessment of reading and writing are based on error criteria that are quantified and analyzed according to four levels related to age and education. The following errors in the assessment of the reading subtest are described: no reading, hesitation, repetition, correction, substitution, rotation, word substitution, addition, word addition, omission, word omission, and inversion. In the assessment of the writing subtest, for research purposes, the following errors are counted: substitutions, rotations, omissions, additions, inversions, unions, fragmentations, accentuation, punctuation, and consonant changes.
6.2.3 Procedure The study of repeated measures and psycho-pedagogical recovery was done with the prior approval and authorization of the director of the institution. Likewise, through informed consent, the approval of the legal representatives of the children was obtained to collect data for research purposes. The psycho-pedagogical recovery work with Tití app was developed in a total of 12 individual sessions, 2 sessions per week. The duration of sessions was adapted to the individual differences of children for the completion of each game station.
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6.2.4 Structure of the Tool and Exercises Within the psycho-pedagogical recovery process, the child has the possibility of selecting a character, with characteristics of the local reality that will represent him in the resolution of the exercises on a map of Ecuador that contains 12 stations with three levels of difficulties. Game stations 1, 2, 3, and 4 correspond to the easy level; the player has the support of an image and a correct answer suggestion; in stations 5, 6, 7, and 8, that belong to the medium level, the correct answer suggestion is removed and the image is maintained; finally, in stations 9, 10, 11, and 12, that correspond to the difficult level, the image and the answer suggestion are eliminated. During the development of the game, the child is accompanied and motivated by Tití, a squirrel monkey from Eastern Ecuador. At the end of each station of exercises, the child rescues an endangered species, which, at the same time, acts as a motivational factor to continue with the challenge. As additional stimulation, each time the child rescues an endangered animal, a tab will appear with the information on the species. At the end of the game, in the last exercise station, the player rescues the emblematic animal of Ecuador, the Andean condor. The psycho-pedagogical recovery exercises that are presented randomly in the game are based on the TALE test and refer to characteristic errors of reading and writing such as substitution, omission, addition, consonant change, rotation, word substitution, and inversion. Statistical analysis The SPSS statistical package was used for data analysis. A descriptive analysis of the pre- and post-test scores obtained in the TALE test application was performed. In the inferential analysis, the non-parametric test for related measurements, Wilcoxon, was used due to the specific sample characteristics (less than 30 participants).
6.3 Results and Discussion The mean and standard deviation of the results obtained by the participants in the application of the TALE test, both before and after the intervention, are presented in Table 6.1. The results show a decrease in the mean scores after the application of the TALE test (decrease in the errors made). Pre-test and post-test means comparison analysis show significant improvements in all indicators: reading letters (W = 4.50; Fig. 6.1), reading syllables (W = 4.50; Fig. 6.2), reading words (W = 4.50; Fig. 6.3), reading text (W = 4.50; Fig. 6.4), copy (W = 4.50; Fig. 6.5), and dictation (W = 4.50; Fig. 6.6). The general objective of this study consists of a proposal to reduce the number of errors that schoolchildren make by using the mobile application, Tití app. The results indicate that in the cases in which the tool was used, the number of reading and writing errors detected in the TALE test decreased (reading letters, reading syllables,
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Table 6.1 Pre- and post-“Tití app” use scores TALE test indicators
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Post-test
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ST
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ST
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10.75
7.54
5.00
4.87
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12.63
12.05
5.25
7.40
Reading words
24.75
21.47
16.25
17.53
Reading texts
23.75
36.46
13.00
26.58
Copy
16.00
12.97
8.50
8.86
Dictation
27.38
8.37
16.25
7.44
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Fig. 6.1 Pre-post changes in the application of the TALE test: number of errors in reading letters
reading words, reading test, copy, and dictation). This antecedent favors the study and development of mobile applications aimed at enhancing children’s learning. The use of technology in learning should be favored considering the benefits for the people intended to reach, in this sense, efforts must adapt to the forms of learning, culture, and specific situations of each country [18]. Whereas the resources relate to the learners’ reality, they can feel identified somehow with the proposed narrative, that is, the role of the user changes from consumer to creator in some way; commitment and motivation toward learning are incorporated [19]. In the psycho-pedagogical recovery tool proposed in this research, a series of psycho-pedagogical and design strategies to get children to reduce the number of errors in reading in an environment of closeness and motivation is evidenced. The
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inclusion of technology in care processes for children with learning difficulties motivates and interests them as long as their self-esteem is reinforced in some way, such as the use of rewards after they solve the exercises correctly [20]. In this context, in the application Tití, images with common Ecuadorian Spanish terms are used, aimed at boys and girls who are part of the regular education system and who have reading and writing difficulties. Considering this contextualized use of Spanish, it is intended
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to achieve identification with the game to avoid confusion in the words used in the tool in coherence with the narrative of the game on the map of Ecuador. The need for a greater number of studies that confirm the effectiveness of the use of educational technology applications related to reading is evident. According to the
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results of 20 studies with 7000 students related with the effects of educational technology applications on reading, outcomes for struggling readers applications usage have shown certain improvement in the reading skills of children with difficulties (ES = .14) compared to the regular methodology [21]. Likewise, in the application of a methodology to prevent reading difficulties show that through the use of educational software, it is possible to optimize pre-reading skills [6]. The intervention carried out in the present study agrees on the potential of the appropriate use of technology to promote learning processes that were not previously achieved or that have not been consolidated. In this process, it is essential to consider the needs and particularities of the users to provide a navigation dynamic, in which the user feels identified and becomes involved. As a complement to this research, it would be advisable to incorporate longitudinal evaluations; the results of which propose updates and adaptations for continuous improvement of the mobile application quality.
References 1. Toro, J., Cervera, M.: TALE: Test de análisis de lectoescritura. Antonio Machado Li- bros (2015) 2. Preilowski, B., Matute, E.: Diagnóstico neuropsicológico y terapia del trastorno de lec- turaescritura (dislexia del desarrollo). Rev. Neuropsicología, Neuropsiquiatría Neu-rociencias 11(1), 95–122 (2011) 3. Ibáñez Moreno, A., Jordano de la Torre, M., Vermeulen, A.: Diseño y evaluación de VISP, una aplicación móvil para la práctica de la competencia oral. RIED: Rev. Iberoamericana Educación
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Distancia, 19(1), 63–81 (2016) 4. Roig-Vila, R.: Tecnología, innovación e investigación en los procesos de enseñanza- aprendizaje. Editorial Octaedro, Barcelona (2016) 5. Rosa Julia, G., Tatiana, G. J., Carolina, R. H.: Lectura y escritura en los primeros años: transiciones en el desarrollo y el aprendizaje, vol. 16. Universidad de la Sabana (2018) 6. Romero Andonegi, A., Castaño Garrido, C.: Prevenir las dificultades lectoras: Diseño y evaluación de un software educativo. Píxel-Bit. Rev. Medios Educación, pp. 207–223 (2016) 7. Rello, L., Bayarri, C., Gòrriz, A.: Dyslexia exercises on my tablet are more fun. In: Proceedings of the 10th International Cross-Disciplinary Conference on Web Accessibility, pp. 1–2. ACM Digital Library, Rio de Janeiro (2013) 8. Bigatá- Viscasillas, S.: El uso de las TIC en el aula de inglés para la atención a alumnos de secundaria con dislexia. Master’s thesis (2014) 9. Bernardo, I., Bernardo, A., Herrero, J.: Nuevas tecnologías y educación especial. Psi cothema 17(1), 64–70 (2005) 10. Cuello, J., José, V.: Diseñando apps para móviles. José Vittone—Javier Cuello (2013) 11. Lanna, L.C., i Oró, M.G.: Análisis del diseño interactivo de las mejores apps educativas para niños de cero a ocho años. Com. Rev. Científica iberoamericana comunicación educación 46, 77–85 (2016) 12. Norman, D.A., Draper, S.W.: User Centered System Design: New Perspectives on Human– Computer Interaction. CRC Press (1986) 13. Hassan, Y., Martín Fernández, F.J., Iazza, J.: Diseño web centrado en el usuario: usabilidad y arquitectura de la información. Hipertext. net 2 (2004) 14. Rosenblat, A.: Estudios sobre el español de América 1. Athenaica Ediciones Universitarias (2016) 15. Rosenblat, A.: Estudios sobre el español de América 2. Athenaica Ediciones Universitarias (2017) 16. Santos, A.: Estudio del léxico del Ecuador. Diss. UNED. Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia (2007) 17. Contreras, J.C., Pérez de Lara Ferré.: Investigar la experiencia educativa. Ediciones Morata S.L., Madrid (2010) 18. Alrashedi, N.: Adaptive learning to enhance students understanding in learning technology experience. Technium Soc. Sci. J. 9 (2020) 19. Kucirkova, N., Rosie Flewitt.: The future-gazing potential of digital personalization in young children’s reading: views from education professionals and app designers. Early Child Dev. Care 190(2), 135–149 (2020) 20. Henao, D.A.C., Cadavid, M.N.R.: Una revisión de los métodos utilizados para el tratamiento de la dislexia. Revista Electrónica Psyconex 10(16), 1–13 (2018) 21. Cheung, A.C., Slavin, R.E.: Effects of educational technology applications on reading outcomes for struggling readers: A best-evidence synthesis. Read. Res. Q. 48(3), 277–299 (2013)
Chapter 7
Accessibility and Usability in Learning Objects Carlos Luís
and Maria José Marcelino
Abstract Digital educational resources and effective processes for integrating technologies in teaching/learning are continually innovating. In the current context of the COVID-19 pandemic, the use of learning objects had rapid growth. The main objective of this paper is to try to identify, analyze and describe some of the methods referred to in the literature in order to create Learning Objects that are effective, efficient, pleasant and accessible for adult. For such, a systematic literature review was carried out following the PRISMA methodology—Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyzes. In the review were included articles published between January 2000 and January 2020, which mentioned or contained words-learning objects and accessibility and usability and adults not children. Initially, 291 were located and 6 were selected based on the research question. This systematic review allows us to conclude that the interactions between the triad learner—context—content, represented by a metaphoric framework, create a fundamental condition in the design of Learning Objects.
7.1 Introduction Learning Objects (LO) have been explored as an important construct in the teaching/learning process, being frequently associated with support instruments for the completion and understanding of concepts and ideas. A LO can be seen as an unit of learning content, independent and autonomous that can be used and reused in different teaching/learning contexts [1]. The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers—Learning Technology Standards Committee (IEEE-LTSC) presents a broader definition: LO is any entity, digital or non-digital, that can be used in learning [2]. In the context of this paper, we will use the term LO to describe digital, C. Luís (B) IEFP-IEFP-Centro de Formação Profissional de Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal C. Luís · M. J. Marcelino CISUC and FCTUC University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 A. Mesquita et al. (eds.), Perspectives and Trends in Education and Technology, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 256, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5063-5_7
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independent and autonomous units, which might be used and reused in different teaching/learning contexts. The paradigm of Distance Education (DE) requires the use of more modern teaching/learning methods facilitated by technologies. The application of technology does not, in itself, ensure the improvement of teaching/learning, it is necessary to involve other areas of knowledge [3]. These advances pose new challenges for teachers: integrating these technologies and creating LO, accessible and integrative of these “new” virtual learning environments. In this sense, we believe that it is necessary to know and use different methods and techniques during the complex process of creating LO, in order to help people to learn in a more effective, efficient, pleasant and accessible way. The referential of Mishra and Koehler [3] results from the combination of knowledge at a pedagogical, technological and content level, while the Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) results from the intersection of three different types of knowledge: the Technological Content Knowledge (TCK)—to know how to select the most appropriate technological resources to communicate a given curriculum content; the Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK)—ability to teach a specific curriculum content; and the Technological Pedagogical Knowledge (TPK)—to know how to use these resources in the teaching and learning process [3]. At the intersection of these three fields of knowledge—TCK, PCK and TPK is TPACK, which revolutionized the creation of learning objects. These matters become even more complex when the teaching/learning in-person is gradually shifting to a mixed B-learning scenario. In this context and with the purpose of mapping the entire interactive path of LO creation, the main objective of this paper is, in a synthetic way, to answer the research question (RQ): What are the best methods to build Learning Objects scientifically and pedagogically solid and, at the same time, to maximize its ease of use for adult? A systematic review was carried out, using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyzes (PRISMA) [4, 5] methodology, identifying the best scientific evidence on the topic and synthesizing them, in order to contribute to a better knowledge of the methods used to design LO, and thus to contribute to the dissemination of knowledge in this field. This paper is structured in 6 sections. After the introduction, in Sect. 7.2, the objectives and the methodology used are defined, in Sect. 7.3 the results of the research are exposed. Sections 7.4 and 7.5 reflect the analysis and discussion of the results and the last section consists in a brief conclusion.
7.2 Objectives and Methods To carry out this systematic review of the literature, we followed the PRISMA methodology, with its different steps: (I) definition of the research question (referred to in the objective of the work); (II) identification of the search terms and conducting the search in the databases; (III) definition of the eligibility criteria; and (IV) decision
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of inclusion based, sequentially, on the title, abstracts, and in a final phase, the full reading of the articles [4, 5]. In order to answer the following research question: What are the best methods to build LO scientifically and pedagogically solid and, at the same time, to maximize its ease of use for adults?
7.2.1 Eligibility and Selection of References Criteria The research corpus of this study was made of papers published between January 2010 and January 2020, accessed through Science Direct, IEEE Xplore, IEEE; ACM, B-on—Library of Knowledge, Scielo, UC—University of Coimbra, with the purpose of gathering studies that translate the best practices in the creation of LO. The expressions used for the research were the following: [All: “learning objects”] AND [All: accessibility] AND [All: usability] AND [All: adults] AND NOT [All: children] AND [Publication Date: (01/01/2000 TO 31/12/2020)] Selection of studies. In a first stage of selection, we removed duplicate studies and read all the titles, abstracts and conclusions of the articles obtained. Afterward, we excluded those that were not related to our R.Q. In the next stage, we read the remaining articles in full, using the eligibility criteria, in order to create our corpus.
7.3 Results We identified 291 articles and 274 were excluded, 24 were duplicate and the others after evaluation based on the title, abstract and conclusion, since they didn’t answer to the R.Q (Table 7.1). From the 17 selected articles, 11 were excluded after reading the entire text. Therefore, 6 articles were eligible for review in our study. The review methodology is illustrated in Fig. 7.1. Table 7.1 Quantitative data from database search Search engine
N.º
No
ACM digital library
64
63
1
IEEE digital library
0
0
0
SCiELO scientific electronic library online B-on—library of knowledge ScienceDirect Libraries of University of Coimbra Total
Yes
0
0
0
136
126
10
67
61
6
0
0
0
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Fig. 7.1 Flow of information through the different phases of a systematic review
It should be noted that in almost the totality of the 6 papers analyzed the importance of the accessibility standards, established by the W3C, in the creation of the LO was observed.
7.4 Accessibility and Usability in Learning Objects The current situation of distance education demonstrates how ontological and epistemological issues are often disregarded when creating LO. The design of LO requires skills in the area of education, but also in the different areas of engineering and social sciences. It is necessary to gather data, based on ethnographic research [6, pp. 146–163; 7, pp. 113–129], aiming at the description and interpretation of the emerging culture in the teaching/learning environments that allow the creation of LO. Just as the product design creates new product solutions, LO design creates new pedagogical contexts, hence allowing the construction of more stimulating virtual learning environments (VLE) [8]. Table 7.2 summarizes the main characteristics of the papers selected for this systematic review of the literature. The study of the 6 articles, considered relevant, allowed us to understand how accessibility and usability have been studied, as well as to identify the methods used
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Table 7.2 Characterization or description of the selected articles Authors—(year)
Article title
Target audience
Methods/tools
Vilar, Elena T Electric, Schneider—2011
Organizing E-learning standards and specifications [9]
Non specified student
A compilation of major e-learning standards that exist today, and all of them have been classified in twelve different categories, according to their main area of application
M. Guenaga et al.—2012
A tool to evaluate the level of inclusion of digital learning objects [10]
FIRST year of secondary school
The presented tool, formed of a set of questions, which collects information about what learning objects do to promote inclusion
C. M. S. De Macedo and V. R. Ulbricht—2012
Accessibility guidelines for the development of learning objects [11]
Non specified student
Principles of universal design” with the “recommendations for creating accessible web content” W3C, and the guides instructional management systems (IMS)
K. Angkananon, M. Wald, and L. Gilbert—2014
Applying technology enhanced interaction framework to accessible mobile learning [12]
Non specified student
Designing accessible mobile learning interactions involving disabled people using a newly developed technology enhanced interaction framework
R. Navarrete and S. Luján-Mora—2018
Bridging the Non specified accessibility gap in student open educational [13]
Using the learner profile as a tool to deliver adapted educational resources
M. Sarrab et al.—2018
Toward educational requirements model for mobile learning development and adoption in higher education [14]
The M-learning requirements model for higher, requirements from two dimensions: instructional design and M-learning design
Higher education
in the creation of LO. We could observe the significance of the accessibility standards, established by the W3C, when creating LO. Vilar et al. [9] provide a compilation of major e-learning standards that exist today. Based on the Learning Technology Standards Observatory and the Guide by Hilera
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and Hoya [15], they describe twelve different aspect of e-learning sufficiently important in the process of creating learning management systems, or learning resources (category): (1) Accessibility; (2) Architecture; (3) Collaboration; (4) Competencies; (5) Content and Assessment; 6) Digital Repositories; (7) Digital Rights; (8) Learner Information; (9) Learning process; (10) Metadata; (11) Quality; (12) Vocabulary and languages. They provide an overview of the current situation of 107 heterogeneous elearning standards divided into 12 categories. There are 26 institutions, organizations and projects behind this process. For Guenaga et al. [10] inclusive learning integrates pedagogical and technological variables. It means to adapt to students according to their characteristics (personal, physical, cognitive, social…), needs and interests. They provide a tool, formed of a set of questions, which collects information about what learning objects do to promote inclusion. A questionnaire that gives then a measure of the basic characteristics related to focus, the pedagogical and the technological variables which can be personalized thanks to the pedagogical model that support LO and also using adequate technology to develop them. Macedo and Ulbricht [11], based on analysis and convergence of the “Principles of Universal Design” with the “Recommendations for Creating Accessible Web Content” W3C, and “Best Practices for Production and Application of Accessible Content” presented at Guides Instructional Management Systems (IMS), created a set of guidelines of accessibility to help teachers developing accessible Learning Object. These constitute a sufficient and synthesized set of recommendations, structured on six topics targeted to each type of media possible to be then used on the construction of the learning object: (a) moving images: (b) static images: (c) texts: (d) tables: (e) graphs and charts: f) audio. They considered the international guidelines and recommendations for the creation of learning objects from the IMS and SCORM, associated with the accessibility standards of the IMS, W3C-WCAG 1.0 and WCAG 2.0. More focused on communication between people and improve interactions between people, technology and objects, particularly in complex situations involving disabled people. Angkananon et al. [12] used a newly developed Technology Enhanced Interaction Framework (TEIF) with seven main components [16]: (1) People; (2) Objects; (3) Technology; (4) Interactions and Communication; (5) Time/Place; (6) Context; (7) Interaction and communication layer. They adapted from and extended the work of Dix [17] and Gaines [18] to support developers and designers design and develop technology in order to enhance interactions for complex scenarios involving disabled people. The TEIF architecture engages people, technology and objects, the method involves 19 multiple choice questions to elicit requirements based on the seven main components. The questions help identify issues for which a technology solution is required. Navarrete and Luján-Mora [13] purpose the use of the learner profile as a tool to deliver adapted educational resources. This profile configures not only the “look and feel” of the interface but also the delivery of educational resources suitable for this user profile. The educational resources match the user’s profile with regard to their
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sensory abilities, cognitive faculties and their requirements of functionality control, display layout and language. The focus of Sarrab et al. [14] is the Mobile learning (M-learning), in this paper they proposes a new educational requirements model for M-learning development and adoption in higher education. The propose was based on the M-learning design components focused on pedagogical and educational aspect including M-learning theories, M-learning material organization and Instructional design principles.
7.5 Discussion All studies show the use of the Accessibility Guidelines for Web Content Accessibility Guidelines (WCAG) 2.1 [19] of the World Wide Web (W3C) Consortium, in the creation of LO. This recommendation is based on the assumption that accessibility on the Web also depends on the User Agents—User Agent Accessibility Guidelines (UAAG) and the Authoring Tool Accessibility Guidelines (ATAG) [20], to make LO more accessible and usable. The combination of a set of 107 standards, divided into 12 categories, described in the paper by Vilar et al. [9], highlights the large number of existing standards on this topic. In addition to accessibility and usability issues, LOs are required to enable personalized learning, using appropriate pedagogical models, exploring different paths and different technologies. Guenaga et al. [10] incorporate a set of questions of a pedagogical/didactic and technological nature in their study, providing us the strategic vision, the closest to reality, capable of articulating in itself the two sides of a complex experience. Thus, we acquire a set of theoretical knowledge about the target audience and the technologies to be used, in order to create LO. The possibility of integrating and parameterizing accessibility tools based on analysis and convergence of the “Principles of Universal Design” [11], provides a simplified and adjustable control for LO development. On the other hand, Universal Design for Learning (UDL) allows to identify the variables to be considered in the planning and design of LO in order to ensure the participation and success of all learners [21–24], regardless of their physical and cognitive needs [25]. The interaction between learners and technology is well explained by Angkananon et al. [11], using the TEIF method (The Technology Enhanced Interaction Framework). These authors present in a systematic way the problems experienced by the learners seeking to identify and outline the most appropriate technological configurations. In a different teaching/learning paradigm Figueiredo [26] denotes that teaching is creating contexts to enable learning and learning is to explore contexts where one can create knowledge, practice, cultures and relationships. This way, when creating LO one cannot discuss content without including contexts and learners. Sarrab et al. [14] emphasis the importance of questions such as: How do learners react to M-learning experience? How efficient are the M-learning materials? What are
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the results of mobile use in learning program? What unexpected problems emerged? What needs to be changed? In this perspective, it is essential to reconcile the learners´ characteristics, with the space—physical; semantic and digital, to shape the way information is conveyed. The teacher and learners´ expectations and experiences require that the models and the pedagogical strategies used are consistent with the objectives of the training and the needs, interests, culture and religion of the latter [27]. The triad learners, context and content is represented graphically in the Venn diagram (Fig. 7.2). This metaphoric framework emphasizes the connections between Learners, Content and Context. LO creators/designers must understand the complex way in which the three domains coexist and influence each other. Knowing Learners signifies studying their individual and collective experiences, their goals and motivations. The understanding of Content requires a profound reflection on the teaching/learning content, processes and methods that are directly related to the digital world. Context knowledge comprehends everything related to technologies, the skills required to interact in a given space—physical; semantic and digital. Despite the different specifications that characterize LO and their characteristics [28]: Number of elements combined; Type of elements contained; Reusable component objects; Common function; Extra-object dependence; Type of logic contained in the object; Potential for inter-contextual reuse; Potential for intra-contextual reuse, they must have more inclusive characteristics, directly related to their “acceptability” and comprehending two dimensions: social acceptability—when its need and social relevance are recognized; practical acceptability—linked to the criteria of cost, trust, compatibility, flexibility and quality of use [29, pp. 23–45]. Fig. 7.2 Learners, content and context metaphoric framework
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7.6 Final Considerations Reading the selected papers allows us to infer the finding that the relation between studies on the learner, the context and the content are fundamental conditions for LO design. The metaphoric framework presented in—Fig. 7.2, supports the necessary construction, theoretical and practical, essential to understand and specify all the existing variables in LO. There is complexity in the variables and metrics associated with each of the three fields of knowledge (learner, content and context), and their intersection represents complementarity and compatibility between themselves. Thus, we seek to contribute to map the entire path of creating LO objects in a synthetic way and to answer the research question (RQ): What are the best methods to build LO scientifically and pedagogically solid and, at the same time, to maximize their ease of use for adults? This study brought us to the conclusion that the preparation of ethnographic studies, the analysis of effective pedagogical practices that ensure teaching/learning for all and doing usability and accessibility tests are extremely important, for this population. These assumptions set LO as a central piece while agent of innovation in the new communication paradigms of the teaching/learning process. We intend to use this metaphoric framework to create LOs for adult with low literacy, in order to design them in a more usable and accessible way making learning more attractive and integrative.
References 1. Polsani, P.R.: Use and Abuse of Reusable Learning Objects, vol. 3, no. 4. (2006) 2. Johnson, A.: IEEE 1484.12.1-2002. Draft Standard for Learning Object Metadata, IEEE LTSC. [Online]. Available https://standards.ieee.org/standard/1484_12_1-2020.html. Accessed: 11 Oct 2020 3. Koehler, M.J., Mishra, P.: What is Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge? Contemp. Issues Technol. Teach. Educ. 9(1), 60–70 (2009) 4. Liberati, A., et al.: The PRISMA statement for reporting systematic reviews and metaanalyses of studies that evaluate health care interventions: explanation and elaboration. J. Clin. Epidemiol. 62(10), e1-34 (2009) 5. Moher, D., Liberati, A., Tetzlaff, J., Altman, D.G., Grp, P.: Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: the PRISMA statement (reprinted from annals of internal medicine). Phys. Ther. 89(9), 873–880 (2009) 6. Eriksson, P., Kovalainen, A.: Qualitative Methods in Business Research: A Practical Guide to Social Research. SAGE Publications (2015) 7. Paul, M., Jean, E., Bamberg, M.: Qualitative Research in Psychology. American Psychological Association, First Edit (2003) 8. Whitelock, D., Romano, D., Jelfs, A., Brna, P.: Perfect presence: what does this mean for the design of virtual learning environments? Educ. Inf. Technol. 5(4), 277–289 (2000) 9. Vilar, E.T., Electric, S.: Organizing E-learning standards and specifications. In: Proceedings of the International Conference on e-Learning, e-Business, Enterprise Information Systems, and e-Government (EEE) (2011)
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10. Guenaga, M., Mechaca, I., Romero, S., Eguíluz, A.: A tool to evaluate the level of inclusion of digital learning objects. Procedia Comput. Sci. 14, 148–154 (2012) 11. De Macedo, C.M.S., Ulbricht, V.R.: Accessibility guidelines for the development of learning objects. Procedia Comput. Sci. 14, pp. 155–162 (2012) 12. Angkananon, K., Wald, M., Gilbert, L.: Applying technology enhanced interaction framework to accessible mobile learning. Procedia Comput. Sci., 27, pp. 261–270 (2014) 13. Navarrete, R., Luján-Mora, S.: Bridging the accessibility gap in open educational resources. Univers. Access Inf. Soc. 17(4), 755–774 (2018) 14. Sarrab, M., Al-Shihi, H., Al-Manthari, B., Bourdoucen, B.: Toward educational requirements model for mobile learning development and adoption in higher education. TechTrends Link. Res. Pract. Improv. Learn. 62(6), 635–646 (2018) 15. Gonzm, H., Mar, H.: Estándares de e-learning: guía de consulta (2010) 16. Angkananon, K., Wald, M., Gilbert, L.: Issues in conducting expert validation and review and user evaluation of the technology enhanced interaction framework and method. In: ICIW 2013 Eighth International Conference on Internet Web Application Services, pp. 124–128 (2013) 17. Dix, A.: Computer Supported Cooperative Work—A Framework, pp. 23–37. Springer, Berlin (1994) 18. Gaines, B.R.: A conceptual framework for person-computer interaction in complex systems. IEEE Trans. Syst. Man Cybern. 18(4), 532–541 (1988) 19. W3C: Web Content Accessibility Guidelines (WCAG) 2.1. [Online]. Available https://www. w3.org/TR/2018/REC-WCAG21-20180605/. Accessed 10 Oct 2020 20. Abascal, J., Arrue, M., Fajardo, I., Garay, N., Tomás, J.: The use of guidelines to automatically verify web accessibility. Univers. Access Inf. Soc. 3(1), 71–79 (2004) 21. CAST: About Universal Design for Learning. [Online]. Available https://www.cast.org/imp act/universal-design-for-learning-udl. Accessed 29 Nov 2020 22. Pisha, B., Coyne, P.: Smart From the Start. Remedial Spec. Educ. 22(4), 197–203 (2001) 23. Grogan, D., Ruzik, R.: Walking the Walk: Universal Design on the Web. J. Spec. Educ. Technol. 15(3), 45–49 (2000) 24. Rose, D.H., Harbour, W.S., Johnston, C.S., Daley, S.G., Abarbanell, L.: Universal design for learning in postsecondary education: Reflections on principles and their application. J. Postsecond. Educ. Disabil. 19(2), 135–151 (2006) 25. Edyburn, D.L.: Would you recognize universal design for learning if you saw it? Ten propositions for new directions for the second decade of UDL. Learn. Disabil. Q. 33(1), 33–41 (2010) 26. Figueiredo, A.: Contextos de aprendizagem (2012) 27. Vaishnavi, V.K., Kuechler, W.J.: Desing science research methods and patterns: innovating information and communication technology, 2nd Edition. CRC Press (2015) 28. Nielsen, J.: Usability engineering. 1st Edition. Boston: AP Professional (1993) 29. Mironcika, S., Hupfeld, A., Frens, J., Asjes, J., Wensveen, S.: Co-creation and the new landscapes of design. In: TEI 2020—Proceedings of 14th International Conference on Tangible, Embedded and Embodied Interaction, vol. 0882, pp. 799–809 (2008)
Chapter 8
Museum, School and Augmented Reality, a Way to Preserve the Ethnic Identity of an Ancestral Culture Garcia Medina Maria Angélica , Lengua Cantero Claudia Cristina , and Acosta Meza David de Jesús Abstract Museums are an inexhaustible source of knowledge of past and present cultures; therefore, they can be considered as intangible heritage of humanity, and through them, the cultural identity of a region is strengthened. This research sought to visualize the archaeological pieces of the Zenú Ethnic through augmented reality with support of a web platform to enrich the experience of visitors to the museum and, thus, have an experience of meeting their ancestral or ethnic roots, for thus preserve the culture of an extinct people. The type of study was ethnographic in depth. The project resorted to historical sources that safeguard the information of the Zenú ethnic group, as well as to the knowledge of the indigenous reservations to reconstruct ancestral knowledge about the rhythms, beliefs and the bases of their goldsmith’s work. From the software engineering, the process model based on prototypes was applied for the construction of the web platform that allowed the development of a model of the product to verify its functionality and obtain an evaluation to make improvements to it. The research was carried out in four phases: characterization of archaeological objects; modelling of archaeological objects; design and evaluation of the web platform. The project concludes with the design of quick response codes, tagged augmented reality tags and evaluation of the web platform using the web content accessibility guidelines specified from the World Wide Web consortium and application of a metric for an integral analysis.
G. M. M. Angélica (B) Corporación Universitaria del Caribe CECAR, 3135920872, Carrera 7 29B – 68 Barrio El Cortijo, Sincelejo, Colombia e-mail: [email protected] L. C. C. Cristina Corporación Universitaria del Caribe CECAR, 3114086952, Calle 21 N 25 A 15 Conjunto Villa Campestre, Sincelejo, Colombia e-mail: [email protected] A. M. D. de Jesús Corporación Universitaria del Caribe CECAR, 3007635295, Carrera 24I numero 9 – 02 Barrio La Palma, Sincelejo, Colombia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 A. Mesquita et al. (eds.), Perspectives and Trends in Education and Technology, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 256, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5063-5_8
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8.1 Introduction The Ministry of Culture of Colombia is working on the preservation of the ancestral roots of the indigenous peoples and reservations that exist today. In view of this, programmes have been developed for the conservation of cultural heritage, and the museums exhibit the archaeological and anthropological heritage of the different indigenous cultures of the country. Therefore, museums are currently considered as spaces for the construction of knowledge, and they have been immersed in the technological advances that contribute people not only to be mere spectators, but also being able to interact in some way with the archaeological samples. In Colombia, the National Administrative Department of Statistics (DANE) conducted a survey of Cultural Consumption in 2014, which showed that the percentage of non-attendance to museums is 86.5 per cent, and it was seen that the main reasons why people do not go to museums are: disinterest, dislike, lack of time and the remoteness to reach these places. People have the idiosyncrasy that museums are ancient spaces, and they present a single truth, which are places where you have to be silent. But the truth is that now they are spaces for dialogue [1] at the same time, it is indicated that one of the factors for the low attendance to museums is the perception that they are places that harbour treasures and only serve for contemplation and not for enjoyment or bliss and that is the reason why the audience feel distant [1]. On the other hand, it can be contrasted with the proposal given by Fabio López, who is the head of services to the public of the Arts Unit of the Bank of the Republic, in an interview conducted by “El Tiempo”, he said “The nature of the museum in the 21st century is different. It does not wait for me to visit it, but develops new ways of interacting with people”, for this reason it is necessary to link the school to museums, in order to teach children the importance these spaces have in comprehensive education and the acquisition of new knowledge through participation in the events proposed by these scenarios, the director of Casa de la Memoria Museum in Medellín, Lucía González pointed out in an interview given to the newspaper “El Tiempo”, that museums do not have enough public because there is not enough training from the schools. The curricula do not take into account the importance of art and cultural demonstrations that are experienced through the museum in the training of students, this situation is different in other countries where children from very young go to museums. Given each of the factors and assumptions, the reality of the museum in the municipality of Sincelejo, known as the “Museo Manuel Huertas Vergara Zenú” (MAMHVE), which conserves important archaeological pieces of the Zenú ethnic group, was investigated. However, it was observed that the number of visitors to this museum is very low, and the knowledge of the existence of this museum is almost non-existent, perhaps due to the lack of interest shown by society in the cultural identity of the Savanna Region.
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This panorama led us to propose a solution using emerging technologies such as augmented reality (AR), which made easier for the community in Sincelejo, visitors and tourists to get closer to these historical and cultural manifestations. This technology allows a consultation experience since it provides more visual and wide information about the observed archaeological pieces. As [2] clearly illustrates that Augmented Reality represents a powerful tool that has shown its versatility in a wide range of applications in different areas of knowledge. One of them has been the educational field, where it has been found great possibilities for the diffusion and knowledge of contents that are presented in an attractive and pedagogical way at the same time. Regarding to the augmented reality technology, there are some references that use it for educational objectives and also the improvement of the visualization of works exhibited in museums, but in the city where the Zenú Museum Manuel Huertas Vergara is located, it is a technology that has not been developed and implemented yet. This is a project that takes the past from an extinct culture to the present of a population that is descended from this indigenous culture. Thence, it allows a meeting with the school, granting children and young people the possibility to know their own ethno identity in a didactic and fun way.
8.2 Theoretical Bases: History and Uses of Augmented Reality (AR) 8.2.1 Historical Concepts of Augmented Reality The term augmented reality dates from the seventies. The first pioneer in this topic was Ivan Sutherland, who referred to the ability of computers to transform physical reality, as he states that: There is no reason why the objects shown by a machine have to follow the ordinary rules of physical reality with which we are familiar. The kinesthetic screen can only be used to simulate the movements of a negative mass. The user of one of today’s visual representations can easily make solid transparent objects - he can “see through matter” concepts that never had any visual representation before that can be displayed now [3]. In order for augmented reality to emerge, several experiments were carried out. One of them was a simulator called sensorama, and it was capable of producing a multimodal experience through visual sensations, sounds, vibrations and smells; this immersive system tried to reproduce pre-recorded everyday situations, which the user perceived through stereoscopic vision, stereophonic sound, smells, vibration of the chair and wind. Through this system, the user could only experiment individually, and there was no user-system interaction [4]. In the decade of the seventies, the researcher Myron Krueger of the University of Wisconsin designed the Videoplace, which uses cameras and other input devices to create a virtual world controlled by the movements of the participant [4]. In 1981, the Super Cockpit system appears,
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and it includes a transparent screen (head-based) on the pilot helmet. As pilots see themselves in several directions, their vision is complemented by different information. For example, they could look to the wings of the plane, in order to verify that the missiles were still available to shoot. [4]. In 1982, Sara Bly explores the use of ultrasound in her doctoral thesis. She establishes a classification of multivariate non-ordered data sets from which she creates discrete auditory events. This work is the basis of sound representation for the use of computer-generated and computer-controlled sound in virtual reality [4]. In 1992, the work Augmented reality: an application of heads - up display technology to manual manufacturing process, conceived by Tom Caudell and David Mizell [5], in this work both authors used the term augmented reality to refer to the graphics generated by the computer that are they superimposed on the real world. This technology served to “increase” the visual field of the user with the necessary information for a certain task. The first major application of augmented reality was in 1992 by Steven Feiner, Blair MacIntyre and Doree Seligmann [6], who designed and built a prototype called KARMA [5 cited in [2]]. In 1994, Paul Milgram and Fumio Kishino presented taxonomy of mixed reality and visual display, where they established the line between real environments and virtual environments, which they called virtuality continuum, highlighting that the degree of virtuality or computer-generated elements that had a certain environment was closer to one end or another to the continuum. In this intermediate area, called mixed reality, there was the augmented virtuality, and the augmented reality formed by hybrid environments [1]. At the beginning of the twenty-first century, augmented reality begins to be developed, and it was executed through mobile devices and wearables. This is how in 2000, the first augmented reality game developed by Bruce Thomas and others appear for an outdoor application with the name of ARQuake. The following year, Jürgen Fruend and others presented AR-PDA, a wireless augmented reality system together with a special prototype. The basic idea was to increase the real image captured by a camera with additional virtual objects, illustrating the functions and interactivity between the electrodomestics [7]. In 2004, some applications of augmented reality were found. Mathias Möhring and others developed a system of recognition of brands in 3D for mobile phones. This worked through the detection and differentiation of several 3D brands [2]. Wagner and others presented the first implementation of three-dimensional real-time motion tracking for mobile phones in 2008 [8]. In 2009, SPRXmobile launches Layar, a variant of Wikitude, which uses the same registration system as its predecessor and is connected to a platform that consists in an open server that contains information obtained from web searchers that have travel, culture and nature guide [2]. When reviewing the historical background of augmented reality shows the great advances that have been made over the years, it is now more common to see the use of this emerging technology in different contexts and as technology advances will be increasingly more common to interact with augmented reality objects.
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8.2.2 Requirements and Types of Augmented Reality AR is an emerging technology that offers infinite possibilities; its use allows placing 3D environments and virtual simulations for interaction. Therefore, their requirements are established from their practice. An augmented reality visualization device has an augmented reality software that allows to superimpose images in real scenes; it has a camera that recognizes the marks established in a scene, objects or markers; also, there is a screen or monitor that allows the visualization of the scenes and processing capacity for the interpretation of real-world information, virtual information, and it is able to unite the two scenarios. As for the types of augmented reality, four categories are presented: augmented reality based on pattern or brand recognition, augmented reality based on image recognition, augmented reality based on relocation and augmented reality based on object recognition [9]. Of those mentioned, the first category was used, which uses a mark that acts as an activator and superimposes the related 3D image, making it easy for the user to move or rotate the mark by 306° to observe the modelled object. This technology is used for its versatility and easy access to the different tools for branding and access to mobile devices.
8.2.3 Use of the Augmented Reality at School and Museum Levels Augmented Reality in Education Augmented reality constitutes a valuable tool for understanding and interacting with complex phenomena and concepts, as well as contributing to students’ motivation. With the implementation of this technology, it is possible to capture the attention of the students and to show them in a more interactive way the topics that are developed in the classroom. Besides that, the rise of mobile and wearable’s devices, the increase in the offer of applications of augmented reality and their evolution towards a simpler and more practical technology for the user, allows us to glimpse a great change of our way of accessing to information, new ways of interacting with our environment and the possibility of offering rich learning experiences [9]. One of the applications that have had the greatest reception in the field of education is interactive books, which make it possible to see the illustrations in 3D format emerging from the page of the book. Among these, it is Magic Book, designed by Mark Billinghurst, Hirokazu Kato and Ivan Poupyrev. The concept of Magic Book is to use a mixed interface that promotes augmented reality and virtual reality, without neglecting the physical reality. This book has static scenes; but when using an augmented reality device, the information in there can be seen in 3D models coming out of it. The technology used is handheld display which is connected to a computer
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which processes the data that is captured by the display camera corresponding to the marks that are printed on the book [10] (Fig. 8.1). In Colombia, this type of technology was carried out by [11] who worked with augmented reality, using mobile tagging technology with QR codes in the web application created for the HUC herbarium of the Universidad de Córdoba, all of this being used as a technique to present associated contents to the herbarium (Fig. 8.2). Additionally, the project Construyendo mi conocimiento designed by [12] aims to facilitate active learning in the classroom allowing active student participation, learning in context and collaborative learning (Fig. 8.3). Fig. 8.1 Magic Book interface between real and augmented reality [10]
Fig. 8.2 Pictures of the mobile tagging application [11]
Fig. 8.3 Interface of the exploration mission (picture on the left) and the interface to answer a mission question (picture on the right) [12]
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Fig. 8.4 CUETAYA game interface [13]
Finally, a project called CUETAYA: tierra de colores carried out by [13] is a board game that makes use of augmented reality to create educational experiences for the strengthening of cultural traditions from the department of Cauca (Fig. 8.4). Augmented Reality at Museums One of the incessant searches of the human being is the preservation of their customs and traditions, in order to be remembered by their descendants. The museum had its beginnings in the plunder of Babylon by the Elamites in the Ancient East, who moved to their cities the most valuable objects found in that city, exposing them later. This is how museums have been oriented to the use of the latest technology as a means to attract more people and enrich their visit experience [14]. In the study of augmented reality and its application in cultural heritage conducted by [2], he further points out the technological applications used both in education and museum culture. Within which the following are mentioned: The interactive book of Andalusian monument was developed in 2007 by the Malaga company ArpaSolitions, needs a simple camera or webcam that captures the information of the real world, a computer that manages the processes of recognition of marks and rendering of virtual information; and a screen or any device of vision where the image is shown combining the real world with the virtual one. Construct3D, based on the collaborative system created by STUDIERSTUBE, it allows several users to interact in real time with geometric shapes creating a new design in a collaborative way. This application has been tested in the Vienna Museum of Technology by a group of young people, and it permits a more easy and simple way of learning subjects related to mathematics and geometry, taking into account students’ needs. Big-bang 2.0 was developed by Virtualware, which is part of the Eskola 2.0 programme, belonging to the Education, universities and research department of the Basque Government. This proposal aims to promote the use of digital teaching materials for the subject of knowledge about the environmental, natural and social fields, intended to fifth grader students of primary education, in three different languages. The technologies mentioned above have been developed in order to enrich the experience of visitors, and some of the museums that have used them are presented below: Museo de Mataró: “It was integrated an augmented reality system with the sample “Mar de Fondo”, which sought to expand the audience’s experience with the works. Thus, through the use of a tablet or a smartphone, the visitor only was required to
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Fig. 8.5 Sample of the use of augmented reality in the Mataró museum
type the name of the work, and the application provided more information about it” [15] (Fig. 8.5). Anne Frank Museum in Amsterdam: There, the places of the life of Anne Frank are recreated. And through the app, historical photos about the current space of the city are superimposed (Fig. 8.6). In Colombia, students from the Universidad Nacional de Colombia designed an application called Aurasma, which allows capturing real images from books or printed material that links to digital content. This application was tested in the Entomological Museum of Colombia. In addition, the Department of Information Technology and Computation of the “Universidad Nacional de Colombia” in Manizales has designed a computer hardware museum to show how was the technology that hold up the computer systems that supported the information systems, data and machine-man interaction, according to the role and advancement of technology during history (Fig. 8.7). Historical museums are the way to preserve the memory, to connect with the past and generate a sense of belonging. Given this principle, the Technological University Foundation Comfenalco developed a system of augmented reality for the exhibitions
Fig. 8.6 Anne’s Amsterdam Mobile App. Extracted from Anne Frank website
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Fig. 8.7 Representation of a keyboard in AR [16]
of the Historical Museum of Cartagena, which has an application that shows the rooms of the museum, the general exhibitions gallery and their outstanding works [17].
8.3 Materials and Methodology The type of study was ethnographic in depth, as cultural patterns of a group of people in a given context were detailed. Lerma [18] indicates that the objective of this type of study is to understand the situations on the basis of the meanings that the actors give to it. Likewise, this approach is based on the traditions, roles, values and norms of the environment in which they live, which are gradually being internalized and generate regulations that can explain individual and group behaviour in an appropriate way [19]. In this sense, the project resorted to historical sources that safeguard the information of the Zenú ethnic group, as well as to the knowledge of the indigenous reservations to reconstruct ancestral knowledge about the rhythms, beliefs and the bases of their goldsmith’s work. Therefore, the type of ethnography used was ethno-historical, which takes stock of the current cultural reality as a product of the events of the past []. As for the population, it was made up of people belonging to the San Andrés de Sotavento indigenous reservation, knowledgeable people and thematic experts. In addition, visitors to the Manuel Huertas Vergara Museum and the Parque Caribe Museum were taken into account, so the exhibition was for convenience, which allows for the selection of those accessible cases that accept to be included [20]; in other words, they must be accessible and close to the subject or object being investigated in order to collect the information. The research was carried out in four phases: Phase 1: Characterization of the archaeological objects; Phase 2: Modelling of the archaeological objects; Phase 3: Design of the web platform “Museo aumentado de la Etnia Zenú – TOTÓ”; Phase 4: Evaluation of the web platform. For the data collection, the semi-structured interview technique was applied. For the modelling of the archaeological objects of the Zenú ethnic group, the 3D sensor structure was used, which allowed the capture in 3D of each of the selected pieces
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of the museum. Also, a survey was carried out as a technique to inquire about the knowledge of the population about their Zenú cultural identity, Museums and the integration of information technology in museums. For the design of the web platform “Museo aumentado de la Etnia Zenú – TOTÓ”, the software process that is considered as the imposed structure of software development was taken into account. To achieve this, it was applied a prototype-based process model, allowing the development of a model of the product to verify its functionality and in this way to obtain an evaluation that provided the pertinent improvements of the web platform. The evaluation of the web platform was carried out using the web audit method, which “is a specialized technical consultancy executed by external technicians and commissioned by the management of the company or organization” [21]. It sought to compare the quality of websites considering factors such as usability, accessibility, functionality, reliability and efficiency. These factors were studied through a metric adapted for that purpose. The metric was validated through a statistician who used the Cronbach’s alpha which is a value between 0 and 1; it is shown in the following formula: 2 Si k 1− α= 2 k−1 St where k Si2 St2
Number of items Item i variance Instrument variance
In order to validate the instrument, a pilot sample with 17 individuals was fulfilled, applying an instrument, which consisted of a total of 61 items, divided into five components or evaluation criteria, whose scores fluctuated between 1 and 10, being the last rating the highest. The validation process was effectuated through the statistical software SPSS version 23, achieving the results shown in Tables 8.1. The results of the alpha coefficient of Cronbach are shown in Table 8.2, and it is deduced that they are superior to 0.92, and taking into account the evaluation criterion for this indicator, it is higher than 0.7, and it is concluded that the measuring instrument is adequate in terms of its internal consistency, both for each of the criteria and for the instrument in general, and therefore, it yielded reliable results. Table 8.1 Number of cases Cases
a Deletion
Valid
N
%
17
100.0
Excludeda
0
0
Total
17
100.0
by list based on all variables in the procedure
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Table 8.2 Reliability statistics Criteria
Cronbach alpha
Cronbach alpha based on standardized elements
Number of elements
Usability
0.972
0.973
22
Accessibility
0.944
0.945
10
Functionality
0.923
0.924
8 15
Content
0.982
0.983
Reliability
0.934
0.934
6
Grand total
0.990
0.990
61
To assess the accessibility of the page, it was used the Web Accessibility Test (WAT), and it uses the WCAG 2.0 guideline, and the revision of the HTML code will be done, using the validator of the W3C Markup Validation Service, to verify the use of the standard for the web.
8.4 Results 8.4.1 Perception of the Community About Their Self-Identity In the Zenú cultural identity category, it is shown that 50% of the participants do not know the Zenú culture, while 47% of them are indifferent to the education that young people can receive around the protection of their culture. In the same way, 70% of the participants consider that their culture is being lost, and an 83% considers important to rescue the culture of a town and safeguard the ancestral ethnic group of the Zenú people. For the Museums Category, 60% of the people surveyed are unaware of the existence of the Manuel Huertas Vergara museum, while 67% indicate that they have not visited any museum. In congruence with the above mentioned, 80% have not visited this museum. On the other hand, 37% consider that going out to museums is an appropriate activity for their general culture. Finally, 77% have participated in an activity developed in a museum at least once. Regarding to the third category, it is based on the integration of technologies in museums, which shows that 73% of people consider the integration of information and communication technologies in the museum field which is appropriate and changes the way of seeing a museum; but in contrast, it is perceived that 80% of the participants do not know the technologies that allow them to interact with the pieces exhibited in the museums.
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8.4.2 Characterization of the Archaeological Objects The main characteristics of the Zenú ethnic culture were the goldsmith work which shows an exquisite work in fuse filigree, and it was achieved through the modelling of beeswax, and at the moment of melting, it was replaced by gold presenting the filigree aspect [22]. This technique was also used to accentuate some outstanding features of birds and other animal species on it. The collection described corresponds to the archaeological pieces of the Manuel Huertas Vergara Museum in the city of Sincelejo, where 226 pieces are registered in the Colombian Institute of Anthropology and History, in accordance to file No. 3509. The pieces described are based on the archaeological studies carried out by Plazas, Flachetti, Sáenz and Archila in 1998 in the lower San Jorge. In order to establish the correspondence of the periods of manufacture of the pieces, the study indicates that three corresponding ceramic traditions were established in different periods of occupation, which are: Incised granulose, painted modelled and isolated incised. Below are some of the archaeological pieces of the Zenú ethnic group (Table 8.3). It should be noted that the most representative work of the Zenú ethnic group was its hydraulic engineering which covers the marshes of the San Jorge, Cauca, Magdalena, Sinú Medio and Pichilín rivers near Tolúviejo, becoming an incomparable work that helped to prevent flooding during the rainy season and also served as a channel for the irrigation and storage of water for the dry season. Table 8.3 Archaeological pieces Zenú Manuel Huertas Vergara museum collection—[23] Descriptive name
Timeline
Raw material
Typology
Predominant decoration
Vessel
Twelfth century to seventeenth century A.D
Ceramic
Complex Zambrano plate
Incision
loafer
Twelfth century to seventeenth century A.D
Ceramic
Low type Magdalena, red bathed
Incision
Roller
Second century A.D. to twelfth century A.D
Ceramic
Complex Montelibano
Incision
Flute
Twelfth century to seventeenth century A.D
Ceramic
Complex Zambrano plate
Incision
Archaeological piece
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Fig. 8.8 Marking of archaeological pieces of the Zenú ethnic group (Own development)
8.4.3 Modelling of the Pieces and Augmented Reality To scan the archaeological pieces of the Zenú ethnic group, the Skanect 3D Scanning Software by Occipital tool was used. It allows to capture 3D patterns in full colour, people or interior spaces. In order to obtain all of this, it is used Skanect software that transforms the patterns captured by the structure sensor and creates 3D meshes of real scenes in a few minutes. Once the design is registered through the device, the pieces are improved through the Blender 2.78 modelling software, which is a free and open-source 3D creation suite. This programme supports the entire modelling of 3D filters, fixings, animation, simulation, rendering, composition, movement tracking, video editing and game creation [2].
8.4.4 Design of the Pieces in Augmented Reality For the production of the AR content of the archaeological pieces of the Zenú ethnic group, the Aumentaty software was needed. The type of augmented reality used in the project is based on the recognition of patterns or marks, which is employed as a physical component activator of a pattern, marker or brand, printed symbols on paper overlapping some type of digital information (usually 3D models), when they are recognized by augmented reality software [3] (Fig. 8.8).
8.4.5 Design of the Web Platform The design of the web platform “Museo realidad aumentada de la Etnia Zenú – TOTÓ” was set up on the model based on prototypes software process which achieves the creation of prototypes to perform tests, and also, it obtains an evaluation of the platform, which allows the refining of this until the final result is reached. As a first instance, a subset of the requirements that are included in the design of the platform was identified; thus, the global objectives for the platform were defined, and then the known requirements and the areas of the scheme were established; watching that
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more definition was necessary. Finally, an iteration of the design of the prototype was proposed, to verify its aspect and organization of the content. These reviews involved users who interacted with the prototype and established their points of view making reference to the design, content and accessibility of the information. The results show that the platform has three problems from the robust, thirty-nine warnings which were checked manually and eighteen not verified that later were reviewed manually. In more detail, the results of the analysis have found 0 problems from the perceptible and 16 warning in this item, in operable 0 errors and 7 warnings, understandable 0 problems and 0 warnings and in robust 3 problems and 16 warnings. When the results were given, each warning was verified and corrected. To carry out this analysis, the criteria for evaluation, usability, accessibility, functionality and content were taken into account. According to the evaluation carried out on the web platform, it is established that the evaluation range reached is good, and the result obtained was 8.87 in the weighting, which indicates that it is accessible but must be improved in some items in order to be able to achieve 100% accessibility and usability.
8.5 Conclusion Puché [24] in his book “The great Zenú empire. Center of hydraulic engineers and filigree goldsmiths in Pre-Hispanic America” expresses the following affirmations, The collective ignorance that is observed both in the public and in educational establishments, as to the trajectory and achievements of the ZENU CULTURE (…) Which partly explains the ignorance of one of the most splendid culture you will see in Colombia and America (…) The artistic quality of the Goldsmith and the magnitude of the Engineering works Hydraulics carried out in the swampy lands of the rivers: San Jorge, Cauca, Magdalena and Momposina Depression, as well as the Sinú Medio (...) these facts that should be daily teaching in our educational and public knowledge centers so that they are organized Periodic excursions and, failing that, to form a Traveling Museum with permanent exhibitions in the municipalities where this culture was established, would facilitate the reunion with that town. history so basic and fundamental to create a behavior and pride in feeling like legatees of this culture (...) promote the conservation of our cultural heritage and seek the creation of Museums and Archives Rooms in which to exhibit for locals and foreigners, the foundations of our history. For this reason, it is vital to promote ancestral culture linked to new information technologies to reach different types of populations, especially in areas have suffered due to violence, as it is the case of the Department of Sucre and its capital Sincelejo that is the recipient of multiple neighbouring towns that flee from their violent past by different entities outside the law. Indigenous settlements have not been the exception and are counted as one of the most vulnerable populations that have also had to carry
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the cultural alienation to which they are subjected daily, absorbing different characteristics of the Anglo-Saxon culture, the cosmopolitan and consumer, supressing them to continuous alienations with their ancestral roots. This research contributed to make visible and recreate a part of the Zenú ethno identity through its archaeology and anthropology expressed in the web platform “Increased Museum of the Zenú Ethnic Group – TOTÓ” that allowed the accessibility of ancestral pieces to different schools of the indigenous council. It should be noted that one of the most avant-garde points was the use of emergent augmented reality (AR) technology that granted to show the pieces in an almost real way and at the same time generated more interaction since each mark had included information valuable about the pieces. Besides, since the website engineering was taken into account that the HTML5 and CSS3 code were valid in order to accomplish with the standard established by the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C), guaranteeing the good functioning of the Web platform. Next, a study on accessibility to the platform was carried out through the TAWDIS tool, in which zero problems were evidenced from the perceptible ones and with 16 warnings related to techniques allusive to the positioning of elements and structure of the headings of the labels, Regarding the operability, no errors were evidenced and only 7 warnings were highlighted based on the content descriptors and element positioning. From the understandable, 0 problems and 0 warnings were detected, from the robust, 3 problems and 16 warnings were indicated, established by ambiguities when using the CSS style language. Then a metric was applied to audit the web platform, through which five aspects were observed, which was: usability 20%, accessibility 15%, functionality 15%, content 40% and reliability 10%. It was estimated a group of indicators that linked the items that were evaluated, and they were assigned a percentage and an assessment. The established range was from 1 to 10, with one being the lowest valuation and ten the maximum valuation. At the end of the metric, the percentage of the evaluation of the five indicators and the weighted total of the platform was obtained, which yielded a total of 8, 87 highlighting that it is accessible and usable according to the standards proposed by Nielsen.
References 1. Serrano, C. (2015). ¿Por qué los colombianos no van a los museos? [Entrevista]. Last accessed 15 May 2020 2. Ruiz, D.: Definición de realidad aumentada. En: La realidad aumentada y su aplicación en el patrimonio cultural. España: TREA, pp. 17–25 (2013) 3. Sutherland, I. E.: The Ultimate Display, Proceeding of IFOP Congress, s.l.: s.n. (1965) 4. Sherman, W.R., Craig, A.B.: Understanding virtual reality: Interface, application, and design. Elsevier, San Francisco (2002) 5. Caudell, T.P., Mizell, D.: Augmented reality: an application of heads-up display technology to manual manufacturing processes. In: International Conference on System Sciencie, pp. 659– 669 (1992)
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6. Feiner, S., Macintyre, B., Seligmann, D.: Knowledge-based augmented reality. Commun. ACM 36(7), 53–62 (1993) 7. Fruend, J., Geiger, C., Grafe, M. & Kleinjohann, B.: The Augmented reality personal digital assistant. In: Proceedings of 2nd International Symposium on Mixed Reality, pp. 145–146 (2001) 8. Wagner, D., Pintaric, T., Ledermann, F., Schmalstieg, D.: Towards massively multi-user augmented reality on handheld device. Pervasive Comput. 2005, 208–219 (2005) 9. Reinoso, R.: Realidad Aumentada posibilidades y usos en eduacación. En: Recursos educativos aumentados. Una oportunidad para la inclusión, pp. 8–25. Sello Editorial Tecnológico Comfenalco, Cartagena (2016) 10. Billinghurst, M., Hirokazu, K. & Poupyrev, I.: The MagicBook: a transitional AR interface. Comput. Graphics, pp. 745–753 (2001) 11. Arrieta, K., Gómez, J., Salas, D.: Realidad Aumentada basada en Mobile Tagging: una técnica para presentar contenidos asociados a un herbario. Revista GTI 11(31), 25–34 (2013) 12. Molina, E., Muñoz, A., Gonzalez, C.: Herramienta didáctica con realidad aumentada para el soportar el aprendizaje activo el aula. En: Recursos educativos aumentados: Una oportunidad para la inclusión. Cartagena: Sello Editorial Tecnológico Comfenalco, pp. 44–55 (2016) 13. López, C., Chate, J., Pinto, D., Mosquera, J. & Tobar, H.: CUETAYA: Tierra de colores. En: Recursos educativos aumentados: Una oportunidad para la inclusion, pp. 123–129. Sello Editorial Tecnológico Comfenalco, Cartagena (2016) 14. Páez, L.A.: realidad aumentada para la diseminación de información cultural. Universitat Oberta de Catalunya, Tesis de Maestría (2015) 15. Musas20. (s.f.). Realidad aumentada para el patrimonio, museos… y para el mercado del arte. [En línea]. Available at http://musas20.com/realidad-aumentada-para-el-patrimonio-museosy-para-el-mercado-del-arte/ 16. Ricardo, G. & Duque, N. (2016). Museo de hardware informático basado en realidad aumentada orientado a la preservación y aprendizaje. En: Recursos educativos aumentados: Una oportunidad a la inclusión, pp. 36–43. Sello Editorial Tecnológico Comfenalco, Cartagena 17. Rodriguez, E., Otero, J., Puello, J., Orozco, Z.: Una alternativa tecnológica para el aprendizaje y apropiación patrimonial del museo historico de cartagena. En: Recursos educativos aumentados: Una oportunidad para la inclusión, pp. 66–73. Sello Editorial Tecnológico Comfenalco, Cartagena (2016) 18. Lerma, H.: Metodología de la investigación. Propuesta, anteproyecto y proyecto. Bogota: ECOE ediciones (2010) 19. Martínez, M.: El Método Etnográfico de Investigación. [En línea] (2005) 1. Available at: http:// prof.usb.ve/miguelm/metodoetnografico.html. Last accessed 2020/05/15. 20. Murillo, F.J., Martínez-Garrido, C.: Investigación Etnográfica. Univerisidad Autonoma de Madrid, Madrid (2010) 21. Otzen, T., Manterola, C.: Sampling techniques on a population study. Int. J. Morphol. 35(1), 227–232 (2017) 22. Cueva, J.M.: Usabilidad Web. Usabilidad, Accesibilidad y métricas de sitios web. s.n., s.l. (2015) 23. Puche, B.: El gran imperio Zenú. Centro de ingenieros hidráicos y orfebres de filigrana en la Aerica Prehispánica. s.n., Barranquilla (2001) 24. Milgram, P., Kishino, F.: A taxonomy of mixed reality visual displays. IEICE Trans. Inf. Syst. 77(12), 1321–1329 (1994) 25. Choperena, L.: Informe Museo Manuel Huertas Vergara. s.n., Sincelejo (2015) 26. Oquendo, C.: ¿Por qué los colombianos no van a los museos?. EL TIEMPO, 18 Mayo (2015) 27. Hernández, R., Fernández, C., Baptista, P.: Metodología de la investigación. McGraw-Hill, Mexico (2010) 28. Sánchez, S., Sicilia, M.A., Rodiguez, D.: Ingemiería del Software. Un enfoque desde la guía SWEBOK. Alfaomega, Mexico (2011)
Chapter 9
Multinomial Logistic Regression Model for Prioritization of COVID-19 Vaccination in Portoviejo—Ecuador Cedeño Jennifer and Sánchez Luis
Abstract Currently, the world is in the initial phase of the distribution of the COVID19 vaccine, and the vaccine is principally available to developed countries, that is mainly administered to older people, especially to health workers at high risk of contracting COVID-19 while the rest of the population are exposed to contagion. A classification method is to classify people with high or low priority for the administration of the vaccine, that is vital importance to curb the spread of infections in the world. Mathematical models can be helped to define the classification while the impact of increased contagion is minimized. A multinomial logistic regression model is proposed to classify subjects, that is based on the values of a set of predictor variables. The priority of vaccination is classified in the canton of Portoviejo—Ecuador, the variables are considered: age, sex, number of presented symptoms at the time of registration, cardiovascular, chronic liver, chronic kidney, chronic respiratory, oncological, diabetes, hypertension, tuberculosis, other preexisting disease, exposed days to virus. A stochastic descent gradient algorithm is proposed to minimize an objective function J (θ ), that is obtained from the proposed model. The efficiency of the forecasts of the model is compared, that is reproducing accuracy in the estimates. Finally, one goodness-of-fit measure to validate the performance of the model is used, obtaining insignificant estimation error.
C. Jennifer (B) Estudiante de la Maestría de Estadística mención Estadística Aplicada, Instituto de Posgrado, Universidad Técnica de Manabí, Portoviejo, Ecuador Departamento de la Carrera de Tributación, Instituto Superior Tecnológico Paulo Emilio Macias, Portoviejo, Ecuador e-mail: [email protected] S. Luis Departamento de Matemáticas y Estadística, Instituto de Ciencias Básicas, Universidad Técnica de Manabí, Portoviejo, Ecuador e-mail: [email protected] Departamento de Matemática y Física, Facultad de Ciencias de la Educación, Universidad de Carabobo, Valencia, Venezuela © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 A. Mesquita et al. (eds.), Perspectives and Trends in Education and Technology, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 256, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5063-5_9
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9.1 Introduction Researchers and scientists around the world have produced an effective and safe vaccine against SARS-COV-19. Although this feat is unprecedented, recent global efforts have capitalized on many years of previous basic research, that is generated the necessary knowledge to innovate vaccine design with high effectiveness and minimal negative effects. Governments in the world have already announced the buy of millions of doses of vaccines. The availability of effective and safe vaccines against COVID-19 is very good news, but that is important not to confuse the vaccine with vaccination. That is not enough to have enough doses, that is also necessary to take that safely to the people who need the vaccine. In fact, the logistics is extraordinarily complex, since that is required the correct transport, storage, distribution, and application of vaccines also that is required a delicate cold chain. However, vaccines are distributed and the health authorities of many countries are making an effort to administer the highest possible number of doses to their population. The situation, in some way, the current global system is reproduced: The richest countries have already bought the largest quantity of vaccines that are produced in 2020, while the poorest do not have doses to administer even to their most vulnerable populations. Meanwhile, other nations such as Canada have already bought enough doses to vaccinate their population five times. Experts fear that, if the current distribution system continues, the virus can be to mutate again, that is rendered ineffective current vaccines, as well as that will be produced devastating economic effects, political and moral consequences. In this sense, that is important to determine a vaccination distribution system in underdeveloped countries, where the quantity of vaccines is limited and difficult to access due to the low economics resources. The campaign of vaccination is begun with effects, the slow start, the shortage of vaccines and the bureaucratic problems to organize the appointments, and the pharmaceutical companies are now added. BioNTech and Pfizer have announced that cannot meet the expected delivery deadlines. Ecuador is affected by the situation. The government has expected weekly shipments of the vaccine from Pfizer in the last week of January 2021, but that is ended without fulfilling offers. So far, 2.982 of the 8.000 received doses that have been used in 19 cities [3]. The number of people is vaccinated, and there are 162 older adults. The case is experienced by the Republic of Ecuador and specifically the Portoviejo canton where there are habitants 300.000 and Portoviejo is a canton with low economic resources, that is interest to determine a way of distribution of vaccine in the habitants due Portoviejo has the limited vaccines and there are the high number of exposed habitants per days where that is necessaries to stop the number of infections. Dichotomous or binary choice models can be generalized for the case of more than two options, that is giving to rise Multiple Response Models, where the choice process is generalized in such a way the user is faced with several possible alternatives [5]. Logistic regression models are statistical models, that is intended to know the relationship between a qualitative, dichotomous-dependent variable (binary or binomial logistic regression) or with more than two categories (multinomial logistic
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regression) and between independent explanatory variables, that can be qualitative or quantitative [7]. Logistic regression models are intended to know the relationship between a qualitative, dichotomous-dependent variable (binary or binomial logistic regression) and between independent explanatory variables, that can be qualitative or quantitative. Multinomial logistic regression is used in models with a nominaldependent variable with more than two categories (polytomous) and that is a multivariate extension of the classic binary logistic regression. The independent variables can be both continuous (covariates) and categorical or mostly factors [6]. Traditionally, polytomous-dependent variables have been modeled by discriminant analysis but, thanks to the growing development of calculation techniques, the use of multinomial logistic regression models has increased, that is implemented in statistical packages [5], that is increasingly common due to the best interpretability of the results. Multinomial logistic regression is used with a nominal-dependent variable with more than two categories (polytomous) and that is a multivariate extension of the classic binary logistic regression. The independent variables can be both continuous (covariates) and categorical (factors). Those models are analyzed to choose a category as a reference for the response variable, and several equations are simultaneously modeled, that is one for each of the categories with respect to the reference one. In this work, a multinomial logistic regression model is proposed to classify subjects, that is based on the values of a set of predictor variables. The priority of vaccination is classified in the canton of Portoviejo, the variables are considered: age, sex, number of presented symptoms at the time of registration, cardiovascular, chronic liver, chronic kidney, chronic respiratory, oncological, diabetes, hypertension, tuberculosis, other preexisting disease, exposed days to virus. The rest of the article continues, as follows: In Sect. 9.2, A description of the multinomial Logistic regression model is made; in Sect. 9.3, A brief overview of relevant function, mainly, information Theory’s Cross-Entropy function is described. In Sect. 9.4, the stochastic descent gradient algorithm is proposed to minimize an objective function J (θ ), that is obtained from proposed model. In Sect. 9.5, the results are discussed, and finally, in Sect. 9.6, a discussion and conclusions are established.
9.2 Multinomial Logistic Regression In the logistic regression model, the values of the dependent variable are coded as 0 and 1, that is resulted that the mean of the variable is represented like the proportion of cases that are occured in one of two categories (in the binomial case) or one of the multiple categories (in the multinomial case). The predicted value of the probability can be interpreted as the probability that is a case into a category that is accorded to the category. A linear model is not properly fitted to binomial variables, since the predicted values of the dependent variable (that is adjusted by the equation of a line) can take impossible probability values greater than 1 or less than 0, even though the observed values are between 0 and 1, the same situation is extended to multinomial
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variables. The best model is linearized of the relationship between the dependent and independent variables that is the logit model, that is built through logistic regression. In a binomial-dependent variable (Y = 0; Y = 1), if the probability of belonging to one class (Y = 0) is known, the probability of belonging to the other class (Y = 1), that is: P(Y = 1) = 1 − P(Y = 0), that can be tried to apply the linear probability model, expressed as: P(Y = 1) = β0 + β1 X where P(Y = 1) is the associated probability with the predicted variable (Y ), X is the independent or predictor variable, β0 and β1 are the population parameters that are estimated. The probability model is presented like the problem of nonlinearity with predicted values that can be less than zero or greater than one. For binary logistic regression models, if that has had a dependent variable Y , that has taken values Y = 1 (presence of a characteristic or another category of the variable) and Y = 0 (absence of the characteristic or the another category of the variable), the starting equation of the model is given by: exp(β0 + ns=1 βs X s ) P[Y = 1|X ] = 1 + exp(β0 + ns=1 βs X s ) where P[Y = 1|X ] is the probability, Y takes the value 1 in the presence of the predictor variable X , that is denoted by p(X ), X is a set of n predictor variable X 1 , X 2 , . . . , X n that are part of the model; β0 is the constant of the model or independent term and the βs is the coefficients of the covariates. The initial equation of the model is kind of the exponential type, but the logarithmic transformation (logit) is carried out: p(X ) ] = β0 + βs X s 1 − p(X ) s=1 n
ln[
That is used as a linear function that is easier to interpret. For the case, the dependent variable has more than two categories, the multinomial logistic regression model is used, that is modeled as indicated above, that is several logits simultaneously, where that is one for each of the remaining categories that is respected to the reference category of the considered dependent variable. A polytomous response variable Y with more than two response categories is considered, that is denote by Y1 , Y2 , . . . , Yk . That is intended to explain the probability of each response category as a function of a set of observed variables X = x1 , x2 , . . . , xn . That is fitted a model of the form p j (x) = P[Y = y|X = x] = f j (x), ∀ j = 1, . . . , k, for each vector x of observed values of the explanatory variables X . In the case of a binary response variable, the distribution conditional is followed like Bernoulli on each combination of observed values. When the response variable is polytomous, the Bernoulli distribution is become a multi-
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nomial distribution of the probabilities of each of the response categories. That is, (Y |X ) = x −→ M(1; p1 (x), . . . , pk (x)) where kj=1 p j (x) = 1. Then, that is obtained a linear model, that is obtained nx logit transformations to compare each pair of categories of the response variable, that is been as:
ln[
pi (x) pi (x)+ p j (x) p j (x) pi (x)+ p j (x)
] = ln[
pi (x) ], ∀i, j = 1, . . . , k(i = j) p j (x)
That is represented like the logarithm of the response advantage Yi versus Y j conditional on the observations of the independent variables that is fallen on one of both levels. The logit model of multinomial response is built that is enough to consider (k − 1) basic logit transformations, that is defined with respect to a reference category, that is taken the last Yk as a reference category. Thus, the generalized logit p (x) transformations are defined as L i (x) = ln[ pkj (x) ] ∀ j = 1, . . . , k − 1, where L j (x) is the logarithm of the response advantage Y j given the observations of the independent variables that is fallen into the category Y j or the Yk . The linear model is defined for each generalized logit transformations, that is for n explanatory variables: L j (x) =
n
βs j xs = x β j , ∀ j = 1, . . . , k − 1
s=0
for each vector of observed values of the explanatory variables x = (x0 , x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) with x0 = 1 and β j = (β0 j , β1 j , . . . , βn j ) the vector of associated parameters with the category Y j . For the response probabilities, the model can written as: exp( ns=0 βs j X s ) , ∀ j = 1, . . . , k − 1 p j (x) = n 1 + k−1 j=1 exp( s=0 βs j X s )
pk (x) =
1+
k−1 j=1
1 exp(
n s=0
βs j X s )
Being βsk = 0, ∀s = 0, 1, . . . , n.
9.3 A Brief Overview of Relevant Function Information theory’s cross-entropy function is a function that measures the difference between the true distribution p and the estimated distribution q: H ( p, q) = −
x
p(x) log q(x)
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The cross-entropy is not a distance function because H ( p, q) = H (q, p). The Softmax function R K → R K maps a vector z ∈ R K to a vector q ∈ R K such that: qi (z) =
e zi j∈{1,..K }
∀i ∈ {1, ..K }
ez j
The denominator of each element in q is the sum of numerators of all the elements, which satisfy: 0 ≤ qi ≤ 1 ∀i ∈ {1, ..K }
and
i∈{1,..K }
qi = 1
and therefore is a suffice discrete probability distribution over K values. The Softmax function can normalize any real vector z into a probability distribution q [1]. The input vector z can be interpreted as the unnormalized log probabilities, and the output q as a probability vector over the K values, that is exponentially proportional to z. The loss function gradients with respect to z(x) are obtained. Given the true label Y = y, the only nonzero element of the 1-hot vector p(x) is at the y index, which in practice makes the p(x) vector a selector for the y index in the q(x) vector. Therefore, the loss function for a single sample then becomes:
ez y Loss = − log(q y ) = − log z j j e
= −z y + log
ez j
j
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9.4 Stochastic Gradient Descent Maximum likelihood estimation is used to estimate the coefficients of the model and the errors standard; that is, the probability of the dependent variable is maximized the dependent variable is provided by the sample data. The estimations of the multinomial logistic regression coefficients are not direct, that is necessary to carry out iterative methods. Gradient descent is one of the most popular algorithms to perform optimization [2]. Gradient descent is a way to minimize an objective function J (θ )
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that is parameterized by a model’s parameters θ ∈ R d by updating the parameters in the opposite direction of the gradient of the objective function ∇θ J (θ ) w.r.t. to the parameters. The learning rate η determines the size of the steps that is taken to reach a (local) minimum. In other words, that is followed by the direction of the slope of the surface created by the objective function downhill until that is reached a valley [8]. Stochastic gradient descent (SGD) in contrast performs a parameter update for each training example x (i) and label y (i) : θ = θ − η∇θ J (θ, x (i) ; y (i) ) In pseudocode, stochastic gradient descent can be presented: 1. Choose an initial vector of parameters θ and learning rate η. 2. Repeat until an approximate minimum is obtained: • Randomly shuffle examples in the training set. • For i = 1, 2, ..., n, do: θ = θ − η∇θ J (θ, x (i) ; y (i) ).
9.5 Result The data from COVID−19 from the National Health Commission of the Republic of Ecuador [3] and the project: Evaluation of the progress of the pandemic in the Portoviejo canton of the Province of Manabi [4] is obtained, that is corresponded to series from 01–06- 2020 to 01–08-2020, that is considered a sample of 60 days in the province of Potoviejo, Ecuador, that is 900 samples. The epidemic is rapidly spread in a population of 329.144 habitants, 792 cases are confirmed. The description of medical pathologies is collected through a stratified sampling, specifically, that is contained: age, sex, number of presented symptoms at the time of registration, cardiovascular, chronic liver, chronic renal, chronic respiratory, oncological, diabetes, hypertension, tuberculosis, other preexisting disease, the days are exposed, result of a rapid PCR test; where that is interest the application of a vaccine in: persons are had large number pre-existing diseases, person adults and persons have presented a negative result to the PCR test. A categorization is established from the number 0 to the number 3, where the number 3 represents the highest order in the priority of the vaccine application and the number 0 represents people with positive tested in the PCR test, the persons with number 0 can be considered at the last moment of the vaccine application. A suitable vaccination distribution is established, a classification model is proposed, that is based on multinomial logistic regression, a stochastic estimation algorithm is proposed to determine the parameters of the model, stochastic gradient descent, the weights and biases for linear predictor function are randomly initialized with a normal distribution N (0, 1), the stochastic gradient descent algorithm is initialized that is taken a learning rate 0.9 and number of iterations 2000.
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Table 9.1 Classification by the multinomial logistic regression model for the first 20 people, (high risk = 3—low risk = 0) Real Data Model 3 3 3 3 3 3 1 3 3 3 2 3 3 3 0 0 0 3 2
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Table 9.2 Estimation error of the multinomial logistic regression model Mean absolute error Execution time (Seg) 0.877
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Table 9.1 shows the classification by the multinomial logistic regression model together with the real data, and a total of twenty people are shown to sort vaccination. Graph 9.1 shows the classification for a greater number of people that is for 100 peoples in (a) and for 500 peoples in (b), that is shown in blue color the real data and red color the simulated model, a classification of the model with respect to the real data is shown where the model is established to sort the persons who have high priority of vaccination. That is observed, the people are mainly adults, they have presented some pathologies, and they have given a negative result to the PCR test; the model is observed to sort persons who are not high priority with a low-risk classification value in some cases equal to the true classification value. Table 9.2 shows a measures of goodness of fit: the MAE to measure the estimation quality of the multinomial logistic regression model, that is shown insignificant estimation error, also, that is shown fast execution of estimation of parameters, respectively.
9.6 Discussion and Conclusions One model is shown to sort the persons who have a higher health risk when contracting SARS-CoV-2 in the province of Portoviejo, Ecuador. A based model on multinomial logistic regression that is classified the persons who may have priority in the administration of a vaccine against COVID-19, the parameters of the model are estimated, the maximum likelihood estimation is used, and a stochastic descent gradient algorithm is proposed to minimize a parameterized objective function J (θ ). The main objective is obtained a way of administering vaccines that is due to the limited supply of vaccine, where the proposed model is presented to get the best classification of persons that who are had high risk to suffer grave consequences for COVID-19. That is shown that the model adequately classifies persons in the canton of Portoviejo, that is used the variables: age, sex, number of presented symptoms at the time of registration, cardiovascular, chronic liver, chronic renal, chronic respiratory, oncological, diabetes, hypertension, tuberculosis, other preexisting disease, the days are exposed. The efficiency of the forecasts of the model is compared, that is reproducing accuracy in the estimates. Finally, one goodness-of-fit measure to validate the performance of the model is used, that is obtained insignificant estimation error.
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References 1. Goodfellow, I., Bengio, Y., Courville, A.: Softmax units for multinoulli output distributions. Deep Learning. MIT Press, pp. 180–184 (2016). ISBN 978-0-26203561-3 2. Bottou, L.: Online Algorithms and Stochastic Approximations. Cambridge University Press. Online Learning and Neural Networks (1998). ISBN 978-0-521-65263-6 3. Gómez, A., Orellana, D.: Situación epidemiológica de la Covid-19 y exceso de mortalidad en Ecuador. Gobierno Autónomo descentralizado municipal del Cantón. (2020). https://www. uchile.cl/documentos/situacion-epidemiologica-de-covid-19-y-exceso-de-mortalidad-enecuador-pdf_166285_0_1014.pdf 4. GAD and UTM. Evaluación el progreso de la pandemia en el cantón Portoviejo de la Provincia de Manabí mediante un muestreo estratificado por parroquias. Gobierno Autónomo descentralizado municipal del Cantón Portoviejo (GAD) y Universidad Técnica de Manabí (UTM). PYTCOLAB2006-2020-FCS0001 (2020) 5. Hosmer, D., Lemeshow, S.: Applied Logistic Regression (2nd edn). Wiley, New York (2000) 6. Menard, S.: Applied Logistic Regression Analysis, p. 91. SAGE (2002) 7. Greene, W.: Econometric Analysis (7th edn), pp. 803–806. Pearson Education, Boston. ISBN 978-0-273-75356-8, (2012) 8. Ruder, S.: An overview of gradient descent optimization algorithms (2016). arXiv preprint arXiv:1609.04747. https://arxiv.org/pdf/1609.04747
Chapter 10
Visual Metrics for Educational Videogames Linked to Socially Assistive Robots in an Inclusive Education Framework Nayeth I. Solorzano Alcivar , Luis C. Herrera Paltan , Leslie R. Lima Palacios , Dennys F. Paillacho Chiluiza, and Jonathan S. Paillacho Corredores Abstract In gamification, the development of “visual metrics for educational video games linked to social assistance robots in the framework of inclusive education” seeks to provide support, not only to regular children but also to children with specific psychosocial disabilities, such as those diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). However, personalizing each child’s experiences represents a limitation, especially for those with atypical behaviors. “LOLY,” a social assistance robot, works together with mobile applications associated with the family of educational video game series called “MIDI-AM,” forming a social robotic platform. This platform offers the user curricular digital content to reinforce the teaching–learning processes and motivate regular children and those with ASD. In the present study, technical, N. I. Solorzano Alcivar (B) · L. C. Herrera Paltan · L. R. Lima Palacios · D. F. Paillacho Chiluiza · J. S. Paillacho Corredores ESPOL Polytechnic University, Escuela Superior Politécnica del Litoral, ESPOL, Campus Gustavo Galindo, P.O. Box 09-01-5863 Guayaquil, Ecuador e-mail: [email protected] L. C. Herrera Paltan e-mail: [email protected] L. R. Lima Palacios e-mail: [email protected] D. F. Paillacho Chiluiza e-mail: [email protected] J. S. Paillacho Corredores e-mail: [email protected] N. I. Solorzano Alcivar · L. C. Herrera Paltan Facultad de Arte, Diseño y Comunicación Audiovisual—FADCOM, Guayaquil, Ecuador L. R. Lima Palacios Facultad de Ciencias Sociales y Humanísticas—FSCH, Guayaquil, Ecuador D. F. Paillacho Chiluiza · J. S. Paillacho Corredores Facultad de Ingeniería en Electricidad y Computación—FIEC, CIDIS, Guayaquil, Ecuador © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 A. Mesquita et al. (eds.), Perspectives and Trends in Education and Technology, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 256, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5063-5_10
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programmatic experiments and focus groups were carried out, using open-source facial recognition algorithms to monitor and evaluate the degree of user attention throughout the interaction. The objective is to evaluate the management of a social robot linked to educational video games through established metrics, which allow monitoring the user’s facial expressions during its use and define a scenario that ensures consistency in the results for its applicability in therapies and reinforcement in the teaching process, mainly adaptable for inclusive early childhood education.
10.1 Introduction Today, video games are becoming increasingly popular within people’s entertainment activities and are attracting the interest of researchers about their opportunities for studies in players [1]. The new generations access electronic devices at an increasingly young age. This widespread access is in addition to making them dexterous when using them, opens up a window of opportunities for researchers in which the use of new technologies as a learning tool is studied [2]. The positioning of smartphones and Tablets as indispensable artifacts of contemporary life makes it possible to implement educational video games on these devices as part of the gamification strategies applied to regular and inclusive education. Videogames, known as educational digital games (EDGs) or serious games, contribute a fun way to teach content. This contribution creates a good impression about gamification, increasing acceptance levels among users, capturing children’s attention and reinforcing their learning [3], and improving their well-being and mental health [4]. In the realization of serious games, especially for special and inclusive education, patients diagnosed with particular health or psychosocial conditions must participate from the first stage of developing the application or the game [5]. On the other hand, social assistance robots (SAR) used together with EDGs contribute to the learning process by encouraging user interaction and active listening [6]. The platform created as part of this research called MIDI-LOLY is a Human– Robot–Game (HRG) platform in which a social robot, “LOLY,” is linked with different digital educational games [7]. These EDGs are made up of animated stories about primary education curricular content and level games called MIDI-AM (an acronym for Children’s Interactive Educational Multimedia), developed as mobile applications [8]. Together, it seeks to improve the learning experience of children, who are studying the first years of primary education, and especially to capture and motivate the attention of children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), thus promoting inclusive education [7]. ASD is a neurological and developmental condition commonly diagnosed during childhood. It remains for life and influences interpersonal communication and the learning process, presenting restricted and repetitive behaviors, interests, and activities [9]. Several studies have used social robots for educational purposes in children with ASD, hoping to assess their contribution to the learning process. Similarly,
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studies involving human–computer interaction indicate that educational video games help reduce apathy and distraction, characteristic of their behavior [10, 11]. Similar attention patterns have been found in video games tested by users with ASD and with regular or known neurotypical users, using a gaze locator [12]. The social assistance robots used in gamification are a relatively new technology that focuses on developing intelligent robots capable of assisting in social interactions. Some authors have already highlighted the importance of their use in establishing interactive software–robotics–videogames environments as learning tools to teach and achieve rehabilitation of children with ASD [13]. Social assistance robots can offer personalized and affordable therapeutic assistance to children with ASD [14]. The biggest challenge is that children with ASD have apparent differences in language proficiency and variations in cognitive ability [15], social behavior, and understanding [16]. Due to this variation, the learning styles across the spectrum are not uniform, so there are different methods currently used to work with these groups [17]. For this reason, the study of gaming or gamification techniques is also essential since some methodological adjustment may be required to achieve the desired objectives [18]. In some cases, when interacting with robots and with EDG, children with ASD show social behaviors, such as imitation, robot eye gaze, and joint attention, which may be helpful in possible treatments [19, 20]. It is argued that these social behaviors, rare in children with ASD, can be caused by the robot and spontaneously on other occasions [21]. Therefore, variations such as linking the robot to an EDG for increasing children’s potential, in terms of the degree of attention, are proposed [7]. Therefore, the need arises to carry out some monitored follow-up of the Human–Robot–Game interaction to evaluate results of use and behavior. In this sense, there are alternatives for open-source facial recognition algorithms with which different visual characteristics of the user can be monitored and evaluated throughout the interaction. One of them is the OpenFace application, which allows performing a facial analysis of the user during the interaction with the LOLY social robot and the games of the MIDI-AM family. In addition, with visual monitoring, an observational operator can be dispensed with to provide an interpretation when the Game–Robot–Child interaction session is finished. The use of social robots in conjunction with EDGs applied on sessions of therapies for children with ASD is a new field that aspires to develop novel treatments to improve the quality of learning and behaviors of children and their families. For this purpose, it is essential to develop tools that evaluate the Child–Robot and Child– Game interactivity utilizing parameters such as the degree of attention and the times of activity and concentration.
10.2 Materials and Methods For the present explanatory study, field tests were developed in educational support centers working with regular or neurotypical children and with ASD. Focus groups
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and technical measurement of the results were carried out for the observation processes of the Robot–Game use activity and the evaluation of programmatic results.
10.2.1 Sample The selected technique is cluster sampling, dividing the children into two groups. The first group comprises neurotypical children with ASD, play together with LOLY, and an EDG from the MIDI-AM series. The second group works with children who play with the same EDG selected for the first group, but only using the Tablet. The total focal sample was 11 children with ages between four and eight years. Of this sample, five are neurotypical children, and six are children with grade one and two ASD (high and medium achievement). Each child played between 10 and 12 min on average, time estimated to be enough to complete each of the five chapters of the monitored EDG of the MIDI-AM series called “Anibopi.” The game used for the tests focuses on the teaching of living and non-living beings. The interaction of each child with the MIDI-LOLY platform was individual, and only the presence of the child, her representative, and a trained observer or technician were allowed to assist if required. All sessions were recorded on audio and video, with the written authorization of each representative.
10.2.2 Data Collection The data collection for the analysis and evaluation of the recorded interactions is carried out in two different processes. On the one hand, there are the games of the MIDI-AM family, which can run on an Android Tablet or phone, linked or not to the LOLY robot. These applications collect data throughout the interaction and store it in an interchange format log file called JavaScript Object Notation (JSON). This file contains valuable variables for the analysis of performance in the interaction, such as the number of game stories viewed, correct and incorrect answers, number of withdrawals, the average time to complete a level, among other variables necessary to evaluate the usability and playability of MIDI-AM applications. In addition, the social assistance robot providing support and encouraging participation in children allows the complete interaction to be recorded on audio and video. Likewise, the LOLY robot can work with various applications of the MIDI-AM series (as shown in Fig. 10.1). However, the “Anibopi” application is used exclusively for the experiments in this study. The video that is produced during the game is stored in the cloud and later processed with OpenFace. This analysis finally produces a file in CSV (commaseparated values) format with variables of interest such as confidence level, emotions, head position, and eye gaze. The MIDI dashboard is an online platform where all the
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Fig. 10.1 The general architecture of the MIDI-LOLY platform
data interactions corresponding to any of the applications that make up the MIDIAM family are stored. Therefore, each JSON generated by the mobile application plus the video data processed by OpenFace is stored in this medium. The dashboard serves as a storage space and environment in which the present analysis of the data available for each interaction can be accessed.
10.2.3 Visual Control Tool OpenFace is open-source software that allows facial recognition using neural networks, and in this case, it is used to monitor emotions and degrees of attention through the position of the head and the gaze of the eye [22]. The data is obtained from a video coming from a camera located on LOLY’s forehead. In this way, the software is used through a program in Node.js in which the user sends an image or a video for subsequent facial recognition analysis; later, it returns a CSV file with the results of the analysis [23]. Face detection—A restricted local neural fields (CLFN) model is used for the detection of facial points. This model can identify 68 facial points and is continuously improved by training the distribution of the points in different groups (eyes, lips, and eyebrows) [22]. From the coordinates of each facial point, identifiable emotions are determined, such as neutrality, anger, surprise, happiness, sadness, and disinterest. Head position—The position of the head is estimated from the 68 facial points previously identified. This identification is possible because the software uses a threedimensional representation for facial points and displays them in the image using an
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Fig. 10.2 Facial points/head movement/eye gaze–OpenFace
orthogonal projection of the camera. Although the program needs to have calibration parameters for the camera (focal length and main point), it can work without them using an estimate based on the size of the image [22]. Binary variables were created from the raw outputs of the program. Two possible scenarios are considered, one in which the head is perpendicular and the other in which the head is tilted downward. Eye gaze—Work was done in conjunction with the modules concerning the analysis of face detection. Once the position of the pupil and the eye have been detected, the CLFN model will use this information to generate variables that allow estimating the gaze of the eye [23]. Four possible scenarios are considered in which the user can direct his attention: (1) to the robotic face, (2) to the robotic bust, (3) to the Tablet, or (4) he is simply not paying attention to the interaction. The facial points, head movements in three axes, and gaze estimation are shown in Fig. 10.2.
10.2.4 Required Settings Once the output variables are described, the experiments help determine that the position of the head and the eye’s gaze variables depending considerably on the setting in which the tests are carried out because they work with angles. Meanwhile, the emotions work correctly, regardless of the scene in which the interaction takes place. Head position uses the variables Pose_Rx, Pose_Ry, and Pose_Rz to determine whether the user’s head is perpendicular to the camera or tilted downward. These variables are in radians, so they are transformed to sexagesimal degrees. On the other hand, the eye’s gaze uses the variables gaze_angle_x and gaze_angle_y and uses the binary variables c_perpendicular and c_inc_down to control the child attending the interaction. The gaze_angle_x and gaze_angle_y variables are in radians, so they are also transformed to sexagesimal degrees. Finally, the emotions are identified with the facial points located by the program. Regardless of the scenario in which the interaction occurs, correct detection of the face allows determining the emotion during observation. Several test videos were made with the focus groups and tests in a computer laboratory to analyze results.
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Fig. 10.3 Interaction scenario: a general scheme; b frame captured by LOLY’s camera; and c camera location in LOLY
10.2.5 Stage The interaction took place in a therapy room especially suitable for the care of children with ASD of the Asperger Ecuador Foundation. A table and chair with standard dimensions used in therapies with children focused the child’s height from the robot’s camera in everyday attention situations. For the Tablet with the game installed, a support device was used to keep it vertical in order to be able to visualize the front of the child’s gaze more appropriately. The LOLY robot was about 60 cm from the child’s face, while the Tablet was about 30 cm (as shown in Fig. 10.3). However, the main problem is the amplitude of the video captured from the forehead of the LOLY robot when using a fisheye lens. With this lens, the environment is widely captured and less of the child subject of study. This matter implies that the area occupied in the painting by the child’s face is smaller than the external space captured, and as a result, the facial points are more concentrated. Furthermore, the camera’s height (see Fig. 3c) is much higher than the level of the child’s head. All of this makes it difficult in the first instance to make correct estimates with face recognition software (as shown in Fig. 3b).
10.3 Analysis and Results 10.3.1 OpenFace Results Although the focus group tests were carried out with 11 children, they needed to wear a mask, given the current pandemic situation, making it difficult to analyze their recordings using OpenFace. Only one representative agreed to allow the child to carry out the interaction without a mask, always with her consent and considering all biosecurity measures. The results found for one of the children, recorded without a mask, are described below. This child, whom we will call RsbO, is seven years old and currently receives regular virtual classes of primary education, but with a basic
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knowledge of curricular content in the Natural Environment area, about living and non-living beings, that is the topic covered by the game used for the evaluation. Figure 10.4 shows that the child paid attention to the LOLY robot for 71% (Fig. 4b) of the interaction time, while to the Tablet only 27% (Fig. 10.4a). Overall, the records indicated that the child was 98% attentive to all interaction (Fig. 4c). These results, together with those of the dashboard, show excellent participation of the child during the five stories with content about “The Beings” that the game presents, guided by instructions given by the LOLY robot. No dropouts or incorrect answers occurred during the game activities, adding up to a total of 10/10 correct answers. Furthermore, Fig. 10.5 shows that, in the case of the RsbO child, he remained 71% of the time with his head in a perpendicular position, which, as previously mentioned, was the condition to determine that the child was looking at the robot. In addition, he spent 27% of the time observing the Tablet and only 2% neglecting the interaction. Therefore, considering 12 min of intervention, 98% of attention is a high and promising percentage. Following those mentioned above, it is suggested that LOLY is not a distraction for children during the learning process, since despite the high degree of attention they pay to the robot, their performance in the game is not affected. On the contrary, it is observed that it stimulates the child’s attention when giving instructions or indicating whether he corrects the answers or movements that the robot must perform in the game. Regarding the evaluation of feelings or moods, as shown in Fig. 10.6, it is positive that 67 and 12% of the total time, the child has reflected happiness and surprise on her face, respectively. Additionally, as a result of evaluating emotional situations, it is detected that it is not relevant that 2% of the time, the child has shown disinterest.
Fig. 10.4 Attention results obtained from OpenFace
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Fig. 10.5 Attention results (head position) obtained from OpenFace
Fig. 10.6 Empathy results obtained from OpenFace
Mainly, when comparing this data with the results that the MIDI dashboard metrics show, it was identified that this child did not make any mistakes in all the interactions. The mood at different specific moments of the game still needs to be analyzed as a whole to determine in which specific parts of the game the child shows a particular type of emotion. However, within this stage of the study, it was not possible to analyze the combination of these results.
10.3.2 Dashboard Results The hit and attempt results related to the attention to the activity from the MIDI-AM dashboard for the focal test carried out with children who played for the first time with the robot LOLY, and Anibopi can be seen in Fig. 10.7. This figure shows that
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Fig. 10.7 Hit results obtained with OpenFace (first time playing the game with LOLY)
they all had the same number of hits, in this case, 12 and that three of them had at least one mistake. Only one child showed a higher number of mistakes. This case is assumed to be related to the child’s age, who is barely four years old, the youngest in the sample, and with a low level of literacy justifiable at his age. Furthermore, he had no knowledge of the Natural Environment, unlike the other three children, who have already received regular classes and are currently receiving virtual classes. Child 4 is also highlighted (with whom the test was carried out with the full face), who did not have any mistakes and had a previous knowledge base on the content of Natural Environment. It should be noted that the number of attempts presents a significant variance. Nevertheless, this variance is also determined by the times they played the games, since in most cases, they repeated the same, noting that they wanted to continue playing with LOLY and the Tablet. Additionally, Fig. 10.8 shows the first round of games performed without LOLY on the focal tests, while Fig. 10.9 shows the second round of games with LOLY. Both graphs highlight tests 3 and 8 (“pr3”, “pr8”, identification codes of neurotypical children), which obtained the same number of correct answers in both the first and second tests. However, the number of mistakes and attempts with the pr3 child slightly increased while playing with LOLY. Something similar happens with test 6 (“pr6” child with ASD), but there was no mistake when playing on stage with the robot in this test. Besides, in the pr6 child, there are many attempts and fewer hits than the test without LOLY. This child’s results suggest, in the first instance, that LOLY may be a partial distractor for children with ASD and neurotypical when it comes to performing a game action. However, this did not represent a negative point by showing that the number of attempts increases with LOLY. On the contrary, this indicates the children’s desire to continue playing with the intervention of the robot, seeking to achieve more outstanding successes than mistakes with the help of LOLY, especially in the case of children with ASD. Except for the above, test 4 (“pr4”) reflected a more significant number of hits and missed with LOLY, unlike the scenario without the robot, but maintaining the
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Fig. 10.8 Hit results obtained from MIDI-dashboard using the game without ‘LOLY’
Fig. 10.9 Hit results obtained from MIDI-dashboard using the game with ‘LOLY’
same number of attempts in both cases. Thus, the observed result of this scenario was mainly due to the learning curve of the pr4 child, mainly due to their initial learning conditions. However, obtaining higher hits without increasing the number of attempts allows us to deduce LOLY’s contribution to the interaction. It is generally identified that children stay in the game longer when they are motivated by LOLY’s intervention. It should be noted that the focal tests were carried out periodically in three different sessions with similar results. However, it is highlighted that the hypotheses raised about moods or emotions have not yet been fully verified. This issue occurs
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because the videos of all the children could not being processed with the parameters established in the program due to the use of a mask during the sessions.
10.4 Discussion and Conclusion A study of the Human–Robot–Game (HRG) platform was carried out to analyze the work of a social assistance robot interacting with educational digital games (EDGs) used by a child in a therapeutic session like a game. In addition, this platform providing support seeks to encourage the active participation of children with ASD and neurotypicals in their educational learning activities. The current work is a baseline for developing improvements between the social robot LOLY and the MIDIAM series video games such as Anibopi. This research is considered innovative and relevant, as it does not identify studies that have documented similar tests of the functioning of EDG with robotics in children through the evolution of use metrics and facial recognition. The degrees of emotion and attention captured through videos during the game’s action are verified within these metrics. Focus groups were carried out with several children, in particularly with one child identified as RsbO. The scenario in which the interaction with RsbO was carried out, although it was not ideal, made it possible to confirm the viability of the OpenFace facial recognition program as a tool for analyzing the degree of attention; likewise, it allowed to identify possible improvements required in the EDGs and particularly in the robot. It was evidenced that the place where the camera is located, in the face of the LOLY robot, is not the most appropriate. This matter occurs due to the degrees of movement in the head that the robot has. In other words, when LOLY moves her head, she is also moving the camera. For this reason, specific observations reached atypical degrees, making it difficult to estimate the position of the head and the gaze of the eye. Therefore, the location of the robot’s camera is suggested, preferably on the chest, which would considerably improve the degree of vision and precision of movement during the recording of the child’s evaluation. Hypotheses raised as follows: LOLY improves the learning experience of neurotypical children or children with ASD; LOLY is not a distraction for children during the learning process; and LOLY is a stimulus to capture the child’s attention and keep playing. One of the most relevant hypotheses in the educational field is to evaluate if a social robot like LOLY is more effective in children who do not know the area to which the content of the game that is guided by the robot is dedicated, such as the analyzed case of the Anibopi game, on the Natural Environment.
10.4.1 Future Work In the study carried out, it has not been possible to answer all the questions, given the limitations caused by the COVID-19 pandemic, which caused, for example, the
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impossibility of being able to do specific tests in focus groups without the use of masks. However, the scenario under which it is possible to carry out the tests in the best conditions is determined, that is an appropriate position of the LOLY camera, efficient distance from the child to the robot, the need for not mandatory use of a mask, and a sample uniform of evaluated that allows creating more representative subsamples. We suggest for further investigation adds in the MIDI-AM dashboard the playtimes of the child for the different activities of the game. This playtime recorded will help contrast the information provided by the OpenFace facial recognition software to determine or rule out which parts of the application the joint use of the robot– game generate negative or primarily positive emotions in ASD neurotypical children to improve its therapeutic or educational use.
References 1. Villani, D., Carissoli, C., Triberti, S., Marchetti, A., Gilli, G., Riva, G.: Videogames for emotion regulation: a systematic review. Games Health J. 7:85–99 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1089/g4h. 2017.0108 2. Bartoli, L., Corradi, C., Garzotto, F., Valoriani, M.: Exploring motion-based touchless games for autistic children’s learning (2013) 3. Gros, B.: Digital games in education: Me design of games-based learning environments. J. Res. Technol. Educ. 40, 23–38 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1080/15391523.2007.10782494 4. Cheng, V.W.S., Davenport, T., Johnson, D., Vella, K., Hickie, I.B.: Gamification in apps and technologies for improving mental health and well-being: systematic review. JMIR Mental Health 6, e13717 (2019) 5. Sardi, L., Idri, A., Fernández-Alemán, J.L.: A systematic review of gamification in e-Health. J. Biomed. Inform. 71, 31–48 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbi.2017.05.011 6. Feil-Seifer, D., Matari´c, M.J.: Defining socially assistive robotics. In: Proceedings of the 2005 IEEE 9th International Conference on Rehabilitation Robotics (2005). https://doi.org/10.1109/ ICORR.2005.1501143 7. Paillacho, D.F., Solorzano, N.I., Paillacho, J.S.: LOLY 1.0: a proposed human-robot-game platform architecture for the engagement of children with autism in the learning process. In: Proceeding of the 1st International Conference on Systems and Information Science (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-59194-6_19 8. Solórzano, N.I., Elizalde, E.S., Carrera, D.A., Park, D.H., Sornoza, L.I.: MIDI-AM model to identify a methodology for the creation of innovative educational digital games: a proposed serious game methodology based on university research experiences. In: Ariana Daniela Del, P., Nuria Lloret, R. (eds.) Improving University Reputation Through Academic Digital Branding, pp. 133–167. IGI Global, Hershey, PA, USA (2020). https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-7998-49308.ch009 9. Buescher, A.V., Cidav, Z., Knapp, M., Mandell, D.S.: Costs of autism spectrum disorders in the United Kingdom and the United States. JAMA Pediatr. 168, 721–728 (2014). https://doi. org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2014.210 10. Contreras, R.S., Serra, A., Terrón, J.L.: Games and ADHD-ADD: a systematic mapping study. Acta Ludologica 2, 4–26 (2019) 11. Kozima, H., Nakagawa, C., Yasuda, Y.: Interactive robots for communication-care: a casestudy in autism therapy. In: Proceedings of the 14th IEEE Workshop on Robot and Human Interactive Communication (2005). https://doi.org/10.1109/ROMAN.2005.1513802
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12. Finke, E.H., Wilkinson, K.M., Hickerson, B.D.: Social referencing gaze behavior during a videogame task: eye tracking evidence from children with and without ASD. J. Autism Dev. Disord. 47, 415–423 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-016-2968-1 13. Dautenhahn, K.: Design issues on interactive environments for children with autism. In: Proceedings of the the 3rd International Conferenc on Disability, Virtual Reality and Associated Technologies (2000) 14. Clabaugh, C., Ragusa, G., Sha, F., Matari´c, M.: Designing a socially assistive robot for personalized number concepts learning in preschool children. In: Proceedings of the 5th Joint International Conference on Development and Learning and Epigenetic Robotics (2015). https:// doi.org/10.1109/DEVLRN.2015.7346164 15. Volkmar, F.R., Paul, R., Rogers, S.J., Pelphrey, K.A.: Handbook of autism and pervasive developmental disorders, diagnosis, development, and brain mechanisms. John Wiley & Sons, New Jersey, USA (2014) 16. Rice, K., Moriuchi, J.M., Jones, W., Klin, A.: Parsing heterogeneity in autism spectrum disorders: visual scanning of dynamic social scenes in school-aged children. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry 51, 238–248 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2011.12.017.J 17. Meyers, B., Goin-Kochel, R., Mackintosh, V.: Therapies for children with autism spectrum disorders: How many are children using. In: Proceedings of the biennial meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development (2005) 18. Constain, M., Collazos O., Moreira, F.: The gamification in the design of computational applications to support the autism treatments: an advance in the state of the art. In: Proceedings of the World Conference on Information Systems and Technologies (2019). https://doi.org/10. 1007/978-3-030-16187-3_19 19. Robins, B., Dickerson, P., Stribling, P., Dautenhahn, K.: Robot-mediated joint attention in children with autism: a case study in robot-human interaction. Interact. Stud. 5, 161–198 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1075/is.5.2.02rob 20. Scassellati, B.: How social robots will help us to diagnose, treat, and understand autism. In: Thrun S., Brooks R., Durrant-Whyte H. (eds) Robotics Research. Springer Tracts in Advanced Robotics, pp. 552–563. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg (2007). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3540-48113-3_47 21. Colton, M.B., Ricks, D.J., Goodrich, M.A., Dariush, B., Fujimura, K., Fujiki, M.: Toward therapist-in-the-loop assistive robotics for children with autism and specific language impairment. In: Proceedings of the 23rd Convention of the Society for the Study of Artificial Intelligence and Simulation of Behaviour (2009) 22. Baltrusaitis, T., Zadeh, A., Lim, Y.C., and Morency, L.P.: OpenFace 2.0: Facial behavior analysis toolkit. In: Proceedings of the 13th IEEE International Conference on Automatic Face and Gesture Recognition (2018). https://doi.org/10.1109/FG.2018.00019 23. Baltrusaitis, T.: Output Format OpenFace. GitHub (2019). https://github.com/TadasBaltrus aitis/OpenFace/wiki/Output-Format
Chapter 11
How Teams Learn Agility, a Beginner’s Guide for Software Development Giannina Costa, Oscar Pinto, Diego Fuentealba , Rubén Baeza, Paulina Lagos, Lilian San Martin, and Gustavo Gatica
Abstract Due to the SARS-COVID19 Pandemic, the need for information technology professionals has increased. At a global level, it is necessary to have teams in projects with agile methodologies. These methodologies allow permanent deliveries, risk management, and change management. Rapid application development, scrum and extreme programming stand out to develop software. It is proposed a model to identify main problems and guide beginner teams based on a set of good practices in developing and managing an agile project. Thus, it contributes to the quality of the software product and the satisfaction of the client. The methodology considers four stages. Firstly, the development team makes progress on the functionalities. Then, they are assessed to identify problems and difficulties to work with agile methodologies. Finally, the senior scrum master socialises good practices from the literature to be applied in the next iteration of the project. The research project lasted two years. The university involved 14 final year undergraduate students’ teams from systems engineering that developed an information and communications technology project. In a first cohort, 32 problems are detected in the implementation of scrum/XP, which impact the project’s objectives and the minimum viable product committed in each G. Costa · O. Pinto · R. Baeza · P. Lagos · L. San Martin · G. Gatica (B) Faculty of Engineering, Universidad Andres Bello, Santiago, Chile e-mail: [email protected] G. Costa e-mail: [email protected] O. Pinto e-mail: [email protected] P. Lagos e-mail: [email protected] L. San Martin e-mail: [email protected] D. Fuentealba Departamento de Informática y Computación, Universidad Tecnológica Metropolitana, Santiago, Chile e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 A. Mesquita et al. (eds.), Perspectives and Trends in Education and Technology, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 256, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5063-5_11
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Sprint. The second cohort students applied good practices to minimise the problems when developing the software with scrum/XP, reducing more than 85% of the first cohort’s problems.
11.1 Introduction There is a growing concern for a new teaching/learning model in higher education to encourage students’ transversal competencies [1–3]. Universities must produce professionals who not only remember knowledge but can apply it. Therefore, they contribute with a set of attitudes and values for professional development [4, 5]. Software projects are complex and need a set of best practices to manage and execute them. Agile methodologies (AM) are among the most widely used IT community methodologies for management and development [6]. However, both agile and traditional methodologies are not yet fully applicable to all IT projects [7]. This problem also affects systems engineers’ learning of agile methodologies. Final year students usually develop Capstone projects in Chile with scrum and extreme programming (XP). The students develop projects through a year with private companies, academics, and students as product owner, scrum Master and Team. The teachers who guide the degree projects have seen problems in understanding the AM, affecting the time estimation and, consequently, the project’s results. Literature related to AM learning reports similar issues such as poor time estimation, extra work due to lack of experience, poorly planned testing, and loss of overview [8, 9]. Although previous works recommend adapting AM learning to students [10], there is still a lack of verifiable guidelines in the project development process. This work proposes a methodology based on good practices, using the systems engineering student sample’s main problems. The paper is structured as follows. First, the knowledge base is discussed. Then, the methodology and its evaluation instruments are proposed. A results section shows the comparison of the assessments as the projects were developed. Finally, the conclusion section presents the main findings.
11.2 Background 11.2.1 Agile Methodologies The most widely used agile methods are scrum and XP. Scrum is a framework that brings together a collection of processes for project management. It aims to deliver value for the customer and empower the Team to achieve maximum efficiency within a continuous improvement framework [11]. Scrum relies on roles, events, artefacts,
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and associated rules to accomplish its goals through a self-managed team [12]. On the other hand, XP is an agile software development model that improves software quality and improves responsiveness to changes in requirements through short release cycles [13, 14]. Furthermore, both methods give an active role to the customer through frequent functional deliveries. These characteristics allow accepting changes in requirements without changing costs and project times.
11.2.2 Agile Methodology Learning One of the expected outcomes of an engineering student is working in multidisciplinary teams [15]. Companies also require communication, continuous learning, leadership, teamwork, and innovation [16–18]. The project’s success or failure in software engineering courses is related to the collaboration between team members [19–21]. For this reason, students must learn teamwork and social skills along with software engineering theory [22]. AM in Software Projects provides operational processes that can contribute to effective and efficient software development, improving the project’s quality and productivity [23, 24]. The agility aims to generate multidisciplinary, self-organised, and self-managed teams, where the project manager’s role is no longer relevant [25]. All team members have the same degree of responsibility, opinion, and decision-making power [26, 27]. Learning agile methodologies has been mainly through Capstone projects where there is a tendency to identify problems and propose solutions without measuring their impact. A study of 49 projects in a software engineering course over two years showed that the most recurrent problems were poor time estimation and time management [8]. In [9], the study proposes suggestions to teach agile methodologies based on the teachers’ experience through case studies. In [10], the paper analyses Capstone projects in a Software Engineering course in a controlled environment to measure all student activities, such as their role and degree of compliance with user stories. The researchers found association rules between team members’ performance and the learning styles proposed by the Felder-Silverman model. Therefore, there are advances in teaching agile methodologies, but they are focussed on software engineering courses without measuring the proposed guidelines’ impact.
11.3 Materials and Methods The model comprises 4 sequential, repetitive phases until the software development project is completed. Students are organised into scrum teams, assigning a senior scrum master and a product owner’s roles (Fig. 11.1).
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Fig. 11.1 Methodology flow chart
11.3.1 Development Phase The Team, together with the product owner (company or private organisation), develops the set of functionalities of the solution under the supervision of the senior scrum master, a certified academic from the university. The teaching evaluation methods control the context environment.
11.3.2 Survey Evaluation Phase The teacher examined working’s practices and organisation during a 60-day iteration to determine which problems affected the deliverables’ quality. A software product’s quality is interpreted as the user’s satisfaction fulfilling the requirements and the value added to the activity performed [28]. The ISO/IEC 25010 model measured products’ internal and external quality through two surveys. The former assesses the development team and the latter the product owner [29]. The product owner survey is based on ISO/IEC-25010:2011, where a set of questions is divided into different categories of the standard. The quality attributes assessed are effectiveness, efficiency, satisfaction, freedom from risk, and context coverage, thus characterising them to identify product quality characteristics and subcategories [29]. Table 11.1 shows the correlation between the quality attribute and the number of questions in the survey.
11 How Teams Learn Agility, a Beginner’s Guide … Table 11.1 Number of questions per quality category
Table 11.2 Number of questions per methodology category
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Quality category
Number questions
Functionality
5
Reliability
4
Usability
5
Efficiency
3
Use quality
4
Agile methodology characteristics
Number questions
Traceability (Product traceability)
23
Comprehension of scrum/XP by the scrum 25 master Comprehension of scrum/XP by the team Collaborative work by team Correct use of scrum/XP
16 6 28
The survey measures methodology characteristics such as product traceability, understanding by the senior scrum master and the Team, collaborative work of the Team, and correct use of the methodologies. Table 11.2 shows the characteristics measured and the number of questions.
11.3.3 Problem Detection Phase Teachers identified the most recurrent problems at the end of the first Sprint, highlighting the following problems (Table 11.3):
11.3.4 Application of Good Practices Phase This paper proposes that inexperienced teams could increase their deliverables’ quality by including good practices to mitigate errors. The lecturer progressively incorporates a set of best practices suggested in the literature. At the end of the bestpractice teaching, the senior scrum master supervises an iteration through the model’s first phase. This process is repeated until the inexperienced Team accumulates experience and interacts with the Stakeholders (Fig. 11.2). The project took a sample of 14 teams with no AM experience (scrum and XP) to identify the main issues. The surveys were taken separately by deliverables. The first assessment was against the delivery of the first minimum viable product
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Table 11.3 Main problems after the first sprint Problem
Error (%) Description
Role definition
100
Teams failed to define the roles adequately
Phase definition
100
Teams failed to define phase merger adequately
Artefact identification
30
70% of teams identified artefacts using scrum and XP, but 90% failed in determining when to use them
Design and estimation of user stories
80
Teams did not specify the requirements using user stories
100
None of the teams could define all necessary tasks to complete user stories. This omission generates incorrect estimations of the user stories’ duration
Architecture evolution
50
Teams reported that the architecture does not evolve along with the project progress (i.e., agile anti-pattern AP-A4)
Prioritisation of user stories
70
Teams could not get user stories prioritisation from product owners because of a lack of techniques to define significance
Estimation of user stories to complete per sprint
80
Teams over-estimated the number of user stories they could implement during a sprint. Teams did not know their development speed
User story classification
70
Teams defined user stories as functional requirements instead of business requirements
The omission of user stories’ prioritisation
55
Teams used their criteria to prioritises user stories, omitting product owner prioritisation
Variable sprint duration
60
The variable duration of Sprints struggles performances comparison among tasks and groups
Task definition
Sprint goal
100
Teams failed to set clear sprint’s goals
Team speed
100
Teams failed to estimate their work speed
User story creation techniques
100
Product owners were unaware of the user story creation techniques. They also did not know the correct way to prioritise them and define adequate acceptance criteria
Coding standards
100
Teams failed to define standards such as layers and shared libraries (continued)
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Table 11.3 (continued) Problem
Error (%) Description
Refactoring tasks
100
Teams failed to consider code refactoring between Sprints
Test case design and creation
100
Teams failed to perform a sprint test plan for quality assurance of the generated code
Sprint meetings
Definition of release
90
100
Teams failed to hold meetings according to the requirements of Scrum but instead focussed on their needs Teams failed to define the project releases nor their scope
Choice of scrum master
90
Information transmission
100
Teams failed to maintain up-to-date tasks, boards and burn-down charts
Definition of done
100
Teams failed to define the concept done, which specifies the tasks to be developed to end a sprint
60
Teams erroneously defined the product owner as a team member, with their role to complete, despite lacking the appropriate skills
100
The teams did not use a technique to estimate the size of user stories. Also, the estimation did not consider implicit tasks to develop in user stories
Creation of the sprint backlog
80
Teams did not create the sprint backlog to register product owners’ needs. They usually developed pending tasks
Clean code
80
Classes, methods, and functions did not have a clear purpose and intention
Peer programming
100
Teams did not work in pairs since they assumed that individual work could get better results
Stable coding time
100
Teams did not worry about maintaining a stable coding pace. Instead, they just focussed their efforts on developing code
Emergency procedures
100
The teams did not define emergency procedures to take concrete actions to face difficulties
Build product backlog
50
Definition of the product owner
Estimation of user stories
The scrum master did not have enough experience
Teams used product backlog to achieve product owner’s needs. The rest created the backlog for development needs
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Fig. 11.2 Procedures for surveys and analysis of results
(MVP) deliverable. The second assessment was conducted during the second MVP deliverable.
11.4 Results The surveys consisted of closed questions with ratings from 1 to 5, where one is “Totally disagree”, and five is “In complete agreement”. The sample of students was randomly selected by a group of academics from the faculty of engineering. Simple averages summarised the results. The conversion from the score to percentage is done in direct proportion according to Eq. (11.1). m Average survey =
n i=0
l k=0 xi jk −1 0.25 l
j=0
n
m
(11.1)
J is the feature number, i is the question number, x is the score from 1 to 5, k is the response number, n is the number of questions, m is the number of features, and l is the number of responses.
11.4.1 Evaluation of Methodology Surveys Table 11.4 shows the percentage average (avg) of the methodology survey for the two evaluations (Eval) for the 14 Teams.
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Table 11.4 Percentage average of the methodology survey Methodology survey Items
1st Eval (avg) (%)
2nd Eval (avg) (%)
Traceability (Product traceability)
55
89
Comprehension of scrum/XP by the scrum master
51
86
Comprehension of scrum/XP by the team
62
92
Collaborative work by team
55
92
Correct use of scrum/XP
56
90
Table 11.5 Percentage average of first and second quality survey
Quality survey Item
1st Eval (avg) (%)
2nd Eval (avg) (%)
Functionality
16
88
Reliability
16
82
Usability
23
87
Efficiency
8
84
Use quality
23
90
11.4.2 Evaluation of Quality Surveys Table 11.5 shows the quality surveys asked to the product owners by the MPVs.
11.4.3 Consolidated Results Comparative results show that understanding and use of AM improves from 56 to 90% on average in the main categories. In addition, development teams improved their understanding and use of MA by up to 62%. Figure 11.3 shows the proportionality between a limited improvement in AM understanding and an explosive improvement in MVP delivery quality.
11.5 Conclusion The integration of academia, business, and students for software development projects allows us to understand and apply good AM practices, contributing to validated human capital formation. Implementing good AM practices in the educational model enhances inexperienced teams’ software development’s internal and external quality. The validation involves two years of implementation, 14 teams, and data capture through surveys in different periods. Future work will evaluate with surveys teams inexperienced in traditional methodologies against teams’ results applying the model. The impact of the model’s massification on the processes, time, and resources
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Fig. 11.3 Comparative survey results
needed for the development of software projects and its impact on methodological changes in integrated teaching between industry, teaching, and education will be reviewed.
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Didactics Strategy Using ICT, for Kids with Trisomy of Pair 21 Rubén Jerónimo Yedra , María Alejandrina Almeida Aguilar , Eric Ramos Méndez , Gerardo Arceo Moheno , Arturo Corona Ferreira , and Ricardo Avila Alexander Abstract Trisomy 21, better known as Down syndrome, it is a chromosomal abnormality that establishes the presence of a set of clinical, morphological, and anatomical characteristics in the person suffering from it. People with Down syndrome can generally do most of the daily activities, such as walking, talking, getting dress, or playing. However, they generally do these things later than other children. Children with Down syndrome have developmental patterns similar to genetically healthy children, only they do so more slowly and going through some difficulties. The slowness in their abilities to process, perceive, and elaborate responses to situations in their environment implies the need to respect them and give them the time they need, supporting them with verbal incentives such as affectionate words, repetitions of words, songs or music, among still others, to reinforce their confidence in themselves. For this reason, under a mixed research approach and using as instruments for the collection of data to the observation, the unstructured interview and the survey, a didactic tool of a playful type was developed using Information and Communication Technologies (ICT), such as children’s learning support are Down syndrome, in order to help them to develop their reading skills.
12.1 Introduction Information and communication technologies (ICT) have had a significant impact on the functions of the educational system, allowing innovation in the transmission of new knowledge, since they offer students access to unlimited sources of knowledge, as well as to multimedia tools that allow to expand this knowledge of information [1]. Throughout the world, education systems are in times of uncertainty, due to constant changes in the ways of teaching and work methodologies, in addition with the health problems that today afflict humanity [2]. R. Jerónimo Yedra (B) · M. A. Almeida Aguilar · E. Ramos Méndez · G. Arceo Moheno · A. Corona Ferreira · R. Avila Alexander Universidad Juárez Autónoma de Tabasco, Villahermosa 86040, Tabasco, CP., México © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 A. Mesquita et al. (eds.), Perspectives and Trends in Education and Technology, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 256, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5063-5_12
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The management of ICTs has come to revolutionize the way of developing learning within schools, where society requires that students know and develop skills for the management of technologies.
12.2 Context Girls and boys with some need for special education have been marginalized within educational systems and have experienced exclusion, discrimination, and segregation to receive on-site instruction education. The concept of special educational needs supposes “the crystallization of a new concept of special education, which shifts the focus of attention from individualism, considered as a carrier or patient of the disorder, toward educational interaction, in which he is only one of the integral parts” [3]. Many children and young people suffer from Down syndrome, which it is a genetic disorder that originates when abnormal cell division produces an additional total or partial copy of chromosome 21, varying in severity from one individual to another and causing intellectual disability and delays in lifetime development [4]. According to preliminary data from the General Directorate of Health Information during 2018, in Mexico, 351 girls and 338 boys (689 in total) were born with Down syndrome, which lasts a lifetime and care for people with this condition, and it is focused on helping them develop to their full potential. This may include speech, occupational, and physical therapy and may require extra support at school [5]. Children affected by this syndrome have development patterns similar to genetically healthy children, only they do it more slowly and going through some difficulties, they are happy and affectionate people, they very easily imitate what they observe, a characteristic that benefits their incorporation into institutions of “common education”; in which they progress. It is very important to study carefully what are the peculiarities of learning of children with Down syndrome and the usual way in which these students approach educational content, since they have a lower average intellectual capacity, with important deficiencies in their adaptive capacity. The “Fundación Iberoamericana Down 21” [6] mentions that when it comes to determine the educational objectives that are most appropriate for students with Down syndrome, it must be taken into account that, in their case especially, there is a limited time to teach unlimited knowledge, given that they acquire skills more slowly than other students, so we must be especially rigorous by choosing what we are going to dedicate our educational efforts. In the state of Tabasco, Mexico, there are educational spaces called Multiple Attention Center (CAM), distributed in the different municipalities of this town, whose main function is to provide initial and basic education (preschool and elementary), to the school population with disabilities and special educational needs, as well as providing them with training for work, through a work center.
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At CAM, with the intention of helping to develop the cognitive process of children with this syndrome, various materials are used such as newspaper, colored pencils, paints, cardboard, glue, seeds, plasticine, colored sheets, and among others. Their learning process is slow, considering that one of the characteristics of these children is the difficulty to retain information, so often and even daily, teaching strategies are repeated to help them in their learning process. Due to the aforementioned, the proposal was made to the CAM, established in the municipality of Jalpa de Méndez, in the state of Tabasco; to develop a didactic tool that, using ICT, would be useful for children with Down syndrome and whose objective is to support their learning process, helping them to reinforce the content they see in the classroom. For this, the proposed didactic tool contains attractive interfaces and simple and friendly content, in such a way that the child can obtain sufficient feedback and help him to develop a greater understanding of the topics, in addition to increasing his abilities to convert information into knowledge.
12.3 Materials and Method The present research is based on the mixed approach, which according to HernándezSampieri [7], the goal of mixed research is not to replace quantitative research or qualitative research, but to use the strengths of both types of inquiry, combining them and trying to minimize their potential weaknesses. The instruments for data collection were used the observation, unstructured interview and survey. The unstructured interview was used to detect the needs that the didactic tool will cover, since a communication was established between the researcher and the teacher in charge of caring for children and young people with Down syndrome, with the purpose of obtaining answers to the questions raised on the proposed topic, and furthermore, it is a quick, simple, and easy instrument to apply. Observation was used; because with this instrument, the events or facts were perceived directly, without any kind of intermediation. The survey was used to obtain information on the topics that are reviewed daily in class and that help them to reinforce their knowledge and that was applied to the teacher in charge of the group with Down syndrome. In order to carry out the didactic tool, it is necessary to have the vision of the application, that is why a software engineering process is important, which it is responsible for defining a model to control the software life cycle, the programming to be used, and also includes the methodology for the design of the software content [8]. For this research, the evolutionary prototype model was chosen (see Fig. 12.1), which it allows the whole system or some of its parts to be built quickly to easily understand and clarify certain aspects in which they ensure that the developer, the
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Fig. 12.1 Evolutionary prototype model ( Source Universidad de Salamanca)
user, and client agree on what it is needed, as well as the solution proposed for aforementioned need and, thus, minimize risk and uncertainty in development [9].
12.4 Characteristics of the Target Population The study population used in this work is formed by eight students from the CAM of Jalpa de Méndez, Tabasco, who they were studying in the first and second year of primary school, with ages between 7 and 9 years old, of which three were girls and five were boys, which made up the study sample. These children showed slowness in their ability to perceive, process information, develop responses to environmental stimuli, and have little ability to retain what they have learned; therefore, it required to be reinforced their reading and writing skills in order that they can learn the basic concepts in a dynamic and entertaining way, taking advantage of the fact that their visual abilities are superior to their hearing abilities, and their comprehension abilities are superior to the speech abilities.
12.5 General Structure Design In Fig. 12.2, it is shown that the navigation diagram of the didactic tool was built with its modules and thematic contents. There are five modules that integrated by the didactic tool, which address topics such as Spanish, mathematics, colors, geometry, and knowledge of the environment.
12.6 Results As a result of this research, a didactic tool was developed, whose purpose is not only that the student acquires a series of knowledge, but also it helps in the development of autonomous procedures, by interacting with the various elements that were contemplated within this technological product.
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Fig. 12.2 Didactic tool navigation diagram
In Fig. 12.3, the main screen of the didactic tool is shown, in which the five modules that are shown, as follows: Spanish, mathematics, colors, geometry, and Knowledge of the environment. In order to access to the topics, it is enough for the user to click on some of the buttons that exist.
Fig. 12.3 Didactic tool modules
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Fig. 12.4 Media knowledge topic screen
In Fig. 12.4, the screen that has the interface of the Knowledge of the environment topic is shown, showing the options of “You around,” “Your body,” “Fruits,” and “Emotions.” In Fig. 12.5, a screen with basic math operations in particular of the subtraction operation is presented, where a disapproving face is shown, if the student makes a mistake when answering or a sound if he did it correctly. After having developed the didactic tool, the children with Down syndrome were given the tool to interact with it, and it was possible to detect that the average number of exercises correctly solved in class, for the various topics, increased. Figure 12.6 shows the percentages before using the tool and after using it. In the same way, it was observed that the average of mistakes when performing the exercises during their face-to-face class decreased in the different subjects. Figure 12.7 shows the percentages before and after using the tool.
12.7 Conclusion In this research, a didactic tool was created, which intends to provide support in the learning process, to children with Down syndrome problems, of the Multiple Attention Center (CAM), of the municipality of Jalpa de Méndez, Tabasco. Nowadays, technology is useful as a great didactic support in educational institutions; therefore, it is important to make use of ICT to design educational software that
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Fig. 12.5 Example of basic math operations
Average number of exercises solved 90%
75%
SPANISH
95%
95%
85%
60%
MATH
80% 80%
COLORS
Before
60%
GEOMETRY
80%
KNOWLEDGE OF THE ENVIRONMENT
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Fig. 12.6 Resolved exercise averages data of the various topics
supports the teaching–learning process, for all children and in the particular case that is discussed here, those who suffer from Down syndrome, to help them to develop their reading and writing skills in an attractive and dynamic way. Children with learning difficulties in general and with Down syndrome in particular need to see and do their activities, in a systematic and orderly way, to learn and understand. Although this software was designed specifically for the CAM population, it could be used in a school or institute that cares for children with this same syndrome,
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Average number of mistakes in the topics 33% 24%
26% 22% 18%
17%
17%
10%
SPANISH
MATH
COLORS
Before
18% 10%
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KNOWLEDGE OF THE ENVIRONMENT
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Fig. 12.7 Average data of children’s mistakes in the various topics
although it could also be used as didactic support with children who are in the first grade of primary school, since they are infants that begin their learning process.
References 1. García Sánchez, M., del, R., Reyes Añorve, J., Godínez Alarcón, G.: Las TIC en la educación superior, innovaciones y retos / The ICT in higher education, innovations and challenges. RICSH Rev. Iberoamericana de las Ciencias Sociales y Humanísticas 6(12), 299–316 (2018). https:// doi.org/10.23913/ricsh.v6i12.135. Last accessed 2021/01/21 2. Beltrán Lara, M.L., Álvarez Mendoza, T.A.: Uso y apropiación de las TIC por los docentes en la escuela normal rural (2017). https://www.conisen.mx/memorias/memorias/1/C200117-J008. docx.pdf. Last accessed 2021/02/10 3. Colmenero Ruiz, M.J.: Evolución, desarrollo y perspectiva actual de la educación especial: La escuela inclusiva (2017). http://www4.ujaen.es/~mjruiz/documentos/efmagtema_2.pdf. Last accessed 2021/02/15 4. Mayo Clinic.: Síndrome de Down. Obtenido de (2018). https://www.mayoclinic.org/es-es/ diseases-conditions/down-syndrome/symptoms-causes/syc-20355977?utm_source=Google& utm_medium=abstract&utm_content=Down-syndrome&utm_campaign=Knowledge-panel. Last accessed 2021/03/01 5. Secretaría de Salud de México.: Día Mundial de las Personas con Síndrome de Down. Secretaría de Salud de México (SSM). Obtenido de (2019). https://www.gob.mx/salud/articulos/dia-mun dial-de-las-personas-con-sindrome-de-down?idiom=es. Last accessed 2021/01/21 6. Fundación Iberoamericana Down 21.: Qué es el síndrome de Down (2021). https://www.dow n21.org/. Last accessed 2021/02/14 7. Hernández-Sampieri, R., Fernández, C., Pilar Baptista, L.: Metodología en Investigacion, 6ta. Ed. Mcgraw-Hill, Mexico (2014) 8. Systems Group.: La Ingeniería de software ¿Qué es y qué utilidad tiene? (2019) https://sys temsgroup.es/tecnologias-de-la-informacion/la-ingenieria-de-software-que-es-y-que-utilidadtiene/32363/. Last accessed 2021/02/10 9. García Peñalvo, F.J., García Holgado, A.: Tema 3: Modelos de proceso. Universidad de Salamanca (Dpto. de Informática y Automática) (2018). https://repositorio.grial. eu/bitstream/grial/1142/1/IS_I%20Tema%203%20-%20Modelos%20de%20Proceso.pdf. Last accessed 2021/01/10
Chapter 13
Can We Assess Creativity? The Use of Rubrics for Evaluating Transcreation in the Undergraduate Program of Translation and Interpreting Mar Díaz-Millón
and Irene Rivera-Trigueros
Abstract The professional world of translation and interpreting is in constant change and evolution. For that reason, higher education should keep pace with the professional world and provide future translators with a comprehensive training. This includes training in emergent professional profiles, e.g., transcreation. This is the creative intra- or interlinguistic reinterpretation of a text for adapting it to the target public and is one of the most blooming trends in the translation industry. This work aims at describing an initiative carried out in an English–Spanish translation course at the University of Granada, in which transcreation training was included. First, following a simulated project-based approach, the design and elaboration of transcreation assignments based on the professional transcreation brief are addressed. Secondly, an assessment tool appropriate for the evaluation of such a subjective and creative activity is proposed. The starting point is the traditional rubric, used for the evaluation of translation assignments. An adapted rubric based on a descriptor scale evaluating four different criteria conceived to fit the purpose of transcreation training is presented, and conclusions are withdrawn.
13.1 Background Nowadays, translation and interpreting graduates face a job market in constant change due to the development of new tools and technologies. During the last years, the professional field of translation has witnessed the emergence of new trends which have led to new profiles. Transcreation, the intra- or interlinguistic reinterpretation of a text for adapting it to the target public, is one of these emerging trends within the translation industry [1]. Transcreation arose from the need of adapting marketing M. Díaz-Millón (B) · I. Rivera-Trigueros University of Granada, 18012 Granada, Spain e-mail: [email protected] I. Rivera-Trigueros e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 A. Mesquita et al. (eds.), Perspectives and Trends in Education and Technology, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 256, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5063-5_13
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actions and campaigns to foreign markets without losing the main creative aim of the original campaign [2]. Consequently, transcreation implies that the words and meaning of texts can be completely altered in order to produce the same effect in the target public as in the original audience. Given its nature, transcreation processes demand not only linguistic skills but also competencies related to creativity and cultural awareness [3]. This new trend has now acquired its own identity, differing from other linguistic services such as translation itself or localization. As a result, ISO 17100 standard acknowledges that transcreation is an added value in the language industry [4]. In light of the previously exposed scenario, higher education institutions should adapt their teaching and curricular contents to the demands of new professional profiles. To this aim, it is essential to foster the specific and transversal skills linked to these new profiles as well as developing methodologies and evaluation processes related to the dynamics of the professional field [5]. However, transversal competencies have often a secondary role in the curriculum [6, 7]. Nevertheless, in the case of transcreation, acquiring transversal competencies is of paramount importance for its proper performance. More specifically, transcreation demands for great creativity skills; therefore, integrating them into the course curriculum would give undergraduate students competitive advantages for succeeding in the labor market [8]. In addition, fostering creativity also implies the development of other competencies such as leadership and those skills related to translation fluency, adequacy, flexibility, and originality [8, 9]. Fostering transversal skills requires both methodologies and evaluation processes focused not only on the development of a final product but on the whole process involved. In this sense, project-based and collaborative learning are great methodologies to foster transversal skills, creativity included [10, 11]. Within the translation field, it has been proved that these kinds of methodologies were useful both for knowledge acquisition and for the development of transversal competencies such as critical thinking and teamwork [12–16]. With regard to transcreation, there have been initiatives based on collaborative projects aiming to introduce this new trend in the translation classroom [17, 18]. However, despite the expansion of competency-based curriculum design, there is still a need for developing assessment methods which allow to evaluate competency acquisition [19, 20]. Consequently, it should be considered that not only knowledge should be assessed but also the competencies acquired by the students [21]. Nonetheless, assessing the subjective competencies involved in transcreation such as creativity poses a great challenge for teachers and necessarily implies moving away from traditional methods. Thus, competency assessment can be carried out by means of a wide range of resources such as checklists, Likert scales, diaries, anecdotal or observation records, and rubrics [19, 22]. Given the wide scope of possibility that they offer, in this case, the main focus of research will be rubrics, which are scoring tools that determine the expectations for a given assignment by dividing it into several components and providing a detailed description of what are their acceptable or unacceptable performance levels [23]. Specifically, they are normally classified in holistic—which offer a single score according to the selected criteria—or analytic—which assess different performance
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dimensions and assign them a separate score [24]. Holistic rubrics can define performance levels more superficially than analytic rubrics, which demands for detailed assessments [23, 24]. Therefore, rubrics encourage learners’ self-study and allow educators to clearly define learning and assessment goals [23]. The main objective of this work is to present a method for assessing transcreation and the competencies involved in this process in the most objective manner possible. In this sense, an analytic rubric has been adapted from previous work [20, 25] and implemented during an English translation course for assessing translation briefs.
13.2 Methodology Assessing and evaluating such a subjective activity as transcreation pose a challenge for the translation trainer. In general, defining criteria for evaluating transcreation quality is a challenge due to its subjective and creative nature [26]. As described in the previous section, the main goal of this study is to design an assessment tool that evaluates the work of translation and transcreation trainees in as an objective manner as possible. For that reason, the first step of this work was to devise transcreation assignments for students. Then, the second step was to adapt a more traditional evaluation tool, rubrics, to fit the purpose of the proposed assignments. These activities and their evaluation were applied in two groups of students from an English–Spanish translation course in the undergraduate program of translation and interpreting at the University of Granada (Spain). This course from the sixth semester of the program is targeted toward translation students for whom English is their second foreign language. As part of the program of this course, the authors (and trainers) introduced transcreation training activities.
13.2.1 Transcreation Briefs This work follows a situated project-based approach of translation training. The features of this method consist in simulating as much as possible and feasible the professional environment of translators in the classroom [27]. As such, this approach combines collaborative learning and project-based activities to foster translation training. Thus, for the transcreation activities for students, authors produced assignments as similar as possible to professional transcreation briefs. A brief is a document present in the language industry (transcreation included) which can roughly be defined as a document used to provide understanding on the linguistic characteristics of a translation project. More specifically, the transcreation brief provides the transcreator with information about the instructions and guidelines that must be followed to adapt a campaign to a local market [28]. In order to design transcreation assignments to be followed by students, the selection of the main elements that should be present in said briefs was extracted from
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the synthesis of professional transcreation brief templates available in professional translation companies’ Web sites. Templates provided by the companies On Target1 and Text Trans2 were selected. The analysis of these two templates led to the elaboration of a list of elements that needed to be present in a transcreation brief. This set of characteristics was adapted to fit the purpose of a learning activity. As a result, the following characteristics were deemed to be the most relevant for transcreation training activities: • Audience: Information about the audiences receiving the source and the target text. • Brand: Information about the brand and brand identity. • Challenges: Cultural issues, communication problems, and any other challenges expressed in the brief. • Creative aspects: Degree of creative freedom imposed to the transcreator/student. This degree of freedom may vary between different assignments. • Deadlines: Information about the due date for submitting the assignment. • Deliverables: Information about the materials that the translator/student is expected to submit. • Media: Information about the medium in which the transcreated text will hypothetically be delivered. • Message: Information about the main message that the transcreated text should transmit. • Objectives: Purpose and goals of the transcreated text. • Resources: Any further instructions about the transcreation process, existing glossaries with corporate terminology, etc. • Tone/style: Information on the register and style required for the transcreated text. This list was used as a reference for producing transcreation assignments. As these were inspired by real materials provided by translation companies, students would be introduced to an activity as close to the reality of transcreation as possible. As no real example of transcreation briefs was found, the assignments were conceived to be rather comprehensive and include all the characteristics present in the list above. A translated version (Spanish to English) of the transcreation assignments is provided below as an example.3 This 2019 campaign promotes safe sex and sexual health services with harder-to-reach population groups. In addition to poster advertising, this initiative includes the distribution of free prophylactics, advice and clear signposting to services. One of its main aims is to draw attention to the cost to the National Health Service of missed appointments with sexual health professionals and encourages people to attend. It targets the over 35’s and it promotes sexual health services to the over 30’s, following research that found that many people over 30 don’t think sexual health services are for them. 1
Available at https://ontargettranslation.com/PDF/transcreation-brief.pdf. Last accessed: 17/03/2021. 2 Available at http://texttrans.com/content/uploads/2017/04/TextTrans-Translation-TranscreationBrief.pdf... Last accessed: 17/03/2021. 3 Any identifiers have been removed to preserve data protection.
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It encourages people to practice safe sex by addressing some of the barriers that currently exist and prevent many people from having safe sex. Read more about the campaign: [Campaign website URL] Following the success of the sexual health campaign launched in [city], the National Health Service wants to roll it out nationally and also translate it for Spanish-speaking audiences. You are asked to translate and adapt a series of leaflets that are part of the campaign. You have creative freedom to handle the text of the slogans and hashtags associated with this campaign, as well as the visual elements. The more specialized terminology must be correctly translated and the message of the original must be the same in Spanish.
Then, the following step was to design an assessment tool to evaluate students’ work on transcreation. The starting point was the use of rubrics to evaluate translation training.
13.2.2 Rubrics for Evaluating Transcreation The use of rubrics for evaluating learning in translation has already been documented, and previous research suggests that those are a satisfactory evaluation tool [20, 25, 29]. The rubrics that will be considered as a starting point for this study will consist of a descriptor scale evaluating different criteria within translation and transcreation performance. These criteria, adapted from previous studies [25], are described below. • Content: This criterion evaluates the comprehension of the message expressed in the source text (ST) and in the brief. In this category, the trainer would assess the presence (or absence) of functional inadequacies in the produced text such as omission or addition of information. • Register, vocabulary, terminology: This criterion evaluates the choice of register, the selection of vocabulary, and the use of the appropriate terminology. Functional inadequacies in this category include the choice of a tone or style different from the one specified in the transcreation brief. • Brief and orientation to target text (TT) type: This criterion evaluates the production of a text following the instructions of the brief. The application of adequate translation strategies and the solution of cultural issues and communication problems belong to this category. • Formal expression: This last criterion evaluates the presence (or absence) of functional inadequacies in the TT such as grammar, punctuation, and spelling mistakes and errors. Each criterion is divided into six different levels (from 0 to 5). Each level defines a degree of accuracy of the performance of students. So, the final mark obtained would be calculated out of 20 points. This way, an attempt is made for evaluating in a quantitative manner the creative work of students. This rubric bears in mind the main principle of objectivity. For that reason, levels for the four criteria are thoroughly defined in the rubric. Thus, the trainer is provided
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with clear guidelines to apply the rubric and the trainees are provided with a transparent view of the method employed to assess their work. It should be noted that these criteria are not aimed at evaluating the quality of the transcreated text produced by students. Instead, this evaluation framework assesses the strategies applied by students during the transcreation process in terms of the four main criteria. Further description and explanations of the rubric can be found in the section below.
13.3 Proposed Assessment Tool enlargethispage-12ptThe final assessment tool adapted from [20, 25] is shown in Table 13.1. This is a comprehensive evaluation framework oriented to evaluating transcreation activities produced by students. As transcreation is a translation-related Table 13.1 Evaluation framework for transcreation Evaluation criteria A. Content
B. Register, vocabulary, terminology
C. Brief and orientation to target text type
D. Formal expression
0
The text fails to meet minimum requirements
The text fails to meet minimum requirements
The text fails to meet minimum requirements
The text fails to meet minimum requirements
1
Comprehension limited. Major content errors. The text fails to transmit the message specified in the brief
Choice of register inappropriate or inconsistent. Vocabulary limited with some basic errors. Limited awareness of appropriate terminology
Little or no evidence of orientations to TT type. Formal or literal translation. The text fails to tackle cultural issues or communication problems
Limited. Errors in basic structures
2
Comprehension adequate. Minor content errors. Some distortions of the message specified in the brief
Choice of register occasionally inappropriate or inconsistent. Occasional mistakes of basic vocabulary. Clear awareness of appropriate terminology although some errors
Some evidence of orientation to TT type. Some elements of formal or literal translation. The text tackles cultural issues and communication problems, but not effectively
Ineffective. Errors in complex structures. Mistakes in basic structures
(continued)
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Table 13.1 (continued) Evaluation criteria A. Content
B. Register, vocabulary, terminology
C. Brief and orientation to target text type
D. Formal expression
3
Comprehension good. Minor omissions of less relevant message specified in the brief. Some distortions or ambiguity
Choice of register mostly appropriate and consistent. Vocabulary effective despite mistakes. Terminology appropriate despite occasional errors
Clear orientation to TT type. Appropriate use of translation strategies. Clear orientation to tackle cultural issues and communication problems, although some errors
Effective. Errors in use of prepositions or minor spelling errors. Occasional punctuation errors
4
Comprehension very good. Minor errors not affecting the message specified in the brief
Choice of register appropriate and consistent. Vocabulary effective despite occasional mistakes. Terminology appropriate despite mistakes
Effective production of TT type. Consistently appropriate use of many translation strategies. Cultural issues and communication problems effectively solved, despite mistakes
Good and effective. Occasional errors of advanced usage only. No mistakes
5
Comprehension excellent. Message specified in the brief, including subtle detail, fully understood
Choice of register consistently effective and appropriate. Sophisticated, highly effective choice of vocabulary. Terminology appropriate and wholly accurate
Effective, sophisticated production of TT type with few or no mistakes. Cultural issues and communication problems effectively solved
Sophisticated. Almost free of advanced errors. No mistakes
activity, some of the criteria included in it are both transcreation and translation criteria. The key aspect of this tool is its approach at designing an objective evaluation system for a subjective and creative activity. As described above, criteria are not directed at evaluating the quality of the transcreation process itself. These criteria try to evaluate the strategies applied by students in terms of their orientation to the transcreation brief and text type, as well as they evaluate objective criteria (comprehension of the content, punctuation, grammar, vocabulary, register, etc.). This tool, thus, combines a series of translation-oriented objective criteria and other set of transcreation-oriented subjective criteria in order to fulfill the evaluation needs of
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students. The objective of this tool is to be as impartial as possible to contribute to the training of future translators and transcreators.
13.4 Conclusions This study proposes a methodology to evaluate transcreation tasks within the frame of the translation course. For such a purpose, a rubric based on a descriptor scale has been designed. This assessment tool has been conceived to be as objective as possible, given the difficulties of evaluating a creative and subjective activity as transcreation. That is the reason why the criteria included in the rubric are targeted at evaluating different aspects of the transcreation process, including more translationoriented criteria (understanding of the content, register, vocabulary and terminology, and formal expression) and more transcreation-oriented ones (production oriented to the brief and text type). The novelty and innovation of this tool rely on two methodological foundations: (1) the inclusion of transcreation activities in translation training (which, according to literature, is not extended) and (2) the elaboration of an objective and impartial method for evaluating transcreation. To date, to the authors’ knowledge, no such tool has been designed. Transcreation has emerged in the translation industry as a new professional profile, with characteristics different from the traditional profile of the translator. The growing market demand requires the university to keep pace with the professional world and include this activity in translation and interpreting higher studies. Consequently, the specific nature of transcreation implies the application of new teaching methodologies, different from the traditional ones, including new evaluation techniques. In this sense, this work parts from a traditional evaluation method for translation (the rubric) and adapts it to the creative nature of transcreation. So, this rubric evaluates the production process of a transcreated text by students, instead of evaluating the quality of the text itself, with the use of a descriptor scale. This work opens the door for designing other new methodologies for evaluating transcreation activities. In addition, it confirms the feasibility of including transcreation training in the academic curricula of future translators. This inclusion will not only enrich the profile of trainees and future professionals, but also contribute to translation training, for example, by encouraging students to produce translations oriented to the text type.
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20. Robinson, B.J.: Cómo mejorar el aprendizaje mediante el uso de herramientas de la Web 2.0. In: Vargas Sierra, C. (ed.) TIC, trabajo colaborativo e interacción en Terminología y Traducción, pp. 243–258. Comares, Granada (2014) 21. Fernández-March, A.: La evaluación orientada al aprendizaje en un modelo de formación por competencias en la educación universitaria. Rev. de Docencia Universitaria 8(1), 11–34 (2010) 22. Fernández Berrocal, P., Extremera Pacheco, N.: El uso de las medidas de habilidad en el ámbito de la inteligencia emocional: ventajas e inconvenientes con respecto a las medidas de auto-informe. Boletín Psicología 80, 59–78 (2004) 23. Su, W.: Understanding rubric use in peer assessment of translation. Perspect. Stud. Translation Theory Pract. (2021) 24. Abdel Latif, M.M.M.: Translation and interpreting assessment research. In: Translator and Interpreter Education Research. New Frontiers in Translation Studies, pp. 61–84. Springer, Singapore (2020) 25. Robinson, B.J.: Traducción transparente: métodos cuantitativos y cualitativos en la evaluación de la traducción. Revista de Enseñanza Universitaria, número extraordinario, 5777–589 (1998) 26. Risku, H., Pichler, T., Wieser, V.: Transcreation as a translation service: process requirements and client expectations. Across Languages Cult. 18(1), 53–77 (2017) 27. Kiraly, D.C.: Occasioning translator competence. Translation Interpreting Stud. 10(1), 8–32 (2015) 28. Carreira, O.: The transcreation brief: a definition proposal. Transletters 4, 23–38 (2020) 29. Robinson, B.J., Olvera-Lobo, M.D., Gutiérrez-Artacho, J., Escabias-Machuca, M.: Using rubrics to scaffold learning. How the integration of criterion-referenced descriptors enhances student-centered formative assessment. In: IATIS 5th International Conference. Innovation Paths in Translation and Intercultural Studies (2015)
Chapter 14
The Place of Latin American Universities in International University Rankings. A Multivariate Statistical Analysis Marcelo Ruiz-Toledo , Claudio Ruff-Escobar , Luis Benites , Joe Alexis González , and María-Purificación Galindo-Villardón Abstract This research examined the place of Latin American Universities in international university rankings through an HJ-Biplot multivariate statistical analysis regarding a systematic process of literature review. To perform the statistical analysis, data were extracted from ARWU, THE, and QS rankings. It was proposed as the hypothesis that the universities which have reached significant visibility in university rankings have considerable support of their States. Consequently, the universities can access greater public and private funding through the sale of scientific services and useful knowledge to social, governmental, and business development. Likewise, it was concluded that statistical dispersion shows a disadvantage of Latin American universities compared to the rest of the world, regarding the international rankings system, which verifies that the rankings system operates as a variable directly related to the place of the region in relation to the rest of the globe because according to the ranking system analyzed, this region could be less favored in comparison with other studied systems.
14.1 Introduction The position of Latin American universities in university rankings has been determined by using different measurement methodologies. In fact, based on both the information available to produce the rankings and the criteria applied, the position achieved by American universities depends on the different parametrized indicators
M. Ruiz-Toledo (B) · M.-P. Galindo-Villardón Departamento de Estadísticas, Universidad de Salamanca, 37007 Salamanca, Spain e-mail: [email protected] M. Ruiz-Toledo · C. Ruff-Escobar · J. A. González Centro de Investigación Institucional, Universidad Bernardo O Higgins, Santiago, Chile L. Benites Universidad Nacional de Trujillo, Trujillo, Perú © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 A. Mesquita et al. (eds.), Perspectives and Trends in Education and Technology, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 256, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5063-5_14
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that have been used when the institution quality was measured. That is why universities have evidenced high contrast when representing their rank, which has been interpreted as a factor linked to the methodology used, and the different features that have been displayed throughout the history of each university. The methodological inconsistencies shown by some international rankings have opened the academic debate between perspectives that, on the one hand, advocate to create parametrized measurement models more significant and accurate. On the other hand, other views have raised that the exclusive use of parametrized indicators has devaluated the quality of education because it has broadened the process of university education commodification, excluding indicators and factors that are hard to measure quantitatively [1]. Considering critical perspectives, the use of university rankings as an exclusive assessment tool has transferred a competitive logic to the educative level. Also, it has emphasized that indicators cannot be necessarily generalized to smaller or even younger universities [2]. In this regard, López Segrera has proposed that “it is more important than having the World Class Universities indicators (…) to guarantee the existence of good medical schools, and good programs to train agricultural engineers and educators to warrant a proper level of human and social capital” [3]. Developing a similar perspective, some authors have proposed that the introduction of American Universities in international rankings has led to the university model’s hegemony focused on research, which places a significant quantity of Latin American universities in a marginalized position [4]. Concerning this matter, the creation of rankings to measure universities has been defined as a sign of “globalization of the competence between universities within the context of a knowledge society [5]. Thereby, the creation of rankings has introduced a Benchmarking logic in universities’ functioning, which has allowed to measure the quality of the services provided by each institution. This is problematic because universities are complex institutions that offer people a diverse range of services complex to measure [6]. Simultaneously, the institutional trends that bring the academy closer to the business model increment the risks associated with the loss of the university function and social importance [3]. Thus, some critical perspectives regarding the creation of university rankings have determined that they have introduced a competitive method in the international university system, which has resulted in a comparison phenomenon between institutions, and that has as a consequence “some winners and many losers” [7]. Nevertheless, views in favor of using rankings as an assessment tool of university quality have argued that, in the last decades, significant progress in the construction of more precise and holistic methodologies have been made, which consider indicators excluded in the first university rankings. Likewise, the creation of university rankings could become a valuable tool of control and measurement of the quality provided by universities, as well as deliver important information to the students when choosing an institution to study. Concerning this, the guidelines provided by the Fulbright Commission to Latin America and UNESCO have determined that, in the following decades, educational
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policies in Latin American countries should improve to the named knowledge societies, because in the region, a minimum of 60% of its population should access to higher education. Hence, would be materialized the ideal of massification of higher education [8]. Some point of views has proposed that the massification of university education in Latin America is related to tertiary education expansion, a trend initiated after the II World War, in which England was a pioneer in the expansion of the enrollment due to the creation of hybrid universities (public and private). In the Latin American case, “the gross rate of enrollment has incremented from 17% in the begging of the 90s to 32% nowadays” [7]. Having said that, this paper aims to reflect on the place that Latin American universities have reached in different international rankings. The hypothesis proposed is that the universities that have gained major visibility in university rankings have significant support from their States, allowing universities to access greater public and private funding by selling scientific services and useful knowledge to social, governmental, and business development.
14.1.1 Latin American Universities in International Rankings As a historical precedent, Latin American universities were created from the Spanish colonial administration, and they gained strength with the independence movements at the beginning of the nineteenth century. Unlike the Humboldtian model of university based on research, during the nineteenth century, universities in the region were articulated around the Napoleonic model of higher education, “based on professional careers and articulated to the interests of the church and the upper classes of society” [4]. Throughout the twentieth century, universities in Latin America have moved from the so-called Ivory Tower model, characterized by the formation of elites, to a mass model of universalization of tertiary education. Indeed, as a historical antecedent to the process of universalization of university education in the region, the university project proposed by Universidad de Córdoba in 1918 has been used as an example; first within Latin American universities that proposed democratization in access to university education, together with autonomy and co-government [9]. Although university in Latin America has its roots in the colony and the subsequent process of formation of the first national States, the antecedents that exist in Latin America regarding the realization of university measurement rankings are rather recent and were found in certain newspapers and magazines. As an example, in Mexico, measurements of universities were made by Selecciones magazine and Reforma and Universal newspapers. In the case of Chile, the first measurements of the country’s universities were carried out by El Mercurio and América Economía magazine.
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Along with creating a ranking in newspapers, the rankings produced by the Universia Foundation (2016) have stood out. In relation to the rankings focused only on research, since 2009, QS and SCImago created their own versions to measure Latin American universities’ research quality. In the first versions of the Shanghai ranking, the universities that appeared on the list were institutions in Chile, Mexico, Argentina, and Brazil. In the case of Universidad de Buenos Aires (UBA), its inclusion in the Shanghai ranking was related to the fact that it was the Alma Mater of Argentina’s three Nobel laureates in Science (Houssay, Milstein, and Leloir). The case of Universidad Autónoma de México was included in the ranking because it had the Nobel Prize in Chemistry, Mario Molina (1943–2020). However, in subsequent versions of the Ranking carried out by the University of Shanghai, the Mexican university has fallen sharply in the ranking, which has been interpreted as a problem in the methodology used by the ranking since it is not very feasible for an institution to fall so rapidly in such a short period [10]. In 2020, the best universities in the region according to QS were found in Chile with 15, Brazil with 27, Mexico with 16, Colombia with 11, and Argentina with 12 tertiary education institutions among the top 100 [11]. In the case of the THE ranking in its 2021 version, Latin American universities only appear from position 201–250 (University of Sao Paulo), namely: the institutions that appear in the range of position 401–450 are Universidad del Desarrollo (Chile) and Pontificia Universidad Javierana (Colombia). Further away from the top positions in the ranking are Universidad Cayetano Heredia (Peru) and Universidad de Costa Rica in the 501–600 position range. Finally, Universidad Nacional del Litoral (Argentina) and Universidad de los Andes (Venezuela) are in position 1001. Bolivia has no information (World University Rankings 2021|Times Higher Education (THE), 2021). Finally, in the case of the SCImago ranking in its 2020 version for the IberoAmerican region, the University of Sao Paulo coincides in leading the ranking, namely: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México is in position 3, Universidad de Buenos Aires emerges in position 17, Universidad de Chile in position 19 and Pontificia Universidad Católica in position 25. Subsequently, Universidad Nacional de Colombia was found in position 32, Universidad de Puerto Rico in position 77, and Universidad de los Andes de Colombia in position 81 [12]. In recent decades, in the case of Peruvian universities, they have had little representation in international university rankings. Indeed, in the Ranking of América Economía for the years 2015–2016 created to measure Ibero-American universities, only three Peruvian universities appeared: Universidad Nacional de San Marco, Universidad Nacional Agraria de Molina and Universidad Nacional de Ingeniería. By 2016, Peruvian universities did not appear in the ARWU and THE rankings, but only in the QS and SCImago. Although the explanation for this lack of inclusion of Peruvian universities in specific international rankings is due in part to the different methodologies and variables used to measure the performance of university institutions, the Peruvian university system has national particularities that deserve to be highlighted and analyzed.
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In the first place, Salazar and Piscoya had argued that Peru is in an initial phase of supervision in university higher education since before 2006, there was no state legislation regulating the growth and quality of education provided by university institutions, nor was it known how many institutes and universities had been created in the country [10]. In relation to the previous paragraph, it has been stated that “the factual profile of the Peruvian university system presents as its dominant characteristic a notable increase in its coverage during the last 16 years, an interval in which 34 new universities and dozens of institutes have been created” [10]. According to the figures collected, during the last decades, there has been an unregulated expansion of tertiary education institutions without a regulatory framework that would set minimum quality standards. Likewise, according to the aforementioned authors, the political perspectives and visions regarding tertiary education in Peru in recent years have confused the supposed autonomy and institutional freedom with a lack of regulation and imposition of minimum quality standards that would protect students from possible abuses that institutions could commit. By 2006, Peru was one of the few countries in South America without an accreditation law. Along with the lack of legal regulation of the performance of tertiary education institutions, the disconnection of the State concerning universities has diminished the latter’s access to subsidies and government funds that would allow increasing the research capacity of universities [13]. Along with the above, Piscoya has defined that the ideal of autonomy and freedom, based on the Córdova model’s ideology and that certain Peruvian universities have had, has been instrumentalized by subversive political movements in order to legitimize political projects, tearing apart the internal governance of institutions. In this sense, the most dramatic case of the incubation of factors exogenous to the university’s own functioning was what happened at Universidad de San Cristóbal de Huamanga in relation to the birth of Sendero Luminoso (Shining Path). Secondly, the measurements based on rankings, in the case of Peru, are subject to the information provided by the institutions themselves. In this regard, during 2016, Universidad de Lima and ESAN decided not to participate in the ranking created by América Economía and did not send the requested information [14]. This fact meant a hard setback for university rankings’ validity since both institutions had a long trajectory and influence within the country.
14.2 Methodology To develop this research, the three most renowned international rankings were selected: Quacquarelli Symonds (QS), Times Higher Education (THE), and Academic Ranking of World Universities (ARWU). The source used to design the database were webpages of the mentioned rankings, which were extracted both from the regional rankings (in the case of QS and THE) and the international rankings (in the three classification systems named). Likewise, the values of all the variables in
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the three rankings of 2020 were collected, both regional and international levels, and it was divided by country, in the regional systems, and a division by Latin American region and other regions of the globe. Based on QS and THE data, an analysis was performed in the HJ-Biplot visualization. Regarding the regional edition of Latin America, which is focused on the countries’ position of this region, two views were used: first, a view that evidences the importance of the number of participant universities by country in the abovementioned systems. Second, a perspective that focuses on the individual classification that each university has to place their countries in the analyzed ranking. On the other hand, considering QS, THE, and ARWU rankings in their international editions, there were developed and analyzed the HJ-Biplot. In each classification system, all the participant universities were visualized, paying attention to Latin American universities. The program MultBiplot was used to graphical and two-dimensional representations of multivariate data. In the same way that a dispersion diagram shows a joint distribution of two variables, a BIPLOT represents three or more variables. In this case, the HJ-Biplot generates a multivariate graphical representation of the lines of a matrix X_n×p, through the markers j_1, …, j_n to its rows, and h_1, …, h_p. Likewise, for its columns, the markers were selected in a way in which both markers could be overlapped in the same reference system with maximum quality representation [15]. Accordingly, in the BIPLOT graphs, the variables will be represented by arrows, which emerge from the same point. This point represents the mean of the data and grows from this to values higher than the mean. Furthermore, each arrow’s size will correspond to the standard deviation of the respective variable; in other words, how much the data vary in that variable. Additionally, if the angle formed by two different variables is close to 0°, it indicates that these variables will be directly related; if that angle is close to 180°, the variables will be inversely related, and if the angle is close to 90° or 270° it will show that the variables have zero o minimal relation. Finally, the coordinate axis represents our factorial axes. Consequently, if a variable has a direction close to horizontal, this variable will be very well represented on the horizontal factorial axis. Similarly, if the direction is vertical, the variable will be very well represented on the vertical factorial axis. By way of clarification, even when the Overall Score of the rankings is not an indicator itself, because it is constructed from the other indicators of each ranking, it was considered to make a more visible graphical segregation and to analyze its correlation with the different indicators that comprise it.
14.3 Results From the Latin American version of QS and THE rankings, all the institutions clustered by countries were considered, without having into account their position in the rankings, but keeping their scores by indicators and overall weighing (the latter is
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the one that defines the position of the institution). Regarding these groups, each country was assigned a score in each indicator and in the overall weighing, based on the sum and weighing of scores obtained by all its institutions in the respective classification system. This was to achieve a graphical and general view that can show us what country is better placed, according to these classifications, regarding each indicator and total score. It must be considered that, in line with the methodology of this analysis, the countries are positioned in HJ-Biplot, both by the number of institutions that appear on the rankings and by the score that has each institution. In Tables 14.1 and 14.2, the number of participating institutions is presented in QS and THE rankings, respectively, in which it is explained the prevalence of certain countries at the Latin American level. Table 14.1 Number of institutions by country in Latin American QS rankings Country
Number of institutions in the ranking
Ratio score QS versus #webometrics (%)
Country
Number of institutions in the ranking
Ratio score QS versus #webometrics (%)
Argentina
Ecuador
43
29.86
15
23.08
Bolivia
5
8.62
El Salvador
6
15.38
Brazil
94
6.97
Guatemala
4
18.18
Chile
40
28.17
Honduras
Colombia
57
19.39
Mexico
Costa Rica
6
9.09
Nicaragua
3
18.75
59
4.71
3
6.12
Cuba
7
22.58
panama
7
24.14
Paraguay
5
12.50
Puerto Rico
4
10.81
20
14.71
Dominic republic
9
13.85
4
9.30
Venezuela
9
13.85
Peru Uruguay
Table 14.2 Number of institutions by country in Latin American THE ranking Country
Argentina
Number of institutions in the ranking
Ratio score THE versus #webometrics (%)
Country
Number of institutions in the ranking
Ratio score THE versus #webometrics (%)
8
5.56
Jamaica
1
4.35
61
4.52
Mexico
22
1.76
Chile
30
21.13
Peru
6
4.41
Colombia
23
7.82
Puerto Rico
1
2.70
Costa Rica
1
1.52
Uruguay
1
2.33
Cuba
1
3.23
Venezuela
2
3.08
Ecuador
9
13.85
Brazil
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This is not different in the international picture because some countries are enhanced by the number of institutions that participate in the classification system, but not because they have better indicators. In consequence, this favors countries that are bigger and that have more resources for research. Research is the variable more correlated with the total score in THE ranking, and reputation is the variable more correlated to the total score in QS ranking. In Fig. 14.1, the HJ-Biplot presents more than 98% of the total variance of the absorbed data, i.e., the graph represents well the distribution of countries considering the generated indicators. In this representation, it was considered the sum, by indicator, of all the institutions of each country that participates in the Latin American THE ranking, thus assigning indicators to the participant countries. It can be visualized as a clear advantage of Brazil on the Overall axis compared to other Latin American countries, most of which are below the region’s mean, in which only stands out Brazil, Chile, Mexico, Colombia, and Argentina. Moreover, a significant correlation is visualized between Overall and Research indicators. Chile has an outstanding score in the country level in the indicator of International Outlook.
Fig. 14.1 HJ-Biplot of the sum of Latin American THE ranking 2020 (99.6%)
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Fig. 14.2 HJ-Biplot of the sum of Latin American QS ranking 2020 (98%)
In Fig. 14.2, the HJ-Biplot presents more than 98% of the total variance of the absorbed data, i.e., the graph represents well the distribution of countries to the generated indicators. In this representation, it was considered the sum, by indicator, of all the institutions of each nation that participates in the Latin American QS Ranking, thus assigning indicators to the participant countries. Likewise, in the THE ranking, in general, it is visualized a clear advantage of Brazil over the rest of the Latin American countries, and the participation of Colombia, Argentina, Mexico, and Chile is highlighted. Unlike THE ranking, it can be observed in Fig. 14.2 strong correlations of the indicators of Academic Reputation and Employer Reputation, regarding the overall score that obtains the countries in this visualization. This agrees with the methodology used in Latin American QS ranking since these indicators correspond to 50% of the total ranking weighing. Again, Chile outstands in internationalization. In Fig. 14.3, the HJ-Biplot presents more than 73% of the total variance of the absorbed data, i.e., the graph represents well the distribution of countries to the generated indicators. In this representation, it was considered the average, by indicator,
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Fig. 14.3 HJ-Biplot of the average in the Latin American THE ranking 2020 (73%)
of all the institutions of each country that participates in the Latin American THE ranking, thus assigning indicators to the participant countries. In the figure, a redistribution of certain countries is presented in the general plane, but countries like Brazil and Argentina still prevail. It can be stand out that countries such as Cuba, Jamaica, and Costa Rica have a positive repositioning. These countries have fewer participant institutions in the classification systems, which means that they do not have a good rank at a general level. Still, the individual level of the institutions does have a good rank. In this case, Chile is fairly close to the ranking data’s mean; once again, this country has a positive approximation to International Outlook. In Fig. 14.4, the HJ-Biplot presents more than 73% of the total variance of the absorbed data, i.e., the graph represents well the countries distribution to the generated indicators. In this representation, it was considered the average, by indicator, of all the institutions of each nation that participates in the Latin American QS Ranking, thus assigning indicators to the participant countries. In this case, it can be visualized a clear leadership of Chile in Overall Score. This is because the country has two institutions in the top 10 of the ranking system at
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Fig. 14.4 HJ-Biplot of the average of Latin American QS ranking (67%)
the regional level. Additionally, one of the institutions is the regional leader for the fourth consecutive year. Likewise, in THE ranking, using this method to visualize the averages, the countries Costa Rica and Cuba show a positive repositioning regarding the mean, due to the number of participant institutions in the ranking, leading along with Colombia, Venezuela, Mexico, Argentina, and Chile in the overall score and the internationalization of research collaboration. In a sense, this displaces Brazil, which presents an important leadership in Academic Reputation, an indicator that comprises 30% of the ranking’s overall score.
14.3.1 Latin Ratio It is possible to identify significant limitations in the four figures analyzed above. For Figs. 14.1 and 14.2, having identified each country with the sum of scores in the indicators of the institutions participating in the QS and THE rankings, a significant
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bias is generated toward countries with a greater volume of participating institutions and institutions at the country level. This data causes discrepancies for nations that participate with very few or with many institutions in the respective ranking system, to the detriment of the former and to the benefit of the latter. In the case of Figs. 14.3 and 14.4, each country was identified with the average indicator scores of the institutions participating in the respective ranking system, which, although it better represents the performance as a nation in the ranking system, the volume of institutions participating per country could also positively or negatively affect the ranking, with particular attention to nations that present less than 5 or 10 institutions in the THE and QS rankings respectively since these may not reflect the production or ranking at the national level. To generate a better visualization, in consideration of the volume of institutions contributed to the ranking system and the volume of institutions registered in the countries, for Figs. 14.5 and 14.6, the sums of indicators of all the institutions of each country were considered, this time, weighted by the percentage they represent with respect to the number of institutions visible in the Ranking Web Of Universities (Webometrics 2020), percentages shown in Tables 14.1 and 14.2. This method was
Fig. 14.5 HJ-Biplot ranking THE 2020 Latino ratio (99%)
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Fig. 14.6 HJ-Biplot ranking QS 2020 Latino ratio (95%)
used under the premise that the Webometrics ranking, given its methodology, is the one that integrates more institutions in its classifications, estimating concretely the proportion of participation with respect to the total number of active institutions that exist in each nation of the region. Figures 14.5 and 14.6 show more than 95% of the absorbed variance, both for the THE ranking and for the QS ranking, which specifies a good representation of the data generated from the previously described methodology. In this representation, leadership by Brazil is still observed, which, together with the previous analyzes, indicates that this nation leads not only in the number of institutions that it contributes to the classification systems but that this number of institutions also represents the leadership, at a regional level, of Brazilian higher education. On the other hand, in the previous analyses, Chile remained above the average in most of the indicators measured by each ranking system; under this methodology, it presents a positive displacement, even over Brazil, in the THE and QS ranking systems. For the former, it is notably above the average in all its indicators, dominating mainly in internationalization, entry into the industry, and citations. For the QS ranking, Chile and Argentina displace Brazil from the leadership, with Chile
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standing out in the indicators of academic reputation, employer reputation, and total score. Meanwhile, Argentina leads in the indicators of web impact and international research network. For other countries in the region, mobilization under this methodology was not significant.
14.3.2 International Perspective Applying a global perspective to the analysis and mentions previously shown, the international versions of the QS, THE, and ARWU rankings were considered to observe Latin American institutions’ situation in the global context. This was done employing HJ-Biplots, in which Latin American institutions are represented in green, Chilean institutions in red, Brazilian institutions in purple, and institutions from the rest of the world in black. In Fig. 14.7, the HJ-Biplot presents more than 80% of the total variance absorbed, representing in a good way the distribution of institutions within the framework
Fig. 14.7 HJ- Biplot ranking THE 2020 international (81%)
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Fig. 14.8 HJ-Biplot ranking QS 2020 international (82%)
of the international THE ranking. Likewise, in Figs. 14.8 and 14.9, the HJ-Biplot absorbs more than 82% and 85% of the variance for the international QS and ARWU rankings, respectively. These dispersions show the disadvantage of Latin America compared to the world in the panorama of international classification systems, also verifying that depending on the classification system analyzed, this region could be less favored than in others. The latter, evidencing that each ranking system has its guidelines and regional preferences in the construction of its methodologies and indicators, favoring large countries and institutions with more trajectory, generating a real impact on the allocation of resources and attention of other higher education institutions to achieve better rankings, since, in the international panorama, the strong correlation between total scores (Overall Score) and research (Research & Citations) in the case of the THE ranking, areas developed mainly in the academy and graduate programs, continues to be verified. In the QS ranking case, this preference shifts toward reputation indicators (Academic reputation & Employer reputation), academic/student ratio, and internationalization, which mainly evaluates the national and international visibility of higher education institutions.
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Fig. 14.9 HJ-Biplot ranking ARWU 2020 international (85%)
In the case of the ARWU ranking system, as in the THE ranking, a strong correlation is observed between the total scores and the research area related to highly cited scholars (HiCi), research products in Nature & Science (N&S), and academic production in relation to the size of the institution (PCP); the first two directly related to the area of natural sciences, which could harm Latin America given that, according to the information integrated by the regional QS ranking 2021 (QS 2020), the area of social sciences predominates in this region. In particular, Fig. 14.7 shows the low Latin American visibility, which, for the most part, is represented by Brazilian institutions (lilac) and with minimal visibility for other countries in the region.
14.4 Discussion As observed both in the statistical analysis and in the systematic literature review, the lack of Latin American universities in the university rankings created by the
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University of Shanghai corresponds to the use of a biased methodology that emphasizes certain dimensions of university functioning, in contrast to the invisibility of other dimensions of the corporate functioning of the institution, which are of equal relevance, since they are linked to the cultural and social context of each country. This invisibility is evident in the correlations between the total scores of the ranking systems and certain variables, mainly associated with research and scientific dissemination, which are the most influential in the ranking itself and, consequently, those that blur the panorama for the Latin American region. However, it has been suggested [16] that linking universities with state funding allows academia to access resources to develop its research area. Thus, a good governmental policy on tertiary education will allow raising the levels of competitiveness and development of research. Likewise, the extensive application of research enables the purchase of scientific infrastructure, representing a way for the university to improve its competitiveness. According to the OECD 2017–2019 indicators, in the Latin American region, the country that invests the most considerable amount of GDP resources is Brazil, which is consistent with the place achieved by its universities in most university rankings. In this sense, the above statement is consistent with the position achieved as a country in the visualizations shown above, showing the correlation between the resources invested and the effectiveness in the positioning of its institutions, representing the prestige achieved through them. In this regard, it is important to note that the universities that lead the world rankings belong to the richest countries in the world, while the budgets allocated to finance research programs are three times the budgets of the 16,000 universities in the rest of the world, according to data provided by research [7]. Likewise, universities with the highest scores in the rankings maintain high international mobility levels of their students. The proportion of spending on higher education is a factor that is linked to the success achieved by certain universities in university rankings and is in line with the parameters proposed by the OECD, since “the proportion of national wealth allocated to educational institutions is significant in all countries,” while Chile is one of the OECD countries that invests more resources in the entire educational cycle: A phenomenon that is evidenced in the position that certain state, private and traditional universities have reached in the different university rankings [17] and in the dominance that Chile presents in Figs. 14.5 and 14.6, which could be attributed to the fact that it is one of the Latin American countries that best ranks higher education institutions in relation to the extension and population of the country. Without disassociating Brazil from the regional leadership at the rankings level, the above even contrasts with its population volume and geographic extension.
14.5 Conclusion The lack of visibility of certain young Chilean universities could be explained due to the double-headed development of tertiary education in Chile, in which the private
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universities have focused themselves exclusively on undergraduate education. This means that they have opened up late to the research development, which is the one that produces major and better results in the visibility of the institutions in international rankings. The low correlation index linked to the research area that the regional universities show has been confirmed by other research works. Nevertheless, they have not shown their graphical-mathematical expression, a line that is evidenced in this paper. Related to this, it has been proposed that the regional countries must progress in the creation and strengthening of the link between the State and the University. In this sense, according to Piscoya, the regional countries (as Peru) have misunderstood the university autonomy ideal with a decoupling of the State in its role of regulator of university quality education. Consequently, problems related to profit and the lack of regulation in university education emerge in a system in which the capital is effectively traded. Also, the students are at risk of vulnerability and abuse from the institutions themselves. Ultimately, the international measurements of universities have become controversial because the smaller and younger universities are immersed in a system in which competence is built on a tabula rasa system, where they compete with more prominent universities, with more access to resources, or that are from countries where the tertiary education policies benefit and foster research development. Related to these, certain experts, such as Francisco Piscoya, have proposed that, if the system of measurement of universities continues, this may generate in the following decades, a phenomenon of categorization of universities because it can create a system in which the measures divide the universities into clusters; just as if it was a martial arts competition, in which competitors are evaluated within a range of categories separated by weight. Further investigation may focus on the mixed funding (public and private) in tertiary education in Latin America [16]. Thus, States can fulfill their needs and aims of generating science and development to their countries through the funding for research projects at the region’s universities.
References 1. Martínez Rizo, F.: Los rankings de universidades: una visión crítica. Rev la Educ Super 40, 77–97 (2011) 2. Montané, A., Beltrán, J., Teodoro, A.: La medida de la calidad educativa: acerca de los rankings universtiarios. Herramientas para la Eval la Calid 10, 37–52 (2007). https://doi.org/10.7203/ rase.10.2.10145 3. Lopez, F.: Tendencias de la educación superior en el mundo y en América Latina y el Caribe. Avaliacao 13, 267–291 (2008) 4. Guaglianone, A.: International rankings and the positioning of Latin America: a reflective LookOs rankings internacionais e o posicionamento da América Latina: Um olhar reflexivo. Rev Iberoam Cienc Tecnol y Soc 13, 113–126 (2018) 5. Krüger, K., Molas, A.: Rankings mundiales de Universidades Objetivos y Calidad. Rev electrónica Recur en Internet Sobre Geogr Y Ciencias Soc Núm. 129, 1–45 (2010)
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6. Cruz-Vargas, J., Rodriguez, E.: La investigación: mas allá del ranking de las universidades editorial editorial. Rev Fac Med Hum 19, 7–12 (2019). https://doi.org/10.25176/RFMH.v19. n1.1786 7. Orozco, J.E.F., Becerra, J.I.V., Arellano, C.I.M.: Perspectivas actuales sobre los rankings mundiales de universidades. Rev la Educ Super 44, 41–67 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.resu.2015.09.001 8. Mungaray Lagarda, A.: La educación superior y el mercado de trabajo profesional. REDIE Rev Electrónica Investig Educ 3, 4 (2001) 9. Vera de Flash, M., Borja, F.: Reformas universitarias y movimientos estudiantiles en América y Europa. Báez ediciones, Córdoba (2006) 10. Piscoya, L.: Ranking Universitario En El Perú Plan Piloto (2007) 11. QS.: World University rankings 2021: top global universities. In: QS (2020). https://www.top universities.com/university-rankings/world-university-rankings/2021 12. De moya, F., Herrán, E., Bustos, A., et al.: Ranking iberoamericano de instituciones de educación superior 2020 (SIR Iber). Scimago LAB (2021) https://doi.org/10.3145/sir-iber2020 13. Dávila, M.: Rankings universitarios internacionales y conflictos por la regulación de la educación superior. Rev CTS 13, 67–84 (2018) 14. Salazar, S.: Universidades Peruanas: ¿En los rankings internacionales? Lima (2015) 15. Galindo, P.: Una alternativa de representación simultánea: HJ-Biplot. Questiio 10, 13–23 (1986) 16. Ruff, C., Ruiz, M., Matheu, A., Juica, P.: Analysis of mixed financing policies in higher education and their effects on social mobility and research, the case of Chile. Gestión y Política Pública 29, 413–445 (2020). https://doi.org/10.29265/gypp.v29i2.779 17. Organización para la Cooperación y el Desarrollo Económico.: Panorama de la educación Indicadores de la OCDE (2019)
Chapter 15
Technology’s Impacts in the Students of Higher Education in the Covid-19 Pandemic Period Osvaldo Silva , Áurea Sousa , and Jerónimo Nunes
Abstract In this period of Covid-19 pandemic, in which there were sudden changes in education, with the transition from traditional education to e-learning, it is essential to analyze the impacts related to access and use of technology in the context of e-learning, in the perception of higher education students. In this context, all students were forced to use the technology, so it is relevant to investigate the interrelationships between satisfaction with distance learning and all the components associated with the use and acceptance of technology as a support to their learning. Data were collected through a questionnaire, which includes a set of 26 items that aim to assess students’ perceptions about distance learning using six different subscales: Familiarity, Barriers, Anxiety, Usefulness, Ease of use, and Satisfaction concerning the e-learning. A Structural Equation Model (SEM) analysis was performed using Partial Least Squares (PLS), to test the validity of the constructs and the model hypotheses. The results revealed a statistically significant relationship between Satisfaction concerning the distance learning and the constructs Barriers, Ease of use and Usefulness. Based on the model used, other significant interrelationships were registered, such as familiarity with technology positively affects the ease of use of technological resources and barriers, while anxiety negatively affects the ease of use of these resources and the usefulness for students. A multigroup analysis revealed, among other results, that in the students with a moderate to high autonomy, the familiarity with technology positively affects satisfaction with e-learning comparatively to the students with low autonomy.
O. Silva (B) Faculty of Sciences and Technology, CICS.UAc/CICS.NOVA.UAcores, University of Azores, Ponta Delgada, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] Á. Sousa Faculty of Sciences and Technology, CEEAplA, University of Azores, Ponta Delgada, Portugal J. Nunes Faculty of Sciences and Technology, University of Azores, Ponta Delgada, Portugal © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 A. Mesquita et al. (eds.), Perspectives and Trends in Education and Technology, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 256, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5063-5_15
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15.1 Introduction On 11 March 2020, the World Health Organization (WHO) has declared the novel coronavirus (Covid-19) outbreak a global pandemic. Since that moment, there were abrupt changes in the society, that affected the life of all, from the stopping of almost all commercial and educational activities to the daily lives of the citizens. Educational activities at all levels of education have undergone a sudden shift from face-to-face to e-learning, with no time neither preparation nor adaptation for this education system. In last year, researchers all over the world investigated in many scientific papers the “Covid-19 versus Education” to evaluate the impact of online education in students, teachers, families, and society in general, in the most varied fields, such as in the physical and mental health and economics. The global health crisis has forced all education institutions to replace face-to-face education by e-learning and had to react quickly and turn their didactic process to adapt the context of online education [1, 2]. This work aims to deepen the knowledge about technology’s impacts in the students’ of higher education in the Covid-19 pandemic period, as well as the main factors that can affect these impacts, based on the identification of possible interrelationships between: (i) the anxiety (A) in relation to the use of technological resources through the teaching–learning distance process; (ii) the barriers (B) to the use of technological resources through the teaching–learning distance process; (iii) the Ease of Use (EU) of technology; (iv) the familiarity (F), experience in relation to the use of technological resources through the teaching–learning distance process; (v) the Usefulness (U) of technologies; and (vi) the student satisfaction (S) resulted from an evaluation of students’ experiences with learning distance. This paper is organized in five sections including the Introduction. In Sect. 15.2, we briefly present the literature review about the impacts of technology in the students of higher education in the Covid-19 pandemic period. In Sect. 15.3, we describe the methodological procedures used in the empirical study. Section 15.4 contains the main findings of the study and the respective discussions. Finally, Sect. 15.5 provides some final remarks and future research directions.
15.2 The Impacts of Technology in the Students of Higher Education in the Covid-19 Pandemic Period During the generalized confinement imposed as a measure to combat the pandemic caused by the novel coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 (responsible for Covid-19), educational institutions were forced to implement distance or remote education. The curricular activities of the University started to be carried out by teachers and students through the Internet and the Web, using digital information and communication technologies (ICTs). The e-learning systems prior to the Covid-19 pandemic, including the learning management systems (LMS), were widely employed, and complemented
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by the videoconferencing systems in order to support the holding of virtual online classes. The e-learning systems have become an important instrument in the academic offer of the universities, in order to support teaching and learning activities in higher education institutions, through the provision of content and guidance to students via the Internet. To obtain benefits with the use of an e-learning system, it is necessary to identify the factors that influence its use by students. Among the methodologies used to identify the factors that lead students to use e-learning tools, the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM), proposed by Davis [1], is one of the models with the most acceptance by researchers [2]. Several researchers over the past few decades and mainly in the last year, due to the Covid-19 pandemic, have used the TAM and its extensions to explain the factors that determine the behavior of the users in relation to various computational applications [3–5]. Alenezi et al. [6] investigated students’ intention to participate in the electronic learning systems with TAM and found that computer anxiety (CA), computer self-efficacy and enjoyment significantly influence the students’ intention to use e-learning systems. Concerning the anxiety, as the only construct that assesses a negative sentiment, the hypotheses were put forward to prove or disprove the negative influence of CA on the students’ perception toward the use of technology. Hackbarth et al. [7] reported that the perceived ease of use is influenced by prior experience of technology and the prior experience can reduce anxiety, and increase the sense playfulness of using technology, thereby increasing the students’ perceived ease of use of the system. Berge [8] was one of the pioneers in the research on analysis of barriers in the teaching–learning processes in the context of virtual education. One factor that cuts across everyone involved in the university staff (teachers and students) is concerning the technical or technological barriers [9], due to inexistent or inadequate infrastructures and equipment and lack of technical training for its proper handling. Possible technical or technological barriers can reduce the levels of satisfaction with the online educational experience, or even to lead to the abandon of the course. According to Simuth et al. [10], the students do not perceive technology as a barrier in their online learning. The ease of use of technology is considered as the degree to which a person, using any system, believes that this usage would be effortless [11]. According to [12], the ease of use of technology is one of the predictors of students’ attitudes toward the use of technology. When students’ perceptions of the ease of use and the usefulness of the technology are positive, they will embrace new technology without any problems. The usefulness of technologies (in this case, tools applied in the scope of university distance learning during the pandemic period) is understood as the degree to which a user of a particular system believes that it would improve his/her work or study performance, as compared to alternative methods of carrying out this user’s tasks [13]. Usefulness influenced the decision of a higher student on whether to accept or reject a particular technology. According to Delucchi [14], the student satisfaction is a subjective perception of higher education experience and occurs when students’ expectation is met or
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exceeded. Most studies on students’ satisfaction are based on empirical results, but in this period; we are more interested in the assessment of the education experience in terms of distance learning. It should also be noted that some studies suggest that this type of teaching–learning process is more appropriate to students that have autonomy concerning the use of digital platforms as support of distance education.
15.3 Method The target population is composed of higher education students who were enrolled in the graduate degrees offered by a Portuguese University during the 2nd semester of 2019–2020, in the initial period of the pandemic Covid-19. Considering the distribution of students by year of study program, a cluster sampling process (a probability sampling technique where the population into multiple groups (clusters)) was used. Therefore, some classes of graduate programs, in each year of study program, were randomly selected. Participants The sample consists of 462 students, who were attending the 1st cycle of Higher Education during the sudden shift from face-to-face to distance learning. The respondents were aged between 17 and 51 years old (mean = 22, median = mode = 20 years old). The participants are predominantly female (62.9%) and their distribution by year of study program is the following: first year (45%); second year (25.8%); and third year (29.2%). Concerning to scientific areas, 48.3% of the students were enrolled in graduate programs included in the field of Social Sciences and Humanities (e.g., Psychology, Sociology, Education), 35.7% were enrolled in Economic Sciences (e.g., Economics, Management) and 16% in Natural Sciences, Health and Technology (e.g., Biology). Instruments In this study, a quantitative methodology based on a questionnaire survey was applied. The questionnaire includes two parts. The first one consists of 26 items measured on a 5-points Likert type scale (1- totally disagree; 5-Totally agree) and refers to the Students’ Perceptions on Distance Learning, in the early period of the Covid19 pandemic, and its respective six different subscales, which are constructed and measured based on various research works [2, 5, 11], namely: 1.
Familiarity—experience to use technology (F1—“I am very familiar with computers (desktop or laptop, smartphones and/or tablets)”; F2—“I am very familiar with platforms with teaching resources (e.g., Moodle, Google Classroom)”; F3— “I am very familiar with cloud-based service tools (e.g., OneDrive, Office 365)”; F4—“I am very familiar with platforms for classes and meetings (e.g., Zoom, Teams, etc.)”; F5—“I am very familiar with online course platforms (e.g., Coursera, Khan Academy)”;
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Barriers—difficulties to use digital tools in education (B1—“The use of digital tools in education is hampered by costs associated with some of them”; B2— “The use of digital tools in education is hampered by uncertainties related to their quality”; B3—“The use of digital tools in education is hampered by too much time spent learning to use them”; B4—“The use of digital tools in education is hampered by lack of knowledge of intellectual property”; B5— “The use of digital tools in education is hampered by a lack of adequate digital competence)”; Anxiety—fears in relation to the use of digital tools (A1—“Working with digital tools makes me nervous”; A2—“Digital tools give me an unpleasant feeling”; A3—“Digital tools make me uncomfortable”); Usefulness—worth and usefulness in to use digital tools (U1—“Using digital tools can improve my knowledge sharing”; U2—“Using digital tools can improve my education”; U3—“The use of digital tools allows me to do my homework faster”; U4—“Using digital tools can increase my learning performance”; U5—“Using digital tools can increase my learning efficiency”); Ease of use—digital tools would be effortless to use (E1—“I think digital tools are easy to use anywhere”; E2—“The use of any digital tool is clear and logical”; E3—“I think digital tools are easy to use anytime”); Satisfaction concerning the distance learning (S1—“In most aspects, distance learning is close to my ideal”; S2—“The conditions given in distance learning are excellent”; S3—“I am satisfied with the experience of distance learning”; S4—“So far, I have achieved very significant learning with distance learning”; S5—“If I could continue to attend only distance learning, I would change almost nothing”).
The second part is related to the sociodemographic profile of the students (age, gender, year of study program, area of study program), and information about the autonomy perceived by the students, recoded into two categories (1-low; 2-moderate to high), in the context of distance learning. The present study intends to evaluate the following research hypotheses: H1: Anxiety has an effect on Barriers; H2: Anxiety has an effect on Ease of use; H3: Anxiety has an effect on Satisfaction; H4: Anxiety has an effect on Usefulness; H5: Barriers has an effect on Satisfaction; H6: Barriers has an effect on Usefulness; H7: Ease of use has an effect on Satisfaction; H8: Ease of use has an effect on Usefulness; H9: Familiarity has an effect on Barriers; H10: Familiarity has an effect on Ease of use; H11: Familiarity has an effect on Satisfaction; H12: Familiarity has an effect on Usefulness; and H13: Usefulness has an effect on Satisfaction. Analysis The data were collected during of the second semester of the academic year 2019– 2020 in accordance with the human ethics requirements, and their participation was voluntary and confidential. The data were analyzed using the Partial Least Square Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) in order to evaluate the research hypotheses.
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15.4 Results Approximately 90.1% of the students of our sample said they felt moderate to high levels of life satisfaction. Concerning the autonomy face to e-learning, in general, 73.8% of the respondents revealed to have moderate to high autonomy in this process. Although the change from face-to-face to e-learning has taken everyone by surprise, it appears that most students consider that they can deal with this new situation reasonably well. These results give support to the idea that students can be considered as digital native or net-generation. The hypothesized model was tested using Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) in Smart PLS version 3.0. The measurement model was exa-mined in order to validate the reliability, and the convergent and discriminant validity of the constructs. The present study uses the tool Smart PLS (version 3), which implements the Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM), in order to test the hypothesized model. A PLS-SEM is composed of two sub-models: a measurement model (represents the relationships between the observed data and the constructs) and a structural model (represents the relationships between constructs). The measurement model was also evaluated in order to validate the reliability, and the convergent and discriminant validity of the constructs, using the following criteria, for reflective constructs: 1.
2.
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Reliability analysis: Cronbach’s alpha coefficient and composite reliability (CR) values should be higher than 0.70 [15], and together help to examine the interitem consistency of the measurement items; Convergent validity: the Average Variance Extracted (AVE) measures the variance captured by the indicators relative to measurement error and loading values higher than 0.50 [15]. Discriminant validity: According to Fornell-Larcker’s criterion [16], for each construct, the correlations with other reflective constructs should be less than the “square root” of AVE of the construct.
The SRMR (Standardized Root Mean Square Residual) of the path model is 0.070 for saturated model and 0.072 for the estimated model, indicating the model fit is acceptable ( 0
where σ 2 , φ > 0. The model of the semivariogram has followed the associated covariance function: 2 2 τ + σ
:h = 0
2 C(h; θ ) = 2 σ 1 − 1 − exp − h : h > 0 φ2
17.3 Data of Continuous Variation Y (s) is a random vector at a location s ∈ R r where s varies continuously over the domain D ⊂ R r (usually r = 2). If a finite number of locations s1 , . . . , sn ∈ D is considered then (Y (s1 ), . . . , Y (sn )) is a random vector of dimension n where the distribution must be reflected with the spatial dependence between the variables. If the data y1 , . . . , yn at locations s1 , . . . , sn is observed then y1 , . . . , yn is a realization of the random vector (Y (s1 ), . . . , Y (sn )). Now, the distribution of the spatial process is specified, the finite dimensional distributions is used: ps1 ,...,sn (y1 , . . . , yn ) for all n ≥ 1 and for all s1 , . . . , sn ∈ D. A valid distribution over the spatial stochastic process Y (s) : s ∈ D by the finite-dimensional distributions is defined, if that is satisfied then the following conditions (Kolmogorov compatibility) is used: That are invariant before permutations. That are consistent under marginalization. The Gaussian process is a spatial process that is satisfied the properties above. Y (s) : s ∈ D is a Gaussian process si for all n ≥ 1 and s1 , . . . , sn ∈ D the distribution of (Y (s1 ), . . . , Y (sn )) is multivariate normal. A Gaussian process is only necessary to specify the means and the covariance matrices for the finite dimensional distributions. Furthermore, in the case of the Gaussian process, the Kolmogorov condition is reduced by the covariance matrix that is positive semi-definite. In general, a spatial process Y (s) is specified that is decomposed into two parts (first law of geostatistics): Y (s) = μ(s) + η(s) where μ(s) is the means of Y (s). That is a deterministic function of s then that is called spatial trend. That is explained by the large-scale variation in the spatial process Y (s). η(s) explains the small-scale variance of process Y (s). That has zero mean in each s and the spatial dependence on Y (s) through the covariance function is explained.
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17.3.1 Kriging A spatial process Y (s), s ∈ R r is given for the collected data in n locations s1 , . . . , sn that is sought to predict a conditional function g(Y (s)) on the observed data. The simple case g(Y (s0 )) = Y (s0 ), that is wanted to predict the value of the process in a new location s0 . An interpolation method (kriging) is used for the estimates of Y (s0 ). The main features of kriging are: • The kriging equations is reflected that the observations should be differently weighted: the closed observations should be contributed to the prediction. • The spatial dependence is included in the kriging equations by means of the variograms (or function of covariances). • The interpolated values are modeled with a Gaussian process. The problem is proposed from a loss perspective. Let Yˆ (s0 ) be the prediction of Y (s0): L[Y (s0 ), Yˆ (s0 )] The incurred loss when Y (s0 ) is predicted, Yˆ (s0 ) is used, then an optimal predictor is who minimizes the expected loss that is also known as Bayes risk: E(L[Y (s0 ), Yˆ (s0 )]|Y ) where Y = (Y (s1 ), . . . , Y (sn )) is observed vector of a spatial process Y (s). Now, the loss function is used as loss quadratic function L[Y (s0 ), Yˆ (s0 )] = (Y (s0 ) − Yˆ (s0 ))2 Then Bayes risk is minimized for the predictor: Yˆ (s0 ) = E[Y (s0 )|Y ]. In general, that is not easy to estimate E[Y (s0 )|Y ], but if Y (s), s ∈ R r is a Gaussian process and E[Y (s0 )|Y ] is a linear function of Y then the kriging method is used to find the parameter λ such that Yˆ (s0 ) =
n
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i=1
That is minimizing E[(Y (s0 ) − Yˆ (s0 ))2 ]. There are three types of kriging, that are used dependent on the assumptions that are made in the trend μ(s). Kriging simple That is assumed that the spatial trend μ(s) is known, that is also assumed that the covariance function (including parameters) is known. Under those assumptions, Yˆ (s0 ) has formed
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And E[(Y (s0 ) − Yˆ (s0 ))2 ] is minimized with: λ = (C(s0 , s1 ), ..., C(s0 , sn )) −1
k = μ(s0 ) −
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Therefore, the optimal linear predictor of simple kriging is: Yˆ (s0 ) = μ(s0 ) + c −1 (Y − μ) where μ = (μ(s1 ), ..., μ(sn )) and c = (C(s0 , s1 ), ..., C(s0 , sn )) . Kriging ordinario That is assumed that the spatial trend μ(s) is constant and unknown, That is also assumed that the covariance function is known. The optimal linear predictor of ordinary kriging is obtained by Langrange multipliers, Yˆ (s0 ) =
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n λi = 1, the additional restriction is comes from the unknown constant Subject to i=1 mean, λ = (c + I (1 − I −1 c(I −1 I )−1 ) −1 Kriging universal That is assumed that the spatial trend is unknown in the form μ(s) = X (s)β where X (s) is a vector with p covariates and β is the vector of unknown parameters. That is also assumed that the covariance function is known. Then, Lagrange multipliers is used: Yˆ (s0 ) =
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i=1
subject to λ X = X (s0 ) and that is obtained: λ = (c + X (X −1 X )(X (s0 ) − X −1 c)) −1
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17.3.2 Forecasting Models Accuracy In this session, the goodness of fit measures are presented, the accuracy of the estimation of the proposed models is validated. The Root Mean Square Standardized Error (RMSSE):
2 t t ˆ N Y − Y s s 1 RMSSE = 2 N t=1 σ (s) where Ys is the actual value, and Yˆs is the predicted value in the period s.
17.4 Result The data from COVID−19 from the National Health Commission of the Republic of Ecuador [11] and the project: Evaluation of the progress of the pandemic in the Portoviejo canton of the Province of Manabí [12] is obtained, corresponding to series from 01-07-2020 to 15-08-2020, considering a sample of 45 days in the province of Potoviejo, that is a total of 2500 collected samples in two stages, one in July and the other in August, that are corresponded to the result of a PCR test for COVID-19. The epidemic is rapidly spread in a population of 329.144 habitats where 792 cases are confirmed. A medical pathology is collected through stratified sampling, mainly the data have contained the result of a PCR test for COVID-19; where that is interest to know the possible contagions that are neared to people with a positive result in the PCR test for COVID-19. A categorization was established with the number 500 for people with negative results to the PCR test and the number 1000 is used for people with positive results to the PCR test. Three kriging models are proposed to estimate the possible infections of SARS-COV-2, that is based on Simple, Ordinary, and Universal Kriging methods. In the following, the methods are initialized, the simple kriging, a lag number = 12, a Nugget = 0, a Gaussian variogram Model is considered, Major range = 0.0026, Partial Still = 5048.2468 and N = 50,000. The ordinary kriging is considered with a lag number = 12, a Nugget = 0, a Gaussian variogram Model is used, Major range = 0.0034, Partial Still = 1209.7042 and N = 50,000. The universal kriging is considered with a lag number = 12, a Nugget = 0, a Gaussian variogram Model is used, Major range = 0.0018, Partial Still = 2.43808 and N = 50,000. The Gaussian variogram Model is shown in Fig. 17.4, a figure of how semivariance changes as the distance between observations changes. Figures 17.1, 17.2 and 17.3 are shown the predicted points are presented by the three kriging methods, the data of first sample is used, the data of second sample is considered as the true points, that is shown in blue color the no-infected people and red color the infected people. In
17 Kriging Prediction for Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 …
Fig. 17.1 a Prediction of the universal Kriging and b the true points of the second sample
Fig. 17.2 a Prediction of the ordinary Kriging and b the true points of the second sample
Fig. 17.3 a Prediction of the simple Kriging and b the true points of the second sample
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Fig. 17.4 Gaussian semivariogram for considered Kriging with N = 50, 000 Table 17.1 Estimation error of the simple, ordinary and universal Kriging models for the prediction of SARS-COV-2 infections Kriging RMSSE Simple Ordinary Universal
0.926916197 0.900580577 0.943436483
the figures are showed that the methods have estimated well the possible contagions that are neared to people with a positive result in the PCR test in the true points, similarly, the methods have estimated well the points with negative results that are neared to people with a negative result in the PCR test in the true points, therefore, the methods have estimated well the classification of points for infected and noninfected persons, however, in the figures is shown the ordinary kriging have best approximate to real data with respect others methods. A measures of goodness of fit on Tables 17.1 is shown: the RMSSE to measure the quality estimation of the proposed models, insignificant estimation error is shown.
17.5 Discussion and Conclusions Three Kriging methods are shown to predict people with possible infections COVID19 in the province of Portoviejo, Ecuador. Simple, ordinary, and universal kriging methods are presented for the prediction of infected and non-infected people. The main objective of the study is to prevent contagion in areas where SARS-COV-2 is spread. That is shown that kriging methods are adequately estimated the infected and non-infected people in the canton of Portoviejo, the result variable in the PCR test
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is considered. The efficiency of the forecasts of the model is compared, reproducing accuracy in the estimates, where the ordinary kriging have best approximation to real data with respect to others methods. Finally, one goodness-of-fit measure to validate the performance of the model is used, obtaining insignificant estimation error.
References 1. INSPI.: Instituto Nacional de Investigación en Salud Pública. Actualización de casos de coronavirus en Ecuador (2021). https://www.salud.gob.ec/actualizacion-de-casos-de-coronavirusen-ecuador/ 2. Journel, A., Huijbregts, C.: Mining Geostatistics, pp. 202–515. Academic Press. London (UK) (1978) 3. Isaaks, E., Srivastava, R.: Applied Geostatistics, pp. 278–290. Oxford University Press, New York (1989) 4. Weiss, H.: The SIR model and the foundations of public health, Publicació electrónica de divulgació del Departamentn de Matemátiques de la Universitat Autónoma de Barcelona 3, 17 (2013) 5. Cressie, N., Wikle, C.: Statistics for Spatio-Temporal Data. Wiley Series in Probability and Statistics. Wiley, Hoboken (2011) 6. Gratton, Y.: Le Krigeage: la méthode optimale d interpolation spatial. Institut d Analyse Géographique, pp. 1–4. Quebec (Canadá) (2002) 7. Dubrule, O.: Comparing splines and kriging. Comput. Geosci. 10, 327–33 (1984) 8. Lebel, T.: Moyenne spatiale de la pluie sur un bassin versant: estimation optimal, generation stochastiques et gradex des valeurs extremes. Thesis. D. I. USMG, INP. Grenoble (Francia), pp. 35–198 (1984) 9. Davis, J.: Statistics and Data analysis in Geology, pp. 125–134. Wiley, New York (1986) 10. Haining, R.: Spatial Data Analysis, Theory and Practice, pp. 181–225. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge (2003) 11. Gómez, A., Orellana, D.: Situación epidemiológica de la Covid-19 y exceso de mortalidad en Ecuador. Gobierno Autónomo descentralizado municipal del Cantón (2020). https://www. uchile.cl/documentos/situacion-epidemiologica-de-covid-19-y-exceso-de-mortalidad-enecuador-pdf_166285_0_1014.pdf 12. GAD and UTM.: Evaluación el progreso de la pandemia en el cantón Portoviejo de la Provincia de Manabí mediante un muestreo estratificado por parroquias. Gobierno Autónomo descentralizado municipal del Cantón Portoviejo (GAD) y Universidad Técnica de Manabí (UTM). PYTCOLAB2006-2020-FCS0001 (2020)
Chapter 18
Learning the Role of Museums as Drivers of Development Sara Pascoal , Laura Tallone , and Marco Furtado
Abstract Cultural heritage plays a decisive role in the development of cooperation between countries and is a factor contributing to the reduction of economic, social, scientific, and environmental gaps. In this context, the Curricular Units of German/Spanish/French Culture for Business, lectured in the Masters in Intercultural Studies for Business (MaISB) of the Porto Accounting and Business School (ISCAP), have been promoting a set of interdisciplinary pedagogical strategies, through which students are challenged to participate in and reflect on the transformation of cultural heritage into marketable products, thus developing critical analysis skills in relation to entrepreneurship and creativity. Facing culture as a profitable commodity, the projects carried out by students aim to promote the preservation and enrichment of heritage leading to economic development and job creation, economic and territorial revitalization, the strengthening and/or diversification of tourism, the settlement of populations, and the development of intercultural understanding. In this paper, three case studies deal with the way in which culture plays a major role in boosting regional development, urban revitalization, and socioeconomic local transformation.
18.1 Introduction Given that culture plays a fundamental role in identifying and acknowledging a community’s shared values, by the same token heritage is essential for the preservation of those values, building up collective identities, cohesion, and sense S. Pascoal (B) · L. Tallone · M. Furtado CEI—ISCAP-P. Porto, Porto, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] L. Tallone e-mail: [email protected] M. Furtado e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 A. Mesquita et al. (eds.), Perspectives and Trends in Education and Technology, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 256, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5063-5_18
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of belonging, thus strengthening the social capital indispensable for sustainable development [1]. This approach to culture, not as just consumer goods, but as a road to development, is also embedded in the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union [2], whose article 167 stresses the importance of cultural heritage, as well as of cooperation between member states, in order to encourage artistic creation, the conservation of cultural heritage, and the promotion of national cultures. In addition, the European Commission [3] points out not only the power of culture and creativity as a “source for entrepreneurship” and as “a key driver for increasing tourism revenue,” but its importance for “promoting social inclusion.” As culture and heritage have come to the fore as drivers of socioeconomic development, through economic activity and consequent job-creation potential, public policy related to the cultural sector has also been on the rise [1]. Particularly since the 1990s, there has been a growing amount of public investment in the construction, rehabilitation or requalification of historic buildings, as well as in the revitalization of old towns and through incentives to community cultural activities. Among these initiatives, those related to museums are of particular importance. On the one hand, museum buildings, because of their monumental nature, usually rise as central elements within urban contexts. In fact, museums have been the object of extraordinary architectural projects, as they are considered main attractions for cultural tourists and, therefore, key for turning urban areas into tourist destinations [4]. On the other hand, museums have consolidated their appeal through new functions and activities—to their artistic and educational aspects, they have undeniably added an element of leisure and entertainment, making the visit to a museum “an end in itself, as part of a particular lifestyle, associated to the tourist’s hedonistic behavior” [5]. Within the context of this trend, students attending German/French/Spanish Culture for Business III in the Master’s program of Intercultural Studies for Business are challenged to explore the use of culture and constructed heritage as (1) an instrumental variable to attain a number of goals related to economic development and urban requalification, namely through anchoring businesses and encouraging activities related to tourism and the service sector in general and (2) an element of place branding for the projection of a city’s international image and reputation. The examples below represent different degrees of success achieved by the valorization of cultural heritage, in articulation with other ambits of material, cultural, and social intervention. In the first place, Bilbao’s Guggenheim Museum, a paradigm of success, has become an icon of the city and of the Basque region, rising as a model which, though possibly unique, has been tried to be replicated throughout Europe. This is followed by a comparative approach to cultural decentralization projects, such as the Schindler Museum in Krakow, the Centre Pompidou in Metz, and the Louvre Museum in Lens, in order to study the relationship between them and their spatial context, as well as to characterize their impact, while showing the conditions for successful hybridization of museums with the surrounding territory.
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18.2 Guggenheim Museum Bilbao In 1996, a year before the Guggenheim Museum opened its doors, Bilbao received 266 thousand tourists, and the tourist sector accounted for 2.5% of the regional GDP [6]. The unemployment rate had climbed to approximately 20% [7], as a result of the steady decline of the industrial sector since the 1980s. In 2007, ten years after the opening of the Guggenheim, the city welcomed 623,000 tourists and 1,500,000 visitors [8]. The size of the economy more than doubled, with the tourist sector accounting for 5% of the regional GDP. The unemployment rate fell to 6% [7], and the GDP per capita almost doubled, now being the second highest in Spain [9]. These numbers bear witness to Bilbao’s rapid economic and productive transformation, from a model based on the steel industry to an increasingly post-industrial dependence on the tertiary sector, particularly tourism. Following this trend, in 2019, the number of visitors to the Basque Country totaled 3.1 million (accounting for 6.2 million of overnight stays), and the contribution of the tourist sector to the regional GDP was above 6% for the first time in history [7]. Boosted by a favorable context at regional, national, and international levels,1 Bilbao’s economic transformation ran parallel to major urban requalification, particularly in the Abandoibarra sector, led by massive investment in a variety of infrastructure, of which the Guggenheim Museum is not the sole example, as it included political, economic, and socio-cultural processes that went far beyond the construction of a museum [10]. This is in line with what the Inter-American Development Bank [1] points out as the two key elements for ICC-driven urban revitalization—the presence of infrastructure as well as of cultural, creative, and heritage features. As far as infrastructure is concerned, the first plans for the recovery of the Nervión river date back to the 1980s, including the cleanup of the estuary and the redevelopment of dilapidated structures in the area. Land and air transportation systems were modernized, including the iconic metro stations, or “fosteritos,” the dove-shaped airport, and new bus and train terminals. In addition, all the spaces now surrounding the Guggenheim were redeveloped, such as gardens, parks, playgrounds, and the riverside pedestrian walks. On the other hand, although the Guggenheim Museum provides the necessary critical mass for cultural and creative activity in the area, there are other anchor tenants, which add to Abandoibarra’s new central position, like the Library of the Deusto University, the Euskalduna Conference Centre and Concert Hall, or the Paranymph of the University of the Basque Country. All these characteristics have made the area very attractive for the settlement of first-rate businesses, namely the Iberdrola Tower and the projected head office of the Bilbao Bizkaia Kutxa, particularly in view of the number of internationally renowned architects represented, such as Norman Foster, Santiago Calatrava, Cesar Pelli, and Álvaro Siza Vieira, to mention but a few, most of whose designs visually articulate with Gehry’s building, in either their shapes or choice of materials, like steel or glass. 1
The late 1990s saw the decline of ETA’s terrorist activity, the beginning of Spain’s economic recovery, and the boom of international tourism due to airline deregulation in the EU and the consequent expansion of low-cost flights.
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Among this large group of architectural interventions, it is undeniable that the Guggenheim Museum plays a leading role, transcending regional and national spheres. The building is the visible face of the urban transformation giving Abandoibarra new protagonism and promoting a new way of understanding the city. The speed at which the Guggenheim Museum became the main iconic figure of Bilbao (and to some extent, of the entire Basque Country), led to several attempts to replicate what has become known as the “Guggenheim effect.” In fact, the museum welcomed 1,360,000 visitors in the first 12 months of operation [11], though the most optimistic estimates predicted less than half that number. Since then, approximately one million visitors have been drawn to the museum as a way of complementing a stay in this autonomous region, which completes its tourist offer with renowned seaside resorts and refined cuisine.2 Combined with the structuring presence of the river, the building and the surrounding spaces have led to changes in the residents’ social habits. In fact, there is a significant number of Bilbao inhabitants who take the Guggenheim as a landmark for their walks, without necessarily going in for a visit, and enjoy the nearby gardens, walkways, and bike paths, while patronizing coffee-shops, restaurants, and stores. These practices point to a new relationship with the city, closely connected with the Guggenheim as an architectural icon. The iconic nature of the Guggenheim Museum also has extraordinary economic value when used as a mechanism of image construction and projection. Coverage by the written press in seven countries (Spain, USA, France, Italy, Germany, GB, and Portugal) has been estimated by the museum as accounting for 25 million euro per year [12]. In addition to the Guggenheim’s economic worth, its symbolic value should also be pointed out, both of them making up the city’s cultural capital. The image projected by Bilbao is an asset leading to economic, political, and social benefits. The residents’ feeling of belonging, favored by the perceived improvement of quality of life, leads to growing citizen satisfaction and involvement in social and political life [13]. It is therefore undeniable that Bilbao’s Guggenheim Museum has contributed to the city’s economic transformation, operated through the creation of a territorial identity produced autonomously, i.e., through the construction of a large group of infrastructure that, almost unconnected with the cultural tradition of the area where all these interventions have taken place, aims at achieving modernity. Thus, the Guggenheim Museum, rather than a reflection of its surrounding environment, is an outstanding example of the instrumental role of contemporary architecture in tourism-based development, which, as illustrated by the following examples, is not always rewarded with the same degree of success.
2
San Sebastián, a 90-min drive from Bilbao, boasts of having the best city beach in Europe and is the seat of the Basque Culinary Centre.
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18.3 Oskar Schindler Enamel Factory Museum in Krakow The Oskar Schindler Enamel Factory Museum in Krakow, Poland, became famous after Steven Spielberg’s 1993 film Schindler’s List. The museum opened its doors in 2010, i.e., 17 years after the release of the movie and is featured in the city’s museum exhibition called “History and Culture of Krakow” [14]. The building maintains the façade shown in Spielberg’s film production. Right at the main entrance, portraits of the Jews who worked at the factory are displayed in small windows, together with those of Oskar Schindler and Izaak Stern, played in Spielberg’s film by actors Liam Neeson and Ben Kingsley, respectively. The permanent interactive exhibition on display is called “Krakow under the Nazi occupation between 1939 and 1945” [15]. It is therefore a Historical Narrative Museum testifying to the beginning of the Second World War, on September 1, 1939, with the invasion of Poland by Nazi Germany. It depicts the life of the Jews living in Krakow until the end of the war. According to Bogunia-Borowska [16], it still has the role of communicating memory, as it relies on the testimonies of survivors who experienced events taking place at a certain historical period. When researching on points of interest in the city of Krakow, a visit to the Oskar Schindler Enamel Factory Museum appears undeniably among the main ones, as part of the “The Schindler’s List Tour” [17], which include, for instance, visits to the Jewish Quarter Kazimierz and to Krakow’s ghetto in the Podgórze district [18]. An equally emblematic landmark is the city’s main square, Rynek Glowny [19], also famous for being the largest square in medieval Europe, with more than 40,000 m2 . Also appearing at the top of Poland’s main attractions is the Auschwitz-Birkenau extermination camp [19], realistically depicted in Spielberg’s film production as well. All these sights are pointed out in the interactive exhibition at the Oskar Schindler Enamel Factory Museum – on a small cardboard, which visitors may have stamped on an automatic device, one can find information regarding the change of the name “Rynek Glowny,” i.e., “Alter Markt” (Old Market), to “Adolf Hitler Square,” on September 1, 1940, during the celebrations of the first anniversary of the invasion and occupation of Poland by Nazi Germany. The historical narrative about the building of the Jewish ghetto, surrounded by a wall in the shape of tombstones, may also be found at Schindler’s Factory Museum. One particular exhibit label reads as follows: “The torturers shaped the wall like tombstones. They used the symbol in advance, thus rendering into a mass grave that piece of land inhabited by a dozen or so thousand discriminated human beings.” Among many other messages, a handwritten testimony may also be found, by world-famous actor, director, and film producer, Roman Polanski, who, at the age of eight, suddenly became aware of the construction of a wall around the city’s area where the Jews were forced to reside. From a socio-political perspective, in Poland, the added value of WWII cultural and historical heritage sites results from the fall of the Iron Curtain, which also led to a new role for museums within the Polish context, as the exhibition narrative written
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under the communist regime [20], through a history-reinterpreting process, had failed to fulfill its purpose as political propaganda [16]. In addition, Poland went through an economic development process after joining the European Union, thus becoming a popular tourist destination where historical narrative museums put visitors in touch with some of the most dramatic events in recent European history. In the particular case of Krakow, and according to Kruczek & Mazanek, this city. [...] is one of the most recognizable Polish tourist destinations, has been included [with] a very important economic function. In 2018, Krakow has been visited by as many as 13.5 million people, including over 3 million guests from abroad. In the same year, tourists spent almost PLN 6.5 billion during their stay in Krakow, and the GDP generated by the tourist industry in Krakow is over 8% of the city’s total GDP. Tourism gives Krakow 29 thousand permanent jobs, and taking into account multiplier effects, generates over 40,000 of them [21].
In architectural terms, the Oskar Schindler Enamel Factory Museum may be less than imposing—particularly when compared with the Guggenheim Museum, or with the French examples dealt with in this paper.3 However, and especially after the release of Spielberg’s film production, the redevelopment of the city and surrounding region has partly depended on historical facilities advancing interactive educational programs integrated into a comprehensive intangible cultural heritage project called “Save from being forgotten” [22], which is certainly of the utmost importance to Poland’s tourist sector and economy in general.
18.4 Louvre Lens and Pompidou-Metz Many museums in post-industrial Europe dream of reproducing the “Bilbao effect.” In France, projects have flourished with this hope since 2010: the Center PompidouMetz (2010), the Louvre Lens (2012), the MuCEM (2013), the Confluences Museum in Lyon (2014), and the Foundation Louis Vuitton, in the Bois de Boulogne. They all share the expression of a “grand architectural gesture.” Japanese Shigeru Ban built a white museum in the shape of a Chinese hat in Metz; Rudy Ricciotti designed a pioneering outer skin of delicate filigreed concrete for his remarkable MuCEM, by the Mediterranean waterfront in Marseille; the Sanaa agency put up a transparent and translucent building that reflects the landscape, in Lens. The Austrian agency Coop Himmelb landed an angular spaceship, in Lyon, for the Confluences Museum. Finally, Frank Gehry proposed a transparent cloud sitting at the edge of the “Jardin d’Acclimatation.” For the purpose of brevity, only the first two projects will be addressed, i.e., the cases of Pompidou-Metz and Louvre Lens located in smaller and lesser-known cities. In the early 2000s, the French Ministry of Culture initiated several cultural decentralization projects, in order to improve accessibility to culture throughout France, 3
Of more monumental nature, the Warsaw Uprising Museum and the Polin Museum are two more of examples of historical narrative museums, with scopes similar to that of the Oskar Schindler Factory Museum in Poland, as they both focus on World War II.
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mainly by opening two branches of the main national museums, the Center Pompidou in Metz and the Louvre in Lens. For the two cities in question, one of the stated purposes was to reproduce the Bilbao effect. From the beginning, local authorities fully seized the project’s potential and aimed at making the Louvre Lens and the Pompidou-Metz, a key to future economic development in both regions. Lens and Metz share some similarities with Bilbao. Lens is an industrial mining city, outside touristic circuits, undergoing economic decline since the mid-80s and with an unemployment rate much higher than the national average. Metz went through several phases of severe deindustrialization (coal and more recently steel) with an average 3.6% annual loss in industrial employment from 2012. But this is as far as similarities go. Though the Guggenheim Museum was a success in Bilbao, similar operations in other territories with similar difficulties, Lorraine and NordPas-de-Calais, do not necessarily imply achieving the same results. The hybridization between cultural and urban projects is rarely analyzed as a key to success, although, as already pointed out, opening a big branded museum seems not to be the sole factor in economic growth and the development of cities and surrounding regions, namely in terms of tourist-based economy [23]. The decentralization of these two great cultural institutions represented a major opportunity for both cultural decision makers and local politicians, who “hoped to improve social cohesion, identity, reputation, and image. Even if their main objective was to bring culture closer to the citizens, this goal could not be separated from the socioeconomic aspects” [24]. All these expectations and positive impacts must obviously be measured and outweighed to really grasp the effects of large cultural institutions in urban renewal, economic growth, and the transformation of the territories’ image. These effects are rather difficult to isolate from others, like other cultural policies, investment on public infrastructures and facilities, or just the underlying appeal of the regions themselves, that is the case of Metz and of Lens. Metz, which, together with Nancy, is the capital of the Lorraine region, in northeast France, polarizes a large metropolitan urban area of over 500,000 inhabitants. Located in the heart of a territory bordering three countries (Germany, Belgium, and Luxembourg), Metz is ideally positioned to promote cross-border and international exchanges. The opening of the Pompidou Center in Metz unveiled a city with an important and often neglected historical and architectural heritage. Metz is a twothousand-year-old city, nominated for UNESCO’s World Heritage Site list, due to its many monuments, sites and religious, civil, or military buildings. According to the annual barometric study to the visitors of the Center PompidouMetz [25], carried out by TEST SA and co-financed by the Inspire Metz agency, the museum welcomed 332,500 visitors in 2018, 75% of them French. From these, 60% come from Lorraine (including 46% from Moselle). Foreigners account for 25% of visitors, with Germany (40%), Belgium (20%), and the Netherlands (16%) as the most represented countries. As for economic benefits for the region, the same source points out that 67% of survey respondents intend to spend money in the city of Metz and/or at the Center Pompidou-Metz. Among overnight visitors, 79% choose accommodation in the city of Metz. In 2018, the Center Pompidou-Metz generated
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more than 12.8 million euros in turnover in the local economy (restaurants, hotels, shops, etc.), excluding transport, thus totaling 139 million euros since its creation. On the other hand, Lens is a city of 36,000 inhabitants, located in the Pas-deCalais department in northern France. Being at the heart of the mining basin, Lens is also part of a conurbation of half a million people, corresponding to the areas of Lens and Douai. Except for the mining area, listed as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 2012, Lens has little tourist attraction. Due to the lack of a flourishing local ecosystem, the results for these two French projects seem a bit disappointing [26]. In 2013, the Louvre Lens museum had almost one million visitors, thus doubling the target set at the time of its opening the year before. These numbers, however, have been steadily decreasing to no more than 400,000 [27]. The Nord-Pas-de-Calais region invested more than 100 million euros in the infrastructure, as well as spends 10 million per year on operational costs, without counting the funding provided by the Lens-Liévin agglomeration community and the department. 63% of the public come from the region despite the vast catchment area of the cross-border region. Visitors to Lens tend to choose the neighbor city of Lille for their overnight stays. The former mining area does not have the same drive for economic development as the Basque city. A recent interministerial mission has criticized the weakness of governance and the lack of synergies between economic and public agents. Public transport leading to the museum is insufficient, hotel supply is minimal, local commerce is depressed, and the local environment is poorly valued, proving that planting cultural equipment bearing a renowned brand is not enough to get local development off the ground. A territorial project and the local stakeholders’ involvement to carry it out are essential. Thus, as Bouquet has concluded after examining the tourist impact on the territories of both museums [23], though the cultural projects seem similar (creation of a decentralized branch of a large internationally known Parisian museum for a city located in a region severely affected by economic crisis), the spatial conditions of establishment are different: small regional metropolis (Metz) and second-rate city with a vast agglomeration (Lens).
18.5 Conclusions In the context of the recent proliferation of large cultural equipment projects in European cities with the objective of economic conversion, under the so-called Bilbao or Guggenheim effect, this presentation tried to assess the economic and tourist impact of these new museums in the surrounding territories, Metz, Lens, or Krakow, as well as the teaching potentials of these topics to conduct PBL assignments among MaISB students. In fact, students’ perceptions regarding this type of activities may be assessed through questionnaires and other tools, already used in previous assignments [27]. Actually, when considering the museums in light of the conditions described by Plaza and Haarich [28], we may conclude that these structures fulfill some of those conditions in order to replicate the success of the Guggenheim museum. As
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already pointed out, all the structures rely on modern and diversified land and air accessibilities and have accounted for large investments that boosted, though not created, an environment of economic recovery in the region. In addition, there is continuous public funding flowing to those institutions, understood as engines of change and economic revitalization in a region, not only as direct investment, but as investment in technology and digital online presence. There is also undeniable visible involvement of local communities, through the site’s integration into the local and regional identity, which, by the same token, validates its cultural authenticity. Such is the case of the Guggenheim, which has several friends and patrons. In many cases this increases the museum’s visibility, taking advantage of a grand architectural gesture, through a popular film, or by making use of renowned brands such as the Louvre, or the Pompidou Center. In addition to these basic premises, the approach to the strategies of local economic revitalization through architectural undertakings inspired by the Bilbao effect also intends to promote student reflection on some recent relevant issues, such as (a) the increasingly instrumental use of CCI in liberal cities (b) the relationship between the CCI and gentrification, (c) the incorporation of arts and culture in city planning (d) the possibility of museums taking a stand against gentrification in a region (e) the tension between urban development and heritage (museums often occupy highly attractive land for the real estate business), (f) the role that a museum plays (or should play) in shaping an area’s identity, and (g) the threat to local residents posed by the flow of tourists to the museum as part of a regional revitalization plan, among many others.
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9. Countryeconomy.com (n.d.). Retrieved from https://pt.countryeconomy.com/governo/pib/esp anha-comunidades-autonomas/pais-basco 10. Lange-Valdés, C.: La arquitectura como dispositivo de regeneración urbana: 20 años del Museo Guggenheim Bilbao. Bitácora Nº28 (2), Universidad Nacional de Colombia, pp. 115–123 (2018) 11. Arrillaga, L.S.: Conocimiento y seguimiento de la actividad turística de la CAPV, Eustat— Instituto Vasco de Estadística (1998). Retrieved from: https://eu.eustat.eus/elementos/ele000 1200/EAEko_turismo-jardueraren_ezagutza_eta_jarraipena/inf0001249e.pdf 12. Vidarte, J.I.: Nuevas infraestructuras culturales como factor de renovación urbanística, revitalización social y regeneración económica. El Museo Guggenheim Bilbao, in Museo—Revista de la Asociación Profesional de Museólogos de España, Nº 12, pp. 99–108 (2007) https://dia lnet.unirioja.es/servlet/articulo?codigo=2505594 13. Domínguez Pérez, M., Fernández, J.M.: El patrimonio cultural, recurso estratégico para el enriquecimiento económico y social. Ejemplos desde el patrimonio mundial en España. In Castillo Mena, A. (coord.) Personas y comunidades: Actas del Segundo Congreso Internacional de Buenas Prácticas en Patrimonio Mundial, pp. 777–792 (2015) https://dialnet.unirioja.es/ser vlet/articulo?codigo=6103612 14. http://rokawangardy.pl/en/participants/the-historical-museum-of-the-city-of-krakow,51.html 15. http://muzeumkrakowa.pl/en/exhibitions/krakow-under-nazi-occupation-1939-1945 16. Bogunia-Borowska, M.: The museum as a space of social relations. Oskar Schindler’s Enamel factory museum in Cracow and POLIN Museum of the history of polish jews in Warsaw. Monit. Public Opin. Econ. Soc. Changes 5, 233–255 (2016). https://doi.org/10.14515/monito ring.2016.5.13 17. https://www.tripadvisor.com/ShowUserReviews-g274772-d2089197-r295206496-SeeKra kow_Day_Tours-Krakow_Lesser_Poland_Province_Southern_Poland.html 18. https://polandforgetmenot.com/theschindlerslistoskarschindlerfactory privatetourwithlocalguide/ 19. https://www.introducingkrakow.com/attractions 20. Guichard-Marneur, M.: Forgetting communism, remembering World War II? The case of the permanent exhibition of the Schindler Factory Museum, Krakow. Poland. Int. J. Heritage Stud. 24(8), 811–827 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1080/13527258.2018.1428661 21. Kruczek, Z., Mazanek, L.: Krakow as a tourist metropolitan area. Impact of tourism on the economy of the city. Studia Periegetica nr 2(26), 25–41 (2019). https://doi.org/10.26349/st.per. 0026.02 22. https://ocalicpamiec.mhk.pl/en/ 23. Bouquet, M.: L’impact touristique des nouveaux musées: analyse des relations entre l’environnement urbain et la spatialisation de l’impact à travers les exemples du Centre Pompidou-Metz et du Louvre-Lens, Belgeo (2014). Retrieved from https://journals.opened ition.org/belgeo/12600?lang=nl. https://doi.org/10.4000/belgeo.12600 24. Baudelle, G., Krauss, G.: The governance model of two French national museums of fine arts relocated in the province: Centre Pompidou Metz and Louvre-Lens, p. 3. Belgeo (2014). Retrieved from https://journals.openedition.org/belgeo/12765. https://doi.org/10.4000/ belgeo.12765 25. CP Baromètre 2018 Centre Pompidou Metz. Retrieved from https://www.investinmetz.com/fr/ etude-barometrique-des-publics-du-centre-pompidou-metz.html 26. Tobalem, J.-M. : Les musées nationaux doivent-ils se délocaliser? Nectart 2(2), 33–43 (2017). https://doi.org/10.3917/nect.005.0033. Retrieved from https://www.euralens.org/economie/chi ffres-cles.html 27. Pascoal, S., Tallone, L., Furtado, M., Ribeiro, S.: Promover o património cultural através do empreendedorismo e da criatividade: o projeto google arts& culture. In: Sensos-E, InED Centro de Investigação e Inovação em Educação, da ESE do Instituto Politécnico do Porto (2019). Retrieved from https://parc.ipp.pt/index.php/sensos/article/view/3038/1497 28. Plaza, B., Haarich, S.N.: Museums for urban regeneration? Exploring conditions of their effectiveness. J. Urban Regener. Renew. 2(3), 259:271 (2009)
Chapter 19
Charting a Path for Industry 4.0. An Industry and University Experience Vitor Manuel de Lemos Dinis, Francisco Joaquim Madeira Esteves, and Pedro Fernandes da Anunciação
Abstract The scientific development of the economy and society often depends on the proximity and interaction between higher education institutions and businesses. When this proximity is achieved, a win–win relationship is established between the generation of scientific knowledge and the competitiveness of economic organizations. This work aims to present a project developed between three institutions (Higher Education Institution, an Industrial organization, and a Software house) which culminated in the development of a technological solution in the area of pre-existing maintenance for industrial enterprises in an Industry 4.0 context.
19.1 Introduction The evolution of society and the economy challenges higher education institutions to study and find solutions to the specific challenges facing economic organizations. The current technological context is challenging the industry sector and is paving the way to a Fourth Industrial Revolution or Industry 4.0 [1]. The old industrial world must change and introduce new technologies to opening new opportunities to current business, as well as to new business, new forms of relationship, and new production methods. Technological change allows faster and more flexible responses in operations, creating the need to rethink work processes, and potentiating agile forms of working revealing the need for a new perspective on management. The current ongoing and global pandemic only throws more light on the urgency of digital
V. M. de Lemos Dinis Cibersur, Setúbal, Portugal F. J. M. Esteves · P. F. da Anunciação (B) Research Center in Business Sciences, Polytechnic Institute of Setúbal, Setúbal, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] F. J. M. Esteves e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 A. Mesquita et al. (eds.), Perspectives and Trends in Education and Technology, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 256, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5063-5_19
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learning devices and training for stakeholders in management, production, maintenance, security, and engineering [2]. On the other hand, management is becoming more receptive to flexible working practices and home and remote working [3], and this is a biggest opportunity to increase management quality because the speed of innovation requires adjustment and development of new management models and tools to reduce complexity and risk [4]. If organizations do not adapt and manage change, they will face instability and competitive difficulties in the short term, and this requires a new perspective on leadership and their coaching [5]. Automation and digitalization are the main drivers of Industry 4.0 (I4.0), and they are more and more entangled in each and every newly developed technology. They are long-term revolutionary processes, causing continuous significant change effects, differing from industry to industry, and showing that no one-size-fits-all the industries seeking to adopt I4.0 processes [6]. Those drivers draw on the exploitation of the potentials of new technologies and concepts such us availability and use of the Internet and the IoT (Internet of things), integration of technical processes and business processes in the companies, digital mapping and virtualization of the real world, and smart factory including smart means of industrial production and smart products [7, 8]. Besides automation and digitalization drivers, I4.0 introduction is also connected to the fact that up to now, the existing possibilities for increasing the profit in industrial manufacturing are almost exhausted. Production costs were lowered with the introduction of just-in-time production, by adopting the concepts of lean production, and especially by outsourcing productions to countries with lower work costs. In terms of costs reduction, Industry 4.0 seems promising, and some sources estimate a decrease in production costs by 10–30%, in logistic costs by 10–30%, and in quality management by 10–20% [9]. Other advantages for I4.0 adoption include a shorter time-to-market for new products, faster, and better customer responsiveness, ability to make custom mass production without significantly increasing production costs, a friendlier working environment and an efficient use of resources and energy, and, through integrating with sustainable development goals in an eco-innovation platform, it can also lead to environmental sustainability, recycling, and a circular economy [10]. This is a new world, where the obstacles derived from the fact that these industrywide innovations place pressure on all other related activities must be solved. For example, in logistics some experts argue that Industry 4.0 can only function if and where logistics systems will be able to supply the production system at the right time, in the right quantity, with the right quality, and in the right place. The associated challenges, risks, and barriers demand scientific study and models to reorganize value creation processes, make changes between companies, define infrastructure and standards, endure data security, and educate employees and staff to achieve a positive outcome of this change [11]. Industry 4.0 is a term for an industrial paradigm that today embraces a larger set of developing ongoing industrial technologies, namely Cyber-Physical Systems (CPS), Digital Twins, Internet of Everything (IoE), Advanced Robotics, Big Data and Analytics, Edge, Fog and Cloud Computing, Artificial Intelligence, Network and Connectivity, 3D Printing, Human Augmentation, and Extended Reality, as shown
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in recent research by specialized company in research on trends and innovations in I4.0 [12]. The adoption of these technologies is central to the development of more intelligent manufacturing processes, which includes devices, machines, production modules, and products that are able to independently exchange information, trigger actions, and control each other, enabling the vision of an intelligent manufacturing environment [13]. This approach brings together the digital and physical worlds through the CPS technology, embracing a set of industrial developments that allows the improvement of productivity and efficiency among the companies that are adopting this manufacturing paradigm [14]. Industry 4.0 is, at the same time, a vision, and a concept in motion [13], with a reference architecture—RAMI 4.0 [15], standardization—IEC PAS 63088:2017, and flux definitions [16]. RAMI 4.0 integrate different user perspectives and provide a common understanding of Industry 4.0 technologies. With RAMI 4.0 requirements of different industrial sectors—from manufacturing automation and mechanical engineering or chemical process engineering—can be addressed in standardization committees and provide a common understanding for standard use cases. RAMI 4.0 is an enabler in the harmonization of international standards for digitized global value chains. Industry 4.0 represents an opportunity for the development of scientific knowledge in various areas of knowledge (Industrial, economic, management, etc.), as it challenges economic competitiveness and the development of society.
19.2 Objectives and Methodologies The search of keyword «preventive maintenance» in the Scopus database indicated only seven articles [17–23] about this subject. Only two of them present a proposal for a model to fit the theme under study, and none addresses the Portuguese reality. So, the main objective of this work was, in a first phase, the development of an architecture and a solution for maintenance management in the context of I4.0, and, in a second phase, the development and test of a path to I4.0 migration for Uptime Production. As stated in the previous chapter, the maintenance of industrial equipment incorporating new technologies, such as IIoT, Artificial Intelligence, and among others, requires particular attention from industrial management. In this new technological context, the maintenance of industrial equipment is not limited to certain static parameters, such as the number of operating hours of the equipment, but the dynamic combination of a combined set of indicators that interact and condition each other in a real operating context (such as the wear resulting from the number of operating hours associated with existing temperature and humidity conditions). For this reason, the conditions for maintenance assessment needs should be properly framed on a permanent and consistent basis. The task force, in the first phase, joined, essentially, the Business Sciences Research Center of the Polytechnic Institute of Setúbal, together with a software development company for industry (Cibersur), have developed a project with the
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aim of developing specific software for the management of industrial maintenance. However, to the work development, this task force was extended to other specialists. Adopting the focus group technic, the task force was expanded to include other specialists, namely 1 senior production manager, 1 maintenance manager, 2 teachers in Information Systems and Technologies, 1 teacher in production management, 1 senior software developer, and 5 undergraduate students from computer engineering courses. The advantage of the methodology associated with the focus group lies the possibility of sharing the knowledge and experiences of each of the participants (production, maintenance, and technologies) and the search for joint solutions that satisfy the specificity of the problems under analysis. The methodology adopted focused on the definition of three steps necessary for the development of a final software product that would meet the current needs of industrial maintenance and the assessment of its suitability to the needs of industrial enterprises. The defined steps were the following: definition of a focus group, to survey the requirements associated with industrial maintenance in the I4.0 context; development of an architecture; and carrying out a proof of concept in an industrial company (case study). In the second phase, after the architecture definition, the task force with another partner, the LuBan Automation Laboratory of the High School of Technologies at the Polytechnic Institute of Setúbal, was dedicated to develop and test a path to I4.0 migration for Uptime Production, where an automated capsule separation, packing, and storage is realized in an automation laboratory workbench for student’s practice, and the developed Uptime software and related digital twins are adding intelligence and self-management to the automation chain helping to demonstrate to companies and instruct students how next generation manufacturing chains will be built and operate.
19.2.1 Reference Architecture Model Industry 4.0 (RAMI 4.0) The starting point for the start of the work of focus group was the RAMI 4.0, presented at Fig. 19.1, that constitute actually a reference architecture model to Industry 4.0 that model has a form of a cubic layer model along axis’s labeled hierarchy levels, life cycle and value stream, and layers. The hierarchy levels axis is based on the levels from IEC 62264, the international standards series for enterprise IT and control systems, which is based and incorporates ANSI/ISA-95 hierarchy. Hierarchy levels represent the different functionalities within factories or facilities, expanded to include work pieces (product) and the connection to the Internet of things and services (connected world, or the Internet of Everything, IoE). The life cycle and value stream axis represent the life cycle of facilities and products, based on IEC 62890 for life-cycle management. On this axis, a distinction
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Fig. 19.1 Reference architecture model Industry 4.0—IEC PAS 63088:2017 [15, 16, 24]
is made between types, a product in design and prototyping phases, and instances, corresponding to already manufactured products in usage. The layers axis show six layers on the vertical axis and serve to describe the decomposition of a machine into its properties structured layer by layer and creating a virtual mapping of a machine. These representations originate from communication technology, where properties of complex systems are broken down into layers. These six layers are: • • • • • •
Asset—a representation of reality, such as a technical object, Integration—providing computer processing information of assets, Communication—standardization of communication, using a unified data format, Information—representing the software environment for event pre-processing, Functional—a modeling environment for services that support business processes, Business – business models and the resulting business process (Fig. 19.2).
Fig. 19.2 I4.0 (vertical) component on RAMI 4.0 [25]
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Within these three axes, all aspects of Industry 4.0 can be mapped, allowing objects such as machines to be classified according to the model and having the administration shell represent their technical functionality. Administration shell is a unique functional description of the asset and should contain and be linked to its data. This digital representation enables objects [26]: • to cooperate and collaborate with other objects in their environment, • to learn to behave well in their environment by using artificial intelligence approaches (for instance, KPI-based effectiveness and efficiency improvements), • to describe themselves, their skills, and their current state (for instance, in form of realistic simulated models synchronized in real time with the physical unit), or • to share their data in real time, information, and gained knowledge. Objects with these features fulfill the definition of Cyber-Physical Systems (CPS) [27, 28], and their virtual representation permanently linked with the real object is designated a Digital Twin [29, 30].
19.2.2 Preventive Maintenance Model for Industry 4.0 Proposal Considering that in RAMI 4.0, each of the axis is independent [31, 32], which assures that different industrial branches like automation, engineering, and chemical processes have a common view on the overall systems landscape, and it was possible to focus group define I4.0 components modules to architect and support a potential application developed, presented in Fig. 19.3. Considering these components, the industrial standards (ISA-95:2018), and their evolution to I4.0, adding the indispensable functional safety (IEC 61508 ed. 2.0) and security (ISO 9001:2015) as drawn in Fig. 19.4, it was possible to identify the main
Fig. 19.3 I4.0 components (as vertical) modules (of one or more components) for an application development
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Fig. 19.4 Preventive maintenance model for industry 4.0
components of a preventive maintenance architecture. This architecture identification was taking in consideration established standard practices as maintenance definitions, capacity, responses, and requests information rendering to corporate maintenance software, as well as all the relevant information flow between stakeholders and digital twins (orchestrator and digital sections), includes the man as an integral and essential partner at all level activities, integrates newly possible different business models as expert services, and makes a strong usage of models, simulations, custom usages, and projects as results from the manageability and intelligence now available to all systems. Considering this preventive maintenance model, a software package proposal was developed, and a proof of concept was developed to validate; it meets the current needs of industrial maintenance and creates conditions for its evolution to I4.0 in Portugal.
19.3 The Proof of Concept (PoC) The PoC was developed in one of the largest cement companies in Portugal, where industrial balances are subject to very demanding operating conditions given the respective production characteristics. Industrial balances in a cement production line
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are used to weight continuously proportional amounts of limestone and marl fed to powder grinders and mixers before their mixture be homogenized in the raw mix store and sent to the cement kiln. Such balances are critical to ensure continuously the right composition of the raw mixture, later to fed to the kiln and, consequently, the final quality of the clinker, the kiln product, and the basic component of the cement. Experience shows that balances support a continuous setpoint derivative, creating significant errors in the blending of the mix fed to the kiln and resulting in clinker quality variation requiring extra and posterior analysis and corrections, and delays and/or production reduction. The PoC was done by collecting data of the daily setpoint calibration of each balance and by using this data to forecast when the difference was going to be bigger than a certain threshold, and/or, when one of the setpoint’s difference was significantly larger in one of the balances than on the other. Forecasts allowed production and maintenance managers to plan interventions on the balances, which normally required the anticipated call for external balance’s support service, their inspection for determining which components were degraded and requiring replacement, their resupply, installation, and testing, which meant normally a two-day inoperative balance and the corresponding lack of production. The preventive maintenance system applied to these balances permits not only forecast when each balance requires service and do their maintenance before they brake and interrupt production, but also to know in advance if it is more practical and economical to service only one, or both balances at the same time, if the second balance is forecasted to require service in a short time after the first one, reducing maintenance costs, avoiding breakdown, reducing service time and cost, and reducing production line stoppings and their duration. The PoC results were collected along the first year, resulting in, according to maintenance management, a reduction of services to a quarter of previously required by the balances, with more than the corresponding costs reduction and production availability with guaranteed quality.
19.4 Conclusions The collaboration and partnership between a research center (academy), a software house (Cibersur), and an industrial company have allowed the sharing of knowledge and experience in the different areas of activity and to design and develop an application solution which is currently available to all industrial enterprises with production lines. In this work, it was possible to combine three critical success factors in the analysis of the challenges posed by companies by the current context of the information society: technological innovation as a leveraging factor for economic activities; the management of the impacts of technological innovation (in particular concerning pre-planned maintenance of equipment) on industrial enterprises; and the need for new management models to ensure adequate monitoring, management, and control of the functioning of economic organizations.
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This research and development work proves that the use of the expertise associated with each of the institutions involved provides the generation of synergistic gains that can be shared and benefited by all stakeholders involved. The benefits are evident. For the Academy, the generation, development, and consolidation of existing knowledge, through the presentation of real case studies in the context of the subjects teaching to the various degrees of Education. For the industrial company, the use of a new architectural model and software provides higher levels in the preventive management of the respective productive equipment in the framework of Industry 4.0. And, for the software company, the possibility of improving their products, developing new ones and making them more commercially competitive in the market.
19.5 Limitations and Future Research Work Despite the usefulness perceived with the present research work, both in the scientific and technical domain, supported by a research center of a higher education institution and by a software house, there are some limitations that are expected to be overcome in future investigations. The first refers to the adoption of the proof-of-concept methodology, which, although very practical and agile, does not reflect the entire industrial reality in Portugal. The second refers to the dimension of the focus group. Although it included several specialists with extensive experience in the scope of the study, an increase in the number of participants and above all, the possibility of including specialists representing the various industrial sectors would be a significant added value. After this work of conceptual and architectural nature, important to the development of technological solutions, it is expected in the future the development of a more comprehensive investigation with a view to the development of a survey for a general validation of the assumptions and solutions at the industry level. Such an opportunity would allow the awareness of the various industrial maintenance managers to be aware of the relevance of this theme and the solution developed, while allowing any adjustments to be made to the developed solution.
References 1. Schwab, K.: The Fourth Industrial Revolution. World Economic Forum, Geneva (2016) 2. Dinis, V., Esteves, F., Anunciação, P.: Preventive maintenance as a critical success factor in industry 4.0. In: IGI Global, Handbook of Research on Digital Transformation and Challenges to Data Security and Privacy, ch. 18, pp. 311–332 (2021) 3. Gorlitz, J.: Plattform Industrie 4.0, Working group on work, education and training (2021). Retrieved online on 15.03.2021 from https://www.plattform-i40.de/PI40/Redaktion/EN/Standa rdartikel/working-group-05.html
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Chapter 20
Qualitative Research Applied to Organisations. An Approach to Business Reality Romel Ramón González-Díaz , Cecilia Margarita Lugo-Báez, Yurkyna Xiomara Medina-Patron, Roxana Janette Valdez-Rodríguez , Daniela Uriarte-Soto , and Yanira Soledad Díaz Moreno Abstract This study aims to analyse the application of qualitative research in business organisations. For this purpose, a documentary analysis was applied and 5 most cited SAGE Publishing 2017 Publications in 2010 were selected. The analysis consisted of two phases: Phase 1 structuring of main and secondary ideas. Phase 2. Analysis of contributions according to the following approaches: Ontological Approach, Epistemological Approach and Methodological Approach. For this purpose, the Atlas.ti9 software was used to determine the points of convergence between the approaches and authors. The main findings show that qualitative research in organisational studies presents ontological weaknesses in terms of onto-epistemic positioning and priority is given to the methodological approach. Likewise, it is recommended to broaden the field of action of such research under this methodology, to take advantage of pluralism for the construction of theories and methodological contributions that help the study of the social phenomenon.
20.1 Introduction Qualitative research has been a booming research approach in recent decades and its methods for obtaining results have been the focus of strong criticism from those
R. R. González-Díaz (B) · C. M. Lugo-Báez · Y. X. Medina-Patron · R. J. Valdez-Rodríguez · D. Uriarte-Soto · Y. S. D. Moreno Centro Internacional de Investigación y Desarrollo–CIID, 230001 Montería, Colombia e-mail: [email protected] Universidad Autónoma de Sinaloa, Culiacán, México C. M. Lugo-Báez e-mail: [email protected] D. Uriarte-Soto e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 A. Mesquita et al. (eds.), Perspectives and Trends in Education and Technology, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 256, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5063-5_20
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who claim that only the scientific method developed by positivists is the only source for generating science [1–3]. The social sciences and, consequently, the management sciences are an unattainable source of information given their dynamics and complexity in their social variants [4–6]. Given the ineffectiveness of quantitative methods in responding to managerial social phenomena, the importance of qualitative methods resurfaces as an alternative to understand and interpret the experiences, experiences and even beyond what underlies the consciousness of the subjects that make the life of the scenarios and business situations investigated [7–9]. According to the scientific literature, qualitative research applied in management sciences has shown good results for managerial decision-making. Some of the most interesting cases are Agarwal et al. [10], Osman et al. [11], Zeidan et al. [12] who through topics such as knowledge management, marketing and administration show creative and effective solutions to managerial problems. However, qualitative studies present certain conceptual gaps in those authors who are initiating research. Therefore, this study makes a literature review of the most representative articles in qualitative research according to a convenience sampling based on the articles used in doctoral professorships in strategic management in Mexico. For this purpose, a content analysis was carried out and interpretations were issued that account for the documentary analysis of qualitative research applied to management sciences. The main findings provide recommendations for the improvement of the quality of qualitative research applied to management sciences. From the individual level, it is necessary to increase the general understanding in order to broaden the vision and to be able to issue articles shaped and judged from a broader viewpoint and it is recommended to get closer to the life world of the phenomenon to be studied. At the institutional level, researchers and the scientific community should be encouraged to promote both research methods, as well as to form networks of qualitative reviewers in different areas, since different types of research also take place within these areas.
20.2 Materials and Methods For this study, we considered the most relevant publications in qualitative research from SAGE Publishing, internationally recognised for its contributions to applied qualitative research in the management sciences. The 5 most cited articles for 2010 were considered for this research, which is listed below: The contributions of the publications described in Table 20.1 were analysed in two phases: Phase 1. The main and secondary ideas of each of them were structured. Phase 2. The contributions were observed according to the following approaches: Ontological Approach (Nature of Reality), Epistemological Approach (Subject-Object Relationship) and Methodological Approach (Procedural). For this purpose, the Atlas.ti9 software was used to determine the points of convergence between the approaches and the selected articles.
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Table 20.1 SAGE Publishing publications most cited in 2010 Authors
Title
Easterby-Smith, M., Golden-Biddle, K., & Locke, K
Working with pluralism. Organisational research methods
Fendt, J., & Sachs, W
Grounded theory method in management research: users’ perspectives
Amis, J. M., & Silk, M. L
The philosophy and politics of quality in qualitative organisational research
Pratt, M. G
Fitting oval pegs into round holes: tensions in evaluating and publishing qualitative research in top-tier North American Journals
Savall, H., Zardet, V., Bonnet, M., & Peron, M
The emergence of implicit criteria actually used by reviewers of qualitative research articles: case of a European Journal
20.3 Analysis and Discussion of the Results Once the studies described in Table 20.1 had been reviewed, a preliminary analysis was made in order to determine the main and secondary ideas of each one. Table 20.2 shows the main ideas of each study. Table 20.2 shows the main ideas of the texts to contextualise the documentary analysis. Likewise, the word cloud provided by Atlas.ti9 shows the most important words (see Fig. 20.1). In phase 2 of the analysis, the approaches that contribute to the researcher’s ontoepistemic positioning were considered: Ontological, Epistemological and Methodological of each document under study. To this end, a Sankey diagram was designed, comparing the five documents analysed and their perspective through the sentences that contemplate the evaluated approach (see Fig. 20.2). Figure 20.2 shows the relationship between the publications under study and the approaches derived from the onto-epistemic positioning, where there is a greater discursive concentration in the analysis of the texts analysed, with the result that 66.54% of the total written discourses give strength to the methodological section, 32.12% to the epistemological and only 1.33% to the ontological. From the epistemic approach, qualitative studies aim to understand and interpret multiple realities based on the consciousness, experiences and experiences of those who are part of the social phenomenon to be studied. The reviewed publications show that the authors defend a moral-sacred epistemology that foregrounds ethical and moral concerns as the basis for both the purpose and the quality of the research. This reframing proposes that, from constructivist epistemology, there is no knowledge without theory [13] one is comfortably situated within a social constructivist epistemology oriented towards understanding the lives of organisational members and the other within a cultural studies/critical theorist position that explicitly embodies a political agenda oriented towards social justice and taking a stand on the most pressing social issues of our time.
Grounded Theory is a way of approaching social reality in a different way. The author presents the case study combined with GTM from two perspectives; the practitioner researcher (Jackie, former CO of a Swiss company) and the thesis advisor (Wlad). Some milestones that have been influential in determining the concept of quality in qualitative research (reading “quality criteria in qualitative research”) In those topics that have been little addressed and consequently no formal or substantial theories are available, going beyond theories requires a fresher view GTM claims to be a qualitative methodology to generate theory inductively
Working with pluralism. Organisational research methods
Grounded theory method in management research: users’ perspectives
(continued)
Key ideas Development of qualitative methods in management and organisational research that emphasises the expansion of variety and plurality within the field in general. Researchers feel the need for procedures to generate theories from other perspectives beyond the phenomena they wish to understand, describe, discover, etc. and to help them understand the approach more naturally Guidelines for the evaluation of qualitative field research and its quality. There is a need to provide more detailed and nuanced research on existing perspectives on the issues addressed, as well as to contribute to a clear description of the method used Recommendations for improving the quality of qualitative research There is a need to improve the quality of qualitative research in order to broaden the scope of qualitative research
Title
Table 20.2 SAGE Publishing publications most cited in 2010
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Key ideas
Fitting oval pegs into round holes: tensions in evaluating and publishing qualitative research in top-tier North American Journals
(continued)
Criteria for evaluating qualitative research in North American management and organisation journals. Publication in North American journals is “top tier” and they are more highly valued by universities. These journals vary in the metrics to be used so it is more difficult for them to accept publication To understand the criteria, the author draws on his experience and that of 130 researchers who have published and/or submitted qualitative articles Based on the experience of the qualitative researchers and with regard to the evaluation criteria in the publication, three tensions worked out: main criteria related to acceptance (Author), Main criteria related to acceptance (Editor and reviewer), Main problem of qualitative research is the lack of a template or operational procedures for the evaluation of a qualitative article, Qualitative Vs qualitative, Tensions for qualitative researchers
The philosophy and politics of quality in qualitative organisational research The assessment of research quality is inseparable from the ontological and epistemological foundations of the project The quality of qualitative research does not adhere to dominant norms of science. The Foundationalist orientation follows the traditional criteria of validity, reliability, objectivity and generalisability. Quasi-foundationalist orientation seeks an approximation to reality. Constructivist epistemology, generation of generic theory, whose findings can be generalised to other contexts. Non-fundamentalist, relativism is inevitable, there are no absolute truths; no objective facts Need to “democratise” organisational research, providing more space for qualitative research Diverse philosophical positions, interdisciplinary and with epistemological plurality
Title
Table 20.2 (continued)
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Key ideas
The emergence of implicit criteria actually used by reviewers of qualitative The authors conducted the first empirical research based entirely on reviewers’ research articles: case of a European Journal reports for the journal “Management Science” (RSDG) on management science over a period of 28 years. Its co-founders are Fra-nçois Perroux and Henri Savall The content analysis of 474 reviewers’ reports written by 56 reviewers identified 19 critical points and 10 criteria, forming a synthetic table of 190 possible cells, 51 of which proved to be actually used by the reviewers The research question is: What implicit criteria do reviewers actually use in their evaluations of articles employing qualitative research methods pre-submitted to the journal? Empirical research material. Reviewers’ reports on articles submitted to the journal first published in 1978 and without interruption since then were chosen for the research Method. All reports have the same structure: descriptive information followed by a freely drafted text stating the reviewer’s assessment without explicitly defined a priori criteria Method of content analysis of reports. A sequential model was used, starting with specific reviewers’ reports and working towards a generic model Results converging with the literature. The number of critical points per quality criterion mobilised in the literature to determine whether they were superior, inferior or equivalent to the findings themselves. In addition, we determined the proportion of convergent and divergent results in the literature with our own findings
Title
Table 20.2 (continued)
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Fig. 20.1 Word cloud of most cited SAGE Publishing publications in 2010
Given that the adoption of a ‘moral-sacred’ epistemology in organisational studies implies a radical departure from established norms for assessing quality, it is pertinent to examine how quality is determined within the non-foundational approach. In this case, the criteria for assessing the quality of qualitative research must be based on a holistic appreciation of the studies, especially the moral and ethical concerns that work to erase any distinction between epistemology, aesthetics and ethics [14]. Adherence to a moral-sacred epistemology does not provide an environment in which anything goes. Similarly, it is not necessary to eliminate categorisation, which is impossible for the human mind, but to consider the moral, social and political consequences of constructing such categories; in other words, judgements about the goodness or badness of research in this sense must be based on a moral-sacred epistemology [15, 16]. In this formulation, good quality organisational research is grounded within a moral-sacred epistemology; a contextualised and collaborative civic project committed to community development; a project that unites the researcher with the researched in an ongoing moral dialogue [17, 18]. Thus, while we may agree with Becker that scholars will hold inherently biased positions, we clearly differ in how we arrive at that position: a moral-sacred epistemology provides the basis for research explicitly designed to enable social critique and engender resistance [19]. Moreover, a moral-sacred epistemology involves collectively deciding relevant research questions (e.g. with organisational actors), jointly determining appropriate data collection methods and collaboratively analysing and communicating results.
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Fig. 20.2 Sankey diagram and relationship of approaches to the most cited SAGE Publishing publications in 2010
Likewise, some of the aesthetic criteria suggested in the documents analysed invite interpretative responses; and consider how complex, artistically shaped and satisfying the text is; reflective criteria that are aware of an epistemology that embraces the author’s subjectivity and self-consciousness and holds the author accountable; and impact criteria that ask whether the text affects the reader emotionally and intellectually, generates new questions and moves the reader to action [20]. In other words, the relationship between the researcher’s paradigm, ontology, epistemology and chosen method must be coherent. Research applying grounded theory should consider the research question aligned with the researcher’s epistemology. Grounding, emergence, discovery, theory Are the terms grounding and emergence, which imply that grounded theory will surface an objective truth at the bottom of the data, really appropriate in relation to an interpretative phenomenological method informed by a social constructionist epistemology?
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Grounding and discovery Terms such as grounding and discovery of theory irritate in relation to an interpretative phenomenological method informed by a social constructionist epistemology. As for scientific reviews, judges do not sufficiently recognise their methodological and epistemological variety. Quantitative” editors and reviewers are the cause of the imposition of inappropriate standards: We believe that most quantitative reviewers, who are the majority of reviewers in top-tier US journals, do not know enough about qualitative epistemology and methodology to really appreciate qualitative work on its own terms [21]. From the methodological approach, the authors consulted consider that qualitative researchers themselves draw on a variety of methods and techniques, such as semiotics, action research, narrative analysis, ethnomethodology, hermeneutics, deconstructionism and grounded theory, to name but a few. However, institutional factors influence research methodology in different contexts; judgements about the quality of qualitative research methods depend on the interplay of institutional and technical factors [22–24]. It is not uncommon for supporters of the status quo to espouse certain methodological ethnocentrism, believing that their methodology is the most developed, the most natural and that they ‘share a kind of ‘end of history’ assumption that their epistemology is the culmination of accumulated wisdom and experience. The introspection of the researcher and the philosophical basis of a given methodology should be the starting point of research. As well as, reflective methodology and theoretical sensitivity: Advances in grounded theory methodology [25]. Qualitative research applied to organisations generates novel contributions, whether in terms of theory, context or methodology. However, concerns about theoretical contribution and appropriate methodology have been repeated causes for rejection of empirical manuscripts [26].
20.4 Conclusion Researchers feel the need for procedures to generate theories from other perspectives beyond the phenomena they wish to understand, describe, discover, etc. and to help them understand the approach more naturally. Qualitative researchers use various methods and techniques such as semiotics, narrative analysis, hermeneutics, grounded theory and others to test their research. However, there is a need to provide more detailed and nuanced investigations of the existing perspectives on the issues addressed, as well as to contribute to a clear description of the method used. Onto-epistemic orientations such as foundationalism, quasi-foundationalism and non-foundationalism are mentioned in this study. The quality of qualitative research is to be improved in order to broaden the scope of qualitative research. From the individual level, it is necessary to increase general understanding in order to broaden the vision and to be able to issue articles shaped and judged from a broader viewpoint and it is recommended to approach the world of the life of the phenomenon to be studied. At the institutional level, researchers and
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the scientific community should be encouraged to promote both research methods, as well as to form networks of qualitative reviewers in different areas, since different types of research also take place in these areas.
References 1. Hernández-Royett, J., González-Díaz, R.R.: Enfoques de investigación en la contabilidad. Estrategia 2(1), 87–100 (2016) 2. Gurdián Fernández, A.: El paradigma cualitativo en la investigación socio educativa (2010) 3. Guba, E., Lincoln, Y: Paradigmas en competencia en la investigación cualitativa. Por los rincones. Antología de métodos cualitativos en la investigación social, pp. 113–145, (2002) 4. Chen, Y., Mandler, T., Meyer-Waarden, L.: Three decades of research on loyalty programs: a literature review and future research agenda. J. Bus. Res. 124, 179–197. 2021/01/01/ (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2020.11.057 5. Kolotylo-Kulkarni, M., Xia, W., Dhillon, G.: Information disclosure in e-commerce: A systematic review and agenda for future research. J. Bus. Res. 126, 221–238. 2021/03/01/ (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2020.12.006 6. Vlaˇci´c, B., Corbo, L., Costa e Silva, S., Dabi´c, M.: The evolving role of artificial intelligence in marketing: a review and research agenda. J. Bus. Res. 128, 187–203. 2021/05/01/ (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2021.01.055 7. Lindgreen, A., Di Benedetto, C.A., Thornton, S.C., Geersbro, J.: Editorial: qualitative research in business marketing management. Indus. Market. Manag. 2021/03/04/ (2021). https://doi. org/10.1016/j.indmarman.2021.02.001 8. Park, K.: Book review: handbook of qualitative research methods for international business. J. Int. Manag. 12(3), 379–382, 2006/09/01/ (2006). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intman.2006.06.006 9. Welch, C., Marschan-Piekkari, R., Penttinen, H., Tahvanainen, M.: Corporate elites as informants in qualitative international business research. Int. Bus. Rev. 11(5), 611–628, 2002/10/01/ (2002). https://doi.org/10.1016/S0969-5931(02)00039-2 10. Agarwal, S., Lenka, U., Singh, K., Agrawal, V., Agrawal, A.M.: A qualitative approach towards crucial factors for sustainable development of women social entrepreneurship: Indian cases. J. Cleaner Prod. 274, 123135, 2020/11/20/ (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.123135 11. Osman, M., Abokersh, M.H., El-Baz, O., Sharaf, O., Mahmoud, N., El-Morsi, M.: Key performance indicators (KPIs): Assessing the process integration of a shell-and-tube latent heat storage unit. J. Cleaner Prod. 256, 120249, 2020/05/20/ (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcl epro.2020.120249 12. Zeidan, R., Van Holt, T., Whelan, T.: Existence inductive theory building to study coordination failures in sustainable beef production. J. Cleaner Prod. 267, 122137, 2020/09/10/ (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.122137 13. Denzin, N. K., Lincoln, Y.S.: Introduction: The Discipline and Practice of Qualitative Research (2005) 14. Savall, H., Zardet, V., Bonnet, M., Peron, M.: The emergence of implicit criteria actually used by reviewers of qualitative research articles: case of a European Journal. Organ. Res. Methods 11(3), 510–540, 2008/07/01 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1177/1094428107308855 15. Amis, J.M., Silk, M.L.: The philosophy and politics of quality in qualitative organizational research. Organ. Res. Methods 11(3), 456–480, 2008/07/01 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1177/ 1094428107300341 16. Pratt, M.G.: Fitting oval pegs into round holes: tensions in evaluating and publishing qualitative research in top-tier North American Journals. Organ. Res. Methods 11(3), 481–509, 2008/07/01 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1177/1094428107303349
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17. Easterby-Smith, M., Golden-Biddle, K., Locke, K.: Working with pluralism. Organ. Res. Methods—ORGAN RES METHODS 11, 419–429, 08/08 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1177/109 4428108315858 18. Fendt, J., Sachs, W.: Grounded theory method in management research: users’ perspectives. Organ. Res. Methods 11(3), 430–455, 2008/07/01 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1177/109442810 6297812 19. Denzin, N.K., Lincoln, Y.S.: Collecting and Interpreting Qualitative Materials. Sage (2008) 20. González-Díaz, R., Acevedo-Duque, Á., Salazar-Sepúlveda, G., Castillo, D.: Contributions of subjective well-being and good living to the contemporary development of the notion of sustainable human development. Sustainability 13(6) (2021) https://doi.org/10.3390/su1306 3298 21. González-Díaz, R.R., Acevedo-Duque, Á.E., Flores-Ledesma, K.N., Cruz-Ayala, K., Guanilo Gomez, S.L.: Knowledge management strategies through educational digital platforms during periods of social confinement. In: Trends and Applications in Information Systems and Technologies, pp. 297–303 Springer International Publishing, Cham (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/ 978-3-030-72651-5_29 22. González-Díaz, R.R., Becerra-Perez, L.A.: Stimulating components for business development in Latin American SMEs. In: Trends and Applications in Information Systems and Technologies, pp. 366–374. Springer International Publishing, Cham (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/ 978-3-030-72651-5_35. 23. González-Díaz, R.R., Acosta-Moltó, E.M.: ExPro as psycho-affective stimulators through experiential marketing in nonprofit organizations. CIID J. 1(1), 01–27 (2020) 24. Hernández-Julio, Y.F., Meriño-Fuentes, I., González-Díaz, R.R., Guerrero-Avendaño, A., Toledo, L.V.O., Bernal, W.N.: Fuzzy knowledge discovery and decision-making through clustering and dynamic tables: application in Colombian business finance. In: 2020 15th Iberian Conference on Information Systems and Technologies (CISTI), 24–27 June 2020, pp. 1–5 (2020). https://doi.org/10.23919/CISTI49556.2020.9141117 25. Gonzalez-Díaz, R.R., Becerra-Peréz, L.A., Acevedo-Duque, Á.E.: Narco-marketing as a strategy for local tourism development. Rev. Ibérica de Sistemas e Tecnologias de Informação 36(E36), 71–85 (2020) 26. González-Díaz, R., Vásquez Llamo, C.E., Hurtado Tiza, D.R., Menacho Rivera, A.S.: Plataformas interactivas y estrategias de gestión del conocimiento durante el Covid-19. Rev. Venezolana de Gerencia 25(4), 68–81, 12/01 (2020). [Online]. Available: https://produccionci entificaluz.org/index.php/rvg/article/view/35177
Chapter 21
Smart Production Planning and Control Model Adauto Bueno , Moacir Godinho Filho , João Vidal Carvalho , and Mario Callefi
Abstract Industry 4.0 concept is based on digitalization, networking, and valuecreation. The Industry 4.0 efforts comprise sensing, connectiveness, systems integration, advanced automation, manufacturing data-driven, and cyber-physical production system in the manufacturing systems-context. The digital capabilities and resources provided by Industry 4.0 need to be coordinating for value-creation. For this purpose, the manufacturing systems concentrate these efforts around Production Planning and Control Function (PPC) and their systems. PPC function is considered the “brain” of manufacturing. PC function is considered the “brain” of manufacturing. Therefore, the digitalization and efforts toward Industry 4.0 are mandatory when PPC’s role is providing to manufacturing companies their performance goals and competitive advantage to cope with digital business strategies. We carry out a literature survey of over 50 journal articles to determine the core Industry 4.0 technologies, key-factors and resources, and input/output capabilities, which support a smart PPC status. Therefore, our results found the main five Industry 4.0 ecosystems for Smart PPC: Industrial Internet of Things, industrial big data and analytics/artificial intelligence, cloud manufacturing, ICTs and accessory technologies, and cyber-physical production systems. We establish 36 resources/key-factors and ten input/output capabilities along with a digital thread that links these Industry 4.0 technologies’ ecosystems. In last, we develop a technological relationship model for smart PPC based on these resources and capabilities provided by the five Industry 4.0 technologies spread over ten activities in three PPC levels: aggregate planning, detailed planning, and production control.
A. Bueno (B) · M. G. Filho · M. Callefi Federal University of São Carlos, São Carlos, SP 13565-905, Brazil e-mail: [email protected] J. V. Carvalho Polytechnic of Porto, CEOS.PP, 4465-004 S. Mamede Infesta, Portugal © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 A. Mesquita et al. (eds.), Perspectives and Trends in Education and Technology, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 256, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5063-5_21
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21.1 Industry 4.0 Definitions Global competition and quick adaptation by manufacturing enterprises are currently driven by new competition requirements based on technologies that alter industrial performance. These requirements can be met by disruptive technologies adoption (Industry 4.0) and digitalization advances in current manufacturing systems [1]. This scenario toward a new digital manufacturing organization saw exponential growth in this decade’s early years [2]. From this, the Industry 4.0 concept gained prominence when proposing to integrate emerging key technologies and implementing them in the industrial World [2], forcing an entire industrial community to rethink the manufacturing future [3]. Thus, from the advent and spread of the Industry 4.0 concept, the report “Recommendations for implementing the strategic initiative Industrie 4.0” from 2013, head by Acatech in Germany [1], and also the report “Implementation Strategy Industrie 4.0” led by associations Bitkom, VDMA, and ZVEI in 2016 [4] were vectors of dissemination for the means of realization for Industry 4.0 concept on manufacturing companies. Industry 4.0 is not a consensual term; it is synonymous with Smart Manufacturing, Smart Factory, and its technologies like IIoT and CPPS [5, 6]. Moeuf et al. [7] cite the existence of more than 100 definitions encompassing Industry 4.0, and do not there is a sedimented definition currently in the operations management field. Technologies such as CPPS, industrial big data, IIoT, CMg, and AM are the most common path for digital solutions and capabilities [2, 6, 8]. The main concepts about Industry 4.0 gravitate around Industrial Internet of Things networks (IIoT), digitalization (embedding sensors and digital technologies), integration of manufacturing technologies and systems, autonomous machines and operations (e.g., M2M), and technologies for decisions supporting (e.g., digital twins). According to Kagermman et al. [1], Industry 4.0 aims to establish global value-creation networks within and between factories [6]. This study adopts the definition of Industry 4.0 originating from Kagermman et al. [1] and Bitkom, VDMA, and ZVEI [4]. Thus, our conceptualization of Industry 4.0 (“Industrie 4.0”) focuses on the operational perspective for establishing and sustaining real-time optimized value networks [4]. Therefore, Industry 4.0 is set out on multiple actors associated, covered by autonomous manufacturing resource networks, containing machines, robots, conveyors, and warehousing, equipped with sensors and actuators, spatially disperse (ubiquitous) [9, 10]. Manufacturing systems toward to Industry 4.0 concept also include incorporating relevant manufacturing controlling and planning systems (PPC systems) [11, 12]. VDI, VDE, and ZWEI [13] describe industrial production’s future from a robust and integrated organizational process along with life-cycle products, processes, and manufacturing systems. Our study approach focuses on the manufacturing system perspective based on resources and innovative capabilities harnessing through Industry 4.0 ecosystems paths.
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Three potential paths on Industry 4.0 for drawing of manufacture future: physical, digital, and biological. Schwab and Davis [14] describe these three megatrends brought by the Fourth Industrial Revolution regarding new developments and technologies. The transformations mentioned by Schwab and Davis [14] impact the social and human aspects. In this way, there is a profound impact on production systems regarding required competitive fierce and new patterns of demand responses, customer behavior, and by the evolution of planning and control systems for managing Smart Manufacturing systems within Smart Factories. Smart Factory comprises all business layers, and supply chain interfaces (demand and supply) covered by digital assets, smart functions, and responsibilities related to Industry 4.0 [15]. According to Orellana and Torres [16], Smart Factory comprises four development phases into Industry 4.0 concept: In level 1, the factory has ad hoc digital applications with basic analytic capacity. In level 2, the factory can integrate, digitalize, and automate its machinery, manufacturing systems, and internal processes. The data, owing between them, make them common, visible, and then traceable. In level 3, suppliers and partners are digitally integrated through typical and central architecture and information and communication systems; in level 4, the factory is 100% digital, i.e., a Smart Factory [16]. From the manufacturing planning and control viewpoint, high technology manufacturing in the Fourth Industrial Revolution is based on digital process, highly integrated, and intensive in automation, with data-driven decisions within Smart Factories-context [15]. This study considers Industry 4.0 as a basement for Smart Manufacturing practices introduction, enabling smart capabilities development for Production Planning and Control (PPC). Therefore, Smart Manufacturing is a production environment embedded with full-Industry 4.0 deployment for manufacturing and managerial functions and systems as logistics, suppliers, human resources, financial, sales, projects. In a Smart Factory, there is a high level of digitalization, automation, and integration between all devices, manufacturing assets, and systems. Our study aims to discuss a relationship model for Smart Planning and Control (PPC) concept. This view is based on Industry 4.0 technology ecosystems. Thus, we first perform an exploratory survey with 50 articles based on a database of Bueno et al. [17] (see supplementary material at the: https://bit.ly/31wq2B6). Secondly, we define de core Industry 4.0 Ecosystems for a Smart PPC supporting. Finally, we present a Smart PPC relationships model based on Industry 4.0 ecosystems, the key-factors aligned with Industry 4.0 technologies, and their input/output capabilities. The remainder of our article is structured as follows: Sect. 21.2 discusses the literature around change forces for a new Smart PPC profile. Section 21.3 is described the main Industry 4.0 technologies and their role within a new model of smart PPC function. These findings around digital technologies are the basis for a Smart PPC model consolidation, which is presented and discussed along with Sect. 21.4. Lastly, in Sect. 21.5, the conclusions and future work are presented.
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21.2 Change Forces for a Smart PPC: The Industry 4.0 Role Jacobs et al. [18] present that factors like technology, products, processes, systems, and techniques dictate the “changes forces” through marketplace and company strategy, linking them to manufacturing strategy, manufacturing process, and PPC system. Thus, some typical responses evolved for each one of these change forces, according to Fig. 21.1. From this, our study focuses on Industry 4.0 technologies, being it the one main change force that drives the PPC systems. We consider technology adoption a force to make profound changes in manufacturing processes and management systems as PPC, and nowadays, this duality is core for Industry 4.0 technology ecosystems establishment. Therefore, one most important changes forces’ listed in Jacobs et al. [18] is technology. Technology (disruptive or gradual) can impose a Smart Manufacturing format in the Fourth Industrial Revolution, for example, by Smart Manufacturing. Organizational functions and their systems like the PPC can significantly impact the employee a new generation of Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) systems and digital technologies around the Industry 4.0 concept [12, 20, 21]. Simultaneously, the PPC embedded with smart solutions seems to be a natural effect of manufacturing digitalization requirements. So, it goes arises along with the need for intelligent planning and control systems for Smart Manufacturing/Smart Factories [11]. The set of responses based on Industry 4.0 adoption for manufacturing companies begins with the production strategy fitting by top-management extending toward the PPC function, which performs the role-play of driving this strategy from aggregate and detailed production planning activities and production control activities. The Forces for Change
Typical Responses Marketplace dictates
Shorter product life-cycles Time-based competition Supply chain partnerships
Company Strategy Smart Technology Smart Products Smart Processess Smart Systems Smart Techniques
Manufacturing Strategy
Manufacturing Processes
PPC System
Smart Responses Digital businesses propositions Innovation ecosystems Digital value-creation Customization and on-demand production End-to-End integration (customer) Servitization
Flexibility/Responsiveness Reduced overhead costs
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Fig. 21.1 Forces of change for the PPC: typical versus smart responses [18, 19]
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Fig. 21.2 Decisional processes encompassing PPC transition for industry 4.0 concept (based on PPC (re) design processes of Jacobs et al. [18])
alignment between company strategies’, the manufacturing process, and the PPC function often is given not just by fit but also for the development of new practices and capabilities, methods, and tools. Thus, the systemic view about these Industry 4.0 fit steps might provide precise responses and paths for technological adoption, smart practices and capabilities development, and last performance improvements and sustainable competitive advantages. Several studies associate Industry 4.0 with the manufacturing firms’ performance increasing. However, for a full-smart status, manufacturing companies should cope with the transition stage toward Smart Manufacturing, according to organizational fit and alignment steps shown in Fig. 21.2. These steps directly affect the PPC, whose role is to carry out the manufacturing strategy for designed performance achievements.
21.2.1 Smart PPC Organizational Processes We highlight in the previous section that academic literature already appointed the positive effect of new technologies adoption in the Third Industrial Revolution (e.g., AMT) on performance manufacturing [22]. Are similar effects possible for Industry 4.0 on manufacturing systems? Trying to answer this current question, studies like Yin et al. [23] discuss the industrial transformation from the 3.0 to Industry 4.0 era. These changes were highlighted by the change from analogic to digital manufacturing technologies. Similarly, the literature continues appointing relation between smart technologies based on Industry 4.0 and performance on the Fourth Industrial Revolution [24–26]. Performance improvements seem a good reason for Industry 4.0 deployment on manufacturing systems (manufacturing processes and PPC function).
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There is a continuous need to fit manufacturing tasks, products, and processes to the market requirements changes within the manufacturing-context, translating by new business specifications, which can be the first stage for the Smart Manufacturing strategy alignment. Thus, according to Fig. 21.2, we raised and linked the main five decisional processes for a smart PPC system deployment. The elementary digital technologies had evolute with new and disruptive applications and solutions to manufacturing in sought-on performance, like CyberPhysical Production Systems, industrial big data and artificial intelligence, additive manufacturing, cloud manufacturing [27, 28]. Nowadays, the set of new digital technologies and their applications are inserted in systems, machines, and products, endowing them with new attributes and incrementally improve their performance [29]. These digitalization processes, automation, and integration conjointly to legacy production systems fitting is the key feature of the Industry 4.0 concept in the manufacturing perspective [30]. This process, in its mature shape, is called Smart Manufacturing [28]. Frank et al. [31] state that Industry 4.0 concept is rooted in digital technologies implementation [28]. When mastered, the Industry 4.0 technologies support Smart Manufacturing practices. Thus, according to Frank et al. [31], Smart Manufacturing is part of the front-end technologies cluster. Smart Manufacturing is supported by previously mentioned base-technologies like industrial IoT, big data, cloud, and data analytics. The middle technologies embedded in Smart Manufacturing are: vertical integration technologies (sensors, actuators, PLC/SCADA, MES, ERP, M2M), virtualization technologies (processes simulation, digital twin use, algorithms and tools based on AI), automation technologies (M2M, robots/co-bots), traceability and flexibility technologies (flexible and autonomous lines, additive manufacturing, RFID, GPS, PEID), energy management technologies (smart grid). At the same time, managerial functions, e.g., PPC, are core blocks of Smart Manufacturing Systems for planning, supervision, controlling. The digital PPC is reached for a dual perspective. Firstly, from Industry 4.0 deployment on machines, conveyors, products, materials, parts, shop floor devices, which in turn, make available data and manufacturing environment visibility for PPC tasks and activities. Secondly, from Industry 4.0 deployment on systems: manufacturing (e.g., MES), automation, and managerial/business (e.g., ERP), which in turn can respond to precise customer requirements by smart capabilities like real-time order progress monitoring, its accuracy completion time, and reliability of due date. Thus, the Smart Manufacturing and Smart Planning and Control are triggered to respond to new digital business specifications and their demands; new requirements in Smart Manufacturing environments, and; new managerial capabilities to planning and controlling the Smart Manufacturing, reaching competitive positions by Industry 4.0 domain.
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• Real-Ɵme data collecƟon • Environmental, market, users, machines, producƟon system, logisƟcs, accounƟng, resources and energy data acquisiƟon. • Infrasctructure and wireless network systems
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Fig. 21.3 Main drivers for industry 4.0 establishment (adapted of [30])
21.3 Results 21.3.1 Main Industry 4.0 Technologies and Their Requirements The Fourth Industrial Revolution moved on manufacturing about three main drivers: digitalization, automation, integration [30], according to Fig. 21.3. Digitalization, automation, and integration could be conjointly implemented in an industrial company or partially implemented by some solutions that aggregate value according to production system requirements. Digitalization is often the first way traditional industrial systems seek to move toward Smart Factories, from IoT systems establishment (IIoT) [16, 32, 33]. They use mechanisms-enablers like wireless sensor networks—WSN systems, actuators, RFID, iBeacon, Bluetooth, Auto-ID tags, Raspberry PI barcode, laser scanning, infrared, GSM, QR-Code, GPS, Kinect-camera, augmented/mixed/virtual reality. Digitalization consists of real-time data collection processes, industrial communication protocols for data integration, and data analytics platforms running from operations, market, users, machines, products, business information systems, logistics systems, among others [24]. Vertical, horizontal, and end-to-end integration requirements are made possible to the industrial production systems through Cyber-Physical Production Systems (CPPS) from virtualization and integrations system practices’ [2]. Integration requirements refer to interoperability between systems, integrating systems (manufacturing systems, automation systems, network, information systems). CPPS is based on network capabilities devices and analytics, such as IIoT, cloud computing, big data, modeling, and simulation. It also includes tools for advanced data processing, storage, and analytics for data feeding and simulation by intelligent algorithms. Other CPPS tools are software and support to decision-making systems and digital twin settings to virtualize physical production systems [34].
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Automation is the driver that supports autonomous production control, predictability of events on the shop floor, aware-context with autonomous decisionmaking, smart scheduling, scalability of production capacity, among other capabilities [35]. Automated systems for flexible production, customization, on-demand production, and decentralized management of various manufacturing units can be enabled by solutions such as CMg, IIoT, AM, CPPS, modeling and simulation, augmented reality and virtual (AR and VR) [36–38]. Smart capabilities afforded by automation to the manufacturing systems also can be enabled by middle technologies like data mining, algorithms, robots, robotic arms, co-bots, fog computing, and web services [39, 40]. Among the knowledge bodies used in this work, there is certain consolidation of the knowledge body about PPC [18, 41, 42], but no, there is still sedimentation in Industry 4.0 [26, 43, 44]. There is no systematization of Industry 4.0 in a taxonomic form, which specifies the leading technologies and mechanisms to operations management, specifically in the PPC-context. To delimit the primary Industry 4.0 technologies employed by Smart Manufacturing and Smart Production Planning and control-contexts for this article, we perform a survey on 50 references encompassing Industry 4.0 and PPC research topics. Our exploratory survey revealed that the scope of studies about the Industry 4.0 within PPC topic is addressed on five key technologies or technological ecosystems that may happen as than single as linked. The Industry 4.0 technologies are cyber-physical production systems (CPPS), Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT), industrial big data and data analytics (IBD&A)/AI, cloud manufacturing (CMg), and ICTs & accessory technologies (ICTs & AT). Our literature survey emphasizes integrative characteristics between the five technological ecosystems, supporting us to establish the ground-technologies around Smart PPC status. That way, our literature review, presented in this article, will use these five technologies to investigating the key-factors and core smart capabilities provided by Industry 4.0 for smart PPC. According to Almada-Lobo [45], Cyber-Physical Production Systems are physical objects with embedded software and computing power for virtualization and makingdecision add (e.g., digital twins). In Industry 4.0, more and more manufactured products will be smart products; this is synonymous with CPPS. Based on connectivity and computing power, smart products’ main idea is that they will incorporate self-management capabilities. We present an idea for Cyber-Physical Production Systems—CPPS, i.e., a most comprehensive virtual manufacturing system beyond smart products, devices, and manufacturing assets. Our view for CPPS is the manufacturing virtualization for supporting decision-making. Thus, CPPS is based on: (i) IIoT capabilities for sensing, big data collection and analytics, processing, and simulation; (ii) CMg for cloud and web services supporting; (iii) ICTs and accessory tools (e.g., robots, AM, AR, additive manufacturing/3D-printers). Thus, smart products are feasible regarding planning and controlling when most of these digital technologies’ capabilities are integrated and running in manufacturing-context. Therefore, the basement for Industry 4.0 start is the Industrial Internet of Things (a specific bundle of IoT technologies for industrial solutions). According to Schwab and Davis [14], its simplest form can be described as the relation between things
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(products, services, places, machines, among others) and people, which only becomes possible through various platforms and connected technologies. Here, we use the IoT terminology applies to manufacturing, i.e., Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT), which is the set of IoT technologies used to provide industrial solutions. Data sensing by IIoT devices can be stored and processed by cloud services (46]. Helo et al. [46] describe CMg as a new concept of using centralized cloud computing for production information systems to support firms that carry the production and operations in multiple locations. In cloud manufacturing, cutting-edge technologies such as digitalized fabrication, cloud computing, Internet of Things, semantic-web, and high-performance computing are integrated [4]. By extending and shifting existing manufacturing and service systems, manufacturing capacity and capabilities are virtualized and delivered as demand-driven manufacturing services (manufacturing-as-a-service). It is achieved through the coordination of local information (e.g., machine load and performance) and global information (e. g, market demand) [20]. Cloud manufacturing services can be used within manufacturing systems for big data and analytics tools running, which correspond to big data processing of machines, products, processes for production patterns detection and solving problems [47]. The analytics part refers to the ability to obtain information from data, applying statistics, mathematics, econometrics, simulations, optimizations, and other techniques that can support organizations in managerial decision-making [37]. In today’s technological reality, large amounts of real-time data collected by sensors or algorithms in service-user interaction apps can be treated with industrial big data and analytics tools to, for example, support End-to-End Integration Demand in the PPC [48]. These new features can impose to the production management systems like PPC, a hard digitalization tendency IoT-based [21, 33]; physical and digital environments integration by digital twin (Cyber-Physical Production Systems) [49]; more autonomous control and monitoring through of shop floor operations (automation) [50]; distributed manufacturing through cloud and additive manufacturing [32], and; PPC decision-making based on advanced data analytics tools using machine-learning for massive data of production and supply chains.
21.4 Production Planning and Control and Industry 4.0 Ecosystems Synthesis Digital resources and smart capabilities provided by adopting Industry 4.0’ solutions can require a dual adjustment in traditional firms. The successful rate of these Industry 4.0 initiatives depends on alignment regards manufacturing strategy, Production Planning and Control, and manufacturing performance. We consider that those companies mastering Smart Manufacturing require Smart Planning and Control as their “brain”.
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Therefore, the PPC function is considered a fundamental manufacturing system part [18]. It is also significantly impacted the technological innovation process by a wide range of base-technologies, key-factors, and smart capabilities within the Industry 4.0 era [19, 31]. Arbix et al. [30] state that the Industry 4.0 technologies have been implemented in industrial enterprises through initiatives and projects by digitalization, integration, automation, servitization, virtualization, and digital business processes drivers. Face this scenario, Industry 4.0 drivers’ action arises the Smart Manufacturing and Smart PPC concepts as a concept for Smart Manufacturing ecosystems [17] (Fig. 21.4). The Smart Manufacturing ecosystems concept mimics wild ecosystems to propose, analyze, and organize the countless parts and relationships between Industry
Fig. 21.4 Smart PPC relationships model (the PPC hierarchy is based on [51])
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4.0 technologies and the manufacturing system’, targeting all-in-one solutions for fragmented manufacturing systems, supporting digital business value-creation [17]. From the technology ecosystems exploitation of Industry 4.0 by manufacturing system, the smart status is reached, which assigns Smart Manufacturing/Factory and Smart PPC terms. The implementation and solutions of new digital technologies have to leverage innovative ecosystems for manufacturing [52] like one based on cloud manufacturing [17], robots within CPPS [53], IIoT [54], big data ecosystems [55], additive manufacturing [56]. Smart Manufacturing harness technologies ecosystems of Industry 4.0 for mastering autonomy, learning, collaboration and sharing, flexibility, adaptability, intelligent business, and knowledge capabilities, in addition to innovative practices, change management practices, and technological transition practices of legacy manufacturing systems. The technological insertion in industrial companies, it seems, has a simultaneous, crossing, and ecosystem effect on operations manufacturing and its managerial functions because both are part of a unique and inseparable organism that seeks to achieve operational, tactical, and strategic objectives [30, 57]. For example, the vertical integration of the physical assets, enterprise information systems, and digital environment [58] by digital twin CPPS-based can optimize and integrate the manufacturing performance [6, 59]. On the other hand, the synchronization of ERP, MES, APS, machine-to-machine (M2M), and smart objects can make ordering systems more reliable for real-time operations execution monitoring the shop floor. Still, through the increase of shop floor operations flexibility and decrease planning and control complexity by additive manufacturing (AM) adoption. A new view for analyzing these technologies’ bundles, their relationships, resources, and capabilities within the manufacturing system-context is named technological ecosystems [29, 45]. We structured our vision about the Industry 4.0 ecosystem within manufacturing systems, similar to ecological systems, complex, networking, and mutually dependent. Thus, we defined layers, blocks, and resources as key components for a Smart Manufacturing ecosystem. In this article, we used Frank et al.’s [31] classification to determine three smart technologies layers: conceptual or base-technologies; keyfactors or enablers technologies (those that make the concept technology viable), and; front-end technologies (which take feasible the smart capabilities). On the other hand, we classified smart technologies’ capabilities over ten main PPC activities, 36 Industry 4.0 resources (IIoT: 6; big data: 7; ICT: 14; CMg: 9; CPPS: all resources conjointly) associated with the Smart PPC ecosystems extracted in each of the 50-paper analyzed. The base-technologies, IIoT, IBD&A/AI, CPPS, CMg, and ICTs & Accessory Technologies (e.g., AM), are technology-concept or core technology. Set of keyfactors, organizational resources, and humans are the main realization for technology concepts toward front-end technologies. Last, front-end technologies [31] represent the whole domain of smart capabilities provided by the Industry 4.0 concept. These technology layers, resources, applications, capabilities, and relationships constitute a smart ecosystem, which provides digital capabilities for use by the Smart PPC.
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We consider that Smart PPC is a manner of managing Smart Manufacturing and its performance achievements. Our study found that the main ways of supporting a Smart PPC are CPPS, IIoT, industrial big data and analytics, artificial intelligence, additive manufacturing, cloud manufacturing, and web services [11, 12, 60]. Thus, according to Frank et al. [31], core technologies such as IIoT, cloud services, industrial big data, and advanced data analytics tools provide attributes for real-time manufacturing data collection, simulation, manufacturing flexibility, and intelligent feedbacks with autonomous decision-making applications, often afforded by artificial intelligence (AI). These digital tools can help the PPC improve the key manufacturing performance indicators. Thus, we objective contribute to the manufacturing ecosystem theory [17] for proposing a Smart Manufacturing Planning and Control ecosystem framework. This study investigates what technological ecosystem resources supported the Smart Manufacturing Planning and Control and how they relate to manufacturing business layers.
21.5 Conclusions From exploration from 50 papers encompassing Industry 4.0 technologies and PPC topics, our study verifies a synergy between 36 digital resources and ten smart capabilities provided by them. There is a dual relationship (in value-creation terms) between Industry 4.0 digital technologies and PPC activities that showed an interesting and promising connection (digital thread) level for different smart capabilities. We observed that IIoT is the ground-zero for shop floor control digitalization from manufacturing sensing and networking. At the same time, big data is the “brain” for supporting data-driven decision systems and factory learning. Cloud technologies are pervasive, providing strong servitization and customization features to the PPC, and could be explored by the simple documents storage to full hosting for an ERP supporting entire company use (software-as-a-service). ICTs and CPPS constitute the interface systems for PPC activities decision-making by supporting IIoT, big data, and cloud, which enabling manufacturing system’ virtualization and real-time capabilities, e.g., real-time monitoring of shop floor KPIs like throughput, lead time, equipment effectiveness (OEE), et cetera. Therefore, future studies could investigate many aspects derived from a synergy between Industry 4.0 and PPC function, such as how the digitalization acts face to a new distributed PPC format, i.e., based on a heterarchical or semi-hierarchical structure in replacing the current hierarchical structure. Other research future topics that need investigating are the empirical paths, barriers, and critical success factors for PPC function to progress toward smart status within Industry 4.0 concept. Lastly, the development of middle theories and views about manufacturing ecosystems based on the Industry 4.0 perspective is also a research gap that needs further studies; these grounded theories could consolidate a theory body, according to Helo et al. [17], that explains the “why” and the “how”, concerning the paths and digital manufacturing systems progress within Industry 4.0.
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Acknowledgements This work is financed by Portuguese national funds through FCT—Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia, under the project UIDB/05422/2020.
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Chapter 22
Investment Decisions According to the Miller and Markowitz Models. A Look at Smart Cash Management Romel Ramón González-Díaz , Luis Armando Becerra-Pérez, Santos Lucio Guanilo, Luiz Vicente Ovalles-Toledo, and Katiusca Cruz-Ayala Abstract Investment decisions in corporate finance are decisive for improving the cyclical fluctuation of any form of business, minimising opportunity costs and maximising returns on idle funds. Empirical evidence has shown that the agricultural sector has only two financial periods in the year: surplus and deficit. If good decisions are not made in some of these periods, serious financial problems could arise. Therefore, this study presents an analysis of the cash management of microenterprises in the livestock sector in the Colombian Caribbean region, based on the cash flow management models proposed by Miller and Orr, who consider the volatility of cash balances and the trends of projects at the upper and lower limits of optimal cash balances. This indicates to financial management when to purchase a type of financial instrument. In stable economic conditions, the cases of acquiring financial assets, the optimal investment portfolio is determined in relation to the profitability and risk of the 3 stocks with the largest share in the COLCAP index: ECOPETROL, PFBCOLOM and GRUPOSURA, based on the Markowitz model.
R. R. González-Díaz (B) · K. Cruz-Ayala Centro Internacional de Investigación Y Desarrollo CIID, 230001 Montería, Colombia e-mail: [email protected] K. Cruz-Ayala e-mail: [email protected] L. A. Becerra-Pérez · L. V. Ovalles-Toledo Universidad Autónoma de Sinaloa, Culiacán, México e-mail: [email protected] L. V. Ovalles-Toledo e-mail: [email protected] S. L. Guanilo Universidad Nacional Jorge Basadre Grhomann, Tacna 23000, Perú e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 A. Mesquita et al. (eds.), Perspectives and Trends in Education and Technology, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 256, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5063-5_22
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22.1 Introduction Globalisation processes have allowed markets to become more and more demanding, which forces companies to be more competitive in order to survive the economic and competitive dynamics demanded in a borderless economy. Most organisations focus on generating new revenues by using marketing strategies [1, 2]. Others, however, focus on the good management of the economic resources they possess. To this end, they relate business success not only to sales, but also to the administration of economic resources through treasury management. According to the scientific literature consulted such as Akyildirim et al. [3], Bressan and Weissensteiner [4] agree that cash management refers to the proper administration of liquidity to maintain an economic balance, with special reference to the placement of surpluses, as well as the planning and forecasting of future financing needs in key aspects of business management. It is common for financial decisions that influence the working capital of the company to be analysed separately from investment decisions [5]. However, in recent years, special attention has been paid in corporate financial economics to a joint analysis of both ways of managing economic resources [6, 7]. In the case of smalland medium-sized enterprises (SMEs), especially those dedicated to livestock and agriculture, similar behaviours are observed in cash flows, i.e. they present seasonal income generated from the marketing of fattening cattle or their crops, which makes one or two incomes per year [8]. In the livestock context, investment decisions tend to be presented in different scenarios to the treasury management of a marketing or manufacturing or service company, because the flow of income is alternating and excessive with an estimated frequency of 2 times per year, with continuous expenses throughout that period. As described by María Paredes Fernández and Christian Lenz Alcayaga [9] who emphasise that successful companies take advantage of temporary cash surpluses to make decisions about obtaining financial assets that allow them to take advantage of excess liquidity. In this sense, María Paredes Fernández and Christian Lenz Alcayaga [10] studied in depth the main financial assets for the use of 50% of the surpluses obtained in the previous accounting period. “40% of these companies stated that they create another reserve fund, 30% of the organisations consulted stated that they use their surpluses to distribute them among their members, 20% use them for reinvestment in new cooperative projects, and 10% use CDTs” (p.13). All this suggests that these organisations are unaware of the diversity of financial instruments such as those presented in the stock market, which offer high levels of profitability compared to CDTs [11, 12]. Therefore, there is a lack of knowledge of the instruments presented by the Colombian Stock Exchange (BVC), i.e. according to González-Díaz and Perez [13] considers that on the one hand, livestock entrepreneurs lack information about the financial instruments offered by the BVC, which does not allow them to consider them in their investment decisions in times of excess liquidity. On the other hand, it is not enough to know the financial products of the BVC and its procedures, and it is also necessary to understand that there are econometric models to calculate the optimal cash balance in the company; there are also models
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to form an optimal portfolio for investment. In this sense, this paper aims to analyse the cash management of microenterprises in the livestock sector in the Colombian Caribbean region [14]. An approximation technique that could be effectively used to model a cash management problem is presented. The steady-state probability density function of the cash balance of the livestock enterprise is obtained and formulas for the average daily cash balance are obtained. The models used are the Miller–Orr model and the Marzowitz Investment Portfolio Model. The rest of the paper is organised as follows: A literature review is presented. This is followed by a detailed description of the models. Afterwards, calculations, analysis and conclusion of this research are carried out.
22.2 Literature Review Cash management was originally considered by Baumol [15], who applied his simple inventory management model to the field of cash management as a deterministic model that considers a constant flow of income for periods. On the other hand, with the emergence of more flexible models due to variable cash flows such as the Miller– Orr model documented in specialized texts in corporate finance [16], it is important to note that there are other models of both cash management and investment portfolio; however, in this study only those discussed are studied. In this sense, some concepts that guide the course of the article are defined.
22.2.1 Intelligent Treasury Management (ITM) According to Jucá and Fishlow [17], Raheem [18], cash management is basically the proper management of cash funds; therefore, the microenterprise must periodically make cash forecasts. In this way, it will be able to anticipate possible deficit situations by seeking the most appropriate sources of financing and consider the appropriate investment of funds in the event of cash surpluses, and the synchronisation of receipts and payments is essential to have the necessary liquidity to meet payment commitments. Excess availability is also undesirable as it means the loss of profitability that the company could obtain by investing these funds [13]. In this article, the adjective “intelligent” is used to describe the use of econometric models that provide objective criteria for investment decisions in times of excess liquidity. A cash optimisation model is integrated in order to estimate the available time of these funds for their financial use through calculations derived from investment portfolio models to optimise them.
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22.2.2 Miller and Orr Models Miller and Orr [19] present a cash management model in order to regulate cash inflows and outflows; unlike Baumol [15], these authors consider the reality of companies with their randomness of balances. According to Valencia and Bandala [20], this means that the variations of the cash balance in a given time span are dynamic and unpredictable, not only in their size but also in their direction, delineating a normal distribution (see Fig. 22.1). In the case of livestock microenterprises, based on Miller and Orr [19], who state that random cash balances are remedied with sound cash management policies, i.e. when a livestock enterprise’s cash inflows exceed its outflows, it would be in surplus, at which point it would require the acquisition of financial assets to take advantage of the positive balance. Conversely, if the cash of such an enterprise decreases below the control limit, financial liabilities are required to restore the financial stability of the economic entity. Therefore, this model is based on the following assumptions: (i)
The daily interest rate (i) earned on the portfolio is constant, (ii) the transaction cost (θ) is a constant and is independent of the size, the direction of the transfer between the two assets and the time elapsed since the previous transfer, (iii) the lead time in portfolio transfers is negligible, (iv) the cash flow could be characterised as a sequence of independent Bernoulli trials with equal probability (i.e. p = q = 1/2) of cash balance will increase or decrease by m dollars during any hour [21].
In this sense, the model posits the acceptance that changes in cash balances increase to level H at time T 1 and subsequently decrease to level Z, the point of return, by investing (H–Z) money from the investment portfolio. On the other hand, it may be the case that the cash balance drifts aimlessly until it reaches the minimum balance point, R, at T 2. This creates a kind of decision criteria for the exchange of financial instruments. The formulas (22.1)–(22.3) applied are: Fig. 22.1 Miller and Orr’s cash management model (1967)
22 Investment Decisions According to the Miller …
R=
3
3Fs +L 4K
273
(22.1)
R = Lower limit allowed in the box, obtained with the following data. F = Transaction cost, which is determined by the administration. s = The variance. K = It is the agreed average rate of return on investments. L = Lower limit, which the institution determines as such. 2H = 3R − 2L
(22.2)
H = is the upper limit of the cash box. Z=
4R − L 3
(22.3)
Z = Optimal cash balance.
22.2.3 Markowitz Model According to Zubeldia et al. [22] in portfolio management, there are two different trends in terms of the most appropriate strategy or policy to achieve the investor’s objectives. On the one hand, the active strategy is based on non-compliance with the hypothesis of market efficiency and consists of the possibility of identifying undervalued or overvalued securities whose purchase and sale can generate sufficient profitability to cover the transaction costs and the risk assumed. On the other hand, passive strategies involve the fulfilment of the market efficiency hypothesis, developed in the late 1960s. In other words, there is perfect information and no investor can outperform the market. Under these conditions, passive management is based on following a benchmark portfolio that reflects market movements [23]. The Markowitz model arises with the intention of generating a portfolio according to the relationship between profitability and risk, and it is conceived as the mathematical representation of the rational behaviour of an investor, who at the time of investment satisfies him with higher profitability and lower risk [23]. Therefore, an efficient investment portfolio is one that provides the maximum possible return, which can be calculated through the following formulae (22.4).
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Min σ 2 (R p ) =
n n
xi · x j σi j
i=1 j=1
su jeto a : E(R p ) =
n
xi · E(Ri ) = V ∗
(22.4)
i=1 n
xi = 1
i=1
xi ≥ 0 (i = 1, . . . , n) where x i is the proportion of the investor’s budget allocated to financial asset i and the unknown, s2(Rp ), the variance of portfolio p, and sij , the covariance between the returns on securities i and j. E(Rp ) is the expected return or yield of portfolio p, so that by varying the parameter V *, the set of proportions x i that minimise the risk of the portfolio will be obtained in each case, as well as its corresponding value. The set of pairs [E(Rp ), s2(Rp )] or return–risk combinations of all the efficient portfolios is called the “efficient frontier”. Once this is known, the investor, according to his preferences, will choose his optimal portfolio.
22.3 Materials and Methods This section of the scientific paper explains how the research was done and therefore provides sufficient information for those who wish to repeat the experiment. Within the investment alternatives, there are fixed income instruments (CDT, commercial papers, bonds, repot and securitisations), which are agreed at an interest rate on the invested capital and do not vary over time; on the other hand, there are variable income instruments (shares, derivatives, MGC, TTV, MILA), which vary according to market dynamics and their return depends on these fluctuations. All this diversity of investment instruments has different returns, so livestock microenterprises could strategically plan an investment portfolio with a diversification of products. For the purposes of this study, we analysed the three shares with the highest participation in the COLCAP index: ECOPETROL, PFBCOLOM and GRUPOSURA for 15 February 2020, according to the following Table 22.1. Table 22.1 Financial instruments with the largest participation in the COLCAP index (02/15/2020) Financial instruments COLCAP index
Profitability (%)
Risk (%)
Term (days)
ECOPETROL
5
23
Short (less an 30)
PFBCOLOM
3
19
Medium
GRUPOSURA
2.50
16
Long (more de 60)
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22.3.1 Livestock Sector Scenario The Caribbean region of Colombia is the northernmost natural continental and maritime region of the country. It is located in the northern part of Colombia. It is bordered to the north by the Caribbean Sea, to which it owes its name, to the east by Venezuela, to the south by the Andean region and to the west by the Pacific region. The departments that make up the region are: Atlántico, Bolívar, Córdoba, Magdalena, Cesar, La Guajira, Sucre, Antioquia (Urabá Antioqueño); 22.6% of the country’s population is concentrated in this region. The livestock market in Colombia is 60% concentrated in the departments of Córdoba, Antioquia, Casanare, Caquetá, Cesar, Santander, Meta and Cundinamarca. According to Burkart and Díaz [24], the department of Córdoba is one of the most important cattle-raising regions in the country, which has natural advantages (Sinú and San Jorge rivers and the diversity of dams and swamps) that favour the development of agriculture, fishing and cattle-raising systems. According to Viloria-de-la-Hoz [25], the department participates with 1.7% of the national GDP and contributes 11.5% of the national production of cattle, which makes Cordoba one of the main regions in livestock, generating a livestock market of 543,953,484,119 in 2018; this marketing is done mainly through the Santa Clara Auctioneers, CENCOGAN, SUBAGAN, SUBASTAR and CC GANADERA. According to Viloria-de-la-Hoz [25], the main export products from the department of Córdoba are ferroalloys (77.8%), frozen beef (7.9%) and gold (7.2%), to the main destinations: China (63.3%), Russia (6.1%), Japan (4.8%) and Germany (4.5%), mainly driven by the most prominent trade agreements executed to date for exports have been European Union (9%) and Mercosur (2.8%). By virtue of the above, the department of Cordoba has sufficient economic infrastructure to leverage the levels of competitiveness and regional development in the livestock sector.
22.3.2 Data Collection For data collection, a documentary review of the cash flow of the year 2019 was applied to ten companies dedicated to livestock in the city of Montería with total assets with a deviation of + or −10% to financially homogenise them (see Table 22.2). Once the balances of the livestock enterprises have been determined, the following steps are carried out: • Step 1: Calculate through an Excel spreadsheet the optimal balance according to Miller and Orr, discriminating which companies have surplus and which do not, considering the values of the companies with balances higher than H (upper limit of the cash flow). • Step 2: Those companies with excess liquidity should be determined through the planning of expenditures and cash flow behaviour, the length of time with which they have excess liquidity.
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Table 22.2 Summary of the balance of livestock companies (E) for the year 2019 Jan
Feb
Mar
April
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sept
Oct
Nov
B1
150
130
510
630
490
420
720
680
801
875
950
Dec 1024
B2
125
140
430
620
480
430
810
670
839
923
1007
1090
B3
135
145
450
600
470
440
800
660
826
907
988
1069
B4
145
135
490
590
460
450
780
650
811
889
966
1044
B5
120
140
500
490
440
390
700
640
752
824
896
969
B6
100
95
480
470
420
380
690
560
713
782
852
921
B7
120
145
390
380
390
360
680
480
642
703
764
825
B8
110
120
420
400
390
350
680
510
661
725
789
853
B9
90
85
430
490
420
400
700
620
759
838
917
996
B10
85
75
440
620
380
360
710
560
726
798
870
941
• Step 3: Through the analysis presented in Table 22.1 referring to the financial instruments of the COLCAP index according to their profitability and risk and behaviour in periods (short, medium and long), calculations are made in an Excel sheet about the Markowitz model, generating the optimal investment portfolio for companies in the agricultural sector.
22.4 Analysis and Discussion of the Results Having obtained the data on their balances in 2019, we proceeded to the calculations to determine the optimal balance through the Miller and Orr model, as shown in Fig. 22.2. Figure 22.2 shows a similar behaviour of the livestock enterprises in the Colombian Caribbean region, which is why they have been strategically divided into three
Fig. 22.2 Results of the optimal cash balance analysis under the Miller and Orr model with their respective excess liquidity in the livestock microenterprises studied 2020
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periods of analysis. In period 1, 38% of the companies are above the optimal balance line, but only for a period of time of 1 month, i.e. there are low resources for investment with a maximum period of 30 calendar days. Likewise, period 2 with 100% of the companies and includes higher balance values than period 1; in other words, medium high resources can be invested in a maximum period of 30 days. Finally, period 3 reflects that the financial resources in cash are quite high and a period of 3 months to dispose of them for any investment. Having described the different characteristics in terms of financial availability and time, we proceed to the calculations of the Markowitz model. Table 22.3 shows the relationship between the periods of the livestock companies and the calculations made through the Markowitz portfolio model, which allowed to generate the relationship between profitability and risk (COLCAP Index and data supplied by the BVC), leaving that for the short periods of investment up to 30 days (period 1), the appropriate instruments according to their financial performance with 80% to ECOPETROL shares and 20% to PFBCOLOM shares with a risk of 23% and 19%, respectively. Likewise, period 2 with a short investment time (30 days) results in an investment of 85% in ECOPETROL shares and 15% in PFBCOLOM shares with a return of 7% and 4%, respectively. Finally, in period 3, it is recommended to invest 88% in GRUPOSURA shares, 10% in ECOPETROL and 2% in PFBCOLOM, which present a risk of 1.00%, 36.00% and 40.00%, respectively. These results are consistent with Premachandra [21], Lasso et al. [26], Greene [27] who agree that excess liquidity processes generate an opportunity for reinvestment in projects and is a source of economic resources that can be used to improve financial performance for the cyclical stages of the livestock sector [28, 29].
22.5 Conclusion After having generated the results, it can be stated that the livestock companies concentrated in the department of Cordoba in the Colombian Caribbean region behaved in the year 2019 in three different significant periods. The first period with a cash surplus, low and stationary in the short term and according to the Markowitz model indicates that the optimal portfolio should be integrated in shares of ECOPETROL and PFBCOLOM with an allocation of 80% and 20%, respectively, of the available resources. Likewise, period 2 also refers to the short term; however, the level of available resources is high and the behaviour of the financial instruments continues to favour ECOPETROL and PFBCOLOM shares by 85% and 15%, respectively. Finally, in period 3 the investment portfolio determined in the long term is inclined to allocate 88% to GRUPOSURA, 10% to PFBCOLOM and 2% to ECOPETROL of the resources available for investment. All this leads us to think that companies dedicated to the agricultural sector, especially livestock companies, can define their investments through a study of the optimal balance sheets of their companies and make projections of the cash flow statements, to determine through the Miller and
5
3
2.5
PFBCOLOM
GRUPOSURA
16
19
23 0
20
80 3
4
7 16
21
26
Risk (%)
Profitability (%)
Period 1 (%)
Profitability (%)
Risk (%)
Period 2 investment portfolio
Period 1 investment portfolio
ECOPETROL
Financial instruments COLCAP
0
15
85
Period 2 (%)
5.50
4
5.50
Profitability (%)
1
40
36
Risk (%)
Period 3 investment portfolio
Table 22.3 Summary of investment portfolio through Markowitz according to periods of livestock companies 2019
88
2
10
Period 3 (%)
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Orr model an investment planning that provides extraordinary benefits with good investment strategies based on the Markowitz model. On the other hand, some of the limitations of the research is the lack of procedures with artificial intelligence through fuzzy logic, neural networks and others associated with the prediction of complex phenomena. Therefore, we are working on the application of fuzzy logic for financial decision-making based on the criteria established by Miller and Orr.
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R. R. González-Díaz et al. Sostenible en los Negocios Internacionales, pp. 138–156. Universidad Pontificia Bolivariana (2019) Baumol, W.J.: Macroeconomics of unbalanced growth: the anatomy of urban crisis. Am. Econ. Rev. 57(3), 415–426 (1967) Ferran, E., Ho, L.C.: Principles of Corporate Finance Law. Oxford University Press (2014) Jucá, M.N., Fishlow, A.: Political uncertainty of impeachment upon corporate investment decisions. Borsa Istanbul Rev. (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bir.2020.09.007 Raheem, I.D.: Global financial cycles and exchange rate forecast: A factor analysis. Borsa Istanbul Rev. 20, S81–S92 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bir.2020.06.002 Miller, M.H., Orr, D.: An application of control-limit models to the management of corporate cash balances. Fin. Res. Manage. Decis. 277–307 (1967) Valencia, J.B., Bandala, J.M.: La optimización del flujo de efectivo utilizando el modelo MillerOrr: evidencia empírica. Mercados y Negocios (2594–0163 línea, 1665–7039 impreso), no. 14, pp. 79–91, 2006. Premachandra, I.: A diffusion approximation model for managing cash in firms: an alternative approach to the Miller-Orr model. Eur. J. Oper. Res. 157(1), 218–226 (2004) Zubeldia, A.M., Miera, K.M.Z., Zubiaurre, M.Z.: El modelo de Markowitz en la gestión de carteras. Cuadernos Gestión 2(1), 33–48 (2002) Palacios, C.A.C., Macías, G.R.P.: Gestión de riesgo de crédito, para mejorar la ca-lidad de la cartera de microcrédito, en la cooperativa comercio Ltda. Polo Conocimiento: Revista Científico-Profesional 5(3), 225–254 (2020) Burkart, S., Díaz, M.F.: Experiencias en la formulación de políticas para el sector ganadero en Colombia: lecciones y retos para Latinoamérica (2018) Viloria-de-la-Hoz, J.: La economía ganadera en el departamento de Córdoba. Capítulo 4. La economía ganadera en el Departamento de Córdoba, pp. 138–193 (2005) Lasso, W.V., Ávila, A.D., Loor, R.E.: Modelo de demanda de dinero para firmas: aspectos teóricos, metodología y resultados. Estudios Gestión Revista internacional administración 9, 135–156 (2021) Greene, C.A.: The management of near-money in the Miller-Orr model is not optimal. J. Money Credit Bank. 24(3), 399–404 (1992) González-Díaz, R., Acevedo-Duque, Á., Salazar-Sepúlveda, G., Castillo, D.: Contributions of subjective well-being and good living to the contemporary development of the notion of sustainable human development. Sustainability 13(6), (2021). https://doi.org/10.3390/su1306 3298 González-Díaz, R.R., Becerra-Perez, L.A.: Stimulating components for business development in Latin American SMEs. In: Trends and Applications in Information Systems and Technologies, pp. 366–374. Springer International Publishing, Cham (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/ 978-3-030-72651-5_35
Chapter 23
Technology 4.0 in Accounting: What Future for Education? Susana Moreira Bastos , Samara Girardi, and Eliandro Schvirck
Abstract Globalization has given rise to digital accounting with new ways of sharing information, particularly digitalization of the profession. The teaching of accounting must go along with technological changes in preparing students for the challenges of 4.0 environments. The new coronavirus pandemic in 2020 forced, among others, companies and universities to migrate their working and teaching methods to the remote format. As a result, teachers and students had to adapt to a new routine for carrying out their tasks, previously in person. Knowing how to use technology in favor of more efficient and effective teaching was one of the biggest challenges that the teachers faced during this period of suspension of face-to-face classes. Thus, the present study aims to evaluate how the teachers of the accounting course at the UTFPR in Brazil and at ISCAP in Portugal perceive the use of information technology in the process of education at distance (EaD) during the period of the new coronavirus pandemic and in the future. The study reveals the concern of teaching with digital technologies regarding the effectiveness of this model in the teaching and learning process. The methodology used was quantitative and qualitative, through the case study and the survey carried out in both higher education institutions. Thus, it is possible to state that the study highlighted the importance of technological resources for remote teaching, as well as the difficulty still existing in the management of these tools, and some limitations of interaction existing in non-presential relationships.
S. M. Bastos (B) Porto Polytechnic - Porto Accounting and Business School, CEOS.PP, Rua Jaime Lopes Amorim, s/n 4465-004 S. Mamede de Infesta, Porto, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] S. Girardi Av. Rio Grande Do Sul, Dois Vizinhos, 1167, 85660-000 Paraná, Brasil E. Schvirck Universidade Tecnológica Federal Do Paraná, Câmpus Pato Branco, Via do Conhecimento, Km 1, CEP, 85503-390 Pato Branco, PR, Brasil © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 A. Mesquita et al. (eds.), Perspectives and Trends in Education and Technology, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 256, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5063-5_23
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23.1 Introduction Higher education was deeply affected by the pandemic. Access to education gained new shape as an essential alternative through the adoption of the home office system and distance learning (EaD)—models of professional and educational performance that are indispensable to the exercise of teaching. The blockades imposed in most countries have resulted in the immediate closure of universities and colleges and the move to remote delivery of all academic activities and other services. Meanwhile, accounting professors have faced the challenge of changing overnight their approaches to all aspects of their work: teaching, learning, assessment, student support, research, service, and engagement, including their personal lives and the lives of their families. Information technologies (IT) impacted education processes, and teachers have been forced to pay attention to the technological changes that have been incorporated into their responsibilities, including “knowing how to use technologies for more efficient and effective teaching, working in partnership with the student, and, in addition to all this, being aware that they are not the holders of all knowledge” [1]. With all the impacts of the new coronavirus pandemic, the way universities operate remotely and the duration of restrictions have varied and continue to vary around the world and at various levels. Accounting professors carry with them the immediate responsibility of ensuring the continuity of learning, assessment, and progression of students. Given this scenario, the question is: What is the perception of accounting professors about information technology? The general objective of this work is to assess how accounting professors in Brazil and Portugal perceive the use of IT in the teaching process, especially during the period of the new coronavirus pandemic. To meet the general objective, the following specific objectives are observed: diagnose the perception of teachers regarding the use of IT and analyze convergences and divergences of perception from the respondents’ characteristics. Given the need to answer certain questions, the following research hypotheses were raised: (H1) distance learning is a reality accepted by accounting professors at ISCAP and UTFPR; (H2) information technologies and the available platforms enhance DE; and (H3) accounting professors at the institutions under study consider DE as a form of teaching to be considered in the future. The identification of the research results aims to contribute to the understanding of the effort and commitment of accounting professors from Portugal and Brazil regarding the virtual accounting education adopted during the pandemic period.
23.2 Literature Review Nowadays with Industry 4.0, processes and ways of working have changed significantly. The business world is already a digitalized world. The reality at the higher
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education level has been changing as a result of this digitalization of the economy and business. In an attempt to adapt to this reality, higher education institutions have been inserting distance learning technologies (DL) and artificial intelligence in their teaching process, by introducing ERPs in the development of the syllabus from the students’ perspective. DE combined with more advanced technologies facilitates this revolution in teaching models [2]. The use by teachers and students of equipment and information systems that facilitate access to information, virtual learning spaces, among others, has been facilitating teaching [3]. The pandemic of COVID-19 led to abrupt changes in countries around the world. In many, the higher education sector was deeply affected. The blockades imposed in most countries resulted in the immediate closure of universities and changing all academic activities. Universities, schools, and polytechnics were among those who faced the greatest challenge, having to change overnight their approaches to every aspect of their work, among them teaching, learning, assessment, and student support [1]. When opted to keep teaching in the remote format, the institutions were faced with some aspects related to socioeconomic and structural conditions that influenced the teaching process. Among the most common are problems of Internet access, net instabilities, lack of equipment, lack of structure, and adequate space for the study in a reserved way [1]. Schools and students were affected by the pandemic and had to deal with a wide range of situations. While on the one hand, universities and lecturers were moving faster than ever before toward teaching in remote format, and overcoming legal limitations to administer online examinations, on the other hand, students were not only surfing the Internet, but faced mental health problems, economic difficulties, and many more situations that the pandemic inflicted on them [4]. Teachers faced a big challenge. Remote teaching became the only form of contact with students. The teachers’ work format changed from one day to the next. The methodologies used until then, had to be adjusted, at the level of teaching format, learning, assessment, and student support [1]. The transition from face to face to online format raised many questions for teachers about their ability to deal with the existing technology. This transition also had a serious impact on assessment. Even though technologies have been used previously to support teaching and learning, when it comes to the application of assessment in this format, it is a challenging issue. It becomes difficult for lecturers to monitor students and ensure that they are not cheating during the tests. In addition to all this, many universities do not have sufficient infrastructure or resources to facilitate online teaching [5]. A positive aspect of remote learning is that classes not tied to a physical classroom are able to happen through the connection offered by technologies. It has become clear that the accounting profession and accounting education need to change, not only for the immediate future, but also for the long term. According to IFAC [4], one should think about the possibilities that digital education can bring to the accounting profession. Thus, one can have professors from all over the world attending classes as guests, as well as simulators and technological tools that can provide more interaction
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with students. Face-to-face teaching is very valuable, but it is possible to have the best of both possibilities. It has contributed to the development of teaching in EaD format, as it allows differentiated pedagogical approaches through the exploration of the benefits that the use of technology offers [2]. For Papert [6], technology is a tool, but not the solution itself, since, according to the author, the lack of technology use can affect a bad education.
23.3 Methodology The research problem of this study is to assess what is the perception of accounting teachers about education at distance (EaD), and the research hypotheses described below were outlined. Based on the hypotheses and research questions raised, it was possible to build the analysis model, where there was the purpose of comparing the perception of Brazilian and Portuguese teachers of the educational institutions investigated. Higher education was one of the most affected by the pandemic. The alternative found was the adoption of the EaD format, which has become an indispensable tool in the teaching process [7]. Therefore, we have as hypothesis: Hypothesis 1: Distance Learning is a reality accepted by accounting teachers in ISCAP and UTFPR, having by research questions: Q1.1: In what way did the lecturers face EaD? Q1.2: What are the main difficulties experienced in EaD? Considering that, technologies enable the continuity of teaching in DE format, the second hypothesis formulated: Hypothesis 2: Information technologies and the platforms made available enhance EaD, taking as research questions: Q2.1: Were the digital platforms made available the most appropriate? Q2.2: What is the degree of knowledge of IT related to DE? The transition from face-to-face teaching format to EaD has raised some questions for teachers, regarding their ability to deal with the existing technologies, and beyond that, there is concern about the fact that many universities do not have adequate infrastructure and/or sufficient resources to facilitate EaD teaching [5]. It was in this consequence formulated the hypothesis: Hypothesis 3: Accounting lecturers of the institutions under study consider EaD as a form of teaching to consider in the future, having as research questions: Q3.1: What is the degree of satisfaction regarding the participation of students in EaD?
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Q3.2: In what ways have teachers reorganized their working methods for EaD positioning? Q3.3: What future prospects do these lecturers have regarding the continuity of DE? The survey created for data collection makes it possible to obtain information regarding the teachers’ perception of the educational institutions in Brazil and Portugal regarding the IT use in their activities, now routine. The chosen target audience fell on the teaching population of the higher education course in accounting at the Federal Technological University of Paraná (UTFPR), located in the city of Pato Branco, Paraná, Brazil, and at the Porto Institute of Accounting and Administration (ISCAP) located in the city of Porto, Portugal. The questionnaire was developed in the GoogleForms® platform. It consists of single-answer optional questions, some multiple-answer questions, and openended questions. Although there are some linguistic differences between Brazil and Portugal, it was decided to build a single questionnaire, as clear as possible to meet both countries. The questionnaire was available at the Web pages of the higher education institutions and sent directly to the coordinators of the accounting area in both institutions, during the timeline October–December 2020. The questionnaire, therefore, has 13 questions and is subdivided into three groups, namely: (i) respondent profile; (ii) perceptions regarding EaD; and (iii) other contributions. Block (i) seeks to identify the respondent’s profile, highlighting their characteristics through four questions on gender, teaching institution, length of teaching experience, and also on the possible increase in the number of hours for teaching activities due to the EaD format imposed by the new Coronavirus pandemic. Block (ii) consists of eight questions designed to verify the tools used and the main difficulties faced during this period of remote format classes. Teachers are asked which tools are being used in this period, whether or not they have received any previous training, it is also sought to understand what were the main difficulties presented by the use of these tools, the satisfaction of teachers regarding the participation of students in class, forms of assessment, and the biggest challenges faced. The questions applied in this group were based on the study by Souza et al. [8], which investigated the remote methodologies used in the accounting science course at the Federal University of Ceará (UFC), during the pandemic of the new coronavirus. The study pointed out the main tools used by the teachers in this period, as well as the main difficulties presented during the educational processes. Block (iii), on the other hand, contains the only non-mandatory question in the questionnaire, which aims to collect, from the teachers’ point of view, any contribution they would like to give to the work, should they find it necessary. In this study, for the analysis of the information collected and taking into account the methodological options and procedures, we opted for statistical data analysis and content analysis.
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23.4 Discussion of Results In response to the research questions raised to validate the first hypothesis, the teachers saw EaD as a new teaching model, which requires more time for content preparation and adequacy of the didactic material made available. Regarding the difficulties presented by teachers, many of them expressed concern about the students’ participation in the proposed activities and getting them to remain motivated in performing the tasks. As far as the second hypothesis is concerned, it cannot be said that the tools used were the most appropriate, taking into account the short time for use and bearing in mind that each educational institution suggested the use of certain tools, and it is up to teachers to adapt to their use. Even so, the efforts made by the teachers ensured the continuity of teaching. As shown in the study, most of them consider that their degree of knowledge to handle them is considered average; even so, it is necessary to recognize that despite the difficulties faced by teachers, students, the activities were not interrupted, and this can be considered a positive point. In what the third hypothesis outlined, the study also showed that there was a need for reorganization of work methods to suit the EaD format, which resulted to teachers, in a significant increase in the number of hours spent for the preparation of classes, planning of tasks, and application of assessment. Corroborating the study by Rodrigues et al. [5], this rapid transition from the face-to-face format to the online one raised many questions for the teachers about their ability to deal with the existing technology. It is important to point out that this increase in hours and the imposed change caused great distress to the teachers, since 100% of them said they had not had any kind of training or capacity building on the tools they started using. In general, ICTs have been contributing to the development and dissemination of EaD modalities, as they have offered a revolution in the teaching model, through pedagogical approaches that explore the potentials that the use of technology is able to offer [2]. EaD is an educational modality where didactic-pedagogical mediation in teaching and learning processes occurs through the use of media and ICTs, having students and teachers developing educational activities in different places and time. In Brazil, EaD regulated by article 80 of Law 9.394/96. In Portugal only in 2019 was approved the legal regime of higher education provided at a distance with the Decree-Law number 133/2019 of 3rd of September. However, it should be noted that this sudden change and unplanned changes by the institutions were more difficult and demonstrated some existing shortcomings when using technologies for teaching. Another interesting point worth mentioning is that students who chose to study the undergraduate or licentiate in face-to-face format, chose it by preference in this format to EaD. Therefore, this change can cause dissatisfaction and demotivation of students because in addition to the lack of contact in the classroom, physical contact should be avoided outside of it as well.
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In general, the teachers have made an effort to maintain the quality standard of teaching, so that the students do not feel unassisted even though they have to do many things on their own. This forced closing process of universities has promoted a reflection on how important face-to-face teaching is—and sometimes indispensable, but also how technologies can help in the teaching process and interaction between teachers and students, reducing, for example, travel time.
23.5 Final Considerations The main results found demonstrate the need to improve issues related to the use of technologies in teaching processes, as well as the teachers’ training to operate the tools. They also show that, in the teachers’ view, there is a need for greater awareness on the part of the students, so that they are more participative in classes and with the teachers and among themselves, thus providing a more pleasant environment for both and closer to reality as when teaching takes place in the face-to-face format. In recent decades, technological advances have been remarkable and significant. We are living the greatest technological era in the world, and this has not been accelerated in recent years, especially in the year 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic with the need to carry out processes that were previously face to face, start to be done in remote format [9]. The results found demonstrate the need to improve the issues related to the use of technologies in teaching processes, as well as the training of teachers to operationalize the tools. Also, teachers state that there is a need for greater awareness by students, so that they can be more participative in class, thus providing a more pleasant environment for both and closer to reality as when teaching takes place in the face-to-face format. Another aspect mentioned by the teachers of the two institutions is related to the fact that there are no technological tools suitable for quality distance learning in their institutions. This, in a way, had a negative impact on the expectations of teachers and students regarding distance learning. Despite dealing with the crisis in different ways, those teachers in Portugal and in Brazil, in general, have faced very similar challenges regarding teaching/learning. The biggest challenge imposed on teachers is to keep students motivated, participative, and active in the learning process, without being overwhelmed by the lack of contact or possible delays in completing the course. From this study, it is essential to see the following questions answered: as accounting is increasingly based on digitalization, should its teaching based on technological tools not follow this trend? Has the digital era 4.0 in accounting been accompanied by academia? Acknowledgements This Work is financed by Portuguese funds through FCT—Foundation for Science and Technology, under the project UIDB/05422/2020.
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References 1. Sangster, A., Stoner, G., Flood, B.: Insights into accounting education in a COVID-19 world. Acc. Educ. 29(5), 431–562 (2020) 2. Valente, J.A.: A comunicação e a educação baseada no uso das tecnologias digitais de informação e comunicação. Revista UNIFESO Humanas Sociais 1(01), 141–166 (2014) 3. Löw, T.: A percepção sobre o valor da utilização de recurso de TI para a atividade-fim em uma instituição de ensino superior. Dissertação de Mestrado. Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (2004) 4. IFAC: Accountancy Skills Evolution: Impact of Covid-19 & The Path Forward. https://www. ifac.org/knowledgegateway/preparing-future-ready-professionals/publications/accountancyskillsevolution-impact-covid-19-path-forward (2020). Last accessed 01 Dec 2020 5. Rodrigues, B.B., Cardoso, R.R.J., Peres, C.H.R., Marques, F.F.: Aprendendo com o imprevisível: saúde mental dos universitários e educação Médica na Pandemia de Covid-19. Rev. Bras. Educ. Méd. 44, 1–5 (2020) 6. Papert, S.: Education for the knowledge society: a Russia-oriented perspective on technology and school. In: IITE Newsletter, No. 1, pp. 1–8. UNESCO (2001) 7. Belzunegui-Eraso, A., Erro-Garcés, A.: Teleworking in the context of the Covid-19 crisis. Sustainability 2020(12), 1–18 (2020) 8. Souza, J.L., Castelo, J.L., Santos, M.F., Teixeira, M.F., Julião, A.S.: Metodologias remotas de ensino em tempos de Covid-19: estudo no curso de Ciências Contábeis da Universidade Federal do Ceará (UFC). Anais. XX USP International Conference in Accounting (2020) 9. World Economic Forum: Workforce Principles for the COVID-19 Pandemic Stakeholder Capitalism in a Time of Crisis. http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_NES_COVID_19_Pandemic_ Workforce_Principles_2020.pdf. Last accessed 30 Apr 2020
Chapter 24
The Importance of Opinion Leaders and Social Networking on Destination Brand Development—The Case Study of Discover Melgaço Brand Sónia Nogueira, Gysele Xavier, and Laurentina Vareiro Abstract Opinion leaders tend to influence consumers’ decision-making process. We live in a digital world where people have an increasing relevance and ability to transmit a message to others, the so-called influencers or opinion leaders, with the power to inspire and influence followers. Influencers are a group of people who publish their attitudes, opinions, and preferences through multiple social media and blogs. Their fans sympathize with them because the content they post is close to them, tells them something, and reminds them of their own lives or situations they face or would like to experience in the future. In fact, in literature we can find several pieces of evidence on influence marketing, defined as the process of researching, identifying, supporting, and engaging people in high-impact conversations and content adapted to the “momentum.” This article aims to understand how opinion leaders can give contributes to the desire to visit Melgaço, realizing the degree of partnership the municipality of Melgaço has with them to reach a better promotion of the region. It also aims to analyze the investment the municipality has on social networks to promote and develop the brand “Discover Melgaço.” A qualitative study was carried out using the analysis of secondary data and interviews to achieve these goals. Finally, the article provides a new perspective on the impact of opinion leaders and social networking on the development and promotion of the Discover Melgaço brand, and it defines the characteristics that are most important in influencing tourists.
S. Nogueira Universidade Portucalense, Porto, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] G. Xavier Instituto Politécnico do Cávado e do Ave, Barcelos, Portugal L. Vareiro (B) UNIAG, Instituto Politécnico do Cávado e do Ave, Barcelos, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 A. Mesquita et al. (eds.), Perspectives and Trends in Education and Technology, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 256, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5063-5_24
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24.1 Introduction We live in a digital world and companies present themselves to the world through the eyes of people called bloggers or influencers being also called digital opinion leaders [1]. Influencers monetize their image by adapting their advertising to attract their followers, establishing psychological and behavioral changes. From a very young age, they are seduced to desire online content [2] and reach not only their audience but also the followers of their followers [3]. All these constant technological metamorphoses compel companies to change their marketing strategies and interact with users [4]. This article contributes to understanding destination branding benefits using Melgaço case study and its brand “Discover Melgaço.” Considering that tourism destinations are challenging to manage, this article’s primary purpose is to understand the importance and impact of opinion leaders for good positioning in destination competitiveness and promotion. Melgaço considers tourism a strategic product for the local economy and takes advantage of its multiple natural resources (Peneda Gerês National Park, rivers, mountains, cultural heritage, gastronomy). Discover Melgaço is a recent brand started in 2017 and in few years, due to its digital campaigns, reached high levels of involvement with visitors and tourists, and the originality of this article rests in the fact of publishing the work developed and the success factors of implementation and dissemination of the Discover Melgaço brand destination. An exploratory and qualitative research was developed to obtain the answers to the proposed objectives, using the content analysis that involved the collection of data from a set of texts (written, reports, books, newspapers and magazines, strategic marketing plan from Melgaço municipality, speeches and interviews, Web content and social media posts, photographs and films). Semi-structured interviews were also conducted to understand how the brand “Discover Melgaço” got the recognition as a unique territory, where tourists can find an unparalleled experience between tradition and nature, involved in an adventure environment.
24.2 Literature Review The brand is a process that links the concepts of identity, positioning, and image [5]. The brand allows meanings about the products or services to be produced in the consumer’s mind. It is at this moment that communication begins [6, 7] being a vital management tool [8]. Destination brands are seen as an essential tool for organizations, playing a great economic and social value. Besides, the destinations that work “brand destinations” develop plans for cultural, political, and commercial impacts [9]. A tourist destination can be understood as a complex product. According to Beerli and Martín [10], several factors determine the formation of the image of destinations: the reasons for the trip, past travel experiences, and sociodemographic data that include age, sex, income
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level, and country of origin. To compose an image of a tourist destination, it is necessary to include the cognitive, the affective, the acquisition of the collective, shared image, and personal perceptions. The consumer associates the image with the destination according to the place’s characteristics and with the destination brands that can use association with attractions, people, and their lifestyle or a particular attraction. According to Buhalis [11], the most important criterion for choosing the destination is its image developed by companies’ information (airlines, hotels, travel agencies) and information obtained from friends and family. Destination managers, through market research, need to develop the destination’s identity, being able to form its exclusive image. Destinations that cannot adapt to the use of new technologies (digital communication) can be left behind and overtaken by competing destinations [12]. In the digital world, destinations struggle to promote their services or products and attractions, seeking to demonstrate a greater advantage to the consumer [12]. The information disclosed about the destination and associated promotions leads to tourist’s curiosity, thus increasing the demand for that destination. The promotion of tourist destinations occurs mainly by influencers who expand their followers and influence their target [13]. Litterio, Nantes, Larrosa, and Gómez [14] helped understand potential influencers from the perspective of online marketing and through the analysis of social networks (SNA—social network analyses). These actors can spread a message to society and influence purchasing behavior, including word of mouth (WOM) disclosure. Identifying these opinion leaders and the investment in a strong relationship of a brand with its target is crucial [14]. The result of the multiplier dissemination of e-WOM is the reason for the engagement of celebrities or opinion leaders in promoting a brand, looking for an emotional or rational connection [14]. Online technologies have changed the way people arrive at tourist information and how they structure their trips, being present in all phases of decision making [15]. The detection of influential actors in a social network is a powerful method for viewing, analyzing, and communicating messages [14]. Social networks present a new path for consumption [16] and on consumer decision making [17]. Brands use the connection of digital influencers to followers and the dynamism of technological advances to achieve positive results [2] such as credibility, for their brands that will achieve the necessary engagement on social platforms. Influence marketing becomes a mean to build a brand with considerable significant economic impact [3]. Consumers discard advertisements coming directly from brands; however, they are persuaded by publications made directly from influencers [3, 17]. Persuasion is achieved through the AIDA (Attention, Interest, Desire, and Action) process [18]. For persuasion to happen, there must be an agreement between the triad: the influencers, the follower, and the brand [19]. According to Nunes, Ferreira, de Freitas, and Ramos [20], an opinion leader has a persuasive capacity to reach the point where his followers rethink their attitudes and agree with him, inducing the intention to buy the brand. Thus, it is an important marketing strategy for companies focused on decision making [20]. With the digital technologies, the user also has access to a varied flood of daily information, the feedback and the disclosure have immediate return to the companies
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[1]. Influence marketing uses social networks and influencers as a strategy to act directly in the consumer’s decision [13]. The marketing strategies adopted by the destination management organizations (DMO) need to be innovative. Increasingly, promoting a tourist destination is based on the dissemination by electronic word of mouth (eWOM), impacting the choice [13]. According to Mangold and Faulds [21], “integrated marketing communications (IMC) are the guiding principle that organizations follow to communicate with their target markets” [13, p. 357]. To enrich the theoretical and practical literature, Buhalis et al. [22] studied online loyalty to e-commerce sites in tourism among young people. The study exposes the external variables (site design and eWOM) and internal (satisfaction and trust) of consumers, which are important variables in the online environment [22]. On digital media, customers can talk to each other without the companies’ participation, generating traditional word of mouth communication, so social networks were used for advertising brands and exchange experiences and evaluations of individuals. These assessments attribute relevance to decision making [20]. Tang et al. [23], aiming at understanding the communication of the destination sites, used the elaboration likelihood model (ELM). They found that people have different levels of processing the acquired messages. According to the cognitive part’ judgment, these levels are presented giving the individual’s persuasion and range from a central to a peripheral route [20]. Very involved people are inclined to create arguments in the central route, while people with a lower level of involvement make a more peripheral appreciation, in simple clues [23]. The ELM model “identifies the background (characteristics of the message) and consequences (connection and behavior) of persuasive processing. It also identifies the key moderating variable in the involvement of the two-way process,” being an opportune model to elucidate persuasive messages from the media [23, p. 39]. According to Tang et al. [23, p. 39]: “cognition is the scientific term for the thought process” and yet, advertising acts directly on the cognitive process and ends up outlining the attitude toward the brand through the transfer of affection and constitute the peripheral route of persuasion, end up pointing out a purchase intention of the customer [23]. Nunes et al. [20] indicated that a person accepts a message posted on social media if he/she accepts that reference as a legitimate and valid source for his/her decision regarding the brand. The persuasion of a message is assessed subjectively by the receptor through dimensions such as the quality of the argument, the credibility of the source, the attractiveness of the source, and the source’s perception [20]. Silveira [24] concluded that tourists accepted that social media contributes to obtaining travel information (like accommodation, attractions, restaurants, and transportation). Besides, the author found that when the information is relevant, convincing, and accurate, the higher the perception of credibility and the greater tourists post their travel photographs and maintain social and friendship [24]. As consumers, tourists search for information to reduce the risk of making incorrect choices or increase knowledge for future purchasing [25].
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24.3 Methodology In any scientific research, different types of research can be developed: data survey (collection of data from all or part of the through survey questionnaires); exploratory research (deepen the understanding and identification of new courses of action) [26]; descriptive research (describe characteristics with predefined hypotheses and based on secondary data) [26]; and causal research (to determine cause and effect relationships) [26]. Concerning the type of data collected, surveys can be classified as: (a) qualitative research (describes and explains patterns of relationships, is predominantly inductive, that is, it develops concepts and ideas from the data collected, is unstructured and exploratory, based on small samples and can use techniques such as focus groups, an association of words, and in-depth interviews—[26]); (b) quantitative research (appropriate when quantifiable measures of variables can be applied from samples of a population—[26]). In this study, an exploratory and qualitative research using content analysis was developed to identify recorded communication patterns. To conduct content analysis, we can systematically collect data from a set of texts, which can be written, oral, or visual: books, newspapers and magazines, speeches and interviews, Web content and social media posts, photographs, and films. Content analysis can be quantitative (focused on counting and measuring) and qualitative (focused on interpreting and understanding). In both types, investigators create categories or “codes” and then analyze the results. To this case study development, were analyzed: the strategic marketing plan from Melgaço municipality (developed by IPDT), Melgaço Web site and their social networks, and several publications about local tourism. Semistructured interviews were also conducted with Melgaço Development, Education and Culture Division responsible to better understand the use of influencers and opinion leaders to obtain the highest promotion of the destination brand “Discover Melgaço.” The questions for the two interviews, conducted in March 2021, were sent by e-mail, and we obtained some extra explanations by phone. The categories considered were: the concept of influencer, the impact of influencing on brand promotion, the criteria of choice, and techniques used.
24.4 Discussion—“Discover Melgaço” Brand Destination In October 2019, Alto Minho, which includes the Municipality and the region of Melgaço, was distinguished with the Platinum Quality Coast/Green Destinations Award by the international program Green Destinations Awards. This is the second distinction in two years concerning sustainable tourism, after the Alto Minho (as well as the Peneda-Gerês National Park) was included in the list of 100 world locations classified as Sustainable Destination. The municipality of Melgaço is located in the North of Portugal, in the district of Viana do Castelo, belonging to the Alto Minho administrative unit. It has a 232 km2
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territory bounded by the river Minho (which separates it from Spain); Monção, Arcos de Valdevez (Peneda-Gerês National Park), the Galician municipalities of Verea, Quintela from Leirado and Padrenda, to the east, and Entrimo, to the southeast. Nature Tourism is a strategic product for Melgaço’s tourism offer. This is due to the endogenous resources like the Peneda-Gerês National Park, unique fauna (Lobo Ibérico and Cabra Montês) and rivers (Minho and Laboreiro). The resources diversity enhances the practice of different activities like rafting, canyoning, trail, walking, and horse hiking. The nature tourist offer in Melgaço can be complemented with experiences of health and well-being (Termas do Peso), gastronomy and wines (Alvarinho), as well as with Culture and Heritage (prehistoric heritage and national monuments). It should also be noted that 41% of the municipality of Melgaço is part of the Peneda-Gerês National Park. In 2019, Melgaço registered more than 135 companies in the tourism area (67 accommodation, one shipping operator, two travel agencies, nine tourist entertainment companies, 23 Alvarinho wine producers, six transport companies, and 27 restaurants) what represents a relevant contribution to the local economy. To reinforce the notoriety of Melgaço tourism and the consolidation of its brand destination, Melgaço developed the brand destination “Discover Melgaço—the most radical destination in Northern Portugal.” The value proposition of tourism in Melgaço represents its uniqueness, and their distinguishing factors are based on: rural, authentic landscape, rafting all year in Rio Minho, Peneda-Gerês National Park (Biosphere Reserve), history and tradition (one of Portugal’s richest prehistoric heritage—engravings, rock paintings, and dolmens dated 5000 years ago), Alvarinho wine and well-being (Spa, landscape). Melgaço’s visitor sociodemographic profile comprises individuals between 31 and 50 years old (48%) and Portuguese (68%). In professional terms, they are specialized in intellectual and scientific professions (53%) or intermediate technician level (16%) and in the field of academic qualifications have completed higher education (71%). They seek for culture and heritage, nature, gastronomy, and wines. The Internet and friends are the main sources of information about their choices [26]. Melgaço is a nature destination par excellence, with geographical and geological conditions that give it a prominent position among all the Porto and North of Portugal’s subdestinations. Discover Melgaço brand positioning refers to an active nature image (land and water), associated with the growing trend of an increasingly active, younger society that practices sports in natural environments and enjoys places rich in landscape, history, culture, and tradition. Regarding communication, the brand destination Discover Melgaço strategy aims to give positive awareness of Melgaço as a nature destination, tranquility, and positive isolation; the materialization of the image of Melgaço as the “most radical destination in Portugal”; trade involvement and stakeholders; and the attraction of investment. To successfully implement the new strategy for the brand, four action programs were implemented: (a) improve the experience (paying attention to accessibility issues, improving widespread use of Nature Tourism services as well as fostering entrepreneurship and attracting investment); (b) welcome sustainable tourism (set
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educational actions that focus on the sustainability of tourism); (c) communicate the value proposal (leverage Melgaço’s notoriety as a destination through effective communication tools); (d) monitoring tourism dynamics (set of actions that intend to increase and improve information in tourism, namely on the satisfaction of visitors, residents, and trade and the impacts of tourism on the economy, environment, and society). The actions developed to promote the brand were: (a) outdoors; (b) Urban Furniture for Information (UFI); (c) interactive UFI’s; (d) press releases: (e) municipal bulletin; (g) flyer; (h) workshops; (i) associations and traders; (j) t-shirt; (k) digital marketing; and (l) merchandising. To promote Discover Melgaço brand destination was used a strong digital campaign. The target audiences were aligned with the municipality’s tourism strategy, defining the following as priority and developing markets: priority— Portugal; Spain; France; in development markets—Germany and UK. Discover Melgaço digital communication and marketing campaign used some elements as differentiating factors of the offer, offering an interesting and attractive value proposal, which allows achieving future tourists. Thus, the elements considered were: location (the most Northern Portugal and escape destination); nature (rural, authentic landscape); rafting all year (Minho river); Peneda-Gerês National Park (Castro Laboreiro); biosphere; history and tradition (heritage; rock paintings, dolmens; Castro constructions; castle; Castro Laboreiro dog); Alvarinho wine (sub-region where Alvarinho reaches its maximum potential); well-being (spa; landscape). Taking into account the targeted markets, as well as new trends in tourism and marketing, three online communication platforms were used by the municipality of Melgaço: (a) Web site and landing pages; (b) social networks; and (c) e-mail marketing. In order to increase the quality of the transmitted message, some hashtags were introduced in the publications, among them: #portugalsmostradicalnaturedestination; #discovermelgaco; # 2hoursfromporto; #closetovigo; #adventure; #alvarinho. To achieve proximity, five Landing Pages were developed (microsites) based on the strategic products: nature tourism; health and wellness; gastronomy and wines; culture and heritage; and sports tourism. Landing Pages were published chronologically, ensuring a more effective brand presence and a better perception of the message. The presence on the different social networks was crucial to guarantee a correct positioning and proximity to the customer. Simultaneously spread the brand, content, messages, and target users, turning them into tourists. Considering the stage of development of the brand and design, the presence of Discover Melgaço brand was defined in the following social networks: Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, and Pinterest. The dynamization of these platforms was carried out by harmonizing publications with images and content, contests, sponsored campaigns, and digital influencers. About their social networks (last review in March 2021): (a) the Facebook page, created in November 2017 (@discovermelgaco) has 3.842 fans and 391 posts; the Twitter page (@discovermelgaco) started in November 2017 and has 354 Tweets,
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177 followers; on Instagram (#discovermelgaco and @discovermelgaco), 243 posts and 1.134 followers and Pinterest they have 83 monthly views with 13 followers. Melgaço municipality developed several campaigns on social media. Several Facebook—campaigns in 2018, reaching an average number of 10,092 people each, being most successful in the 25 to 34 age group; Instagram—most successful in the 25 and 44 years old group; Twitter—in the first two months, it got 32 followers with an average of 80 visits, generating 1850 impressions and 24 retweeted. Concerning to Pintrest.: Portugal with a target audience of 122, the United States with 59 and Brazil with 36 people. In total there are 247 users who, on average, visit the page, adding 109 pins about the destination [26, p. 51]. E-mail marketing is one of the most used tools over the years. The various promoted campaigns were obtaining an increasingly high degree of proximity. The Discover Melgaço brand’s gradual growth is an objective, allowing to disclose the brand and its differentiating attributes to a more receptive public to the message. Betting on this greater degree of proximity/receptivity, the acquisition of leads was carried out on thematic Landing Pages, thus reaching the tourist’s interest. Subsequently, a follow-up was carried out regularly by sending frequent information focused on the attractions and events of the Melgaço destination. The leverage of the Discover Melgaço destination brand was also achieved with a strong focus on bloggers and influencers as well as farm trips with the specialized press in the tourism area [26]. Considering the interviews conducted to the municipality of Melgaço the following coding scheme was used with the definition of seven main categories: (C1) tourist promotion areas of the destination; (C2) features valued in a digital influencer; (C3) advantages and disadvantages of digital influencers; (C4) criteria for choosing digital influencer; (C5) networks used; (C6) techniques used by digital influencers to influence followers; and (C7) importance of partnership establishment. On (C1) tourist promotion areas of the destination, it was possible to understand that the municipality of Melgaço uses various opinion-makers to promote the destination, covering different areas such as travel, gastronomy, and wines, and from different countries (Portugal and Spain). For (C2), they understand a digital influencer as the one that creates trends, arousing people’s interest in disseminating their experiences on social networks. They also consider that a good digital influencer, in addition to knowing how to communicate, must have the ability to involve followers and sell its own experiences, managing to win an audience that will experience and enjoy them. Respondents highlight target appeal and brand promotion as advantages of using an influencer (C3). It is worth mentioning that volatility was mentioned as being a disadvantage in this type of destination promotion (C3). As the underlying criteria for choosing these influencers (C4), the most relevant criteria were: the blog’s predominant theme, the quality of the published content, and, finally, awards or distinctions that have already been attributed to them. Facebook and Instagram are the social networks where influencers are most active in Melgaço promotion (C5). The best ways for influencers to produce positive links with followers are (C6): (a) postphotographs and videos of destinations, (b) recommend accommodation, points of
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interest, and restaurants, and (c) disclose their real experience (in the first person) about visits to destinations, showing what he does with passion, involving the community. As for the impact perception of the influencers (C7), there was a higher agreement connected to the topics: tourists visited Melgaço due to the direct influence of influencers, the contents shared on social networks influence the choice of a tourist destination by tourists, believe that the word of mouth (WOM), has a positive effect on the consumer’s relationship with the destinations, the greater the details passed by the influencers’ messages, the greater the probability of being able to influence the visit to the destinations, the greater the timeliness of the influencers’ message, the greater the likelihood of being able to influence the visit to destinations. Due to this, partnerships with influencers will likely continue in the future. The interviewees disagreed that the partnerships established with influencers (C7) are preponderant for the global performance of social networks in the municipality of Melgaço and they do not consider that advertising through influencers has more credibility than the traditional ways (TV, radio, print advertising, or that the influencers with the greatest number of followers and the most credible as partners).
24.5 Conclusion Consumers have become more demanding and able to manage their own experiences in tourism, which brings new challenges with regard to the ability to generate attraction for the various tourist destinations and requires greater creativity, innovation, and quality of integrated experiences and an increasing way of managing all the elements that differentiate them from the competition. In this context, the definition of destination positioning emerges as well as the design of distinctive destination brands that reflect a reliable image of local values. The creation of interesting alternative attributes, the knowledge of potential tourists’ needs and expectations, and the subsequent promotion directed to the different targets increase the destination’s competitiveness. The Discover Melgaço brand promotion aimed mainly at an international target, differentiating the position of Melgaço as a destination for nature, adventure, and extreme sports, unique in Portugal. The promotion developed based on digital efforts was fundamental and communication of the “message” through online media (Web site, social networks, e-mail), increased the degree of success. Interviewees highlighted the importance of opinion leaders and social networking on destination brand development. It was considered the hypothesis of the visitation of the Melgaço region directly connects to the influencer’s messages on social networks with the added value of using this resource to suggest a greater number of people through word of mouth (WOM) communication when choosing a tourist destination. We can also conclude that influencers are important in engagement, as they know the target and current trends.
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Acknowledgements UNIAG, R&D unit funded by the FCT—Portuguese Foundation for the Development of Science and Technology, Ministry of Science, Technology and Higher Education. Project no. UIDB/04752/2020.
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21. Mangold, W.G., Faulds, D.J.: Social media: the new hybrid element of the promotion mix. Bus. Horiz. 52(4), 357–365 (2009) 22. Buhalis, D., López, E., Martinez-Gonzalez, J.: Influence of young consumers external and internal variables on their e-loyalty to tourism sites. J. Destin. Mark. Manag. 15, 1–10 (2020) 23. Tang, L., Jang, S., Morrison, A.: Dual-route communication of destination websites. Tour. Manage. 33(1), 38–49 (2012) 24. Silveira, K.: Aceitação, Credibilidade e Motivações Para o Compartilhamento de Informações Turísticas nas Mídias Sociais, pp. 1–138. UNIVALI—Universidade do Vale do Itajaí (2018) 25. Li, X., Hunf, K., Cheng, C.-K., Petrick, J.: Park Visitors´ Perceived Risk and Information Search Behavior, pp. 187–193. University of Massachusetts, Amherst (2016) 26. IPDT—Instituto de Planeamento e Desenvolvimento do Turismo: Estratégia de Comunicação e Marketing Digital, Discover Melgaço – 1º Relatório Bimensal, Enquadramento e Avaliação. Porto (2018)
Chapter 25
Ecuador and the Virtual High School Education in Pandemic Times Lilia Carpio-Jiménez, Abel Suing, and Rosario Puertas-Hidalgo
Abstract The world is going through a new normal, and all human activities have adapted to this reality. Education is one of the first activities that changed. The health crisis caused by COVID-19 generated that educational institutions at all levels will move to digital media and platforms. They implemented methodological strategies for students to continue with their classes and avoid delay in the curricular plan. Although all these strategies to safeguard the life of the educational community are necessary, there are also difficulties to access this modality of studies effectively. The research analyzes the strategies and technological tools used by educational institutions and teachers in the city of Loja, Ecuador, the advantages and disadvantages, the impact, and the acceptance of teachers and students to the new modality. A qualitative methodology is proposed with the application of a non-probability sampling through a digital survey of teachers and students at the secondary level.
25.1 Introduction The COVID-19 had caused changes worldwide, and human beings have chosen different options to fulfill their professional activities. In the field of education, these options go hand in hand with information and communication technologies (ICT). Education institutions teach their classes through virtual modality of studies to comply with academic activity and not delay the learning process in students. Virtual platforms, social networks, messaging services, and other communication
L. Carpio-Jiménez (B) · A. Suing · R. Puertas-Hidalgo Universidad Técnica Particular de Loja, Loja, Ecuador e-mail: [email protected] A. Suing e-mail: [email protected] R. Puertas-Hidalgo e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 A. Mesquita et al. (eds.), Perspectives and Trends in Education and Technology, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 256, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5063-5_25
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channels have become fundamental tools for education at a time when the crisis due to the pandemic does not stop. In recent decades, the Internet has facilitated communication worldwide, but possibly with the new reality, these channels have received the value they deserve. Daily, people communicate with their families, colleagues, and friends; the possibilities offered by communication tools and channels are valued. The interruption of classes caused by the COVID-19 health crisis conceived that institutions of all educational levels make alternatives for students to continue their education and avoid extensions in the academic plan. For this reason, it is essential to know the tools that the country’s secondary educational institutions used during the health crisis in the first weeks of confinement, and determine the advantages and problems that arose during the virtual classes. This work presents an approximate study on the situation of virtual education in Ecuador; in times of COVID-19, the technological tools applied by the secondary education institutions of Loja, Ecuador are known, and the problems are presented.
25.1.1 Virtual Education and COVID-19 Virtual platforms have generated significant changes in education, “they produce new forms of knowledge transfer since, through information and communication technologies, new paradigms are being created in the teaching–learning process” [1]. Virtual scenarios or platforms are widely used and valuable resources in different educational systems and even more so in distance education. Computer systems have been improved to facilitate the teaching–learning process. However, distance education is a modality of studies that hinders the direct relationship between the teacher and the student, but “information and communication technologies offer the possibility of interaction between students and with the teacher, promoting an active attitude, to a continuous search and rethinking of contents and procedures [2]. Distance education mediated by ICT allows students to form study networks to interact, share experiences, discuss various topics and acquire knowledge, and modern work tools. The student experiences an autonomous and self-taught study, where the teacher ceases to be the protagonist of the teaching–learning process and becomes a facilitator of the educational process so that the student assumes a firm commitment to their training process [3]. Currently, closer contact between teacher and student is necessary; for this reason, non-face-to-face and virtual teaching also includes synchronous and asynchronous activities with the support of the Internet. In synchronous activities, closer contact is established between teacher and student, and in asynchronous activities, the presence of the teacher is not necessary for their development. Undoubtedly, in distance education, the use of technologies is a necessity; it is no longer an option. It has, practically, become an obligation and constitutes an important
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resource in the teaching–learning process and the teacher-student relationship. In this regard, UNESCO [4] points out that: Information and communication technologies (ICT) can complement, enrich, and transform education and even can facilitate universal access to education, reduce learning gaps, support teacher development, improve the quality and relevance of learning, reinforcing integration, and perfecting the management and administration of education. Education in the context of the pandemic has changed what was known as faceto-face teaching, the physical space, large libraries, teachers, and colleagues are no longer within reach of our eyes. Today, a computer screen is used to feel that presence. The strategies implemented by the different secondary educational institutions in the country include the use of ICT as the main educational tool. Public institutions follow the strategies of the Ministry of Education, while private institutions make use of their autonomy to implement strategies that are not necessarily consistent with the previous ones. Within the framework of the COVID-19 Educational Plan [5], the Ministry of Education implemented AVA, a platform built on Moodle platform, in which students and teachers attend to subjects such as mathematics; physical; biology; chemistry; social sciences; language, and literature; and, the grade exam. The platform includes forums, readings, tutorials, tasks, and questionnaires that teachers must advise and monitor. “The Ministry of Education reported that until May 18, 2020, there was a flow of almost 850,000 active users on the platform, which has 1200 educational resources to reinforce knowledge” [6]. The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, approved in 2015 by the United Nations General Assembly and declared public policy in Ecuador, determined professional training programs through information and communication technologies as an educational goal. Nowadays, it is even more important, as the educational community is moving toward a new format, which will test not only children’s behavior in front of a computer but also the adaptability of teachers to a digital classroom, some distant and unthinkable situation months ago [7]. The technological tools supported by the Internet have become essential in times of pandemic, but it cannot be ignored that in 2019, only 45.5% of households had Internet access, and the rural area is the one with the least coverage (21.6%). Besides, 23.30% have desktop computer, and 28.50% have laptop [8]. The crisis caused by the COVID-19 has unleashed an impasse in the educational system of Ecuador and the world. Despite the proposal and implementation of Millennium Educational Units on previous government, the evidence left by the health crisis has shown that there is no education public with instruments, tools, equipment, and technological networks according to the current era. Until April 2020 and during the pandemic, the Ombudsman’s Office had filed complaints in the educational field of 21 of the 24 provinces in Ecuador. They revolve around the inaccessibility to technological means, inability to pay pensions, and complaints of parents who must fulfill the role of facilitators of virtual education. Of the 12,863 fiscal and fiscal education schools in the country, only 4747 have Internet access; the educational centers of Tungurahua, Santa Elena, Galápagos,
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and Pichincha have Internet access over 70%. While in Pastaza, Morona Santiago, Orellana, and Zamora Chinchipe, it is under 20%. While in the country’s main cities, such as Quito, Guayaquil, and Cuenca, there are digital platform saturation problems and high connectivity costs [9]. Within the guidelines and recommendations that the Ministry of Education [10] implemented for the education of students at home, there are: • • • • • • •
Plan the activities together with all the teachers and dose the activities. Communicate to parents about the activities that students have to develop. Use a single communication channel, be it email, social networks, or other means. Optimize the use of school texts. The activities that students develop must be evaluated by the teacher. Accompaniment by teachers. The availability of educational files and recreational activities through the Web portal (https://recursos2.educacion.gob.ec/).
It is observed that, at least in this document, no information is evidenced through digital platforms. They are only the use of communication channels such as email and social networks is mentioned and resources on the Web site of the Ministry of Education. For its part, the guide “Teaching in times of COVID-19” of UNESCO [11] states the following: 1. 2.
As the immediate teaching availability is limited, the student must build they’re learning autonomously. The didactic materials take on special relevance in the learning process. They are fundamental elements since, through them, the teacher “dialogs” with the students and, in turn, the students “feel” their presence.
And, therefore: Teachers, in times of pandemic, must ensure that each student has a didactic material that allows them to develop they are learning autonomously. They must propose different means of communication to carry out a personalized follow-up to guide and attend to the needs that emerging [11].
25.2 Materials and Methods The methodology is qualitative through a non-probabilistic sample. The selection of the population was made at the discretion of the researchers. The object of study is constituted of teachers and students in private and public schools in Loja city, specifically between the eighth year of basic education and the third year of high school. The instrument used is the online survey: one for students (https://forms.gle/ m5iHzeJZdPEZ6RB17) and another for teachers (https://forms.gle/Yzz9cW4RuqTk 7ahU7).
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The information gathering was conducted in April 2020, and with the results, there is an approach to the education scenario in the COVID-19 crisis. The secondary education institutions in the city of Loja, that we have received a response, are: Unidad Educativa Antonio Peña Celi; Unidad Educativa Particular Cordillera; Unidad Educativa Particular Eugenio Espejo; and Unidad Educativa Fiscomisional La Inmaculada. The hypotheses raised are (1) secondary education institutions, through their teachers, have difficulties in using technological platforms; (2) students easily adapt to the use of technological tools. Questions asked to teachers include the type of electronic resources; platforms used; communication channels; level of reception of students; and training in educational technology tools. The students are asked about: the implementation of this virtual education methodology; platforms used; electronic resources; communication channels; difficulties presented; and appreciation of the level of knowledge of its teachers in educational technological tools.
25.3 Results Private and public secondary educational institutions have chosen to implement strategies to protect the safety of the entire community through virtual classes. The secondary education institutions in the city of Loja, that we have received a response, are: Unidad Educativa Antonio Peña Celi; Unidad Educativa Particular Cordillera; Unidad Educativa Particular Eugenio Espejo; and Unidad Educativa Fiscomisional La Inmaculada. The obtained results in terms of technological tools indicate that, as the main platform, the following has been chosen Google Classroom, Zoom, Google Meet, Edmodo and Idroo (see Fig. 25.1). 40.00% 35.00%
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Fig. 25.1 Technological tools
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Also, to maintain communication between teachers and students, the following means are used: Email and WhatsApp each with 71.4%; Facebook Messenger 21.4%; other social networks 14.3%; and directly through the Edmodo, Classroom, and Meet platforms, 7.1%. Several digital tools allow you to interact with students in an entertaining way; Kahoot! With 50%, it is the recreational tool most used by teachers in secondary educational institutions; Quizizz with 28.6% is the second tool that allows them to create questions through games; other tools they are using are FlipQuiz with 7.1%; and in other cases, it is pointed out that they do not know any recreational tool (14.2%). This last percentage is important to highlight since it is necessary to know of current tools that allow generating dynamism in the classes and even more so in virtual education. About 57.1% of the teachers consider that they are being trained in the management of virtual educational technologies, 21.4% not, and 21.4% perhaps (see Fig. 25.2). However, formal training has been given to 71.4% of teachers, compared to 28.6% who say no, and to which educational institutions and the Ministry of Education should pay attention. The student’s perception is as following: 10.9 % of their teachers have not trained in the use of educational technologies; about 41.3 % of teachers have training, and 47.8 % show that maybe (see Fig. 25.2). This shows that a large percentage of students evaluate the adequate use of technological tools by their teachers. Also, they have some doubts regarding the knowledge of their teachers in educational technologies. The main advantage of this type of study is to safeguard the health and life of the educational community and the family environment of each of its members. Moreover, it allows students to stay in continuous learning without delaying their academic training. For example, one of the students points out: “Students need to receive classes, even virtually, so as not to lose subjects and time, in this way, they continued 60.00%
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Fig. 25.2 Teacher training in educational TIC
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to acquire the knowledge to go with fundamental bases to university studies.” Another one points out that: “It seems to me that virtual education is an incredible tool that we can take advantage of during quarantine.” “I agree with virtual education because through it we continue to learn,” explained another student. Despite this, the problems of this modality studies cannot be ignored; the following are presented in Table 25.1. The student’s perception of this virtual education methodology is as follows: 13% strongly disagree; 2.2% disagree; 28.3% neither agree nor disagree; 19.6% agree; and 37% strongly agree (see Fig. 25.3). The teachers’ perception about virtual education considers that the level of reception by students is mainly positive; high reception is 33.7%; medium reception (50%); and low (14.3%). The teachers’ perception coincides with that of the students, and they positively welcome this study methodology. Some of the responses received from the students are: “I think that in spite of being a new adaptation process. The circumstances we are going through in Ecuador and the world are not the best, both in health, human, and economic terms. However, psychologically and academically speaking, we can find a balance and a sustainable Table 25.1 Problems Internet
Internet connection problems, audio, and video failures
Homework
Large amount of homework and very little time for development
Resources
Lack of material resources, such as computers, Internet, and in some families, the equipment must be shared with more member
Homework related to topics that have not been explained
Dedication time Stay several hours in front of a computer screen causes fatigue in teachers and students
40%
37%
35% 28.30%
30% 25%
19.60%
20% 15%
13%
10% 5%
2.20%
0% Strongly disagree
Disagree
Neither agree nor disagree
Fig. 25.3 Student´s acceptance to virtual education
Agree
Strongly agree
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way out to the education system.” “It is necessary to continue educating ourselves and even more so in this health emergency.” “I find it a bit difficult to keep the connection in this way, and I prefer normal classes.” “I agree because if we did not have these classes, we would lose the year, and I would not want that.” “Classes are necessary for learning.” “It seems to be an incredible tool that we can use and take advantage of during quarantine.” When consulting about the contents taught during the virtual classes, 35.7% of the teachers’ state that they are moderately sufficient; 28.6% that they are sufficient; 21.4% that they are totally sufficient; and 14.3% that are not enough. For their part, the students state: “despite being a good learning method, we do not receive enough contents.”
25.4 Conclusions Information and communication technologies have become a new protagonist in the COVID-19 health crisis. The advantages of ICTs during the pandemic range from being information tools to communicate about COVID-19, keeping families connected, developing work activities through teleworking, and allowing thousands of students worldwide to continue preparing academically. Information and communication technologies have been of great importance in the education system, and mainly, in the circumstances, the whole world is going through. These have allowed the teaching–learning process in educational communities do not stop. These are favorable for the advancement and fulfillment of the curricular plans. In response to the hypotheses, (1) secondary education institutions, through their teachers, have difficulties in using technological platforms. It is negative, a large percentage of teachers, 71.4%, are formally trained in the use of educational platforms and tools, and this is corroborated by the perception of students, who, mostly with 41.3% (yes) and 47.8% (maybe), answers that their teachers are trained to handle digital educational tools versus a minimum of 10.9 who say no. However, these percentages of 28.6% of teachers who indicate that they are not formally trained in educational technological tools should not be ruled out; In the digital age, educational institutions must take on the challenge of including training programs that involve the use of ICT to respond to the needs of today’s society. Hypothesis: (2) students easily adapt to the use of technological tools. It is positive, and the higher percentage of students point out that the virtual modality of studies, and the technological tools allow them to continue their studies. However, they consider that it is not the same as the studies in the face-to-face modality of studies. Direct interaction with their teachers is necessary and peers, where learning is the most relevant. The excessive amount of homework is seen as a big problem in most of the students’ responses. Educational and teaching institutions must have good planning,
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an interactive didactic methodology, and playful strategies that favor the teaching– learning process. The Ecuadorian state must implement programs that involve the use of ICT; today, more than ever it must facilitate access to education. However, it has a long way to go, especially if the country’s economic difficulties are not resolved. It is expected to carry out new research and deepen the virtual education of public institutions.
References 1. Barrera, V., Guapi, A.: La importancia del uso de las plataformas virtuales en la educación superior. Revista Atlante: Cuadernos de Educación Desarrollo (2018) 2. Pérez, M., Saker, A.: Importancia del uso de las plataformas virtuales en la formación superior para favorecer el cambio de actitud hacia las TIC; Estudio de caso: Universidad del Magdalena, Colombia. Revista Iberoamericana Evaluación Educativa 6(1), 153–166 (2013) 3. Rodríguez, J.: Aproximaciones a la educación a distancia en el Perú. ULADECH Católica, Perú (2013) 4. UNESCO: Las TIC en la educación. Homepage https://es.unesco.org/themes/tic-educacion. Last accessed 06 Jan 2021 5. Ministerio de Educación: Plan Educativo COVID-19 para estudiantes de 3. de bachillerato. Homepage https://educacion.gob.ec/plan-educativo-covid-19-para-estudiantes-de-3-de-bachil lerato/. Last accessed 10 Jan 2021 6. Constante, S.: Ecuador: la educación online desde casa es imposible e injusta. Homepage, https://elpais.com/elpais/2020/06/12/planeta_futuro/1591955314_376413.html. Last accessed 07 Dec 2020 7. Changuín, A.: El reto de la educación virtual en Ecuador. Homepage, https://criteriosdig ital.com/debate/achanguin/el-reto-de-la-educacion-virtual-en-ecuador/. Last accessed 10 Dec 2020 8. INEC: Tecnologías de la Información y Comunicación-TIC. Homepage https://www.ecuadoren cifras.gob.ec/tecnologias-de-la-informacion-y-comunicacion-tic/. Last accessed 04 Jan 2021 9. El Universo: Un millón de estudiantes sin acceso a educación virtual durante la emergencia sanitaria. Homepage, https://bit.ly/2W7OKFm. Last accessed 03 Jan 2021 10. Ministerio de Eduación: Recomendaciones a los docentes para brindar apoyo pedagógico a los estudiantes en aislamiento, en función de prevenir posibles contagios por enfermedades respiratorias. Homepage, https://bit.ly/345rcoP. Last accessed 04 Jan 2021 11. UNESCO: Enseñar en tiempos de COVID-19, Una guía teórico-práctica para docentes. Homepage, https://bit.ly/2W5PWZJ. Last accessed 06 Jan 2021
Chapter 26
Total Quality Management and Social Responsibility an Approach Through Their Synergies in Higher Education Institutions T. Nogueiro , M. Saraiva , and F. Jorge Abstract Growing social concerns have led organisations to think evolutionarily about quality as it is not only relevant to satisfy customers, generate quality products or services and focus on results but also to encourage a participatory, flexible and sustainable value-oriented management. Due to the complex environment and structure of higher education, quality measurement and management have created a number of challenges. Around the world, higher education institutions have adopted various quality management practices, mostly drawn from existing models. Corporate social responsibility (CSR), like most management concepts, has been gradually incorporated into the management practice of organisations. The implementation of TQM systems can facilitate the incorporation of the CSR objectives and practices by operating changes in organisational culture. TQM and social responsibility are undeniably two dimensions increasingly associated with organisations of any kind, including higher education institutions. Quality indicators on sustainable development for education have been of growing interest, and for this reason, the possibility of creating a model that fits the reality of higher education integrating total quality and social responsibility should not be overlooked. Nevertheless, this work is focused on an approach to the relationship between TQM and social responsibility associated to organisations in general but also related to higher education institutions.
T. Nogueiro · M. Saraiva (B) · F. Jorge University of Évora, Largo Dos Colegiais 2, Évora, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] M. Saraiva BRU-UNIDE/ISCTE-IUL, Lisbon, Portugal F. Jorge CICP, Évora, Portugal © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 A. Mesquita et al. (eds.), Perspectives and Trends in Education and Technology, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 256, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5063-5_26
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26.1 An Approach to Total Quality Management and Social Responsibility 26.1.1 Total Quality Management Total quality management (TQM) is an integrated management effort aimed at improving quality at any level to achieve excellence. According to Lima et al. [20], TQM stimulates creativity at all levels of the organisation and enables better systematic monitoring and implementation of corrective actions in operational processes. TQM was considered a business management philosophy which recognised that the needs of customers and the objectives of the organisation were inseparable [32]. Merli [26] summarises TQM’s philosophy in four aspects: (a) complete customer satisfaction; (b) quality above all; (c) continuous improvement; and (d) maximum involvement of the company’s staff. According to Al-Bashir [1], TQM has a remarkable application in higher education institutions, where its adaptation will help them to keep their competitive position, to continue to satisfy all stakeholders and to focus on market needs and to attain better performance. Achieving high performance by comparing high quality and innovation of products and services to meet the needs of customers and other stakeholders has become a critical issue for universities, both academically and in practice [11]. Associated with human resources and knowledge management, Raharjo et al. [35] came across three challenges which HEIs are dealing with: 1. 2.
3.
The role that students and other end-users play in relation to knowledge creation, dissemination, acceptance and use; Aspects of these two indicators cross academic and business issues in relation to the roles of teachers and the outputs and institutional mechanisms that support them; Expectations of end-users, especially employers, who see higher education as a service industry related to the benefits of knowledge transfer by hiring graduates and receiving the benefits of faculty research.
There is, therefore, an implicit link between human resources and knowledge management, which is the presence of qualified teachers and students. In turn, knowledge management is linked to knowledge transfer. Universities, as well as businesses, need to be knowledge-based [12]. Higher education institutions, therefore, need to respond to the needs of knowledge society by increasing their capacity and willingness to engage in the production of knowledge that is useful and to develop their own specialised missions and profiles [36]. In higher education, the definition of client is important. This definition can be based on the principle of quality management with the same designation, although it may be complex. This complexity is due to what authors Meirovich and Romar [25] refer to as the difficulty in identifying clients and their expectations and to the diversity of clients and stakeholders.
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It is sometimes the lack of consensus on client definition in higher education institutions that creates problems in implementing TQM [2]. Students can be seen in different perspectives or roles [22], i.e. as internal clients, workers in the learning process or product in process [15, 38] or even as a product for a client who will be the employer [3]. Elements of TQM have relevance in higher education, as demonstrated by Bayraktar et al. [5] who concluded that these, such as leadership, vision, measurement and evaluation, employee involvement, recognition and reward, programme design, quality system improvement, process control and improvement, evaluation and training, student focus and other stakeholder focus, play a critical role in the improvement process and in improving customer satisfaction. Although the elements of TQM are important in higher education, the critical success factors (CSF) of TQM in higher education are also very important, and these can be different according to the context and level of development of the various countries [2]. Kanji et al. [18] identified continuous improvement, leadership, external client satisfaction, people management, teamwork, process improvement, internal client satisfaction, resource measurement and prevention as CSF for UK higher education institutions. Asif et al. [2] identified the following CSF for higher education institutions in Pakistan: vision, measurement and assessment, monitoring and process improvement, resource allocation and programme design, focus on other stakeholders and leadership. As it is possible to see, there are common CSF in both realities.
26.1.2 Social Responsibility The issue of social responsibility has been addressed since 1953 and has been present since companies began to emerge [8]. It can be said that Howard Bowen was the first author to start dealing with the subject, with the publication of the work Responsibility of the Businessman [9]. In 1958, in contrast to Bowen’s ideas, Levitt states that the role of companies is to generate profits and that the function of ensuring social welfare lies with the state. In the 1960s, Bowen’s proposed term ‘entrepreneur social responsibility’ was changed to ‘corporate social responsibility’ [10]. Social responsibility is the recognition that the activities of organisations have an impact on society and that this impact has to be considered in management decisionmaking [34]. The values underlying the concept of social responsibility, according to Ghobadian et al. [14], are to seek to understand and meet the needs of stakeholders (customers, owners, employees, suppliers and society in general), the integrity of individual and collective actions, honour, fairness, respect, participation and individual and collective responsibility towards others. The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) Advisory Strategy Group, according to Leonard and McAdam [19], describes CSR as a balanced approach by organisations to address economic, social and environmental issues in ways that benefit people, communities and society.
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It is common for people to believe that social responsibility refers to a series of actions to protect the environment or to provide considerable amounts of money to solve social cases [39]. However, ISO 26000:2010 states that social responsibility is an organisation’s responsibility for the impacts of its decisions and activities on society and the environment, through ethical and transparent behaviour that contributes to sustainable development (includes the health and well-being of society); takes into account the expectations of stakeholders; complies with applicable law and is consistent with international standards of behaviour; and is integrated throughout the organisation and put into practice in its relationships. Staiculescua [39] points out that the motto of many organisations operating in the new consent trends seems to be “Doing well, doing good”. In this regard, the author states that social responsibility is not a philanthropic option, but a new way of doing business. In order to remain in the market under the current economic conditions, companies must meet customer needs without compromising the future. However, to do so, they must take into account four factors: financial, social, environmental and quality. Corporate social responsibility, like most management concepts, has been gradually incorporated into the management practice of organisations. Thus, in order to effectively manage socially responsible business, the organisation needs to define strategies, programmes and action plans. According to Baki´c et al. [4], the specificities of social responsibility management are reflected in the fact that the CSR concept is strategic and multi-functional, thus requiring a commitment from management and workers for its implementation, which in turn requires the coordination of various organisational processes (legal, financial, sales, quality control, among others). It is possible that socially responsible activities already exist in the organisation and that there is a need to change, systematise and reposition them in a strategic context. Social responsibility is not an easy altruistic action aimed at helping those in need outside an organisation, but rather an uncomfortable process of reorganising internal routines to support its continuous improvement by eliminating ‘impacts’ [43]. Nadeem and Kakakhel [29] state in their study that universities are essentially social institutions and work to promote the social cause. It is, therefore, increasingly essential that universities consider CSR as a strategy for growth. University social responsibility cannot be seen as short-term projects but as a continuous process where new objectives and tasks are gradually incorporated, some with greater ease of implementation, others that require more time and effort, and others that will only be able to see results in longer periods, as they constitute processes of transformation that require continuity and whose results depend on their evolution [7]. The Bologna Declaration, dated 1999, creates the European Higher Education Area [13, 21], which emerged after the signing of the Magna Charta Universitatum in 1988, stating that the future of Europe would depend to a large extent on the cultural, scientific and technical development that higher education offered. According to the Recommendation of the European Parliament and of the Council of 18 December 2006 on key competences for lifelong learning (2006/962/EC), ‘education in its
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Fig. 26.1 Social responsibility reform model (own translation, Vallaeys [42, p. 5])
dual function—social and economic—has an essential role to play in ensuring that European citizens acquire the necessary key competences to enable them to adapt flexibly to these changes’, in which each citizen will have to have key competences extended to adapt flexibly to a rapidly changing and highly interconnected world. University social responsibility, from a holistic perspective, requires linking the various aspects of the institution in a project for the social promotion of ethical principles and equitable and sustainable social development, for the production and transmission of responsible knowledge and the professional training of responsible citizens [42]. The scheme that Vallaeys [42] suggests (Fig. 26.1) can help visualise the global and central character of university reform that is desired. Vallaeys [41, p. 11] defines university social responsibility as. ...an ethical quality management policy of the University that seeks to align its four processes (management, teaching, research, extension) with the university mission, its values and social commitment, through the achievement of institutional congruence, transparency and the dialogical participation of the entire university community (authorities, students, teachers, administrative staff) with the multiple social actors interested in good university performance and in need of it, for the effective transformation of society towards the solution of its problems of exclusion, inequity and sustainability. (own translation)
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26.2 Synergies Between Total Quality Management and Social Responsibility TQM and CSR have common ground in terms of their application in organisational management practices [14, 28]. Following what has been said about TQM and CSR, the history and profound development of the TQM concept reveal that there is a considerable overlap between the values that support the two concepts. There are elements of the TQM process that are common to or overlap with those of CSR and can therefore be implemented as part of TQM processes, which will require some adjustment and rethinking of the elements of TQM (Table 26.1). TQM and CSR are considered as potential sources for achieving sustainable competitive advantage [6]. Table 26.1 Overlapping elements in TQM and CSR processes Common elements of TQM and CSR TQM
CSR
Alignment
Promotion of TQM values and Integrity principles
There is an alignment between the diffusion of TQM values through the virtue of ethical theory where integrity has its basis
Open and participatory management style
Equity
Both are based on justice
Focused on considering the needs of customers, workers, society and owners
Benefit
There is a focus on meeting the needs of stakeholders
Delegation of authority and Voice (it is an element that responsibility to lower levels in appears superimposed on the chain of command several elements of TQM)
There is a need for effective participation, with a concern for the delegation of authority and responsibility to lower hierarchical levels
Harnessing the creative capacity of workers through their active participation
Workers should have a voice on their impact on harnessing the creative capacity of the organisation
Developing partnerships with key stakeholders
A voice for those who do business with the organisation
Empowering all workers to solve problems and make decisions
There is a focus on empowering or giving workers a voice
Openness in terms of sharing and wide communication of information
Transparency
Source Adapted from Ghobadian et al. [14]
Both elements deal with the issue of supply and full dissemination of information
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According to Van der Wiele et al. [44], the European Quality Award was the first model that explicitly showed that social responsibility is strongly linked to quality thinking. CSR has a strong link with the principles of quality management [23]. According to these authors, existing models and methodologies of quality incorporate core elements of CSR. The questions below reflect not only the strategic influence of CSR but also the inherent importance of CSR and its place in the everyday practice of quality. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
How to address the impacts of products, services and operations on society? How to anticipate current and future public concerns with products, services and operations, and how to proactively prepare? How are ethical business practices carried out in all stakeholder transactions and interactions? How are key communities actively supported and strengthened by the organisation, leaders and employees? How to determine areas of emphasis for organisational involvement and support and identify key communities?
As it has been observed, there is a great similarity between TQM and CSR. Vinten [45] states that TQM crosses the concept of legitimate ethics and the instrumental dimension of CSR. TQM is driven, according to Wicks and Freeman [46], by a set of interrelated concepts that simultaneously present management practices and moral values. In the framework of TQM and CSR, the synergies between the themes can be seen through the complementarity of their elements/critical success factors and not only through the overlapping of the elements common to both. To McDonald et al. [24], the critical success factors for TQM are leadership, policy and strategy, customer focus, information and analysis, human resource focus, process management and business results. TQM and CSR can improve the institution efficiency, a reduction of bureaucracy by eliminating duplication of policies and procedures and the alignment of goals and processes. TQM systems are valuable instruments to put the concept of corporate sustainability into practice [16]. The implementation of TQM systems can facilitate the incorporation of the CSR objectives and practices by operating changes in organisational culture. To Jalilvand et al. [16], TQM and CSR practices are in many ways complementary, and based on other researchers, these authors confirm that there are clear links between these two themes: • In both TQM and CSR, it is common to focus on a company’s responsibilities towards different stakeholders [17]. • Both topics are founded on ethics [40]. • An evaluation and understanding that a socially responsible organisation helps companies in the development of environmental management enables an effective implementation of TQM [27].
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• Both themes are philosophies and a set of practices for the responsible management of a company that may have positive effects on the performance (impacts on society, customers, employees and finances) [40]. According to Nasim et al. [30], the present research has contributed to the literature of TQM in higher education by linking higher education institutions (HEI) with society at large. Existing research suggests that quality improvement has to be achieved by integrating all available resources, both within and outside the higher education sector. TQM involves academic staff, students and management in HEI but also stakeholders in the wider society interested in HE [30, 37]. Research on TQM in higher education has become an interdisciplinary effort [30]. With the commitment of management, the support of administrative staff and teachers, continuous communication, review, verification and validation, constructive alignment of processes can be reached. It was recognised that quality indicators on sustainable development for education have started to receive growing interest in the education sector [47]. The design of a possible qualitative assessment model of quality and social responsibility will be an aspect to consider and will be supported by the integration of the EFMQ version 2020 model and Bakic’s corporate social responsibility management model (2015). The philosophy of the model will be anchored in ethical considerations of human behaviour and ethical behaviour itself. It will be rooted in the social systems school of thought, and ultimately expand the horizon of the organisation beyond economic performance itself. The model is intended to present three major dimensions at the level of organisations and which characterise their general management plan: direction, execution and results. The aim is that within each dimension, the criteria must be related in order to respond to the issues associated with the quality and social responsibility of each organisation.
26.3 Final Considerations Over time, organisations have resorted to management models that support their continuous improvement towards what they consider as excellence. This work has identified overlapping elements in terms of TQM and CSR, such as the integrity and promotion of TQM values and principles, equity and open and participatory management style, the benefit and focus on considering the needs of customers, workers, society and owners, having and giving voice and finally, transparency and openness in terms of sharing and wide communication of information. The survey of these overlaps has allowed us to see that there is some overlap between business and universities regarding social responsibility and not only between TQM and CSR. This finding, which we find to be particularly interesting, could be the basis for future research, such as the creation of an integrated model for social responsibility and quality management evaluation.
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However, some weaknesses or limitations emerge from this study, such as the fact that it is not an exhaustive research on the themes of TQM, CSR and USR, and, therefore, it falls short of providing a more in-depth insight on the synergies between the three aforementioned themes.
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21. Lourtie, P.: A declaração de Bolonha. Revista Lusófona de Humanidades e Tecnologias, (6/7/8) (2002) 22. Manatos, M.J., Sarrico, C.S., Rosa, M.J.: The integration of quality management in higher education institutions: a systematic literature review. Total Qual. Manag. Bus. Excell. 28(1–2), 159–175 (2017) 23. McAdam, R., Leonard, D.: Corporate social responsibility in a total quality management context: opportunities for sustainable growth. Corp. Gov. Int. J. Bus. Soc. (2003) 24. McDonald, I., Zairi, M., Idris, M.A.: Sustaining and transferring excellence: a framework of best practice of TQM transformation based on winners of Baldrige and European quality awards. Meas. Bus. Excell. 6(3), 20–30 (2002) 25. Meirovich, G., Romar, E.J.: The difficulty in implementing TQM in higher education instruction. Qual. Assur. Educ. 14(4), 324–337 (2006) 26. Merli, G.: Eurochallenge: The TQM Approach to Capturing Global Markets. IFS Limited (1993) 27. Molina-Azorin, J.F., Tari, J.J., Claver-Cortes, E., Lopez-Gamero, M.D.: Quality management, environmental management and firm performance: a review of empirical studies and issues of integration. Int. J. Manag. Rev. 11(2), 197–222 (2009) 28. Moratis, L.: The credibility of corporate CSR claims: A taxonomy based on ISO 26000 and a research agenda. Total Qual. Manag. Bus. Excell. 28(1–2), 147–158 (2017) 29. Nadeem, A., Kakakhel, S.J.: An investigation into corporate social responsibility (CSR) of public sector universities in KPK. Abasyn Univ. J. Soc. Sci. 5(2), 14–27 (2012) 30. Nasim, K., Sikander, A., Tian, X.: Twenty years of research on total quality management in higher education: a systematic literature review. High. Educ. Q. 74(1), 75–97 (2020) 31. Parlamento Europeu e Conselho. Recomendação 2006/962/CE sobre as competências essenciais para a aprendizagem ao longo da vida. Jornal Oficial da União Europeia, L 394 de 18 de dezembro. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/PT/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:32006H0962& from=PT. Last access 28 Apr 2020 32. Pike, J., Barnes, R.: Total quality management in action. In: A Practical Approach to Continuous Performance Improvement, 2nd edn. Chapman & Hall, London (1996) 33. Practical overview of the linkages between ISO 26000:2010, Guidance on social responsibility and OECD Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises. http://iso26000.info/wpcontent/uploads/ 2017/02/ISO26000_and_OECD_Guidelines_MNE_PPO_v1.pdf (2017). Last access 28 Apr 2020 34. Pride, W.M., Hughes, R.J., Kapoor, R.J.: Business, 9th edn. Library Edition, USA (2008) 35. Raharjo, H., Xie, M., Brombacher, A.C.: A systematic methodology to deal with the dynamics of customer needs in quality function deployment. Expert Syst. Appl. 38(4), 3653–3662 (2011) 36. Roper, C.D., Hirth, M.A.: A history of change in the third mission of higher education: the evolution of one-way service to interactive engagement. J. Higher Educ. Outreach Engagem. 3–21 (2010) 37. Ruben, B.D., Lawrence, F.L.: Quality in Higher Education. Routledge, New York, NY (2018) 38. Sirvanci, M.: Are students the true customers of higher education? Qual. Prog. 29(10), 99 (1996) 39. Staiculescua, O.: Quality and social responsibility: a pathway to the future. Procedia Soc. Behav. Sci. 109, 241–245 (2014) 40. Tari, J.J.: Research into quality management and social responsibility. J. Bus. Ethics 102(4), 623–638 (2011) 41. Vallaeys, F.: Responsabilidad social universitaria. Propuesta para una definición madura y eficiente. Recuperado el, 12(06), 2014 (2007) 42. Vallaeys, F. (2008). Qué es la responsabilidad social universitaria. Nuevo León, México. www. cedus.cl (2008). Last access 28 Apr 2020 43. Vallaeys, F.: Defining social responsibility: a matter of philosophical urgency for universities. Global University Network for Innovation. http://www.guninetwork.org (2016). Last access 28 Apr 2020
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44. Van der Wiele, T., Kok, P., McKenna, R., Brown, A.: A corporate social responsibility audit within a quality management framework. J. Bus. Ethics 31(4), 285–297 (2001) 45. Vinten, G.: Putting ethics into quality. TQM Mag. 10(2), 89–94 (1998) 46. Wicks, A.C., Freeman, R.E.: Organization studies and the new pragmatism: positivism, antipositivism, and the search for ethics. Organ. Sci. 9(2), 123–140 (1998) 47. Yeung, S.M.C.: Linking ISO 9000 (QMS), ISO 26000 (CSR) with accreditation requirements for quality indicators in higher education. Total Qual. Manag. Bus. Excell. 29(13–14), 1594– 1611 (2018)
Chapter 27
Application of Gamification in Higher Education in the Teaching of English as a Foreign Language Kevin Mario Laura De La Cruz , Osbaldo Washington Turpo Gebera , and Stefany Juliana Noa Copaja Abstract In higher education, the teaching of English has the objective of expanding the field of work and knowledge and improving the personal profile through the certification of international language exams. Therefore, this research aimed to determine the level of student perception regarding gamification tools in the technical English course of the Human Medicine career at a Peruvian University. For this purpose, a descriptive investigation was carried out with a duration of one academic semester. The research method was hypothetical-inductive. To obtain data, the survey technique and structured interview were used. The results demonstrated a positive level of satisfaction on the part of the students in the three gamified tools put to research. Based on the results obtained, it is assumed that the gamification tools in the teaching of English have better reception and predisposition due to their great acceptance and skills that make learning more meaningful. In addition, gamification seems to generate educative dedication, commitment, responsibility, and self-learning in students which causes a great expectation of the use of the three tools put to research as well as similar ones in the future of EFL.
27.1 Introduction As Laura [1] points out, one of the challenges of education is to ensure that students achieve good levels of learning through gamification tools in non-face-to-face classes, in an innovative way. K. M. L. De La Cruz (B) · S. J. N. Copaja Jorge Basadre Grohmann University, Tacna Miraflores Avenue S/N, Tacna, Peru e-mail: [email protected] S. J. N. Copaja e-mail: [email protected] O. W. T. Gebera San Agustin University, Arequipa San Agustin Street 107, Iloilo, Peru e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 A. Mesquita et al. (eds.), Perspectives and Trends in Education and Technology, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 256, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5063-5_27
323
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In Higher Education, the relationship between learning English as a second language focuses on the future certification of the level through international exams, for scholarships, and knowledge of the language to understand topics of academic interest according to the professional career. Gamification refers to the game as “a system in which players engage in an abstract challenge, defined by rules, interactivity, and feedback that results in a quantifiable outcome that often elicits an emotional reaction” [2]. Likewise, it is related to Education, by involving students in learning through digital games, which help to achieve certain objectives and provide feedback on their learning. Quizizz is an innovative tool, available at https://quizizz.com/, which allows teachers to evaluate students in a gamified way through lessons and questions accompanied by music, memes, and powers and providing immediate asynchronous feedback due to class reports that can be seen by students and teachers. Cheenath and Gupta [3], creators of Quizizz, argue that Quizizz was created under a formative assessment approach, giving priority to how the student learns and the systematization of progress individually and in groups. On the other hand, Pear Deck is a tool which provides interactive slides, so students can participate in class and learn while typing, drawing, and using other characteristics of the tool. It is available at https://www.peardeck.com/ and has the advantage that can be used in connection to Google slides. Odhabi and Javed [4], in their research on Pear Deck, affirm that the usefulness of the tool is based on active learning and comfort of participation in online classes, in addition to allowing the development of technological skills, playfully strengthening social and communicative skills and helps to effectively achieve learning. Other innovative way to teach in classes is through the Nearpod tool, which is available at https://www.nearpod.com/, and which provides presentations with virtual reality, 360 and 3D images, and interaction complements as games and quizzes that improve the systematization of the progress of the participants automatically in the design of activities. Hakami [5] in his research on Nearpod mentions that by incorporating participative technology, it is feasible to create a meaningful learning session and an interactive environment. The elements of gamification allow students to participate actively and generate greater interest, concentration, and reflection on learning. Wong and Yang [6] argue that the use of ICT generates instantaneous and asynchronous feedback, improving participation, the capacity for collaborative construction of knowledge, and the autonomy of students as active learners. The students of the IV cycle present difficulties when recognizing the technical vocabulary related to their professional careers. A diagnostic test was performed in the B2 international exam format according to CEFR, and most of the students were at level B1 (intermediate); this being the main problem for which they cannot successfully identify, infer, and reflect on the content presented, finding it difficult to orally express sentences related to the vocabulary developed. If the problem continues, students will not be able to acquire the necessary skills to recognize the
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proposed thematic content, causing disinterest in learning, demotivation, and difficulty in using the English language appropriately. That is why the use of technological tools is proposed for the design of activities in the English language. The purpose of the research was to determine the level of perception of the students regarding three gamification tools: Quizizz, Pear Deck, and Nearpod in the technical English course in students of the IV cycle of the Human Medicine career at the University of Tacna.
27.2 Method 27.2.1 Participants The study population was represented by 57 students ranging from 18 to 25 years of the IV cycle of the technical English course of the Human Medicine career at the University of Tacna.
27.2.2 Design The research was non-experimental because the object of study was not manipulated during the research. Besides, it was made under a quantitative approach because the data collection was used numerically with the help of statistics to test the research hypothesis [7]. In addition, the research was carried out under a descriptive research design because the main objective is to specify the characteristics of the group in the analysis.
27.2.3 Techniques for Data Analysis Techniques. Questionnaire technique was used to measure the level of perception about technological gamification tools for teaching English. Besides, a written test was taken to know their level of technical English before and after the experience. Instruments. A survey was applied through the Likert scale design considering five dimensions as usability, methodology, didactic resources, content organization, and motivation related to the tools put in investigation. Measurement scale. To obtain data about the perception of students related to the three tools Quizizz, Pear Deck, and Nearpod, a questionnaire was taken through the Likert scale. The categories that were considered are the following: strongly agree, agree, neutral, disagree, and strongly disagree.
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To obtain data to contrast the advance of learning vocabulary after the application of the tools, a written test was taken through Baremos scale, which defines a student in a starting level if he has 0–10 points; in process, from 11 to 13 points; in expected achievement, from 14 to 17 points; and in an outstanding achievement if he gets 18–20 points. Procedure. To carry out this research, permission was requested from the university authorities. Subsequently, the school director was contacted to present the objectives of the study and to describe the evaluation instruments. A meeting was called with the students of the sample, and their consent was requested for their participation. The investigation was applied in an entire academic semester. An entrance test was taken to know their previous knowledge of technical English, and then the gamification tools were applied to adapt the content to the syllable. During the process, questionnaires were applied to know the perception of the technological tools. Finally, an exit test was taken to show the impact at the end of the experience. Data analysis. The data was collected personally. After the surveys, entry, and exit tests, the results were observed using bar graphs and double-entry tables processed by the SPSS 21 program.
27.3 Results Table 27.1 shows a satisfying level as an average result. The item with the highest positive percentage was number 1: “I find Quizizz interesting, motivating and fun.” While the item that obtained the lowest percentage with a neutral level was item 9: “Quizizz does not give any opportunity to cheat.” Table 27.2 shows that the Pear Deck tool obtained a satisfactory level as an average result. The item with the highest positive score (media = 4.28) was number 16: “Are you satisfied when accessing the contents in the Pear Deck tool?” While the item with the lowest score (media = 3.41) was item 1: “Are you satisfied learning how to use the Pear Deck tool?” Table 27.3 shows that the application of Nearpod in the classroom obtained a satisfactory level as an average result. The item with the highest positive score (media = 4.46) was number 9: “Are you satisfied with the available content to work on forums through the Nearpod tool?” While the item with the lowest score (media = 4.14) was item 20: “Are you satisfied with the access to files, documents, and feedback on the contents provided by the Nearpod tool?” Figure 27.1 shows the change that occurs in the learning of vocabulary in students after the application of the previously mentioned gamification tools. In the entrance test, most students were at a starting level with 45.61%, and 36.84% of the classroom is still in process; while in the expected achievement, there were 14.04% of students and in the outstanding achievement level of only 3.51%. On the other hand, after the application of the Quizizz, Pear Deck, and Nearpod tools, it is stated that half of the students 50.88% achieved the outstanding level and
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
0
0
0
0
0
1
Item 1
Item 2
Item 3
Item 4
Item 5
Item 6
Item 7
Item 8
Item 9
Item 10
Item 11
Item 12
Item 13
Item 14
Item 15
Total
SD
Item
1
3
0
2
0
3
10
0
1
0
1
1
0
1
0
D
11
5
10
11
5
6
15
18
16
10
13
3
7
6
6
N
21
24
23
25
32
27
14
26
23
20
21
26
26
31
22
A
23
25
24
19
20
21
16
13
17
27
22
27
24
19
29
SA
4.15
4.12
4.25
4.25
4.07
4.26
4.16
3.56
3.91
3.98
4.39
4.12
4.39
4.30
4.19
4.40
Media
0.550
0.908
0.830
0.739
0.821
0.613
0.819
1.180
0.739
0.813
0.755
0.825
0.675
0.680
0.693
0.678
S.D
[4.01–4.30]
[3.88–4.36]
[4.03–4.47]
[4.05–4.44]
[3.85–4.29]
[4.10–4.43]
[3.94–4.38]
[3.25–3.87]
[3.72–4.11]
[3.77–4.20]
[4.10–4.50]
[3.90–4.34]
[4.21–4.57]
[4.12–4.48]
[4.01–4.38]
[4.22–4.58]
CI 95%
Satisfied
Satisfied
Satisfied
Satisfied
Satisfied
Satisfied
Satisfied
Neutral
Neutral with tendency to be totally satisfied
Neutral with tendency to be totally satisfied
Satisfied
Satisfied
Satisfied
Satisfied
Satisfied
Satisfied with the tendency to be totally satisfied
Level of satisfaction
Table 27.1 Descriptive analysis of the frequency of the items of the variable perception about the effectiveness of Quizizz
27 Application of Gamification in Higher Education in the Teaching … 327
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Table 27.2 Descriptive analysis of the frequency of the items of the variable satisfaction with the use of the pear deck tool Items
SD
D
N
A
SA
Media
DS
IC 95%
Level of satisfaction
Item 1
0
1
10
26
20
3.41
0.766
[3.94–4.34]
Satisfied
Item 2
0
1
6
27
23
4.26
0.720
[4.07–4.45]
Satisfied
Item 3
0
1
8
29
19
4.16
0.727
[3.97–4.35]
Satisfied
Item 4
0
1
7
25
24
4.26
0.745
[4.07–4.46]
Satisfied
Item 5
0
1
7
25
24
4.26
0.745
[4.07–4.46]
Satisfied
Item 6
0
3
10
23
21
4.09
0.872
[3.86–4.32]
Satisfied
4.20
0.599
[4.04–4.35]
Satisfied
Usability Item 7
0
1
6
28
22
4.25
0.714
[4.06–4.44]
Satisfied
Item 8
0
1
5
31
20
4.23
0.682
[4.05–4.41]
Satisfied
Item 9
0
1
11
25
20
4.12
0.781
[3.92–4.33]
Satisfied
Item 10
0
0
15
21
21
4.11
0.795
[3.89–4.32]
Satisfied
Item 11
0
1
14
22
20
4.07
0.821
[3.85–4.29]
Satisfied
4.15
0.651
[3.98–4.33]
Satisfied
Methodology Item 12
0
2
10
19
26
4.21
0.861
[3.98–4.44]
Satisfied
Item 13
0
0
10
26
21
4.19
0.718
[4.00–4.38]
Satisfied
Item 14
0
0
9
27
21
4.21
0.700
[4.02–4.40]
Satisfied
4.20
0.689
[4.01–4.38]
Satisfied Satisfied
Didactic resources Item 15
0
2
7
28
20
4.16
0.774
[3.95–4.36]
Item 16
0
2
Item 17
0
1
7
21
27
4.28
0.818
[4.06–4.50]
Satisfied
11
21
24
4.19
0.811
[3.98–4.41]
Satisfied
Item 18
0
0
10
28
19
4.16
0.702
[3.97–4.34]
Satisfied (continued)
35.09% the expected level. Only 10.53% remained at the process level and 3.50% at the start level.
27.4 Discussion and Conclusions After describing and analyzing the different results obtained on the variables “Gamification tools” and “Student perception,” the discussions were carried out following the objectives set out in this research. In this research, it was determined that there is a positive level of student perception regarding the three technological tools tested in the research instrument. Through the research of Dorado and Chamosa [8], they conclude that gamification tools can be
27 Application of Gamification in Higher Education in the Teaching …
329
Table 27.2 (continued) Items
SD
D
N
A
SA
Content organization
Media
DS
IC 95%
Level of satisfaction
4.20
0.696
[4.01–4.38]
Satisfied
Item 19
0
2
10
23
22
4.14
0.833
[3.92–4.36]
Satisfied
Item 20
0
1
13
20
23
4.12
0.888
[3.89–4.36]
Satisfied
Item 21
0
2
11
21
23
4.14
0.854
[3.91–4.37]
Satisfied
Item 22
0
1
10
25
21
4.16
0.774
[3.95–4.36]
Satisfied
Item 23
0
0
14
24
19
4.09
0.763
[3.89–4.29]
Satisfied
Item 24
0
1
10
19
27
4.26
0.813
[4.05–4.48]
Satisfied
Motivation capacity
4.15
0.734
[3.96–4.35]
Satisfied
Satisfaction with the use of pear deck
4.18
0.646
[ 4.01 – 4.35]
Satisfied
beneficial for the training of doctors by showing positive results after their application. In addition, they mention that the conception of gamified tools as a timely option is due to the proximity and interest that they generate in digital natives. The foregoing is relevant given that the current research was carried out with students between the ages of 18 and 25, considering themselves within the group called “digital natives.” Likewise, through this research, it has been possible to show that the Quizizz tool generates satisfaction in learning due to various characteristics of the tool that generate motivation, interest, and fun in the respondents. Toledo and Díaz [9] mention in their research that Quizizz is a tool that has been shown to improve the willingness of university students to participate, motivating them, and generating interaction between classmates. The memes, music, and powers that can be incorporated in Quizizz seem to be characteristics that generate motivation for the achievement of evaluations through the platform. Other Quizizz statements that received a high approval rate in questionnaires are related to the energetic atmosphere provided in the classroom and the improvement in collaboration and competitiveness. Harefa et al. [10] mention in their research that respondents demonstrated 86.84% agreement that Quizizz allows creating fair competition among students. Added to this, Quizizz also improves the support of students in the activities commissioned in class [11]. In other words, Quizizz allows students to take an active role and to collaborate with the development of the class through their participation. Regarding the Pear Deck tool, the research yielded positive results in the perception of the respondents, demonstrating a high level of satisfaction in the statements about the diversity of resources, the use of forums, and the simplicity of the interface obtaining high scores. This preference can be compared with other investigations, such as the one carried out by Pringle [12], where when comparing Pear Deck with two other virtual tools, it was shown that the respondents showed a marked preference for Pear Deck because of the variety of types of questions and response
330
K. M. L. De La Cruz et al.
Table 27.3 Descriptive analysis of the frequency of the items of the variable satisfaction with the use of the Nearpod tool Items
SD
D
N
A
SA
Media
DS
IC 95%
Level of satisfaction
Item 1
0
1
6
21
29
4.37
0.747
[4.17–4.57]
Satisfied
Item 2
0
2
5
21
29
4.35
0.790
[4.14–4.56]
Satisfied
Item 3
0
1
8
20
28
4.32
0.783
[4.11–4.52]
Satisfied
Item 4
0
1
7
21
28
4.33
0.764
[4.13–4.54]
Satisfied
Item 5
0
1
7
20
29
4.35
0.767
[4.15–4.55]
Satisfied
Item 6
0
0
9
16
32
4.40
0.753
[4.20–4.60]
Satisfied
4.35
0.683
[4.17–4.53]
Satisfied
Usability Item 7
0
1
5
22
29
4.39
0.726
[4.19–4.58]
Satisfied
Item 8
0
0
10
17
30
4.35
0.767
[4.15–4.55]
Satisfied
Item 9
0
1
6
16
34
4.46
0.758
[4.26–4.66]
Satisfied
Item 10
0
1
13
14
29
4.25
0.872
[4.01–4.48]
Satisfied
Item 11
0
1
11
14
31
4.32
0.848
[4.09–4.54]
Satisfied
4.35
0.728
[4.16–4.54]
Satisfied
Methodology Item 12
0
1
12
16
28
4.25
0.851
[4.02–4.47]
Satisfied
Item 13
0
2
9
19
27
4.25
0.851
[4.02–4.47]
Satisfied
Item 14
0
1
8
20
28
4.32
0.783
[4.11–4.52]
Satisfied
4.27
0.783
[4.06–4.48]
Satisfied
Didactic resources Item 15
0
1
5
22
29
4.39
0.726
[4.19–4.58]
Satisfied
Item 16
0
2
7
17
31
4.35
0.834
[4.13–4.57]
Satisfied
Item 17
0
3
6
19
29
4.30
0.865
[4.07–4.53]
Satisfied
Item 18
0
2
7
19
29
4.32
0.827
[4.10–4.54]
Satisfied
4.34
0.776
[4.13–4.54]
Satisfied
Content organization Item 19
1
0
12
15
29
4.25
0.912
[4.00–4.49]
Satisfied
Item 20
0
2
13
17
25
4.14
0.895
[3.90–4.38]
Satisfied
Item 21
0
2
9
18
28
4.26
0.856
[4.04–4.49]
Satisfied
Item 22
0
2
9
18
28
4.26
0.856
[4.04–4.49]
Satisfied
Item 23
0
1
10
17
29
4.30
0.823
[4.08–4.52]
Satisfied
Item 24
0
1
9
16
31
4.35
0.813
[4.14–4.57]
Satisfied
Motivation capacity
4.26
0.786
[4.05–4.47]
Satisfied
Satisfaction with the use of Nearpod
4.31
0.729
[4.12–4.51]
Satisfied
27 Application of Gamification in Higher Education in the Teaching …
60.00%
45.61%
40.00% 20.00%
3.50%
331
50.88% 36.84% 10.53%
35.09% 14.04%
3.51%
0.00% At start
In process Pre test
Expected achievement Post test
Outstanding achievement
Fig. 27.1 Level of learning of medical vocabulary in English before and after the application of gamified tools
modes. Concerning the use of the forum through Pear Deck, it can be inferred that the tool helps all students to participate in class synchronously, feeling comfortable expressing their opinions and developing writing skills in the target language. Miyazoe and Anderson [13] reflect on their conclusions about the use of forums, which, when accompanied by reflective blogs and collaborative wikis, somehow seem to lighten the student’s cognitive load while facilitating language acquisition. Another factor that could trigger the great acceptance of Pear Deck by students is that this tool promotes the generation of emotions in students as well as greater motivation and concentration in class [14]. The research also showed positive results when determining the perception that students have regarding Nearpod, and outstanding scores were obtained in the characteristics of usability and didactic resources. Students perceive Nearpod as a simple tool in accessing resources, with a good organization added to the satisfaction when learning how to use this tool. McClean and Crowe [15] mention in their article that by using Nearpod, they were able to obtain improvements in the student experience and learning results since it contains a great variety of interactive activities and allows the use of drawing tools that are often useful for classes related to the science. The previous research verifies the result obtained in the dimension didactic resources; however, other aspects are also highlighted, such as collaborative boards, multiplechoice games, videos, and 3D images. Nearpod has generated changes in the responsibility of students toward the class, for example, according to Ryan [16], thanks to Nearpod, students feel forced to participate and interact with their classmates and teachers. Finally, the research was also accompanied by an entrance and exit test to know the advance in vocabulary when applying Quizizz, Pear Deck, and Nearpod tools. The entrance test showed that 45.61% of the students were at the starting level. But, after the application of the tools, the situation could be reversed, resulting in 50.88% of students at the outstanding achievement level and only 3.5% remaining at the starting level. Based on the evidence, it can be affirmed that the students not only improved their motivation and participation in classes, but that satisfaction with the tools seems to have also influenced the development and learning of vocabulary in English, allowing them to identify and infer on the contents shown and easily create sentences in English with the vocabulary learned. Alman and Guethler [17]
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mention that Pear Deck and Nearpod tools facilitate note-taking and collaborative reflection on scientific topics, and this exercise encourages students to use their linguistic repertoire. Yanza [18] in his thesis work also mentions that the use of online generators of educational material such as Quizizz improves the teaching–learning process in English, both inside and outside of class. The problem of low learning in the English language by students with a career as Human Medicine greatly limits them in updating their scientific knowledge. As Navarro mentions in his article: “One of the most outstanding characteristics of medical language in the last third of this twentieth century has been the absolute predominance of English as the only international language of medicine” [19]. Learning the English language, therefore, is a crucial skill for career specialization and for reaching a greater job market. Teachers are invited to use tools such as Quizizz, Pear Deck, and Nearpod and to continue investigating the usefulness of other tools or applications to satisfy the diversity of existing students, respecting their learning pace, and motivating them. As Cobo and Moravec [20] mention in their book “Invisible learning,” students can learn using everyday technology and acquire educational skills at any moment and place. That is why, a change in the perspective that the new generation observes technology must be carried out through study habits so that they do not perceive technology only as entertainment, but, as an opportunity for continuous learning. The use of gamification tools such as Nearpod, Peardeck, and Quizizz can make language learning in Higher Education an immersive activity, which provokes in students a sense of dedication and commitment to education. The use of these tools seems to be fundamental in the future due to their role in creating engagement, thus facilitating the sharing and development of new ideas, favoring in-class innovations that go beyond mere experiments. Among the findings of the study, the levels of satisfaction achieved by these tools stand out, as well as the involvement of teachers in the design of gamified activities in the learning of technical English. Satisfactory and successful results were obtained, being useful and necessary for its implementation when teaching this foreign language, and being indispensable the learning in a collaborative way and through the game generated by the gamification components such as badges, scores, leaderboards, and levels. Through gamification, students not only obtain recognition for skills and knowledge demonstrated in the English language, but it allows them to demonstrate the main skills such as speaking, listening, reading, and writing, with constant feedback and recognition of the English language with topics of their specialty. The application of gamification promotes student responsibility and self-learning; since each challenge must be met individually, each participant pursues their development by meeting the established goals, and this also allows them to develop other learning strategies that ultimately generate both personal and group benefit.
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Appendix 1: Sample of Satisfaction Questionnaire According Likert Scale CUESTIONARIO DE SATISFACCIÓN DEL USO DE LA HERRAMIENTA NEARPOD CON EL CURSO A CARGO Estimado estudiante, el siguiente cuestionario busca recoger información sobre grado de satisfacción sobre la herramienta Nearpod en nuestras clases. Solicitamos tu colaboración seria y responsable para dar respuesta a los ítems. Instrucción: Marca la respuesta según su criterio. TA: Totalmente de acuerdo. DA: De acuerdo. N: Neutral. ED: En desacuerdo. TD: Totalmente en desacuerdo. No
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Dimensión 1: Usabilidad 01
¿Usted se siente satisfecho al aprender el manejo de la herramienta Nearpod?
02
¿Usted está satisfecho con el uso de las interfaces de la herramienta Nearpod para navegar?
03
¿Usted está satisfecho por el tiempo utilizado en las diferentes actividades de sesión virtual con la herramienta Nearpod?
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¿Usted está satisfecho porque no es necesario tener una capacitación previa sobre el uso de la herramienta Nearpod?
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¿Usted está satisfecho con la modalidad de inscribirse a una lección de clase, a través de la herramienta Nearpod?
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¿Usted está satisfecho con los colores de la herramienta Nearpod para trabajar por un tiempo prolongado?
Dimensión 2: Metodología 07
¿Usted está satisfecho con la manera de acceder a los diferentes recursos de la herramienta Nearpod? (continued)
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(continued) No
Item
08
¿Usted está satisfecho con el uso de los foros en la herramienta Nearpod?
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¿Usted está satisfecho con contenido a trabajar en los foros de la herramienta Nearpod?
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¿Usted está satisfecho porque la herramienta Nearpod le permite reconocer el historial de las interacciones, inclusive después de haber culminado la sesión virtual?
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¿Usted está satisfecho con el modo de acceso a una evaluación virtual en la herramienta Nearpod?
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Dimensión 3: Recursos didácticos 12
¿Usted está satisfecho con que la herramienta Nearpod le permita compartir archivos de video y/o imágenes?
13
¿Usted está satisfecho al crear y gestionar los enlaces que afianzan su desarrollo académico con la herramienta Nearpod?
14
¿Usted está satisfecho porque esta herramienta tiene un espacio para ordenar y organizar sus ideas?
Dimensión 4: Organización de contenidos 15
¿Usted está satisfecho con la organización de la herramienta Nearpod?
16
¿Usted está satisfecho al acceder a los contenidos en la herramienta Nearpod?
17
¿A usted le satisface la organización y distribución espacial de los títulos, subtítulo y categorías en la herramienta Nearpod?
18
¿A usted le satisface la accesibilidad a los ejercicios que desea realizar en la herramienta Nearpod? (continued)
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(continued) No
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Dimensión 5: Capacidad de motivación 19
¿Está usted satisfecho con el uso de la herramienta Nearpod en el curso de Inglés Técnico?
20
¿Usted está satisfecho con el acceso a los archivos y documentos que brinda la herramienta Nearpod y retroalimentación de los contenidos?
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¿Usted está satisfecho con la interacción docenteestudiante, estudiante-estudiante que brinda la herramienta Nearpod?
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¿Está usted satisfecho con la adaptabilidad de la presentación de información en la herramienta Nearpod?
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¿Usted está satisfecho con la participación y contribución de sus ideas en los foros de la herramienta Nearpod?
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¿Está satisfecho al poder navegar en la herramienta Nearpod desde cualquier ubicación, inclusive de un teléfono móvil?
Appendix 2: Entrance Test to Measure the Acquisition of the Foreign Language Before the Application of Gamification Tools The purpose of this written test is to measure your knowledge about the medical English course. VOLUNTARY PARTICIPATION. After you finish reviewing this consent, you are the only person who decides if you want to participate in the study. Your participation is completely voluntary and anonymous. PROCEDURES. 1.
Select the answer that you consider correct. RISKS.
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There are no risks at all in this research. COSTS. You will not have to assume any economic cost for participation in this study, the cost of the surveys will be borne by the researcher. CONFIDENTIALITY. All data collected in the survey will be treated with the strictest confidentiality. Thank you in advance for your participation. WRITTEN TEST. DIMENSION 1: Obtains information from the written text of Medical English. 1.
What is the name of this hospital room? a. ICU b. Day room c. Pharmacy d. Delivery room
2.
3. 2.
3.
Keeping a hospital running requires a great deal of organization and administration. During your stay, you will see them taking care of everything from laundry and meals to patient transport and maintenance. Who are they? a. Nurses b. Support staff c. Doctors d. Allied health professionals. What is the correct meaning? Keeping a hospital running requires a great deal of organization and administration. During your stay, you will see them taking care of everything from laundry and meals to patient transport and maintenance. Who are they? a. Nurses b. Support staff c. Doctors d. Allied health professionals. What is the correct meaning? a. It produces images of internal organs. b. It helps to raise the body temperature during surgeries. c. It’s necessary for surgical procedures and recovery. d. Instrument that helps mobilize patients.
4.
5.
Which of the alternatives has the lower limb parts? a. Hips, buttocks, intestines, bladder, liver, kidney. b. Collar bone, chest, ribcage, stomach, waist, lungs, spine. c. Thigh, knee, shin, calf, ankle, foot, toes, toenails. d. Brain, hair, eyes, mouth, lips, tongue, teeth, cheeks, ears, jaw. About respiratory system, sort out the parts of the conduction system of the heart:
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a. (1) Right atrium, (2) atrioventricular node, (3) ascending aorta, (4) papillary muscle, (5) left ventricle.
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
b. (1) Ascending aorta, (2) right atrium, (3) atrioventricular node, (4) left ventricle, (5) papillary muscle. c. (1) Left ventricle, (2) right atrium, (3) papillary muscle, (4) atrioventricular node, (5) ascending aorta.
d. (1) Ascending aorta, (2) papillary muscle, (3) atrioventricular node, (4) left ventricle, (5) right atrium.
DIMENSION 2: Infers information from the written text of Medical English. Which system does the image represent?
a. Urinary System b. Cardiovascular System c. Respiratory System d. Digestive System
7.
8.
It is also called the respiratory tree or tracheobronchial tree, to describe the branching structure of airways supplying air to the lungs, and includes the trachea, bronchi and bronchioles. a. Upper respiratory passageways b. Larynx c. Lower respiratory passageways d. Nasopharynx. 3 steps for first aid bandage: a. b. c.
9.
(1) Fasten the bandage; (2) hold the injured area; (3) wrap the bandage covering the wound. (1) Wrap the bandage covering around; (2) fasten the bandage; (3) hold the injured area. (1) Hold the injured area; (2) wrap the bandage covering the wound; (3) fasten the bandage.
Our bodies have an array of defenses against ________ matter. Some of these _________ are nonspecific, that is, they protect against any _______. Such defences include the unbroken skin, blood-filtering lymphoid tissue, cilia and mucus that trap foreign material, bactericidal body _______, and reflexes such as coughing and _______. a. Foreign, defenses, intruder, secretions, sneezing.
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b. Intruder, defenses, foreign, sneezing, secretions. c. Secretions, intruder, defenses, secretions, sneezing. d. Foreign, secretions, sneezing, intruder, defenses. According to the characteristics, which diagnostic equipment are we talking about? • They’re the most recognizable of all medical diagnostic tools. • They’re used to listen the heart sounds, the lungs and even the blood flow. • They help to diagnose pneumonia, bronchitis, arrhythmia.
a. Sphygmomanometers b. Stethoscopes c. Electrocardiographs d. Thermometers.
Appendix 3: Exit Test to Measure the Acquisition of the Foreign Language After the Application of Gamification Tools. The purpose of this written test is to measure knowledge about the medical English course in relation to the module developed and gamified tools application. VOLUNTARY PARTICIPATION. After you finish reviewing this consent, you are the only person who decides if you want to participate in the study. Your participation is completely voluntary and anonymous. PROCEDURES. 1.
Select the Answer that You Consider Correct.
RISKS. There are no risks at all in this research. COSTS. You will not have to assume any economic cost for participation in this study, the cost of the surveys will be borne by the researcher. CONFIDENTIALITY. All data collected in the survey will be treated with the strictest confidentiality. Thank you in advance for your participation. WRITTEN TEST. DIMENSION 1: Obtains information from the written text of Medical English. 1.
What is the name of this hospital department?
a. Consulting room b. Delivery room c. ICU d. Housekeeping
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2.
3.
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They manage most of your ongoing care and treatment in hospital. They assess, plan and administer your daily treatment and manage your general health. Speak to them about your immediate needs. They can also direct you to the right people to speak to about specific medical issues. Who are they? a. Doctors b. Support staff c. Allied health professionals d. Nurses. What is the correct meaning? a. It helps to raise the body temperature during surgeries. b. Instrument that helps mobilize patients. c. It illuminates the surgeon’s field of vision. d. It helps to see microorganisms.
4.
5.
Which of the alternatives has the general body parts? e. Head, upper body, body, lower, planes of division. f. Lower Respiratory Passageway, Upper Respiratory Passageways. g. Head, upper body, upper Limbs (arms), lower Body, Lower Limbs (legs). h. Pulmonary ventilation, inhalation, exhalation, alveolar duct, capillaries. About respiratory system, sort out the parts of the larynx: a. (1) Epiglottis, (2) thyroid cartilage, (3) hyoid bone, (4) cricoid cartilage, (5) trachea. b. (1) Thyroid cartilage, (2) hyoid bone, (3) epiglottis, (4) cricoid cartilage, (5) trachea. c. (1) Epiglottis, (2) hyoid bone, (3) thyroid cartilage, (4) cricoid cartilage, (5) trachea. d. (1) Epiglottis, (2) hyoid bone, (3) trachea, (4) cricoid cartilage, (5) thyroid cartilage.
DIMENSION 2: Infers information from the written text of Medical English. 6.
Which system does the image represent?
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a.Cardiovascular System b.Urinary System c.Respiratory System d.Digestive System
7.
8.
9.
Saturates food, so it can glide easily through the esophagus toward the stomach. It also comprises an enzyme that starts the breakdown of starches in the food. a. Salivary glands. b. Pancreas c. Liver d. Small intestine. 3 steps for emergency situations: a. (1) Call for medical help, if needed; (2) check the scene for danger; (3) provide care. b. (1) Provide care; (2) call for medical help, if needed; (3) check the scene for danger. c. (1) Check the scene for danger; (2) call for medical help, if needed; (3) provide care. ________circulates through the vessels, bringing oxygen and nourishment to all cells and carrying away ________. The total adult blood volume is about _______ (5.2 quarts). Whole blood can be divided into two main components: the liquid portion, or _______ (55%), and formed elements, or _______ (45%). a. b. c. d.
10.
5 L, blood, waste products, plasma, blood cells. Blood, waste products, 5 L, plasma, blood cells. Waste products, 5 L, blood, plasma, blood cells. Water, waste products, 5 L, plasma, liquid.
According to the Characteristics, Which Organ Are We Talking About? • Is a readily visible reflection of one’s health. • Its color, texture, and resilience reveal much, as does the condition of the hair and nails. • Its associated structures make up the integumentary system. • This body-covering system protects against infection, dehydration, ultraviolet radiation, and injury.
a. Stomach b. Skin c. Heart d. Face.
References 1. Laura, K.: Gamification for understanding English texts for students in a public school in Peru. Int. J. Dev. Res. [Internet] 10(10), 41787–41791. 2020. (Cited 8 November 2020). Available from: https://doi.org/10.37118/ijdr.20319.10.2020
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2. Kapp, K.: The Gamification of Learning and Instruction: Game-based Methods and Strategies for Training and Education, 1st edn. Pfeiffer, San Francisco (2012) 3. The University of British Columbia [Internet]. Ventures in Learning Technologies, Vancouver, Canada. (Cited 10 November 2020). Available from: https://virtual.educ.ubc.ca/wp/etec522/ 2020/02/02/quizizz-co-founders-deepak-joy-cheenath-and-ankit-gupta 4. Odhabi, H., Javed, Y.: Active Learning in Classrooms Using online Tools: Evaluating Pear-Deck for Students’ Engagement, pp. 126–131. IEEE (2018). (Cited 8 November 2020). Available from: https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/abstract/document/8649515/ 5. Hakami, M.: Using Nearpod as a tool to promote active learning in higher education in a BYOD learning environment. J. Educ. Learn. 9(1): pp. 119–126 (2020). (Cited 10 November 2020). Available from: https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1241026.pdf 6. Wong, G., Yang, M.: Using ICT to Facilitate Instant and Asynchronous Feedback for Students’ Learning Engagement and Improvements, pp. 289–309. Springer Singapore (2017). (Cited 10 November 2020). Available from: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-3344-5_18 7. Hernández, R., Fernández, C., Baptista, L.: Metodología de la investigación. 6th edn. McGraw Hill Interamericana, Mexico (2014) 8. Dorado, C., Chamosa, M.: Gamificación como estrategia pedagógica para los estudiantes de Medicina nativos digitales. Investigación Educación Médica 8(32), 61–68 (2018). Cited 16 February 2021. Available from: https://doi.org/10.22201/facmed.20075057e.2019.32.18147 9. Toledo M, Díaz C. Quizizz And Smartphones: Warm-Up Strategy For Improving University Students’ Class Participation. Scielo [Internet]. 2020. [cited 16 February 2021]; (13): pp. 19–37. Available from: http://chakinan.unach.edu.ec/index.php/chakinan/article/view/444 10. Harefa, N., Sinaga, M., Silaban, S.: Students perception and interest on chemistry: learning evaluation integrated Quizziz media. J. Pendidikan Kimia 12(3), 143–150 (2020). (Cited 18 February 2021). Available from: https://doi.org/10.24114/jpkim.v12i3.21163 11. Fakhruddin, A., Nurhidayat, E.: Students’ perception on Quizziz as game-based learning in learning grammar in written discourse. Wiralodra English J. 4(2), 28–38 (2020). (Cited 23 February 2021). Available from: https://doi.org/10.31943/wej.v4i2.101 12. Pringle, B.: Using Student Response Systems to Increase Student Participation and Engagement in High School Mathematics Classes, p. 37. Master’s Thesis, University of Wisconsin, Madison (2016) 13. Miyazoe, T., Anderson, T.: Discuss, reflect, and collaborate: a qualitative analysis of forum, blog, and wiki use in an EFL blended learning course. Procedia Soc. Behav. Sci. [Internet] 34(1), 146–152 (2012). (Cited 23 February 2021). Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j. sbspro.2012.02.030 14. Gómez, L., Chávez, J., Flores, M.: Emociones y Aprendizaje: Las emociones del estudiante como apoyo en la construcción del proceso de aprendizaje, 1st edn. Universidad de Guadalajara, Guadalajara (2019) 15. McClean, S., Crowe, W.: Making room for interactivity: using the cloud-based audience response system nearpod to enhance engagement in lectures. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. [Internet] 364(6), 1–17 (2017). (Cited 03 March 2021). Available from: https://doi.org/10.1093/femsle/ fnx052 16. Ryan, B.: Near peers: harnessing the power of the populous to enhance the learning environment. IJTEL [Internet], 2(1), 1–11 (2017). (Cited 03 March 2021). Available from https://doi. org/10.22554/ijtel.v2i1.16 17. Alman, K., Guethler, A.: Translanguaging using technology: supporting translanguaging practices in the middle school science classroom. Science Scope, 44(4), (2021). Available from: https://www.nsta.org/science-scope/science-scope-marchapril-2021/translanguag ing-using-technology. Cited 20 March 2021 18. Yanza, K.: Generadores en línea de material educativo para el desarrollo del vocabulario del idioma inglés. Bachelor’s Thesis, Quito, UCE (2019), 202 p 19. Navarro, F.: La precisión del lenguaje en la redacción médica. Fundación Dr. Antoni Esteve [Internet]; 17, pp. 89–104 [cited 20 March 2021]. Available from: http://hdl.handle.net/10234/ 188069 (2009) 20. Cobo, C., Moravec, J.: Invisible Learning: Towards a New Ecology of Education, 1st edn. Barcelona University, Barcelona (2011)
Chapter 28
Convexity in the Design of Bounded Surfaces and Unconventional Solids Using GeoGebra AR Alejandro Isaías Flores-Osorio , Nielce Meneguelo Lobo-da-Costa , Dennis Alberto Espejo-Peña , and Lenin Rolando Cabracancha-Montesinos Abstract The present investigation focuses on the mathematical concept of convexity, as the main tool for the graphic construction of bounded surfaces explicitly and implicitly described, as well as the construction of unconventional solids using GeoGebra. Two cases are presented in which the importance of the concept of convexity is highlighted, in the first situation the convexity is used in the argument of the surface command together with the curves that delimit it to graph a bounded surface, while in the second situation the convexity is evidenced by expressing the coordinates of the surface in parametric form. On the other hand, the 3D graphic view combined with the GeoGebra AR tool allows one to visualize, manipulate, understand and improve the abstraction of mathematical objects that are built in three-dimensional space in a dynamic and friendly environment. These constructions in three-dimensional space that are complex when sketching them with pencil and paper are easier when linking the mathematical definitions with free software such as GeoGebra.
28.1 Introduction In the course of calculus of several variables, it is important to be able to graph surfaces and solids that are presented in the development of the course, this difficulty A. I. Flores-Osorio (B) · D. A. Espejo-Peña Universidad Peruana de Ciencias Aplicadas, Chorrillos, Lima 15067, Perú e-mail: [email protected] D. A. Espejo-Peña e-mail: [email protected] N. M. Lobo-da-Costa Universidade Anhanguera de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brasil L. R. Cabracancha-Montesinos Universidad Tecnológica del Perú, Ate, Lima 15487, Perú e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 A. Mesquita et al. (eds.), Perspectives and Trends in Education and Technology, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 256, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5063-5_28
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increases in the student when he cannot graph in an ideal way with pencil and paper, the surfaces and solids not bounded or failing that, render under an adequate perspective that allows the solid to be projected onto a specific coordinate plane and then carry out an ordered description and, according to this, calculate the volume, mass or center of mass through a multiple integral. This difficulty is increased if the surfaces are defined implicitly. According to this problem, it is important to use an easily accessible digital application, where teaching materials can be designed that allow interaction with these mathematical objects and that facilitate students understanding previously abstract concepts or materials that require spatial ability [5]. It is in these circumstances, a useful tool to the teaching is GeoGebra software. It is a free software that integrates the possibilities of dynamic geometry and computational algebra [7], where it is possible to create different interactive applications that will be used as teaching tools to illustrate mathematics classes [2]. GeoGebra allows us to design mathematical applications in a dynamic and interactive way and, in the GeoGebra AR version it is possible to construct 3D solids drawings accompanied by the respective parameterized equations with the augmented reality option. In this work, interactive application designs are presented that will allow the construction of graphs of explicitly or implicitly defined surfaces and nonconventional solids based on the definition of convex analysis, curves, and parametric surfaces, where these mathematical objects are going to be visualized and manipulated in a digital environment and extended to our reality using specific GeoGebra AR commands.
28.2 Basic Definitions 28.2.1 Parametric Curves According to Payá [6], a set = {γ (t)/a ≤ t ≤ b} in R3 is a parametric curve, or simply a curve in R3 and that the path γ travels or parameterizes . The points γ (a) and γ (b) are, respectively, the origin and the end of the path γ . When γ (a) = γ (b) it is said that γ is a closed path. If γ : [a, b] → R3 is a path in space, then it can be written as follows: γ (t) = (x(t), y(t), z(t)) = x(t)i + y(t)j + z(t)k, a ≤ t ≤ b
(28.1)
where x, y, z are continuous functions of [a, b] in R. We then say that the curve C established by the path γ has parametric equations of the form ⎧ ⎨ x = x(t) C : y = y(t) ⎩ z = z(t)
(28.2)
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28.2.2 Parametric Surface According to Larson [4] let the functions x, y and z of variables u and v be continuous in a domain D of the uv plane. To the set of points (x, y, z) given by: r(u, v) = x(u, v)i + y(u, v)j + z(u, v)k
(28.3)
It is called a parametric surface. Furthermore, the equations ⎧ ⎨ x = x(u, v) S : y = y(u, v) ⎩ z = z(u, v)
(28.4)
They are the parametric equations of the surface. If S is a parametric surface given by the vector function r, then S is drawn by the position vector r(u, v) as the point (u, v) moves through the domain D.
28.2.3 Convex Set According to Besada [1], a set A ⊂ Rn is convex if given any two points x, y ∈ A, t x + (1 − t)y ∈ A, for all t ∈ [0, 1]. With the indicated definitions, now surfaces will be built in GeoGebra and then in a certain way, it will be possible to visualize, manipulate and interact with mathematical objects using the augmented reality option.
28.3 Convexity in Surface Design In this section, we are going to graph two surfaces based on the definitions presented in Sect. 28.2 and in the design presented by Flores et al. [3], to later be visualized with GeoGebra, using the 3D graphical view and its GeoGebra AR complement, this tool will allow us to use the camera of the mobile device or of a tablet to carry out the projection of convex surfaces and unconventional solids to a real environment and in this way, the teacher, as well as the student, will be able to manipulate and interact with mathematical objects in real time. To establish the link between the definitions indicated above and the 3D graphical view of GeoGebra, the syntax of the Curve command and the Surface command established according to the GeoGebra wiki is presented. Curve(, , , , , ).
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The curve command returns the corresponding parametric curve determined by the expressions x (first ), y (second ) and z (third ) defined according to the parameter, within the interval defined by [Initial value, Final value]. Surface(, , , , , , , , ). The surface command returns the 3D parametric Cartesian surface corresponding to the expressions x (first ), y (second ) and z (third ) indicated, using the two in their corresponding intervals [, ].
28.3.1 Case 1 According to the established syntax, the cardioid curve will be plotted C1 : r = 0.2 + 0.2 cos(t) on the x y plane; For this purpose, C1 will first be parameterized using definition (28.1) ⎧ ⎨ x = (0.2 + 0.2 cos(t)) cos(t) C1 : y = (0.2 + 0.2 cos(t)) sin(t) , t ∈ [0, 2π ] ⎩ z=0
(28.5)
Taking curve C1 as a reference, we establish the parametric equation of curve C2 , which we are going to call warped cardioid curve ⎧ ⎨ x = (1 + cos(t)) cos(t) C2 : y = (1 + cos(t)) sin(t) , t ∈ [0, 2π ] ⎩ z = 2 + cos(t)
(28.6)
Using the GeoGebra Curve command with the parameterization established for both curves, we obtain the following syntax a(t) = Curve((0.2 + 0.2 cos(t)) cos(t), (0.2 + 0.2 cos(t))sen(t), 0, t, 0, 2π ) (28.7) b(t) = Curve((1 + cos(t)) cos(t), (1 + cos(t))sen(t), 2 + cos(t), t, 0, 2π ) (28.8) Figure 28.1 shows curves a(t) and b(t) from two different views. According to definition (28.3) and using the GeoGebra surface command, the graph of the surface is sketched that connects the curves C1 and C2 . S1 = Surface(ka(t) + (1 − k)b(t), t, 0, 2π, k, 0, 1)
(28.9)
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Fig. 28.1 Graphical view of the parametric curves C1 and C2 from a mobile device
It can be seen that the expression ka(t) + (1 − k)b(t), meets the definition of convexity, where a and b are vector functions in the variable t. In Fig. 28.2, the surface that connects the curves C1 and C2 is visualized. The surface S1 is also known as the ruled surface.
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Fig. 28.2 View in 3D and in augmented reality of the surface S 1 from a mobile device
28.3.2 Case 2 In this case, an unconventional solid is presented limited by the surfaces: S2 S3 S4 S 5
: z = 3 + 2 sin(x) cos(y) : y = 4 − x2 : y = 0.5x 2 − 2 :z=0
(28.10)
where it can be seen that the surfaces S3 and S4 are parabolic cylinders, which are incomplete quadric surfaces and whose parametric equation is exactly the same as that of its corresponding directive curve.
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Fig. 28.3 Directional curve C3 and C4 in the xy plane
Using GeoGebra syntax, define the directive curves of surfaces S3 and S4 as follows: c(u) = Curve u, 4 − u 2 , 0, 0, u, −2, 2
(28.11)
d(u) = Curve u, 0.5u 2 − 2, 0, u, −2, 2
(28.12)
Then we proceed to graph the curves in the 3D graphical view of GeoGebra. From Fig. 28.3, the region D bounded by the directional curves C3 and C4 in the x y plane is described. D = (x, y) ∈ R2 : −2 ≤ x ≤ 2, 0.5x 2 − 2 ≤ y ≤ 4 − x 2
(28.13)
As x ∈ [−2, 2] the variable x is expressed through a linear parameterization. x = (−2)(1 − u) + (2)u, 0 ≤ u ≤ 1
(28.14)
x = 4u − 2, 0 ≤ u ≤ 1
(28.15)
From Eq. (28.14) it is observed that said parametrization meets the definition of convexity and that it can be written according to Eq. (28.15). For the parameterization of the variable y, we replace (28.15) in the variation of y in Eq. (28.13), and then the definition of convexity is applied, obtaining the following:
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y = (1 − v) 0.5(4u − 2)2 − 2 + (v) 4 − (4u − 2)2 , 0 ≤ v ≤ 1
(28.16)
Finally, for the parameterization of the variable z, the obtained in (28.15) and (28.16) is replaced in the equation of S2 , resulting in: z = 3 + 2 sin(4u − 2) cos (1 − v) 0.5(4u − 2)2 − 2 + (v) 4 − (4u − 2)2 (28.17) Therefore, we can indicate that the equation of the explicit surface S2 described in parametric form is: x = 4u − 2 y = (1 − v)(0.5(4u − 2)2 − 2) + (v)(4 − (4u − 2)2 ) z = 3 + 2 sin(4u − 2) cos((1 − v)(0.5(4u − 2)2 − 2) + (v)(4 − (4u − 2)2 )) (28.18) where u and v take values in the interval [0, 1]. Using the surface command with the following syntax ⎞ 4u − 2, (1 − v) 0.5(4u − 2)2 − 2 + v 4 − (4u − 2)2 , 3 ⎟ ⎜ Surface⎝ +2 sin(4u − 2) cos (1 − v) 0.5(4u − 2)2 − 2 − v 4 − (4u − 2)2 ,⎠ ⎛
u, 0, 1, v, 0, 1 (28.19) We obtain the graph of the surface S2 bounded on the region D (Fig. 28.4). For the construction of the surface S3 : y = 4 − x 2 , Eq. (28.11) and the domain D have been considered, from where we have that: S3 :
x =u , −2 ≤ u ≤ 2 y = 4 − u2
(28.20)
Since S3 is bounded by S2 and S5 , then the parameterization of the variable z, according to the definition of convexity, we have z = v(3 + 2 sin(u) cos 4 − u 2 ) + (1 − v)0, 0 ≤ v ≤ 1
(28.21)
From where the surface S3 is defined as follows ⎧ ⎨x = u −2 ≤ u ≤ 2 S3 : y = 4 − u 2 , ⎩ 0≤v≤1 z = v(3 + 2 sin(u) cos 4 − u 2 ) Similarly, the surface S4
(28.22)
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Fig. 28.4 S2 surface in GeoGebra 3D from a mobile device
⎧ ⎨x = u −2 ≤ u ≤ 2 S4 : y = 0.5u 2 − 2 , ⎩ 0≤v≤1 z = v(3 + 2 sin(u) cos 0.5u 2 − 2 )
(28.23)
Finally using the GeoGebra syntax we have to S3 : Surface(u, 4 − u 2 , v 3 + 2 sin(u) cos 4 − u 2 ), u, −2, 2, v, 0, 1 S4 : Surface(u, 0.5u 2 − 2, v 3 + 2 sin(u) cos 0.5u 2 − 2 ), u, −2, 2, v, 0, 1 From Fig. 28.5 it can be seen that the surface S3 is the side wall of the blue solid and the surface S4 is the yellow one.
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Fig. 28.5 View in GeoGebra 3D and in GeoGebra AR of the unconventional solid from a mobile device
28.4 Conclusions Graphing an unconventional solid or surface on a plane, such as a sheet of paper or a blackboard, requires the student to use their abstraction and spatial perspective appropriately. These graphs, being developed on a flat surface, cannot be manipulated and therefore do not contribute significantly to the understanding of these mathematical objects. It is necessary to have a digital and free tool that allows improving the teaching and learning experience of these mathematical objects. Nowadays, virtual teaching has become a challenge for both teachers and students, especially in calculus courses with several variables, since blackboards have had to be replaced by graphic tablets or three-dimensional graphs such as GeoGebra 3D, which is complemented by the augmented reality tool GeoGebra AR, in order to improve the teaching-learning experience. This research considers a crucial point to design an ideal didactic material, where the teacher can establish the link between mathematical definitions and GeoGebra commands that will allow the visualization and manipulation of unconventional curves, surfaces and solids, based on convex analysis. For this purpose, two cases have been presented in the construction of unconventional surfaces, and solids that have as an essential basis the definition of convexity, without this principle it is not possible to sketch surfaces defined explicitly and implicitly in GeoGebra, our design will allow the Students develop their abstraction and spatial perspective when
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viewing and interacting with mathematical objects in a real environment as these applets are designed on a mobile device using GeoGebra AR. The presentation of these two applets in GeoGebra is the starting point to design and graph surfaces and solids with greater graphical complexity, as well as being a fundamental basis for later developing more effective teaching methods compared to the traditional approach. This research point out the relevance of the concept of convexity for surface modeling in GeoGebra, highlighting the mathematical part immersed in the design of a surface, not to mention that GeoGebra AR is an excellent tool to show surfaces in an easy, iterative, and dynamic way in space, allowing students to develop their spatial intelligence by hand with mathematical concepts. The presentation of mathematical objects with the augmented reality tool of GeoGebra allows a greater interaction of the student and their real environment.
References 1. Besada, M., García, F., Mirás, M., Vásquez, C.: Cálculo de varias variables. Cuestiones y ejercicios resueltos, 1st edn, pp. 154–156. Prentice Hall, Madrid (2006) 2. Caligaris, M., Schivo, M., Romiti, M.: Calculus and GeoGebra, an interesting partnership. Procedia Soc. Behav. Sci. 174, 1183–1188 (2015) 3. Flores, A., Lobo, N., Espejo, D., Cabracancha, L.: Surface modeling in spherical coordinates through GeoGebra (2020). Homepage. https://doi.org/10.17921/2176-5634.2020v13n1p02-05 4. Larson, R., Edwards, B.: Cálculo 2 de varias variables, 9th edn, pp. 825, 1102. McGraw Hill, México, D.F. (2010) 5. Nasongkhla, J., Supadaec, C., Chiasiriphan, T.: Implementing multiple AR markers in learning science content witch Junior High School students in Thailand. Int. J. Emer. Tech. Learn., 14(7), 48–60 (2019). Homepage. https://online-journals.org/index.php/i-jet/article/view/9855/5603 6. Payá, R.: Lección 3: Curvas en el plano o en el espacio. Homepage https://www.ugr.es/~rpaya (2008). Last accessed 20 Oct 2020 7. Preiner, J.: Introducing dynamic mathematics software to mathematics teachers: the case of GeoGebra. Doctoral dissertation in Mathematics Education, University of Salzburg, Salzburg, Austria (2008). Homepage https://users.qsm.ac.il/Assistant/geogebra/articles/geogebra3.pdf
Chapter 29
forScrum, a Lesson to Learn for the 21st Century Carlos Luís , Sónia Mauricio , and Maria José Marcelino
Abstract The challenges faced by innovation in education/training strategies are a very current topic. With this case study, we propose to study the importance of hybrid pedagogical/didactic education/training activities. The project to implement ProjectBased Learning and an agile methodology in Adult Education and Training arises from this context. The results of this case study emphasize the importance of this type of dynamic and participatory methodologies that promote critical thinking and group work and contribute to the holistic understanding of the different variables involved in this hybrid methodology. The learning process was influenced by the collaborative activities generated by the interaction between trainee-trainee. These short training cycles appear to be a dynamic advantage of education/training.
29.1 Introduction The world is changing quickly, dictating significant changes in society, anticipating trends, changing priorities, needs and concerns regarding “what to learn” and “how to learn”. This awareness leads us to rethink the methodologies used in Lifelong Learning [1, 2] and in Adult Education and Training [2], linked to the success of school and professional qualifications [3]. The understanding of those two complementary universes, where different education/training paradigms exist, assumes the use of methods and strategies that contribute to the commitment and participation of the trainees in the construction of knowledge [4]. The suitability of these hybrid training methodologies turns trainees into protagonists of their own learning. It is important to emphasize that teamwork, in a natural C. Luís (B) · M. J. Marcelino 1CISUC, FCTUC Universidade de Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal M. J. Marcelino e-mail: [email protected] C. Luís · S. Mauricio Centro de Formação Profissional de Coimbra, IEFP, Coimbra, Portugal © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 A. Mesquita et al. (eds.), Perspectives and Trends in Education and Technology, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 256, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5063-5_29
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logic, contributes to the development of learners. According to Slavin [5, p. 102] working in small groups increases the understanding of the world and offers the possibility to share new knowledge with others. Muna [6] in his article “Leadership lessons from Canada geese”, makes the comparison with the importance of teamwork as a way of organizing in Canada geese migrant groups. The flock (like many other birds) flies in a “V” formation, this formation leads to less resistance to the wind, which allows the achievement of the collective performance to be 71% superior to the individual performance. Anchored in this contribution and in the fourth industrial revolution (industry 4.0), where collaborative innovation is seen as an engine for social and economic growth [7], learners need to have new skills and new working methods. This symbiotic relationship between hybrid education/training methodologies and new technologies in the construction of knowledge places the learner at the centre of an immersive education/training [8], where the learner will experience new ways of communicating; emotions; fulfilments and/or frustrations, allowing the learner to face the world differently, thus improving her/his quality of life. In this article, we describe and analyze case studies designed with the aim of understanding the importance of methodologies in the adult education/training process; identifying which variables may directly or indirectly influence the acquisition of new knowledge, skills and behaviours; and understanding the experiences lived by the trainees. Based on this assumption, one can ask the following research questions: (1) “What are the difficulties experienced by the trainees in the education/training process founded on Project-Based Training and on an Agile methodology?”; (2) “How can we contribute to the reformulation of the current models of education/training, expanding the desirable qualification and inclusion of the most diverse audiences?”. This article is structured in five sections. After the introduction, the concept and definition of Project-Based Learning and the agile methodology (eduScrum) are described in Sect. 29.2; in Sect. 29.3 we briefly refer to the characteristics of the case study, the methodology used and the characteristics of the sample. The analysis and discussion of the research results are put forward in Sect. 29.4. Section 29.5 is a brief conclusion.
29.2 State of the Art Education/training in the twenty-first century, using new education/training technologies, cannot be understood as a process characterized by the mere exchange of means of communication, but rather as an interaction between new technologies, new learning objects (LO) and new methodologies. In pragmatic terms, the education/training process is guided by objectives and pedagogical technologies (agile methodologies).
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29.2.1 Project-Based Learning According to the Buck Institute for Education (BIE), project-based learning (PBL) is characterized by the learners’ autonomy [9]—where they become protagonists of their educational life [10], this method of “reflective thinking”, anticipated by John Dewey (1933), is anchored in five stages—framing the problem, formulating the problem, raising hypotheses, elaborating reasoning and testing [11]. PBL is one of the most promising pedagogical practices nowadays [9]. These project-based pedagogical practices reinforce the principles of education for autonomy based on four pillars of education: learning to know, learning to do, learning to live together and learning to be [12]. In this way, it is essential to explore the motivations of the trainees and to involve them in the projects and respond to the request [13]. According to Bender, PBL is “a teaching model that allows trainees to confront real-world issues and problems that they consider significant, defining how to approach them and acting cooperatively in search of solutions” [14]. Van Hattum-Janssen and Mesquita [15] describe the importance of active participation by learners and the veracity of the proposed problems as essential elements of PBL. The work in multidisciplinary/transdisciplinary teams is essential for the development of activities, providing a holistic view to the learners, fundamental in the construction of knowledge. The centre of the teaching/learning process is the learner.
29.2.2 eduScrum The first literature references to the term Scrum appear in the Harvard Business Review, in 1986, in an article written by Hirotaka Takeuchi and Ikujiro Nonaka—The new product development game [16], where teamwork is compared to the strategy of a rugby game Scrum. In 1995, Sutherland and Ken Schwaber, in an article entitled “SCRUM Development Process”, define scrum as a flexible set of activities that combine tools and techniques in systems’ development [17]. Scrum is an agile development methodology (interactive and incremental), based on the work of multidisciplinary teams [18]. In this method there are different roles, events and artefacts: • Three Roles: Product Owner—Communicates the product’s vision to the team; Scrum Master—acts as a liaison between the Product Owner and the team; The elements of the team—do the work of the project, in five events. • Five Events: Sprint planning; Daily Scrum meeting; The Sprint—a limited time window of one month or less, during which a potentially usable increment is created; Sprint Review; Sprint Retrospective. • Three Artefacts: Product Backlog—a list of prioritized items; Sprint Backlog—a list of selected items from the Product Backlog, containing tasks; Increment is the sum of all items belonging to the Product Backlog that have been completed.
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Fig. 29.1 Training cycle of eduScrum
In recent years, Scrum has become one of de agile methodology, often analyzed in literature [19]. It is no longer just a software development methodology, but a work and management methodology in large companies in different areas [20]. In 2013, Willy Wijnands, professor of chemistry/physics at Ashram College in the Netherlands, used Scrum in the classroom, using educational strategies, methodologies and resources and called it eduScrum [21]. The application of Scrum in educational practices made the process of education/training and practical teaching inseparable [22]. According to Ferreira and Martins, eduScrum, based on Scrum, is entirely adapted to educational environments [23], contributing decisively to the personal development of each trainee and to the development of their transversal skills (soft skills, such as collaboration, communication, critical thinking and creativity) crucial to teamwork [20]. Groups are formed randomly by the teacher/trainers or spontaneously by the trainees. During a sprint, which is a period of work, the group must develop or solve a set of tasks or stories related to the objectives of the programme, finishing with a review of the sprint, where its results are assessed. The training path can consist of several sprints, so there is no need for longer sprints, which are quite ineffective [21]. The eduScrum structure, like the Scrum structure, is based on multidisciplinary teams, where: Product Owner is the teacher/trainer; Scrum Master is the teacher/trainer or the learner and the team members are the learners. The EduScrum cycle has its development and performance based on interactions carried out throughout the entire learning cycle. Figure 29.1. The Product Owner (trainer) will be responsible for defining the Learning Objectives (Product Backlog), along with monitoring and assessing its results. The teacher/trainer acts as a facilitator, referring or suggesting learning materials, answering questions and providing examples. The teacher/trainer should also monitor, verify and improve the quality of the results obtained. To achieve this goal, the teacher/trainer can use two points of reference: the definition of “Completed1” by
1
Each team defines when its work is considered “Concluded”.
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each team and the acceptance criteria, defined by the teacher/trainer, when defining the Learning Objectives. The Product Backlog takes the shape of a list of requirements—user stories prioritized based on their value. The lists only contain the essential information to allow the learners to clearly understand what needs to be done. User stories are short and simple descriptions of what needs to be done from the person’s perspective. The first stage consists of picturing/drawing the character/role for whom the task is intended? Secondly, we have to envisage what we want to do (task)—and how? Finally, it is necessary to list the motivations—the why? Preferably, a simple model should be adopted: As , I would like so that I can . At the beginning of each Sprint, a meeting for planning takes place. The Product Owner tells the objective that the Sprint must achieve and the items in the Product Backlog that will allow the objective of the Sprint to be achieved. The entire Scrum Team cooperates to understand Sprint’s work. During the development of the Sprint, meetings will be held, Stand-Up Meeting, where the Scrum Master (Teacher/trainer or Trainee), the person responsible for the direction of the process, asks three questions to each of the team members: 1. 2. 3.
What did you do in the last session to help the team complete the Sprint? What will you do in this session to help the team complete the Sprint? What obstacles are affecting the team?
The meeting should be short, if it takes more than five minutes it is because something is wrong. The purpose of the meeting is to help the trainees to analyze where they are in the Sprint (learning cycle) and to find possible solutions to the problems raised. The Sprint should only last for two sessions, this duration must be consistent throughout the training [20] and depends on the duration of the training. As soon as each Sprint ends, a new one starts, aiming to define temporal objectives based on the tasks to be performed from the beginning to the end of the training. The Sprint Backlog contains a set of tasks taken from the Product Backlog that the team committed to performing during the course of the Sprint. At the end of each Sprint, there will be a meeting (Sprint Review) between the teams and the teacher/trainer, to address the tasks performed. The teacher/trainer will provide feedback to the teams and will redefine Product Backlog priorities based on such feedback. The last phase of eduScrum, Sprint Retrospective, consists of team assessment. The objectives of this meeting are as follows [20]: To assess the last Learning Cycle; To identify potential improvements; To implement an enhancement plan. This way, learners “learn to learn” together, in an effective and efficient way [21].
29.3 Characteristics of the Study This case study takes place on the basis of a collaborative and articulated process between trainers, on the one hand, and trainees, on the other hand [24, pp. 187–206].
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The design of this research—participatory “research-action”, is based on pedagogical and/or andragogical methods of education/training that will always be adjusted to the needs of the trainees, the intended objective, the groups themselves and their context [25]. Two samples of convenience were used [26, pp. 140–174, 27, pp. 169–216], from the Centro de Formação do Instituto do Emprego e Formação Profissional de Coimbra. The first group comprised trainees from the Assistant Hairdresser programme—Face-to-Face Training (F2F); and the second Adult Education and Training group with a professional secondary level was formed by trainees from the Travel and Transportation Agency Technician programme Distance Training (DT). Thus, based on eduScrum, a new proposal of adult education/training called forScrum was designed for this case study. This methodology is based on the Design Science Research procedures advocated by Vaishnavi et al. [28] and on the universal methods of instruction [29]. In order to represent and summarize the training objectives, as mentioned in the catalogue of the National Agency for Qualification and Professional Education (ANQEP), in user stories (LO), it was necessary to involve several specialists (Peer debriefing) [30, pp. 202–211], [31] in adult education/training, with whom meetings were held to discuss matters, strategies, ideas and concerns related to the training. In a philosophy of aligning with Willy Wijnands [21] position, the trainer introduced, in the first session, an overview of the project, the related syllabus, the learning cycle, the number of sessions and the crucial moments (planning, presentation of the works, assessment, etc. …).
29.3.1 Sample Features The first group of the Adult Education and Training programme—Basic level of Assistant Hairdresser at the Centro de Formação do Instituto do Emprego e Formação Profissional de Coimbra., comprised 16 trainees, aged between 20 and 40 years old. It should be noted that it was a heterogeneous group, with different paces of learning, with differences in terms of behaviour; skills; work and learning experiences. The second group of the Adult Education and Training programme—professional secondary level for Travel and Transportation Agency Technician at the Centro de Formação do Instituto do Emprego e Formação Profissional de Coimbra, comprised seven trainees, aged between 25 and 58 years old, with secondary education and a bachelor’s degree, with very different personal and professional experiences.
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29.3.2 Methodology Used In the first group in F2F, forScrum was designed for an Information and Communication Technology UFCD “Using the Internet to obtain, transmit and publish information”. In the first part of the project the trainees were organized into groups of four, the Sprints were defined (three sessions) and the stand-up moments were scheduled (beginning of each session). For the second group, forScrum was designed to monitor the Reflective Learning Portfolio (RLP) under the DT regime. The mediator created, randomly, three work groups, with three short Sprints (approximately every three weeks) and scheduled the stand-up moments that occurred roughly every other day. The project planning included the disclosure of the Sprints Backlog. In both groups, the role of Product Owner and Scrum Master was always undertaken by the trainer.
29.4 Analysis and Discussion of Results The results we present are based on the visualization and assessment of the tasks performed by each team of the different groups, in order to answer the two research questions: (1) “What are the difficulties experienced by the trainees in the education/training process founded on a Project-Based Training and on an Agile Methodology?”; (2) “How can we contribute to the reformulation of the current models of education/training, expanding the desirable qualification and inclusion, of the most diverse audiences?” In a first stage, the following user stories were offered in hardcopies, to the first group, Fig. 29.2. In the second group, which was in DT, Microsoft Teams from Office 365 was used as a virtual learning space, allowing: both synchronous and asynchronous communication; sharing materials; and brainstorming. User stories were written in Microsoft Planner and displayed on the forScrum Board Fig. 29.3. The user stories, short and simple descriptions of the training objectives, aim to create and develop diversified skills, essential to the design of strategies and methodologies suitable for solving real problems. Adopting an innovation process and taking into account the necessary flexibility in the acquisition of knowledge by the trainees, we created a podcast, which represents an enormous potential in the provision of content [32, 33]. The communicational framework generated by the user stories and podcast, allowed to implement a new communicational/constructive paradigm [34] in the education/training process. The trainees showed conceptual and procedural difficulties related to what should be done and how it should be done, although these user stories and podcasts are apparently simple. Difficulties were also mentioned
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Fig. 29.2 User stories of the first group
Fig. 29.3 forScrum board
regarding the definition of the word done (task completed), which is, the objective to be achieved. In the first group, the dynamics of the training sessions were affected by the collaborative activities generated by the interaction between trainee-trainee, thus allowing the training between peers or “Peer Instruction” [35–37].
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According to Ainscow, teamwork is the key to inclusive classes [38, 39], however, the lack of motivation (intrinsic and extrinsic) [40] of some trainees forced us to rethink the composition of the teams. forScrum is an iterative method, incremental, adaptive and supported by a set of small training cycles, which explains why there was no negative impact on training. Whenever new user stories were announced, conceptual and procedural difficulties linked to what should be done and how it should be done were constant. Although some authors Crouch et al. [35, 36] and Lee et al. [37], consider that the podcast facilitates training, in this specific case both groups showed difficulties in time management. The multi-referential approach [41, 42] of these two groups, distinct in knowledge and formative spaces (F2F and DT), allowed us to find connections, convergences and/or divergences for the implementation of forScrum, combining information and data from the real and virtual world.
29.5 Conclusion Planning and educating/training are complex cognitive activities, in which are applied a diversity of methodology and knowledge [43] in order to plan tasks, choosing scenarios and requirements that allow the success of the educational process. These practices connect a combination of content, pedagogy, technology [44], without underestimating the importance of the formative context [45]. The complexity of technology integration implies an understanding of the knowledge connections between these components and the complex ways in which they are applied in classroom contexts and their dynamics. forScrum is the result of the combination of eduScram with long training experience, supported by the “Peer Debriefers”. forScrum may be one of the valid responses to the third message of the Lisbon European Council Memorandum on Lifelong Learning. Innovation in teaching and learning “… suggests a fundamental transition to user-oriented learning systems, with fluid boundaries between sectors and levels. …” [46]. Acknowledgements We would like to express our gratitude to the board of Centro de Formação do Instituto do Emprego e Formação Profissional de Coimbra, as well as to all the trainees of these training activities for the Hairdresser Programme and the Travel and Transportation Agency Technician Programme. Our thanks are extended to Peer debriefing invited to assess and validate the results for their contributions.
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Chapter 30
Knowledge Management and Individual Job Performance in Higher Education: Proposal of a Conceptual Model Daniela Matté Amaro Passos, Anabela Mesquita Sarmento, and Paulo Jorge Pinheiro Gonçalves Abstract The objective of this work is to propose a conceptual model, capable of relating the influence of knowledge management processes on individual job performance. It also intends to incorporate and relate the influence of sociodemographic and professional variables. Thus, a literature review is presented, through which key concepts are exposed, from which constructs translating eight propositions are extracted, which in turn are materialized in a model, where we seek to establish measurable relationships in the higher education sector, with employees (teachers and administrative staff). Knowledge management being a fundamental element in educational organizations, and knowledge management processes foster the flow of information in the workplace, it is useful to analyze its possible direct influence on individual job performance, an aspect little explored in this context, but of growing importance due to a more technological and humanized world. We seek to evaluate how the constructs studied may be (cor)related, and their admissibility in contributing to possible original results in studies in the higher education sector. Considering that the incentive and implementation of knowledge management, especially through processes and practices, are urgent and necessary in the educational segment, the relevant contribution of this work is to raise interesting insights for institutions in the educational sector.
30.1 Introduction In face of the growing importance of scientific thinking, technology, and interactions in problem solving, organizations started to change, both the way of valuing D. M. A. Passos (B) · A. M. Sarmento · P. J. P. Gonçalves CEOS.PP, ISCAP, Polytechnic of Porto, Porto, Portugal A. M. Sarmento e-mail: [email protected] P. J. P. Gonçalves e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 A. Mesquita et al. (eds.), Perspectives and Trends in Education and Technology, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 256, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5063-5_30
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scientific and social aspects, and the way of dealing with human resources, in the sense of adopting approaches aimed at managing the knowledge present in individuals [5]. Thus, more and more organizations are searching for new methods and strategies on how to better manage and work their internal knowledge, in order to produce competitive advantages. In this aspect, Knowledge Management (KM) arises, seeking to complement gaps and offer new opportunities for research and strategic action to improve the performance and results of organizations [50]. One of the ways of managing this knowledge is in the premise of leveraging the knowledge of individuals to benefit themselves and the organizations, considering the use of Knowledge Management Processes (KMP) for this to occur. This work aims to verify more sensitive issues related to the individuality of performance, in the verification of possible relationship and influence, with the KMP, namely the creation, acquisition, sharing, codification, retention, and application of knowledge, with the individual job performance (IJP). It also intends to assess, in the light of sociodemographic and professional variables, the influence of the KMP in the relationship with IJP. There are two approaches to how business should be managed within higher education organizations: one, is the approach through the pedagogical act; the other, as a business itself [37]. Thus, the object of this study will focus on the professionals of higher education institutions, due to the importance of the undeniable contribution of creation and sharing of knowledge that teachers have in this ambit and also, due to the implementation activities of the processes of technical and strategic order of responsibility of the administrative staff, acting as support to each other, in a process of evolution and improvement of management in the educational sector and in the positioning of these institutions in the provision of services to society. Considering that higher education professionals work in dynamic environments, with a considerable number of people, where they are assigned different and demanding tasks, and where knowledge, sometimes, is not structured and codified, able to be readily shared, which may affect their performance, there is an urgent need to manage it, so it is necessary to (re)evaluate (1) the creation of knowledge, as the ability to generate ideas and solutions related to various aspects of organizational activities [49]; (2) the acquisition of knowledge, intra and extra organizational, in order to feed the knowledge of employees and thus generate new knowledge [36]; (3) the sharing of knowledge, promoter of knowledge dissemination in favor of a better IJP [3]; (4) the codification of knowledge in the transposition of tacit knowledge in explicit form, its storage in documented form and, the provision of this update for the benefit of everyone in the organization [52]; (5) the retention of knowledge, with the purpose of avoiding the exit and loss of key knowledge of the organization [39]; (6) the effective application of knowledge for the benefit of the better execution of the daily tasks of employees and the consequent improvement of performance [38]. In this thought and scenario, considering the lack of studies that explore the influence of KMP on IJP in the educational field, especially in higher education, and also, coupled with the scarcity of approach of certain factors of individual aspect, in this relationship, we propose a conceptual model. To this end, the paper then presents
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the following structure: literature review, methodological strategy that supports the formulated propositions, respective constructs, conceptual model developed, and conclusions.
30.2 Literature Review 30.2.1 Knowledge Management The realization by organizations, of the importance of knowledge as a fundamental element of processes, has led to relevant attention being given to its management and coordination. The awakening of the topic “Knowledge Management” formally came into popular use in the late 1980s when conferences on KM began to appear, and the topic started to be seen in books and business magazines [19]. Since then, several management theorists such as Peter Drucker, Peter Senge, Thomas Stewart, as well as Ikujiro Nonaka and Hirotaka Takeuchi, have contributed significantly with their studies and publications to the evolution of the topic [19]. The concept of KM goes back to understandings that span three decades and, among them, the authors Nonaka and Takeuchi [43], designating KM as a process of continuous creation of new knowledge, dissemination, and rapid incorporation into new products/services, technologies, and systems; Batista [8] as an integrated method of creating, sharing and applying knowledge to increase efficiency, improve quality and social effectiveness; and Rundi [53], who defines KM as a strategy for transforming the intellectual assets of the organization. However, the literature points out, that KM is a practice that has been adopted by organizations in search of improving their processes [44]. It consists of leveraging intellectual assets to improve the organization’s performance [7]. There are considerable studies that prove that organizations that adopt KM reveal better organizational performance and, consequently, greater achievement of objectives. However, organizational success depends on how the knowledge of particular individuals is utilized and integrated into organizations [29]. This integration brings us back to previous studies, which point to three key elements for the vitality of KM in organizations: people, technology, and processes [20]. People, accompanied by their skills, experiences, and interpersonal relationships because they are holders of tacit knowledge [42]; technology, one of the main drivers behind the interest in applying KM today [19], and processes, which add value to the organization because they reduce costs, time, and people’s efforts [57]. The absence of reflection and action on one of the three elements can compromise the results of KM throughout the organization [57], because they need to be harmonized and balanced, such as the indispensable synergy between the diverse knowledge, in facing complex situations that organizations go through, in the search for better performance.
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Knowledge Management in Higher Education Institutions Like other organizations in various segments, higher education institutions are faced with a constantly changing society that requires reinvention all the time in the way they deal with their human resources and manages their precious knowledge, in order to stay “alive” in the market, increase their productivity, improve their performance to achieve their goals, and thus better serve society. These types of organizations are characterized by producing, disseminating, and applying knowledge, through multiple activities conducted by faculty and administrators, given that the business of higher education institutions is knowledge [11]. Moreover, KM in these institutions is understood as the creation, exchange, and transfer of knowledge, in promoting research, education, and providing service to society [61]. However, putting KM into practice is not an easy task, mainly due to organizational and technological difficulties, which are indispensable and limiting resources in obtaining significant results in this process [2]. And, despite knowledge being the main product in organizations of this segment, they face difficulties because their processes are compartmentalized in specialized blocks of knowledge and, generally limited by their structure [37]. Other difficulties are also pointed out: the lack of familiarity of employees with KM, regardless of their hierarchical level [45]; the lack of motivation and willingness to share knowledge [6]; cultural factors [10]; the existence of a technological infrastructure oriented only to the extraction and storage of knowledge, and not to facilitate the link between people [21]. Knowledge Management Processes KMP are organizational activities conducted based on the knowledge of people, either individually or collectively, internal or external to the organization, that require management and infrastructure to support and enhance them [34]. These processes promote the flow of knowledge between individuals and groups in the organization [27], through the creation, storage, sharing, and application of knowledge to achieve better performance [51]. Research on KM points to different opinions among authors about the number and diversity of KMP that promote the knowledge cycle and management in organizations, as well as KM models adopted that relate to these processes [19]. The introduction of the models serves to guide organizations in creating knowledge strategies in order to help them solve problems and achieve goals [59]. According to Shehabat [59], the most widely used KM model is the one developed by Nonaka and Takeuchi [42], also known as the Knowledge Spiral. It brings basic concepts, even applied in the formulation of other models, and the processes that tangent it are the creation, sharing, dissemination, and institutionalization of knowledge. However, in the literature there is a vast list of KM models and, in all of them one can identify a dynamic set of activities, called processes, which are organized into stages that correspond to different moments of the knowledge life cycle in organizations [46]. In this article, the KMP were obtained based on a literature review of the last decade, which are presented in Table 30.1, in which, the authors emphasize the
× × × × × × × ×
×
×
×
×
×
×
×
×
Kianto et al. (32)
Masa´deh et al. (38)
Pruzinsky and Milhalcova (48)
Najeeb et al. (41)
Rodriguez-Arias et al. (52)
Shawapfeh et al. (2019)
El-Chaarani and El-Abiad (23)
Kordab et al. (33)
Source Own elaboration
Acquisition
Process
Creation
Author/Year ↓
Table 30.1 Knowledge management processes
×
×
×
×
×
×
×
×
Sharing
–
×
–
×
×
×
–
×
Codification
–
×
–
×
×
×
–
×
Retention
×
–
×
–
×
–
×
–
Application
Storage
–
Storage
–
–
–
Identification; organ./storage
–
Other processes
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processes of acquisition, sharing, creation, codification, retention, and application of knowledge in their proposals. And, the choice, among the different processes existing in the literature, is given, because they are present in the daily activities of employees in the context of higher education. As can be observed in this brief panorama, the processes of creation, acquisition, and sharing of knowledge are present in all models used by the authors, while the process of codification, retention, and application, are found to a lesser extent. Thus, the creation and acquisition, as generators of knowledge, along with the sharing of knowledge, considered primordial KMP and, essential to the application of knowledge in organizations [15]; added to the codification of knowledge that has the purpose of making knowledge accessible to all, making it, in fact, apt and collective to organizations, thus ensuring its use [20]; as well as knowledge retention, one of the main challenges of managers in this millennium to combat the high levels of absenteeism and turnover in organizations [47] and, last but not least, the process of knowledge application, which in empirical explorations in higher education institutions is almost always forgotten [55], form the six KMP of this study, which we will see in more detail below. Knowledge Creation Knowledge creation is the first step that characterizes the KMP in organizations and is conceptualized as the ability to create ideas and solutions related to various aspects of organizational activities [49]. It arises from the combination of the explicit and tacit knowledge of the individuals that compose them [42] and presents itself as a challenge that leads organizations to generate new ideas through intuitive connections or through relationships with other employees in processes based on explanation and dialogue [16]. It is considered a cognitive activity that involves the exploration, combination, and discovery of knowledge [26]. Some KM practices related to knowledge creation are present in organizations that are concerned with innovation and performance in a continuous and dynamic interaction between tacit and explicit knowledge [43]. The brainstorming, the learning review, the physical and virtual collaborative spaces, the knowledge cafe are some of these practices, having as general characteristics the acquisition and generation of new ideas, the promotion of learning, the fostering of innovation, the improvement of communication, and collaboration [8, 56]. Knowledge Acquisition The acquisition process refers to the collection of information from intra or extra organizational sources, related to the use of existing knowledge or to the capture of new knowledge, and serves to feed the knowledge of individuals so that they can generate new knowledge and promote innovation in organizations [36]. When the acquisition process refers to the collection of information from extra organizational sources, it occurs, in general, by knowledge brought by collaborators, employees coming from competitors, and also via associative actions with other organizations, consultancy and universities [27]. On the other hand, the collection, from internal sources, occurs with informal interactions between employees, monitoring of best
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practices in the sector, training, and continued education [54]. The common point between the authorial positions focuses on the view of acquisition being a new development knowledge activity, regardless of the location of capture. There are other nomenclatures or definitions, in the theoretical foundations, to describe the process of knowledge acquisition such as search, collect and capture, however, they all have a common theme, the accumulation of knowledge [25]. Some practices related to the knowledge acquisition process in organizations are cited as: communities of practice, peer assist, best practices, capture of ideas, and lessons learned. The main characteristics of these practices lie in the creation of bonding between collaborators around the work; development of learning by interaction, obtaining knowledge with a view to generating new knowledge, collection for reducing episodes of error repetition [8, 56]. Knowledge Sharing The knowledge sharing process is an activity through which acquired information, knowledge, ideas, skills, and experiences are exchanged and shared among individuals, groups, and organizations [30]. These exchanges promote a process of value creation in KM, competitiveness, and organizational success [32]. Sharing activity is influenced by factors such as opportunities, motivation, culture, and organizational speed [22], and it´s dependent on a favorable culture, the promotion of a suitable organizational environment, an infrastructure that facilitates sharing, and the support of managers in promoting an environment of trust [51]. Therefore, fostering the flow of organizational knowledge, through sharing, will enable the learning process and promote performance improvement [27], and also, coupled with an environment that favors knowledge sharing, it generates collective learning that ultimately improves not only the knowledge of an individual but also increases the stock of knowledge available to the organization [43]. Among the KM practices that enable the sharing of knowledge in organizations are forums (face-to-face and virtual), narratives, mentoring, benchmarking, collaboration tools such as portals, intranets, and extranets, that in general, are characterized by developing skills, improving processes, enabling the acquisition, creation, and sharing of collective knowledge, networking, and study groups, improving communication, promoting learning, leading to better performance, eliminating waste of time and rework, and enhancing relationships [8, 56]. Knowledge Codification The codification translates the transposition of tacit knowledge into explicit form, its storage in documented form, and the provision of this update to other employees of the organization [52]. In the codification process, knowledge is treated as something codifiable, standardized, and structured, in which the action of codifying is understood as dependent on the competence and motivation of employees to be carried out [49]. In a practical way, it means converting knowledge into an applicable format, organizing it, and making it more accessible, structured, and understandable [20]. KM practices related to the knowledge codification process, especially in organizations that have considerable hierarchical levels, whose use lends itself in particular
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to the transformation of tacit knowledge into explicit and accessible to all in the organization, can be exemplified as organizational intelligence/competitive intelligence systems, organizational skills banks, mapping or knowledge audit, content management, and others. Among the characteristics of these practices are: the transformation of data into intelligence/knowledge, the documentation of knowledge, the basis for decision making, the functioning as a repository of information about people or teams that hold certain knowledge, the optimization of access to databases [8, 56]. Knowledge Retention The knowledge retention process consists of establishing and using tools that enable knowledge to be adequately registered, allowing its location, its use, and consequently, the generation of more knowledge by the employees that make use of it [39]. Knowledge retention activities are related to managing staff turnover and the loss of specialized knowledge, which can be caused by the employee’s departure from the organization for any reason, whether temporary or by the retirement process, for example, which causes the loss of specialized knowledge permanently [32, 41, 48]. In order for this not to occur, and to add to the already existing knowledge, it is necessary to retain it, making it a strategic organizational resource [52]. Some KM practices related to the knowledge retention process are active in organizations that are concerned with preserving organizational knowledge for the optimization of their activities and processes, such as, after action review, organizational memory, lessons learned, individual competence bank/talent bank/yellow pages, construction of knowledge clusters/knowledge repositories. Among the general characteristics of these practices, one can list: preservation, storage, and availability of learning, incorporation of the culture of documentary record; preservation of organizational memory, promotion of creation, innovation and dissemination of knowledge, optimization of communication, collaboration, and learning [8, 56]. Knowledge Application The knowledge application process is also called knowledge utilization or implementation [60], it is premised on the appropriate use of knowledge, in the implementation of processes, problem solving, helping employees to better perform their tasks, achieving specific goals, increasing value, and directly contributing to performance [33]. It is also added that just as the application process is dependent on the availability of knowledge, knowledge itself is dependent on the other KMP. The application of knowledge is part of the organization’s policies, processes, regulations, norms, and culture, thus guiding its future behavior [14]. This application, also called the final stage of the KM cycle, is where the conversion of knowledge into products for organizations is focused, i.e., it is the use of knowledge to organizational processes for the purpose of producing results in terms of products and services [31].
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30.2.2 Individual Job Performance The concept of performance, throughout history, goes through connotations and trends ranging from a close connection with an entire behavioral category of the individual [12], to a multidimensional concept that also involves effort, action, and results [9, 17, 40]. And, regardless of whether the concept refers in its generality sometimes to action, sometimes to behavior, or both, it is found that IJP reflects the employee’s achievement, in the performance of his duties, through the application of his knowledge [12]. The employee’s performance are responses that reflect their learning, training, or the product of their mental and psychological abilities [1]. In this thought, Buntaram [12] points out that one of the biggest challenges that permeate the organizations nowadays, focuses on ensuring how the performance of work tasks can continue to be maintained, in the midst of an environment of constant change and evolution. However, in overcoming this challenge, it is necessary to consider that each individual brings different personality traits, forms, and intensity of involvement at work, and this reflects positively or negatively on their performance [13]. Thus, for this performance to be positive, it is necessary to leverage the knowledge that resides in the minds of the workforce and consider the advent of technological changes, with the purpose of organizing even more institutions and thus achieve better levels of IJP [23], after all, all these results will reflect useful parameters to the entire organization.
30.3 Methodology Given the importance of the subject of study and the moment that the world is experiencing, at the time of COVID-19, where social isolation has become a condition for survival and remote work, supported by appropriate technological and communication resources, is the way that organizations have found to continue their activities, it is necessary to create strategies and guidelines for the achievement of expected performance, in order to provide means for people to perform their jobs [24]. For this investigation a selection of expressive studies on themes related to KM, KMP, and IJP was carried out, using the qualitative approach method. Through the procedure of bibliographic survey of the literature, it could be observed that, despite the majority of the records on KM being applied in organizations of the most varied areas, few studies on the theme were identified in the higher education segment. Thus, information was collected and propositions were formulated and, through these, the proposed model was built and presented, contemplating eight constructs, namely: knowledge management processes, creation, acquisition, sharing, codification, retention, and application of knowledge, and individual job performance. The propositions formulated, which are statements of an observable phenomenon (concept), used to assess the truth or falsity of relations between observable
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phenomena [18], suggest a link between two concepts in a situation in which the relationship cannot be verified by experience, but rather, by previous research or assumptions, which will help in answering the questions of this research which are: analyze whether the KMP can influence the IJP of higher education employees? And, to verify if the influence of KMP on IJP differs according to some sociodemographic and professional variables? In light of the above, the propositions and respective constructs analyzed for this research are formulated. Considering that the IJP constitutes a factor that determines the survival of organizations, for reflecting the way they exploit their tangible and intangible resources to achieve good results [62], coupled with the prerogative of the literature to bring us different studies that found positive and significant relationships in the relationship between KMP and IJP [4, 38, 58], lies the first proposition of this study: P1. Knowledge Management Processes Influence Individual Job Performance. The first step that characterizes the KMP in organizations is the creation of knowledge which, in turn, is born from the explicit and tacit knowledge of the individuals that compose them [42] and, as gauged by Akram and Hilman [4]; El-Chaarani and ElAbiad [23], the process of knowledge creation has an impact on the IJP of employees. Thus, the second proposition of the study is exposed: P2. Knowledge Creation Influences Individual Job Performance. Organizations must create a suitable system whereby employees can acquire knowledge from external and internal sources in order to enhance their knowledge bases to better accomplish their tasks [4]. Authors Akram and Hilman [4]; El-Chaarani and El-Abiad [23], have found in their studies that knowledge acquisition has a significant effect on IJP. In this consideration, the third proposition of the study is formulated: P3. Knowledge Acquisition Influences Individual Job Performance. When knowledge among employees is made available and shared properly it enhances the individual employee’s ability and provides them with better performance [3]. The act of sharing knowledge with other colleagues increases the willingness to collaborate and extend knowledge, as well as increases problem solving skills and work efficiency [38]. Previous research [3, 4, 23, 38] gauges that the sharing process positively influences IJP. Thus, the fourth proposition of this study is established: P4. Knowledge Sharing Influences Individual Job Performance. The knowledge codification process is based on the availability of appropriate information and communication technology tools, platforms, and systems, along with the employees’ skills and motivation in using them, to make their knowledge explicit, codify it and, after storing it, then make use of the knowledge in organization systems and documents [23]. Understanding the importance that knowledge codification has in facilitating the transformation of tacit knowledge into explicit knowledge, for the
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entire organization, aiming at job performance, the fifth proposition of this research is exposed: P5. Knowledge Codification Influences Individual Job Performance. Organizations need to encourage the adoption of KM-oriented strategies in order to retain and avoid the leakage of their intellectual capital. In this understanding, it is held in the literature that knowledge retention is beneficial, impacts and influences IJP [23]. Considering the literature review, the sixth proposition of this research proposes the following: P6. Knowledge Retention Influences Individual Job Performance. Knowledge application, also called knowledge utilization or implementation, refers to the process that guides the actual use of knowledge [25]. It translates knowledge into action and comes to be beneficial in assisting the development of employees’ tasks in organizations because it is characterized as an activity of using and exploiting knowledge in products and services, to achieve better performance [35]. Considering the above and also studies by Zaim et al. [63] who considered the relationships of knowledge utilization to performance, the seventh proposition of this study is formulated: P7. Knowledge Application Influences Individual Job Performance. Analyzing the impact of KM in light of sociodemographic and occupational variables has still been incipient in studies that seek to investigate IJP issues. Recently, the authors Shawaqfeh et al. [58] have analyzed the influence of KM on job performance as a function of these variables. Thus, the eighth and final proposition of this paper is based on this premise: P8. Knowledge Management Processes Influence Individual Job Performance According to Sociodemographic and Professional Variables (Age, Academic Qualifications, Years of Professional Experience). Thus, after the analysis of the propositions, it is presented in Fig. 30.1 the conceptual model developed, in which, the expected relations are based on previous literature review and, where the constructs are directly related: KMP, creation, acquisition, sharing, codification, retention and application of knowledge, and IJP. In parallel, the model also contemplates the incorporation of sociodemographic and professional variables (age, academic qualifications, time of professional experience), which will be considered in order to verify, in their light, the influence of the KMP in the relationship with the IJP. The conceptual model presented, brings the necessary constructs for the construction of the questionnaire in order to collect data with the employees (teachers and administrative staff) in higher education.
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Fig. 30.1 Proposed conceptual model. Source Own elaboration
30.4 Conclusion This article presents a conceptual model, as a major theoretical contribution, developed based on eight propositions, which intend to know the influence of KMP, and their relations with IJP, in higher education institutions. The conceived propositions of the study have the purpose of, establishing as possible hypotheses, operationalize and investigate, the understanding of the real role of KMP in the IJP of employees of higher education institutions, considering that these are generators of knowledge by nature [28], which gives greater relevance and pertinence to the study regarding the need to manage this knowledge, properly, in the various dimensions, to obtain (better) educational and management results. As theoretical implications, KM is considered one of the fundamentals that organizations seek to apply for the purpose of rehabilitating, educating, and empowering their workforce, and in which, they use the processes of collecting, storing, disseminating, and applying the knowledge achieved in all sectors to achieve better performances [1], and where communication and technology tools become fundamental in facilitating these KMP within organizations [28]. Even more, when people working in higher education institutions, with different ages, experiences, and academic qualifications, are the essence of the knowledge process and capable of generating better IJP. IJP determines the survival of organizations and reflects the way they exploit their tangible and intangible resources to achieve their goals [62] being one of the most
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important criteria for organizational success and, in this relationship, KM must be part through the organization’s strategies and help the workforce create knowledge to establish a shared understanding and get value from this knowledge [23]. This work constitutes a starting point for future researches, for the insights obtained can mark perceptions for empirical investigations in this segment. Finally, we emphasize that the choice of the KMP used in this study, despite being intensely used in routine tasks by professionals in this field, may constitute limitations to the study. Acknowledgements This work is financed by portuguese national funds through FCT—Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia, under the project UIDB/05422/2020.
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Chapter 31
Spatial Skills Training Through Drawing Architectural Spaces Inside Immersive Virtual Reality Hugo C. Gomez-Tone, Jorge Martin-Gutierrez, and Betty K. Valencia-Anci
Abstract To design and draw in the field of architecture, it is necessary to have the ability to visualize and manipulate the architectural objects and spaces mentally. It means to have developed the spatial skills. In addition to this need, spatial skills are considered a determining factor for the permanence or abandonment of university degrees in architecture and engineering. The aim of this research was to analyze the improvement of spatial skills in freshmen architecture students by training them in life-size sketching of architectural spaces in virtual immersive environments using head mounted displays with haptic controls. For this study, the instruments that were chosen to measure three components of spatial skills were the mental rotation test to measure mental rotation, the differential aptitude test to measure spatial visualization and the perspective taking/spatial orientation test to measure spatial orientation. The Shapiro–Wilk Test was used to verify the normality of the sample, and the Student’s t-test was used for the comparison of the paired data. Before the training, there was no significant difference between experimental and control groups in three components, and after the training, there was a significant difference in the improvement of mental rotation, visualization, and orientation in the experimental group. The short and specific training designed has achieved its goal.
31.1 Introduction Architectural design aims to build three-dimensional structures for which the spatial skills that allows reading, interpreting, and visualize two-dimensional information and transform it into three-dimensional mentally and vice versa is essential for designers both for the communication and for the generation of the design [1]. In the case of fresh university students of architecture, the well-developed spatial skills H. C. Gomez-Tone (B) · B. K. Valencia-Anci Universidad Nacional de San Agustín de Arequipa, 14001 Arequipa, Perú e-mail: [email protected] J. Martin-Gutierrez Universidad de La Laguna, 38200 Tenerife, Spain © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 A. Mesquita et al. (eds.), Perspectives and Trends in Education and Technology, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 256, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5063-5_31
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may be an opportunity for them to start the career in greater depth and progress faster because the spatial skills has implications for the study courses themselves [2]. It has been also demonstrated in the field of engineering where this ability turns out to be a predictor of good academic performance of students in the first year of studies [3]. Given the importance of spatial skills in architecture and engineering studies, over the decades, research has shown that this ability can be developed with training. It can be found from the most general and indirect mid-term ones, normally overlapping with the drawing courses [4] to the more specific trainings, which are short-term and directed to a specific spatial awareness test [5]. On the other hand, the means used for these trainings have gone from the drawing of objects, the use of cubes and blocks, to the use of the most recent computer technologies such as virtual reality. That emergent technology is having a greater boom lately as Cho [1] pointed out in the investigation of the spatial skills in the domain of architectural design. In the present research, a specific and short-term training was designed. It was based on full-scale sketching in an immersive virtual environment of small architectural spaces using head mounted display and haptic controls to analyze the improvement of spatial skills in first year architecture students.
31.1.1 Spatial Skills Spatial skills are one of the components of human intelligence understood as the ability to generate, retain, retrieve, and transform well-structured visual images [6]. This skill has in turn sub-skills or sub-components. Recent researchers such as Buckley et al. [7] consider that the spatial cognition or visual processing has 25 factors or sub-components, many of them interrelated and psychometrically measurable and hence their importance for university educational success in the field of engineering and architecture. Other researchers have found fewer components, however, for practical and psychometric measurement effects with validated instruments, this study will take the proposal of Tartre [8] also suggested by Sorby [9] that considers two components: a)
Spatial visualization: ability to mentally move an object. a.1) a.2)
b)
Mental rotation: the whole object is transformed by rotating in space. Mental transformation: only a part of the object is transformed in some way.
Spatial orientation: ability to mentally move the observer’s point of view while the object remains immovable in space.
For the present research, we consider that having the spatial orientation subcomponent independently is more appropriate to the field of architecture, since in the exploration of architectural spaces, the objects that must be manipulated and understood mentally are spaces in which the students can enter. They can go through them
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and experience them unlike other objects, in which the observer does not have that possibility.
31.1.2 Training Spatial Skills Unlike abilities, skills can be trained, in that way, there are examples of spatial skills trainings in open real environments [10, 11] and more recent ones taking advantage of emerging technologies such as virtual reality [12], in immersive and interactive environments [13] and virtual browsing experiences [14–16]. All the trainings seek to develop and strengthen spatial skills because it has been shown that low levels are predictors of high desertion in engineering university students [17]. In this way, different courses, trainings and exercises have been created, all of them based on different technologies to deal with the low levels of spatial skills seen in the technical degrees students [4]. Cho [1] states that for the field of architecture, there are three areas that require further study: the first is the relationship between spatial skills and performance in design, the second is the development of domain-specific tools that measure spatial skills, and the third is the use of virtual reality technology in spatial skills training. This research seeks to respond to this last requirement by creating a training based on immersive virtual reality, in which the student can interact to carry out sketching tasks of architectural spaces that promote the development of mental actions, visualization, and spatial orientation in order to improve their spatial skills.
31.1.3 Importance of the Spatial Skills in Architecture The ability to effectively visualize graphics and three-dimensional spatial relationships in university descriptive geometry and drawing courses has influence in the academic success of students and may affect their academic performance [18, 19]. This and other studies show that there is a direct relationship between academic performance in engineering degree studies and spatial skills. In the specific case of architecture, due to it is within the set of STEAM disciplines (Science, Technology, Engineering, Arts and Math) and due to it has different subjects related to drawing and descriptive geometry, there is also the same relationship, it means that spatial skills are essential for success in initial design and drawing courses [2], although most research has largely focused on the field of engineering [5, 17, 20]. On the other hand, some studies have found a link between spatial skills and creativity so necessary to design in architecture [21]. This link finds a correlation between spatial visualization and mental rotation with creativity in the generation of the three-dimensional volumetric design and that in terms of spatial strategies, concluding that individuals with high spatial skills show strengths in the generation of shapes, while those with medium and low-capacity show strengths in additive
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approaches of a simpler nature. Despite this, it has not been possible to establish a real and direct link between spatial skills and creativity, and this is because the complexity of architectural designs requires the interaction of multiple cognitive skills and not just one or two of them. Similar to what happens in engineering, spatial skills training is an important support strategy in early architecture teaching and pedagogy that can then provide a foundation on which to build more complex skills for solving complex problems, but which are not necessarily predictors of success at the end of the degree [22] due to the different cognitive skills required, but they definitely are at the beginning of the degree when the student is learning to express his ideas through drawings.
31.1.4 Objective The purpose of this research is to analyze the improvement of the spatial skills of firstyear architecture students through a training in full-scale sketching of architectural spaces in virtual immersive environments.
31.1.5 Hypothesis The following research hypotheses were defined to verify the improvement of spatial skills: HR1: the experimental group demonstrates an improvement in mental rotation measured with the MRT following the proposed training experiment. HR2: the experimental group demonstrates an improvement in spatial visualization measured with the DAT-5 following the proposed training experiment. HR3: the experimental group demonstrates an improvement in spatial orientation measured with the SOT following the proposed training experiment.
31.2 Methodology 31.2.1 Measurement Tools There are numerous instruments to measure and evaluate the different components of spatial skills [23]. For this study, the instruments that were chosen to measure each of the components were the mental rotation test (MRT) to measure mental rotation, the differential aptitude test (DAT-5) to measure spatial visualization and the perspective taking/spatial orientation test (SOT) to measure spatial orientation, see Fig. 31.1.
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Fig. 31.1 Example items for a the mental rotation test (MRT), b the differential aptitude test: spatial rotation subset (DAT-5) and c the perspective taking/spatial orientation test (SOT)
The mental rotation test (MRT) [24] consists of 20 items in which the users have a block figure in three-dimensional perspective. They are then shown four block figures with a different orientation, from which they must choose two that correspond to the model block. The maximum score is 40 points. The differential aptitude test: Spatial rotation subset (DAT-5) [25] consists of 50 items that present a model or pattern and to the right of each model are four threedimensional figures. The users must determine from the original figure which is the only one that is able to be formed from the model. The maximum score is 50 points. The perspective taking/spatial orientation test (SOT) [26] consists of 12 items in which the users must imagine themself located in the position of one of the objects in a set (which will become the center of the circle) looking at another item (which will become the top of the circle). In response, they must draw an arrow from the center object indicating the direction to a third object from the new orientation. The score of each item is the absolute deviation in sexagesimal degrees between the individual’s answer and the correct answer, so that a lower score in the test results in a higher score.
31.2.2 Training Design There were designed six modules of small architectural spaces and grouped into three levels of difficulty according to their complexity and presented to the participants through three conic perspectives with a person drawn inside and three orthographic
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Fig. 31.2 Two samples of architectural spaces to be drawn using IVR
views (top, front, and side) in paper format (Fig. 31.2). Then, the students were placed in an immersive virtual environment where the same images were also available. With this additional help and by using the drawing tools of Tilt Brush, the Google application proposed for the training, they were able to draw the proposed space in life-size proportions.
31.2.3 Participants They were recruited in a voluntary way 30 students enrolled in the first course of the Architecture degree program at the University of La Laguna (ULL) in Spain. The training group consisted of 14 participants, aged between 18 and 20 years old, and the control group made up of 16 participants, aged between 18 and 20 years old did not perform the training experiment; none of the participants of the two groups were trained before in spatial skills and none of them used virtual reality previously.
31.2.4 Equipment The hardware used for the immersive virtual environment consisted of a laptop HP Omen 15-dc1015ns Core i7 9750H / 2.6 GHz—6 cores, Windows 10 Home, 64bit, 16 Gb RAM with a large format monitor to see how the participant was doing the experiment within the virtual environment. The specialized equipment to draw in IVR was the HTC Vive Cosmos VR Headset with the software application Tilt Brush, a commercial application developed by Google.
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Fig. 31.3 Architectural spaces drawn with Tilt-Brush
31.2.5 Study Description The MRT and DAT-5 tests were administered to the 30 students (experimental and control groups) on the first day and the SOT test the next day. Then, the experimental group was scheduled in three sessions on three different days to carry out the training. Before starting the training, each participant individually practiced and became familiar with the HMD and the Tilt Brush application to draw freehand for a period of 20 min. Then for 45 min, every participant drew the first two spaces (basic level) of the proposed battery. On the second and third day of training, they drew the next four spaces (two intermediate and two advanced) in three dimensions. The three sessions were held on alternate days, but in the same week. After completing the training with the entire experimental group, the same tests were administered to both groups to obtain pre- and post-training data, from the group that drew the six architectural spaces freehand and from the group that did not carry out such activities to compare and confirm if there are significant differences (Fig. 31.3).
31.3 Results The gain acquired in each measurement of the components of the spatial skills was compared with the gain acquired by the control group to know the effect of the training. The independent variable was groups, and the dependent variable was the gain of each of the components. Table 31.1 displays the statistical description of data that was compiled for each of the groups. The Shapiro–Wilk test was used to verify if data collected before training followed a normal distribution. This test was run on data pretest from MRT, DAT-5, and SOT
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Table 31.1 Statistical description of data
Experimental group n = 14 Control group n = 16
MRT Mean value (SD)
DAT-5 Mean value (SD)
SOT Mean value (SD)
PRE
PRE
PRE
POST
POST
POST
17.21
23.29
29.29
36.29
46.52
28.03
(8.30)
(11.02)
(10.67)
(9.10)
(26.97)
(19.40)
20.06
22.25
28.25
32.06
43.49
26.42
(10.81)
(9.57)
(9.64)
(8.50)
(27.08)
(28.37)
Table 31.2 Normality test for samples from both groups (experimental and control group) Group MRT DAT-5 SOT
Shapiro–Wilk F
gl
Sig
Experimental
0.901
14
0.115
Control
0.968
16
0.825
Experimental
0.949
14
0.548
Control
0.932
16
0.263
Experimental
0.945
14
0.479
Control
0.885
16
0.052
Table 31.3 p-values prior training in each of the components of Spatial Skills. Control group versus experimental group
Pre MRT
Pre DAT-5
Pre SOT
p = 0.43
p = 0.78
p = 0.89
from the experimental and control group, and the results of the normality tests for both groups indicated that they were distributed normally (Tables 31.2 and 31.3). It was checked whether there was a significant difference in the level of spatial skills between the two groups prior to receiving training. The Student’s t-test on independent samples produced p-value > 0.05 which means that in the three components of spatial skills, there was no significant difference between experimental and control groups before training. Table 31.4 shows the gain in the measurements of the three components after the experimental group was trained while the control group did not. To compare the mean values of the gain of each of the components between the two groups, the Student’s t-statistic was applied, and this yielded the following values: p-value = 0.01 for MRT gain, p-value = 0.04 for DAT-5 gain and p-value = 0.039 for SOT gain. In all cases, the p-value was less than 0.05, which means that there is a significant difference in the improvement of mental rotation, spatial visualization, and orientation. The results obtained shows that the experimental group has obtained a greater gain in the measurements after training than the control group; it means that it was
31 Spatial Skills Training Through Drawing Architectural Spaces … Table 31.4 Gain in scores for each of the spatial skill components
391
Gain MRT Mean value (SD)
Gain DAT-5 Mean value (SD)
Gain SOT* Mean value (SD)
Experimental group n = 14
6.07 (4.14)
7.00 (4.62)
29.72 (41.72)
Control group n = 16
2.19 (3.94)
3.81 (3.71)
46.40 (24.38)
* Percentage decrease. It is the value to be taken into account as a gain. (It is better if the percentage is lower)
accepted the hypotheses HR1 (the experimental group demonstrates an improvement in mental rotation measured with the MRT following the proposed training experiment), the HR2 (the experimental group demonstrates an improvement in spatial visualization measured with the DAT-5 following the proposed training experiment) and the HR3 (the experimental group demonstrates an improvement in spatial orientation measured with the SOT following the proposed training experiment).
31.4 Discussion For a hundred years, it has been determined that spatial skills are very important attributes and characteristics that every person interested in successfully engaging in the STEM field must have [27] which in the new millennium it has been expanded to the arts (included architecture); hence, the new acronym STEAM, thus, various trainings have been invented for the development of spatial skills. In this research, a short and specific training has been designed which, according to some researchers [28, 3], turns out to be more effective; in addition, it has sought to use the emerging technology of immersive virtual reality. Finally, the training has differentiated three components: spatial relationships, spatial visualization, and spatial orientation. In light of the results, it has been determined that there is a positive effect on the improvement of spatial skills in the three proposed dimensions. Although it is true that most trainings only consider one or two components, this research included the spatial orientation, a component rarely used. It was because the need to find a component of the spatial skills that are more used by architects than engineers, because they work more with architectural spaces at real scales, which would demand navigation capabilities and spatial walks; however, that difference has not been found, which suggests us to return to Carrol’s proposal [29] supported by numerous authors [20, 17, 5] that proposes only two components for spatial skills: spatial relationships, which contains spatial orientation and spatial visualization. The other way is to develop our own tool as proposed by Cho [1] or looking for other measurement tools more related to the route, navigation and orientation in natural-scale architectural spaces.
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31.5 Conclusions The short and specific training designed to improve the levels of spatial skills in freshman architecture students using immersive virtual reality and the threedimensional drawing of architectural spaces has achieved its goal. The experimental group, unlike the control group, has achieved a significant improvement in the three components of the proposed spatial skills: spatial visualization, spatial rotation, and spatial orientation, which shows the importance of this emerging technology for the training of these skills, extremely useful for the good academic performance of students in the first years of the career. Acknowledgements Thanks to the students of the Universidad de La Laguna of Tenerife (Spain).
References 1. Cho, J.Y.: Three Areas of Research on Spatial Ability in the Architectural Design Domain. Journal of Architectural Engineering Technology 1, 1–1 (2012). https://doi.org/10.4172/21689717.1000e108 2. Sutton, K., Williams, A., Tremain, D., Kilgour, P.: University Entry Score Is It a Consideration for Spatial Performance in Architecture Design Students? J. Eng. Des. Technol. 14, 328–342 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1108/JEDT-10-2013-0073 3. Sorby, S.A.: Developing 3D Spatial Skills for Engineering Students. Australas. J. Eng. Educ. 13, 1–11 (2007) 4. Gómez-Tone, H.C.: Impacto de La Enseñanza de La Geometría Descriptiva Usando Archivos 3D-PDF Como Entrenamiento de La Habilidad Espacial de Estudiantes de Ingeniería Civil En El Perú. Formación universitaria 12, 73–82 (2019). https://doi.org/10.4067/S0718-500620190 00100073 5. Martin Gutierrez, J., Garcia Dominguez, M., Roca Gonzalez, C.: Using 3D virtual technologies to train spatial skills in engineering. Int. J. Eng. Edu. (2015) 6. Lohman, D.F.: Spatial ability and g. human abilities: Their nature and measurement. In: Human abilities: Their Nature and Measurement, pp. 97–116. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc: Hillsdale, NJ, US, (1996). ISBN 0–8058–1800–6 7. Buckley, J., Seery, N., Canty, D.: Spatial Cognition in Engineering Education: Developing a Spatial Ability Framework to Support the Translation of Theory into Practice. Eur. J. Eng. Educ. 44, 164–178 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1080/03043797.2017.1327944 8. Tartre, L.A.: Spatial Orientation Skill and Mathematical Problem Solving. J. Res. Math. Educ. 21, 216–229 (1990). https://doi.org/10.2307/749375 9. Sorby, S.A.: Developing 3-D Spatial Visualization Skills. Eng. Des. Graph. J. 63, 21–32 (1999) 10. Hegarty, M., Montello, D.R., Richardson, A.E., Ishikawa, T., Lovelace, K.: Spatial Abilities at Different Scales: Individual Differences in Aptitude-Test Performance and Spatial-Layout Learning. Intelligence 34, 151–176 (2006). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2005.09.005 11. Montello, D.R., Lovelace, K.L., Golledge, R.G., Self, C.M.: Sex-Related Differences and Similarities in Geographic and Environmental Spatial Abilities. Ann. Assoc. Am. Geogr. 89, 515–534 (1999). https://doi.org/10.1111/0004-5608.00160 12. Roca-González, C., Martin-Gutierrez, J., García-Dominguez, M., Carrodeguas, M. del C.M.: Virtual technologies to develop visual-spatial ability in engineering students. Eurasia. J. Math. Sci. Technol. Edu. 13, 441–468 (2017). https://doi.org/10.12973/eurasia.2017.00625a
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13. Kaufmann, H., Schmalstieg, D.: Mathematics and geometry education with collaborative augmented reality. In: Proceedings of the ACM SIGGRAPH 2002 conference abstracts and applications; pp. 37–41. 14. Dahmani, L., Ledoux, A.A., Boyer, P., Bohbot, V.D.: Wayfinding: The Effects of Large Displays and 3-D Perception. Behav. Res. Methods 44, 447–454 (2012). https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428011-0158-9 15. Darken, R.P., Darken, R.P., Goerger, S.R.: The Transfer of Strategies from Virtual to Real Environments: An Explanation for Performance Differences? Simulation Series 31, 159–164 (1999) 16. Lin, C.-H., Chen, C.-M., Lou, Y.-C.: Developing Spatial Orientation and Spatial Memory with a Treasure Hunting Game. J. Educ. Technol. Soc. 17, 79–92 (2014) 17. Sorby, S.A.: Educational Research in Developing 3-D Spatial Skills for Engineering Students. Int. J. Sci. Educ. 31, 459–480 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1080/09500690802595839 18. Wigfield, A., Eccles, J.S., Schiefele, U., Roeser, R.W., Davis-Kean, P.: Development of Achievement Motivation. In Handbook of Child Psychology; John Wiley & Sons Inc., Hoboken, NJ, USA (2007) 19. Potter, C., Van Der Merwe, E., Kaufman, W., Delacour, J.: A Longitudinal Evaluative Study of Student Difficulties with Engineering Graphics. Eur. J. Eng. Educ. 31, 201–214 (2006). https:// doi.org/10.1080/03043790600567894 20. Connolly, P., Sadowski, M.: Measuring and enhancing spatial visualization in engineering technology students. Age, 14, 1 (2009) 21. Suh, J., Cho, J.Y.: Linking spatial ability, spatial strategies, and spatial creativity: a step to clarify the fuzzy relationship between spatial ability and creativity. Think Skills Creativity 35, 100628 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2020.100628 22. Akin, Ö., Erem, Ö.: Architecture students’ spatial reasoning with 3-D shapes. J. Des. Res. (2011) 23. Martín-Gutiérrez, J., Luís Saorín, J., Contero, M., Alcañiz, M., Pérez-López, D.C., Ortega, M.: Design and validation of an augmented book for spatial abilities development in engineering students. Comput. Graph. 34, 77–91 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cag.2009.11.003 24. Vandenberg, S.G., Kuse, A.R.: Mental rotations, a group test of three-dimensional spatial visualization. Percept. Mot. Skills 47, 599–604 (1978). https://doi.org/10.2466/pms.1978.47. 2.599 25. Bennett, G.K., Seashore, H.G., Wesman, A.G.: The differential aptitude tests. Psychol. Corporation (1947) 26. Hegarty, M., Waller, D.: A dissociation between mental rotation and perspective-taking spatial Abilities. Intelligence 32, 175–191 (2004) 27. Wai, J., Lubinski, D., Benbow, C.P.: Spatial ability for stem domains: aligning over 50 years of cumulative psychological knowledge solidifies its importance. J. Educ. Psychol. 101, 817 (2009) 28. Baenninger, M., Newcombe, N.: The role of experience in spatial test performance: a metaanalysis. Sex Roles 20, 327–344 (1989) 29. Carroll, J.B.: Human Cognitive Abilities. A Survey of Factor-Analytic Studies; Cambridge University Press, New York (1993)
Chapter 32
FunEasyLearn: An App for Learning Pronunciation? Adelina Castelo
Abstract The importance of both pronunciation learning/teaching and mobileassisted language learning has been intensively pointed out in the language learning research. This study brings these two lines of interest together, by aiming at identifying the possibilities of using the FunEasyLearn language learning mobile app to promote the pronunciation learning by beginners of European Portuguese in an autonomous way or as a complement to language classes. After explaining the app’s selection and reviewing some important ideas for pronunciation training, the FunEasyLearn app is described and evaluated according to the Framework for Language Learning App Evaluation by Rosell-Aguilar, and its potential for pronunciation learning is analyzed. The results show that this app: features many strengths, especially in terms of user experience and technology; has several shortcomings in terms of language learning and pedagogy; and presents various properties which make it greatly helpful to support pronunciation learning in the relevant context (e.g., audio recordings, phonetic transcriptions, an embedded system of Automatic Speech Recognition). Some proposals are made to overcome the identified challenges and to turn it even more useful for pronunciation learning.
32.1 Introduction Over the last few decades, pronunciation teaching and learning have received more attention (e.g., [1]) and even users frequently want to receive more instruction on this ability than they actually receive (e.g., [2]). One solution to this gap between the users’ needs and the class time the teachers assign to pronunciation is the recourse A. Castelo (B) Grupo EL@N, LE@D-Laboratório de Educação a Distância e eLearning (UID 4372/FCT), Universidade Aberta - Depart. Humanidades, Rua Almirante Barroso, n.º 38, 1000-013 Lisbon, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] Centro de Linguística da Universidade de Lisboa (UIDB/00214/2020/FCT), Faculdade de Letras da UL, CLUL, Alameda da Universidade, 1600-214 Lisbon, Portugal © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 A. Mesquita et al. (eds.), Perspectives and Trends in Education and Technology, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 256, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5063-5_32
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to computer-assisted pronunciation training that can be applied by means of several different devices and methodologies (e.g., [2]). One of these possibilities lies in the language learning through mobile devices (mobile-assisted language learning), on the move and with several other advantages, nowadays assuming various forms, such as the use of mobile apps especially designed for language learning (e.g., [3–6]). Considering the facts previously mentioned, this study aims at identifying the possibilities of using the FunEasyLearn language learning mobile app (version 6.4.2) [7] to promote the pronunciation learning by beginners of European Portuguese (EP) in an autonomous way or as a complement to language classes. The choice of this particular mobile app is due to several reasons: • it is presented as a (general) language app (i.e., not exclusively concerned with grammar, vocabulary, dictionary, translation, etc.); • it is available both for EP and Brazilian Portuguese (BP), while most apps only offer one variety of Portuguese (as it is the case of the popular app Duolingo, presented in [8] and including only the BP variety); • it has beginner level (Level 1) of EP for English-speaking users; • it has been downloaded by more than 100.000 users and has an average of more than four (out of five) stars in users’ reviews [9]; • there is an available free version for the Android operating system. Although there are many mobile apps for learning Portuguese, many of them only include the variety of BP, do not have a free version with daily unlimited time of use, or do not meet any of the other requirements. This paper will include the presentation of some important ideas for pronunciation training (Sect. 32.2), the general description and evaluation of the FunEasyLearn app (Sect. 32.3.1), its potential for pronunciation learning (Sect. 32.3.2), and the final remarks (Sect. 32.4).
32.2 Pronunciation Training: Some Important Ideas Instructed-language learning in general, according to the main findings of second language acquisition research, should follow certain principles systematized by [10]. Considering these principles and also the proposals by [11] and [12], it is possible to highlight the importance of some ideas in pronunciation training: • requirement of extensive input (big amount of comprehensible input and contact time with the target language); • opportunities for controlled and spontaneous or free output (the controlled output is more associated with intensive practice and helps to automatize some aspects of pronunciation; the spontaneous or free output is linked to communicative tasks, focus on meaning, and shows the real competence of the speaker); • the importance of feedback (that allows the learner to identify what should be corrected in her/his pronunciation through some focus on form).
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Besides, the research in pronunciation teaching and learning has pointed out the relevance of some other ideas. For instance, pronunciation training should take into consideration four levels [1]: • perceptual (training that leads the learners to attend to sound contrasts absent in their native language); • motor/physical (some knowledge and considerable articulatory practice in order to acquire new articulatory movements); • cognitive (promotion of the formation of new mental sound categories that are used for the perception and the pronunciation, gained mainly through the perceptual training, considerable exposure to the target language, and intensive output practice); • psychosocial (fostering of beneficial conscious and unconscious attitudes in the learners concerning their pronunciation training—e.g., promote motivation for improving pronunciation, autonomy, and initiative in the training). Pronunciation teaching should also integrate implicit (i.e., focused on listening and imitation in an intuitive manner) and explicit approaches (i.e., based on descriptions and explanations about the pronunciation that raise language awareness, consciousness of the language properties, and differences compared to the mother tongue) [13]. Other specific strategies are also recommended—such as a multimodal approach (where one combines visual, auditory, kinaesthetic, and tactile cues to present and practice a target structure) [14] or the usage of orthography as a cue to certain sound contrasts [15]. Taking all these suggestions into account, [16] proposed a framework for pronunciation teaching, which is adapted in Fig. 32.1. Although it was created for pronunciation instruction, this framework can also be used for pronunciation (self-)teaching or (self-)training. Consequently, it is adopted in this paper as a synthesis of what should be looked for in a mobile app to be used as a tool for pronunciation (self-)learning.
Fig. 32.1 A framework to pronunciation teaching (adapted from [16])
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Summarizing this framework, pronunciation (self-)teaching should include moments of: extensive input; controlled output with smaller units for intensive practice of specific sound structures; spontaneous output with bigger units integrated into communicative situations; feedback. Simultaneously, it should use an integrative approach that combines implicit and explicit strategies for training the motor, perceptual, and cognitive levels of pronunciation and that fosters motivation and autonomy for learning pronunciation (thus, focusing on the psychosocial level). To help a learner to master a difficult sound contrast in the target language, the teacher could combine these principles in different ways. For instance, she/he could: • motivate the learner to learn the sound contrast, by showing its importance in the target language and thus focusing on the psychosocial level of pronunciation training; • use the technique of high variability phonetic training [17] (since listening to a sound contrast by different speakers and in various phonetic contexts with corrective feedback has proved to be efficient in promoting the development of mental categories for new sounds) and thus deal with the auditory and cognitive levels of pronunciation training in an implicit way; • present extra input and explain articulatory descriptions to develop the motor level of pronunciation training with an explicit approach that could also use multimodal cues (association with an image, onomatopoeic sounds, gestures, the spelling form); • give opportunities to imitate the teacher or other model as an intensive practice of the new sound contrast’s articulation and, consequently, offer training at the pronunciation’s motor level in an implicit approach by imitation; • offer feedback on the previous activity of imitation; • ask for the performance of communicative tasks whose success partially depends on words with the target sound contrast; • give corrective feedback on the pronunciation during the communicative task.
32.3 The FunEasyLearn App 32.3.1 General Description and Evaluation The mobile app FunEasyLearn allows the user to employ her/his mother tongue to learn several different languages. This paper will focus only on the free version of the EP course for English-speakers, version 6.4.2 for Android, where all the titles, instructions, and translations are in English. On top of the main screen, the user can choose the language course and the level for words and sentences, as well as check the received notifications. At the bottom, there are four options: Learn (which allows the user to select whether she/he wants to learn words or sentences at the moment), You (which directs the user to the options Review and Favorites), Stats (where the user’s progress can be tracked), and More
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(including several options and settings). In the center of the screen for Learn, the user finds big icons with topics: When a topic is chosen (e.g., Describing people), several subtopics appear (e.g., Characteristics 1; Physical States; Feelings); when a subtopic is selected, several exercises will appear. Each subtopic—corresponding to a short lesson—generally includes 4–5 words or sentences. In total, the free version of the course includes around 460 words and 350 sentences. To support learning of new words, there are flashcards showing an image, the written word, the word’s meaning in English, an audio recording of a native speaker at normal and slow speech rate, a tool of Automatic Speech Recognition (ASR), the phonetic transcription in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), as well as some morphosyntactic information (part of speech, gender and number, definite article). The flashcards to learn new sentences are similar to those for words, with the difference that they include the register information (formal vs. informal language) instead of the morphosyntactic information. After seeing the flashcards for new words, the user can do six types of exercises, related either to reading and meaning association, translation, writing with the given letters or listening. For the sentences, there are ten different types of exercises, based on the same activities as for words and also including an exercise of finding the wrong word in the sentence. The same exercises are used both to learn and to review the words or sentences. The evaluation process of this app was conducted by the author (a researcher in foreign language teaching and learning, material designer, and language teacher who is a native speaker of EP). After exploring the app as a user during a few days (its content, exercises, menus, and options), the author inspected every piece of content and used the criteria of Framework for Language Learning App Evaluation by Rosell-Aguilar [5] to evaluate the app. More specifically, the evaluator did a qualitative analysis by answering the questions/criteria proposed in the framework. As these questions/criteria do not present a scale nor a specific tendency (e.g., it is not the case that all affirmative answers correspond to a strength of the app and all negative ones to a shortcoming), the author decided to convert the answers to each criterion into a classification mark: positive (+), whenever the (affirmative or negative) answers to the questions of the framework constitute a strength of the app; negative (-), whenever the answers reveal app’s limitations; or neutral (±), if the answers show simultaneously some affordances and some limitations of the app. Tables 32.1 and 32.2 show the results of this evaluation process. Under the category Language Learning, four criteria are evaluated as positive— Listening, Speaking, Vocabulary, and Pronunciation & intonation. Although the listening and speaking skills are only approached at the word and sentence levels (there are no texts) and the number of activities possible for pronunciation and intonation is extremely limited, it is possible to consider that the app offers some opportunities to promote these abilities. The vocabulary is definitively the component that receives the most attention. Also, four criteria are evaluated as negative—Reading, Writing, Grammar, and Cultural information—since there are no explicit activities for grammar and cultural information and almost no opportunities to practice reading (there are no texts at all) and writing (the app only includes some letters to reorder into words, or words to reorder into sentences). In terms of Use of visual content
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Table 32.1 Evaluation of the FunEasyLearn app using [5]’s framework Language learning
Evaluation
Pedagogy
Evaluation
Reading
–
Description
±
Listening
+ (words/sentences)
Teaching
± (present & test)
Writing
–
Progress
+
Speaking
+ (words/sentences)
Scaffolding
–
Vocabulary
+
Feedback
± (only right/wrong)
Grammar
–
Quality of content
±
Pronunciation & intonation
+
Use of media
+
Cultural information
–
Differentiation
+
Use of visual content
±
Engagement
±
Language varieties
±
Table 32.2 Evaluation of the FunEasyLearn app using [5]’s framework (continued)
User experience Evaluation
Technology
Evaluation
Interaction
–
Interface
+
Interactivity
+
Navigation
+
Sharing
–
Instructions
+
Badging
+
Stability
+
Price
± (free + paid) Gamification +
Registration
+
Support
+
Advertising
+
Offline work
+
and Language varieties, this app uses images and audio purposely created, as well as covers EP and BP. However, EP and BP are presented in different courses, the other varieties of Portuguese are never represented in the beginner level, and the used images do not represent the diversity of the areas where Portuguese is spoken. So, the analyzed app only reaches an average level of performance in terms of the Language Learning category. As far as Pedagogy is concerned, the criteria Progress, Use of media and Differentiation can be are evaluated as positive, as the app allows the user to track her/his progress and see previous attempts, combines sound and images in a meaningful way (but it could also benefit from the inclusion of videos and of audio recordings by more than just two different native speakers), and offers different levels that can be accessed directly (although only one level is free). As for Scaffolding, the app does not seem to progress in difficulty or offer any specific pedagogical support. The other criteria can be considered neutral: the Description on the app store promises more than the app really offers; the Teaching only includes presenting and testing; the Feedback is just right/wrong without meaningful explanations; the Quality of content is far from faultless, as there are many errors (especially in phonetic transcription but also in translation, grammar, and the choice of words to learn); the Engagement
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is not warranted, due to the repetitive nature of the activities. Therefore, the app’s level of performance in the category Pedagogy is also only average. The User experience can be considered positive according to four criteria: Interactivity (the user can have some active engagement with the app, as she/he can choose what and how to review); Badging (it is possible to share the user’s accomplishments on social media); Registration (the user only needs to register if she/he wants to track progress); Advertising (as the app does not include ads). Two criteria are evaluated as negative: Interaction (as users cannot interact with each other) and Sharing (since sharing content is not facilitated). In terms of Price, the app can be evaluated as neutral, because it has a free—although limited—version. Consequently, the user experience in this app can be considered good. As for the Technology category, the FunEasyLearn app can be evaluated as very good, since all criteria in this category can receive a positive mark. The Interface is clear and uncluttered; the Navigation is intuitive; there are some Instructions on how to use the app; it presents Stability with no crashing or freezing; there is a help section for Support; the app permits Offline work; there are several types of Gamification according to the Octalysis Framework for Gamification and Behavioral Design by Chou [18] (especially based on the Core Drive of Accomplishment and Development through the game techniques of Points, Badges, Rewards, Progress Bar and High Five, but also including: Dynamic Feedback and Blank Fills, related to the Empowerment Core Drive; Virtual Goods, associated with the Ownership Core Drive; and Streaking, related to the Avoidance Core Drive). Considering all these aspects, the app is clearly above average in terms of user experience and technology, but still presents several shortcomings as far as language learning and pedagogy are concerned. In these last two respects, the app actually is an example of a typical language learning mobile app: It almost entirely focuses on vocabulary or sentences deprived of context; it is especially based on translation, gamified short lessons and repetition for rote learning, in an autonomous and strictly individual way. Like in many other apps (e.g., [8]), the pedagogical choices reveal the influence of behaviorism, audiolingual and translation methodologies, but do not seem to consider the importance of task-based language learning, social interaction in the construction of language competence, and the affordances of language awareness.
32.3.2 Potential for Pronunciation Learning Despite the shortcomings presented in the last section, this app shows a great potential for supporting pronunciation learning, mainly at the sound level, thanks to various features. Each new word or sentence is associated with audio recordings by native speakers, and these recordings can be listened to in two different speech rates (normal and slow). Consequently, the user can repeat the listening as much as she/he wants, at a normal or slow rate, and easily has access to comprehensible input to help her/him to memorize the targets’ phonological form.
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Phonetic transcription in IPA is also linked to each new word or sentence. As previously mentioned, the only problem in this feature of the app is that it presents many errors. Besides, it could be convenient to offer the user some explanation on the IPA symbols, like presenting one symbol and examples of its sound through the native language (equivalent sound in the mother tongue or explanations on the differences between the closest sound in the mother tongue and the target sound). Despite this issue, having the visual information of phonetic transcription is crucial to help the user to correctly identify the sounds in each target. Even if the learner cannot perceptively distinguish two dissimilar sounds, the presence of different symbols in the phonetic transcription will allow her/him to realize the sounds’ distinction and will help to possibly reach the necessary development of the separate mental categories for these sounds. As mentioned in previous works for spelling (e.g., [15]), the visual cues can help to recognize the distinction between contrasting sounds that are perceptively and articulatorily difficult to differentiate for a non-native language learner. For each new target, there is also an image and its written form. The presence of these visual cues can also foster the memorization of the word or sentence. The more cues are available, the more likely it is that the user will learn the target in a more complete way: with its semantic content, written form, and phonological form. Another important feature for learning pronunciation consists in the presence of some exercises that precisely focus on practicing listening the target words or sentences and present immediate automatic feedback. These aspects help the user to check her/his listening skill and improve it, as she/he can hear the targets many times and each hearing experience constitutes input that will strengthen her/his mental representation of the targets’ phonological forms. This app also embeds the use of an ASR system. Although the system used in the app reveals some lack of accuracy (sometimes it does not correctly recognize what is produced), it still corresponds to a strength compared to its absence (as in other apps). Whenever the user (re)views the flashcards for a new target, she/he can practice its pronunciation by clicking on the ASR button, producing the target, and checking the spelled form of what the system could recognize. This tool is especially useful for helping to learn the correct pronunciation of a new item, and also for practicing controlled output and receiving visual and immediate feedback on this practice. As seen before, some studies use this type of tools to help learners to solve their pronunciation difficulties (e.g., [6]). Finally, the immediate and automatic feedback on all activities included in the app also increases the app’s potential for learning pronunciation. The feedback is crucial for improving the learner’s pronunciation level and through the app she/he can receive this feedback as much as she/he wants it. In fact, the app permits the learner to practice pronunciation (through input, controlled output, and feedback) autonomously and receive much more feedback than it would be possible to receive in a class. So, all these FunEasyLearn app’s features allow the user to have extra autonomous time on the task of learning the EP pronunciation, by having intensive practice in
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listening to comprehensible input, producing controlled output, and receiving feedback on that input recognition and controlled output. Besides, all this can be achieved just by using an easily accessible mobile device, while being on the move. However, it is also important to note that the app alone is not enough for the user to learn the language, as it does not cover many elements implied in learning a language (e.g., reading and writing, social interaction, language awareness, and grammar) and is not sufficient even for learning pronunciation, since it does not give the user the chance to practice spontaneous output. Consequently, a very good way of using this app for learning pronunciation would be to employ it as a complement to other(s) form(s) of learning/teaching. For instance, it could be used in a totally autonomous way by students also having language classes or its usage could be promoted by an “integration” in a learning/teaching context as a tool for specific home assignments (e.g., learning a list of new items or reviewing older ones to prepare for classroom exercises of listening comprehension, dictation, role play; reviewing some items having a specific target sound to solve particular pronunciation difficulties).
32.4 Final Remarks The description and evaluation of the Level 1’s free version of EP course in FunEasyLearn app for English-speakers reveal a very good app considering the user experience and especially the technological aspects. However, these simultaneously show many challenges that the app designers should try to overcome to make it go further in terms of language learning and pedagogy (in general), as well as pronunciation learning (in particular). As far as general language learning is concerned, it should mainly try to incorporate reading and writing activities, more communicative-based tasks, basic explanations of grammar and cultural aspects, and the possibility of interaction among users. Some of these are indeed particularly challenging issues: Highly creative solutions are required to make a mobile app go further in providing a rich language learning tool. In particular for the pronunciation learning, besides trying to solve problems like the correction of phonetic transcriptions and the accuracy level of the ASR system, the app could start to include simple speaking activities that motivate spontaneous output, like describing a picture or answering some specific questions. Considering all the aspects previously pointed out, ideally the app should have its architecture expanded. The analyzed version of the app already includes the blocks of words and sentences under the Learn Option. To cover the missing areas/skills, the new architecture could take in three more blocks: • Texts (with texts covering different topics, namely cultural information, and linked to activities of listening comprehension and reading); • Tasks (containing specific communicative tasks to interact with other users through writing and spontaneous speaking);
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• Grammar (including simple explanations of the relevant grammar points, namely those related to pronunciation such as IPA symbols and phonics). Despite the pointed shortcomings, even without the expansion of its architecture, the app constitutes an extremely helpful means to learn EP and its pronunciation. In fact, this simply accessible and user-friendly tool can be a complement to different learning/teaching situations, for instance as a tool for the learner’s autonomous and intensive practice or for home assignments that guide the user’s learning with the app. To make the app even more “powerful,” it would be convenient for app designers and second language acquisition experts to work more closely together.
References 1. Grant, L.: Prologue to the myths: What teachers need to know. In: Grant, L., Brinton, D.M., Derwing, T., Munro, M.J., Field, J., Gilbert, J., Murphy, J., Tomson, R., Zielinski, B., Yates, L. (eds.) Pronunciation myths. Applying second language research to classroom teaching, pp. 1–33. University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor (2014) 2. O’Brien, M.: Why train pronunciation with computer technology? (2018). http://www.pronun ciationforteachers.com/key-concepts.html. Accessed 07 Apr 2021 3. Kukulska-Hulme, A.: Will mobile learning change language learning? ReCALL 21(2), 157– 165 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1017/S0958344009000202 4. Kukulska-Hulme, A., Viberg, O.: Mobile collaborative language learning: state of the art. Br. J. Edu. Technol. 49(2), 207–218 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.12580 5. Rosell-Aguilar, F.: State of the app: a taxonomy and framework for evaluating language learning mobile applications. Calico J. 34(2), 243–258 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1558/cj.27623 6. Liakin, D., Cardoso, W., Liakina, N.: Learning L2 pronunciation with a mobile speech recognizer: French /y/. Calico J. 32(1), 1–25 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1558/cj.v32i1.25962 7. FunEasyLearn Homepage, https://www.funeasylearn.com/. Accessed 28 Mar 2021 8. Teske, K.: Learning technology review. Duolingo. Calico J. 34(3), 393–401 (2017). https://doi. org/10.1558/cj.32509 9. Google Play Store, https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.funeasylearn.portug uese. Accessed 05 Apr 2021 10. Ellis, R.: Principles of instructed language learning. System 33(2), 209–224 (2005). https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2004.12.006 11. Celce-Murcia, M., Brinton, D., Goodwin, J., Griner, B.: Teaching Pronunciation: A Course Book and Reference Guide, 2nd edn. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (2010) 12. Alves, U.: Ensino de pronúncia na sala de aula de língua estrangeira: questões de discussão a partir de uma concepção de língua como sistema adaptativo e complexo. Revista Versalete 3(5), 392–413 (2015) 13. Hashemian, M., Fadaei, B.: A Comparative Study of Intuitive-imitative and analytic-linguistic approaches towards teaching English vowels to L2 learners. J. Lang. Teach. Res. 2(5), 969–976 (2011). https://doi.org/10.4304/jltr.2.5.969-976 14. Hi¸smano˘glu, M.: Current perspectives on pronunciation, learning and teaching. J. Lang. Linguistic Stud. 2(1), 101–110 (2006) 15. Hayes-Harb, R.: How Does Orthography Affect Pronunciation in a Second Language? (2018), http://www.pronunciationforteachers.com/key-concepts.html. Accessed 07 Apr 2021 16. Castelo, A.: Ensino da componente fonético-fonológica: uma síntese e um exemplo de português para estrangeiros. Linguística: Revista de Estudos Linguísticos da Universidade do Porto 12, 41–72 (2017)
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17. Barriuso, T.A., Hayes-Harb, R.: High variability phonetic training as a bridge from research to practice. The Catesol J. 30(1), 177–194 (2018) 18. Chou, Y.K.: The Octalysis Framework for Gamification & Behavioral Design. https://yukaic hou.com/gamification-examples/octalysis-complete-gamification-framework/. Accessed 14 May 2021
Chapter 33
The Influence of Higher Education Institutions on the Digital Development of the Regions Filipa da Rocha Teixeira, Maria José Angélico Gonçalves, and Maria de Lourdes Machado Taylor Abstract In recent years, there has been a rapid development of technological innovation. Digital transformation increases the competitiveness of companies, improves the economic positioning of organizations, and is responsible for the globalization of business. On the other hand, it requires new work procedures, training, and new digital skills. With the growth of innovation, the demand for differentiated and highly qualified training with technological knowledge has been growing between institutions and countries. Based on this assumption, this paper aims to identify the influence that Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) play in the digital development of the metropolitan regions, especially the Public Polytechnic Institutes in the Porto Metropolitan Area, in North of Portugal. To collect useful information, a survey by questionnaire was applied to a sample of Porto Polytechnic alumni between May and October 2020. The results allowed us to verify the positive influence of HEIs in the digital development of the regions. Moreover, it is possible to identify the motivations of companies to adopt digital transformation and the skills needed to respond to the new demands of the labor market.
33.1 Introduction The globalization and economic internationalization that has been noted in recent years are essentially due to the growing political, economic, and financial interdependence of relations between different countries [1].
F. da Rocha Teixeira (B) Polytechnic of Porto, ISCAP, Porto, Portugal M. J. A. Gonçalves Polytechnic of Porto, ISCAP / CEOS P.P, Porto, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] M. de Lourdes Machado Taylor Center for Research On Higher Education Policies (CIPES), Porto, Portugal © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 A. Mesquita et al. (eds.), Perspectives and Trends in Education and Technology, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 256, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5063-5_33
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To ensure business development and add value, digital technologies have been integrated within organizations, with the aim of improving their products and services [2, 3]. The innovation of production and business processes and the implementation of intelligent machines and devices offer numerous productivity benefits in production, resource efficiency, and waste reduction [4]. With the new trends, as well as with the new skills required by the labor market [5], companies and HEIs saw the need to train people with digital skills and basic programming knowledge [6]. Competitiveness in higher education has been growing between institutions and countries, and European universities have changed their teaching methods [7], to prepare increasingly qualified professionals in different areas of knowledge [8]. The main objective of this study was to identify the influence that HEIs play in the digital development of the regions, especially the Public Polytechnic Institutes of the Metropolitan Area of Porto. The methodology adopted was an exploratory study, using questionnaires. The analysis of the questionnaires allowed to verify the positive influence that HEIs have on the digital development of the regions of the Metropolitan Area of Porto. It also made it possible to identify the motivations that lead companies to adopt the digital transformation and the skills necessary for the new demands of the labor market. After this brief introduction, the next section presents the literature review, with a brief reference to higher education, the concept of digital transformation, and the role developed by higher education in the digital transformation. The next section presents the research questions, the objectives, and the methodology used. The fourth section presents the results obtained with data collection and data analysis. Finally, the fifth section presents the conclusions of the study and its limitations, as well as the expectation of future work.
33.2 Theoretical Background The Portuguese Polytechnic Institutes emerged to expand Higher Education in the country, the regions they were located and where there were no universities. Nevertheless, their training offer was designed to respond to the needs of the labor market in the regions [9]. In 1985, the Polytechnic Institute of Porto (IPP) was founded. The IPP includes eight public institutes spread over three campuses, 24 research centers, 56 degrees, 62 master’s degrees, a variety of specialized training, and more than 18 thousand students [10] and offers two PhDs available in the areas of Biotechnology and Education, in partnerships with universities in Salamanca, Santiago de Compostela, and Vigo, giving preference to internationalization strategies [10]. At the international level, the IPP is recognized for its interaction with the world of work, for its strong orientation toward teaching in real contexts and for the development of transversal skills, entrepreneurship, and culture. It participates in several European and Intercontinental leadership projects in the USA, Latin America, Africa,
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and Asia, in knowledge and highly competitive areas, such as biotechnology, energy, and technology. In this sense, in the following subsection, we address the country’s current economic context and the importance of innovation and digital transformation for society.
33.2.1 The Portuguese Economy and the Digital Transformation In the current context of globalization and European integration, economic growth is essential to improve the quality of life and to solve economic and social problems [11]. Globalization implies changes in the organization of economic activity and in the “capacity to sustain industries that are globally competitive” [12]. According to [13], Portugal has quality and government efficiency and has political stability and the absence of violence or terrorism; thus, education is the indicator that will promote greater economic growth. In this context, it is expected that the country’s management capacity improves with the quality of management schools and that public reforms are adapted to macroeconomic objectives [14]. There is a positive relationship between the growth of higher education and regional economic growth, and a 10% increase in the number of academic units is normally associated with an increase of 0.4% in the region’s GDP per capita [15]. The contribution of HEIs is not confined only to the region where they are located, but also to neighboring regions, with their strongest impact on the geographically closest regions [15]. Historically, HEIs have been a political instrument for regional economic, social, and sustainable development [16, 17] and companies that benefit from clusters, perform their activities better, and are more productive [18]. The term digital transformation is attributed to various forms of technological innovation, in both industry and society. It refers to the process of globalization and adaptation of communities, organizations, and nations, to digitalization [19]. Companies adopt digital transformation to improve their business, differentiation, and competitiveness strategies [20]. Digital transformation, namely Industry 4.0, is the implementation and integration of a variety of digital information and technological operation, as well as industrial sensors and controllers, automatically driven vehicles, robots, augmented and virtual reality, data analysis, cloud computing, Internet of services (IoS), design and production aided by high-performance computers, based on computing and artificial intelligence (AI) [4]. The next subsection presents the importance of the role that higher education plays in the digital transformation of society.
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33.2.2 The Role of Higher Education in Digital Transformation Despite the contribution of innovation in society in a world in constant discovery, it is necessary that education and higher education go along with technological development, to qualify and instruct people with the necessary knowledge, to understand science and assist their professional, personal, and political choices [21]. Digital technologies have assumed an increasingly important role in higher education methods, and digital transformation initiatives are the focus of a new generation of EU policies for 2020 [22]. The main challenges of innovation are to strengthen the European higher education area and guarantee its quality, through internal and external resources, such as quality assurance mechanisms [23]. Nevertheless, it is necessary for HEIs, companies, and governments to update strategic plans and define the implementation of specific actions for Industry 4.0, such as increasing stakeholder involvement, establishing innovative resources for higher education students, and create postgraduate programming creative strategies of Industry 4.0, to develop skills and cultivate experiences [24]. The use of technology in teaching is a competitive and innovative strategy. The evolution of technologies facilitates access to higher education and the success of online resources used in classroom and distance learning [25]. The great trait of higher education is to train competent citizens who are committed to the scientific and technological development of the area in which they work [8]. HEIs are institutions that have adapted to various political, social, and technical changes, and that currently must adapt to a dynamic and technological environment, in a world in digital evolution [26]. The next section presents the details of the methodology followed in this research study.
33.3 Research Issues, Objectives, and Methodology The selection of the research methodology to be applied always depends on the phenomenon to be studied [27]. To answer the objective of the study, and consequently to the research questions formulated, a descriptive exploratory study with a quantitative approach was carried out. For Fortin [28, p. 51], the research question is defined as: “an explicit question regarding a domain that must be explored in order to obtain new information.” Thus, considering the problem and the purpose of the study, we define the following research question: What is the influence of Public Polytechnic Institutes in the Porto Metropolitan Area on Regional Digital Development? To answer the research question posed, the following specific research questions were defined:
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RQ1: What are the main motivations for companies to adopt digital transformation? RQ2: What skills are needed for young people to enter the labor market? RQ3: How the HEIs contribute to the digital development of the regions where they operate? The objectives of this study are: • • • •
Identify the motivations for technological innovation; Identify the process of implementing the digital transformation; Identify the resources needed to develop the strategy; Identify the impact of digital transformation on organizational culture, namely on staff motivation and stakeholder satisfaction; • Identify the contribution to society and to the agents involved. The work started, proceeding to the collection of data through a questionnaire, directed to the alumni1 of the Public Polytechnic Institutes of the Metropolitan Area of Porto, namely the Polytechnic Institute of Porto, to know their future experiences and perspectives in the labor market, and how higher education can contribute and respond to stakeholder requirements. The next section presents the data collection techniques referred to.
33.4 Data Collection Process For the questionnaire, it was decided to use forms with validated scales in other research projects, with similar questions, namely the form of a study by the European Economic and Social Committee [30] and the form of the U-Value Project [31]. The questionnaire is organized into four sections: Profile, Perception, Participation, and Contribution and consists of 23 questions. The first section identifies the profile of the interviewee, the area of training, the academic qualifications, and the professional path. The Perception section aims to identify the main motivations and challenges for the implementation of digital transformation, identify the main advantages and disadvantages of adopting digital transformation, identify the level of importance to acquire new digital skills, and identify the contribution of teaching superior in preparing students for the job market. The Participation section identifies the involvement of organizations in innovation and development projects and the origin of investments for the projects. The last section aims (i) to identify the contribution of higher education to regional digital development; (ii) to identify the main resources of HEIs that contribute to regional development; and (iii) to identify the positive effects of HEIs in the regions where they operate. In some questions, the response method adopted was an open and free response to cases in which it did not
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Alumni is a term used to refer to former students of higher education [29].
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apply. Likert scales were also used to measure the levels of importance and agreement. To launch the questionnaire, a random sample was selected for convenience, which included the alumni of the Polytechnic of Porto, to assess the perception of former students, about the contribution of higher education in the acquisition of skills, essentially digital, required by the labor market. This type of sample is not considered representative of the population; however, according to [32], it is the most useful for capturing general ideas, as well as for identifying critical aspects to be analyzed. The questionnaire was prepared on Google Forms and was disseminated by email on the ISCAP and ISEP alumni network, and shared by the personal and professional network, through social networks, such as LinkedIn and Facebook. The questionnaires were distributed between October and November 2020, and we obtained 37 responses. Data analysis was conducted in SPSS, version 22. In the characterization of the sample and description of the variables, absolute (n) and relative (%) frequencies were used. To assess the association between categorical variables, the chi-square test was used. Alternatively, Fisher’s test was used in case of non-compliance with the assumption of a maximum of 20% of cells with an expected frequency below five in the contingency table. The level of significance considered for rejection of the null hypothesis was 5%. Once the methodology, the research questions and the objective of this study have been identified, the conditions to present the results obtained in the next section are met.
33.5 Discussion of Results In this section, the main ideas and conclusions produced in the analysis of the questionnaires were synthesized, to relate the results obtained.
33.5.1 Motivations and Challenges In the questionnaires, the results indicate that the main motivations for the implementation of the digital transformation are related to customer expectations, business growth, and business model innovation. It was also found that respondents with working time in the sector up to 5 years, more often agreed, that personalization of services is a motivation for the implementation of digital transformation, unlike participants with time in the sector greater than 5 years old. In the literature review, it was also found that companies have adopted digital transformation to improve their business, differentiation, and competitiveness strategies [20]. At the level of challenges, in the questionnaires, the results revealed that the main challenges are cultural and behavioral resistance, a lack of mentality oriented toward change, and a lack of understanding of digital trends. The results also revealed that for respondents with more than 5 years of working time, low functional collaboration is
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a challenge, as opposed to respondents with sector time equal to or less than 5 years. In the literature review, one of the challenges mentioned was efficiency, because for decision makers, one of the main challenges is to achieve more efficient management and to improve competitiveness [33].
33.5.2 Skills and Participation In what concerns the skills, participants identified the importance of acquiring new skills with digital trends and referred to participation or collaboration in research, innovation, and development projects. In the analysis of the questionnaires, the results indicate (with more than 50%) that it is very important to acquire new skills to respond to the new demands and evolution of the labor market. In the literature review, Sallati [5] also mentioned that professionals and students of higher education must follow the evolution and changes required by the labor market and develop their skills. For Kaplan [6], it is important to train people with digital skills, namely basic knowledge of AI and programming, to respond to companies looking for professionals for technical staff, in need of knowledge in the areas of technology and innovation [13]. In terms of participation in innovation and development projects, it was found that most respondents have already participated in innovation and research projects with the aim of technological and digital development of the organization in which they work or society.
33.5.3 Contribution Respondents were also asked about the influence of higher education on regional digital development and conveyed their perception of the contribution of higher education in preparing students for the labor market. In the analysis of the questionnaires, in the question about the tools acquired in higher education are those necessary for the labor market, the respondents revealed a neutral position. Regarding the influence of higher education on regional digital development, it was found that, in general, HEIs contribute positively to regional development. Participants also indicated that higher education influences employment, quality of life at work, and increased knowledge and skills at the regional level. Once again, the results of the questionnaires are in line with the literature review. There is a positive relationship between the growth of higher education and regional economic growth [15], especially about polytechnic higher education, which is sometimes located in the less developed regions. Polytechnic higher education plays a very important role in regional development [34], because its training offer was developed to respond to the needs of the labor market in the regions [9].
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After all the conditions are met, such as the literature review and the analysis of the questionnaire results, the conclusion of this study is presented in the next section.
33.6 Conclusion This research aimed to understand the importance of the digital transformation and Industry 4.0 in society and not just to identify its advantages and disadvantages as well as to understand the efforts made by the HEIs to follow this evolution and the influence they represent for the regions and, consequently, for the economic and social development of the country. Based on this assumption, a set of research questions were formulated to answer the question and main question of this study. The research questions were answered according to the set of data obtained from the interviews and the questionnaires. The main motivations for companies to adopt digital transformation, in response to RQ1, are customer expectations, business growth, and business model innovation, namely customer contact, process optimization, information collection, control, and cost reduction. In terms of the skills needed for young people to enter the labor market, in response to RQ2, there is technical and scientific knowledge at the technological level, such as programming and AI, as well as differentiated training. As for the RQ3 question, the analysis of the results revealed that HEIs contribute to the digital development of the regions, especially in the regions where they operate. Participants indicated that higher education contributes to job creation, to improve the quality of life at work, and to the acquisition of knowledge and skills. Finally, in response to the main question, “What is the influence of Public Polytechnic Institutes in the region of the Metropolitan Area of Porto on regional digital development?” According to the size of our sample and the data collected, we can conclude that, in general, the Polytechnic Institutes positively influence the digital development of the regions, through the training of technicians in the scientific and economic areas of each region [34], which translates, as previously mentioned in the response to the IQ3, in job creation, in improving the quality of life, and in the acquisition of knowledge and skills, important to respond to the needs of the labor market in the regions [9]. The influence of educational institutions is not confined only to the region where they are located, but also to neighboring regions; however, this effect has a greater impact on the less developed regions of the country [15]. It is also concluded that digital transformation and Industry 4.0 are a huge contribution to the development of companies in different sectors and in the most diverse areas, namely at the financial and accounting level. In addition to being areas that, as a rule, in comparison with the industrial sector, requires investment to implement the new lower innovation systems, they are areas that, when developed, bring numerous benefits to companies, especially about data communication, to generate and report information to decision makers [35]. AI systems are information systems that solve problems to achieve the best result based on the available data. Paschen
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[36] argues that companies should integrate AI for knowledge management and for sharing quality information, without errors and at less cost. However, it is important to be aware that AI can help to create information, but people must know how to interpret it [36]. Throughout this study, some difficulties were felt in obtaining answers to the research questions. One of the main difficulties was in obtaining responses to the questionnaires. Even though the questionnaire was widely publicized, we were unable to obtain the desired number of responses. One of the reasons may have been because the theme is about Industry 4.0 and people are not aware of the concept and did not adhere to the questionnaire. As future research, it is proposed that the study should be replicated in other regions of the country and in other countries. It is also proposed that a study be carried out on the implementation of Industry 4.0 in companies, by sector. With the completion of this research work, it is expected that it can contribute to future work and knowledge enrichment, in terms of digital transformation and development of higher education.
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28. Fortin, M. F.: O Processo de Investigação: Da concepção à Realização. Loures: LusociênciaEdições técnicas e Científicas, Lda. (1999) 29. ISCTE, «Alumnus, alumni = “antigo aluno”, “antigos alunos”—Ciberdúvidas da Língua Portuguesa», 2015. https://ciberduvidas.iscte-iul.pt/consultorio/perguntas/alumnus-alumni-antigo-aluno-antigos-alunos/33627 (consulted. May 12, 2020) 30. How the Digital Transformation can put humans at the centre of robotics and automation, European Economic and Social Committee, 2020. https://www.eesc.europa.eu/en/our-work/ publications-other-work/publications/how-digital-transformation-can-put-humans-centre-rob otics-and-automation (consulted April. 30, 2020) 31. Project activities—Projeto U-Value. http://wordpress.ubi.pt/uvalue/atividades-do-projeto/ (consultedMay. 12, 2020) 32. Sousa, M. J., Baptista, S., Como Fazer Investigação, Dissertações, Tese e Relatórios—Segundo Bolonha, 5a. Pactor - Edições de Ciências Sociais, Forenses e da Educação, 2014. Available in: https://www.wook.pt/livro/como-fazer-investigacao-dissertacoes-tese-e-relatorios-cri stina-sales-baptista/11006357 33. Martínez-Campillo, A., Fernández-Santos, Y.: The impact of the economic crisis on the (in)efficiency of public Higher Education institutions in Southern Europe: The case of Spanish universities. Socioecon. Plann. Sci., p. 100771, (Nov 2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seps. 2019.100771 34. Urbano, C.: A (id)entidade do ensino superior politécnico em Portugal: da Lei de Bases do Sistema Educativo à Declaração de Bolonha / La (id)entidad de la enseñanza superior politécnica en Portugal: de la ley de bases del sistema educativo a la Declaración de Boloña / Essence and identity in polytechnic higher education in Portugal: from the basic law on the educational system to the Bologna Declaration / L’(id)entité de l’enseignement supérieur polytechnique au Portugal: de la loi de bases du système éducatif à la Déclaration de Bologne. Sociol. Probl. E Práticas 66, 95–115 (2011) 35. Stanciu, A., Petrescu, M., Petrescu, A. G., Bîlcan, F. R.: Cyberaccounting for the Leaders of the Future. Improving Business Performance Through Innovation in the Digital Economy, 2020. www.igi-global.com/chapter/cyberaccounting-for-the-leaders-of-the-future/ 236932 (consulted Dez. 30, 2020) 36. Paschen, J., Wilson, M., Ferreira, J.J.: Collaborative intelligence: How human and artificial intelligence create value along the B2B sales funnel. Bus. Horiz. 63(3), 403–414 (2020). https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.bushor.2020.01.003
Chapter 34
Autonomous Control of an Electric Vehicle by Computer Vision Applied to the Teaching–Learning Process E. Fabián Rivera and Víctor H. Andaluz
Abstract The electric vehicle is an attractive tool for the study of autonomous vehicles. In education, it can provide students with concepts on the hardware and software aspects of mobile robotics; therefore, this paper proposes the autonomous control of a low-cost car-like vehicle based on real-time image processing. The vehicle is developed to implement an autonomous control algorithm using image processing, detection of horizontal and vertical traffic signs on the road. In the design of the vehicle, the transmission and steering are modified to resemble the behaviour of an electric vehicle. The implementation of artificial vision uses low-cost elements and free software such as Raspberry Pi with its respective camera module and an Arduino. The Haar Cascade classifier is used to classify the vertical signage, which consists of fast object detection based on automatic learning.
34.1 Introduction In recent years, robots have been widely used in industry for process automation to improve productivity; however, the big challenge for robotics today is to move from the industrial area to service robotics [1], e.g.: (a) Tourism, which points to a new revolution brought about by the introduction of robots and artificial intelligence using them in a collaborative way, e.g. waiter robots, cooks robot and even robots to support hotel reception and room service [2, 3]; (b) Health, where the use of medical robotics is employed to examine patient care through diagnostic and treatment tools [4], contribute to therapies requiring neurological rehabilitation for patients with functional disorders or cerebral palsy [5, 6]; (c) Agriculture, where robots are mentioned as possible solutions to improve efficiency and robustness of jobs, through multi-robot approaches. Swarm robotics emphasises aspects such as E. F. Rivera (B) · V. H. Andaluz Universidad de Las Fuerzas Armadas ESPE, Salgolquí, Ecuador e-mail: [email protected] V. H. Andaluz e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 A. Mesquita et al. (eds.), Perspectives and Trends in Education and Technology, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 256, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5063-5_34
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flexibility, scalability and robustness in solving complex tasks and is considered highly relevant for precision agriculture, computer vision weed control and largescale agricultural applications [7–10]; (d) Transport; technological innovation is a key driver for the development of the automotive industry and mobile robotics [11, 12]; therefore, its study continues to increase, developing technologies such as: robots that are used cooperatively; either for manipulation or for moving objects through structured environments; [13] (e) Education, robots are used as alternatives to develop and improve programming skills, hardware and software architecture, e.g.; Mona is an open-source, low-cost robot used in the development of swarm robotics; it allows for flexibility in both teaching and learning processes and research [14, 15]. Consequently, its study continues to increase through the development of technologies to support teaching and learning processes in different environments and applications. Educational robotics is applied in different environments depending on the need; however, the study of robotics emphasises the development of its structure in two areas of interest: (a) Hardware; robots with modular control architecture built on the basis of industrial prototypes maintain the balance between low-cost devices compared to the performance of industrial robots [16]. There are LEGO robots, where the manipulation of the pieces allows users to design geometric and mechanical structures, among others; in order to involve students in the teaching of mathematics and physics [17]. They are also applied in inclusive education; e.g. students with cultural and socioeconomic differences, gender balance, special abilities; including people with problems of “colour fading” building LEGO robots with emphasis on colours [18]. The construction of robots allows the incorporation of new sensors in order to monitor the environment in real time and in turn acquire information to process it [19]; (b) Software, the use of mobile devices in education through applications that present influence and understanding to students. They are used to understand the inner workings of robots [20], including training applications based on augmented reality [21] and virtual reality, as well as applications based on artificial vision. Computer vision systems allow learners to manipulate the robot based on visual object detection, tracking and pattern navigation [22], as well as enhance interaction with the robot through learning tools by visualising geometric figures, numbers and other mathematics-related topics [23]. Educational robotics emphasises the use of open-source and low-cost robots in both hardware and software, as this ensures affordability for learners and can enhance their learning processes [24]. Control algorithms in robots or vehicles are oriented toward autonomous and assisted driving, either for parking or for tasks that demand coordinated or fleet work [25, 26]. The different control techniques implemented in autonomous vehicles present solutions such as: (a) Geo positioning, consists of the navigation and location of the vehicle in real time. The study includes the Extended Kalman Filter, which consists of indirectly fusing measurements from low-cost inertial sensors with GPS measurements and thus estimate the position and speed of the vehicle [27]; (b) Navigation and guidance algorithms, have autonomous navigation algorithms; supported by noise measurements obtained from sensors present in the vehicle. It has a control system to follow a predefined trajectory [10]; (c) Laser technologies, there are simulations of successful path-following algorithms applied to a commercial
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vehicle, which is controlled by nodes and sensors that determine the lanes mapped, curves present and points to be moved [28]; (d) Computer vision, image processing techniques are applied to handle complex tasks; they receive the environment, identify objects on the road and allow appropriate commands to be sent to the vehicle [29]. Controls and navigation of ground vehicles exist for global tasks; many of them with local and wireless positioning systems for optimal tracking and navigation, as well as search and location applications for centralised, distributed and autonomous mission execution. Thus, substantially maintaining the well-being and progress of modern transport and society. Therefore, the development of autonomous vehicles is seen as a great potential to achieve improvements in quality, efficiency and safety for the benefit of people. In line with the above, this article presents the development of a low-cost autonomous vehicle by means of artificial vision focussed on the teaching–learning process. For the implementation of the control algorithm, a car-like autonomous vehicle was designed based on an HPI Trophy buggy. The autonomy of the vehicle is based on real-time image processing; specifically oriented to horizontal traffic signals and vertical signals such as: stop, yield, traffic lights and obstacle detection on the road.
34.2 Problem Formulation There is currently a growing interest in the development of technologies that benefit teaching and learning processes through the use of low-cost, open-source programmable robots. Autonomous driving technologies are growing in order to obtain easily interpretable algorithms that limit human intervention and improve real-time autonomous navigation [4]. Furthermore, one of the main goals of introducing robotics in education is to maximise knowledge through the theoretical and practical application of programmable models. On the other hand, most land vehicles are internal combustion vehicles where human intervention is required to move from one place to another. However, there are electric vehicles with navigation and autonomous driving systems, but their study is limited due to the high costs involved in their acquisition and even the lack of experience in handling vehicles with autonomous driving [5]. Computer vision control algorithms for autonomous navigation consider image processing techniques in order to identify horizontal, vertical traffic signs, e.g. stop, yield, left or right turns, traffic lights and road obstacle detection, as shown in Fig. 34.1. In this context, the present work considers the mechanical–electrical construction of a prototype vehicle with car-like typology; considering the autonomous control of the transmission for the linear speed and the steering for the steering angle, in order to implement intelligent control algorithms for autonomous navigation. The prototype must be accessible to the learner for manipulation and modification.
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Fig. 34.1 Autonomous vehicle context
34.3 Construction of the Prototype This section describes the construction of the prototype of the car-like autonomous electric vehicle. Figure 34.2 shows the building block diagram of the electric vehicle, consisting of the main sections: mechanical, electrical, communication and control. A.
Mechanical System
For the mechanical design, relevant information was gathered in terms of the vehicle’s autonomy and the load to be transported. The main systems are analysed with CAD software and then the structural stress of the material is determined using the Von Mises stress. The mechanical system analysis consists of three sets: (i)Transmission system, the traction of the system is taken into account to transmit the power to the rear wheels. The system consists of a set of gears geometrically adapted in order to avoid power losses in the linear displacement as shown in Fig. 34.3; (ii) Steering
Fig. 34.2 Diagram of vehicle construction blocks
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Fig. 34.3 Mechanical design analysis (Transmission)
system, consists of an aluminium steering rack and robust steel tie rods to guide the wheels, steel bolts, self-locking nuts, steel tie rods and four sealed ball bearings for precision steering; (iii) Chassis, be able to withstand the weight incorporated on it, e.g. gears, motors, battery, screws and other components. B.
Electrical System
The electrical system describes the following stages: (i) Power, which is composed of the autonomous vehicle power supply consisting of an 11.1 V Lipo Battery with a capacity of 5000mAh, and the transmission motor with a nominal voltage of 12 V, with a no-load current consumption of 900 mA and a load current of 1300 mA; (ii)Power regulator, voltage regulating circuit is considered which provides 5 V output and a current of 3A. It has a servo motor with a voltage range of 4.8 V–6 V and a torque of 6.5 kg/cm; and (iii)Protection, consists of protecting the electrical system and actuators in the presence of an electric shock, consisting mainly of a fuse and heat sinks. C.
Control unit
A 5 V powered Raspberry Pi is implemented as the control unit where the different external peripherals are connected, e.g. the camera which allows to determine the environment where the robot is going to navigate or the internal sensors of the platform. Using the Raspberry Pi and the OpenCV library, real-time image processing is carried out in order to execute the manoeuverability commands. The commands
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are sent through a master–slave protocol to an Arduino board to activate the different actuators and provide movement to the robot.
34.4 Image Processing and Control Algorithm In this section, we describe real-time image processing using the OpenCV library, process horizontal and vertical traffic signs and train a cascade classifier. Figure 34.4 describes the block diagrams for the two-stage image processing: (a) the control algorithm for horizontal signalling and Fig. 34.4 (b) the Haar Cascade image classifier for vertical signalling.
34.4.1 Horizontal Signage Processing This subsection details real-time image processing by configuring a camera with the Raspberry and calculating the frames per second (FPS) through the ctime function of c + + . The image processing for lane detection (horizontal signalling) consists of the stages presented in Fig. 34.4a; (i) Colour space of the image, the initial frame is presented in the BGR (Blue, Green, Red) colour space considered an incorrect colour image; therefore, the image is converted to the RGB colour space in order to give colour accuracy to the image; (ii) Region of interest (ROI) and Bird’s eye view, from the real-time image a particular box called ROI is extracted; where four different vertices are considered, it must be ensured that the horizontal signage is part of the box. In this case, the region of interest belongs to the lower part of the frame Fig. 34.5a. The processing for the bird’s eye view consists of obtaining the top view of the ROI, transforming the perspective indicated by the camera using the “warpPerspective()”
a) Horizontal signage diagram
Fig. 34.4 Stages for image processing
b) Cascade classifier diagram
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b) Bird's eye view
Fig. 34.5 Processing of the desired frame
function until the final result is obtained as shown in Fig. 34.5b (iii)Threshold and edge detection, in order to extract the region determined by an appropriate threshold value; the three-channel RGB image is converted to a one-channel grey image; where the background pixels must be varied from 0 the black colour to 255 the white colour to obtain a frame as shown in Fig. 34.6a. For lane edge finding, the Canny algorithm is used, which aims to obtain a low error rate, i.e. good detection of only existing edges in the signage. Finally, the threshold image is matched with the edge detection to obtain the final image result presented in Fig. 34.6b; (iv)Histogram, starting from the edges found in the frame, a histogram is generated to verify areas of the image that have high concentrations of white pixels and to trace the edges of the lane (v)Lane edge and lane centre detection, it is necessary to find the exact position of each line with respect to the left side of the image edge in order to obtain the exact centre of the ROI; as it supports the control of vehicle movement. From these two edges, the position of the centre line (L c ) (green colour) is found, which is determined by the position of the right side of the frame (PLD ) and the position of the left side of the frame (PLI ). It is represented by the following expression: Lc =
a) Noisy frame threshold Fig. 34.6 Processing of the desired frame
PLD − PLI + PLI 2
b) Final processed image
(34.1)
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a) Frame line and centre line
b) Shift left and right
Fig. 34.7 Real-time image processing
It is also required to indicate a frame centre line (L F ) (blue colour) to determine the centre of the vehicle, and it must also be framed in the centre of the frame as shown in Fig. 34.7a. To properly define the central position of the autonomous vehicle (L c ) is superimposed on (L F ); since the displacement of (L F ) toward either edge indicates that the vehicle is moving either to the left or to the right side as shown in Fig. 34.7b. The vehicle positioning error for which the control of the steering commands is generated is defined by the following expression: Error = L c − L F
(34.2)
34.4.2 Image Classifier This subsection details the classification of vertical signage such as stop, traffic lights and obstacle detection using the Haar Cascade classifier and OpenCV. The present work uses a shape-based approach; hence, Haar feature-based cascade classifiers are used for object detection. Since each object requires its own classifier and follows the same training and detection process, the project focuses on the detection of stop signs, traffic lights and obstacle detection and consists of the following stages; (i)Training data collection, is done by Raspicam, the set of samples are collected randomly and at different angles; they should be classified into two groups: positive samples containing the target object and negative samples which are those that do not contain the target object. In particular, 100 positive samples were taken from stops and obstacles; however, the traffic light samples contain 200 positive images for both red and green traffic lights. The negative samples contain 300 images and are part of the training set; (ii)Training, a Haar Cascade Classifier is used to extract features from the images using a type of filter, similar to the concept of the convolution kernel. These filters are called Haar filters and are used to inspect one portion or frame at a time. For each window, all pixel intensities of the black and white portions are added together, the value obtained by subtracting the two portions is the value of the extracted feature; (iii)Load the Model, XML files are
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Fig. 34.8 Geometric model for detecting distance in the image
created during the different stages of training which is used in the main Raspberry algorithm; (iv)Distance prediction, in order to determine the distance between the vehicle and the object, the scheme presented in Fig. 34.8 shows a geometrical model of distance detection to an object based on a monocular camera [30]. where p is a point on the target object; d is the distance from the optical centre to point P, f is the focal length of the camera; α is the tilt angle of the camera; h is the height of the optical centre; (x0 , y0 ) refers to the point of intersection of the image plane and the optical axis; (x, y) refers to the projection of point P on the image plane. Assuming that O1 (u 0 , v0 ) is the camera coordinate of the point of intersection of the optical axis and the image plane, also the physical dimension of a pixel corresponding to the x-axis and the y-axis in the image plane are d x y d y ; then it follows that: d=
h 0 tan α + arctan y−y f
(34.3)
u=
y x + u0 v = + v0 dx dy
(34.4)
Equating x0 =y0 =0, desde (3) and (4) we obtain: f ; a y = d= dy tan α + arctan v−v0 h
(34.5)
ay
v, are the coordinates of the camera on the y-axis and can be returned from the object detection process. All other parameters are intrinsic camera parameters. Considering the vertical transistor signals, the vehicle motion control detects the traffic signals set out in Fig. 34.9. within a certain distance; it sends the necessary commands from the Raspberry Pi to the Arduino. The Arduino manipulates the vehicle to stop for a set time for the stop sign and then move forward in its lane; in the case of the traffic light the vehicle observing the red light stops until the light changes to green. If the vehicle detects an obstacle in front of it, it changes to the opposite lane, moves forward a distance and resumes its lane automatically. Finally, the detection of obstacles on the road is considered; in which the cascade classifier is modelled and implemented for a particular object. The model allows
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Fig. 34.9 Traffic signs
identifying the obstacle on the road in order to generate stopping manoeuvres for the vehicle. The control is performed by means of a determined distance where the vehicle identifies the obstacle and proceeds to stop for a certain time until the object is removed from the road.
34.5 Experimental Results This section presents the results obtained during the performance tests, for which the construction of the prototype, the mechanical and electrical characteristics of the prototype are considered. A Raspberry Pi with a 1.5 GHz quad-core processor and 4 GB RAM is used. The processed image is in the RGB colour space; its size is 320*240 pixels at a speed of 30 frames per second. In order to evaluate the described task, a defined route is considered as shown in Fig. 34.10. We proceed to verify the control of the vertical signalling; where the vehicle must follow a straight trajectory maintaining a constant speed in the transmission. A more difficult task is to stay within the lane in curves, where the steering is actuated by the servomotor by varying its angle as the radius of curvature of the track increases or decreases. Figure 34.11 shows the route of the autonomous vehicle on different sections of the track with their respective image processing. For image classification, a pre-trained model such as Haar Cascade is used, an ROI is considered to delimit the object to be analysed. Gaussian blur is applied within the ROI in order to reduce noise present in the photograph. Within the ROI the model Fig. 34.10 Defined route for the vehicle route
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Fig. 34.11 Evolution of the vehicle’s route
locates the brightest point and according to its position determines the status of the traffic light; either green or red. On the defined route, the vertical signage Fig. 34.12 is implemented, in addition to an obstacle on the road. The autonomous vehicle identifies the stop signal, stops for 5 s and then activates the transmission to continue its route. On detecting a red traffic light, the vehicle stops until the light turns green and the transmission is activated again. When the vehicle detects the presence of an obstacle, it stops, changes lanes, moves forward in a set time and finally returns to its lane.
34.6 Conclusions and Future Work In this work, we proposed the development of a control algorithm to be implemented in a low-cost, open-source, kart-like electric vehicle. The control algorithm is based on image processing and focussed on the detection of horizontal and vertical signals in real time. The different experiments carried out show the behaviour of the vehicle whose objective is to travel the route defined by the user and the detection of vertical signals. It should be noted that the construction of the scaled vehicle allowed the study and affordability to students through the implementation of mechanical and electrical systems, its programming uses free operating systems such as Raspbian and Arduino,
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Fig. 34.12 Identification of vertical signage
and the prototype will serve to implement new advanced control strategies. Future work is planned to implement the algorithm in unstructured and real environments taking into account the luminosity of the environment, as well as the implementation of a neural network to identify a greater diversity of vertical traffic signals, as well as segmented horizontal signals. The development of autonomous vehicles helps technological growth by providing efficiency in future transport systems and making people’s lives easier. Acknowledgements This article shows the results of the Degree Project of the Master’s Programme in “Maestría en Electrónica y Automatización con Mención en Redes Industriales” of the Postgraduate Centre of the Universidad de las Fuerzas Armadas ESPE.
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4. Cornejo, J., Cornejo-Aguilar, J.A., Perales-Villarroel, J.P.: Innovaciones interna-cionales en robótica médica para mejorar el manejo del paciente en Perú. Revista de la Fac-ultad de Medicina Humana 19(4), 105–113 (2019) 5. Oña, E.D., Garcia-Haro, J.M., Jardón, A., Balaguer, C.: Robotics in health care: perspectives of robot-aided interventions in clinical practice for rehabilitation of upper limbs. Appl. Sci. 9(13), 2586 (2019) 6. Garcia, L. L., González, Y. G., Carrera, I. D. C., Calvete, A. A.: Benefits of robotics in gait rehabilitation in cerebral palsy: a systematic review. Rehabilitacion 54(2), 128–136.1 (2020) 7. Khan, A., Aziz, S., Bashir, M., & Khan, M. U. (2020, March). IoT and wireless sensor network based autonomous farming robot. In 2020 International Conference on Emerging Trends in Smart Technologies (ICETST) (pp. 1–5). IEEE 8. R Shamshiri, R., Weltzien, C., Hameed, I. A., J Yule, I., E Grift, T., Balasundram, S. K., ... & Chowdhary, G. (2018). Research and development in agricultural robotics: A perspective of digital farming 9. Adrian, R., & García, G. (2016). Prototipo virtual de un robot móvil multi-terreno para aplicaciones de búsqueda y rescate. ResearchGate, October. 10. Valencia, J.L.M., Londoño, M.H., Londoño, G.A.H.: Metodología de síntesis de autómatas para controlar sistemas de navegación autónoma terrestre. Scientia et technica 23(4), 490–500 (2018) 11. Hichri, B., Fauroux, J.C., Adouane, L., Doroftei, I., Mezouar, Y.: Design of cooperative mobile robots for co-manipulation and transportation tasks. Robotics and computer-integrated manufacturing 57, 412–421 (2019) 12. Cachumba, S. J., Briceño, P. A., Andaluz, V. H., & Erazo, G. (2019, October). Autonomous driver assistant for collision prevention. In Proceedings of the 2019 11th International Conference on Education Technology and Computers (pp. 327–332). 13. Arvin, F., Espinosa, J., Bird, B., West, A., Watson, S., Lennox, B.: Mona: an affordable opensource mobile robot for education and research. J. Intell. Rob. Syst. 94(3), 761–775 (2019) 14. Tiboni, M., Aggogeri, F., Bussola, R., Borboni, A., Perani, C.A., Pellegrini, N.: Low-Cost Design Solutions for Educational Robots. Journal of Robotics and Mechatronics 30(5), 827–834 (2018) 15. Zhong, B., Xia, L.: A systematic review on exploring the potential of educational robotics in mathematics education. Int. J. Sci. Math. Educ. 18(1), 79–101 (2020) 16. Daniela, L., & Lytras, M. D. (2019). Educational robotics for inclusive education. 17. Varela-Aldás J., Buele J., Jadan-Guerrero J., Andaluz V.H. (2020) Teaching STEM Competencies Through an Educational Mobile Robot. In: Zaphiris P., Ioannou A. (eds) Learning and Collaboration Technologies. Human and Technology Ecosystems. HCII 2020. Lecture Notes in Computer Science, vol 12206. Springer, Cham. 18. Dorouka, P., Papadakis, S., Kalogiannakis, M.: Tablets and apps for promoting robotics, mathematics, STEM education and literacy in early childhood education. International Journal of Mobile Learning and Organisation 14(2), 255–274 (2020) 19. Rivera, E. F., Pilco, M. V., Espinoza, P. S., Morales, E. E., & Ortiz, J. S. (2020, June). Training System for Hybrid Vehicles Through Augmented Reality. In 2020 15th Iberian Conference on Information Systems and Technologies (CISTI) (pp. 1–6). IEEE. 20. Vega, J., Cañas, J.M.: Open vision system for low-cost robotics education. Electronics 8(11), 1295 (2019) 21. Leoste, J., & Heidmets, M. (2019). The impact of educational robots as learning tools on mathematics learning outcomes in basic education. In Digital Turn in Schools—Research, Policy, Practice (pp. 203–217). Springer, Singapore. 22. West, A., Arvin, F., Martin, H., Watson, S., & Lennox, B. (2018, July). ROS integration for miniature mobile robots. In Annual Conference Towards Autonomous Robotic Systems (pp. 345–356). Springer, Cham. 23. Serrano Rodríguez, F. J. (2017). Multiarquitectura distribuida para el desarrollo de misiones multi-robot.
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Chapter 35
Web Accessibility for Socioeconomic and Education Development in Excluded Areas of Eastern Ecuador Diego Cordero, Zlata Borsic, Daniel Icaza, and Camilo Farfán
Abstract About the existence of areas excluded from access to connectivity services in marginal areas of eastern Ecuador, due to the lack of research and investment initiatives from both the public and private sectors, the research proposes the methodology to simulate the design of a wireless coverage network, in open areas that include the Amazon plain and navigable flows, with efficiency parameters, as a contribution to the ecotourism and education development of the sector. The case analysis is carried out in the Ecuadorian Amazon, and for this purpose, the geographical accidents of the mountain range, vegetation, environment, and related factors are considered. The simulation of Wi-Fi coverage takes the NUI sector as a reference, so that an Internet access service can be provided in the NUI-NUI Tiwintza Park, where parameters that serve as the basis for expanding the service to Amazon have been determined. The results demonstrate the quality and topology of the equipment that is recommended to use.
35.1 Introduction The eastern part of Ecuador, one of the regions with the greatest biodiversity on the planet [1], source of the State’s oil income that represents more than 30% of its global budget; at present, it is the object of growing chronic pollution of the D. Cordero (B) · D. Icaza · C. Farfán Universidad Católica de Cuenca, Av. de Las Américas Y Tarqui, Cuenca, Ecuador e-mail: [email protected] D. Icaza e-mail: [email protected] C. Farfán e-mail: [email protected] Z. Borsic Universidad de Las Fuerzas Armadas ESPE. Av. General Rumiñahui, Sangolquí, Ecuador e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 A. Mesquita et al. (eds.), Perspectives and Trends in Education and Technology, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 256, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5063-5_35
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environment, with social, economic, and health impacts [2]. Consequently, it needs to be rehabilitated in its current socioeconomic condition [3]; one of the ways to do this is to generate digital inclusion through the connectivity of areas with potential for socioeconomic and educational development through trade, transport, ecotourism, access to information, and current technology [4]. Telecommunications development in recent years requires powerful broadband systems with quality standards, through the development of high-capacity transmission technologies, such as highlight fiber optic or cable coaxial [5]. The systems, based on cable, usually have a high installation cost, also representing difficulties in its construction and installation [6]. Given this scenario and other technological and topographical limitations, alternatives have been sought that allow rapid deployment of the infrastructure, greater predictability of service, as well as lower operation, maintenance cost, and security [7]. Wireless networks, in development in recent years, have achieved a rapid and great reception worldwide and are gradually occupying a more prominent place within the panorama of the possibilities that have devices to intercommunicate [8]. In this way, in addition to the design and innovation that have become very important in today’s world, providing high-capacity access is very important, since the Internet is one of the most important innovations of today [9], due to the substantial benefits it brings to economies and societies. Among the existing wireless technologies, one of the most used is wireless fidelity (Wi-Fi), being used in homes, offices, areas of public use, such as parks, sports centers, among others [10]. Allowing a wireless connection in various physical areas so that users can transmit or receive information and have adequate use of the information is useful for the development and the common good of others [11–17]. Also, this is the benefit that is achieved in the tourist, commercial, and recreational fields. Cabero Julio [18] gives guidelines on how to reduce the digital gap with inclusion programs, while Almenara [19] considers that information and communication technologies should be present from education centers. On the other hand, Lucena et al. [20] indicate the availability of these new technologies in different places. Additionally, there is a need for higher levels of penetration especially in rural areas to support several population difficulties such as COVID-19 pandemic [21, 22]. Other authors emphasize making simulations [23] to determine, it is possible or not to execute the communications with adequate signal levels, before carrying out the implementations of internet networks or other services related to information technologies [24–26]. At the project, a wireless telecommunications analysis will be carried out, so that an Internet access service can be provided in the NUI-NUI Tiwintza Park in Ecuador, with a similar topology to the east region. Investigators use simulation tools kit software to reach feasibility to the project.
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35.2 Material and Methods 35.2.1 Foundation of Wireless Networks Wireless networks are designed to operate in free frequency bands. This is the case of the 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz bands [27]. This has allowed the growth of wireless technologies, and reduced cost, but the use of these frequency bands is not exempt from problems since they are used by different technologies such as Wi-Fi, WiMAX, and Bluetooth, interference problems appear by saturation [28]. Wireless networks can be classified in different ways, one of them their scope [24]. So wireless personal area network (WPAN), with a small coverage area or a few meters [16–18]. Technologies such as Bluetooth, DECT, and infrared use it. Wireless local area network (WLAN), its scope, a few hundred meters; Wi-Fi technology use it [10–12]. Wireless metropolitan area network (WMAN), to cover a city scope or metropolitan environment; its coverage extends up to kilometers; Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access (WiMAX) systems use it [17]. Wireless Wide Area Network (WWAN), is a cellular technology system that can cover areas up to a whole country; the technologies are denominated by generations among them, second generation (2G), third generation (3G), or current systems (4G) [28, 29].
35.2.2 Standards Wi-Fi technology is the most used in wireless networks, and this technology is allocated according to the IEEE 802.11 standard [30, 31]. This will guarantee that the equipment with a Wi-Fi seal can work together without problems, regardless of the manufacturer. Table 35.1 displays details of different standards of the IEEE 802.11 standard [16]. Table 35.1 Standards IEEE 802.11 [12] Protocol
Age
Frequency GHz
802.11b
1999
2.4
802.11a
1999
5
802.11 g
2003
802.11n 802.11ac
Bandwidth MHz
Data speed Mbps
Internal reach
External reach
20
6.5
~ 100 m
~ 200 m
20
25
~ 70 m
~ 70 m
2.4
20
25
~ 38 m
~ 140 m
2009
2.4–5
20–40
200
~ 70 m
~ 250 m
2012
5
20,40,50, 160
~ 70 m
~ 250 m
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35.2.3 Wi-Fi Network Elements The elements that compose them are of great importance, but these will depend on the design of the network, of the topology [32]. Having as indispensable elements: the access point (Access Point, ‘AP’), it is the main element of a wireless network. The operation of this element is utilizing radio frequency (RF) waves; this is the means of intercommunication of the wireless terminals, with the fixed network and the Internet. Amplifier and antenna, the first one used to amplify the signal; the second one used to direct the signal and improve it in certain areas.
35.2.4 Security in Telecommunications Networks Security is very important in the development of wireless networks since they are means where information is used, and its means of transmission is air, which means that communication must be reliable and confidential so that transmitted information is not compromised and misused by third parties [33]. A system to be safe and efficient must be able to comply: confidentiality, guaranteeing the privacy of the information, and ensuring that it cannot be used by other people, processes, or unauthorized devices. Integrity, to guarantee that the information transmitted to the final user cannot be altered in its form or content. Authentication, to establish the validity of a transmission, message, or sender, or a means to verify the authorization of an individual to receive specific categories of information. Availability, to guarantee timely and reliable access to data and information services for authorized users.
35.3 Results In canton Tiwintza (Fig. 35.1) belonging to the province of Morona Santiago in Ecuador, there is a linear park that will be equipment in the future with different entertainment areas to promote tourism and service to the community. This park needs to implement a Wi-Fi network to provide Internet access, both to its citizens and tourists who visit the park. For the development of this wireless network, Wi-Fi coverage analysis will be carried out to cover most of the parking area. To develop the Wi-Fi network will be considered conditions: The network will be constituted by access points and/or repeaters with Wi-Fi 802.11 b/g/n technology. Develop a stable telecommunications network with high performance that supports a significant number of users. Guarantee an end-to-end quality of service. Users will be able to use the service at any time of the day, there will be no restrictions on the connection time. The software used in the simulation must comply with current regulations and standards.
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Fig. 35.1 Location of Tiwintza using google maps
35.3.1 Analysis of the Land The network will be implemented in an area of 3.8 hectares, and there are recreational places, green areas, parking lots, food, etc. Figure 35.2 shows the construction plan according to the approval of the local municipality in which the communications system will be located.
Fig. 35.2 Construction plan of the NUI-NUI park
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Fig. 35.3 General architecture of the system
35.3.2 Network Architecture The wireless access network is the infrastructure where the end-users are connected to the service provider. The main objective of the access network will be to offer citizens and tourists who are in the coverage areas of the service the possibility of connecting to the wireless network using portable devices that incorporate a compatible wireless network card with the 802.11 b/g/n standards. The wireless access network will be able to transport via IP protocol Internet access from Wi-Fi zones; designs include last-generation access points deployed throughout the park. Of the 802.11 standards that were previously reviewed, those that have 802.11n technology will be implemented because it is a standard that significantly improves network performance. The 2.4 GHz band will be used, which despite being more congested and with more possible interference has a better tolerance to obstacles and is fully compatible with Wi-Fi devices [34]. A restriction for the system is the Internet service provider (CNT EP Company), using a copper cable through the telephone line. Nevertheless, the wireless network is designed in such a way that in the future, extensions can be made over it without the need for expensive works and allowing a gradual expansion of the network. Figure 35.3 displays a general diagram of the design.
35.3.3 Network Coverage The coverage study will be carried out using the Ekahau Site Survey software, using the 802.11n standard in the 2.4 GHz band for the simulations. The selections of these characteristics will be conditioning factors when choosing the equipment, since if it is performed. This simulation with the precision and accuracy required will be adjusted as much as possible to reality, thus being a very efficient project. The study
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indicates that fifteen access points that are located in strategic sectors can perfectly cover the total area of the park see Fig. 35.4, so it is possible to reach the following map of coverage indicated in Fig. 35.5. The measurements of a signal are negative, meaning that the number that is closer to zero usually means a better signal. The higher the number, the better the quality of the connection. This will depend on the system and the devices used. In general, the signal is usable if the quality is above the 25–30% level [11]. Figure 35.6 and 35.7 display a sample of the signal levels obtained in simulation.
Fig. 35.4 AP location map
Fig. 35.5 Coverage map
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Fig. 35.6 Second signal layer
Fig. 35.7 Third signal layer
Fig. 35.8 Speed in Mb/s
35.3.4 Data Speed On download speed and upload speed, simulation found that the speed would be between 142.0 Mb/s—150 Mb/s; see Fig. 35.8.
35.3.5 Performance. On performance analysis, the simulation generates values between 110.0 Mb/s— 112 Mb/s; see Fig. 35.9.
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Fig. 35.9 Performance in Mb/s
Is very important to consider locating the access point (AP), the need for electricity to operate, and therefore, it is necessary to have a place to feed this equipment. In the Ecuadorian case, it is considered that it will be a park in which there will be ornamental lighting where the equipment can be powered.
35.3.6 Equipment There are a variety of alternatives, but to choose the right equipment, it must meet the simulated characteristics, and it must also comply with standards for outdoor operation, since the area has special characteristics, because the park is in the eastern area, where there is the humid-tropical environment. The equipment that has been selected is Ruckus ZoneFlex 7782 [12], this equipment has the characteristics that were used in the simulation, and the characteristics to work in extreme areas and the costs are not very high and exist in the national market.
35.4 Discussion The analysis performed we can see that the simulations give us a coverage signal with the location of 15 AP that cover the area of the park, all this simulation was done with the IEEE standard 802.11n, and a height of 6 m would be located on the poles of street lighting in the park [35]. In the analysis that was developed as a case of a linear park, therefore, the AP will follow a straight line through the different areas of recreation, it is not possible
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to make a mesh network which can be a problem if an AP fails, and we lose the link among them [36]. In the future, a ring network should be implemented to guarantee a higher quality of service [37]. However, in the area, there is only one internet service Distribution Company, which represents an inconvenience because the user cannot choose between different proposals and thus be able to identify which company could offer the best quality and stability in the service.
35.5 Conclusions To develop an efficient Wi-Fi coverage system, there are forms and software that allow the implementation not only of ecological parks as the case of the object of study but also different areas located in the eastern Ecuadorian area that support the development of the communities more efficient. When carrying out the coverage studies, the service is being guaranteed, and with this, the implementation of the described wireless network could be given way, being only necessary to attend to the specific details of the configuration and installation of the equipment in each of the areas described. Preferably, the simulations should be carried out with licensed software, the same ones that allow changing parameters, the simulation with a trial version does not provide that facility, and even some libraries cannot be used. It is necessary to continue researching to promote the development of the telecommunications service in the communities of the Ecuadorian Amazon, a sector that for years has been forgotten by the governments of the day; therefore, it is necessary to reduce the digital gap between these remote areas of the East and the main Ecuadorian cities.
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Chapter 36
New Accountant Curriculum Requirements in the Age of Robot Process Automation Tiago Monteiro Lopes and Helena Costa Oliveira
Abstract The currently available information is immeasurable and growing exponentially, data processing is changing radically. Accounting is accompanied by constant technological innovations, and in the latest wave of technology, software solutions are emerging and a large number of routine tasks have been automated. The purpose of this paper is to analyze the professionals’ perception of the accountant in the new era and the undoubted curricular adaptation. The empirical study was based on qualitative research, carried out in 2020, through the analysis of the undergraduate curricular in accounting in Portugal and interviews with employees of a large company belonging to the PSI-20. The study describes the professional’s requests regarding the robotic introduction and consequent opportunities or threats. It is urgent to change the current plans of accounting degree to assure appropriate skills to accounting professionals such as operational systems, linguistics, and an open mind. The study contributes with the linkage of curricular plans to the market automation requirements, without which the future of accountants can be called into question.
36.1 Introduction The evolution of new technologies, the recent financial crises, and the parallel change in the behavior and needs of customers are putting pressure on world economies and, consequently, the business world. Based on new trends such as big data, robotic developments, and artificial intelligence (AI), humanity and the business environment will look for new opportunities to reduce their costs and increase their revenues through efficiency and productivity [1].
T. Monteiro Lopes (B) Polytechnic of Porto, S. Mamede de Infesta, Portugal H. C. Oliveira CEOS.PP, Polytechnic of Porto, S. Mamede de Infesta, Portugal © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 A. Mesquita et al. (eds.), Perspectives and Trends in Education and Technology, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 256, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5063-5_36
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Organizations, all over the world, are leveraging themselves for a digital future, and we would certainly be surprised at the amount of work that is still done with little of this resource, that is, manually. The changes in business and workforces, thought new technologies, will have serious impacts on the daily life of the business, and, consequently on countries and the world economy [2]. From the perspective of an accounting department, the booster for greater efficiency is part of an ongoing financial transformation, where Chief Financial Officers (CFOs) and executives are evaluating new ways to bring more effective business intelligence, data analysis, and forecasts to their organizations [3]. Although the amount of information included and attached to the annual accounts has grown significantly, the audit has largely remained the same, and not everyone is interested in all information about the company, but almost all information about the company are in someone’s interest [4]. The future of the profession may be at stake if accounting and auditing professionals are unable to adapt to the new, and always turbulent, world of new technologies. The adaptability quotient (QA) becomes equivalent, in terms of importance, to the intelligence quotient (IQ), and the revolution in-office procedures and data processing promises to do for the mind of man what the industrial revolution has done for his body [5]. This paper focuses on the perception of the financial and accountant professionals about the accountant professional in the new era that lies ahead. Besides, it is explained the opportunities and threats emerging from robotic in this field, and the subsequent undoubted curriculum adjustment. The empirical study analyzes a company belonging to the PSI-20, with an average of 450 employees in the financial department and around 60 employees in the accounting department. Data were collected from interviews with accounting department employees and from curricular plans of the degrees in accounting in Portugal. The company provides its employees with initial training to complete academic education, particularly in information technologies and linguistic. Although not all companies have the financial structure to support such training, hence it is urgent to prepare the student for big opportunities and restructure curricular to better prepare them for future accountant. This subject has a significant dimension in the market and extreme importance in the present-near future.
36.2 Literature Review In developments of the so-called Third Industrial Revolution, subsequently to the development of microchips and computers [6], robotics will write new pages in the economy and business history and lead to new lifestyles and sociological side effects [2]. Robots, both in a primordial phase, and when incorporated with AI applications, will lead to decisions and analyzes that require intuition and new skills both for accounting and auditing professionals [7]. The computer, in a broader sense, is and
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always will be for these professionals a threat, an opportunity, a problem, but, above all, a responsibility [8]. This change will not happen overnight, more discoveries will appear in the coming years and lead to disruptive changes in business, life, and the global economy [9]. A paradox will begin as purchasing power decreases due to the devaluation of money and inflation; employees who have seen their wages reduced or even lost their jobs are unable to save and, as a result, do not spend more money, which will cause deflation [2]. This decrease in demand will have a direct impact on the possible investments that could lead to the emergence of new jobs. Stiglitz [10] highlights the following steps: (i) the more the demand decreases, the greater efficiency will be necessary on the supply side; (ii) the more the demand and supply minimize in the markets, the central banks facilitate the money supply and decrease the interest rates and pressure the companies for more innovation; (iii) more innovation replaces less qualified “labor” with a highly qualified one. Even Stephen Hawking, one of the most influential scientists in history, suggested that humanity should begin to colonize other planets, for the simple reason that robots and AI will replace the human race in industry and everyday life [11]. On the other hand, there are authors with a disagreeing opinion, claim that the goal is not to replace humans, but to find ways for machines to be able to help and support them [12], with the possibility to allocated employees to tasks with greater added value, as well as the creation of new tasks. If, on the one hand, this whole situation can be a threat, since it challenges the relevance of accounting, on the other, it is an opportunity, as the profession can respond to the market [4]. One of the simplest ideas foresees accountants as managers and bot controllers, responsible for examining outlier events and high-risk situations [7]. The idea will always be to start with what humans do nowadays and to understand how this work can be deepened and not diminished by greater use of machines [13]. Mizroch, in an article published in The Wall Street Journal [14], considers the back-office job as the more open to computerization and to be replaced for robots. In a range of 721 professions, only 21% were considered “highly creative,” and therefore, with a low probability of being automated. Stiglitz [10] states that capital owners, or even human resource managers, will support employee’s replacement based on efficiency and innovation. Innovation and technology developments will generate unemployment for unqualified professionals [15]. Keenoy, already in 1957, emphasized the ideas that the student coming from high school or university should be instructed in accounting machines along with the basic principles of accounting and, if the accountant has inadequate knowledge, or cannot adjust to new techniques, there is a very real danger that traditional functions will be misused by a technician [5]. The environment for recruiting and retaining the best talent is becoming increasingly competitive, and organizations that adopt automation through manual and repetitive tasks will be able to provide alternative human resource strategies such as part-time work or flexible work weeks that can attract a greater set of qualified professionals [3].
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In an interview conducted in 2018 for the Journal of Accountancy of ACIPA, Rick Richardson highlights six features that accounting companies should look for in the future: (i) technical and ethical skills; (ii) intelligence (ability to acquire and use the knowledge and to apply in problem-solving); (ii) creativity (new ideas, new solutions and the ability to connect things that already exist; (iii) sensitivity to software applications and other issues related to data analytics; (iv) vision (minimum 5 years ahead); and (v) experience [16]. Organizations must make sure that they have all the skills in their teams. Professionals do not need to be “experts” in all areas, but they will need to have sufficient bases for efficient teamwork. Luke Davis, from human resources management at Robert Half, says that accounting and finance professionals will need to bridge the gap between the IT department (which traditionally manages data and tools) and the business (which needs the insight to improve processes and develop new products) [17]. There has never been a better time to be a collaborator with “special” skills, or even the right education because these are the people who will be able to use technology to create and capture value. On the reverse side of the coin, there has never been a worse time to be an employee with common skills to offer, because computers, robots, and other digital technologies are acquiring these skills at an extraordinary rate [18].
36.3 Method This paper presents qualitative research based on semi-structured interviews and documental analyses. The purpose is to study an accounting department with a culture of robot process automation (RPA). In this sense, after identifying the shared service centers in Portugal that adopted the RPA, one of the shared centers was contacted. The aim was to understand what skills a future professional of this area must have and whether it will be necessary, as a consequence, to adjust their training level. The selected company belongs to the PSI-20 and for competitive advantage reasons the name of the company will be kept confidentially. Their accounting department is subdivided into several teams under the responsibility of a team leader, they are Financial Control, Capital Expenditure (CAPEX) and Stocks; Operational Expenditure (OPEX) and Personnel Costs; Revenue and Direct Costs; Consolidation, Commissions, Income and Expenses; and Suppliers and Banks. Each of these teams has middle managers divided by the type of cost/revenue they focus on, or by billing/closing accounts. The semi-structured interviews followed an interview guide previously worked and pre-defined, however, flexible. The interview guidelines were not previously shared with the participants, as we look for answers that had not been “worked out,” but always ensuring that all points were addressed and the desired depth was achieved. With this research/work model, there was a risk that the duration of the interviews would be longer compared to the previous sharing model, but it was possible to give
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Table 36.1 Characterization of the interviews Interview
Seniority
Occupation
Hierarchical relationship
Previous Experience
A
1 year
Accounting technician Reports to Chief Intermediate
Not applicable
B
20 years
Team leader
Reports to manager
Not applicable
C
3 years
Chief intermediate
Reports to team leader
Not applicable
D
19 years
Team leader and RPA Business analyst
Reports to manager
Not applicable
E
3 years
Financial controller
Reports to manager
Big 4
F
19 years
Financial director
Reports to department manager
Big 4
more freedom to the interviewees and at ease during the interview, which helped in the elaboration of the feedback. The interviews were based on the development of a dialogue between the interviewer and the interviewee, thus requiring greater creativity on the part of the interviewer [19]. The interviews were selected based on employee’s experience in RPA solutions. The interviews were conducted in 2020 and were carried out via Skype for Business. In total, six individual interviews were carried out, with an average duration of 54 min. The interviews were recording and transcribed, allowing a better organization of the content in the best way to aid future analysis. The participants in this study have between 22 and 43 years old, and all have degrees in accounting, economics, and management. Table 36.1 presents a brief characterization of the interviews. The financial area of the company has, on average, 450 employees, and the accounting department has, on average, 60 employees, from where the interviewees belong. The sub-teams are divided by cost typology, as well as between invoicing and monthly closing of accounts, in a total of seven teams, and all respondents belong to different sub-teams, thus representing more than 70% of the sub-teams. In terms of concrete examples of robots provided by the RPA solution in this company, we were able to describe some of the processes that have already been subject to automation/ robotization by the interviewees, such as contacts to landlords requesting rent receipts with custom messages by e-mail and even phone calls; invoices accounting, analysis of receipts/ invoices and compensation of current accounts with the payments; document scanning control; and more. These robots are currently responsible for the work corresponding to six people.
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36.4 Results and Discussion The company recruits workers preferably with graduation in accounting, economics, or management. Besides, linguistic knowledge (mostly English speaking) and computer skills were also required, namely at the Microsoft Office level, particularly Excel. In terms of soft skills, it was highlighted that recruiters “were looking for people with an open spirit” (Interviewee B—Team Leader), and “with a high critical sense and perspicacity, willingness to do more and better” (Interviewee C—Middle Management). All employees who had no previous professional experience participated in initial Excel training, and later, at an advanced level. It was also provided training related to the software (Uipath) used for the RPA. There was also a focus on language skills and soft skills aimed at Management and Leadership. The interviews recognize that have not acquired the necessary training during the course. At the computer level, their training was “only in Excel” (Interviewee B—Team Leader). In accordance, Interviewee A (Accounting Technician) says he has “some training to develop more complex formulas in Excel, but concerning new solutions, nothing at all,” despite considering that “it would have been extremely important even because the market demands it now.” Interviewee E (Financial Controller) showed some discontent stating that “the faculty is very theoretical and conservative” and Interviewee C (Chief Intermediate) consider that “despite the new interns arrive without the proper training,” they must be “out of the box, go beyond the accounting processes,” concluding that it would be an asset to restructure the academic programs in the area. Interviewee F (Financial Director) agrees, who feels that even the basic computer skills, namely Excel, are not acquired. The employees are not prepared and the company needs to provide them with a strong training component. Effectively the course plans have to be changed given the circumstances, and this opinion was also shared with accounting faculties. “Workers has the idea that to be an accountant is to make records, but they have to know how to adapt, seek, do different, improve, innovate; have prospects for the future” (Interviewee C—Intermediate Head). There is too much “focus on grades as a criterion, and on interviews with typical standard questions without being able to understand which people are out of the box” (Interviewee C—Intermediate Head). “[The accountant] must evolve to be much more a consultant than an accountant in practice, be aware of tax and financing opportunities and add more value to the organization” (Interviewee D—Team Leader and RPA Business Analyst). It is necessary greater knowledge in Excel, “people who come from college, at least in this tool should be more comfortable, there is a great contrast between the comfort they show in the interviews and then what they know” (Interviewee B— Team Leader). “The accountant increasingly has to look for information about these new technologies, and the ideal would be to incorporate programming chairs in the college itself. The accountant of the future will need these bases. The extra courses
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are quite expensive, hence the relevance of having these skills during the academic course” (Interviewee B—Team Leader). Interviewee E (Financial Controller) believes that: “the person’s soft skills must be increasingly valued, that is, a committed person, open to learning, with a lower average, perhaps, than one who does not know how to work as a team or speak. A person who can think that if he is wasting a lot of time with a certain task, something may not be right or this is quite complex or may not be thinking in the most agile way.” To summarize, “the accountant must have flexibility, he cannot be afraid of dense and heavy systems and information and, therefore, he must have the tools to handle that information and flexibility, learn several different areas and things,” not being able to stick only to accounting skills. “More and more to contribute and be able to do the various functions, there must be a wider range of knowledge: The themes of systems are important, data analysis, information processing,” which is the reason to say, that “the courses have to be better prepared for this” (Interviewee F—Financial Director). In Portugal, of the 15 schools that provide degrees in accounting, most are polytechnic, and present courses as a computer, computer applications, information technologies and systems, computer for management and organizational computer. Only seven schools offer language courses such as English Applied to Accounting, Business English and Financial Reporting, Business English, Technical English. Table 36.2 summarizes the computer and linguistic courses of accounting degree in Portugal. We found that not all schools provide these courses and those that are provided are insufficient according to employers’ perspective. The degree must also foster the open mind and critical spirit of students. There must be a concerted practice between schools to listen to entrepreneurs and respond to the needs of the markets. Despite the assumed importance, these skills are not a requirement during the recruitment process of the company. To fulfill the lack of curricular adaptation of the new employees, the company provides several internal workshops in Microsoft Office tools and, more recently, in the RPA software used (Uipath).
36.5 Conclusion Technological innovation and the solutions that introduce robotization into the business environment exist and will always exist. Like all solutions, they bring opportunities and threats, and the future accounting professional will have to adapt his skills to the current situation. Although an increasingly significant reduction in the number of employees in the financial department is expected, as has already been happening, the rest believe that they will be released for tasks with greater added value. There is an urgent need to adapt and change the current courses in the computer and linguistic areas. The academic path must guarantee accountants the technological
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Table 36.2 Computer and linguistic courses of accounting degree in Portugal Schools
Degree
Computer coursesa
Linguistic Courses
Polytechnic of Guarda
Accounting
Information technologies
–
Polytechnic of Bragança
Accounting
Computer
–
Polytechnic of Coimbra
Accounting and Audit Computer applications Technical English
Polytechnic of Lisboa
Accounting and Administration Accounting Branch
Information technologies and systems
Business English and financial reporting
Polytechnic of Santarém
Accounting and Finance
Computer for management
–
Polytechnic of Setúbal
Accounting and Finance
Information technologies for finance
–
Polytechnic of Tomar
Accounting
Management informatics
Technical English
Polytechnic of Viseu Accounting
Accounting information systems
Technical English
Polytechnic of Cávado and Ave
Information systems for accounting
Accounting
Polytechnic of Porto Accounting and Administration
Information systems and technologies for management
English applied to accounting
University Institute of Lisbon
Finance and accounting
Computer for management
English for business
Higher Institute of Entre Douro and Vouga
Accounting
Computing. Computing applied to accounting
–
University of Aveiro
Accounting
Organizational computer
–
University of Minho
Accounting
Accounting information systems
–
University of Lusíada
Accounting
Introduction to computers
–
a Accounting
information systems courses excluded
skills to exercise their function and the bases of knowledge that will allow them to evolve. It is reiterated that this position is unanimous in all respondents. As a limitation, other degrees in management and economics should be analyzed and related to interviews although the study contributes to the evolution of the accountant’s profession and to the undoubted alignment between academics and entrepreneurs, without which the profession tends to fall by the wayside.
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The study presents a single case of a large Portuguese company belonging to the PSI-20, and we suggest for future research a quantitative study of the largest Portuguese companies.
References 1. Porter, M.E.: Competitive Advantage. The Free Press, Nova Iorque (1985) 2. Dirican, C.: The Impacts of Robotics, Artificial Intelligence on Business and Economics. World Conference on Technology, Innovation and Entrepreneurship, (Istambul, Elsevier, Ltd, 2015) pp. 564–573 3. Seasongood, S.: Not just for the assembly line: a case for robotics in accounting and finance. Financial Executives (01/03/2017). https://www.financialexecutives.org/Topics/Technology/ Not-Just-for-the-Assembly-Line-A-Case-for-Robotic.aspx. Last accessed 28/06/2020 4. Grant Thornton & ACCA, O Futuro da Auditoria. The Association of Chartered Certified Accountants (2016) 5. Keenoy, C. L,: The impact of automation on the field of accounting. Annual meeting of the American Accounting Association, (Wisconsin, 1957), pp. 230–236 6. Roubini, N.: Rise of the machines: downfall of the economy? Em B. Insider (ed.), Bloomberg BusinessWeek 85th Anniversary Dinner. https://www.businessinsider.com/rise-of-the-mac hines-us-economy-roubini-2014-12. (10 Dec 2014). Last accessed 05/05/2020 7. Appelbaum, D., Nehmer, R.: The coming disruption of drones, robots an bots. The CPA J. 40–44 (2017) 8. Boyle, E. T.: What the computer means to the accounting profession. J. Account. 56–67 (01 de 1966) 9. Manyika, J., Chui, M., Bughin, J., Dobbs, R., Bisson, P., Marrs, A.: Disruptive technologies: advances that will transform life, business, and the global economy. McKinsey & Company. (San Francisco, CA, McKinsey Global Institute, 2013) 10. Stiglitz, J. E.: Unemployment and innovation. The National Bureau of Economic Research (Novembro de 2014) 11. Kontzer, T.: Robots take over the world!: not such a crazy fear. Investor’s Business Daily (13 Mar 2015). https://www.investors.com/news/technology/ai-warnings-from-haw king-musk-gates-taken-to-heart/. Last accessed 23/10/2019 12. Kirby, J., Davenport, T.: The knowledge jobs most likely to be automated. Harvard Bus. Rev. (23 Jun 2016). https://hbr.org/2016/06/the-knowledge-jobs-most-likely-to-be-automated. Last accessed 23/10/2019 13. Kirby, J., Davenport, T.: Beyond automation. Harvard Bus. Rev. (Jun 2015). https://hbr.org/ 2015/06/beyond-automation. Last accessed 24/05/2020 14. Mizroch, A. (27/04/2015). Is Your Job Creative Enough to Resist Robot Automation? The Wall Street Journal. https://blogs.wsj.com/digits/2015/04/27/is-your-job-creative-enough-to-resistrobot-automation/. last accessed 12/04/2020 15. Hirst, T.: Does technological innovation increase unemployment? The World Economic Forum Blog (14 Nov 2014). https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2014/11/does-technological-innova tion-increase-unemployment/. Last accessed 24/05/2020 16. Drew, J.: Merging accounting with ‘big data’ science. J. Account. (01 Jul 2018). https:// www.journalofaccountancy.com/issues/2018/jul/big-data-and-accounting.html. Last accessed 17/11/2019 17. ACCA.: The Big Data effect. Student e-magazine (2020). https://www.accaglobal.com/an/en/ student/sa/features/big-data.html. Last accessed 14/12/2019 18. Brynjolfsson, E., McAfee, A.: The Second Machine Age—Work, Progress, and Properity in a Time of Brilliant Technologies. W. W. Norton & Company, New York (2014) 19. Schindler, P.S.: Business Research Methods. McGraw-Hill/Irwin, New York (2019)
Chapter 37
Challenges and Policy in Times of Crisis—STEM in Digital Education Ana Branca Soeiro de Carvalho, Nídia Menezes, and Fernando Mamede Santos
Abstract This research project focuses on anticipated needs for skilled workers and strategies, including the scaling up of investments in Information and communication technologies (ICT) education and training, and more efficient management off the wellbeing of students and teachers. The coronavirus pandemic (COVID-19) has paralyzed life around the world, reporting restrictive measures (which include avoiding social interactions and a ban on movement between national and international territories), that was considered non-essential activities such as factories, services and including all higher education institutions. During the state of emergency, teleworking is mandatory taking into account that the work function and classes are compatible with e-learning and work at home. Although the adoption of distance learning is essential to ensure the continuity of education after the physical closure of schools, students are, on average, likely to experience a learning loss during the block. This research project focuses on increasing investment in education and training with the use of information and communication technologies (ICT), based on more efficient management, concerned with quality training and, especially aiming at the well-being. STEM: it is a learning and development approach that integrates the areas of science, technology, engineering and mathematics. The study was carried out in a higher education institution located in the North of Portugal, with about 700 students from all over the country and islands. In the coming years, the skills developed by students through ICT provide the basis for success at school and
A. B. S. de Carvalho (B) Ana Branca da Silva Soeiro de Carvalho, Ph.D.—Social Science Department, Politécnico de Viseu, Viseu, CISED, Portugal N. Menezes Nídia Maria Menezes Abrunhosa, Ph.D.—Social science Department, Politécnico de Viseu/ESTGL, Lamego, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] F. M. Santos PhD Informatic and Comunication Department, Fernando Mamede Dos Santos, Politécnico de Viseu/ESTGL, Lamego, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 A. Mesquita et al. (eds.), Perspectives and Trends in Education and Technology, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 256, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5063-5_37
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for the market. Approximately 75 percent of all new jobs will require qualifications and skills in the areas of science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM).
37.1 Introduction The global economy is changing. Current jobs are disappearing due to automation and new jobs are emerging every day because of technological advances. Pandemic effects can generate demotivation and dissatisfaction, or even discomfort, since it is an activity and structure built based on relationships, in largely faceto-face relationships, which make the pedagogical act a moment of interaction and sharing. We are still not sure whether such a loss will translate into a reduction in human capital availability, with negative effects on productivity growth, innovation and employment, including lower future earnings for groups of students directly affected by the block. In the EU, 150 million people have little or no digital skills. With 20% of the recovery and resilience fund for digital transition, what measures to combat digital inequalities? On the other hand, for qualifying workers who are left behind? Digital technology looks closely at one significant facet of our rapidly evolving digital lives: how technology is radically changing our lives as teachers and students. Strategies in the era of digital disruption will provide you and your team with the tools, concepts and perspectives necessary to respond correctly to the digital transformation, and to turn its threats into opportunities with which to improve your performance and that of your organization. Many institutions have opted to cancel all face-to-face classes, including labs and other learning experiences, and have mandated that faculty move their courses online to help prevent the spread of the virus that causes COVID-19. Santos [1] p. 13, draws attention to the new idea of normality. In fact, the reality we live in is an exceptionality of exception, and reflecting on this time of abnormality is extremely complex because “The problem is that the chaotic and elusive practice of days is beyond theorization and demands to be understood in sub-theorizing mode.” Lucy Bernholz [2] said that must consider whether and how our networks of digital communications accommodate and protect individual rights to expression and association in ways that also protect privacy and resist corporate or state surveillance. Tara Beteille [3] in an interview said that the teachers must be equipped to assess students when they return to school so that they can identify what essential content and skills have been lost and need to be rebuilt—as well as detect warning signs of abandonment. Hélène Landemore [4] about this matter said that one of the most far-reaching transformations in our era is the wave of digital technologies rolling over—and upending—nearly every aspect of life. Now-ubiquitous digital tools and platforms have modified all work and leisure, family and friendship, community and citizenship.
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As the current emergency remote teaching [5] situation invoked by the COVID-19 crisis is also new to the students, teachers must take into account the time and effort they need to regulate themselves in order to adapt to the new learning situation. There are two ways to improve some solutions: (a) (b)
One way of doing so is to make self-regulation a part of the assessment, for example, through self-reflections or portfolios; Another way is to propose self-paced, asynchronous activities (always within a pre-defined timeline) as part of the students’ learning process and indicate clear ways of assessing students’ participation.
The technical report made by the Joint Research Centre (JRC), to the European Commission’s science and knowledge service (2020, p.4), says that: (a) (b)
(c)
There is evidence showing that quarantined students tend to spend less time in learning compared to when schools are open; Many students confined at home due to COVID-19 may feel stressed and anxious, and this may negatively affect their ability to concentrate on schoolwork; Physical school closure and the lack of in-person contact may make students less externally motivated to engage in learning activities” (JRC, 2020, p.4).
Digital transformation, i.e., “a process that aims to improve an entity by triggering significant changes to its properties through combinations of information, computing, communication, and connectivity technologies” [6]. The pandemic forced us to take an extraordinary digital leap in our everyday life and practices, including our students and their education. In a flash, their education was transformed from traditional classroom practice to a remote, digitalized one. The paper uses normalization process theory (NPT) to examine current thinking and approaches and offering some guidelines to inform research and practice [7]. NPT can be used to support the work of implementation and evaluation of complex interventions. The NPT recognizes that individuals have an important role in contributing to activities that influence the potential for a new practice to become normalized and its underlying components of cohesion, cognitive participation, collective action and reflexive monitoring. Through STEM, students develop key skills including problem solving, creativity, critical analysis, teamwork, independent thinking, initiative, communication and digital literacy. What is STEM education? It is widely accepted that the acronym STEM stands for “science, technology, engineering and mathematics.” According to the National Science Teachers Association (NSTA), A common definition of STEM education […] is an interdisciplinary approach to learning where rigorous academic concepts are coupled with real-world lessons as students apply science, technology, engineering, and mathematics in contexts that make connections between school, community, work, and the global enterprise enabling the development of STEM literacy and with it the ability to compete in the new economy.
458 Scientific Areas that can be worked on digital - TIC (%): Math Physics Computing Electronics Telecommunications Languages Economic and Business Sciences Project Total:
A. B. S. de Carvalho et al. All of them have already been done in the academic year 201920 and 2020-21 with the availability of content in Moodle as well as teaching via platforms Colibri or Teams (due to covid19) 16,7 9,4 20,0 22,8 23,3 1,1 2,2 4,4 100,0
Fig. 37.1 Steam in ESTGL (scientific areas)
STEM is an approach to learning and development that integrates the areas of science, technology, engineering and mathematics. Collier [8] said in her article Higher Education After Surveillance “is aiming to analyze current surveillance practices in the higher education sector (including broader educational technology, policy and other spaces) and trying to understand what post-surveillance futures might be desirable and how to work toward these.”
37.2 Material and Methods The methodology used was documentary, through indicators of student’s assessment, result of the final pedagogical reports of both courses. Comparisons made with the homologous situation for the year 2019/2020. The present article focuses on the pedagogical preparedness of university students and teachers with no or little experience in online teaching. There is no doubt that STEM empowers individuals with the skills to succeed and adapt to this changing world (Fig. 37.1). The method used for this exploratory study was a report analysis, based on administrative documents that were validated. The study carried out in a higher education institution located in the northern region of Portugal, with approximately 700 students from all over the country and islands. It is a faculty that has an important course that can interact with the others.
37.3 Results and Discussion From a sample of 55 students in Engineer and Telecommunication Course, in the academic year 2019–2020, made an assessment submission 79.2%. In Unit Credits (UC’s) average attendance (%): 66.6%. Success with enrolled students 73.4% and
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failure in relation to subscribers 26.6%. Access specifics: mathematics or physics and chemistry and mathematics. It is important to analyze how students develop key skills including problem solving, creativity, critical analysis, teamwork, independent thinking, initiative, communication and digital literacy. No doubt that the use of a dual learning system (with offline and online elements) can be a way of solving the problem that COVID-19 imposed on us. During this pandemic situation, it is important to note that: (1) (2) (3) (4)
It requires a revision of the curriculum and the operating regulations (e.g. pedagogical regulation); The structure of many existing buildings may not be adapted to maintain physical distance; The computer system does not always allow the rapid and efficient use of ICT; It requires a change in the teaching capacity to function in both online and face-to-face systems.
We can think about an important question—the effectiveness of in-class teaching vs. online teaching. Sprang and Silman [9] show that children who were isolated or quarantined during pandemic diseases are more likely to suffer from acute stress disorder, adjustment disorder and grief. It seems that student who were confined at home with their parents due to COVID19 may feel more stressed and anxious. While attempting to work in small groups, a single recovery approach is unlikely it will be enough to make up for missed learning opportunities.
37.4 Conclusion We can conclude that in all the high education tasks, strong school leadership will be the key. Countries will need to devote the necessary financing to achieve these goals— and they will need to bridge digital gaps—if they want a generation of flourishing young people. The post-COVID-19 phase will offer many opportunities to “Build Back Better” that is strengthen quality and equity in school systems. Countries will need to devote the necessary financing to achieve these goals—and they will need to bridge digital gaps—if they want a generation of flourishing young people. The educational institutions of high education announced changes in the organizational structures. The future consequences generated by the pandemic, social confinement and changing routines are still unpredictable. The changes that the world has experienced in recent months lead us to foresee a new normal in terms of formation and educational process.
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We are still not sure whether such a loss will translate into a reduction in human capital availability, with negative effects on productivity growth, innovation and employment, including lower future earnings for groups of students directly affected by the block. Acknowledgements This work is funded by National Funds through the FCT - Foundation for Science and Technology, I.P., within the scope of the project Refª UIDB/05583/2020. Furthermore, we would like to thank the Research Centre in Digital Services (CISeD) and the Polytechnic of Viseu for their support.
References 1. Santos, B. S.: A cruel pedagogia do vírus. (Coimbra, Almedina, 2020) 2. Bernholz, L., Landemore, H., Reich, R. Book: Digital Technology and Democratic Theorya. Bernholz, L., Landemore, H., Reich, R. (eds.) Stanford PACS, Stanford Social Innovation Review (2020) 3. Beteille, T. Supporting teachers during the COVID-19 (coronavirus) pandemic, May 19, 2020, Education for Global Development (2020). https://blogs.worldbank.org/team/tara-bet eille. Accessed 22 Feb 2020 4. Landemore, H., Bernholz, L., Reich, R.: Digital Technology and Democratic Theory, (University of Chicago Press, 2020). Accessed 24 Feb 2020. https://press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chi cago/D/bo68657177.html 5. Hodges, C., Moore, S., Lockee, B., Trust, T., Bond, A.: The difference between emergency remote teaching and online learning. Educause Rev (2020), 27 March. https://er.educause. edu/articles/2020/3/the-difference-between-emergency-remote-teaching-and-online-learning. Accessed 18 Feb 2021 6. Vial, G.: Understanding digital transformation: A review and a research agenda. J. Strategic Inf. Syst. (2019) Google Scholar 7. Sumita, N., Sharma, Ventä-Olkkonen, L.: Digital transformation of everyday life—how COVID19 pandemic transformed the basic education of the young generation and why information management research should care?. Elsevier Int. J. Inf. Manag. 55, 102183 (Dec 2020). https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.ijinfomgt.2020.102183 8. Collier, A., Ross, J.: Higher education after surveillance? Postdigital Sci. Educ. 2(2), 275–279 (2020) 9. Sprang, G., Silman, M.: Posttraumatic stress disorder in parents and youth after health-related disasters. Disaster Med. Public Health Prep. 7, 105–110 (2013)
Chapter 38
Design and Evaluation of a Mobile Application for Interactive Reading Jose Andrés Mejías, Christian Quesada-López, Alexandra Martínez, and Ana M. Carmiol
Abstract Interactive reading of children’s books is one of the most effective methods for promoting language development in children. However, there are barriers for low-income families to purchase children’s books. Therefore, we propose a mobile application that supports interactive reading between caregivers and young children, thus facilitating access to children’s books for those families. This work reports on the design, development, and evaluation of the mobile application prototype. The mobile prototype was evaluated by six experts in interactive reading and the results suggest that our prototype can effectively support this process. Some usability issues were also found during the evaluation. We discuss how the mobile app aligns with four pillars of learning: active involvement, engagement, meaningfulness, and social interaction. Future directions on how to improve and extend our app are provided.
38.1 Introduction During interactive book reading or sharing, children engage in conversations with their family [1, 2], which is an effective method for promoting vocabulary, language, and literacy [3–6] in children. When interactive reading is used by trained caregivers, they encourage children to participate in the conversation about the book story [7, 8]. In Costa Rica, book sharing is rare among low-income families [9], partly because J. A. Mejías · A. M. Carmiol Instituto de Investigaciones Psicológicas, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica e-mail: [email protected] A. M. Carmiol e-mail: [email protected] J. A. Mejías · C. Quesada-López · A. Martínez (B) Escuela de Ciencias de la Computación e Informática, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica e-mail: [email protected] C. Quesada-López e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 A. Mesquita et al. (eds.), Perspectives and Trends in Education and Technology, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 256, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5063-5_38
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access to children’s literature is very limited [10]. At the state level, the reading promotion policy and the policy toward early childhood favored the development of language in children under 6 years through book sharing in the family [11, 12]. Such policies reflect a national interest in promoting interactive reading, but their implementation is still limited, especially for children under the age of three. This gave rise to the idea of a technological services platform for promoting interactive reading. The research reported herein entails the design of a mobile application that supports interactive reading between caregivers and children aged 15–24 months. The high coverage of mobile technology in Costa Rica [13] provides a fertile ground for the development of apps that democratize access to educational resources. The paper is organized as follows. Section II presents background and related work on interactive reading, learning, and HCI techniques used. Section III explains the design, solution architecture, and development process as well as the main features of the mobile application. Section IV describes the evaluation process and insights from its results. Section V states our conclusions and future work.
38.2 Background and Related Work In this section, we provide background on the interactive reading method, learning, the human–computer interaction (HCI) techniques used, and similar apps.
38.2.1 Interactive Reading Interactive reading (also known as “dialogic reading”) of children’s books is one of the most effective methods for promoting language development in children [14– 16]. Children who experience interactive reading have been observed to attain higher vocabulary gains than children exposed to traditional storybook reading as passive listeners [17]. The overall goal of interactive reading is for the child to become familiar with the vocabulary and the story plot of the book over multiple readings [17]. When jointly reviewing the contents of a book, the caregiver uses child-directed speech which is diverse and sophisticated, teaching the infant words that are not normally used in everyday context (e.g., giraffe, elephant, igloo, tractor) [18]. Moreover, these interactions occur in the context of joint attention, where the caregiver identifies the infant’s focus of attention and refers to it, thus producing contingent speech [19]. During interactive reading, caregivers generate extra-textual comments and questions targeting the child. They include open-ended questions about the book, as well as repetitions and expansions upon the child’s responses. Caregivers are also expected to follow the child’s lead during the exchange by following the child’s selection of a specific book or by spending more time on a specific book section based on the
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child’s interest. They are also instructed to connect the story in the book to the child’s life [17].
38.2.2 Learning and Children Apps Hirsh-Pasek et al. [20] created a guideline for evaluating the educational impact and effectiveness of children’s apps, based on four pillars of learning: active involvement, engagement, meaningfulness, and social interaction. An active learning environment provides activities that engage children in a continuous process of building understanding as a result of their experiences. Active learning favors vocabulary learning and boosts academic and social outcomes for children. In the context of apps, it can be encouraged by giving children control, depending on their age, so they can proceed at their own pace and interest [20]. Engagement refers to the ability of staying on task and not being distracted. Focused engagement is important for learning in early childhood. Preschoolers are particularly susceptible to distraction, as they are not yet able to inhibit attention to other stimuli. This is why educational apps should avoid potential distractions such as animations, sound effects, and tangential games that might be appealing to the child but do not aid the learning goal [20]. Hence, interfaces that support children’s engagement with the learning content should be simple. In addition, parents should have a way to turn off distracting elements (tailored to child’s age and maturity). Meaningful learning includes learning with a purpose, learning material that is personally relevant, and binding new knowledge to preexisting one. Meaningful learning depends on context: familiar contexts are more effective. Learning meaningful information motivates children to stay engaged and on task [20]. Social interaction and contingency are crucial for learning [19]. Interactions like asking children questions while reading a storybook, prompting them to imitate sounds, or pointing out objects, are important for learning. Children may even develop parasocial relationships with on-screen characters if their interactions are meaningful [20].
38.2.3 Similar Apps The three most relevant apps on the market that we researched were Háblame Bebé, Kinedu, and Dr. Seuss digital book apps. Háblame Bebé is a mobile app whose goal is to aid in the bilingual language development of children with Hispanic parents [21]. It has two main features: word counting in English and Spanish, and reading statistics. This app is intended for adult users. Similarly, Kinedu is a mobile app meant to be used by the parents as a guide for baby’s early stimulation. Children do not interact directly with the app [22]. On the other hand, Dr. Seuss digital book apps are the interactive digital version of the well-known Dr. Seuss story books. These
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apps stand out for their high level of interaction, as they are designed for children. However, they have an age rating of 4 + , thus excluding younger children [23]. None of these apps offer a complete solution for interactive reading. Moreover, availability of apps in Spanish was limited.
38.2.4 HCI Techniques In this work, we used HCI techniques like contextual design, think-aloud, and user experience questionnaire. We next describe each of them. Contextual design is a user-centered approach to design software systems and products [24, 25]. The process of contextual design helps the design team understand how the users work, in order to create software systems that support them [26]. It uses different models to materialize the gathered data: sequence, flow, cultural, physical, and artifact models. Then, storyboards and low-fidelity prototypes are created. Stakeholders give feedback on those prototypes to improve the system design [27]. Thinking aloud is a method where users are asked to verbalize their thoughts while performing certain predefined tasks. While the user is performing the tasks, she is reminded to express her thoughts, so that the collected data is more precise and rich [27]. Overall, the method consists in collecting the (verbalized) user’s thoughts and then analyzing them to evaluate and/or improve the system design. The aim is to obtain information on the cognitive process of users while interacting with the system. It can be used to evaluate the usability of a system as it can reveal usability issues that hinder the user from task completion [28, 29]. A common tool for evaluating the user experience (i.e., a person’s perceptions as a result of using a product) is the user experience questionnaire (UEQ) [30, 31], which is available at https://www.ueq-online.org. It considers both classical usability and user experience aspects [30, 32]. The UEQ contains six categories (attractiveness, perspicuity, efficiency, dependability, stimulation, and novelty) measured across 26 items using a 7-point Likert scale [32]. These techniques have been previously used for the design and evaluation of other applications in Costa Rica, showing their usefulness in this specific context [25, 33].
38.3 The Mobile Application Prototype We describe here the design and development processes, as well as the solution architecture and main features of the mobile app prototype.
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38.3.1 Design Process Our design process was guided by contextual design [24]. We built several models to elucidate the users’ needs. We worked on a sequence model to understand the steps involved in accomplishing the main tasks. We also created a flow model that captures interaction among caregivers and children. Finally, the main artifact identified was an Android mobile phone with limited bandwidth and small resolution, given the low-income context of our target population. Next, we analyzed similar apps in the market by identifying their main features. The main findings of this analysis were summarized and presented to the stakeholders in order to gather feedback on what features were relevant to consider in our app. Once the user’s context was clear, we materialized a caregiver into a Persona: Gilda was a 48-years old caregiver with modest technological skills. Later, we created storyboards to conceptualize the new task flows. Finally, we made wireframes that went through various iterations. All design artifacts were continuously validated with our stakeholders. Once the final wireframes were approved, we moved on to the development phase, addressing technical aspects such as architecture and implementation technologies.
38.3.2 The Solution Architecture Our solution architecture is composed of a mobile app, a backend database, and a web dashboard, as shown in Fig. 38.1. The mobile app is the main component, meant to be used mostly by caregivers but controllable by children as well. Its main features were implemented in a functional prototype with Flutter [34]. The backend is a NoSQL repository that stores children’ stories, tips, and users’ information. It also provides authentication service. It was implemented in Firebase given its easy integration with Flutter. The web dashboard serves as content manager and also allows domain experts (users of this application) to visualize metrics generated from the mobile app usage. This component was not designed nor implemented due to time constraints.
Fig. 38.1 Architecture of the solution
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38.3.3 Development Process The development process consisted of two-week agile iterations, with periodic validations from stakeholders. Only the mobile app (for Android) and backend components were developed. We chose reusable UI components and a severless option (Firebase) to reduce the development time. Only email-based registration and sign in were implemented in the authentication service. The database service was implemented with the Firebase Realtime Database [35], which stores data as JSON.
38.3.4 Main Features of the Mobile App Prototype Our prototype mobile application has three main features. The first one is storytelling. This feature includes searching for stories and reading stories. The left-most image in Fig. 38.2 shows the Home screen where users can search for stories organized in categories. The second image is the Storytelling screen, where users can read one page at a time, with the option to turn on and off tips, narration, and background music by using the buttons at the bottom of the screen (turned on options are yellow whereas turned off options are gray). To scroll through the story pages, users must swipe horizontally. The storytelling interface is very simple, following both HCI and educational design principles. The second feature is browsing for tips, which aims to enrich the caregivers experience with interactive reading. Tips can be text-only, image, or video, and are accessed by tapping on them. Tips shown are organized in various semantic categories. Tips can also be activated during storytelling, and some tips are included
Fig. 38.2 Home, storytelling, tips, and profile screens of the mobile app prototype
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at the end of the registration process. The third image from Fig. 38.2 shows the tip-browsing screen. The third feature is user profile, which includes the registration, profile editing, and statistics. Registration collects basic data about the caregiver and children and provides information about interactive reading. Users can edit their profile information, and can also see statistics about the stories they have read with their children, including the number of words per story, the number of times a story has been read, and the time spent reading each story. The fourth image in Fig. 38.2 shows the profile editing screen.
38.4 Evaluation Before undergoing formal evaluation, we piloted the app prototype with four volunteers who provided useful feedback and found bugs. The development team fixed these issues, generating an improved version of the app for the formal evaluation. The formal evaluation included six experts in interactive reading from three countries, who were university researchers in the fields of education, psychology, or psycholinguistics. Our goal was to evaluate the usability and functionalities of the app, and also to get expert recommendations on how the app could be improved. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, we resorted to virtual sessions with remote participation. We created an evaluation protocol that was used in all sessions. The development team and one expert attended each session. Zoom was chosen as the videoconference tool for the virtual sessions, since it allowed remote control of the screen. This enabled the experts to remotely control our mobile application running on an Android emulator. For experts who were unfamiliar with Android, a brief explanation was given beforehand. The actual evaluation consisted in asking each expert to perform ten tasks covering the main app features, using the thinking-aloud technique. For each task, we recorded whether the expert was able to complete it, and whether she thought she had completed it. We also noted relevant comments made by the expert, such as difficulties she was encountering or positive aspects she pointed out. Once the expert had finished the tasks, we offered a space for open feedback from the expert. At the end of the session, we asked the expert to fill out the user experience questionnaire. The session was recorded with prior permission from the expert, for analysis purposes.
38.4.1 Results of the Evaluation The age of participants (domain experts) ranged from 37 to 57, with a median of 45 years. Half of them were Android users and half were iOS users. One of them reported having very limited experience with mobile apps. The evaluation revealed
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Fig. 38.3 UEQ results: mean value shown per item evaluated
two usability problems related to the profile feature, and one issue related to storytelling. Problems due to the virtual nature of the evaluation were also exposed. From the 10 tasks of the evaluation, eight were completed by all the participants without any help, and two were completed after providing some help (related to the usability problems mentioned before). The results of the user experience questionnaire were analyzed using the procedure and tool recommended in [32]. Our results are shown in Fig. 38.3. Overall, participants had a good impression of the mobile app. In addition, Fig. 38.4 groups these results in three categories: pragmatic quality (perspicuity, efficiency, dependability), hedonic quality (stimulation, novelty), and attractiveness. Positive values were obtained in each category, meaning that the app offers a good user experience.
38.4.2 Discussion Here we discuss how the mobile app prototype meets the four pillars of learning: active involvement, engagement, meaningfulness, and social interaction.
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Fig. 38.4 Mean of the three pragmatic and hedonic quality aspects
Our app supports active involvement of children in two ways. First, during storytelling children can easily control the pace of the story by turning the pages themselves with a simple finger swipe. Secondly, children have at their fingertips the options to turn on or off the narrator and background music during storytelling, allowing them to customize the way the story is told, according to their preference and mood. Regarding children’s engagement, the app also supports it from its conception, as we intended the storytelling flow to be as natural and simple as possible for children and caregivers alike. In this context, a simple storytelling flow helps children stay on task. We purposely avoided games and animations, given the young age of our target children population. Also, just before starting a story, the app asks the caregiver which options to activate, configuring it in a way that is not distracting to the child. The meaningful criterion has two dimensions to analyze: meaningful for the caregivers and for the children. For caregivers, the app offers meaningful information on how to do interactive reading effectively, why it is important and how it influences children’s language development. For children, the app can be meaningful depending on the content and type of the stories. Stories should be diverse to accommodate the varied interests of all children. Lastly, social interaction is what our application ultimately seeks, but it largely depends on how well the caregivers master the interactive reading method. Our app contributes by educating caregivers on how to effectively conduct interactive reading. The entire application is really designed for interaction, from the registration where information about the caregiver and the children is requested to storytelling where the caregiver is prompted to choose which children will participate in the reading.
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38.5 Conclusions Interactive book reading between caregivers and children, from which contingent speech emerges, has been shown to promote vocabulary gains and language development in children. Nevertheless, acquiring children’s books is expensive and therefore uncommon in low-income families. To address this problem, we propose a mobile application that aids caregivers in performing interactive reading while also serving as a repository of children’s books for storytelling. We presented the design, development, and evaluation of our mobile application prototype. We illustrated salient products from the application contextual design and described how other HCI techniques like think-aloud and UEQ were used in the evaluation. We discussed how our application prototype aligns with active, engaging, meaningful, and social interactive learning, rendering it an impactful educational app. A group of six experts in interactive reading participated in the evaluation of our app prototype. Results were very positive, both from the user experience questionnaire and unstructured feedback given by the experts. Usability issues were also discovered. Overall, the app was deemed easy to use and effective in supporting interactive reading. Future directions in which the mobile application can be improved or extended are: (1) categorizing children’s storybooks by age, (2) having tips categorized by book type, (3) removing tips from storytelling and instead having a short introduction on how to read a specific book with the child, (4) if the target age range of the app is extended, older children could be allowed to choose among story characters or objects that further the storyline, to keep them engaged, (5) likewise, on-screen characters could be developed to interact with older children, leveraging the benefits of parasocial relationships. In conclusion, we believe that apps like this should be developed and made available especially to low-income families, in trying to close the existing education gap. Apps for interactive reading should target both caregivers and children, as caregivers would benefit from preparation and training on interactive reading, and children would learn better if they are given some control over what is read and its pace. In addition, apps with an educational goal like this one should take into considerations the pillars of learning from its inception. Acknowledgements This research was funded by University of Costa Rica’s Espacio Universitario de Estudios Avanzados (UCREA) under project No. 723-B9-343, and partially supported by Instituto de Investigaciones Psicológicas (IIP) and Escuela de Ciencias de la Computación e Informática (ECCI). We thank the experts who participated in the evaluation for their invaluable feedback. A special thanks to the pilot volunteers and to the proofreaders.
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Chapter 39
Digital Twins in Contemporary Education: Virtual Workshop A. A. Balyakin , N. N. Nurakhov, and M. V. Nurbina
Abstract The paper discusses the application of existing solutions based on digital technologies to the practical need of International Center for Neutron Research (PIK) in the field of education and staff training. It is proposed to use the digital twins of existing unique scientific facilities as a new tool in contemporary education. Main reasons for that approach are discussed. The basic requirements for the successful transfer of scientific methods to the educational field are presented. An example of practical course on synchrotron research using digital twins of megascience facilities is considered. Main objectives of an educational product based on the digital twin of unique scientific facility are listed. Proposed approach could ease world tensions, facilitate achieving sustainable development goals, and bridge the gap between science, technology, and society.
39.1 Introduction The educational process in the modern world is increasingly turning toward a research trajectory. Science should exist not only in scientific organizations, but also in educational institutions. Megascience facilities are one of the most important sources of scientific data in the modern world. Unique scientific facilities are the only possible modern research tool capable of solving urgent scientific and practical problems and responding to global challenges of our time, providing an opportunity for interdisciplinary research and projects in various fields of knowledge [1, 2]. Projects of this type are defined as a “supranational” organization with “independent representations” [3] or as an organizational and managerial innovation [4], funded and promoted by a consortium of several countries [5]. Operation of such facilities has a number of features, both technical and organizational. One of the issues that gained additional relevance in 2020 due to the coronavirus pandemic was the organization of work on megascience facilities in A. A. Balyakin · N. N. Nurakhov · M. V. Nurbina (B) NRC Kurchatov Institute, 1, ac. Kurchatov sq, Moscow 123182, Russia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 A. Mesquita et al. (eds.), Perspectives and Trends in Education and Technology, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 256, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5063-5_39
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remote access mode and the development of appropriate changes to existing business processes [6]. The remote access mode has been implemented on installations of this class since the appearance of the technical feasibility to fix it up. In 2020, besides technical and managerial advantages (e.g., reducing costs and increasing access to equipment), the social aspect was added. This mode can be treated as one of the ways to ensure the health of researchers and other users. It is noted that by the end of 2020 the activity reduced for the areas where only physical access to workplaces is needed (e.g., to an automated process control system). The development of remote access is currently a prerequisite for the successful implementation of digital technologies. Experts suggest that digitalization development trends include hyper-automation, as well as new unexpected partnerships, big data analytics, artificial intelligence and cloud solutions, the Internet of things, fifthgeneration networks, etc. [7]. Education is inevitably included in the list of human activities that are to alter with the digitalization advances. In this paper we present the intermediate results of Russian Foundation for Basic Research grant № 18–29-15,015. The main aim of the study was to adopt existing solutions based on digital technologies to the practical need of International Center for Neutron Research (PIK) in the field of education and staff training.
39.2 Digital Technologies for Megascience Facilities The progress of digital technologies greatly varies for different spheres [8]. High school has traditionally been very susceptible to new technologies, but the combination of unique scientific facilities and educational practices has become relevant only recently. The fundamental peculiarity of such a conjunction is that megascience facilities as an element of the research infrastructure cannot be focused on the school educational process, imposing a number of restrictions on the level of students involved. Thus, the digital inclusion of mega-installations in the educational process is associated with the following factors: • Staff training (for further work at scientific or industrial fields with complicated plants); • Solving the problem of remote access (which is especially important in the era of a pandemic); • Possibility of cost reduction; • The innovative nature of education (digital education); • Establishing a link between science and education (with perspectives of involving industry); • Promoting scientific career; • Creation of interdisciplinary projects or products; • Increased security (due to digital format).
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The described context corresponds with the general direction of modern science development, and the coronavirus pandemic only acted as a catalyst for the already existing trends. Since the 2010s, the e-Science system has been formed and a new way of organizing modern scientific research has been implemented—e-Infrastructure [9]. At the same time, the digital infrastructure, which is an integral part of the e-Infrastructure, does not duplicate or replace the “physical” one. Currently, the data obtained by computer simulation are used in conjunction with physical facilities at a number of megascience facilities. They are implied to solve local problems of specific experiments. For example, ATLAS (A Toroidal Large hadron collider ApparatuS) at the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN) utilizes data obtained by computer generated events using the Monte-Carlo method [10]. In this class of experiments broad classes of computational algorithms that rely on repeated random sampling to obtain numerical results are applied. Experts regard data as an “active participant” in the decision-making process. The idea was expressed to combine “data” and “code”. In particular, in accordance with the FAIR (Findable, Accessible, Interoperable and Re-usable) principle, algorithms are included in the “circle” of stakeholders and participate in decision-making [11, 12], The algorithm is treated as an independent object, whose “vote”—the decision obtained—is counted with a certain weighting factor. It should be noted that there is no legal terminology in the field of digital scientific facilities. The term “digital twin” is often related to a software analogue of a physical device that simulates internal processes, technical characteristics and behavior of a real object under external influence. In this case one deals with a very complicated algorithm, a computer simulation. However, the recent progress in the data handling (data centers, remote access, etc.) made it possible to form a “cast” of a real system, a “digital shadow” of a unique scientific installation. This approach is similar to the creation of a digital footprint, where the source is a megascience class facility, the data from which is recorded, sorted and can be used in the future to obtain new knowledge. Note that in this case there is no problem of interpreting the results, developing algorithms or a model, but recording, storing and providing remote access become the most important tasks. Hereafter we consider “digital twin” as “digital footprint” of the real unique scientific facility. Work on the creation of a digital model and a digital footprint of the installation is currently underway in Russia. This experiment is carried out at the Siberian ring photon source “SKIF” (center of scientific research using synchrotron radiation, Novosibirsk State University, Russia). To date, the world’s first experiment on multifunctional modeling of megascience class installations has been carried out, and a digital twin of the SKIF Center for Collective Use has been created. Technologies and methods developed on it can be used to create 4 + generation megascience objects [13]. In the European Union at CERN in 1998, the MONARC project (Models of Networked Analysis at Regional Centers for LHC Experiments) was launched, one of the results of which was the development of the concept of a hierarchy of data processing, modeling and analysis centers. There are currently 4 tiers of processing
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centers. The lower level is the zero level (Tier-0 CERN Computing Center), which deals with the primary reconstruction of events, calibration, permanent storage and archiving of the complete set of “raw” and simulated data. Then there are Tier-1 (13 centers), Tier-2 (about 170 centers), and finally, Tier-3 (about 50 centers), which are university clusters, or centers that provide resources on a voluntary basis, physical data analysis [14, 15]. A similar approach has been implemented in the case of a global neutrino network (GNN) [16]. This network can be interpreted as a distributed scientific infrastructure, elements of which can be separate mega-installations and collaborations (for example, the IceCube collaboration with 47 organizations from 12 countries or the Baikal—Gigaton Volume Detector located in the water column in the southern part of the Lake Baikal). The GNN includes a set of experimental facilities (as localization centers), and a number of scientific institutions (institutes, universities, research centers) that are engaged in setting up experiments and processing the data obtained. The latter are distributed over the territory of Europe, America and Asia in various data centers. Astronomical data act as an analogue of the “digital footprint” of the universe, and their analysis by scientific groups can be interpreted as a process of repeatedly gaining new knowledge from experimental data. With regard to the data obtained during the work of scientific installations of the megascience class, two approaches can be distinguished. Within the framework of the first approach (for example, at CERN), an open data policy is implemented, when the scientific results obtained by the collaboration are considered public. Open access to raw (unprocessed) data is not expected. The data itself (in the processed format) is stored for a long time and is available for repeated analysis. GNN provides access to raw data from scientific installations with almost no restrictions. Another approach is implemented in the European XFEL (European X-Ray FreeElectron Laser Facility): all raw data, and associated metadata, as well as the results of raw data analysis obtained as a result of private research, would belong exclusively to the client who acquired access and is not subject to the Scientific Data Policy European XFEL. Data would become public after some time (usually 3 years), but its storage is not expected, thus re-access is difficult. The presence of an effectively working triad “real object” (megascience facility)— the digital footprint of the installation—researchers working with data, provides a link between the model and the algorithm with the real world (represented by experimental data). In principle, it is realizable only in the case of systems where redundancy of experimental data is possible. This situation is typical for high-energy physics and astronomy, but it is difficult to implement in relation to socio-economic systems due to the blurring of quantitative characteristics and the absence of an unambiguous transition of qualitative indicators into quantitative ones (mostly due to moral and ethical assessments imposed [17, 18]). In socio-economic systems, redundant data is necessary to overcome poorly formalized criteria and form more fine-tuned decision-making mechanisms (retail or banking).
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We stress that to optimize the use of the megascience digital footprint; the reusing data process becomes crucial. Data would be accessed repeatedly, and serve as the source to produce new knowledge with new approaches applied. That means the possibility of developing a posteriori algorithms and models in relation to experimental data obtained earlier: data gained first, and operated with later. In order to regulate the circulation of scientific data, and their reuse in the EU, the Go FAIR initiative was formulated. It introduced ideas and proposals related to open science into a practical life [19]. This approach has resulted in optimized search, accessibility, interoperability and data reuse. The ultimate FAIR goal—to optimize the reuse of data, in order to ensure the possibility of copying and (or) combining in different tasks—is achieved through the implementation of the principles of data description [11, 12]: • • • •
Using a variety of precise (unambiguous) and appropriate attributes; With a clear and accessible license to use the data; With a detailed history of data origin; In accordance with the standards of the thematic scientific community.
At the same time, the initial data are not considered “obsolete” and are immediately intended for reuse as methods and approaches improve and computing power develops. Thus, it is possible to formulate the basic requirements for the successful transfer of scientific methods to the educational field through the basic principles of working with digital twins of scientific mega-installations: 1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
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Solely honored (authorized) research centers (CERN, EuXFEL, ESRF - European Synchrotron Radiation Facility, ITER – International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor) are the source of data for the educational process. Their data have gone through the necessary verification, falsification and reduction processes (recognized by scientific community). To work with data, only proven algorithms and approaches that have been tested on real scientific installations before are used. The development of new approaches is implemented on the basis of traditional successful methods and on the basis of reliable data. A high level of the involved digital infrastructure has been ensured. The technical support for data handling is outstanding (taking into account the implementation of the possibility of repeated use). Educational process is introduced with the conjunction with existing approaches and governmental and/or educational programs (e.g., the CERN and ITER research programs, the Russian synchrotron research program [20]). The continuous process of data, methods and algorithms update is implemented. The proposed educational product aims at implementing the concept of lifelong education and the formation of competencies. Interdisciplinary research is in the focus. Cross-transfer technologies and the translation of educational practices into a practical life.
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It is taken for granted, the number of unique scientific installations is few; accordingly, the set of data, algorithms, methods and the number of experiments is also limited. The proposed approach makes it possible to remove a hype of restrictions on access to high technologies and increase the role of scientific centers as suppliers of algorithms and data for algorithms verification.
39.3 Practical Course on Synchrotron Research Using Digital Twins of Megascience Facilities. Russian Case In Russia, a world-class International Center for Neutron Research (PIK, Gatchina, near St. Petersburg) reactor is currently under late stage of construction. Increased neutron fluxes in the reflector, the presence of a neutron trap with a very high flow and the potential for exposure of materials in the active zone is what makes the PIK reactor different from most similar foreign projects. The maximum density of the unperturbed thermal neutron flux is close to the value of 5,0 × 1015 n/cm2 s and corresponds to the record values obtained in reactors of continuous action. After the power start-up, the reactor complex will include, in addition to the PIK reactor itself (as a neutron source), several dozen experimental installations. An important component of the project is to attract a wide range of users—physicists, chemists, biologists, materials scientists, engineers. The implementation of this project will allow coordinating and uniting the efforts of large international scientific teams to work in Russia, will enable young people to take part in research and innovation processes in many areas, and will contribute to the growth of the prestige of Russian science in the world and the creation of effective cross-disciplinary projects. The first start-up complex was completed at the end of 2009. The physical start-up of the high-flux research nuclear reactor PIK was carried out on February 28, 2011 as part of the start-up complex No. 1. The power start-up of 100 kW took place in January 2019, and the reactor was fully launched on February 8, 2021 [21, 22]. To accompany these works, it is planned to develop the first course of such a type, “Methods based on synchrotron radiation in interdisciplinary research” using virtual reality technologies, on the basis of which digital twins of unique research equipment installed at mega-class research infrastructure facilities have been developed. The existing facilities, such as the European XFEL and the Synchrotron Center of the Kurchatov Institute Research Center (Moscow), will be used as a base with perspectives to employ course graduates later at the PIK and similar facilities in future. The aim of the course is to train specialists in a wide range of disciplines from materials scientists and chemists to soil scientists, ecologists, geneticists, physicians, archaeologists and art historians for the use of modern instrumental techniques based on synchrotron radiation in interdisciplinary research. This course is designed for both Russian specialists and the formation of a wide international consortium, with
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most subjects taught in English, and with permanent communication with colleagues from all over the world. The target audience is Master’s students in areas in which it is advisable to use methods based on synchrotron radiation. The substantive novelty of the proposed course is determined by the fact that at present such courses have been developed and are used only for training narrow specialists in the field of physics (or materials sciences), and there is no content adapted for a wide range of specialists far from the exclusively natural sciences. The methodological novelty of the developed course is determined by the fact that it will use both traditional lecture—seminars approach, and also greatly rely on students’ interaction with digital twins of real megascience facilities. The innovativeness of the approach will be determined by the fact that, within the framework of the workshops, the trainees will be familiarized, among other things, with unique techniques based on artificial intelligence technologies for analyzing a significant amount of experimental data (including big data) obtained during experiments at the facilities of the megascience class. It is supposed to work with already tested algorithms, and it is planned to develop own software products. The structure of the proposed course consists of three main components: 1. 2. 3.
Lectures, and traditional seminars and workshops. A virtual workshop based on digital twins of unique research equipment installed at mega-class research infrastructure facilities. Tests to assess the achieved level of competence.
The main results suggest the development of three core competencies: First, the ability to use modern instrumental techniques based on synchrotron radiation in interdisciplinary research. Second, the ability to use digital twins of unique research facilities for specialists training in interdisciplinary research (the ability to work with secondary data from mega-installations). Third, the ability to use modern techniques based on artificial intelligence (machine learning and beyond), technologies for data processing (including big data) in interdisciplinary research (the ability to build models and develop algorithms).
39.4 Goals and Objectives of an Educational Product Based on the Digital Twin of Unique Scientific Facility 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
To bridge the gap “science”—“education”. To improve the quality of engineering personnel. To form the competence to transform data into “knowledge". To serve as the element of innovative interdisciplinary learning To contribute to the democratization of high science, to implement the Citizen access principle.
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To improve the quality of education and science. To remove the contradiction online—offline, to abolish the difference between distant and on-site education. To increase the role of open science. To facilitate the development of analytical methods for big data processing. To build an effective structure of international interaction. To promote the education and science.
A new comprehensive approach to the implementation of the results of the work of megascience in education would contribute to the fact that education will act as another way of obtaining scientific knowledge. The proposed approach acts as an element of active learning, when practical exercises support lecture knowledge. In education, by analogy with science, a connection is built “in vivo—in vitro—in silicio”. For example, in the considered example with the PIK reactor, students would learn to adapt traditional methods from the field of synchrotron physics to other branches of knowledge. At the same time, the proposed approach contributes to an increase in the level of training of students: to carry out work on digital twins, a high level of preliminary skills and knowledge is required. Also, all of mentioned activities exist not in an isolated form, but as an integrated element of the educational process of the digital age. In practical terms, digital twins make distance learning “real”, and vice versa: science plunges into digital. In social and political life, the implementation of such a project can be considered as an element of scientific diplomacy. The effective use of the results of the work of mega-installations, the formulation of goals and objectives of the scientific search for unique scientific facilities (as a subsequent structural educational element) is possible only within the framework of international scientific consortia. Accordingly, the role of such organizations as BRICS (Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa) and the EAEU (Eurasian Economic Union) is growing. Doubtlessly, this approach would lead to the transformation of the role and place of data in modern society. Already, the role of open science and open source algorithms is growing, and a significant number of “data” are outlined to become “natural” (“socialization” of data) [23]. In the long term, this would lead to the disappearance of meaning in such a concept as “data protection” and the possible inclusion of the right to information (access to data) into basic human rights. Technically, there has been steady progress in the development of computing power, the development of new complex algorithms and means of data transmission and storage. A supranational environment for the circulation of big data technologies is emerging, one example of which is AIPO (OECD AI Policy Observatory), a comprehensive analytical platform for reviewing policy measures and various national initiatives in the field of artificial intelligence. Authorities are moving away from controlling physical entities to managing data-related processes (from controlling algorithms to a policy of localizing data centers). The format of an educational product based on digital twins of megascience facilities should not be simple, but it should captivate students. This has already been
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expressed in the gamification of science and education. Thus, it is proposed to use the gaming shell (such as like Minecraft) as an environment for working with scientific data in digital form.
39.5 Conclusion Digitalization processes are clearly represented in the work of megascience class installations [1]. The coronavirus pandemic has given an additional impetus to the widespread introduction of the remote access regime and the creation of digital twins of real objects [24]. Our analysis shows that its inclusion in the digital infrastructure of society will become an indispensable element of any megascience facility (if earlier as an addition to the real one, now—as its integral part). The formation of an effective scientific environment will enhance the role of the educational component in megascience installations. Due to their uniqueness and impossibility to provide universal access, work with a wide range of stakeholders is possible only in the format of digital twins. It is assumed that it is possible to attract business to create and support the operation of digital twins (which would also reduce the associated costs). At the international level, there is an intensification of cooperation between countries around unique scientific facilities and within the framework of existing programs. The last to name are the scientific grid system of the BRICS countries, the Horizon Europe program, the Cremlin + (Connecting Russian and European Measures for Largescale Research Infrastructures—plus) program [25]. Accordingly, we should expect the launch of new international interdisciplinary scientific projects (such as PIK) and the intensification of work on the already started installations (ITER). With regard to education, further planning of professional activities must necessarily be associated with the solution of scientific and applied problems, involving the use of new end-to-end technologies in various fields of knowledge from the material sciences to ecology, archeology and art history [26]. Today digital twins are an ideal tool for scientific research and active educational process, taking into account security requirements (via remote access) and democratization of technologies. In the future, the use of digital twins of megascience facilities will contribute to the creation of cross-industrial products as one of the flagships of the development of the digital economy. In our opinion, the use of digital twins in contemporary education makes it possible to build an effective triad of science—education—production, not only at the national but also at the international level. In this regard, the proposed approach will contribute to achieving the goals of sustainable development, reducing global tensions and implementing inclusive education policies. This study was supported by RFBR grant № 18–29-15,015.
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References 1. Nurakhov, N.: The basic processes of creating a “Megascience” project. In: International Conference on Integrated Science, ICIS 2019: Integrated Science in Digital Age, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems, vol 78, pp. 329–339. (Springer, Cham, 2019) 2. Hallonsten, O.: History and Politics. In: Big Science Transformed. pp 43–98, (Palgrave Macmillan, Cham, 2016) 3. Crease, Robert P., Martin, Joseph D., Pesic, Peter: Megascience. Physics in Perspective. vol. 18, pp.355–356. (Springer, 2016) 4. Karlik, A.E., Platonov, V.V.: Conceptual foundations of the study of megascience as an organizational and management innovation. Innovation 10(228), 11–16 (2017) 5. Fotakis, C.: FP7 Interim Evaluation, Analyses of FP7 supported Research Infrastructures initiatives in the context of the European Research Area, Final Report 12 November 2010 (2010) 6. Nurbina, M.V., Nurakhov, N.N., Balyakin, A.A.: Digital Twins vs Digital Trace in Megascience Projects. In: Rocha, Á., Ferrás, C., López-López, P.C., Guarda, T. (eds.) ICITS 2021, AISC 1330, vol. 1330, pp. 534–539. Springer, Cham (2021) 7. Engin, Z., Treleaven, P.: Algorithmic government: automating public services and supporting civil servants in using data science technologies. Comput. J. 62(3), 448–460 (2019) 8. Report on the EU funded eStandards project, https://ec.europa.eu/digital-single-market/en/ news/report-eu-funded-estandards-project. Last accessed 2021/03/14 9. Zhulego, V.G., Balyakin, A.A., Nurbina, M.V., Taranenko, S.B.: Digitalization of socie-ty: new challenges in the social sphere. Bull. Altai Acad. Econ. Law 9(2), 36–43 (2019) 10. Ay, C., et al.: Monte Carlo generators in ATLAS software. J. Phys.: Conf. Ser., vol. 219 032001, CHEP09. IOP Publishing Ltd (2010) 11. The FAIR data principles, https://www.force11.org/group/fairgroup/fairprinciples. Last accessed 2021/02/02 12. FAIR Principles, https://www.go-fair.org/fair-principles/. Last accessed 2021/03/02 13. SKIF, https://srf-skif.ru/. Last accessed 2021/02/12 14. Grigorieva, M., Golosova, M., Ryabinkin, E., Klimentov, A.: Exabyte repository of scientific data. In: Open Data Systems. DBMS, https://www.osp.ru/os/2015/04/13047963, Moscow (2015) 15. Klimentov, A., Kiryanov, A., Zarochentsev, A.: Russian Lake of Scientific. In: Open Data Systems. DBMS, https://www.osp.ru/os/2018/04/13054563, Moscow (2018) 16. Global Neutrino Network, URL https://www.globalneutrinonetwork.org/, last accessed 2021/02/12 17. Birhane, A.: Algorithmic injustice: a relational ethics approach. Perspect. Patt. 2. 2(2), 100205 (12 Feb 2021) 18. Lum, K., Isaac, W.: To predict and serve? Significance 13(5), 14–19 (2016) 19. Balyakin, A.A., Malyshev, A.S.: Big data management in research infrastructures. In: Open Systems. DBMS. 2020(3), pp. 40–42. Moscow (2020) 20. Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation of March 16, 2020 No. 287 “On Approval of the Federal Scientific and Technical Program for the Development of Synchrotron and Neutron Research and Research Infrastructure for 2019–2027”, http://publication.pravo. gov.ru/Document/View/0001202003260022, Last accessed 2021/02/12 21. PNPI, http://www.pnpi.spb.ru/en/facilities/reactor-pik. Last accessed 2021/04/04 22. NRC “Kurchatov Institute” - PNPI, http://www.pnpi.nrcki.ru/en/facilities/reactor-pik, last accessed 2021/04/04 23. Big data: The next frontier for innovation, competition, and productivity. McKinsey Global Institute. Report 2011, https://www.mckinsey.com/business-functions/mckinsey-digital/ourinsights/big-data-the-next-frontier-for-innovation, last accessed 2021/04/04 24. Nurbina, M. V., Nurakhov, N. N., Balyakin, A. A., Tsvetus, N. Yu.: Mega Science Projects for Business. In: T. Ahram et al. (eds.) Human Interaction, Emerging Technologies and Future
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Chapter 40
Digital Footprint and Education: Some Remarks A. A. Balyakin, M. V. Mamonov, M. V. Nurbina, and S. B. Taranenko
Abstract The phenomenon of digital footprint in education is considered. Main attention is paid to the managerial decisions associated with big data technologies implementation in educational process. Current trends are described, risks and challenges are formulated. It is shown that with the development of digital technologies, the role of society and state institutions and their involvement into the digital educational process increases instantly. The authors argue that it is necessary to reduce expectations from the prospects of using a digital footprint to optimize management decisions in education. It is proposed to focus on the development of a digital culture and the widespread implementation of the ethics of big data handling in order to overcome the arising challenges.
40.1 Introduction The structural economic crisis associated with technological revolutions is notably present in modern life [1]. This process is superimposed on the situation that has developed in connection with the pandemic in 2020. Coronavirus has aggravated the crisis situation in the world economy, and sharply increased the demand for a number of new technologies, especially digital ones. Their widespread use in a variety of industries has become a daily routine and has already been taken for granted. The processes of society digitalization are based on scientific and technological advances in the field of data handling (big data technologies, artificial intelligence, distributed ledger technologies and decision-making systems). Optimization of methods and approaches to information processing, the search for more effective ways of collecting and exchanging data, taking into account the shifts in society A. A. Balyakin · M. V. Nurbina (B) · S. B. Taranenko NRC Kurchatov Institute, 1, ac. Kurchatov sq., Moscow 123182, Russia e-mail: [email protected] M. V. Mamonov Russian Public Opinion Research Center, 38, Prechistenka, Moscow 119072, Russia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 A. Mesquita et al. (eds.), Perspectives and Trends in Education and Technology, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 256, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5063-5_40
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(social, economic, political, etc.) are becoming an urgent task in the field of digital technologies. The most powerful tool in digitalization process is performed by big data technologies; with their role and methods to be widely discussed and adopted in almost every sphere [2]. Particularly, it is argued that information about an individual correctly handled, could significantly assist with resolving of many issues. As a rule, this is implemented in the field of banking, government, taxes, cellular communications, urban planning (including systems such as “Smart City”), transport management, in the field of genetics and social demography (large-scale biobanks [3]), as part of e-Health (as a personalized medicine). The next step, that is likely to be anticipated, should be the implementation of digital technologies (especially big data technologies) in education. This matches the general paradigm of the big data concept, which should be understood as a process that includes a large number of technologies that do not have signs of innovation in themselves, but together provide a synergistic effect [4]. In educational processes, big data technologies are used in such areas as: • • • •
technologies for presenting educational material; digitalization of management in education [5]; digital footprint of students; system for creating a “smart” environment for scholars [6].
At the same time, it is recognized that digital technologies for the educational process are a necessary but insufficient condition for increasing the effectiveness of educational work [7, 8]. Another issue is that due to limited resources and insufficient digital literacy of educators, digital transformation affects educational organizations with delay and unevenly [8, 9]. In this paper, the authors attempt to consider the specifics of the formation and use of a digital footprint in education in the context of management decisions involved. Main attention is paid to social outcomes of digital footprint implementation. Other problems such as technical and methodological issues (the use of digital technologies directly in the educational process) as well as legal regulation issues (data protection) are not considered. Hereafter, we regard digital footprint as the entire set of data that can be attributed to a specific individual, generated consciously or unintentionally, accumulated and processed with the help of external algorithms. It is worth to note, that the use of big data technology requires (ideally) an infinite set of data in order to provide the representative sample. Highly specialized areas, or with a limited observation time, with a lot of restrictions involved (e.g., education) fail to match such requirements. This severely limits the possibilities of using digital technologies to analyze such data, and / or could result in mistakes and wrong conclusions. Thus, while studying digital footprint one should always recall probable uncertainties and limitations. Another important preliminary remark is that the authors do not consider the digital footprint as a tool for monitoring students (digital diary format). Our attention is focused on the predictive role of digital technologies: for us, the digital footprint
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is a management, not a control tool. We also do not discuss here the meaning of the term “education” itself: the problem of terminology is out of authors’ interests. Thus, we assume the source of data to have been completely identified, the amount of data to be sufficient for the analysis, and methods and algorithms to have been verified, and reliably tested. In this paper we present the intermediate results of Russian Foundation for Basic Research grant № 18–29-16,130. The main aim of the study was to discuss some effects of digital footprint implementation to the educational process.
40.2 Some Peculiarities of Digital Footprint in Educational Process Let us briefly list some peculiarities of digital footprint used in educational process. Main attention was paid to probable social outcomes of implementation of such a technique. (1)
A digital footprint can be formed both consciously and unconsciously. In the first case, digital technologies act as an auxiliary tool for test systems such as MMPI tests or similar. In the second case, the generated digital footprint mostly depends on the models and algorithms used for data processing. A combination of these approaches is considered optimal, when an unconsciously produced digital footprint is used as a refinement parameter for a consciously generated one.
For example, such a policy was implemented at Stanford, when data fixation was accompanied by an increase in the duration of work (asynchrony of the educational process) and fixation on skills rather than knowledge [10]. In Russia, this approach was implemented in the activities of the University 20.35 in the field of digital education. Through a series of lengthy events, a data collection process was organized to generate a digital footprint of the participants. It was found that useless information accounted for more than 51% of the total amount of downloaded data, reaching 98% at the initial stage [11]. (2)
When using the digital footprint in education, it is assumed that future can be predicted based on past experience. The formation of the footprint is carried out on the basis of the current classification (here and now) that may change in the future (i.e., how we view the past). The digital footprint, thus, creates additional inertia in the process of training specialists. From a moral point of view, voices about algorithmic injustice can be heard when approaches, a priori, stitched into algorithms, evolve over time toward tightening and reinforce existing inequalities [12].
The way out of this problem seems to be the maximum possible collection and storage of information “in general” without its preliminary processing and / or classification.
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This approach mirrors the policy of collecting and processing scientific data [13], when information is extracted from the original (raw) data at each stage of accessing them. This leads to the relativism of the digital footprint: the interpretation of the available data varies from the time of accessing the data and from the algorithms applied. One can represent this situation with two agile and ever-changing substances: Raw data (in a form of Data Lake—all data as a whole) and the extracting methods. The data lake varies over time, gaining new information (for example, with the growing up of a person), and so does the methods (new algorithms, new computer power, etc.). (3)
With regard to the consciously generated digital footprint, the choice of socially approved practices is decisive. Strictly speaking, the digital footprint reflects the main tendencies the society possesses now, and analysts can predict them, or make some arrangements in order to obtain more precise outcomes.
Previously, the main source of the formation of self-determination (choice of the direction of development) was the state and social institutions (e.g., the church). In fact, the choice of professions was limited, and their popularity (and, accordingly, the answers received from the digital footprint) lay in a narrow range, and did not change much over time. The system was rigid, and predictive, thus the digital footprint was unnecessary. Now the definition of development tasks is transferred to business, large corporations, which set the agenda, thus defining the educational trajectory for tomorrow. They act in a fast manner without stable rules or long-term ideas. Consequently, there is a powerful external factor not related to the state operating with different pace. As the authorities conceive the old rules don’t work, and education (being deformed by other actors) fails to address the challenges of the society, the government will doubtlessly strive to regain control over it. The authorities have 2 options: either to influence the algorithms or to establish physical control (grips over data centers, data providers, etc.). Both actions aim at the development strategy of the society, providing professional staff for different economic branches, and contributing to sustainable development. (4)
Improving the quality of a digital footprint is possible in two ways [14]. The instrumental approach involves the creation of a specialized environment in which the production of a digital footprint can be facilitated (a specially equipped shell where human activity can be recorded in an accurate and multidimensional digital model). This trend continues the policy of gamification of education in particular and society in general.
The second way is to develop the culture and competencies of the creators of the digital footprint, and its consumers (customers of educational practices) [12]. This is a process of self-discovery, in the nosce te ipsum paradigm: “If you want to retain at least partial control over your life and the future of the world, you must run faster than the algorithms of the Amazon state and know yourself before they do” [15].
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The role of algorithms that process data is increasing incessantly. In a pessimistic scenario, the philosophical foundations of existence in the world would disappear, and decision-making would be given to implicit algorithms [15]. In the future, this would lead to the emergence of a digital dictatorship and a system of new globalism (submission to certain global rules - algorithms embedded in data processing systems). The solution to this problem lies in making algorithms and big data ethical or morally biased [16].
Artificial Intelligent (AI) learns from how citizens are connected, society works, as represented in its data (or social networks). Since human societies have structural biases and inequalities, machine learning tools inevitably adhere them, too. However, it is important to ensure that AI counteracts, rather than reinforces inequalities. There are some technical options to limit how algorithms can pick up on biases, although they might simply hide biases, making them more difficult to detect. Regulatory measures could limit how certain tools can be used in some domains, or provide recourse for when something goes wrong [17]. At present, the EU’s anthropocentric approach can be distinguished, where the person is placed at the center of all problems. In the USA and China, on the contrary, the primacy is given to commercial interests (USA) or Confucianism. All other participants (including large corporations that consistently lose their sovereignty in favor of national states or merge / replace with them) will not be able to remain neutral for a number of reasons [18] and, obviously, would take the side of some larger player. The digital technology management systems that are being built uphold different values, and, in fact, create different digital worlds with different accompanying technologies, including artificial intelligence technologies (the most promising developments are in the USA and China [19]). In the near future, we would have a competition not only of different methods, but of different minds who do not understand each other, living in their filter bubbles [20]. Here we faced the intriguing question, if the universal AI is possible? AI that is equally strong in all areas and responds identically for the same inputs? And the answer to it (in the current reality) is negative. (6)
In addition to the difference in algorithms, it is necessary to take into account the difference in data obtained from different age groups, or, more precisely, from groups with different levels of immersion in the digital world.
As was proven by specialists, the constant presence in the digital space and the frequent use of digital technologies has a significant impact on the development of cognitive processes. Generation Z is especially exposed to this influence [21–23]. The thinking process of the “digital generation” is different from the principle of thinking of pre-digital era people. As a result, the thinking of generation Z has such characteristics as flexibility, volume, polysemy [23], and on the other hand—it is clip-like, mosaic [22, 24]. The digital generation turns out to be incapable of carrying out the simplest analysis by building a logical chain from the general to the particular [25]. This is inevitably
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reflected in the digital footprint they produce and on possible conclusions from its analysis. (7)
(8)
(9)
(10)
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One of the digitalization consequences is the inflation of knowledge. In particular, the concept of intellectual property becomes untenable [26]. Among other things, this is expressed in the uberization of the economy [27] and, as a consequence, in the disappearance of unclaimed professions from the digital footprint (not popular ones, though necessary for the society). On the other hand, the practice of “renting knowledge”, when specialists with deep professional skills, cannot currently demonstrate the same high level of online competencies as “trained” youth (who can scan and compile), makes it impossible to adequately assess different age groups. The digital footprint has been already treated as a new scientific paradigm, known as unintentionally produced knowledge. The more data—the better, and “information” is confused with “knowledge”. A possible solution to this problem could be the evolution of big data, their transition to smart content [16]. This, however, requires both the development of methods for collecting, processing and storing data, and taking into account the socio-economic components of high technologies. Assessing a person and one‘s prospects based on the analysis of the digital footprint can be seen as another example of alienation. It is not the one that is evaluated, but a limited set of one‘s formalized fixed qualities. In this regard, an increase in the number of formal indicators should be expected, which, having no quantitative expression, would describe qualitative characteristics (creativity, flexibility, freedom, etc.). The apparent simplicity and efficiency (in the sense of achieving indicators—KPI in education) would lead to a decrease in the quality of the acquired knowledge and would make passive education popular. There is also a threat that the introduction of standards in student assessment would exclude everything exceptional from its sphere of consideration (i.e., deprive society of scientific breakthroughs through unconventional solutions, discoveries and insights). The introduction of a digital footprint in education would help to solve the problem of personalizing the educational process by analogy with the formation of personalized medicine based on redundant data about a person. An increasing transition of education to the category of services should be expected. In this regard, it would be relevant to develop new teaching methods that take into account the individual characteristics of people. Perhaps digitalization could make education both a massive and simultaneously personalized product. One of the popular threats actively promoted and discussed is the fear of Big Brother. The authors consider it appropriate to mention, but do not count it critical in the case of the digital footprint used in education.
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40.3 Conclusion The pace of digital technologies development will require to take into account the advantages and risks of using artificial intelligence technology, big data and related technologies to achieve the goals of balanced development of mankind [28]. The education can also benefit from the progress of data handling. The use of a digital footprint would allow the development of recommendatory decision-making systems, when a “friendly AI” acts as an advisor, a navigator for human development [29]. Digital footprint (from the past) can be furthered into the future, producing the trajectory of a human development. The experts’ community should answer the question, whether it is possible with the help of digital technologies to stimulate the process of choosing an educational trajectory and to what extent? The authors are confident that the digital footprint could not solve the problems of education optimization, and could not be regarded as a universal solution. It could be another tool for humans to teach and get educated, with no principal breakthroughs in educational process. The last to depend on human way of thinking rather on sophisticated tools applied. As our analysis reveals, the following scenarios should be expected to come into life with the development of digital technologies. First, people will have the duty to generate data (“say something, no matter, what!”). Building a digital footprint will slowly but inevitably becomes a necessity. The question remains open, what form it can take: direct order, through a game, or with money involved. The data will be used for educational purposes in regard of “future human formation” based on one’s past. Secondly, the authorities are gradually returning to education. The grips of the state will embrace two entities: physical one (such as data centers), and ideological one. The last to be more important and less visible. The authorities will interfere to algorithms with a priori stitched models. In fact, there will be higher level of ideology than it used to be in the past. The state doesn’t insist on something directly, but makes it negligible and not valuable for the algorithms. And since the algorithms rule the reality, the one who control them, can form the real life. Third, Big data has to be ethical, if society is interested in sustainable development, taking into account the interests of all groups. At the moment, the EU’s approach seems to be the most human-oriented (which is expressed, among other things, in the adoption of the GDPR [30]). However, the most realistic is the situation when the world will be divided between different types of AI, based on different basic values (that were put in the background). Fourthly, thanks to the digital footprint, there is a risk of determining the individual trajectory too early, resulting in an early social determination. Probably, this will be combined with the growth of infantilism in society. Fifthly, the availability of feedback society—technology (through science) becomes crucial. The process of the influence of algorithms on a person cannot be considered unidirectional. This means that critical thinking, conscious, responsible choice are significant.
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In general, it is necessary to reconcile technically promising approaches with the emotional development of the digital world. In order to overcome the challenges, it is vital to take a top-down approach to digitalization while channeling creative energy and vitality from the bottom up [31]. In practice, a modern person must understand oneself (one’s interests and values) and be able to communicate (to promote oneself), determining the format of one’s participation in the formation of a digital footprint. The authors believe that all of these difficulties will be successfully overcome, and the progress of science and technology will contribute to the construction of a balanced and just society. This work was supported by RFBR grant 18-29-16130.
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Chapter 41
From Alternative to Scientific Conceptions in the Learning of Physics of Sound: Students’ Perceptions of Learning Using Active Methodologies and Computer Simulators Bruno Conde, Filipe Santos, Maria Antónia Barreto, Maria Isabel Alves Rodrigues Pereira, and Marta Fonseca Abstract Learning Physics is an area with numerous difficulties and alternative conceptions often limit a deeper understanding of several domains of this discipline. In particular, in the field of sound, it is common to find such misconceptions. Active learning methodologies have been used effectively for science teaching in a constructivist approach. The use of these methodologies to address alternative conceptions can promote the construction of mental models that are closer to scientifically accepted conceptual models. In this paper, we present a work in progress, which analyzes the students’ perception of the contribution of computer simulators integrated into active methodologies to improve their learning. For this purpose, we present the results obtained from the implementation of a sequence of didactic activities, which took place in a context of emergency remote teaching (ERT). This study was conducted with a class of 23 8th-grade students from a school cluster in central Portugal, during the month of March 2021. The results suggest that students felt the characteristic engagement of activities based on active methodologies and the use of simulators, but showed limitations in the activities regarding the perception of orientation and the surprise factor, limitations that can be attributed to the high degree of autonomy that was required of them.
B. Conde (B) Agrupamento de Escolas Domingos Sequeira, 2400 Leiria, Portugal F. Santos · M. A. Barreto · M. I. A. R. Pereira · M. Fonseca CI&DEI, Centro de Estudos em Educação e Inovação, Politécnico de Leiria, Escola Superior de Educação e Ciências Sociais, 2400 Leiria, Portugal © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 A. Mesquita et al. (eds.), Perspectives and Trends in Education and Technology, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 256, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5063-5_41
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41.1 Framework 41.1.1 Introduction When students begin to learn a particular curriculum subject, they potentially possess some knowledge about it. However, this empirical knowledge integrates alternative conceptions. Students’ alternative conceptions about a subject are difficult to identify, and deconstructing them in order to make a conceptual change is a challenge for teachers [1]. In Physics teaching, there are many alternative conceptions in the field of study of sound. The literature suggests that this subject is usually addressed through transmissive teaching strategies, but these strategies cannot resolve the alternative conceptions. These alternative conceptions can be addressed by pedagogical strategies that reinforce the role of students in the knowledge construction process and the literature consulted suggests that the use of simulators may be a strategy with potential to operate conceptual changes. Thus, this article presents an investigation on the implementation of a didactic sequence where simulators integrated into active learning methodologies were used for teaching the subject “Production and Propagation of Sound”. As this is a work in progress, we present the first results already obtained, which are linked to the students’ perception of the learning methodology implemented, namely regarding the factors engagement, disorientation and surprise effect.
41.1.2 Learning Physics in the Twenty-First Century Physics is a foundational science for technological development, as well as for the instruments and equipment used for research in various scientific areas. However, it is assumed to be one of the subjects where the learning effort is greater [2]. Learning Physics requires students to understand concepts and principles of the natural world that are often not visible, such as sound waves, energy or atoms. Thus, abstract models are used, often explained by symbolic representations and physical–mathematical models that allow to explain physical phenomena and to make predictions. Mirana [3] states that Physics is perceived by students as difficult, uninteresting and demotivating. This perception has the effect of a lack of engagement by students in the study of the subject with negative implications for the results achieved in international standardized tests, such as the Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) Advanced 2015 [4]. As a consequence, the expectations for further studies and careers in the areas of sciences and engineering falls short [5], conditioning the economic and social development of countries. According to Marôco et al. [6], science education should focus on the promotion of scientific literacy. In this way, the pedagogical integration of digital educational resources (e.g., computer simulators) in active learning methodologies empowers
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the development of skills for the twenty-first century [7]. Although the results of PISA 2015 show significant progress regarding the scientific literacy of Portuguese students [6], there is still a low level of conceptual understanding among science students [8].
41.1.3 Teaching for Conceptual Understanding In science learning, students are asked to identify concepts, define quantities, and explain laws and theories underlying certain phenomena. Thus, students are led to construct models that allow them to understand the relationships and differences between concepts associated with scientific phenomena [9]. When an student develops a concept in a scientifically flawed way, he is limited in his future learning [10]. For this reason, it is essential that teachers plan their educational action in order to promote the appropriate acquisition of concepts or, if necessary, a conceptual change of the alternative conceptions that students already possess. In science learning, it is fundamental to lead the student to think for him/herself [9]. For this to happen, the student has to appropriate the concepts and build correct mental models, through a process of meaningful learning [11], playing an active role in their construction. In order to make conceptual changes in the mind of an individual, he/she has to perceive the need for such a change, since the conceptions he/she holds, in general, are functional and coherent. Thus, it is necessary to create an environment that shows that the existing conceptions do not deeply explain a certain phenomenon [12]. Such a process is referred to, within the scope of constructivist theories, as cognitive conflict. However, for Vosviadou et al. [13] the creation of a cognitive conflict may not be enough for conceptual change to occur, as it may be necessary to clarify the specific situation or set of circumstances that led to the construction of the alternative conception. In this sense, the implementation of active learning methodologies can facilitate the identification of such situations, provided that the teacher carefully and intentionally designs the activities in which students will be involved and induced to play an active role [14].
41.1.4 Computer Simulators in the Educational Context The increasing availability of computer simulators as educational resources for science learning has driven research into their influence on the construction of concepts and conceptual models linked to scientific phenomena, as well as on processes of conceptual change [15]. Widiyatmoko [15] states that computer simulators possess several attributes with the potential to promote appropriate conceptual learning. However, Mirana [3] argues that the use of simulators alone is no guarantee of learning scientifically accepted concepts and laws. Therefore, it is necessary to
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design learning environments and experiences that promote the use of simulators in an investigative way, encouraging students to problematize, make predictions and test their hypotheses, taking an active attitude. The use of computer simulators in science learning has many advantages over direct instruction. Simulators allow students to establish relationships with everyday experiences [16], promote deep learning and enable visualization of otherwise unobservable phenomena [17], enable control of variables and hypothesis testing [18], help understand difficult or abstract scientific concepts [19], provide appropriation of new concepts and the construction of scientifically coherent conceptual models [20], and increase engagement in science learning [21]. Despite the advantages listed, research on the effects of using computer simulators in an educational context also recognizes some disadvantages. Karlsson et al. [22] point out that simulators only provide pre-programmed answers and allow limited interactions, i.e., the potential to create situations of cognitive conflict, and thus knowledge reconstruction, are restricted by these interactions.
41.2 Methodology 41.2.1 Research Question and Objectives The study presented here aims to describe the students’ perception regarding the learning of the topic “Production and Propagation of Sound”, in the 8thgrade subject of Physics and Chemistry, through a learning methodology based on socio-constructivist activities, with an inquiry or problem-solving nature and using computer simulators. This perception refers to the engagement, disorientation and effect surprise in relation to the pedagogical methodology implemented and the use of simulators. As mentioned, this is part of a work in progress study that aims to describe the processes of construction of scientifically coherent mental models. The research question was: “What are the students’ perceptions about computer simulations combined with socio-constructivist activities, in promoting learning about the production and propagation of sound?”.
41.2.2 Intervention Design The students were distributed into working groups based on criteria of balance in terms of academic performance and interpersonal relationships of the members of each group. The student groups worked in simultaneous rooms on the online communication platform used (Zoom). The teacher visited each workgroup at least twice in each class, to provide the necessary support to carry out the activity.
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The didactic sequence planned by the teacher consisted of four activities that were designed to provide learning experiences of the curricular contents defined for the subject of Physics and Chemistry for the 8th grade, within the topic “Production and Propagation of Sound”. The activities integrated different resources, including worksheets with problem-solving questions and computer simulators. These simulators allow testing hypotheses and help students formulate answers to the questions presented, and are, therefore, central resources of the activities. Each activity also had suggestions of other resources available on the Internet, such as videos or webpages with scientific content appropriate for this age group. Each activity was carried out during the period corresponding to a 50-min class. The students worked autonomously, as the teacher only clarified some doubts that arose or solved technical problems related to the computer media used.
41.2.3 Educational Resources Each worksheet consisted of a series of problem-solving questions which were designed in such a way that their answers corresponded to the learning goals that the students have to achieve, within the framework of the national curriculum of the subject. Furthermore, the problem-solving questions intended to meet the criterion of a common knowledge base for all students in this age group, on which new knowledge would be anchored, according to the principles of constructivism. The computer simulators are part of the set made available by the Physics Educational Technology (PhET) project (available at https://phet.colorado.edu/). The simulators “Wave on a string”, “Waves: Intro” and “Sound” were used. Each activity had suggestions of videos or Web sites with specific scientific content to help students formulate answers to the problem-solving questions. All these resources (simulators, videos and Web sites) were selected according to criteria of scientific rigor, ease of understanding, taking into account the school level, and adequacy for building mental models that are closer to scientifically accepted conceptual models. An introductory activity to the use of simulators was also planned, as advocated by Lunce [23], who states that such an activity allows students to become familiar with the simulator. However, this was done in a very limited way due to the context of emergency remote teaching (ERT).
41.2.4 Research Design Given that the research focuses on a particular situation, developed in a real and contemporary context, we chose a qualitative case study methodology [24]. A case study is an empirical investigation of a descriptive, non-experimental nature, which studies something in its real context. It is useful to understand a problem in depth.
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The study took place in the school year 2020/2021, during 2 weeks, corresponding to 4 lessons of 50 min, in the subject of 8th-grade Physical Chemistry. The sample consisted of a class of 23 students from a school in central Portugal, and was selected by convenience, since one of the researchers is also a teacher of the class. All activities took place online, due to the constraints imposed by the Covid-19 pandemic. Data collection was carried out through a semi-structured interview to the class, with all students participating simultaneously. We tried to promote an open debate of opinions, to obtain a greater depth and richness of answers. The guiding questions sought to find out the students’ perceptions of the methodology and the simulators used, with regard to engagement, disorientation and surprise effect sensed during the didactic sequence of activities. The interview was conducted via Zoom platform and the recorded audio was transcribed to do content analysis.
41.3 Results and Discussion 41.3.1 Involvement in Activities In relation to this topic, there were two key aspects that stood out which weren’t directly linked to the activity, but to the context. One of the aspects highlighted was the use of the simulators to solve problem-solving questions. In the students’ opinion, the use of the simulator, per se, did not enhance their engagement in the activity. However, when a simulator was used to solve a problem and they realized that the simulator was a tool that enables them to formulate the desired answers, then the engagement was such that eight students said they “lost track of time” and the majority of the remain colleagues agreed. Those students mentioned that they only realized that the class was coming to an end when the teacher gave them that indication. The other relevant aspect is the discussion of ideas and the argumentation generated around problem-solving questions. Some students said that they felt deeply engaged when others colleagues in the group had opinions different from their own, and therefore it was necessary to discuss ideas to reach a consensus. These results are in line with Webb [25] and Lopes et al. [26], in the sense that the best learning outcomes are obtained when simulators are appropriately integrated into pedagogical strategies in which students play an active and central role. On the other hand, these results also point to the research currents related to the Situated Learning Theory of Jean Lave and Etienne Wenger [27, 28], which highlight the importance of all elements of the context in which learning takes place, especially the social actors.
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41.3.2 Disorientation During Activities This was the question that provoked the participation of most students (17 out of 23) and they mainly mentioned two aspects that left them confused. One of the constraints highlighted was the lack of instructions on how to use the simulators. The students said they could access the simulators easily, but did not understand what they had to do with them. The problem did not lie in the simulator controls, nor in the interpretation of the graphical representations. The students did not know how to use the simulator to answer the problem-solving questions of the worksheet. The other constraint mentioned was the lack of knowledge on the curricular contents about which they had to learn. Students said that they would feel more comfortable if, initially, the teacher explained the contents to be learned. A feeling of tiredness was also mentioned due to the constant need to think about the answers to problem-solving questions (“It’s hard to think so much.”). These testimonies are a reflection of students who are accustomed and accommodated to a teacher-centered teaching methodology in which they play a passive role, since they said they feel more confident in their abilities and more confident in their learning when the methodology is a traditional one. However, they recognize that a methodology that gives them an active role fosters creativity, critical thinking, collaborative work, argumentation and communication skills.
41.3.3 Surprise Effect During Activities Regarding this topic, only three students claimed to have felt “surprised”. However, these students indicated that the surprise did not come at the time when the simulator corroborated their hypotheses, but from the later confirmation by the teacher. One interpretation for this event rests on the assumption that the students expected, from the simulator, automatic feedback to their hypothesis. It was only when the teacher gave this feedback that their “surprise” occurred, because the students discovered that they had done “everything right". This observation makes us realize that, in the future, some aspects of the activities can be changed to improve the pedagogical action. Students should be more familiar with the simulators, as Lunce [23] states. On the other hand, if we consider that the origin of the problem lies in the students’ lack of autonomy in relation to their educational process (an assumption of active methodologies), the teacher should be more present during the activities and be the one, and not a worksheet or a study guide, to trigger the discussions and cognitive conflicts. The results obtained denote a lack of confidence in autonomous work on the part of the students themselves. This is due, as students recognized, to the fact that the learning methodology implemented is not usual for them. These students are more familiar with a traditional teaching methodology and said they feel more comfortable with it, since they can easily understand what is expected of them and, therefore,
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have already developed the cognitive and procedural mechanisms that allow them to achieve what they consider to be the best academic performance according to their abilities.
41.4 Conclusions In this article we analyzed the perception of students from an 8th-grade class regarding the learning of a didactic unit, in the domain of Physics of sound, explored by active methodologies using simulators. The sequence of didactic activities was implemented in a challenging context of ERT, in which the implementation of activities and the development of learning activities assumed student autonomy that would not usually be required in a face-to-face context. The interview data, according to the theoretical framework of involvement, disorientation and surprise, suggests: • in regard to involvement, students felt the characteristic engagement of activities based on active methodologies and recognize the sense of responsibility, autonomy, integration between theory and practice, and motivation to learn; • in regard to disorientation, students pointed out limitations related to the lack of guidance, since the context of ERT didn’t allowed the expected teacher support. • in regard to the surprise factor, students mentioned that they only felt it when the teacher confirmed their hypotheses, and not the simulators. The above-mentioned senses of disorientation due to lack of teacher guidance and the lack of confidence in a conclusion drawn by a test carried out in a simulator can be indicators of an underdeveloped autonomy competence, which was required in a high degree from students. The fact that students indicated that they preferred traditional classes, in the sense that they felt more “secure and confident in learning”, may, once again, suggest that the skills associated with autonomy are underdeveloped. Thus, it is clear to us that there is a need for the effective presence of the teacher in guiding activities designed in the scope of active methodologies, while the competence of autonomy is not properly developed. This study also allows us to reaffirm the urgent need for early investment by the educational system and educators in active learning methodologies, in order to promote the acquisition and development of the so-called twenty-first-century skills. Acknowledgements This work is financed by National Funds through FCT – Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia, I.P., within the scope of project Refª UIDB/05507/2020. We additionally thank to Centro de Estudos em Educação e Inovação (CI&DEI) and to Politécnico de Leiria for the support provided.
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Chapter 42
Pre-service Teachers’ Knowledge and the Use of Different Technologies to Teach Mathematics Helena Rocha
Abstract Teachers are central to the choice of tasks proposed to the students. And the teachers’ knowledge is one of the important elements guiding these choices. Despite the different models that conceptualize the teachers’ knowledge to integrate technology in their practices, research has focused essentially on the integration of a single technology. Little is known about how the work with different technologies can contribute to promote the development of the professional knowledge of pre-service teachers (PTs) or how the use of different technologies mobilizes different domains of the PTs’ knowledge. The main goal of this study is to deepen the understanding about the relation between the PTs’ Knowledge for Teaching Mathematics with Technology (KTMT) and their choice of tasks. The study adopts a qualitative and interpretative methodology based on one case study. The main conclusions suggest a strong impact of the PTs’ Learning and Teaching Technology Knowledge (a knowledge related to the impact of technology on the teaching and learning process) and a not so strong impact of their Mathematical and Technological Knowledge (a knowledge related to the impact of technology on the mathematical knowledge). The conclusions also point to the potential of the work with different technologies to deepen the PTs reflections and analysis of tasks.
42.1 Introduction Teachers are central to the choice of tasks proposed to the students [1]. And the teachers’ knowledge is one of the important elements guiding these choices. Training programs intend to promote the development of the teachers’ professional knowledge [2], being very important for pre-service teachers (PTs). The need to promote the students’ development of skills has been pointed as the biggest challenge of the twenty-first-century education [3]. The increasing speed of H. Rocha (B) Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia, CICS.NOVA, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 A. Mesquita et al. (eds.), Perspectives and Trends in Education and Technology, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 256, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5063-5_42
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the changes we are facing, and the increasing complexity of our society, point to the relevance of a focus on the students’ development of skills instead of a set of disconnected knowledge. The technology is recognized by its potential to promote the teaching and learning of mathematics [4–6]. However, its integration has proved to be a complex task [7] and several authors related the characteristics of the technology integration to the teachers’ knowledge [8–11]. When considering technology integration, there is usually a focus on the teacher’s technical knowledge; however, the literature suggests other types of knowledge as relevant. This led to the development of several models of the teacher’s professional knowledge, inspired by Shulman’s work [12] and his notion of Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK), where particular attention is given to the knowledge domain of technology. The TPACK model, by Mishra and Koehler [13], is perhaps the most well-known model and the most used in studies, despite the various criticisms pointed to it [14]. In this model, the authors define two specific knowledge domains related to technology, considering the impact technology has on what is taught and how it is taught. TPACK considers knowledge on Pedagogy, Technology and Content, but it also considers the connections, interactions and constraints that are established between these. The model emphasizes that knowledge on the technology is not enough to achieve the desired integration of technology in teachers’ practice. Although this model gives an important contribution to a better understanding of the teachers’ knowledge to integrate technology, some difficulties have been pointed to the use of the model [14]. This resulted in the development of other models. One of these models is the Knowledge for Teaching Mathematics with Technology—KTMT [1, 15], and this will be the model used in this study. As we will see later, the main difference of this model, when compared with others, is its intention to integrate in a knowledge model the research on technology integration. Despite the different models that conceptualize the teachers’ knowledge to integrate technology into their practices, research has focused essentially on the integration of a single technology. Little is known about how the work with different technologies can contribute to promote the development of the professional knowledge of the teachers or how the use of different technologies mobilizes different domains of the teachers’ knowledge. This is precisely one of the aspects pointed out by Rocha [1] and is also a starting point for this study. The main goal of this study is to deepen the understanding about the relation between the PTs’ KTMT and their choice of tasks. Specifically, the study intends to understand: • • • •
How do PTs take decisions about the technology to use? How the knowledge on the technology affects the PTs’ choice of technology? What are the most relevant factors that guide the PTs’ choice of tasks? Which KTMT domains are most emphasized by PTs when choosing tasks?
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42.2 Knowledge for Teaching Mathematics with Technology—The Model KTMT is a conceptualization of teachers’ professional knowledge that intends to integrate in a single model the research developed on teachers’ knowledge and on the integration of technology in teachers’ practice. The development of the model is based on previous work on the field, such as the work of Shulman [12], and Mishra and Koehler [13], and includes four base knowledge domains: Mathematics, Teaching and Learning, Technology, and Curriculum and Context. This last domain is conceptualized in a transversal way, also including teachers’ beliefs and conceptions, and is recognized by its impact over the other domains. However, the most relevant domains in this model are two sets of inter-domain knowledge developed at the confluence of more than one domain: the Mathematics and Technology Knowledge (MTK), and the Teaching and Learning and Technology Knowledge (TLTK). MTK focuses on how technology influences mathematics, enhancing or constraining certain aspects, and TLTK focuses on how technology affects the teaching and learning process, enhancing or constraining certain approaches. Both, MTK and TLTK, include a specific set of knowledge based on the research conducted on technology integration (see Fig. 42.1). Finally, KTMT includes Integrated Knowledge (IK). This is a knowledge held by the teacher articulating simultaneously the knowledge in all the previously mentioned domains. It is a knowledge that develops from the interactions between all domains, but not in a straightforward way. KTMT assumes the relevance of integrating technological, pedagogical and content knowledge, in line with Mishra and Koehler [13]. However, KTMT intends to go further. MTK and TLTK are new knowledge. They require knowledge on the base domains, but also the development of a complex interconnection between the
Fig. 42.1 KTMT model by Rocha [1, 15, 16]
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two base domains to create the new knowledge of each inter-domain. The development of MTK and TLTK can start when the teacher develops some knowledge on the base domains, but it keeps developing, not requiring the full development of the knowledge on the base domains and not preventing their continuous development. A conceptualization very different form the one on TPACK. The research on integration of technology on the teaching of mathematics has identified several areas with impact on how the technology is integrated. KTMT intends to include the results of that research with the results of the research on teachers’ knowledge. This option takes advantage of what is already known in what concerns technology use, promoting the development of richer programs for pre and in-service teachers. For instance, it emphasizes the relevance of being aware of the students’ difficulties related to the use of technology (TLTK) or of the new emphasis that technology puts on mathematical content (MTK). And this is the biggest difference of this model when compared with others (see [1, 15] for further details). The development of inter-domain knowledge is central in this model and it will assume an important role in this study.
42.3 Methodology This study adopts a qualitative and interpretative methodology, undertaking one case study. To answer the research questions, and considering the complexity of the context and the intention of collecting detailed information, this seemed to be a suitable methodology [17]. The participants in the study were PTs just starting their initial training to become secondary mathematics teachers. The data were collected during a course in Didactic of Mathematics, and include the participants’ notes, the recording of the PTs’ group discussions, and the notes taken by the researcher. During the course, the PTs worked in pairs in several tasks. The elements presented here refer to one of these pairs: the AB pair, composed by the PTs A and B. Five tasks addressing linear functions (y = ax + b, with a, b ∈ ) were proposed to the PTs. These tasks differed in the technology used and in the characteristics of the work they required the students to do. The mathematical content addressed is centered mainly in an understanding of the impact of the parameters a and b in the shape and position of the function’s graph. Although they all addressed linear functions, the mathematical content was not exactly the same, as we will be able to see in the next section. These tasks were the central unit of data analysis. For each one the data collected (PTs’ and researcher’s notes and the transcripts of the PTs’ discussions) were carefully read. The model KTMT was then used as an analysis framework. Due to the goals of the study, and to its focus on technology, special attention was given to three domains of knowledge: Technology Knowledge (TK), MTK and TLTK. The data were then read intending to identify the use of knowledge related to each of these
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knowledge domains. In the case of identification of moments addressing more than one of these domains, the situation was deeply studied to identify which one seems to be dominant.
42.4 Results—AB Pair In this section we present the five tasks proposed to the PTs and their appreciation of each one, relating it to the KTMT dominant in the PTs analysis of the tasks.
42.4.1 Task 1 The task 1 asks for a study of the impact in the graph of changing the parameters a and b in the linear function defined by y = ax + b, with a, b ∈ . The task explicitly suggests the use of a graphing calculator and gives no guidance about the way to organize the work or about how to start. The AB pair started their analysis by this task. And the first comment relates to the task structure: B: I think this is a difficult task for the students because it does not say what to do. A: Yeh! I agree. I think it should give some guidance, for instance, include some examples for the students to try. And maybe some question… so they know what it is wanted… or maybe some sentences with spaces to fill the conclusion they should get.
The technology and its role are not explicitly addressed. The PTs considered the use of the graphing calculator without questioning it. They assumed the students can use it and, when questioned about the relevance and the role of technology in this task, they refer to it as a way of getting a fast access to the graphs. The PTs idea of having a sentence at the end of the task stating what the students can conclude, suggests a focus on the mathematical knowledge (MTK). However, their first reaction is to the type of task (TLTK). They think the task is to open, leaving to the students the decision about what to do. So, their main concern is about pedagogical issues, i.e., they are using mainly their TLTK. Even the focus on the mathematics is somehow guided by pedagogical issues: the intention of closing the task and make it clearer for the students.
42.4.2 Task 2 The task 2 is identical to the first one. However, in this case, the technology proposed is Desmos and there is a direct suggestion to use the sliders offered by this technology.
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The PTs had no previous knowledge about this technology. So, they started by experiencing it. From the first moment, the possibility of moving the sliders in Desmos and see the impact of the parameters in the graph is considered as a good idea. The PTs immediately compared this task with the previous one and showed preference for it. And the main argument presented relates to the ease of approach they think students will find: B: In this task it is easier for the students to see what is intended. They can move the sliders and get understanding about the impact of the parameters in the graph.
They also appreciated the technology, because although they had never used it before, they considered it very simple and intuitive to use. And they created the sliders and used the technology to actually solve the task (something they did not do in task 1). They were developing knowledge in a new technology, but also integrating it within their TK. They addressed the issue of student access to computers very briefly (a contingency often addressed in the literature, e.g., [18]), but this is an aspect that did not seem to deserve much attention. The PTs realized these are quite similar tasks (task 1 and 2); however, the use of a different technology significantly changes the task. The reflection in this task after an analysis of task 1 thus seems to promote attention to technology and to the role that it can assume in the task: A: This task is quite the same of the previous one, still it is very different. I think the use of the sliders helps the students to keep their focus on what is important. And although the task is the same, here I do not think the students will be lost. They will know what to do.
The focus is once again on the structure of the task and in the role of technology. When addressing a new technology, the PTs manage to get new TK, but they do not focus exclusively on this type of knowledge, being able to consider issues related to the impact of its use. Implicitly there is a concern that the students reach the conclusion intended by the task. However, the focus is not exactly on the mathematical knowledge, but more on the structure of the task and the difficulties the students can face. This means that the PTs are using mainly their TLTK.
42.4.3 Task 3 This task asks the students to use a graphing calculator to recreate the drawings presented in Fig. 42.2. As so, this task brings them back to using the graphing calculator. But in this case, the technology (even though it is the same one that was used in task 1) seems to be considered in a different way: A: This task is different. I mean, at first it seems to have more to do with art than with mathematics, but when you think about it… B: But I think it can be difficult to know what to do.
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Fig. 42.2 Task 3 (Adapted from Picciatto [19])
Once again, the difficulties the students may face to understand what they are expected to do are discussed. However, this task is considered different. And the PTs referred to a focus that at a first look seems to be more in art than in mathematics. This is an aspect that they considered important because it can motivate students who do not like Mathematics: B: I think this task can be attractive for some students who do not like or who are not so good in Mathematics because it is very visual, and it seems to be more making a draw than do some mathematical task.
Yet, they again considered the task to be poorly structured, which can make it difficult for the students to get involved. And they expressed their preference for task 2. They recognized, however, that the characteristics of the task require a more intensive use of technology. Therefore, the question of the contribution that technology can bring to the learning of Mathematics arises as important. Even so, the dominant aspect seems to be from the pedagogical scope and not so much at the level of Mathematics.
42.4.4 Task 4 This task is the game Green globs (© 2008, 2013 by Dugdale and Kibbey [20]). In this game, the player should introduce the expression of a function so that the line of the graph goes through a green globe on the screen, making it explode. This is a well-known game, and the goal is that the players choose the most suitable functions to result in the explosion of all the green globs as soon as possible. In this case, there is a limitation, and the players are only allowed to use linear functions. The first aspect the PTs noticed in this task is that it is a game. This is something that was initially considered motivating, but later pointed out as being able to discourage students who do not know how to find the expression of the function to cause the globes explosions: A: I think many students will be enthusiastic about the fact this task is a game. However, I think they will face difficulties to play and at a certain point they will give up. B: I think so. It is not easy to find the right expression… and if they cannot find it, they will give up playing.
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The Mathematics required by the task is not discussed. It is not commented that while in task 3 we want a line at a certain position to make the draw (which basically means that we want a linear function cutting the axes at specific points), here we want a line that goes through one point (the green globe) or two points (if we want to explode more than one globe at the same time). From a mathematical point of view, this is a more demanding task than the previous one (where the intersection with the y-axis gives us immediately the value of b). This is a very clear evidence of the PTs focus on pedagogical issues (TLTK) and not so much on the mathematics addressed (MTK).
42.4.5 Task 5 This task uses a motion sensor and requires the students to move in front of the sensor to reproduce a given graph (in this case the graph of a linear function or the graph of a function made of parts of linear functions). The use of the motion sensor in this task and the lack of knowledge of PTs in relation to it, brought the technology to the foreground. They expressed concern about their ability to manage this technology in the classroom (their TK), but they also recognize important characteristics of this technology. They recognized the personal character that this technology gives to the mathematics and consequently the contribution it can give to students’ understanding: A: I think this task helps the students to really understand the graph of a function. The problem is that I do not know if it is easy to have access to this equipment… or if I know how to use it.
This suggests some recognition of the idea of putting the body at the center of the mathematical learning, or the embodied learning, an idea that has been present in some recent literature [21]. Despite this focus on mathematical understanding that arises in the discussion among PTs, it is curious to note that the focus on Mathematics does not lead them to discuss the Mathematics being addressed by the students during this task. They also do not discuss if the Mathematics in this task is the same as in the other tasks. The PTs assume this will be a very interesting and motivating task to the students, however, they decide to choose the task 2, because they think it will be easier for them (as teachers) to implement in the classroom. The knowledge domain dominant in the PTs analysis of this task seems to be their TK.
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42.5 Conclusion This reflection around a set of tasks on linear functions using different technologies, allows us to improve the understanding over which aspects seem to be decisive in the analysis that PTs make of tasks. How do PTs take decisions about the technology to use? Artigue [22] establishes a relation between what is learned and how it is learned, assuming they are closely related. As so, the task and the technology used are inseparable. Technologies are often pointed as a support to the learning, allowing for a faster way of performing calculations or procedures. As Sinclair [23] emphasizes, they tend to be assumed as a support that can be removed at any time. However, the author states that technologies can change learning and can change mathematical concepts. The conclusions of this study suggest that the analysis of a set of tasks on linear functions using different technologies promotes an awareness of the relevance of the set made by the technology and the task. This is a consequence specially of the analysis of the potential of the same task using two different technologies (task 1 and 2). The impact of the technology in the task and in the students’ work seems to be central to guide the decision. How the knowledge on the technology affects the PTs choice of technology? The PTs do not tend to discuss the technology in itself. The knowledge on each of the specific technologies seems also not to be a determinant influence on their decisions. Although in this case it was possible to identify some concerns about using the motion sensor in the classroom, due to the fear of not being able to deal adequately with technical issues. However, it was also possible to see a choice for the use of Desmos, a technology that the PTs did not know previously. So, the previous knowledge on the technology does not seem to be determinant. The most important seems to be the ease of use ascribe to the technology and how it facilitates the students access to the mathematical knowledge. What are the most relevant factors that guide the PTs’ choice of tasks? It seems that rather than focusing on the technology, PTs look to the characteristics of the task when implemented with the specific technology. Aspects related to embodied learning are also recognized as having potential to promote learning, in line with Flood et al. [21]. But the main factors are related to the difficulties the PTs think the students can face when trying to understand the task or to come to mathematical learning based on it. Which KTMT domains are most emphasized by PTs when choosing tasks? As mentioned before, concerns about the difficulties the students can face to understand the task, to know what to do, and to come to the intended conclusions, seem to be determinant factors on the PTs analysis. These difficulties are clearly related to the type of task and to its level of openness. And the students’ difficulties and the types of tasks are part of the TLTK inter-domain knowledge, suggesting, as previously identified by Rocha [1], an important role of the PTs’ TLTK on their choice of tasks. Some concern about the mathematical conclusions achieved during the task are also identified (MTK).
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The use of a set of tasks on the same mathematical topic (linear functions) provides evidence about the dominance of the PTs’ TLTK when analyzing the tasks. It also suggests some difficulties of the PTs in looking deeply to the mathematics addressed by each of the tasks. This conclusion suggests that particular attention should be given to the development of the PTs’ MTK in the initial training programs. Acknowledgements This work was financed by national funds through FCT—Foundation for Science and Technology, I.P., within the scope of the project PTDC/CED-EDG/32422/2017.
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15. Rocha, H.: Knowledge for teaching mathematics with technology—A new framework of teacher knowledge. In: Lindmeier, A., Heinze, A. (eds.) Proceedings of the 37th PME, vol. 4, pp. 105–112. PME, Kiel, Germany (2013) 16. Rocha, H.: Different representations in mathematics teaching with technology. In: Oesterle, S., Nicol, C., Liljedahl, P., Allan, D. (eds.) Proceedings of the Joint Meeting of PME 38 and PME-NA 36, vol. 6, p. 384. PME, Vancouver, Canada (2014) 17. Yin, R.: Case study Research—Design and Methods. Sage, Thousand Oaks (2003) 18. Heid, M., Blume, G.: Technology and the development of algebraic understanding. In: Heid, M., Blume, G. (eds.) Research on Technology and the Teaching and Learning of Mathematics, vol. 2, pp. 55–108. NCTM, IAP, Charlotte, USA (2008) 19. Picciatto, H.: Make These Designs. Math. Teach. 89(5), 424–427 (1996) 20. Green Globs. Homepage. http://www.greenglobs.net/. Last accessed 10 April 2021 21. Flood, V., Shvarts, A., Dor Abrahamson, D.: Teaching with embodied learning technologies for mathematics: responsive teaching for embodied learning. ZDM Math. Educ. 52, 1307–1331 (2020) 22. Artigue, M.: Learning mathematics in a CAS environment: the genesis of a reflection about instrumentation and the dialectics between technical and conceptual work. Int. J. Comput. Math. Learn. 7, 245–274 (2002) 23. Sinclair, N.: On teaching and learning mathematics—Technologies. In: Kolikant, Y., Martinovic, D., Milner-Bolotin, M. (eds.) STEM Teachers and Teaching in the Digital Era, pp. 91–107. Springer, Cham, Switzerland (2020)
Chapter 43
When Assessment Moves Home: The Digital Panopticon in Higher Education Paulo Peixoto , Joana Gomes Almeida , and Cristina Pinto Albuquerque
Abstract The pandemic scenario of COVID-19 and the abrupt shift to “emergency remote teaching and assessment” posed several challenges to the academic community. One of the most pressing problems was evaluation, which forced Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) to move to a fully remote system without timely preparation at the level of software, hardware and adaptation at the level of pedagogical principles that underlie it. Based on a study carried out in a Portuguese public university, this text analyses the way the evaluation process took place from the perspective of students and teachers. Using the Delphi methodology, the results show that both students and teachers feel unprepared for this new format of teaching and assessment. The results show two different profiles of students and two different profiles of lecturers. This scenario marked by fractured positions, especially in relation to assessment, has brought a unique opportunity to reflect on the pedagogical relationship of mutual trust that should be built between lecturers and students.
43.1 Introduction—Mirror Mirror on the Wall, Who is the Most Honest of Us All? In December 2020 the press reported that a prestigious Turkish university sent each student a mirror to prevent cheating in remote exams. To justify the rationality of this option, the Chancellor of Bilkent University in Ankara drew on the example of Google, which allegedly uses the same technique in job interviews to check the honesty of the answers [1]. The unusual nature of the solution reveals two fundamental aspects of the challenges that the pandemic has brought to higher education institutions, namely in terms of student assessment. On the one hand, the growing P. Peixoto (B) FEUC, CES, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] J. G. Almeida · C. P. Albuquerque CEIS20, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 A. Mesquita et al. (eds.), Perspectives and Trends in Education and Technology, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 256, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5063-5_43
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suspicion that with assessments being moved home, with the weakening of institutional internal control mechanisms, fraud committed by students would greatly increase. On the other hand, the lack of preparation of higher education institutions and teachers to adapt to remote forms of assessment. The arrival of the pandemic in early 2020 showed that many higher education institutions were not prepared to develop emergency remote education. Meeting this challenge led to the adoption of new solutions that required a technological and a pedagogical effort from institutions, teachers, and students. But the biggest challenge was undoubtedly to adapt the assessment mechanisms to the universe of remote teaching and learning [2, 3]. Based on this observation, the research problem which is at the origin of this text seeks to know why it was so disturbing to implement remote assessment systems in higher education institutions? We hypothesise that the power to assess remains the last stronghold, the ethos which defines the teaching profession and the core of the activities of higher education institutions. Additionally, we argue that the promotion of the culture of honesty in higher education remains dependent on external control mechanisms. And that technological solutions have been used on an experimental basis to provide a context of reinforced control. The mirror is an allegory that allows us to discuss, from Bentham’s panopticon and Foucault’s social application of this instrument of surveillance, the mechanisms of control. The fundamental question is whether the use of the new control mechanisms, namely the technological ones, is in the process of materialising the internalisation of authority and the transference of external social power into behavioural codes that discipline the individual bodies of students [4]. The mirror is also a metaphor for a sophisticated instrument of control. It is an element of logistics that shapes a digital panopticon which makes authority omnipresent but somehow invisible, and, through remote surveillance, makes the body visible to itself, allowing individuals to project their body images onto a visible and objective space. The space of the biopower and disciplinary technologies of power [5].
43.2 Methods—The Actors in the Mirror The general objective of the study was to observe the remote teaching and learning process in a Portuguese public university. It sought to identify obstacles, good practices and opportunities that emerged in the pandemic context, namely at the pedagogical level and particularly in relation to student’s assessment procedures. In this text we seek to contribute to the necessary discussion about the future validity of the solutions adopted in the period of emergency of remote teaching and assessment. Aligned with the principles of democratic governance [6], the study consulted stakeholders in the teaching and learning process. Teachers and students were invited to “stand in the mirror” and reflect on the pedagogical and assessment practices adopted during the pandemic period. We used the Delphi method, a technique that seeks consensus among a group of experts in order to seek solutions and facilitate
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quality decision-making. Twenty-six representatives of the management bodies of the students’ association and 18 teaching staff members were consulted, with all the scientific areas of the university being represented in each of these groups. Between April 2020 and February 2021, 3 questionnaires were sent sequentially to survey participants. The second round of questions was developed from the analysis of responses to the first round; and the third round from responses to the questions in the second round. Although the study reports on the analysis of the situation of a single institution, with the limitations that derive from it, its innovative character and the practical and social applications of the results achieved are relevant. On the one hand, the possibility of placing the actors involved in the process to reflect on an emerging, transversal and disruptive phenomenon: the mass remote assessments. On the other hand, it was possible to establish a dialogue between the various types of actors involved in the process and between different disciplinary areas, identifying dominant practices and perceptions and stimulating reflection on them. The second round of questionnaires allowed us to identify trends (quantitatively measured) for the critical incidents most frequently mentioned in the first round of consultation. Finally, the results are relevant for HEIs to define policies regarding assessments and academic integrity suitable for situations of confinement and remote operation of institutions. They are also relevant for the development of future studies on ethical and pedagogical issues in higher education. We believe that the results obtained are important for the transition from traditional assessment approaches (mainly focused on memorised knowledge) to contemporary assessment approaches (focused on thinking and performance skills).
43.3 The context—The Broken Mirror The pedagogical relationship is based on a face-to-face and relational component that constitutes the ethical and deontological foundation of the mutual trust necessary for the development of an honest work based on integrity standards. Furthermore, the face-to-face relationship is fundamental to format mutual expectations. In Portugal, face-to-face teaching has a great tradition in higher education [7], having shaped the expectations of all those involved in the educational process. These expectations are predominantly anchored in principles of the industrial era. Expository lectures and assessments based on the reproduction of knowledge continue to structure the teaching and learning system. Although the Bologna process has imposed the logic of learning outcomes, the predominant forms of assessment in Portuguese higher education continue to be planned and implemented without consideration to learning outcomes. The pandemic scenario that emerged abruptly revealed numerous social and academic weaknesses, making it possible to identify and locate forms of resistance to change. However, it also brought opportunities that allowed the perspective of opening the academic community to learning-oriented methodologies more aligned
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with the digital society and with the aim of actively involving students in the knowledge construction process. Methodologies that can be useful to enhance teaching and learning, while also allowing to evaluate and assign grades to students. Although the labour market and the higher education student’s profile itself have changed [8], we found that the abrupt closure of all face-to-face activities did not favour the necessary cultural and academic change that new technologies require. The preparation and planning necessary for such a change were replaced by the urgency to ensure the normal course of the school year. If the system was able to withstand the changes in the teaching component, in the assessment component there were fracturing disruptions. The search for assessment tools suitable for a traditional but remote assessment was marked by an exacerbated experimentalism and generated a process of escalation in relation to the adoption of surveillance mechanisms. Among teachers and students, there is a widespread idea that remote learning is of lower quality than face-to-face learning. However, it was possible to verify that the situation of “emergency remote teaching” created the necessary space for reflection on the pedagogical relationship in higher education and on the limits and potentialities of new technologies in teaching and learning. In relation to distance assessment, however, the mistrust of teachers and students, but particularly of teachers, is enormous and has been growing as time has gone by. “Assessment in higher education is still a nascent discipline” [9], p. 2], but the compulsory generalisation of remote assessments has revealed that this young discipline still has a long way to go. In Portugal the most vehement reactions occurred in relation to attempts to adopt more intrusive, and at the same time more invisible, surveillance mechanisms in remote examinations, namely the reactions against Proctorius [10] and against Respondus [11], which embody the digital panopticum of remote assessments.
43.4 Results—The Other Side of the Mirror The results show that, in general, both teachers and students feel unprepared for this new format of teaching and assessment. In this context, the issue of remote assessment revealed numerous weaknesses at the level of the pedagogical relationship and the skills and conditions necessary for its effective, fair and equitable execution. It is undoubtedly a fracturing issue, likely to leave deep marks in the pedagogical relationship. On the other side of the mirror, the students see teachers who were already suspicious becoming even more suspicious. Teachers see, on the other side of the mirror, students who were already opportunistic becoming even more opportunistic. Remote assessments have thus created and sharpened a system of mutual distrust that has potentiated Foucauldian logics of biopower.
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43.4.1 Students in the Mirror When analysing the students’ perspective, two types of concern are very evident. The first is the immediate link that has been made between remote assessment and fraud. This association creates a widespread climate of suspicion. It is important to point out that a culture of suspicion arouses primary reactions, extremism, and fosters mutual distrust and demoralisation, thus promoting the destruction of social systems anchored in proximity. The second relates to the challenges that remote assessment poses to the different areas of knowledge. Specifically, it questions the possibility of adapting remote evaluation to all scientific areas. The first type of concerns was quite evident among students and teaching staff. In the case of the students, the main cause for complaint was the fact that the lecturers had reduced the test time in an attempt to control fraudulent behaviour. The students are adamant about this measure: 88% of the students’ state that it is not legitimate for the teachers to reduce the time of the exam to the limit of the unfeasible in order to minimise the possibility of fraudulent behaviour. They also say that the reduced time did not give them the opportunity to demonstrate their knowledge because they were more concerned with controlling the time (100% - 33% partially agree, 67% totally agree that this behaviour of teachers was predominant in the scientific area that the respondents represent). The students accuse the teachers of being more concerned with fighting fraudulent behaviour than with the effective assessment of the students’ learning capacity (75%). This attitude led to about 67% of the students feeling that somehow the assessment system implemented by most of the teachers during the “emergency remote teaching” was unfair and overloaded the students. When confronted with the issue of dishonest behaviour, around 67% of the students admit that the switch to a remote assessment system has increased the number of cases of academic fraud and acknowledge that the new technologies make the assessment process more opaque (65%). In fact, around 71% of the students report that during “emergency remote assessment” most of the teachers assumed that the students committed academic fraud in the assessments and that the teachers’ feeling of mistrust towards the students became more acute in the “emergency remote assessment” period (80%). Thus, it seems that the new technologies exposed a pedagogical relationship with some weaknesses, more specifically, in one of the most important pillars - mutual trust [12]. In this context, the new technologies end up acting as an inhibitor of the pedagogical relationship, since they deepen the distance and mistrust between students and teachers. As for the second type of concerns, we found issues linked to the ability of remote assessment to be relevant in certain areas of knowledge. In this domain the data was also very clear: 83% of the students believe that “emergency remote teaching” has harmed more the students of courses with a large practical component. This data leads us to the idea that remote assessment methods are not likely to be used in certain areas of knowledge because they require the development of very specific skills. For example, in the area of medicine, the impossibility of face-to-face contact with patients and teachers is mentioned, which made it impossible to apply theoretical
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knowledge in clinical practice. Medical students highlight that the assessment of practical knowledge in theoretical format does not fulfil its objectives and leads to an excessive valuation of theoretical content, which, in itself, is devoid of value if it is not applied in a clinical context. In fact, 69% of the student representatives believe that new technologies cannot replace the assessment in real context of the practical skills to be developed. This concern is not exclusive to medicine. In general (around 60%), students recognise that the assessment system should be adapted to the type of content (i.e. theoretical or practical) and competences to be developed in each subject. In architecture, especially at the 1st year of undergraduate level, whose assessment consists of learning manual drawing and delivering assignments such as models, students consider that they have been greatly harmed by remote assessment, as assessment constitutes an important learning moment. Looking at the data, it may seem that remote assessment does not find acceptance by students. However, the picture is not straightforward. When confronted with the statement “online assessment is not reliable”, 63% of the students disagree. Furthermore, 78% also disagreed with the statement that new technologies have no advantage for the learning process. This specific data shows that despite the constraints and/or resistance, students reveal some openness to this type of assessment/teaching methodologies. Another interesting fact revealed by the questionnaires was that the trust in teachers was greater when teachers were clear about the assessment methods and more experienced in the use of digital platforms (58%). This aspect is important because it indicates that the preparation and experience of teachers in this type of assessment is fundamental in the potential adoption of remote assessment methods and should be something that universities should take into consideration in the near future.
43.4.2 Teachers in the Mirror In the case of teachers, it was possible to identify two types of positioning: those who already have some experience with e-learning and hybrid teaching systems and who see new technologies as an opportunity to innovate pedagogically; and those who have no experience in this type of assessment and who see technology as a way of diminishing the quality of university teaching. The more experienced teachers in this type of assessment refer that remote assessment should not be viewed with mistrust by any of the parties, and this scepticism prevents creative solutions from being found to assess the various competencies to be developed in students. These teachers are aware that this type of assessment involves a change of mentality regarding learning, involving students more actively in the pedagogical relationship. In this regard, these lecturers report that the suspension of face-to-face teaching activity generated a lot of anxiety and met with a lot of resistance from the students. This attitude was due to the following factors: the
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greater familiarity with traditional assessment methods, the context of uncertainty, its suddenness and the fact that it was something that was imposed on them. Chronologically, in March 2020, all face-to-face teaching activity was suspended. Subsequently, due to the decrease of new cases of infection by COVID-19, in April 2020, the containment measures were relieved and the universities resumed teaching activities in a partial hybrid regime. On 21 January 2021 face-to-face activities were suspended again and the return to hybrid teaching activities occurred on 19 April 2021. This whole scenario required a very quick adaptation capacity from the teachers and invariably generated a lot of confusion in the organisation of the courses. In addition, the teachers having to adapt the contents of their disciplines to a remote assessment regime, and they had to articulate with the other teachers of the courses where they teach so as not to overload the students. Thus, the context of pandemic uncertainty forced teachers to prepare for both types of scenarios: totally remote or hybrid. During the hybrid period, teachers had to find creative assessment solutions that would not harm the students who were in the face-to-face regime or those who were in the remote regime. For teachers with experience in e-learning and blended-learning, this was a challenge that motivated them and gave them the opportunity to put into practice other types of teaching and assessment methodologies. Aware that this type of teaching requires greater discipline and commitment from the students, the teachers adopted the strategy of simplifying and/or clarifying the assessment process as much as possible. Strategies such as the provision of detailed weekly scripts and templates for the elements of the assessment, individual or group work, tests with more reflective questions (rather than more factual ones), the requirement for more active participation in online classes (with this participation being weighted in the assessment), were adopted to stimulate students’ motivation and participation. Nevertheless, despite the enormous effort of the teachers, there were objective barriers that no pedagogical tool or methodology could solve: the lack of socioeconomic conditions of some students. Students without access to adequate equipment and Internet connection and housing conditions conducive to study. Some teachers also identify the lack of computer skills in some students. This means that the socio-economic conditions of students were a factor that influenced the learning and assessment process throughout the pandemic period. In this context, teachers reveal concerns with this modality of teaching and assessment, mentioning that it increases the existing social inequalities if the conditions for success are not ensured for all students. Thus, although the teachers mention that the new technologies can be an opportunity to rethink traditional assessment and diversify teaching instruments and practices, there is a long way to go, both culturally and in terms of the more objective conditions necessary for institutions, students and teachers to successfully adapt to this new paradigm of teaching and assessment. For the less experienced teachers, the issue of assessment focused mainly on the need to control potential fraudulent behaviour on the part of students. On this issue, the words of a lecturer who falls into the first type of teachers are enlightening:
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In general, the relationship of trust, especially on the part of lecturers towards students, was related to the assessment and the widespread idea that students, given the opportunity, will use fraudulent practices in the online tests. As I said, I believe in an assessment made in different terms, testing skills that are not exclusively rooted in the acquisition of information, but also in its application to new situations. It bothers me some surveillance posture and mistrust that has set in regarding online exams that has not been beneficial to the teacher/student trust relationship.
In general, in order to control the issue of fraud, the second type of teachers reduced the testing time and radicalised the surveillance mechanisms (for example, by forcing the use of two cameras connected simultaneously; one, that of the mobile phone, filming the hand that writes and the other one, that of the laptop, the surrounding environment). In this group, there is a generalised idea that this type of assessment is more exposed to fraud and, for this reason, teachers do not have confidence in this assessment process. As already mentioned, this problem predates the pandemic situation and is rooted in the pedagogical relationship established between teachers and students and in a certain culture of distrust between teachers and students. Some teachers refer that new technologies and the adoption of this type of strategies are synonymous with the infantilisation of teaching. In some way, there is a belief that this type of teaching puts students in a position of comfort—a culture that they believe is ingrained among students. In addition to the reduction in test time, these teachers used multiple choice examinations, and in general, they mentioned that they maintained the methodology and the assessment assumptions, making only slight adjustments. The solutions implemented did not please most of these teachers, however, either because they did not have more in-depth knowledge of more constructivist assessment methodologies or because the expected result in their area of knowledge could not be remotely assessed. For example, in the case of architecture, the solution was to send the models by mail, but the issue of fraud was not completely ensured. The creation of more evaluation moments and the use of oral tests were also a widespread solution among teachers, especially in more theoretical areas, such as Law courses.
43.5 Discussion—Parallel Mirrors Both teachers’ and students’ groups have two types of attitudes towards the introduction of new technologies in assessment. This duality is related to a set of factors that influence each other: the transition to a remote regime imposed and implemented in a sudden way; the existence or not of previous experience in e-learning or b-learning methodologies on the part of teachers, which influenced the experience of students; the presence of an academic culture that still values traditional expository pedagogical methods and assessment processes aimed at memorising concepts; the objective conditions necessary to implement this type of assessment; the capacity of this type of assessment to adapt or not to the specificities of the different areas of knowledge;
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the reliability of the platforms regarding fraudulent behaviours, which influences the trust of teachers and students in this assessment system. Students, despite the difficulties experienced, show great interest in more active teaching methods, such as “problem-based learning” emphasising that the implementation of these pedagogical methods should take care of the proper preparation and […] of the entire teaching and technical staff of the institution, so that there is coherence and the educational process is not compromised. […]. As for the teachers, they mentioned that they need a space where they can clarify doubts, exchange experiences, have training and supervision. The issue of supervision relates to the lack of experience and the need for support in the preparation of lectures that are based on different assumptions, such as the need to use methods and instruments capable of motivating students and putting them in a more active and responsible position in relation to the learning process. The suspension of face-to-face classes and the adoption of a hybrid method forced teachers to reflect on the content taught and to review practices and teaching methods and that, in itself, is positive. Results converge towards the same conclusion—the need to adequately prepare teachers and students for this type of assessment, through specific training in teaching methodologies such as e-learning and blended-learning. According to some teachers, this training is worthwhile in itself, as this type of teaching methodologies require a more refined and intentional level of planning in order to function properly. In this sense, even if teaching at the university were to return to a totally face-to-face mode in the future, lecturers would gain skills that would enrich the planning of face-to-face lessons.
43.6 Conclusion This study revealed that many of the problems identified in relation to the emergency remote teaching and assessment period already existed before the pandemic crisis— the culture of mistrust towards students and the lack of experience of students and teachers in more active teaching, learning and assessment pedagogies and methodologies. What has happened is that these gaps have been highlighted and exacerbated by the pandemic scenario. For this reason, this crisis should be seen as an opportunity to make the necessary changes. The adaptation capacity of teachers and students was visible and praised by the university. Now it is important to capitalise on this experience and highlight that new technologies can only act as a facilitator in the pedagogical relationship if the pedagogical principles that sustain it are worked out and defined together. It is fundamental to place the emphasis on the pedagogical process and to define the roles of each one of the parties in the construction of knowledge process. In this context, it is important not to forget that technologies are a means and not an end in themselves. In relation to the research question, we can state that the experience of “emergency remote teaching and assessment” has indeed enhanced new ways of teaching and assessing. These new forms of teaching and assessment, even if they were not the
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most appropriate, raised the awareness of teachers and students to the diversity and technological advance that exists at this level and that can be capitalised in the future. Above all, the pandemic situation and the remote evaluation process implemented, and in particular, the level of distrust that was generated, (re)reminded the entire academic community of the urgency to reflect on the pedagogical relationship of mutual trust that should be built between teachers and students. The digital panopticon materialised in different ways for teachers and students. For the former, it oscillates between a blind and naïve trust in the capacity of surveillance through technologies and a resignation that is motivated by distrust in remote surveillance devices. In both cases remote assessments cause added difficulties for students and, as time has gone on, remote assessments have increasingly been seen as undesirable. For students, remote assessments were resented by many as a liberation from surveillance mechanisms, fostering opportunism that had disciplinary and punitive consequences. For others, the digital panopticon and the escalating rhetoric of surveillance and the adoption of preventative measures by teachers and institutions, based on growing suspicion, fostered biopower-based control, transferring the discipline of the classroom to the home where students were confined.
References 1. Alemdar, M.: A Turkish university sends every student a mirror to cheat-proof exams. TRT World, Dec. 25 (2020) 2. Ajmi, O.: Mise en place d’une solution d’e-surveillance des examens : les pierres d’achoppement de la confiance. In: Bergadaà, M., Peixoto, P. (eds.) L’URGENCE DE L’INTEGRITE ACADEMIQUE, pp. 393–410. EMS Editions, Caen (2021) 3. Humbert, M., Lambin, X.: Examens à distance : des avertissements ciblés peuvent-ils décourager la tricherie ? In: Bergadaà, M., Peixoto, P. (eds.) L’URGENCE DE L’INTEGRITE ACADEMIQUE, pp. 443–454. EMS Editions, Caen (2021) 4. Foucault, M.: Vigiar e punir. Nascimento da prisão, vol. 70. Edições, Lisboa (2018) 5. Peggs, K., Smart, B.: Foucault’s biopower. In: Downing, L. (ed.) After Foucault, 1st edn., pp. 61–76. Cambridge University Press (2018) 6. Kohler, J., Huber, J.: Higher Education Governance Between Democratic Culture, Academic Aspirations and Market Forces. Council of Europe (2006) 7. Moreira, I.M.M.: Ensino superior a distância em Portugal. Uma aproximação sociográfica. https://aps.pt/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/DPR4926d7d5aae7f_1.pdf (1996) 8. Almeida, L.S., Castro, R.V., Ser estudante no Ensino Superior: Observatório dos percursos académicos dos estudantes da UMinho. http://repositorium.sdum.uminho.pt/bitstream/1822/ 42317/3/2016_Livro%20de%20Atas%20Ser%20Estudante%20no%20Ensino%20Superior% 202016_S%c3%b3%20DeG%c3%b3is.pdf (2016) 9. Suskie, L.: Assessing Student Learning: A Common Sense Guide. Wiley (2018) 10. P3 and Lusa: Faculdade de Direito queria gravar movimento e som nos exames. Estudantes contestaram e provas voltam a ser presenciais. PÚBLICO, Mar. 25 (2021) 11. Machado, D.: Software usado na avaliação guarda sons e imagens de universitários do Minho. Jornal de Notícias, Mar. 14 (2021) 12. Bergadaà, M., Peixoto, P.: Référents en déontologie académique : ont-ils confiance en eux ? In: Bergadaà, M., Peixoto, P. (eds.) L’URGENCE DE L’INTEGRITE ACADEMIQUE, pp. 35–54. EMS Editions, Caen (2021)
Chapter 44
Online Impulse Buying—Integrative Review of Psychological Factors Daniel Costa Pacheco, Ana Isabel Damião de Serpa Arruda Moniz, Suzana Nunes Caldeira, and Osvaldo Dias Lopes Silva
Abstract The aim of this paper is to make an integrative review on the impact of psychological factors on online impulse buying, namely stress reaction; selfesteem; materialism; boredom; positive affect; absorption; shopping pleasure; need for hedonic and utilitarian consumption and habit. We emphasize that (1) those highly reactive to stress may buy on impulse in order to mitigate negative emotional states; (2) the greater the online impulsive buying behavior, the lower may be the self-esteem; (3) materialistic values and the desire for goods are probably strongly and positively correlated to online impulse buying; (4) shopping can be an activity performed to avoid boredom and a possible antecedent of online impulse buying; (5) positive and negative affect may impact hedonic and utilitarian online browsing, in turn influencing the impulse buying desire, and, thus, the online impulse buying behavior; (6) those with great levels of absorption may be more susceptible to sensory stimuli, being more likely to online impulse buying; (7) social and idea shopping may impact online impulse buying; (8) when the motor scheme is triggered more often by exposure to a certain stimulus, it is more likely that it will continue to be triggered in the future (habit).
D. C. Pacheco (B) FEG, University of the Azores, Ponta Delgada, Portugal A. I. D. de S. A. Moniz CEEAplA, University of the Azores, Ponta Delgada, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] S. N. Caldeira · O. D. L. Silva CICS.UAc/CICS, NOVA.UAc, University of the Azores, Ponta Delgada, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] O. D. L. Silva e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 A. Mesquita et al. (eds.), Perspectives and Trends in Education and Technology, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 256, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5063-5_44
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44.1 Introduction We define online impulse buying as resulting from a relatively extraordinary, exciting, often energetic and urgent behavior, mediated by tangible technological resources (e.g., laptop, mobile phone, notebook and tablet) and intangible technological resources (e.g., operating system, application software, web browsers, etc.), with Internet connection, occurring on several digital platforms—for example, Amazon.com, Flipkart.com, EBay.com and Aliexpress.com. Online impulse buying involves a quick experience. It is more spontaneous than prudent, tending to change the consumer’s routine, to be more emotional than rational and more likely to be negatively labeled [32]. Consumers who plan to buy a product, but have not yet chosen the brand, can also be impulsive [22]. The relevance of the online impulse buying phenomenon is evidenced by the statistics portal Statista. In the USA, in 2018, about half of the purchases made by young Americans aged 18–24 were on impulse [35]. In Netherlands, in 2019, from 1001 respondents, data pointed that when offered a big discount, the most purchased products on impulse were food, clothing and beauty products [36]. In the UK, in 2020, out of more than 10000 people, more than a third, in the 25–34 age-group, confessed the habit of buying by impulse products on offer, which ended up not being used [37]. Finally, in 2016, in Denmark, 39 percent of Danes interviewed told impulsively bought clothing, shoes and jewelry online [38]. Throughout this paper, reviewed the possible impact of the following psychological factors on online impulse buying: stress reaction [46], self-esteem [3, 15, 21], materialism [24, 34], boredom [40], positive affect [20, 48], absorption, buying pleasure, hedonic and utilitarian consumption [5, 14, 45] and habit is reviewed [29]. After the theoretical framework, some final remarks are presented.
44.2 Theoretical Framework We then clarify the possible influence of psychological factors on online impulse buying, which will be presented in the following subsections.
44.2.1 Stress Reaction According to Youn and Faber [46], stress reaction represents systematic individual differences in the periodicity and intensity of response to situations, including negative emotional states (anxiety, anger, anguish and guilt). These negative emotional states result from daily annoyances or life conditions, differing from intense pressures, such as death or divorce [8]. Those highly reactive to stress may find their emotional responses exaggerated, unjustified or unexplained [46]. They acknowledge to respond, exaggeratedly, to the small daily annoyances. They feel vulnerable
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and unhappy, with no reason. They get upset easily, become nervous, sensitive, irritable and disturbed by guilt [41]. Youn and Faber [46] suggested that (1) individuals highly reactive to stress make impulse purchases in order to mitigate negative emotional states, experienced more frequently and/or more intensively; (2) impulse buying gratification improves these people’s positive feelings and moods, in the short term; and (3) impulse buying tendency is moderately associated with stress response.
44.2.2 Self-esteem Self-esteem has been contextualized several times as a one-dimensional construct, being the personal and global judgment of one’s own value [33], having links to impulse buying tendency [43]. As stated by Bandyopadhyay [3], the act of impulsive buying is preceded by buying impulse, which in turn is positively influenced by consumer susceptibility to normative influence and impulsive buying tendency. Self-esteem influences the generation of buying impulse, in part mediated by impulse buying tendency. Furthermore, as reported by Hadjali [21], self-esteem has a significant impact on impulse buying behavior, especially when buying clothing. Moreover, Fernandes and Veiga [15] sought to relate consumers’ impulsiveness in online and offline shopping with a set of personal and social variables, covering self-esteem and life satisfaction. For this purpose, they collected a sample of 254 individuals from Lisbon, Portugal. According to the results (2006), the greater the impulsive buying behavior, the lower the self-esteem and life satisfaction.
44.2.3 Materialism From an anthropological point of view, materialism is the relentless search for status and power [34]. Richins and Dawson [31] conceptualize materialism as the personality values on the importance given by the consumer to possession or acquisition, or as the necessary or preferred behavior to reach the desired state. Materialistic consumers consider their goods to be a development of themselves, a synonym for personal distinction [11]. Materialists seek to reaffirm their identity with third parties [7]. Materialistic values and the desire for goods seem to be positively correlated to impulse buying [47]. In this way, Li et al. [24] explored the relationship between materialism and online impulse buying, conducting a study with 200 Chinese undergraduates. The authors (2019) proposed that mental simulation (process simulation or simulation of negative outcomes) can be an affective way to help materialists reduce their online impulse buying. In turn, Santini et al. [34] carried out a meta-analysis to assess the background and outcomes of materialism, noting that materialism has a significant impact on buying intent, impulse buying, compulsive buying, conspicuous consumption, status consumption and consumer involvement.
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The positive relationship between materialism and online impulse buying can be a window of opportunity for managers. The making of strong brand personalities, representative of the status quo, can lead materialists to buy on impulse [2].
44.2.4 Boredom Boredom is broadly defined as feelings of low excitement and unpleasant emotions, induced by external factors or by individual differences [40]. It is a state of relatively low arousal and dissatisfaction, which is attributed to an inadequately stimulating situation [27]. According to [19, p. 7] “boredom is a phenomenon which is easier to describe than to define. The uniqueness of the feeling of being bored seems to depend upon the coexistence of the following components: a state of dissatisfaction and disinclination to action; a state of longing and an inability to designate what is longed for; a sense of emptiness; a passive, expectant attitude with the hope that the external world will supply the satisfaction; a distorted sense of time in which time seems to stand still”. Some studies present boredom as a negative feeling that affects consumer behavior [6, 16], indicating that shopping can be an activity performed to avoid boredom [13, 26]. However, as far as we could find, few reflect on boredom as a possible antecedent of impulse buying [40] advanced with a qualitative approach. Respondents when explaining why they bought in impulse mentioned breaking the regular pattern and doing something out of the ordinary. Some answers were “I felt very restless and bored and I wanted to do something”. Sundström et al. [40] asked respondents at what time the shopping occurred and if they were feeling disinterested. Some of them framed the situation as a quiet moment. They were bored or low in energy, having decided to seek new experiences and have fun. Respondents seemed to prefer the night to buy on impulse, selecting the moments of loneliness before going to sleep. Some interviewees were watching television and replying to messages on their cell phones while surfing on the Internet. Thus, impulse buying happened when they performed several tasks at the same time. They were not committed to or focused on the buying activity [40]. Browsing commercial websites may derive from the search for joy, where the purchase is the reward. One of the interviewees pointed out that only filling the online shopping cart, without checkout, can result in satisfaction and encouragement. Thus, when finding the right product or filling the shopping cart, the consumer can find sudden happiness and excitement, motivating him to continue researching new products, in order to repeat the fun [40].
44.2.5 Positive Affect Positive affect is a momentary and beneficial hedonic feeling evoked by significant events [17]. It is the extent to which an individual feels excited, active and alerted. A
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high positive affect involves great energy, concentration and pleasure, which can help individuals to perform better in decision making, problem solving and information processing [10]. Positive affect can influence self-regulation (which moderates the relationship between the impulse and the purchase). Just like rest helps people to recover their physical energy, positive affect can relieve ego depletion, replenishing more selfregulatory resources [48]. In the online context, positive affect seems to play a vital role in buying, even greater than negative affect [44] because the consumer with a greater positive affect will be more enthusiastic, energetic and fun, spending more time browsing, focusing more attention on product research and feeling happier to buy [30]. Therefore, both emotional states of being bored or very happy seem to enhance online impulse buying. Habib and Qayyum [20] analyzed the main emotional aspects (positive and negative affects) in impulse buying (covering browsing, buying desire and impulse buying behavior). Using a sample of 470 consumers from online stores, the authors (2017) found that positive affect has a significant and positive influence on hedonic and utilitarian online browsing. At the same time, negative affect has a significant and negative influence on hedonic and utilitarian online browsing. In turn, hedonic and utilitarian online browsing significantly and positively influence the impulse buying desire, which positively and significantly influences the online impulse buying behavior.
44.2.6 Absorption, Shopping Pleasure and Need for Hedonic and Utilitarian Consumption The literature has addressed absorption, shopping pleasure and the need for hedonic consumption as equivalent and with possible results for online impulse buying [14, 45, 46]. Absorption is someone’s tendency to immerse himself in experiences of selfinvolvement, triggered by external and imaginary stimuli [42]. People with this trait more developed are more prone to imprudence [46]. Absorption can play an important role in how people respond to environmental and sensory cues, such as consumption of products [46]. In this way, environmental stimuli and products developed by marketers, including colors, sounds, textures and locations, may increase the likelihood of consumers making impulse buying [12, 28]. It is assumed that those with great levels of absorption are more susceptible to sensory stimuli, being more likely to impulse buying [46]. On the other hand, consumers who experience pleasure to buy can be classified as recreational. According to some studies, they spend more time shopping and continue to do it, even after they have completed a purchase [4, 45]. These consumers also tend to feel a greater sense of gratification for the buying process than for the product purchased [14].
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Online browsing is an activity that can provide a highly pleasurable buying experience, which can induce positive or negative feelings, notably impacting decision making [5]. Thus, browsing is an important principle of the impulse buying process, and it has been proved that the more an individual browses, the greater the likelihood of him to buy, as he will be exposed to many stimuli, which could influence his behavior [5]. Hedonic reasons refer to pleasant emotional experiences from buying. Hedonic value may be driven from festive, epicurean and fun experiences [9], followed by elements or feelings of fantasy, fun, festivity and spontaneity [23], regardless buying something [1, 45]. In turn, utilitarian browsing encompasses behaving on a goaldriven basis, where the individual seeks goods using heuristics and actively collecting information, reducing the risk of buying [45]. Most studies on shopping have focused on hedonic browsing [25]; however, both hedonic and utilitarian browsing seem to be relevant influencers of the online impulse buying behavior [9]. There are five dimensions of hedonic consumption needs: social shopping, value shopping, adventure shopping, idea shopping and relaxation shopping. Faisal et al. [14] conducted a study with 300 respondents of the generation Y, noting that only social and idea shopping had an impact on online impulse buying. On the report of Faisal et al. [14] about social shopping, shopping is a social behavior, often performed with friends and/or family whose activity may influence the human motivation that seeks acceptance and affection. Consumers are excited to share their shopping experience and to connect with their family, friends and others. Spending time with family and/or friends makes the consumer happy while shopping. Value shopping reports searching for cheap buying opportunities, such as bargains and discounts. Consumer’s search for value has a competitive basis, whose purpose is to succeed and increase his self-esteem. Valuable purchases also lead to emotional satisfaction, because when obtaining discounts, consumers think they are making smarter choices, buying products at lower prices and feeling satisfied [14]. As specified by Faisal et al. [14], shopping can be exciting and adventurous (adventure shopping). Consumers can enjoy the experience when browsing products. Adventure shopping encompasses the behavior of those who like to browse products. When consumers search products on the Internet, they may not fully satisfy their desire, until the buying process is triggered. In addition, the devices used to browse also create interest among users, which can generate online impulse buying [14]. According to Faisal et al. [14], product innovation influences consumers’ lifestyles, encouraging them to buy on impulse (idea shopping). Many consumers prefer to buy exclusive goods, when no one has used them before. Thus, online shopping has become important for these consumers, as they provide information about the latest products, brands and trends, which can result in online impulse buying [14]. Relaxation shopping reports to the individual’s predisposition to buy as a way to relieve stress and switch mood from negative to positive. Some consumers confessed that, through shopping, they were able to reduce stress and stop thinking about problems, as they realized that shopping activities can relieve stress, directly influencing impulse buying behavior [14].
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44.2.7 Habit According to Gardner [18, p. 32], “Habit is an abstract concept, and consequently, can have no ‘correct’ or ‘incorrect’ definition. Definitions must be judged according to their coherence and usefulness for research purposes. In lay discourse, the term ‘habit’ is often used to refer to an action done frequently […]. Habits are actions that are frequently performed because they are initiated automatically (‘habit as automaticity and frequency’. […] Once a habit has formed, encountering the associated context is likely to directly trigger the behavior with minimal deliberation”. As far as we know, there is little knowledge of the possible impact of the habit on online impulse buying. However, it is worthwhile to consider this topic presented in the study of Moayery et al. [29]. Strack et al. [39] argued that the habit can strengthen the impulsive system, that is, when the motor scheme is triggered more often by exposure to a certain stimulus, it is more likely that it will continue to be triggered in the future. This is partly due to one of the main features of the habit, automaticity [29].
44.3 Final Remarks In this paper, several psychological factors and their relationship with online impulse buying were considered. As seen, the stress response represents systematic individual differences in the periodicity and intensity of reaction to situations, including negative emotional states (anxiety, anger, anguish and guilt). This chronic negative emotionality can lead consumers to adopt relieving behaviors, such as online impulse buying [46]. In turn, self-esteem has links to the impulse buying tendency [43]. According to Fernandes and Veiga [15], the greater the impulsive buying behavior, the lower the self-esteem and life satisfaction. In parallel, there is considerable evidence that materialistic values and the desire for goods are strongly and positively correlated to online impulse buying [47]. Furthermore, some studies present boredom as a negative feeling that affects consumer behavior and experience [6, 16], indicating that shopping can be an activity performed to avoid boredom [13, 26]. However, few reflect on boredom as a possible antecedent of online impulse buying [40]. In the online context, positive affect seems to play a vital role in buying (hedonic and utilitarian browsing), even greater than negative affect [44], because the consumer with the greatest positive affect will be more enthusiastic, energetic and fun, spending more time browsing, focusing more attention on product research and feeling happier to buy [30]. People with the absorption trait are more prone to imprudence. It is assumed that those with great levels of absorption are more susceptible to sensory stimuli, being more likely to buy on impulse [46].
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Shopping is a social behavior, often performed with friends or family [14]. Social shopping is categorized into value shopping, adventure shopping, idea shopping and relaxation shopping. According to Faisal et al. [14], it seems that only social and idea shopping has an impact on online impulse buying. There is little knowledge of the habit as a determinant of impulse buying. However, it is worthwhile to consider this topic. Strack et al. [39] argued that the habit can strengthen the impulsive system, that is, when the motor scheme is triggered more often by exposure to a certain stimulus, it is more likely that it will continue to be triggered in the future.
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Chapter 45
Teaching and Learning in Tourism: The Case of Tourism Laboratory G. Dinis , C. Melo , and J. Sousa
Abstract Tourism is one of the largest- and fastest-growing economic sectors in the world, which has been stimulating the creation of new businesses and a continuous adaptation to the changes of the worldwide environment in which it operates. The growth of tourism businesses and their need for constant reinvention highlight the importance of innovative approaches in tourism education practices that can provide students and tourism professionals the opportunity to develop the necessary skills for their future integration and progression in the labour market, whereas simultaneously afford tourism companies the possibility to recruit highly qualified human resources that will contribute to the companies’ success. Despite the existence of many different approaches, the paradigm of teaching in tourism studies moves towards the application of active and student-centred methodologies that allow the student’s involvement in the teaching–learning process, increasing their motivation and autonomy. The aim of this study is to better understand how project-based learning and simulation methodologies can be applied in the context of tourism higher education, based on an analysis of a specific curricular unit, Tourism Laboratory. The results indicated that students consider this methodology more demanding but also more enriching, and that it is equally challenging for the teachers. Despite its exploratory nature, the research will contribute to deepen the knowledge and reflection about the application of these methodologies, especially relevant in the current context.
G. Dinis (B) · J. Sousa Polytechnique Institute of Portalegre, Portalegre, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] G. Dinis GOVCOPP—Research Unit on Governance, Competitiveness and Public Policies, Aveiro, Portugal G. Dinis · C. Melo CiTUR—Centre for Tourism Research, Development and Innovation, Leiria, Portugal C. Melo Polytechnique Institute of Porto, Porto, Portugal VALORIZA—Research Centre for Endogenous Resources Valorization, Portalegre, Portugal © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 A. Mesquita et al. (eds.), Perspectives and Trends in Education and Technology, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 256, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5063-5_45
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45.1 Introduction In the last decades, tourism has become one of the largest and fastest growing economic sectors in the world, making it the major driver of socio-economic progress through the creation of jobs and businesses, export revenues and infrastructure development [1]. In 2019, international tourist arrivals reached 1460 million people and international tourism receipts attained 1481 USD billion, registering a growth rate of 4 and 3%, respectively [2]. Reference [3] also reinforces the importance of tourism’s direct, indirect, and induced impacts on global economy, given the industry contribution to the world’s gross domestic product (GDP) (USD 8.9 trillion—10.3% of global GDP), jobs (1 in 10 jobs around the world), visitor exports (6.8% of total exports, 28.3% of global services exports), and capital investment (4.3% of total investment). Despite the strong and sustained growth of international tourism activity in the last decade [2], currently, the COVID-19 pandemic is challenging the sectors’ resilience [4] and overall performance, namely in terms of companies’ survival and jobs maintenance, considering the number of collaborators presently being affected by lay-off strategies, with reduced schedules and task changes [5]. Tourism industry worldwide is expected to incur a loss of 850 million to 1.1 billion in international tourist flows [6] and of 50 million jobs [7]. Before the COVID-19, it was already recognized that tourism-related jobs were being impacted by several trends, such as ageing population, changing lifestyles and consumer demands, increase use of information technology and communication, globalization, and worldwide economic growth, all of which emphasized the need for change, and for the development of specific skills that could contribute to a better performance [8]. Examples of generic skills shortage pointed out by several countries in the context of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) survey were “Leadership and management skills, specifically practical management operations, financial and business management, and core people leadership skills” [8]. The need for tourism education related to entrepreneurship in the sector was also pointed out by other authors [9, 10]. Likewise, it is possible do identify a generalized perception about the existing gaps between the competencies of tourism graduates and the industry needs, which largely stem from the inadequacy of education and training programmes, that lack a focus on management and business skills as well as on the development of soft skills [8]. The pre-existing shortcomings in the relationship between the tourism industry needs and the overall qualifications and skills of graduates entering the workplace are believed to be reinforced after the outbreak of COVID-19, whereas transition in working styles, skill requirements, industry expectations and priorities will be substantially transformed [11]. With several researchers considering that this pandemic can be seen as an opportunity for the tourism industry to reset and rethink itself [12–14], it is of paramount importance to analyse how tourism education can con-tribute to the transformative potential of the current situation, and which transformations should also take place in the tourism education system in order to provide, both the students (future employees) and the employers with improved tools and
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competencies. Gu et al. [15] stated that the educational systems assume a crucial role in the preparation of skilled and qualified workforce that can provide quality services and thus contribute to the overall competitiveness of the industry [16]. For many years, tourism higher education (THE) was mainly seen as a response to market utilitarian needs, dominated by highly vocational aims and product-led [17]. During the last decades, tourism degrees have become more specialized, and curricula design/ methodologies have been updated and refined, even though revolutionary changes are yet to be implemented [18]. This study aims to build on existing knowledge, by analysing the specific case of a curricular unit (CU), designed by Tourism Laboratory (TL), integrated in the Polytechnic Institute of Portalegre (PIP) tourism degree, which involved the application of project-based learning (PbL) and simulation (S) methodologies. The paper is structured in four parts, with the first presenting some definitions and background on the methodologies applied, namely PbL and S. The methodology used for this exploratory study is described in the following part, and research findings are reported and discussed in the third section of the paper. Lastly, the most pertinent conclusions are presented, along with the limitations of the study and recommendations for further research.
45.2 Literature Review Teaching tourism, designing the syllabus, and choosing the most adequate methodologies are challenging tasks for higher education teachers. To educate a group of students in tourism studies is a complex process, which starts with the identification of their needs to design the syllabus, achieve the defined goals, and then ensure that students can transfer the acquired knowledge and competences to their professional life [19]. Stone et al. [20] highlight several skills that twenty-first century tourism professionals should hold, such as digital literacy, thinking skills, communication and relational skills, and life skills such as leadership and responsibility, stressing the fact that most of these skills are not new, but require a more intentional and effective teaching approach, what is also suggested by Saavedra and Opfer [21] when stating that “learning twenty-first century skills require twenty-first century teaching”. Tourism students have expressed their preference for practical activities [22]; thus, the success in teaching tourism also depends on being able to associate classroom activities to real people and contexts through fieldwork and simulations [19]. Aside from students’ general preferences for active learning methodologies, it is of relevance to reflect on the specific characteristics of the latest generation to enter the workplace (Millennials) as well as the ones who are currently pursuing higher education degrees (Generation Z). Millennials are characterized by a strong focus on self-development, are looking for interesting and challenging jobs, and are also concerned with contributing to society [23]. Generation Z, like Millennials, were raised with technology, are more willing to work alone and need real-life
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knowledge [24], whereby these individualities raise an augmented challenge for the teachers, who need to be aware of these new students’ profiles and expectations and correspondently adapt the overall learning environment and methodologies. THE thus faces several challenges, one of which is the development of methodologies that can motivate and support students towards the development of hard and soft skills that will allow them to respond effective and innovatively in the workplace they will be entering. PbL has been pointed out by [25] as a key methodology for skills acquisition that strongly reinforces interaction between the teacher and the students and among the students. More recently, [26] has stated that S is also a methodology that contributes to a higher student’s engagement “through an intuitive, game-like environment where students learn through exploration and discovery”. Having been the methodologies selected for the development of the CU under analysis in this research, brief considerations on the definitions and principles of PbL and S are presented below.
45.2.1 Project-Based Learning [27] “PbL is a student-driven, teacher-facilitated approach to learning. (…) The outcome of PbL is greater understanding of a topic, deeper learning, higher-level reading, and increased motivation to learn. PbL is a key strategy for creating independent thinkers and learners.” PbL is considered a student-centred methodology, whereas it poses the learners the opportunity to co-create and reconstruct their learning experience [28]. Guo et al. [29] reinforce the potential of this inquirybased instructional method to stimulate students’ engagement in their own knowledge construction, by developing meaningful projects and real-world products/services. Through this methodology, students are requested to develop projects that can solve real-world problems or challenges, conducting several learning activities according to careful planning that culminate in a final product [27, 30]. The importance of the teacher role, as a facilitator that helps students defining their goals and gives feedback over the tasks performed, is also referred by Bell [27]. When compared with more traditional methodologies, PbL has the advantage of providing the opportunity to develop life skills, such as teamwork and communication and not only the acquisition of knowledge [31]. Besides collaboration and group work, another advantage pointed out by Chu et al. [30] is that instead of supporting their learning in textbooks and or assigned reading resources, PbL allows students to create and develop their own learning materials through the discovery process. Lastly, PbL also creates a favourable environment for an interdisciplinary approach in tourism education, which is also of paramount importance given the transversality of the industry and its broad framework of relationships with other social, cultural, environmental, and economic activities/dimensions [32].
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45.2.2 Simulation (S) [33] “S are generally grouped into two broad categories: (1) model-based simulations on the construction of the theoretical model of a system (…) and (2) experiential simulations that offer environments that simplify reality and allow learning in a riskfree environment (…). The most important feature of all simulations is that they are based on the imitation of a system or situation.” S is considered an experiential learning method that challenges students’ misconceptions, promotes critical thinking and self-directed learning [34, 35]. Students taking part of such educational experiences have a greater understanding of the subject matter than the ones engaged in a more traditional learning practice [36]. The use of S methods has been used in several educational fields, like health care, maths and engineering, and in business-related courses, where students develop enterprises or simulate business tasks.
45.2.3 PbL and S in Tourism Laboratory Recognizing the value of knowledge application and skills development in real-world contexts, it must be notice that practice opportunities are not frequent in higher education programmes [37], and even in those degrees where an internship is integrated, in most cases, that only occur at the end of the course, restricting the students’ opportunities to address complex and authentic real-world tasks in the safe environment of the School, with teachers’ guidance. Therefore, the CU of TL was designed through a combination of PbL and S methodologies, to provide students an opportunity to engage in an enriching and innovative learning experience that could offer them the opportunity to consolidate their knowledge, develop their soft skills, prepare for the future challenges, and reinforce their own confidence and motivation for a career in a long-life learning industry like tourism and hospitality. Given the tourism sector overall importance and contribution to development, THE current state and future scenarios have been subject to critical scrutiny, notwithstanding empirical studies which can provide insights on THE from both students and teachers perspectives are still missing [38], which reinforces the pertinence of the present research.
45.3 Methodology The aim of this exploratory research is to better understand how active and studentcentred methodologies, namely PbL and S, can be applied in the context of THE. To achieve this objective, the analysis focused a specific CU of the tourism degree of the PIP/School of Education and Social Sciences. This CU, designated TL, was introduced in the tourism degree study plan in the framework of a restructuring process which occurred in 2017 and is taught in the second semester of the third year.
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To date, this CU has been taught to 3 classes, summarizing a total of 68 students. The selection of this CU is since it is the only unit of the degree that explicitly and continuously applies the methodologies under study (PbL and S methodologies). This exploratory study is thus based on the analysis of a case study. The case study is a comprehensive strategy that can include quantitative and qualitative perspectives [39] which enable obtaining information through multiple data sources [40]. The research began with the adaptation of a questionnaire survey, which was developed in conjunction with a team from the Polytechnic Institute of Viana do Castelo (PIVC), with the aim of comparing the application of the PbL methodology in different realities and academic contexts. The questionnaire survey is composed of open and closed questions, comprising two distinct parts. The first part includes data regarding the student’s profile, the attendance, and final grade obtained and, in the second part, data on the students’ opinion regarding the methodology applied and the usefulness of the skills acquired/developed for the future performance on their professional activity. The collection of data was carried out through the inclusion of 30 items, which were identified accordingly to the literature review (Table 45.1), each of them with six Likert-type response possibilities, with the following categories: 1—I completely disagree, 2—I disagree, 3—neither agree nor disagree, 4—I agree, 5—I completely agree, and 6—not applicable. The questionnaire was constructed and made available online to students through the Google Forms platform. Data collection occurred between February 09 and March 09, 2021. Contact and provision of the link to students was established directly and through social media (Instagram and Facebook). The response rate to the survey was 59%. Regarding the characterization of the sample, about 68% of the respondents are female and 32% are male. The age of the respondents ranges from 21 to 46 years. The average age is 25.3, and the predominant age is 23 years. As a complement to the survey, the study included an interview, which is considered one of the main sources of information in case studies [39] and one of the best instruments to gather diverse information on the interpretation of reality [40]. The interview is structured, consisting of only one question, asked with the purpose of knowing the importance of the TL for the overall learning trajectory and the challenge that the applied methodologies pose to students. The interview was conducted with four students on 10 March 2021, whereas one of the students is a co-author of this research, and the others were selected to represent all the academic years taught so far (E1-2017; E2-2018, E3-2019, and E4-2020).
45.4 Findings 45.4.1 CU Characterization The course is composed of 75 h of theoretical–practical classes and 15 h of tutorial classes. Although the classes are theoretical–practical, the role of teachers focuses
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Table 45.1 Questionnaire—Opinion items/Questions No.
Question
1
The PbL methodology is interesting
2
In PbL the knowledge acquired is more comprehensive than through conventional teaching
3
The CU that are based on real problems/challenges are more appealing
4
I understood the objectives of the course better than if it had been taught in the conventional way
5
Project-based teaching requires more time and dedication than more traditional approaches
6
In PbL students recall previously acquired knowledge
7
In PbL the student is responsible for his or her own learning
8
In PbL students are more active in gathering and processing information
9
In Project-based Learning students construct and organise knowledge
10
On the degree there should be more CU using the Project-based teaching approach
11
PbL encourages the ability to identify and gather the necessary information using the internet/library
12
PbL encourages students to test and push their limits
13
PbL encourages students to define a plan of action to achieve their goals
14
PbL stimulates public speaking skills
15
PbL increases the ability to organise and manage time effectively
16
PbL promotes active learning, in which the student is more proactive, preparing them for lifelong learning
17
The support of the teachers in the project-based learning process is very important
18
PbL increases decision-making capacity
19
PbL increases problem-solving skills
20
PbL develops the competence of self-learning
21
PbL encourages autonomy in the learning process
22
The workload that PbL requires is easily managed
23
The workload that PbL entails is a big challenge
24
The time taken to carry out the project was adequate
25
PbL facilitates interdisciplinarity
26
In PbL the fact that the work is developed in groups facilitates learning
27
PbL develops entrepreneurial skills and encourages self-employment
28
PbL stimulates creativity and innovation in students
29
PbL, including the carrying out of operational tasks, helps to develop the capacity for group collaboration and inter-help
30
PbL, specifically operational tasks, contribute to the resolution of real situations in a timely manner
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mainly on monitoring, guidance, and support. The tutorial classes are exclusively for clarification of doubts about the project under development, often serving as individual support to students/workgroup. During the course, contents are made available, and bibliography is recommended to help the students to carry out the assignments. The CU is assessed only by frequency with the final grade being obtained from a weighting attributed to the development and public presentation of a project in tourism (60%) and to the student’s behaviour and performance in the resolution of tasks, intergroup collaboration and teamwork, timely completion of tasks and compliance with deadlines, application of knowledge and creativity of the solutions presented to solve the S tasks (40%). It is intended that students achieve the following objectives: (1) Consolidate and integrate knowledge and skills acquired in other CUs of the degree; (2) stimulate the capacity of creation and development of innovative projects in the tourism field; (3) develop the capacity of group work and cooperation; (4) stimulate students to solve tasks and challenges, in a short period of time, simulating the real work context; and (5) prepare students for the presentation and disclosure of the project to the public, through different means. Therefore, the functioning of the CU is based on the creation of a business in the tourism field and its daily management, in a business simulation environment, presenting solutions and developing the tasks stipulated by the CU lecturers, throughout the semester. To this end, the course is structured as follows. Firstly, students select the area of the companies they wish to work in, among the following options: Accommodation; Catering; Travel Agencies and Tour Operators; Tourist Animation Company; Transportation. The student groups are preferably constituted by two elements. In terms of the timing of the course, this was divided into two phases, the first of which is focused on the creation and development of the business plan and presentation of the tourism company (through the presentation of a scientific poster to a guest specialist in entrepreneurship), including the delivery of the company portfolio of products and services. This first phase has an approximate duration of 8 weeks, and the second phase—operational management of the tourism company—has an approximate duration of 7 weeks. The tasks to be performed in the second phase are of two types: (1) global scope, identical for all companies existing in the virtual market, but which must be performed individually by each of the groups, given the nature and typology of their own company; (2) specific scope, assigned to each company according to its field of activity, but which can and must involve the creation of partnerships with other companies in the virtual market. The CU ends with the delivery of the final report, where all the elements of the work developed in both phases must be included and culminates with the presentation to the public and academic community of the tourism project. Although the project and the tasks are programmed to be carried out during the semester, it is important to mention that they are scheduled by stages, which must be delivered by group on a weekly basis. The CU lecturers, after carefully reading the documents, send their comments and suggestions (feedback) to the students in writing or orally.
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45.4.2 Frequency and Evaluation of the UC The TL course is taught to students in the final year of the degree. In the academic years of 2017/2018, 2018/2019, and 2019/2020, a total of 23, 18, and 27 students, respectively, successfully completed the CU. Students from all academic years were surveyed, and a student representativeness of about 83% from the year 2019/2020 was obtained, followed by 52.2% from the year 2017/2018 and lastly, the year 2018/2019 with a response rate of 39%. Therefore, of the respondents, about 48% of the students completed in the year 2019/2020, 30% in the year 2017/2018, and 23% in the year 2018/2019. When students were asked about the tourism project, they had developed in the TL CU, 17 students replied that the project developed fell within the accommodation sector (hotels, rural tourism, and campsites), 7 in the restaurant area, 7 in tourist animation, 5 in travel agency and tour operator, and 1 in the transport sector. The assessment of the CU of all respondents was based on group work and the marks obtained in the course oscillate between 12 and 17 (on a scale of 0 to 20, where approval is obtained from 9.5). The average mark obtained by the students in the course is 15.3. Around 43% of the marks are 16 or 17. In this analysis, only 37 answers were considered, as 3 students said they could not remember their final grade.
45.4.3 Students’ Opinion Analysing the responses to the 30 items in the questionnaire, it can be concluded that the predominant Likert scale value is 5 (completely agree) and the median value is 4 (agree). The results of these descriptive statistics show a clear agreement of the students with the underlying characteristics of the project- and S-based methodologies applied in the CU. It was observed that around 87% of the answers are concentrated on the 4 and 5 scale. As it can be observed in Fig. 45.1, on their responses to Q28 and Q17, 63% and 70% of the students, respectively, indicated option “5—I completely agree”, which means that they consider that the methodology used is a great stimulus to creativity and innovation. As mentioned by the interviewee (E1), the CU “becomes very stimulating when promoting the capacity for creation and tourism innovation”, demanding that “we are autonomous, creative and organised” (E4). Although the project includes a lot of autonomous work, the weekly support of the lecturers in a class context and often outside class time is considered essential by the students. In Q26, 58% of the students indicated that they completely agree with the statement, which suggests that they consider as an added value the fact that the project is carried out in a team. In this regard, E4 stated that “one of the most important features of the CU is the fact that we have to work together. The whole project is carried out as a group, and it is also necessary to establish partnerships with other groups to carry out the proposed operational tasks”. Regarding the statements in which the students’ responses indicated a larger proportion of option “4—I agree”,
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Q30 Q29 Q28 Q27 Q26 Q25 Q24 Q23 Q22 Q21 Q20 Q19 Q18 Q17 Q16 Q15 Q14 Q13 Q12 Q11 Q10 Q9 Q8 Q7 Q6 Q5 Q4 Q3 Q2 Q1 0
5
10
Completely disagree
15 Disagree
20
25
Neither agree nor disagre
30 Agree
35
40
Completely agree
Fig. 45.1 Students’ responses
Q4 stands out (53%), indicating a greater understanding of the objectives of TL than in the other CUs; a broader acquisition of knowledge (Q2) and the need to recall knowledge acquired in other CUs (Q6), with 50% of the answers in each question in this option. Thus, as referred by E2 “Classes combine the exposure of concepts and encourage students to participate through debate, constant intervention and critical reflection on the topics covered”, and E4 “In this CU we were able to put into practice many of the knowledge acquired in the degree, through the preparation of weekly assignments, where we have to make market analysis, SWOT analysis, marketing plans, among others". About the questions in which the students indicated that they disagreed with the statement or that they did not have a very formed opinion on the subject, Q7 stands out, with 15% of the answers in option 2 and 18% in option 3, which means that the students still consider that the lecturers play a significant role in the knowledge and learning acquired, even though when apply this type of methodology. Furthermore, they also highlight some difficulties in managing the volume of work required in the CU, with 10% of the answers in option 2, 3% in option 1, and 18% in option 3.
45 Teaching and Learning in Tourism: The Case of Tourism Laboratory Fig. 45.2 Students’ responses to Question 1
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The project-based learning strategy is interesng 20 15 10 5 0 Completely Disagree Neither disagree agree nor disagree
Agree
Completely agree
Analysing in more detail the answers to question (Q1), that has the objective of ascertaining the students’ interest in project-based methodologies, it is worth of mention that 90% of the students “agree” or “completely agree” that this strategy is interesting (Fig. 45.2). The students interviewed reinforced these results by stating that this course “is a fundamental subject in the degree, despite being a simulation of a project, if it is well carried out and executed, it can be transported into reality” (E3). When the students were asked whether there should be other CU in the degree with this methodology, 78% of the students “agreed” or “completely agreed” with the statement.
45.5 Conclusion There are many different approaches that can be used in teaching tourism at the level of higher education institutions; however, the development and growing competitiveness of the sector impose constant challenges on tourism agents and a need to create companies that offer innovative products. Therefore, it is necessary to adopt an innovative approach in tourism education focusing entrepreneurial skills and in the development of innovative projects, which can be implemented in a real context. The aim of this study was to show the methodology used in the CU, TL, operating at the PIP degree in tourism; specifically, it sought to better understand the students’ opinion on project-based learning and simulation methodologies applied in this CU. The results indicated that students consider this methodology more laborious and demanding for them, often having to apply knowledge they have acquired in other subjects of the degree. On the other hand, they consider that it provides them the opportunity to develop important skills such as autonomy, creativity, practice background, and the ability to work in groups and intergroups. Students show a broad agreement with this type of methodologies; however, they also reveal that the support of teachers is essential, as teachers and facilitators of the learning process.
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The execution of weekly tasks also imposes challenges for the teachers, demanding a strong, active, and continuous guidance and interaction. The developed study has an exploratory nature, and it may be a limitation the fact that it is based only on a case study. Thus, for future investigations it would be interesting to analyse the relationship between the students’ opinions and their socio-demographic characteristics, as well as to compare the results obtained in this CU with other CUs that apply this type of methodologies in other institutions. Acknowledgments This work was financially supported by the research unit on Governance, Competitiveness and Public Policy (UIDB/04058/2020) + (UIDP/04058/2020), funded by national funds through FCT—Foundation for Science and Technology.
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21. Saavedra, A., Opfer, V.: Learning 21st-century skills requires, 21st-century teaching. Phi Delta Kappan 94(2), 8–13 (2012) 22. Marinakou, E.: Using problem-based learning to teach tourism management students. In: Conference: Athens Tourism Symposium (2015) 23. Ng, E., Schweitzer, L., Lyons, S.: New generation, great expectations: a field study of the millennial generation. J. Bus. Psychol. 25(2), 281–292 (2010) 24. Seemiller, C., Megan, G.: Generation Z: educating and engaging the next generation of students. Sage J. 22(3), 21–26 (2017) 25. OECD Homepage: https://bit.ly/3g3Y8oy. Last accessed 18 Feb 2021 26. OECD Homepage: https://bit.ly/3g0KFhe. Last accessed 18 Feb 2021 27. Bell, S.: Project-based learning for the 21st century: skills for the future. Clearing House 83(2), 39–43 (2010) 28. Granado-Alcón, M., Gómez-Baya, D., Herrera-Gutiérrez, E., Vélez-Toral, M., Alonso-Martín, P., Martínez-Frutos, M.: Project-based learning and the acquisition of competencies and knowledge transfer in higher education. Sustainability 12(23), 10062–10062 (2020) 29. Guo, P., Saab, N., Post, L., Admiraal, W.: A review of project-based learning in higher education: student outcomes and measures. Int. J. Educ. Res. 102 (2020) 30. Chu, S., Zhang, Y., Chen, K., Chan, C., Lee, C., Zou, E., Lau, W.: The effectiveness of wikis for project-based learning in different disciplines in higher education. Internet Higher Educ. 33, 49–60 (2017) 31. Lipson, A., Epstein, A., Bras, R., Hodges, K.: Students’ perceptions of Terrascope, a projectbased freshman learning community. J. Sci. Educ. Technol. 16(4), 349–364 (2007) 32. Afifi, G., Atef, T., Al Busaidi, Y.: Interdisciplinary higher education in tourism: the case of SQU, Oman, Anatolia. 30(1), 6–17 (2019) 33. Duchatelet, D., Gijbels, D., Bursens, P., Donche, V., Spooren, P.: Looking at role-play simulations of political decision-making in higher education through a contextual lens: a state-of-the-art. Educ. Res. Rev. 27, 126–139 (2019) 34. Kreber, C.: Learning experientially through case studies? a conceptual analysis. Teach. High. Educ. 6, 217–228 (2001) 35. Caniglia. J.: Simulations as a Teaching Strategy. Kent State University Center for Teaching and Learning. Retrieved 16th March 2021 from https://bit.ly/3qKh65q (2019) 36. Hakeem, S.: Effect of experiential learning in business statistics. J. Educ. Bus. 77, 95–98 (2001) 37. Chernikova, O., Seidel, T., Fischer, F.: Simulation-based learning in higher education: a metaanalysis. Rev. Educ. Res. 90(4), 499–541 (2020) 38. Lugosi, P., Jameson, S.: Challenges in hospitality management education: perspectives from the United Kingdom. J. Hosp. Tourism Manage 31, 163–172 (2017) 39. Yin, R.: Estudo de Caso. Planejamento e Métodos. Bookman, Porto Alegre (2005) 40. Meirinhos, M., Osório, A.: The case study as research strategy in education. EDUSER: Revista de educação 2(2) (2010)
Chapter 46
“Cannot Stop Buying”—Integrative Review on Compulsive Buying Daniel Costa Pacheco, Ana Isabel Damião de Serpa Arruda Moniz, Suzana Nunes Caldeira, and Osvaldo Dias Lopes Silva
Abstract This paper intends to make an integrative review on compulsive buying, defining the concept, distinguishing it from impulsive buying and articulating it with the following concepts: contingent self-esteem, etiology, epidemiology, diagnosis, family history, medical screening, symptoms, psychological and pharmacological treatment.
46.1 Introduction “OK. Don’t panic. Don’t panic. It’s only a VISA bill. It’s a piece of paper; a few numbers. I mean, just how scary can a few numbers be? […] I casually close my eyes and start to tot up. There was that suit in Jigsaw. And there was dinner with Suze at Quaglino’s. And there was that gorgeous red and yellow rug. […] But it was definitely worth every penny—everyone’s admired it. Or, at least, Suze has. And the Jigsaw suit was on sale – 30 per cent off. So that was actually saving Money”, wrote Sophie Kinsella in her recreational book Confessions of a Shopaholic [24, p. 13], entering the domain of compulsive buying. Compulsive buying can be defined as a chronic and repetitive behavior that becomes the primary response to negative events or emotions. It is associated with overpowering and repetitive urges to buy, followed by prompt relief and pleasure but D. C. Pacheco (B) FEG, University of the Azores, Ponta Delgada, Portugal A. I. D. de S. A. Moniz CEEAplA, University of the Azores, Ponta Delgada, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] S. N. Caldeira · O. D. L. Silva 3CICS.UAc/CICS.NOVA.UAc, University of the Azores, Ponta Delgada, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] O. D. L. Silva e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 A. Mesquita et al. (eds.), Perspectives and Trends in Education and Technology, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 256, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5063-5_46
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also often by remorse and guilt due to awareness of the unsuitability of the spending behavior and its negative outcomes [27, 35]. Compulsive buying has also been found to be linked to psychosocial issues (e.g., social conflict) and other harmful outcomes, especially among female consumers [51]. The aim of this paper is to contextualize compulsive buying, distinguishing it from impulsive buying and comparing it with contingent self-esteem and also to discuss compulsive buying etiology, epidemiology, diagnosis, family history, medical screening, psychological and pharmacological treatment.
46.2 Theoretical Framework 46.2.1 Contextualization of Compulsive Buying Compulsive buying is part of a broader class of repetitive and often overly adopted behaviors to relieve tension, anxiety, depression or boredom [45]. It is characterized by a concern with buying, buying more than people can afford or purchasing unnecessary goods. In addition to a longer delay in buying than intended, resulting in marked distress or interference in social and occupational performance [33], compulsive buying is thought to occur as a response to intrusive urges that generate high levels of negative effect (e.g., anxiety) for the individual [11]. Compulsive consumers adopt this buying behavior to alleviate the negative effect to feel better [48]. Compulsive consumers generally report that, when they start buying, they are unable to control their behavior [3]. The money spent is more than what can be afforded, and it is usually accompanied by large amounts of debt. Specifically, time and money are wasted buying unnecessary goods, resulting in problems at work, disturbances in interpersonal relationships and feelings of guilt, shame, anxiety and depression [35, 40]. It seems that it is the act itself, and not the goods, that alleviates the negative affective states of compulsive consumers, since consumer goods are hidden from others, offered or thrown away after purchase [13]. Despite its impact on the individual and on society, there still seems to be no widely accepted definition for compulsive buying. Compulsive buying can be an addictive disorder, affective disorder, mood disorder or an obsessive–compulsive disorder [23]. According to Kyrios et al. [27], more recently, the term “buying-shopping disorder” has been announced and recorded as an example of “other specified impulse control disorders” in the coding tool of the 11th edition of the International Classification of Diseases. Yet, it is not included as a separate mental health condition [50], nor it is stated in the fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) outside the inclusion of an “excessive acquisition” specifier for hoarding disorder [2].
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46.2.2 Impulsive Buying and Compulsive Buying Several studies show a close relationship between impulsive buying and compulsive buying [19], as they are generally seen as manifestations of dysfunctional self-control system [47]. According to Šeinauskien˙e et al. [44], the similarity of both phenomena is further highlighted by the resemblance in the antecedents, such as materialism, identity, low self-esteem and stress. Ultimately, the deviation of standard buying behavior, a high emotional involvement in the buying process and failure to resist to the buying desire are inherent in both impulsive buying and compulsive buying, which are less rational consumer behaviors. However, impulsive buying and compulsive buying are qualitatively different. Impulsive buying is a less-pronounced expression of compulsive buying, where the former reports to the initial stage and the latter the extreme side of the same behavior [27, 44]. That is, both phenomena are primarily differentiated by the degree to which they disrupt the individual’s behavior. The compulsive consumer finds it extremely hard to control his actions, a trait not necessarily found in the impulsive consumer. Impulsive buying can be seen as a relatively harmless consumer behavior, if it does not involve a compulsive purchase [27, 44].
46.2.3 Compulsive Buying and Contingent Self-Esteem Some studies [35, 40] show that low self-esteem is regularly related to compulsive buying, portraying human behavior as ranging across a continuum, from true selfesteem to contingent self-esteem. According to Roberts et al. [40], true self-esteem is more stable and does not depend on meeting external standards or others’ expectations. Deci and Ryan [12] defined contingent self-esteem as “feelings about oneself that result from or are dependent upon matching some standard of excellence or living up to some interpersonal or intra-psychic expectations” (p. 32). Contingent self-esteem is affected by external or self-imposed standards. Those with high contingent self-esteem can judge their self-esteem in terms of physical attractiveness, social status, job performance or compliance with other standards [35, 38]. According to Patrick et al. [38], contingent self-esteem results in concern with achievements and social acceptance. Thus, contingent self-esteem is strongly fueled by social comparison. Some studies [35, 38] suggested that higher levels of contingent self-esteem led to greater compulsive buying behavior, and that this relationship was more likely when individuals experience stressful events.
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46.2.4 Etiology Technological, psychological and social factors may contribute to compulsive buying development and maintenance [27, 31, 51]. In technological factors, it is believed that the features of the online channel—such as the absence of the same control as in face-to-face buying, powered by anonymity— stimulate the disinhibition of some people, probably facilitating compulsive action [31]. Regarding psychological factors, research found that variables such as personality traits, values, goals or self-concept play essential roles in the development and maintenance of compulsive buying [51]. For example, the impulsive trait, especially in response to emotional states, highlights the role of shopping as a strategy to improve mood and self-esteem [31]. Psychological distress, depression and anxiety also seem to be central triggers for compulsive buying, as stated by Zheng et al. [51]. As for social factors, compulsive buying may be a result of contemporary marketing schemes, especially in materialistic countries. The buying opportunities offered by a market economy, coupled with enough disposable income, seem to be the important ingredients [4] Other social and cultural factors of this disorder are market economy, the large number of products available, loan facility and free time [1].
46.2.5 Epidemiology The prevalence of compulsive buying is uncertain [30]. Some data identified 2–16% of American consumers as compulsive [5]. Other data identified 5–16% of Americans as compulsive buyers [29, 39]. The variability is explained by the heterogeneity of samples and measuring instruments [31, 32]. Among European countries, we find Germany with 7% [36] and Spain with 7.1% compulsive buyers [37]. As to gender, compulsive buying seems to affect more women (80%) than men [6, 51]. In respect to online shopping, so far, we find few studies that analyze sociodemographic data and compulsive buying. Some authors address the prevalence around 16% [15], emphasizing that the Internet allows buying without monitoring, avoiding social interaction and a quick obtaining of gratification and reinforcement [26].
46.2.6 Diagnosis Compulsive buying disorder shares substantial resemblances in clinical presentation to other addictive disorders, for example, alcohol, gambling disorder and problematic Internet use [32].
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Furthermore, the diagnosis of compulsive buying disorder should not be made if the behavior occurs as part of a mania or hypomania episode [31]. Some studies [27, 32, 33, 46, 51] indicated diagnostic criteria for compulsive buying, as presented below: • Overwhelming buying concern or overwhelming buying impulses or behavior, manifested by at least one of the following criteria: • Regular concern about buying or buying impulses considered irresistible, intrusive and/or unreasonable. • Regular purchases exceeding what can be afforded to pay and regular purchases of unnecessary goods longer than planned. • Buying concerns, impulses or behavior cause significant suffering, demand time, significantly interfere with social or occupational functioning or lead to financial issues (example, debt or bankruptcy). • Excessive purchases do not occur exclusively during periods of hypomania or mania.
46.2.7 Family History Family history seems to impact compulsive consumers [20, 49], but it is not known whether the causal mechanism involved in this relationship is genetic or educational. Several authors have pointed out the importance of family communication processes [17, 18, 42] and the modeling of materialistic behaviors and excessive purchases [10]. In order to present some data, McElroy et al. [33] found that between 18 compulsive shoppers, 17 had at least first-degree relative with mood disorder, 11 had at least 1 relative with alcohol or substance abuse, 3 had at least 1 relative with anxiety disorder and 3 had relatives who were compulsive shoppers.
46.2.8 Medical Screening Like other behavioral and substance addictions, compulsive buying disorder seems to start in late adolescence or early adulthood, although the complete disorder can take several years to develop [5, 9, 32]. Unfortunately, people with compulsive buying disorder generally seek treatment in their 30 s, well after the consequences related to compulsive buying start to accumulate and their life becomes deteriorated [32]. Schlosser et al. [43] found that compulsive consumers usually buy for themselves (39%), but also for family and friends. Often, compulsive buying is an action performed alone, buying at any establishment and with little regard to the person’s purchasing power [6]. However, the subjects do not always choose to buy alone. These buyers generally describe their experiences enhanced by store colors, sounds,
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lighting and scents, as well as the texture of the fabric. Some buyers even describe the experience as sexually exciting [4]. The disorder is, in most cases, chronic [9], with monthly recurring episodes [31]. Shopping experiences are frequent and are not restricted to holidays or birthdays [4]. Most patients describe negative mood as a trigger for buying behavior, but sometimes positive mood is also cited as a trigger [7, 35, 41]. Regarding the gender, men and women have different traits of compulsive buying. Women tend to have a positive attitude toward shopping and the social interaction associated with it [8, 51], being more likely than men to make purchases as an emotional regulatory strategy [31, 51]. Dittmar et al. [14] reported that women tend to buy symbolic and self-expressive items related to the appearance and emotional aspects of the self (e.g., for pleasure, to get excited). Thus, the most purchased items are clothing, footwear, jewelry and cosmetics. Also, in accordance with Dittmar et al. [14], men tend to buy, on impulse, instrumental goods and leisure activities associated with independence. They show most preferences by electronic, automotive and hardware products [4]. Some women felt guilt or remorse when faced with the outcomes of the purchase, and some did not even unwrap the packages, returning the goods [4]. They used to hide their purchases from their husbands. The items, generally, were not large or expensive and, separately, would not have caused problems to the subjects; but usually, participants bought excessive amounts [4]. In addition, compulsive consumers use credit cards more than ordinary consumers; tend to have more cards but are less likely to pay monthly. According to Black [4], ordinary consumers devote 22% of their income to paying debts (except household and car expenses), while in compulsive consumers, the number reaches 46%.
46.2.9 Psychological and Pharmacological Treatment Regarding psychological treatment, the most effective treatment for compulsive buying disorder seems to be the cognitive behavioral therapy, applied individually and in groups [28, 32]. This therapy aims to interrupt and control the buying behavior, establish healthy buying habits, restructure irrational thoughts and negative emotions linked to buying and develop appropriate coping strategies [31, 32]. Most studies show a significant reduction in the number of episodes and time spend on compulsive buying, whose progress remained six months after the end of this therapy [1, 36]. As far as we could find, the most effective cognitive behavioral therapy techniques documented were exposure with response prevention [3], coping training with negative emotions [34], stimulus control techniques, scheduled exposure to risk situations, solving specific issues, creating a new lifestyle, preventing relapses and cognitive restructuring [16]. Aboujaoude [1] suggests that psychoeducational and family intervention are important in preventing these people from falling into compulsive buying behaviors.
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Regarding pharmacological treatment, according to Marcet et al. [31], there are few clinical trials and most of them were carried out with small and heterogeneous samples, which do not allow therapeutic recommendations. Although there is no specific drug validated by the food and drug administration (FDA), some studies concluded that selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors [25], naltrexone [1, 21] and memantine have shown to be effective in reducing the compulsive consumption symptoms [22].
46.3 Final Remarks Throughout this paper, an integrative review on compulsive buying was carried out. To conclude, we present a summary of the main ideas. Compulsive buying is characterized by a concern with buying, buying more than people can afford or buying unnecessary goods. Compulsive buying and impulsive buying are qualitatively different; the former is a pathology in which the consumer feels extremely hard to control his actions, while the second is a less-pronounced expression of compulsive buying. Higher levels of contingent self-esteem seem to be related with compulsive buying behavior, mainly when individuals experience stressful events [35, 40]. The cause of compulsive buying disorder seems to be unknown, believing that technological, psychological and social factors contribute to its development and maintenance [31, 51]. Regarding epidemiology, the prevalence of compulsive buying remains surrounded by some uncertain [30]. Concerning the diagnosis, some examples are an overwhelming concern about buying or impulses or inappropriate buying behavior, which cause significant suffering, consume time, significantly interfering with social or occupational functioning or leading to financial issues [27, 32, 33, 46, 51]. Family history seems to impact compulsive consumers [20, 49], but it is not known whether the causal mechanism involved in this relationship is genetic or educational. About medical screening, compulsive buying behavior seems to start in late adolescence or early adulthood, although complete disorder can take several years to develop [9, 32]. Finally, some studies concluded that cognitive behavioral therapy, individually and in group [28, 32], selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors [25], naltrexone [1, 21] and memantine [22] can be effective in the treatment of this disorder. Funding This work is financed by national funds through FCT—Foundation for Science and Technology. I.P., within the scope of the project «UIDB/04647/2020» of CICS.NOVA—Centro Interdisciplinar de Ciências Sociais da Universidade Nova de Lisboa.
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Chapter 47
LoopAcademic: Helping the Learning and Teaching of Introductory Programming Dyego Souza, Jarbele Coutinho, and Reudismam de Sousa
Abstract Computer course students tend to have difficulties in introductory programming classes, both with the syntax of the languages and in the development of logical reasoning to solve problems. These difficulties have caused problems for these courses, such as increased of dropout and retention, cancellation of enrollments in classes and, also, in the course, and the need to allocate new teachers to meet the growing demand for students in these classes. In order to assist students in the development of the necessary programming skills to solve problems solved by computers, this work proposes LoopAcademic, a Web environment for learning and teaching introductory programming concepts. To develop this environment, we used a design process based on the students’ needs who experience this context. To evaluate the environment, a usability test was applied, with seven students. The results of the usability test showed the potentials of the environment to help to minimize some of the main problems arising in learning to program presented by students.
47.1 Introduction In undergraduate courses in the computing area, students often present difficulties in classes focused on computer programming [1]. This problem may be related to factors such as the lack of computer programming classes in basic education.These difficulties can cause several problems for institutions of higher education, such as dropout, failures, retention, and the need to allocate new professors to meet the growing demand from students in classes in this theme. D. Souza (B) · J. Coutinho · R. de Sousa Federal University of the Semi-Arid Region, Mossoro, Rio Grande do Norte, Brazil e-mail: [email protected] J. Coutinho e-mail: [email protected] R. de Sousa e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 A. Mesquita et al. (eds.), Perspectives and Trends in Education and Technology, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 256, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5063-5_47
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To minimize such problems, tools have been developed to approximate students to programming activities, seeking to motivate them to learn, such as online judges and Web environments, which allow uninterrupted access to programming content. However, these systems have often been developed for students in general, which can make it difficult to meet the need of specific kinds of students. Queiroz et al. [2] and Café et al. [3] highlight that the use of playful programming environments encourages learning to program. They also emphasize that these environments must guarantee functional correctness and the adequacy of interaction elements their interfaces provide. To enable the use of interventions that can minimize the problems presented by the students, it is necessary to understand their needs and how they can interact appropriately with these interventions. To meet these needs, we propose a Web platform called LoopAcademic, intended to assist professors to create resources aiming to improve students learning and to allow students to interact with the resources, used in introductory programming classes in higher education in the computing area (e.g., resolving programming assignments). The platform offers students study materials consistent with their real difficulties and provides professors with statistical data that demonstrates the learning level of each student in their classes. We evaluated the platform extensively using a human–computer interaction (HCI) approach, which aims to assess the degree of quality of use of a software interface [4]. For this purpose, we use methods, techniques, and guidelines that allow designers to build an interface with a high level of quality. Thus, the sooner designers assess the quality of the interface, the lower the cost of re-design, since the design is directly related to the real needs of the stakeholders. The main work of this work are the following: • The design of a Web platform, using the bottom-up design process proposed by Garret [5], which is guided by stakeholders’ needs. • A set of usability assessments of the proposed platform that are planned, executed, and analyzed along the design process. • Guidelines to the development of platforms that can contribute to improving the quality of educational systems, using usability as the metric, one of the most important acceptance criteria.
47.2 The Platform LoopAcademic We elaborated the platform using Garret [5] design process, which consists of five steps: (1) Strategy: aims to address users’ needs and system goals; (2) Scope: refers to the elicitation of the functional requirements and website content (3) Structure: defines the points of interaction with the Web site and how the information is architected in the system; (4) Skeleton: establishes the design of the interface, the navigation between the pages, and the layout of the Web site information; and (5) Surface: establishes the visual design of the environment.
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Strategy To understand the viability of the platform to support teaching and learning in programming classes, we design a Survey with students, teachers, and monitors of introduction to programming classes and send it from e-mail and social networks1 . We used survey responses to define the functional requirements, which guided the design of the high-fidelity prototypes of the platform and helps to build the design of the usability tests of the platform student module. scope The data collected with the surveys were relevant to elaborate the functional requirements. Concerning content requirements, it includes: programming tasks, supporting material (e.g., video lessons), list of exercises, students’ performance, questions, forums, badges, information to help users in the use of the platform, and developers of the platform. Structure We use the Card Sorting technique to define the information architecture of the platform. The sticky sorting software2 allows us to group the main features obtained in the survey. We organized the functionalities of the platform in seven groups (1) login; (2) exercise lists; (3) supporting material; (4) performance; (5) doubts; (6) forum; (7) emblems. We use each group and its respective functionalities as the basis for the elaboration of the documents of the system requirements: (1) functional and non-functional requirements; (2) use cases. Skeleton Based on the elicited requirements, we defined a low-level fidelity prototype3 to explore aspects of the interface with an initial outline of the features. To this end, we emphasize the main screens since from them it would be possible to model properties of other screens of the LoopAcademic platform.
47.2.1 Surface For the development of high-level fidelity prototypes, we use Adobe XD software. Besides the creation of prototypes, its functionalities allow the animation of screen transitions; view and test prototypes on any device (e.g., Web, Android, and IOS); use timed transitions; and publish and evaluate the prototype before delivery to stakeholders, which facilitates the collection of feedback. High-Level Fidelity Prototype The design of the high-fidelity prototype screens was based on the low-fidelity prototype. Task 01—Logging in. On login screen, the user can enter the system, if he has access credentials, or can create his account. When clicking on “Create my account,” the user is directed to a screen where he can enter their profile (Student, Teacher, or Monitor). This information is important, considering that the system will also have the teacher and monitor modules, as future work. When the user informs that he is 1
Accessible through: https://www.sites.google.com/view/repositorioloopacademic/ Available in : www.chip.de/downloads/StickySorter_49391737.html. 3 Available in: https://www.sites.google.com/view/repositorioloopacademic/. 2
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Fig. 47.1 Screen for the resolution environment of an exercise
a student, he is directed to a screen where he can inform his registration data and, therefore, complete his account subscription. When the student completes the registration and sign-in, he is directed to a welcome screen, in which he informs the code of his class. Upon entering it, he is directed to the main menu, in which he can access the functionalities available in the student module of LoopAcademic. Task 02—Responding Exercises. When choosing exercise list in the main menu, all exercises are presented, and when choosing an exercise, the student is directed to the screen in Fig. 47.1. In addition to the plot and the space for submitting resolutions, the student has access to tips, which comprise: (1) Simplifying the Problem—helps in clarifying the question; (2) Understanding the Syntax—syntax of the instructions to be used in the resolution; (3) Detailed Description—step-by-step to solve the problem, without going into aspects of the programming language. The student also has access to the supporting code, a resolution of a simple problem that makes use of the instructions that the student must apply in his algorithm, and supporting materials. Task 03—Consulting Supporting Material. Students also have access to supporting materials from the main menu, which aim to assist them in subjects they have more difficulty with. Supporting materials is also available from the option “Support Material,” on the exercise resolution screen (see Fig. 47.1). Students can access a series resources on the same theme (see Fig. 47.2): (1) video class; (2) mind map; (3) library, which contains handouts and book recommendations. When choosing a study item, the student is directed to the screen which presents the study environment. As with the exercise resolution environment (see Fig. 47.1), we maintained only information of the area where the student is in, aiming to keep student focused, in a no distraction minimalist environment .
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Fig. 47.2 Supporting material screen—Decision structures
47.3 Evaluation To evaluate the LoopAcademic platform, we use techniques to assess its usability based on HCI principles, which can guide the designer during the design process and can be used to evaluate and criticize prototype ideas [6]. These principles are composed by usability heuristics and have been shown to be useful as an instrument for assessing the quality of interfaces [7]. The usability heuristics, constitute the basis for the usability evaluation and are categorized in: visibility of the system’s status; equality between the system and the real world; freedom and control of the user; consistency and standards; error prevention; flexibility and efficiency of use; esthetic and minimalist design; ease of users to recognize, diagnose, and recover from errors; help and documentation. Also regarding usability evaluation, the commonly adopted methods are divided into two categories: usability tests and usability inspections [9].
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47.3.1 Usability Test and Usability Inspection The usability test (UT) is a user-centered evaluation done with end-users, intending to analyze their interactions with the software [10]. It is applicable if there is an implementation of the system in some format, such as prototypes, usage scenarios, and complete software [9]. UT can be done with methods such as: observation-based techniques, question-based techniques, evaluation through monitoring physiological responses, and experimental evaluation [11]. The usability inspection is an evaluation that does not require end-users, since HCI inspectors evaluate the application to find interface violations [11][9]. Based on identified violations, improvements are made to eliminate aspects that damage usability. The usability inspection includes methods, such as heuristic evaluation, walkthrough cognitive, and guidelines and checklist [11]. It is worth noting that usability tests are more costly than usability inspections, as they demand time from users and, in some cases, the use of adequate spaces to carry out the evaluation, such as specific laboratories. These negative aspects are compensated when considering its greater effectiveness in the evaluation since the experience of the end-user is considered [9].
47.3.2 Execution of the Usability Test To assess the usability of the high-fidelity prototype, we performed UT in three stages: (1) level of correct answers when performing certain tasks; (2) time of accomplishment of each task; (3) affective quality of the interface, with the application of the scale Self-Assessment Manikin (SAM) [12]. We selected seven strategic tasks for the first stage of UT, which allowed the exploration of the platform’s features: Task 01: perform a login in the platform; Task 02: answer exercise 07 on Exercise List 02— Decision Structures; Task 03: consult supporting material about decision structures; Task 04: consult student’s performance in the resolution of the List of Exercises 02—Decision Structures; Task 05: send doubts about the resolution of a particular task or other subjects; Task 06: reply to a topic in the forum; Task 07: consult obtained emblems. For each task, we defined a fictitious scenario to guide its accomplishment. Each scenario had the minimum of details, as the aim was to allow the user to explore the prototype. After completing each task, we question participants about their level of correct answers. The level of correct answers measures the number of users who successfully accomplished a task [13]. To this end, we adopted the criteria: (1) SuccessEasy, in which the user claims to have completed the task on his first attempt; (2) Success-Difficult, in which the user claims to have completed the task with difficulty; (3) Failure, in which the user claims that he was unable to complete the task or has quitted before completing it.
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Fig. 47.3 SAM scale (from Lang [12]
In the second stage of the UT, we timed the completion of each task performed by the user and then recorded it. In the third stage of the UT, we use SAM scale, which considers dimensions: (1) Satisfaction—measures the level of pleasure/displeasure; (2) Control—measures the level of control—the user informs whether he felt controlled or under control; (3) Motivation—measures how much the user felt motivated. In Fig. 47.3a–c presents, respectively, scales for the Satisfaction, Control, and Motivation dimensions. We apply UT using an online questionnaire and observe respondents. Participation was voluntary. During the tests, we presented tasks and informed them how to answer the questionnaire. We only clarify doubts that do not compromise the UT. We collected the comments and errors of the participants.
47.4 Analysis and Discussion of Results We performed the usability tests with seven students enrolled in an algorithms class of a computing course. Level of hits For Task 02, 03, 04, and 05, one student (14.3%) claimed SuccessDifficult, while the others ones (85.7 %) claimed Success-Easy. All students claimed Success-Easy for Task 01, 07, and 08. The reasons that led to the student’s difficulty were provided directly on the form. However, we observed students when performing the tasks and collected other defects see Table 47.1. For all the errors, Task 04—Consult student’s performance obtained the highest percentage of errors (40%), while the others obtained each one 20 %. Execution Time Table 47.2 shows the execution times for the tasks of each user. The timed periods are organized in the format minutes:seconds:milliseconds. The longest time recorded (5:28:06) occurred with User 01 (U01) when executing Task 02 (T02)—Answer Exercise. This delay is justified since this task is one of the main tasks that students perform, which, consequently, demands a greater level of exploration of the aspects present in the interface.
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Table 47.1 Defects identified in the usability test No. Task 01
Task 02
02
Task 03
03
Task 04
04
Task 04
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Task 05
Table 47.2 Time intervals for each task. Tasks User U01 U02 U03 T01 T02 T03 T04 T05 T06 T09 Total
1:35:36 5:28:06 2:13:07 1:59:01 2:00:32 1:29:30 0:50:35 15:36:27
2:01:14 1:27:31 1:18:26 2:48:46 0:39:29 1:24:36 1:08:46 10:48:48
1:38:32 3:40:23 1:40:07 1:03:24 0:59:18 1:29:56 1:35:32 12:07:12
Defect description One user does not differentiate the “Submit” and “Save” buttons The navigation of supporting material items was not clear to one user One user claimed difficulties in understanding the data All users thought the exercises in a table was clickable One user found it difficult to locate the menu item to send a doubt
U04
U05
U06
U07
1:56:24 1:55:35 3:34:58 2:20:11 0:58:20 1:38:44 1:34:38 13:58:50
1:12:29 3:58:19 2:07:14 0:58:18 0:42:34 1:44:26 0:27:32 11:10:52
0:43:04 2:11:50 1:14:13 0:42:10 0:35:23 1:07:03 0:44:36 7:18:19
0:43:00 1:56:53 2:15:27 1:28:49 1:01:02 1:12:29 1:00:20 9:38:00
The second and third longest recorded times (3:58:19 and 3:40:23, respectively) also occurred during the execution of Task 02 (T02) with users U05 and U03, respectively. The times required to perform the task by the two users reinforce what was said in the evaluation of Task T02. Moreover, the shortest time recorded (0:27:32) occurred with User U05 during Task T09—Consult Emblem. This event is justified due to the small scope of this task, which did not require much effort to perform it. The second and third shortest times recorded (0:35:23 and 0:42:10, respectively) occurred during the execution of Tasks T05—Submit Doubts and T04—Consult Student’s Performance. The time interval between the longest and the shortest times can reflect possible difficulties in the interface. The time interval for Task T02 stands out, which showed a high time interval (approx. 4:01). This indicates the need to adapt the interface of Task 02, considering that a user demanded a lot of time to perform it. Tasks T03 and
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T04 also need attention since they have presented a reasonable time interval (approx. 2:21 and 2:06, respectively). Affective Quality We adopt the strategy proposed by Valentim [13], which consists of counting the votes for the screens evaluated in each task and their subsequent classification through the votes obtained by the SAM scale and classified in: (1) positive, votes marked to the right of the central column of each of the three dimensions (Satisfaction, Control, and Motivation); (2) neutral, votes marked in the central column of each dimension; (3) negative, votes marked to the left of the central column of each dimension. Then, add them up and account for them in an in-depth result of the analyzed scope. Concerning Satisfaction, Feeling of Control, and Motivation of Users regarding the high-fidelity prototype, the results obtained were positive for almost all screens— except for the screens of Task 01, which presented two neutral assessments for the Satisfaction and Motivation dimensions, and a negative evaluation for the Control dimension. The neutral evaluations for the screens that compose Task 01—Perform Login— reflect a student’s opinion, who justified his neutral assessment for the Satisfaction dimension due to the amount of text on the welcome screen and the neutral assessment for the Motivation dimension due to the formality of the registration screen, which did not motivate him to complete the registration.
47.5 Related Work Many works have been proposed to help in programming [14, 15]. Among them, Alves [16] propose Feeper, a tool to support programming classes, which provides: personalized feedback, a result panel of the students’ exercises, tips on errors in student programs, and allowing students to send doubts to the teacher. Paes et al. [17] performed a study on the Web platform The Huxley, which is used to support the evaluation of student learning in computer programming classes. It provides exercises and allows students to submit program assignment resolutions in different programming languages, among other features. Chaves et al. [18] propose a tool to assist students in the learning of computer programming subjects, with a focus on the elaboration, submission, and correction of programming assignments. They developed a tool to automate the process of elaborating, submitting, and correcting practical programming activities, called MOJO, aiming to integrate modules of online judges. Selivon et al. [19] present the academic module of the URI Online Judge, which aims to assist teachers in programming classes, allowing them to monitor the evolution and performance of their students. This work differs from the cited ones since it present and discusses strategies to model the educational platform, and it also presents its usability evaluation.
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47.6 Conclusion This work presented the project to develop a Web platform for the teaching and learning process in introductory to programming classes. The results obtained for each stage of the research revealed that: (1) the data obtained with the survey allowed to evaluate the scope of the work, providing useful information for eliciting the requirements—functional and usability of LoopAcademic; (2) the personas contributed to the development of the prototype, as they established two different views of the student’s profile—view of a novice student and his difficulties, and view of an unapproved student and his difficulties; (3) the prototypes helped in visualizing the functional and usability requirements informed by the students and helped in the validation of these features, when the usability tests were performed; (4) the choice for the usability test as a way to evaluate the usability of the prototype of the student module of the LoopAcademic allowed to evaluate aspects related to usability, with results that showed evaluations at their maximum, as in the case of the scale SAM— which received almost all the maximum scores for dimensions Satisfaction, Control and Motivation. Finally, it is intended to do as future works the following: (1) the application of usability inspection to the developed prototypes, to validate the proposed features; (2) the prototyping of the professor and monitor modules, considering that it was not possible to develop and validate them in this research; (3) the implementation of the student, teacher, and monitor modules, based on the results obtained with the usability tests; (4) the pedagogical and functional evaluation of the modules developed; (5) case studies using the LoopAcademic. Acknowledgements We would like to thank the researches groups LIS and LABIE for supporting this work and the Federal University of the Semi-Arid Region (UFERSA) for funding this research, PROPPG grant N 12/2020.
References 1. Rolim, R., Leite, F.T., de Oliveira Guimara es A., de Oliveira AR.: Pre-algoritmos - açães de apoio á melhoria do ensino de graduação. Braz. J. Dev. 6(3), 12625–12635 (2020) 2. Queiroz, J.V., Rodrigues, L.M., Coutinho, J.C.: Um relato dos fatores motivacionais na aprendizagem de programação na perspectiva de alunos iniciantes em programação da universidade federal rural do semi-Árido campus pau dos ferros-rn. In: III Encontro do Oeste Potiguar, ECOP’18, pp. 90–96. ECOP (2018) 3. Café, M., Costa, F., Silva, V., Terra, D.: Lord of code: Uma ferramenta de apoio ao ensino da programação. Braz. Symp. Comput. Educ. 27(1), 1316 (2016) 4. Barbosa, S., Silva, B.: Interação Humano-Computador. Elsevier, Brasil, 2010 5. Garrett, J.J.: The Elements of User Experience: User-Centered Design for the Web and Beyond. Voices That Matter. Pearson Education (2010) 6. Benyon, D.: Interação Humano-computador. Pearson, Brazil (2011) 7. Coelho, O., Santoro, D.: A sinergia entre as heurísticas de usabilidade de software e as heurísticas de ensino - aprendizagem do ponto de vista da educação á distância mediada pela web.
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Braz. Symp. Comput. Educ. (Simpósio Brasileiro de InformÂtica na Educao - SBIE) 1(1), 273–281 (2002) Jakob N. Heuristic Evaluation, page 25–62. John Wiley & Sons Inc, USA, 1994 M. Matera, M. F. Costabile, F. Garzotto, and P. Paolini. Sue inspection: an effective method for systematic usability evaluation of hypermedia. IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics: Systems and Humans, 32(1), 93–103, 2002 da Rocha, H.V., Baranauskas, M.C.: Design e Avaliação de Interfaces Humano-Computador, pp. 1–244. NIED, UNICAMP, Campinas, Brasil (2003) Valentim, N.M.C.: Antecipando a Usabilidade nas Fases Iniciais do Processo de Desenvolvimento de Software, pp. 1–249. Instituto de Computação, Universidade Federal do Amazonas - UFAM, Manaus, Brasil (2017) Lang, P. : Behavioral treatment and bio-behavioral assessment: computer applications. In: Sidowski, J.B., Johnson, J.H., Williams, T.A. (eds.) Technology in Mental Health Care Delivery Systems, pp. 119–137. Ablex, Norwood, NJ (1980) Malveira, N., Valentim, C., Nascimento, E., Conte, T.: Evaluating usability during the web application development process. In: Proceedings of the 17th Brazilian Symposium on Software Quality, SBQS, pp. 250–258. Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA D. Radoevi´c, T. Orehovacki, and A. Lovrencic. Verificator: Educational tool for learning programming. Informatics Educ., 8:261–280, 2009 Gupta, S., Gupta, A.: E-assessment tools for programming languages: a review. In: ICITKM (2017) Alves, F.P: Um Ambiente Virtual com Feedback Personalizado para Apoio a Disciplinas de Programação, pp. 1–45. Universidade do Vale do Rio dos Sinos - UNISINOS, Sáo Leopoldo, Brasil (2014) Paes e, R., Malaquias e, R., Guimarães e, M., Almeida, H.: Ferramenta para a avaliação de aprendizado de alunos em programação de computadores. Anais dos Workshops do Congresso Brasileiro de Informática na Educação, 2(1) (2013) Chaves J.O.M., Castro, A.F., Lima, R.W., Lima, M.V.A., Ferreira, K.H.A.: Uma Ferramenta de Auxílio á Elaboração, Submissão e Correção de Atividades em Disciplinas de Programação. In Workshop de Ens. em Inf., WEI’13 (2013) Selivon, M., Bezerra, J., Tonin, N.: Uri online judge academic: Integração e consolidação da ferramenta no processo de ensino/aprendizagem. In Workshop sobre Educação em Computação, pp. 188–195. Porto Alegre, RS, Brasil (2015)
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3D Virtual Training System for a Bioreactor Using Hardware-in-the-Loop Kevin J. Gutiérrez, Jimmy J. Pilicita, César A. Naranjo, and Víctor H. Andaluz Abstract This paper simulates a 3D virtual environment of a bioreactor based on the teaching-learning process in the engineering area. Using the Hardware-in-theLoop simulation technique, the simulator was developed in the Unity 3D graphic engine, which is oriented to maintain in optimal conditions the variables involved in the process, such as: Biomass, recirculated biomass, dissolved oxygen, and chemical oxygen demand, the latter being the controlled variable. For the implemented simulator, traditional control techniques and modern control techniques are considered in order to evaluate the behavior of the variables. In order to give realism to the bioreactor, the hardware-in-the-Loop simulation technique is implemented in a low-cost hardware device, where the mathematical model of the process will be (On hardware-in-the-loop simulation. In 44th IEEE Conference on Decision and Control, and the European Control Conference, Seville, Spain), while the control algorithm is implemented in the mathematical software Matlab. Finally, the stability analysis is performed having the variables in their optimal operating points, as well as the good performance of the controllers in the presence of disturbances.
48.1 Introduction The twenty-first century has faced different types of problems worldwide. From the depletion of non-renewable resources to facing climate change and pandemics. K. J. Gutiérrez · J. J. Pilicita (B) · C. A. Naranjo · V. H. Andaluz Universidad de Las Fuerzas Armadas ESPE, Sangolquí, Ecuador e-mail: [email protected] K. J. Gutiérrez e-mail: [email protected] C. A. Naranjo e-mail: [email protected] V. H. Andaluz e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 A. Mesquita et al. (eds.), Perspectives and Trends in Education and Technology, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 256, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5063-5_48
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These problems have had an effect on the change of patterns of various processes such as the educational model or employment. Due to this, several professions have been disappearing to give way to new ones, as well as technologies have evolved accelerating technological development [1], so today we speak of industry 4.0 which provides continuous improvement in technological processes while allowing the emergence of new innovations in the field of automation, digitization, and the internet of things [2], within these fields virtual reality has had an important significance in the industry. This allows a state of immersion to the user experiencing contact between the real and virtual world, this connection is given by haptic devices that receive and send information [3]. The benefits of virtual reality to society are many: in the tourism field, it allows showing immersive spaces that provide tourists with unique experiences [4]. In the medical field, it can help in the treatment of Alzheimer’s disease, to combat phobias, as well as help patients in the recovery process of injuries. In the industrial field, the development of manufacturing industry simulators prevents occupational hazards. In the architectural field, it allows the accurate evaluation of designs before they are built. In the educational field, it represents a teaching method that aids rapid learning capacity and promotes self-learning [5, 6]. In recent times, teaching in engineering has been accompanied by the use of virtual environments, due to the fact that such training is related to the concept of experiential learning. Virtual reality offers quite useful resources, which also leads to lower costs and risks both personal and equipment, there is no need to acquire physical equipment that is sometimes expensive [7, 8]. Thus, the use of 3D virtual environments allows simulating industrial work environments, in which operators or students can train and develop skills before interacting with the real industry [9, 10]. That is why in this situation a type of simulation that has gained great notoriety and applicability is the known Hardware-in-the-Loop (HIL) is one of the lowest cost alternatives that allows the user to simulate plants or control systems in real time, this is how the proposal to develop a HIL environment for monitoring and control of an activated sludge bioreactor in wastewater treatment arises. The HIL will consider the mathematical model of the bioreactor which is a central part of a bioprocess because it provides a link between the initial raw material and the product, bioreactors are vessels that provide a controlled environment that allows the efficient growth of cells and the formation of a product, they are traditionally used in the industrial fermentation process, manufacture of biological products such as food processing, in the biological treatment of waste [11]. This paper presents the development of a 3D virtual training system that allows to monitor and control the variables involved in the activated sludge bioreactor. Therefore, the mathematical model that represents the bioreactor behavior is considered, and the Hardware-in-the-Loop technique is implemented to evaluate control algorithms such as PID and fuzzy control, in order to analyze the behavior of the system.
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48.2 System Structure The development of the 3D virtual training system of a bioreactor is implemented so that the user, who is immersed in the virtual environment, interacts with a realistic industrial process, and at the same time is a training tool in the educational field that allows acquiring or strengthening the knowledge of the student or operator. Therefore, the virtual experiment is a sample of the physical experiment, ensuring an effective culmination of the handling of the process in future practical operations. The proposed virtualization of the activated sludge bioreactor is developed using CAD computer aided design techniques for piping design, as well as using SolidWorks software for the creation of certain process components such as centrifugal pumps, transmitters, all these designs should be exported with the extension. FBX extension because it is a Unity 3D compatible file. Also included are particular animations that are hosted in the Unity 3D software which allows the management of the movements, surround sound is also included in certain equipment of the process, in order to provide greater realism. All the above mentioned corresponds to the Unity 3D design of the virtual environment. The programming codes that are housed in the scripts are the ones that allow the communication link between Matlab and Unity 3D and the shared memories are the ones that provide the data transfer of the variables that change in the virtual environment. The Matlab software, which has high performance mathematical computation, is where the control algorithms that receive data in real time and are processed, for which the controlled variable (Chemical Oxygen Demand) is monitored from an HMI, generating control actions in case of disturbances or changes in set points, which allows maintaining the variables in their optimal points (Fig. 48.1).
48.3 Hardware-in-the-Loop Structure The proposed HIL scheme consists of three main stages [12], see Fig. 48.2. (1) Target hardware: The control algorithms designed in the previous section are implemented. The proposed control algorithms will be implemented in Matlab software. (2) Mathematical model: Based on the dynamic equations that determine the behavior of the bioreactor it is possible to represent in a first order system with delay, resulting in the mathematical model of the bioreactor which will be implemented in a low-cost Raspberry Pi embedded card. (3) Industrial virtual environment: At this stage, the virtual environment is implemented, which is a water treatment plant and its purpose is that the user is immersed in the virtual environment allowing to interact with a realistic industrial process, and at the same time it is a tool that allows to acquire or strengthen the knowledge of the operator or student [13].
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Fig. 48.1 System structure
Fig. 48.2 Hardware-in-the-loop structure
48.4 Modeling and Control 48.4.1 Modeling The realism of the virtual environment can be represented with the help of the mathematical model validated in [14], so that the dynamic behavior of the process can be
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represented in a first order system with delay. For which the sludge discharge flow is regulated by the valve position and the Chemical Oxygen Demand which is related to a transmitter. Therefore for the identification of parameters of the mathematical model is done by Smith’s method, once a step signal is introduced in the manipulated variable of the process (valve position) to later verify the output signal of the transmitter, determining the values that is the time constant, the time delay, the gain of the system in steady state, when the output signal reached 28.3 and 63.2% of the final value [15]. K e−Ls Y (s) = u(s) τs + 1
(48.1)
Once the variables that make up the first order function with delay have been calculated, the transfer function is obtained. It is worth mentioning that the mathematical model obtained does not represent the dynamic behavior of a real bioreactor. 0.4228106607e−1.157991924s Y (s) = u(s) 4.953257121s + 1
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The results obtained in the validation of the model are shown in Fig. 48.3, showing the tracking with an input signal different from the one obtained for parameter identification, where MV represents the validated model, MC represents the calculated model and MI is the model obtained by the optimization method.
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48.4.2 Controller Design In the design of the virtual environment, control algorithms are evaluated in order to consider the behavior of the process, therefore, it is important to mention that in this section two control strategies are considered: PID Control and Fuzzy Control. PID Control Immediately determined the transfer function that generates the behavior of the process, the constants involved in the PID controller are determined, in which the block diagram of the conventional PID controller is shown in Fig. 48.4 where is the sludge flow input, is the mathematical model of the process, and is the output flow, for the adjustment of the PID constants is developed by fine tuning methods, considering the following equations [16]. The equations for PID control are shown in their general equation and in their Rectangular Approximation form for implementation in Matlab software. Kp u(t) = K p e(t) + Ti u(n) = K p e(n) + K i T
t e(t) + K p Td
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where the controller is composed of: is the proportional constant, is the integral constant, is the derivative constant and is the error signal of the flow process. Diffuse Control The fuzzy control is a modern controller, the block diagram of the fuzzy controller is shown in Fig. 48.5 where is the input sludge flow, is the mathematical model of the process, and is the output flow, for the fuzzy control has to go through three stages which are: the fuser is where the linguistic rules involved, fuzzy control performs an evaluation of the rules, and defusifier converts the linguistic rules into a numerical value to enter the process. For the design of the controller, the Matlab software is used where Fig. 48.6 consists of 2 inputs, an error signal which is generated between the set point and the
Fig. 48.4 PID control block diagram
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Fig. 48.5 Fuzzy control block diagram
Fig. 48.6 General scheme of the fuzzy system
measurement of the controlled variable, another signal derived from the error, these inputs are transmitted to the controller rules obtaining an output signal that acts on the manipulated variable. The fuzzy controller is composed of 49 rules which are a product of the observation, the behavior of the plant, and above all are responsible for controlling the response of the controller with minimum errors [17]. Figure 48.7 shows the evolution of the different control algorithms applied to the water treatment plant, SP monitoring tests are performed in different ranges of
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operation that the plant works in order to analyze the responses of each controller, and responses to disturbances such as temperature, where we conclude that the PID controller is more efficient than the Fuzzy controller. The errors obtained in the implemented control algorithms are shown in Fig. 48.7, the error response of the PID control at certain values is very large thus affecting the control and unlike the fuzzy control the control response is minimal giving a non-aggressive control response and having a more efficient control.
48.5 Results In Fig. 48.8 the implementation of the Hardware-in-the-Loop technique is presented, for which a Core I7 main computer is considered where the control algorithms are located, while the mathematical model of the bioreactor is implemented in a 4 Gb Raspberry Pi card. Finally, an Xbee card is used for bidirectional communication between the equipment. The following are the results of the virtualization of a bioreactor, the 3D virtual environment will be a virtual training system in the engineering area. Allowing the user to be immersed in the process through the different stages that correspond to the bioreactor where the behavior of the different variables will be visualized, as well as the evolution of the proposed control algorithms. Figure 48.9 shows an overview of the development of the interface in the Unity 3D graphic engine, the different stages are explained below. The first stage, called pretreatment of the water, is the place where the influent to be treated is stored in a pool containing a grid, which prevents the passage of
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Fig. 48.8 Implementation of the hardware-in-the-loop technique
Fig. 48.9 Schematic of the bioreactor virtual environment
the different heavy wastes that come along with the influent, this is done with the objective of preventing future clogging in later stages, see Fig. 48.10. The grease trap stage is a process that separates the grease and oils contained in the influent to be treated, because the density of the grease is lower than that of the water, the surface of the pool will maintain the grease content allowing the flow to the bioreactor of only the water to be treated, see Fig. 48.11. In this stage, also known as aeration tank, fine bubble diffusers blow air into the water so that the organic matter degrades the pollutant feedstock, allowing it to be converted into Dissolved Oxygen Concentrations, Biomass, and Substrate. see Fig. 48.12.
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Fig. 48.10 Pretreatment pool
Fig. 48.11 Grease trap pool
In this process, the clarifier has the objective of separating the water and the sludge by sedimentation. Due to the effect of gravity, the sludge will be located in the lower part of the pool and will also be recirculated to the aeration tank, while the water is located in the upper part. See Fig. 48.13. As a final stage of the wastewater treatment process, each of the pools that give final products to the treated water and the pool where the sludge waste will be stored is shown. See Fig. 48.14.
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Fig. 48.12 Aeration process
Fig. 48.13 Clarification process
There is also an HMI panel where the different graphs of the variables involved in the process are shown, the HMI allows the reference change of the Chemical Oxygen Demand allowing to observe how it evolves over time, the behavior of the implemented control algorithms, it is also possible to enter disturbances to the process thus providing greater realism to the virtual environment. Figure 48.15 shows the behavior of the PID control algorithm presenting a rapid response in the reference change in the graph that presents the substrate concentration, also in the presence of a sudden change in the position of the valve generating deterioration in the element.
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Fig. 48.14 Sludge and treated water pool
Fig. 48.15 HMI and panel of the system variables graphs
While when using the Fuzzy algorithm it presents a slow response but does not present abrupt changes in the valve position.
48.6 Conclusions The virtual environment of the bioreactor fulfills its function as a tool for the teaching and learning process in the engineering area, which provides useful features to the operator or student immersed in the environment with the possibility of performing a virtual tour through the different stages of the process. The dynamic behavior of the bioreactor that was represented in an equation is reflected in the realism of the process,
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in addition in the implementation of the control techniques it was possible to verify that they have an optimal performance before changes of reference or disturbances that are generated in the execution of the process, allowing in this way to maintain in the optimal points the variables and to observe how they evolve in the time. In the virtual training system, it can be highlighted that there are several advantages such as, the familiarization of the process stages, the creation of safe situations in critical processes in order to help in several aspects that are important, for example: industrial safety, a high increase in the productivity of the process, operator training, etc. Acknowledgments The authors would like to thank the Coorporación Ecuatoriana para el Desarrollo de la Investigación y Academia CEDIA for their contribution in innovation, through the CEPRA projects, especially the project CEPRA-XIV-2020-08-RVA “Tecnologías Inmersivas Multi-Usuario Orientadas a Sistemas Sinérgicos de Enseñanza-Aprendizaje”; also the Universidad de las Fuerzas Armadas ESPE and the Research Group ARSI, for the support for the development of this work.
References 1. Makarova, I., Khabibullin, R., Belyaev, E., Bogateeva, A.: The application of virtual reality technologies in engineering education for the automotive industry. In: 2015 International Conference on Interactive Collaborative Learning (ICL), Firenze, Italy, pp. 536. IEEE (2015) 2. Krupnova, T., Rakova, O., Lut, A., Yudina, E., Shefer, E., Bulanova, A.: Virtual reality in environmental education for manufacturing sustainability in Industry 4.0. In: 2020 Global Smart Industry Conference (GloSIC), Chelyabinsk, Russia, p. 87. IEEE (2020) 3. De Paolis, L.T., Bourdot, P. (eds.): AVR 2019. LNCS, vol. 11613. Springer, Cham (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-25965-5 4. Teneda, F.I., Villacís, J.I., Espinosa, E.G., Andaluz V.H.: Conversational agent for industrial processes through virtual environments. In: Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing, vol. 1368. Springer, Cham (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-72654-6_21 5. Interprika: https://interprika.com. Last accessed 28 Feb 2021 6. Ortiz, J.S., et al.: Virtual training for industrial automation processes through pneumatic controls. In: Lecture Notes in Computer Science, vol. 10851. Springer, Cham (2018). https:// doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-95282-6_37 7. De Paolis, L.T., Bourdot, P. (eds.): AVR 2020. LNCS, vol. 12243. Springer, Cham (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58468-9_20 8. Capece, N., Erra U.: StreamFlowVR: a tool for learning methodologies and measurement instruments for river flow through virtual reality. In: De Paolis (ed.) 6th International Conference AVR 2019, LNCS 11614. Springer, Italy (2019) 9. Romo, J.N., Tipantasi, G., Andaluz, V.: Virtual training on pumping stations for drinking water supply systems. In: De Paolis (ed.) 6th International Conference AVR 2019, LNCS 11614. Springer, Italy (2019) 10. Yugcha, E., Ubilluz, J., Andaluz, V.: Virtual training on pumping stations for drinking water supply systems. In: De Paolis (ed.) 6th International Conference AVR 2019, LNCS 11614. Springer, Italy (2019) 11. Chen, Z.: Dynamics of mathematical models for bioreactors. In: 2017 Bulletin of the Australian Mathematical Society, Australia, pp. 519–520 12. Ortiz, J.S., Palacios-Navarro, G., Andaluz, V.H., Guevara, B.S.: Virtual reality-based framework to simulate control algorithms for robotic assistance and rehabilitation tasks through a standing wheelchair. Sensors 21(15), 5083 (2021). https://doi.org/10.3390/s21155083
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13. Zhao, L., Tian, H.: Hardware-in-the-loop simulation system for process control. In: 2018 IEEE International Conference on Mechatronics and Automation (ICMA), Changchun. IEEE (2018) 14. Martinez, S., Morales, M., Stability analysis of an activated sludge bioreactor at a petrochemical plant at different temperatures. Int. J. Chem. Reactor Eng. 3, 1–9 (2005) 15. Zambrano, J., Bermeo, D., Naranjo, C., Andaluz, J.: Multi-user virtual system for training of the production and bottling process of soft drinks. In: 15th Iberian Conference on Information Systems and Technologies (CISTI), Seville, Spain. IEEE (2020) 16. Ang, K.H., Chong, G., Li, Y.: PID control system analysis, design, and technology. IEEE Trans. Control Syst. Technol. 13(4), 559–576 (2005). IEEE 17. Zhou, Y., Qi, B., Huang, S., Jia, Z.: Fuzzy PID controller for FOPDT system based on a hardware-in-the-loop simulation. In: 2018 37th Chinese Control Conference (CCC), Wuhan, China. IEEE (2018) 18. Bacic, M.: On hardware-in-the-loop simulation. In: 44th IEEE Conference on Decision and Control, and the European Control Conference, Seville, Spain, p. 3194. IEEE (2005)
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Level Process Control with Different Tank Configurations: Hardware-in-the-Loop Technique Gissela F. Lozada, Jazmín K. Pruna, César A. Naranjo, and Víctor H. Andaluz Abstract This paper presents a virtual laboratory of industrial processes focused on level variable, where nonlinear MIMO advanced control algorithms are implemented based on the determined mathematical model, using Hardware-in-the-Loop simulation technique. An immersive and interactive virtual environment is presented in the Unity 3D graphic engine, where different tank configurations are shown for the monitoring, visualization, and control of the process control states, which consequently brings the user closer to the industrial field in a dynamic approach; in addition, virtual reality is used as a tool for facilitating the teaching and learning about control. Thus, a low-cost solution is provided to evaluate control algorithms; in addition, simulation results for each controller are included, as well as the stability and robustness analysis of the system. Hardware-in-the-Loop technique and virtual environment allow to observe the behavior of control errors in a level process; finally, it is determined that advanced controllers provide greater efficiency than conventional control techniques.
49.1 Introduction Control systems are found in the food and chemical process industry, in satellite technology, military, in extreme machinery and in domestic application technology. These systems have achieved a high level of sophistication through electronics, computing, G. F. Lozada (B) · J. K. Pruna · C. A. Naranjo · V. H. Andaluz Universidad de las Fuerzas Armadas ESPE, Sangolquí, Ecuador e-mail: [email protected] J. K. Pruna e-mail: [email protected] C. A. Naranjo e-mail: [email protected] V. H. Andaluz e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 A. Mesquita et al. (eds.), Perspectives and Trends in Education and Technology, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 256, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5063-5_49
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and signal transmission systems [1]. The most frequently controlled variables in industry are flow, pressure, temperature, and level. Level control is considered as an essential and highly utilized process in industrial processes. It has a large number of parameters that are necessary for its control and representation, which encourages researchers to develop improvements to the system and create new studies [2]. For example, Bieda et al. [3] present three cascaded tank configurations, used as tools for teaching the implementation of controllers; however, it allows the design, evaluation, and comparison of different controllers. It has been possible to automate and control processes through different control algorithms both classical and advanced, and some of the most commonly used classical control techniques are PI, PD, and PID controllers. A great benefit of the PID controller is its ease of design and application [4]. There are complex nonlinear and multiple input/output processes in industries that cannot be optimally controlled by classical control algorithms, something that was solved by advanced control techniques [5]. Some of these techniques are fuzzy control, based on numerical methods control and model-based predictive control (MPC). The MPC control is one of the most successful advanced control algorithms, and given the strategy control action is found by an optimization criterion evaluated in a future time interval [6]. Using Hardware-in-the-Loop technique reduces costs and risky situations, since it is based on an interactive simulation and it is experienced with a process or controller running on a digital platform that interacts with the controller or real process [7, 8]. One of the main benefits of this technique is the cost reduction; furthermore, it decreases the percentage of accident or injury risk that may occur in a real system [9]. Virtual reality is usually defined as a group of technologies that allow to experience a world beyond reality in an immersive form [10]. Through virtual reality, the aim is to transfer skills and knowledge, as well as to raise the presence and the level of realism to the maximum [11]. Consequently, physical and virtual reality have increasingly merged [5]. In a study accomplished by Berg and Vance [10], a survey was applied to 18 companies that use virtual reality, to evaluate the state of the art in this field, the results showed that it works, and it is stable and moreover useful. A virtual environment can provide a space for the user to explore problems and test solutions without any risk [11]. In the surveys performed by Berg and Vance [10], it was determined that several of the large US companies have opted in virtual reality as a training method for operators, since it allows experimentation and exploration in environments that in real life could be dangerous. In the present research, advanced controllers MPC and based on numerical methods are implemented for level control in different tank configurations, and the process will be simulated using Hardware-in-the-Loop technique and animated through a 3D virtual environment, which allows to evaluate the operation of the controllers. The paper consists of six sections, including the introduction, the description of the system in section two, then mathematical model obtaining of each tank configuration is presented in section three, the designs of the nonlinear MIMO algorithms control are presented in section four; MPC and numerical methods-based control, the development of a virtual environment in the Unity 3D graphics engine are detailed
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in the fifth section, while the analysis and results are shown in the sixth section, and finally the conclusions are presented.
49.2 System Description Evaluating control algorithms using physical prototypes represent a high cost; in addition, it is subjected to failures and risks in certain conditions, Hardware-in-theLoop real-time simulation technique is frequently used in the execution of laboratory tests that can be of control equipment, as well as of power, among others [12]. The HIL technique reduces costs and risks in the evaluation of controllers, bringing the variable to test conditions that cannot be executed in physical prototypes. In order to develop the behavior of the level process, the system of Fig. 49.1 is implemented. The proposed scheme can be subdivided into three main stages: (1) Destination hardware: nonlinear MIMO advanced control algorithms are designed based on the mathematical model of each level tank configuration using MATLAB software; (2) Mathematical model: the mathematical modeling of each tank configuration is considered separately, which is expressed in mathematical equations that determine their dynamic behavior, and each mathematical model is implemented in a Raspberry Pi card; (3) Virtual Industrial Environment: This module incorporates the design of an immersive and interactive virtual environment for the visualization, monitoring, and control of the process, taking into account the fundamental parameters to implement a virtual laboratory of industrial processes in the Unity 3D graphic engine.
Fig. 49.1 Control scheme
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49.3 Virtual Environment The use of Unity 3D graphics engine has been extended to engineering and control applications, in which industrial environments are simulated with a high level of realism through animations, sounds, lighting, etc., as shown in Fig. 49.2. This section explains in detail the development of the virtual environment (see Fig. 49.3), where the scenario of a virtual laboratory identical to the real operations of the process is recreated, four tank configurations are presented, which the user can interact with in order to visualize, monitor, and control level process variables. The level tank stations of the virtual environment are designed with the interaction of some programs focused on the design of industrial structures in 3D. Structures of the system are designed through Autocad Plant 3D software where all the components must be taken into account in the design of the structures are identified. The elements designed in the Plant 3D software contain a .dwg extension,
Fig. 49.2 Exterior view of virtual laboratory of level processes
Fig. 49.3 Descripción detallada del entorno virtual
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and therefore they are imported into SketchUp software in order to export in the .fbx format to be supported by Unity 3D. Figure 49.4 shows the level tank configurations in 3D. The level tank configurations were designed in different software, in order to represent the same attributes that an industrial process possesses in real life, which are imported to the Unity 3D graphics engine (Fig. 49.5). Figure 49.6 shows the internal part of the virtual process laboratory, where a virtual assistant is presented to increase the degree of immersion in the virtual environment, which provides the user information about the parameters that can be modified in each configuration of the level tanks while simulation is running. Through the use of scripts, particular characteristics are programmed, actions are executed and properties of the elements are modified in order to develop animations
Fig. 49.4 Designed structures en Autocad Plant 3D
Fig. 49.5 Quadruple tanks by 3D unity
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Fig. 49.6 Virtual environment by 3D unity
of the tanks that imitate the behavior of a real system, including risk test situations such as spills (see Fig. 49.7), this facilitates the understanding of the user about the operation of controllers for coupled tanks, providing an experience close to an industrial environment. Figure 49.8 shows the HMI interface, where it is possible to interact with the values of the set points and disturbance valves, the value of the tanks, and the control actions are displayed.
Fig. 49.7 Spill simulation
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Fig. 49.8 HMI interface
49.4 Mathematical Modeling This section presents the mathematical modeling of four tank configurations in order to represent the dynamic behavior of the level processes in virtual human-user environment. The mathematical model is determined based on the input being the signal of the control variable entered by the final control elements (pumps, valves, etc.) and based on the output being the signal of the process variable which is generated by the level sensors located in the process tanks. Tank configurations are indicated in Fig. 49.9. Pump 1
u1
Pump 1
Pump 2
u1 y1
y2
y1
a1
TK 1
u2
TK 1
TK 3
a13 (a) Simple tank
Pump 1
y1
u2 TK 1
a1
u1 a2
(b) Double cascaded tank system
Fig. 49.9 Tanks configurations
a2
a34 TK 1
y2
a20
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TK 3
a1
TK 2
a32
(c) Triple tank in series system
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u1
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u2 Pump 2
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(d) Quadruple tank system
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Next, the quadruple tank modeling procedure is explained, Fig. 49.9d, where the purpose is to control the level of the lower tanks (y1 ,y2 ) while manipulating the voltage of the pumps (u 1 , u 2 ). Physical laws and theorems used are described below: In order to find the equations of the mathematical model, the mass balance equation is applied, which establishes: (Mass accumulation rate) = (mass flux in) − (mass flux out) + (net rate of chemical production )
(49.1)
Given that there isn’t any chemical production, only mass flux in and out is considered. According to the volumetric flow law, which states: Q= Aj
Ay V = t t
dy j = qi j − qo j ; dt
j = 1, 2, 3, 4
(49.2) (49.3)
where Q is the fluid flow, V is the tank volume, t is the time, A is the tank area, y is the tank level, qi is the mass flux in, while qo is the mass flux out. Bernoulli’s theorem establishes: 1 1 P1 + ρgy1 + ρV12 = P2 + ρgy2 + ρV22 2 2
(49.4)
while Torricelli’s principle, being a derivation of Bernoulli’s theorem, describes the relation between the liquid coming out of a hole and the liquid’s height in a tank, Fig. 49.9a; thus, it states that: V =
2gy
(49.5)
with P being the fluid pressure, ρ being the fluid density, g being the gravity acceleration, and V being the fluid velocity. The mass balance equations obtained from (49.3) are: ⎧ dy1 ⎪ ⎪ ⎪ A1 ⎪ dt ⎪ ⎪ ⎪ dy ⎪ ⎪ 2 ⎪ ⎨ A2 dt dy ⎪ ⎪ ⎪ A3 3 ⎪ ⎪ dt ⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪ dy ⎪ ⎩ A4 4 dt
= a1 k1 μ1 + S3 2gy3 − S1 2gy1 − sgn(y1 − y2 )a12 k12 2g(y1 − y2 ) = a2 k2 μ2 + S4 2gy4 + sgn(y1 − y2 )a12 k12 2g(y1 − y2 ) − S2 2gy2 = (1 − a2 )k2 μ2 − S3 2gy3 + a34 k34 2g(y4 − y3 ) = (1 − a1 )k1 μ1 − S4 2gy4 − a34 k34 2g(y4 − y3 ) (49.6)
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where the function sgn(.) defines the sign of the subtraction of the tank’s levels values, which determines the fluid direction, a j is the valve opening; k j is friction constant; u j is voltage of the pump; S j is pipe cross section. From the same methodology, the mathematical models belonging to the configurations (a), (b), and (c) of Fig. 49.9 are determined, defined by Eqs. (49.7), (49.8), and (49.9), respectively: A1
dy1 = u 1 − a1 k1 2gy1 dt
⎧ dy 1 ⎪ = u 1 − s1 2gy1 ⎨ A1 dt dy ⎪ 2 ⎩A = s1 2gy1 − a1 k1 2gy2 2 dt ⎧ dy 1 ⎪ A1 = u 1 − a13 k13 2g|y1− y3 | ⎪ ⎪ ⎪ dt ⎪ ⎨ dy2 = u 2 + a32 k32 2g|y3− y2 | − a20 k20 2gy2 A2 ⎪ dt ⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎩ A dy3 = a k 2g|y y | − a k 2g|y y | 3 13 13 1− 3 32 32 3− 2 dt
(49.7)
(49.8)
(49.9)
49.5 Control Algorithms 49.5.1 Model-Based Predictive Control The MPC control uses a cost function that predicts the future behavior of the system in a certain time horizon, called prediction horizon and a function that represents the restriction of the system. Prediction horizon N is defined, in which the future values of the outputs are predicted for each instant t [14]. C(N1 , N2 , Nn ) =
N2
2 δ(k) y˜ ( t + k|t) − w(t + k)
k=N1
The prediction model represents the behavior of the pumps voltage to be controlled. These predictions only depend on two parameters; the values reached up to time t and future control signals [13]. Tanks level predicted: y(t + k|t) for k = 1, 2, 3, … N depends on the values of the inputs and outputs up to t and the control action u(t + k|t), k = 0, 1, 2, 3, ... N − 1, where Nn is the control horizon; at the same time, it must be different from N2 and δ(k),λ(t) represents weights that may be either constants or exponential. Delays decrease lead to reference path in a prediction
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horizon, based on a previous reference signal r (t + k), which is different to w(t + k). Therefore, an approximation is expressed from current output value which is used, obtaining: w(t + k) = αw(t + k − 1) + (1 − α)r (t + k) k = 1, . . . N where the function is smooth if α is close to one, while it is a fast approach when it is close to zero. Stability Analysis In order to demonstrate the stability of the proposed controller, it is assumed that: 1. 2. 3.
The model function f (y, u) is continuous according to Lipschitz and f (0, 0) = 0. The function g y ( ps ) is continuous according to Lipschitz in λs . Coast function of the offset δ : R p → R is convex and positive. Besides, the minimum of the function ps = arg min δ( ps − pt ) is unique. ps ∈λs
4.
According to the weak controllability property in each balance point, a function N
−1 |u(i) − u s | ≤ ζ (|y − ys |) exist.
5.
The allowed output set λs , is convex.
j=0
Assuming that the five previous points are fulfilled, the following restrictions are satisfied: 1.
if pt ∈ λs , then lim | p(k) − pt | = 0.
2.
/ λs , then lim | p(k) − pt | = 0, where ps = arg min δ( ps − pt ). if pt ∈
k→∞
∗
∗
k→∞
ps ∈λs
49.5.2 Numerical Method-Based Control In control by numerical methods, mathematical concepts are used to create an algorithm that approximates the state of the system in a future instant of time; thus, the necessary control actions are calculated to make the output of the system go from a current value to a desired value [15]. The evolution of the system is approximated through Euler method, with the model being:
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⎧ y (k + 1) − h (k) 1 1 ⎪ A1 = a1 k1 μ1 + S3 2gy3 ⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ts ⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪ − S1 2gy1 − sgn(y1 − y2 )a12 k12 2g(y1 − y2 ) ⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪ y2 (k + 1) − h 2 (k) ⎪ ⎪ ⎪ A2 = a2 k2 μ2 + S4 2gy4 ⎪ ⎪ ts ⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎨ + sgn(y1 − y2 )a12 k12 2g(y1 − y2 ) − S2 2gy2 ⎪ y3 (k + 1) − h 3 (k) ⎪ ⎪ = (1 − a2 )k2 μ2 A ⎪ ⎪ 3 ts ⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪ − S3 2gy3 + a34 k34 2g(y4 − y3 ) ⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪ y4 (k + 1) − h 4 (k) ⎪ ⎪ = (1 − a1 )k1 μ1 − A4 ⎪ ⎪ ts ⎪ ⎪ ⎩ S4 2gy4 − a34 k34 2g(y4 − y3 ) (49.10) where values of yi belonged to tanks level in discrete time t = kT0 are denominated yi (k) with T0 being sample period and k ∈ {0, 1, 2, 3, ...} [15]. Through Markov method, in order to establish control law, the state h i (k + 1) is expressed as: yi (k + 1) = hdi (k + 1) − Wi (ydi (k) − yi (k))
(49.11)
The equations of the system are reformulated as follows:Au = b ⎡
⎡ ⎢ ⎢ ⎢ ⎢ ⎢ ⎢ ⎣
⎢ ⎢ ⎢ ⎢ ⎢ ⎢ ⎢ ⎢ ⎢ ⎢ ⎢ ⎢ ⎢ ⎤ a1 k 1 ⎢ 0 ⎢ A1 ⎥ ⎢ a2 k 2 ⎥ ⎢ 0 ⎥ u1 ⎢ A2 ⎥ ⎢ = 1−a2 k2 ⎥ ⎢ u 0 ⎥ 2 ⎢ A ⎢ 3 ⎦ ⎢ 1−a1 k1 ⎢ 0 ⎢ A4 ⎢ ⎢ ⎢ ⎢ ⎢ ⎢ ⎢ ⎢ ⎢ ⎢ ⎢ ⎣
⎤ yd1 (k + 1) − W1 yd1 (k) − y1 (k) − y1 (k) ⎥ ⎥ T0 ⎥ ⎥ ⎥ sgn(y1 − y2 ) S3 S1 + 2gy3 − 2gy1 − a12 k12 2g(y1 − y2 )⎥ ⎥ A1 A1 A1 ⎥ ⎥ ⎥ yd2 (k + 1) − W2 yd21 (k) − y2 (k) − y2 (k) ⎥ ⎥ ⎥ T0 ⎥ ⎥ ⎥ sgn(y1 − y2 ) S4 S2 + 2gy4 + a12 k12 2g(y1 − y2 ) − 2gy2 ⎥ ⎥ A2 A2 A2 ⎥ ⎥ ⎥ yd3 (k + 1) − W3 yd3 (k) − y3 (k) − y3 (k) ⎥ ⎥ ⎥ T0 ⎥ ⎥ ⎥ S3 a34 k34 ⎥ − 2gy3 + 2g(y4 − y3 ) ⎥ A3 A3 ⎥ ⎥ ⎥ yd4 (k + 1) − W4 yd4 (k) − y4 (k) − y4 (k) ⎥ ⎥ ⎥ T0 ⎥ ⎦ S4 a34 k34 − 2g(y4 − y3 ) 2gy4 − A4 A4
(49.12)
where yd is the desired trajectory, while W is the weight matrix and its values are defined in a range from 0 to 1. The conditions for the system to have an exact solution is through:
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A1,1 b1,1 A2,2 b2,1 = ; = A4,1 b4,1 A3,2 b3,1
(49.13)
where the subscripts represent the position in the matrix; since the purpose is to control the lower levels, y1 and y2 , a “sacrificed” variable is taken into account, in order to reduce the system solution: ⎧ yd (k+1)−W1 yd (k)−y1 (k) −y1 (k) ⎪ sgn y1 −y2 a1 k 1 S √ S √ ⎪ 1 1 ⎪ + A3 2gy3 − A1 2gy1 − a12 k12 2g(y1 − y2 ) ⎪ ⎪ A T A ⎪ 1 0 1 1 1 ⎪ = ⎪ ⎪ 1−a1 k1 ys4 (k+1)−W4 yd4 (k)−y4 (k) −y4 (k) ⎪ S √ a k ⎪ ⎪ − A4 2gy4 − 34A 34 2g(y4 − y3 ) ⎨ A T 4
0
4
4
⎪ yd2 (k+1)−W2 yd (k)−y2 (k) −y2 (k) ⎪ sgn y1 −y2 a2 k 2 S √ S √ ⎪ 21 ⎪ + A4 2gy4 + a12 k12 2g(y1 − y2 ) − A2 2gy2 ⎪ A2 T0 A2 ⎪ 2 2 ⎪ ⎪ = ⎪ ⎪ 1−a2 k2 ⎪ ys3 (k+1)−W3 yd (k)−y3 (k) −y3 (k) ⎪ S3 √ a34 k34 ⎩ 3 A − 2gy + 2g(y − y ) 3
T0
A3
3
A3
4
3
(49.14)
with ysi (k) being the “sacrificed” variable at the current sample time, meanwhile, ysi (k + 1) is obtained from (49.14). Through Taylor approximation, ysi (k + 1) = ysi (k) is defined. In order to achieve the errors to tend to zero, it is used least squares to obtain the control actions [15]. Given the equations number is greater than unknowns in matrix, pseudoinverse concept is used, where A ∈ mxn , considering m > n, it is −1 established: u 1 u 2 = AT A AT b. Stability Analysis Considering that the mathematical model from (6) is expressed as a matrix M with dimensions 4 × 4, the closed-loop equation is defined as: −1 b y(k + 1) − y(k) = T0 M MT MMT −1 = Im where MT MMT y(k + 1) − y(k) = T0 Im b Using identity matrix properties, it is established: y(k + 1) − y(k) = T0
yd (k + 1) − W(yd (k) − y(k)) − y(k) T0
The error given by yd (k + 1) − y(k + 1) depends only on the previous error by a gain W(yd(k) − y(k)).
y1 (k + 1) y (k + 1) − w1 (e1 ) = 1d y2 (k + 1) y2d (k + 1) − w2 (e2 ) e1 (k + 1) w1 (e1 (k)) = w2 (e2 (k)) e2 (k + 1)
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The errors on the next states are given by: ei (k + 1) = wi ei (k) ei (k + 2) = wi ei (k + 1) = wi2 e(k) ei (k + 3) = wi ei (k + 2) = wi3 e(k) .. . ei (k + n) = wi ei (k + n − 1) = win e(k) Since, when 0 < wi < 1 y n → ∞ the error approximates asymptotically to cero, the closed-loop equilibrium point is asymptotically stable. Therefore, it is verified that y˜i (t) → 0 when t → ∞.
49.6 Analysis and Results As it can be seen in Fig. 49.10, for the implementation of the Hardware-in-the-Loop technique, the main computer is used, where the advanced control algorithms are designed; on the other hand, a 2 Gb Raspberry Pi embedded card is used, in which the mathematical model of each level tank configuration is implemented. Bidirectional communication between the computer and the Raspberry Pi card is implemented through wireless technology using Xbee cards. The main menu is presented in Fig. 49.11, where certain parameters such as the avatar, the configuration of level tanks, and the type of control algorithms proposed in Sect. 49.5 can be selected, as shown in Fig. 49.12. Finally, in Fig. 49.13 the execution of the virtual environment is observed. In addition, the user can receive instructions through audio in order to help understand the use of the process in which the operator is immersed in (Fig. 49.14). Fig. 49.10 Hardware-in-the-loop
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Fig. 49.12 Virtual environment scenes
Fig. 49.13 MPC control simulation by unity
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Fig. 49.14 Response curve of the MPC control in reference to the desired output of the process
Inside the virtual laboratory, four tank configurations are shown, and each one has a control panel that allows the user to interact with the values of the variables that intervene in the process, such as the set point values and the disturbances (opening of the valves), as well as observing the values and response curves of the filling level of the controlled tanks and the control actions. Following, the results of the response curves are presented: According to the response curves in reference to the desired outputs, it can be seen that the MPC controller is an instant ahead of the future; it also depends on the optimization algorithm, and therefore, it presents a relatively high response speed. As it can be seen in the response curves in reference to the desired outputs, the controller by numerical method is not affected by the disturbances applied to the process, given the disturbance matrix is considered in the control law. The user can control and observe the behavior of the simulated system, both in MATLAB software where the controllers are designed, and inside the virtual laboratory through the HMI interface. In Fig. 49.19, the curves in reference to the desired outputs of the process are shown, the establishment time and the percentage of overshoot are analyzed comparing the performance of each of the controllers: MPC and numerical methods. It is determined that the stabilization time of the MPC control is faster than the control by numerical methods, presenting a higher response speed. None of the advanced controllers feature overshoot, which guarantees the life of the final control elements. In Figs. 49.15 and 49.18, the curves of the errors are shown, where the evolution of the errors is observed, which tend asymptotically to zero (Figs. 49.15 and 49.18).
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Fig. 49.15 Errors control curve of the process controller MPC
Fig. 49.16 Numerical methods-based control simulation by Unity
49.7 Conclusions The present work represents a great contribution in the research and academic field, since it facilitates the teaching and learning about the operation of advanced controllers by immersing the user in a virtual environment, giving a realistic impression of an industrial environment. In addition, based on the results obtained from the simulations and from the analysis of the response curves, it was found that the MPC control presents more precise results with respect to the control based on numerical
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Fig. 49.17 Response curve of the control based on numerical methods in reference to the desired output of the process
Fig. 49.18 Numerical methods-based control simulation by unity
methods, given it uses an optimization strategy that anticipates the effect of future control action. Thus, the Hardware-in-the-Loop technique allows rigorous evaluation of advanced control algorithms without the need of physical equipment.
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Fig. 49.19 Comparison curve of the MPC control and numerical methods-based control in reference to the desired outputs of the process
Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank the Coorporación Ecuatoriana para el Desarrollo de la Investigación y Academia CEDIA for their contribution in innovation, through the CEPRA projects, especially the project CEPRA-XIV-2020-08-RVA "Tecnologías Inmersivas Multi-Usuario Orientadas a Sistemas Sinérgicos de Enseñanza-Aprendizaje"; also the Universidad de las Fuerzas Armadas ESPE and the Research Group ARSI, for the support for the development of this work.
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10. Berg, L.P., Vance, J.M.: Industry use of virtual reality in product design and manufacturing: a survey. Virtual Reality 21(1), 1–17 (2016) 11. Carruth, D.W.: Virtual reality for education and workforce training. In: 2017 15th International Conference on Emerging eLearning Technologies and Applications (ICETA) (2017) 12. Maniatopoulos, M., Lagos, D., Kotsampopoulos, P., Hatziargyriou, N.: Combined control and power hardware in-the-loop simulation for testing smart grid control algorithms. IET Gener. Trans. Distrib. 11(12), 3009–3018 (2017) 13. Pruna, E., Andaluz, V.H., Proano, L.E., Carvajal, C.P., Escobar, I., Pilatasig, M. Construction and analysis of PID, fuzzy and predictive controllers in flow system. In: 2016 IEEE International Conference on Automatica (ICA-ACCA) (2016) 14. Kaiser, E., Kutz, J.N., Brunton, S.L.: Sparse identification of nonlinear dynamics for model predictive control in the low-data limit. Proc. R. Soc. A: Math. Phys. Eng. Sci. 474(2219), 20180335 (2018) 15. Sásig, E.R., Naranjo, C., Pruna, E., Chicaiza, W.D., Chicaiza, F.A., Carvajal, C.P., Andaluz, V.H.: An implementation on Matlab software for non-linear controller design based on linear algebra for quadruple tank process. In: World Conference on Information Systems and Technologies, pp. 333–340. Springer, Cham (2018)
Chapter 50
Strategic HRM Practices, Innovation Performance and Its Relationship on Export Performance: An Exploratory Study of SMEs in an Emerging Economy Eithel F. Bonilla-Chaves
and Pedro R. Palos-Sánchez
Abstract This study seeks to examine a theoretical model that is proposed on the relationships between independent variables, which in this case are defined by the strategic human resource management (HRM) practices and the mediating role of innovation performance. In addition to analyzing their correspondence to the dependent variable that is represented by export performance, so that when carrying out this analysis, it is possible to enhance the knowledge of these constructs based on the review of the relevant literature. Likewise, through these relationships, it is intended to identify the main findings that favor or disfavor their interaction in order to provide adjusted answers on an analysis of a business park that corresponds to the needs of small and medium-sized companies (SMEs) that are of interest in this research. In the exercise of understanding this approach, interviews with experts will be used to validate the instruments in the qualitative phase of the mixed method of the research and then test the hypotheses proposed on the delimitation of the data to be obtained from the surveys for SMEs in an emerging economy like Costa Rica. The results will follow the scientific rigor; depending on whether or not, innovation performance positively mediates the relationship between strategic HRM practices and export performance. The conclusions have made it possible to find that training as part of the strategic practices of human resources favors both innovation performance and that it also supposes export performance. Finally, this study will discuss business and economic implications with the information obtained for the consideration of government entities in the generation of targeted policies and will highlight future lines of research.
E. F. Bonilla-Chaves (B) School of Business Administration, Technological Institute of Costa Rica, Cartago, Costa Rica e-mail: [email protected] P. R. Palos-Sánchez Department of Financial Economy and Operation Management, University of Sevilla, Sevilla, Spain © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 A. Mesquita et al. (eds.), Perspectives and Trends in Education and Technology, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 256, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5063-5_50
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50.1 Introduction In order to grow and stay in the market, companies constantly need to have new elements, especially since the demand of customers in the acceptance of products and services marks the competitiveness of companies. Therefore, measuring the organizational performance of these can contribute to achieving these objectives and the success of companies. Action that according to Wright and Haggerty [1] in the strategic management of human resources, the ways in which people are managed, have a strong empirical relationship with organizational performance, particularly through human resources practices. Associated with the previous proposition, in the same way, the need arises to measure the innovation of new products or services, where one of the main dimensions to measure the performance of companies is innovation performance. Innovation performance is the combination of the overall achievements of the organization as a result of renewal and improvement efforts made, taking into account various aspects of business innovation such as processes, products, organizational structure and marketing [2]. In the same sense, the export activities of products or services allow companies to carry out their internationalization in new markets, an exercise that is complemented by new business opportunities that are viable for companies. Therefore, according to Sousa et al. [3], export has remained the entry mode specially chosen by companies to enter the foreign market, as it provides companies with high levels of flexibility and a profitable way to penetrate new foreign markets quickly. The foregoing is the origin of the interest of measuring the export of companies, achieving this action through export performance that allows knowing the level of internationalization that companies are achieving in their management. For example, one of these forms of measurement that is known is export intensity, which is determined by innovation and other factors. Among these other factors, the explanation of the role of strategic HRM practices as an internal determinant of export performance is identified [4, 5]. This allows us to assume that the variables under study have theoretical relationships that can be contrasted through the analysis model proposed for this research. This with regard to the analysis itself, as well as knowing the possible implications that the variables could throw with respect to the results of the investigation, mainly given the orientation of the development of scientific knowledge of these disciplines that will be focusing on small and medium-sized companies. Regarding the proposed research model, it follows from the theoretical perspective that it can be presented as a novelty. This is also supported by additionally reinforcing the convenience of extending the depth of the analyses on the export performance construct defined for the effects of this research as the dependent variable of this model. Given that for this construct, some studies have been located on the analysis of the empirical review of the literature on this matter and based on the exploration of the factors on the variable under study that propose said need for small and medium-sized companies as expressed by Villavicencio [6].
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It should be noted and mentioned that most of the studies that have been carried out have been of a qualitative nature only, which effectively demonstrates this approach of supplying this need with quantitative or mixed investigations that complement or contrast the contributions and results that have been presented in other studies. For this reason, from the methodological perspective, it is mentioned that for the development of this construct, it will be approached in a mixed way, starting with qualitative research with interviews with experts to validate the instruments that will later be used for quantitative research, so that both direct and indirect effects can be investigated. Likewise, in order to be able to achieve the more efficient use of the available applications of the various software in data processing that exist, with the intention of obtaining the contribution of greater rigor and consistency regarding the information extracted [6, 7]. To complete the analysis with the connotation of exploring in a practical way and analyzing the relationship of the research variables, we will look at the national registry of companies in the small and medium-sized business sector of the Ministry of Economy, Industry and Commerce (MEIC) of Costa Rica that have adopted or used human resource management practices, generation of new products or services and who have made international sales. This data analysis strategy is presented as an additional proposal and option so that it can be used in subsequent research, in the formulation and attention of related problems or other issues that are about to be or should be studied in countries in emerging economies mainly. For the development and practical perspective of this research, it will be carried out in a country with an emerging economy in Latin America such as Costa Rica in Central America. It stands out as an interesting case of a country that has managed to promote structural change and development focusing on attracting knowledgeintensive foreign direct investment. This has allowed it to carry out a profound economic transformation from being an exporter of primary sector products to an exporter of high value-added services and production [8, 9]. However, the OECD [9] indicates that for Costa Rica, there are high margins to improve the development of small and medium-sized companies. This point becomes in reality an opportunity for national companies that should be taken advantage of by promoting their internationalization. This is due to the fact that direct foreign investment flows have contributed significantly to the sophistication of exports and have allowed it to enter new industries. Thus, through the Presidential Council for Competitiveness and Innovation of Costa Rica, it has identified five priority areas that require better coordination of policies. Among these areas and for the purpose of extending the practical relationship of interest for the focus of this study, we have chosen to direct them to three of these areas too. These are the development of human resources, the capacity for innovation and the promotion of foreign trade [10]. Once this is known, it is proposed that this research can provide additional contributions in the field of business management based on the analysis of the relationship and its possible effects on the strategic HRM practices, innovation performance and export performance of small and medium-sized companies in Costa Rica.
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50.1.1 Exploring Strategic Human Resource Management Practices. In this environment of the management of human resources in companies, it is becoming increasingly important to achieve real success. The strategic management of these being the planned implementation model for human resources and the activities destined to allow the company to achieve its objectives [11]. This management in its field of domain consists of the determining decisions about human resources practices, the composition of the group of human capital resources and the specification of the required human resources behaviors. The effectiveness of these decisions leads to various business strategies and/or competitive situations [11]. The strategic practices of human resources are those that are theoretically or empirically related to the general performance of the organization [12]. This is how the previous authors identified seven practices that are consistently considered strategic human resources practices, these being internal career opportunities, formal training systems, evaluation measures, profit sharing, job security, voice mechanisms and the definition of jobs. Through the study of Gooderham et al. [13], it is explained by Schuler and Jackson [14] that the term strategic management of human resources is generally used to indicate the point of view that the practices of human resource management should improve organizational performance. In this sense, the strategic management of human resources is incorporated in the best way. In addition, it is suggested that the analyses of elements of a finer detail specifically focus on the practices of high-performance work systems (HPWS), which are also regularly used as a substitute for strategic human resource management [15]. Generally, the measures of high-performance work systems include practices related to structuring and comprehensive approaches to recruitment and selection, payment for performance and other incentives based on compensation plans, information sharing, rigorous performance processes and training in generic and specific skills of the company [16]. The use of high-performance work practices, including comprehensive employee recruitment and selection procedures, incentive compensation and performance management systems, and broad employee participation and training, can enhance the knowledge, skills, and abilities of current and potential employees of the company, increase their motivation, reduce turnover and improve retention of quality employees while encouraging those who do not live up to expectations to leave the company [17]. Being internally consistent and externally aligned (with the competitive strategy of the company), the work systems generally go through including rigorous selection and recruitment procedures, compensation systems for performance incentives, management development and training activities related to the company needs and significant commitment to employee participation [18].
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The human resources management system is usually considered as part of the responsibility of the human resource management function, since the practices of high-performance work systems may be implicit in smaller companies that do not have this function, as stated by Becker and Huselid [18] in their work. Therefore, at the level of small and medium-sized companies, this connotation must be taken into account. Collins and Clark [19] propose that research in the strategic management of human resources must identify the resources that are critical for advantage in a given competitive context and the human resources practices to build and support these resources. Therefore, it is about this proposition that we want to work on the context of small and medium-sized companies as part of this research. The foregoing motivated by the work of Beaver and Hutchings [20] which points out that the existing literature on the strategic management of human resources overwhelmingly focuses on large corporations and multinational companies at the expense of small and medium-sized companies. This suggests that the role between strategic management of human resources and small and medium-sized enterprises may be essential. It proposes that only those that adopt a strategic approach in the management and training and development of their human resources will benefit not only for a competitive advantage in their market but also because they will be well positioned to adjust to the changing and often uncertain influences in the business environment. Finally, through the work of Mumford [21], the research for the type of management practices capable of promoting creativity and innovation that are considered with respect to specific human resources practices is proposed. It sets out a series of propositions that could be used to guide future research. In this sense, he argues that to manage creativity and innovation, human resources practices must consider the individual, the group, the organization and the strategic environment that the organization faces.
50.1.2 Exploring Innovation Performance Innovation performance refers to the degree of success achieved by companies in achieving the objectives related to new products or services [22]. Han and Kim mention the connection between innovation and performance in the study and Srivastava [23] as the last link in the chain, which has been examined in many studies in the field of organizational innovation and accumulated evidence of positive findings has been found. This robustness of the link between innovation and performance has been conceived to extend to different contexts, including industrial and consumer manufacturing companies, service organizations and even public institutions. The study by Laursen and Foss [24] is one of the first major empirical examinations that explores the link between innovation performance and new complementary human resource management practices. This being said, it is fair to indicate
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that the literature on these subjects was characterized by the scant attention paid to new (complementary) human resource management practices and how these can influence the performance of innovation. This is due to a lack of theoretical and empirical treatment of how the new human resource management practices affects the performance of innovation [24]. With regard to this study, the research by Beugelsdijk [25] proposes the link between innovation and strategic management of human resources, and that empirically, human resource practices are related to innovation. This is explained in terms of the fact that human resources practices are exactly the mechanisms for the acquisition, development and motivation of human capital. In other words, strategic human resource management focuses on “what” a company does with human resources and human resource practices refer to “how” these resources are managed [26]. Companies can use some strategic HR practices, such as staffing, training, participation, performance appraisal and compensation, as a means of motivating employee engagement and engaging them in creative thinking and innovation. Since, these strategic human resource practices play a critical role that affects innovation performance [27]. That is why, Chen and Huang [27] suggest that strategic HR practices influence employee behavior and expectations and add greater value in the development of innovation. Through effective strategic human resource practices in terms of staffing, training, participation, performance appraisal and compensation, companies could increase their capacity in the introduction of new products or services and in their management system, to achieve later better innovation results. Cooperation or interaction on innovation became increasingly important for SMEs in emerging economies and developing countries in order to promote their innovation capabilities [28]. Following the evidence-based research approach, the study by Rosenbusch et al. [29] provides the first quantitative incorporation of empirical findings on the relationship between innovation performance and directing the focus towards small and medium-sized enterprises. Hence, the need to evaluate the relationship between strategic HRM practices and innovation performance emerges, so as to know eventually the impact on export performance. With respect to the hypothesis testing analysis for the unit of analysis of this research, Rosenbusch et al. [29] study is taken as a reference in the same way. It adds empirical evidence on the innovation performance relationship and ad-hoc analysis on small and medium-sized enterprises.
50.1.3 Exploring Export Performance and Its Determinants. In Shoham’s [30] approach, he indicates as a conceptual definition of export performance that it should address each of its two parts: export and performance, being
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that the export performance is defined conceptually as the composite result of the international sales of a company. At the same time, among the most common ways of measuring and conceptualizing export performance, it focuses on the financial results of companies’ exports, for which indicators such as export sales, growth of export sales and export intensity are generally used. These correspond to the dimension of export performance called financial performance [31]. To measure the capacity of the export performance of companies, among the most used dimensions are the growth rate of export sales and the percentage of total sales that exports represent [32]. In the study by Zou and Stan [7], it is explained that the object of investigation regarding the type of companies in said analysis is that the majority is focused on small and medium-sized companies, indicating that the approach is given because it reflects the principle that the export of small and medium-sized enterprises plays an important role in many economies. Likewise, its choice is justified because it leads to larger sampling frames, since there are more small and medium-sized companies. This also allows easier identification of managerial factors because small and medium-sized companies are less diversified. Another of the characteristics related to the variables of this study are the countries where it is observed that the predominance is focused on the countries like the USA, Canada and several European countries [7]. This opens the possibility and justification of executing a similar analysis of the variable in small and mediumsized companies, the same with countries of emerging economies such as Costa Rica, so it will be of interest to the research community. As an effect of this link, companies also define the human resources needs of the organization in terms of its international business objectives and evaluate the available number of people to determine the best fit in the selection, promotion and placement process. Therefore, the reinforcement of international activities in their strategic HRM practices, in particular for administrative and professional employees, is more likely to allow them to make the best export attempts of the company [4]. According to the grouping of categories that Zou and Stan [7] present and propose as part of all export performance measures, export intensity is one of these financial measures. It is the category of sales, which is one of the most frequently used for measure export performance and refers to measuring the absolute volume of export sales or export intensity. Export performance is conceptualized as a composite result of a company’s international sales, which includes three sub-dimensions: export sales, export profitability and export growth [30]. Therefore, the export intensity is explained as one of the measures of export performance that refers to the percentage of sales sold internationally, which refers to the level of its calculation through sales in its relationship between export sales among the total sales [33, 30]. This export performance measure of objective criterion is the dependent variable of the model of this research, which is defined as the measure that represents the percentage of export sales among the company’s total sales [34].
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Regarding export intensity, there are few studies that have examined the internationalization of companies in developing countries, as well as the relationship between the organizational characteristics of companies and export performance [35]. Although it is one of the measures most commonly used to measure internationalization, the research by Rodwell and Teo [36] mentions that there is little attention to the internationalization of companies regarding how they use strategic management of human resources to improve export performance. This is why, they propose studying and addressing the gaps in the literature by examining the relationship of export intensity and strategic HRM practices.
50.2 Statement of Hypotheses It is in this way that it is proposed to validate, modify or object to the following hypotheses raised in this research of the proposed conceptual model. Where in each hypothesis, the relationship of the independent variables under study with the dependent variable of the research model is presented. • Hypothesis 1 (H1): The adoption and use of strategic HRM practices are positively related to innovation performance. • Hypothesis 2 (H2): The adoption and use of strategic HRM practices are positively related to export performance. • Hypothesis 3 (H3): Innovation performance acts as a mediating variable between the relationship of strategic HRM practices and export performance. This is to analyze the relationship of strategic HRM practices and innovation performance in companies in the small and medium-sized sector to determine whether these variables favor or disadvantage the results of export performance. Taking as reference in the research of Chen and Huang [27], the analysis of the results that supports that the strategic practices of human resources is positively related to performance. Likewise, the analysis of similar works, for example, between the relationship of innovation and export intensity, it is known that PlaBarber and Alegre [5] in their study indicate that there is a positive relationship between innovation and export intensity. At the level of human resource management practices for the case of Costa Rica, it is possible to identify in the research of Orozco et al. [37] that the training and participation of human resources show their impact on the innovative processes of companies. The results of their study show an important relationship between investment in training and innovative companies. Likewise, the involvement of workers in the planning phase of changes and improvements has a positive effect on innovation. In the study carried out by Brenes and Govaere [38], they explain that the export behavior of micro-, small and medium-sized companies in Costa Rica is associated with their size or with their number of employees. In as much as, through the sample used, it has allowed them to infer the existence of a direct relationship between the
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size of the companies and their export performance. The survey carried out showed that 24% of medium-sized companies made a direct export in the last year, while in comparison, only 15% of small companies and 6.3% of micro-companies exported in the same period.
50.3 Methodology For Creswell [39], the research design, the research method and the research problem within the framework of a project or plan focus on three research approaches, namely quantitative, qualitative and mixed methods. The quantitative approach refers to using data collection to test hypotheses based on numerical measurement and statistical analysis, in order to establish behavior patterns and test theories. Meanwhile, the qualitative approach uses data collection and analysis to refine research questions or reveal new questions in the interpretation process [40]. From the plurality of approaches, Augusto [41] points out the existence of the plurality of methods or approaches for the construction or production of scientific knowledge and makes it clear that there is no supremacy of one method or approach over another, but that each one has its own strengths and weaknesses. He indicates that the trend is the complementarity between them. Therefore, on this consideration, it is proposed to use the mixed method for this research. Starting the mixed approach from the qualitative phase in order to achieve a better understanding of the approach and beginning the analysis of variables of the work of this research that intends to contrast with the validation of instrument through interviews with experts, this will allow the exploration and a practical sense to the business context, in which the variables are involved to later continue with the quantitative phase. In the application of this study, it is proposed in the fieldwork of the research that it can consider the analysis of exploratory characteristics, with the purpose of examining the problem, since according to the literature reviewed, it has not yet been addressed before in the country. For which, there is an interest in obtaining information on a particular context of business life, with the intention of identifying promising concepts or variables and potential relationships between them to eventually evaluate more rigorously in the extension of this field study. The reference population for this study corresponds to the Costa Rican business park in the sector of small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) that are registered with the country’s Ministry of Economy, Industry and Commerce (MEIC). Therefore, to understand the concepts in the qualitative phase, a type of research is proposed that also includes an expert interview. Hernández et al. [40] have suggested that the minimum sample size is twenty to thirty cases, when there are people in observation or grounded theory. This would be a selection procedure oriented by the characteristics of the investigation that corresponds to a conceptual non-probabilistic sample.
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For the purposes of this research, the expert interview will be considered in the first instance in the definition and exploration stage, when using and selecting the unit of analysis. This will consider the Costa Rican business park of the sector of small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) that are registered in the country’s Ministry of Economy, Industry and Commerce (MEIC), during the period included for the year 2021 and that meet the following criteria that have been defined to select the different cases: • That they have adopted and used strategic HRM practices. • That they developed new products or services. • That they have international sales. The scales have been consigned based on the literature, and at the same time, they have been applied in different studies related to the topics of this research, and their validity is contrasted through them. Therefore, these measurement scales used in this work have the property of content validity.
50.4 Research Instrument To measure the practices of strategic management of human resources, the finding of the scale is provided by Akhtar et al. [42] on a survey instrument to measure these practices that was adopted from Delery and Doty [12]. The process will consist of asking the CEOs to describe the degree to which one of these practices are used in their companies. From the list that includes various aspects of the strategic management of human resources of the company, the training variable has been selected. The elements were considered according to Akhtar et al. [42]: Training 1. 2. 3. 4.
Employees will normally go through training programs every few years. Extensive training programs are provided for employees. There are formal training programs to teach new employees the skills they need to do their jobs. Formal training programs are offered to employees to increase their capability for promotion in this organization.
Regarding the measurement of innovation performance, the scale provided in the study by Chen et al. [43] was discovered and selected where innovation is measured through the dimension of the company’s performance according to several previous studies [44, 45], which include the following elements for the corresponding analysis. Company [43] 1. 2.
Speed in the commercialization of new products. R&D capacity.
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Abundance and diversity of new products Customer acceptance. Development ratio of successful new products. Volume of sales. Contribution to profits Success in developing new products. Accumulated knowledge.
In the measurement of export performance through the financial dimension, this is analyzed as a dependent variable, which corresponds to export sales, export growth and export earnings [31]. This is because the level of internationalization of the company is measured based on the percentage of income over export. It is the most common measure of the internationalization of SMEs [46]. Financial Export Performance This export company: 1. 2. 3.
Has been very profitable. Has generated a high volume of sales. Has achieved rapid growth.
This in the qualitative phase, based on the information collected from expert interviews that are a sample of the managers of the small and medium-sized companies of the Costa Rican business park of the sector that are registered in the Ministry of Economy, Industry and Commerce (MEIC) of the country. This is in line with the specific research objectives that are associated with the instruments to be used for the expert interview.
50.5 Conclusions In the discussion of the results, it is desired to measure the degree of relationship that exists between the variables. That before testing the hypotheses, a validation of the instruments will be carried out through interviews with experts on the Costa Rican business park in the small and medium-sized sector companies (SMEs) that are registered with the country’s Ministry of Economy, Industry and Commerce (MEIC). Taking as reference the work of Orozco et al. [37] at the level of human resource management practices in the case of Costa Rica, it is possible to identify in the research that the training and participation of human resources show their impact on innovative business processes. The results of their study show an important relationship between investment in training and innovative companies. Likewise, the involvement of workers in the planning phase of changes and improvements has a positive effect on innovation, which can also extend to export performance. From the previous cases, it will remain to review the analysis of the combination of all the variables as a whole, which is the proposal of this study in order to learn
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the relationship between the constructs as a new contribution of knowledge about the work to be done. We hope that the potential contribution of this research can provide findings and information that can be used, in a first instance, by Costa Rican companies in the SME sector, in the development of guidelines for the SME sector, as well as in the generation of government policies on the matter. In addition, it will be a contribution to the knowledge base of the investigation of these variables from another perspective and conditions that have been proposed as new lines of exploration. This learning about the conditions that exist or should exist to address the practices of strategic management of human resources in countries with emerging economies; for example, it has been identified that there is evidence that the results in the application of strategic HRM practices improve the performance of the organization through training and education. Therefore, the general directors and human resources managers of the companies of SMEs could be more confident about spending time and energy to strategically develop and control human resource management processes within their companies. Eventually, this work could be expanded in another direction and focus on another sector, since this study has taken into account the Costa Rican business park of the small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) sector that are registered with the Ministry of Economy, Industry and Commerce (MEIC) of the country. However, there are also other very dynamic competing sectors, so it would be of great interest for these sectors to know the relationship of the variables of this study in this or another field of operation.
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9. OECD: Attracting knowledge-intensive FDI to Costa Rica: challenges and policy options. In: Making Development Happen Series No. 1. OECD Publishing, Paris (2012) 10. ECLAC: Cadenas globales de valor y diversificación de exportaciones. El Caso de Costa Rica. Naciones Unidas, Santiago de Chile (2014) 11. Wright, P.M., Mcmahan, G.C.: Exploring human capital: Putting “human” back into strategic human resource management. Hum. Resour. Manag. J. 21(2), 93–104 (2011). https://doi.org/ 10.1111/j.1748-8583.2010.00165.x 12. Delery, J.E., Doty, D.: Modes of theorizing in strategic human resource management: test of universalistic, contingency and configurational performance predictions. Acad. Manage. J. 39(4), 802–835 (1996). https://doi.org/10.5465/256713 13. Gooderham, P., Parry, E., Ringdal, K.: The impact of bundles of strategic human resource management practices on the performance of European firms. J. Ind. Bus. Res. 3(3), 148–167 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1108/17554191111157029 14. Schuler, R.S., Jackson, S.E.: A quarter-century review of human resource management in the US: the growth in importance of the international perspective. Manage. Revue. 16(1), 11– 35. Retrieved from https://www.core.kmi.open.ac.uk/download/pdf/6715602.pdf%5Cn//hdl. handle.net/10419/78888%5CnNutzungsbedingungen (2005) 15. Fu, N., Flood, P.C., Bosak, J., Morris, T., O’Regan, P.: How do high performance work systems influence organizational innovation in professional service firms? Emerald Insight 29(5), 494– 519 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1108/JFM-03-2013-0017 16. Messersmith, J.G., Wales, W.J.: Entrepreneurial orientation and performance in young firms: the role of human resource management. Int. Small Bus. J. 31(2), 115–136 (2011). https://doi. org/10.1177/0266242611416141 17. Huselid, M.: The impact of human resource management practices on turnover, productivity, and corporate financial performance. Acad. Manag. J. 38(3), 635–672 (1995). https://doi.org/ 10.2307/256741 18. Becker, B.E., Huselid, M.A.: High performance work systems and firm performance: a synthesis of research and managerial implications. Res. Pers. Hum. Resour. Manage. 16, 53–101 (1998). Retrieved from http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.319.7549 19. Collins, C.J., Clark, K.D.: Strategic human resource practices, top management team social networks, and firm performance: The role of human resource practices in creating organizational competitive advantage. Acad. Manag. J. 46(6), 740–751 (2003). https://doi.org/10.2307/ 30040665 20. Beaver, G., Hutchings, K.: Training and developing an age diverse workforce in SMEs. Educ. Training 47(8/9), 592–604 (2005). https://doi.org/10.1108/00400910510633134 21. Mumford, M.D.: Managing creative people: strategies and tactics for innovation. Hum. Resour. Manag. Rev. 10(3), 313–351 (2000). https://doi.org/10.1016/S1053-4822(99)00043-1 22. Cheng, C.C.J., Huizingh, E.K.R.E.: When is open innovation beneficial? The role of strategic orientation. J. Prod. Innov. Manag. 31(6), 1235–1253 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1111/jpim. 12148 23. Han, J.K., Kim, N., Srivastava, R.K.: Market orientation and organizational performance: is innovation a missing link? J. Market. 62(October), 30–45 (1998). https://doi.org/10.2307/125 2285 24. Laursen, K., Foss, N.J.: New human resource management practices, complementarities and the impact on innovation performance. Cambridge J. Econ. 27(April 2000), 243–263 (2003). 10.1093/cje/27.2.243 25. Beugelsdijk, S.: Strategic human resource practices and product innovation. Organ. Stud. 29(6), 821–847 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1177/0170840608090530 26. Ngo, H.-Y., Lau, C.-M., Foley, S.: Strategic human resource management, firm performance, and employee relations climate in china. Hum. Resour. Manage. 45(3), 295–308 (2008). https:// doi.org/10.1002/hrm 27. Chen, C.-J., Huang, J.-W.: Strategic human resource practices and innovation performance— The mediating role of knowledge management capacity. J. Bus. Res. 62(1), 104–114 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2007.11.016
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Chapter 51
Soda Bottling Process Through the Virtual Hardware in the Loop Technique Edison J. Araque, Alex A. Cajamarca, Daniela E. Paredes, Jenny A. Segovia, Willam W. Tumbaco, Mario Miranda, and Víctor H. Andaluz Abstract Currently, the world is going through an unprecedented health crisis, which has caused significant impacts in the teaching–learning area during the confinement stage due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Therefore, the education system has opted for virtual education through immersive technologies. In this sense, this work presents the development of an industrial process of packaging bottles implemented in the Unity 3D graphics engine. The proposed control scheme considers the hardware in the loop simulation technique, consisting of: (i) process simulation, this stage considers the virtualized process and the mathematical equations that represent the dynamic behavior of the industrial process; the process simulation is implemented in a main computer, and (ii) target hardware, this stage considers the implementation of the advanced control algorithm in low-cost embedded cards. The results obtained allowed the immersion and interaction of the user with the virtual environment, which is part of the hardware in the loop simulation technique.
E. J. Araque · A. A. Cajamarca · D. E. Paredes · J. A. Segovia · W. W. Tumbaco · V. H. Andaluz (B) Universidad de las Fuerzas Armadas ESPE, Sangolquí, Ecuador e-mail: [email protected] E. J. Araque e-mail: [email protected] A. A. Cajamarca e-mail: [email protected] D. E. Paredes e-mail: [email protected] J. A. Segovia e-mail: [email protected] W. W. Tumbaco e-mail: [email protected] M. Miranda · V. H. Andaluz SISAu Research Group, Universidad Tecnológica Indoamérica, Ambato, Ecuador e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 A. Mesquita et al. (eds.), Perspectives and Trends in Education and Technology, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 256, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5063-5_51
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51.1 Introduction Currently, the world is going through a global health crisis, affecting higher education in different areas, since due to various circumstances it has not been possible to carry out laboratory practices, essential in the training of professionals in the engineering area [1, 2]. The challenges of teaching and learning have forced the exponential development of technological tools to achieve an accelerated production of knowledge, among which the use of immersive technologies stands out. Immersive virtual environments provide the sensation of being physically present in an unreal world, generating a feeling of complete immersion as the individual interacts with virtual agents and objects that surround him. Thus, this tool greatly facilitates the collaborative work of the students [3, 4]. In this way, technological advances provide a significant contribution to the development of more dynamic activities focused on the area of technical engineering oriented to the automation of industrial processes [5, 6]. On the other hand, one of the future trends for the development of the industry is the fourth industrial revolution, also known as Industry 4.0, which aims to achieve smarter manufacturing processes through the implementation of strategic planning for production, through innovative technologies, which contribute to the development of the challenges present globally in the industry, thus allowing to be part of the competition in the market [7]. In this area, the adoption of new technologies, e.g., virtual reality [8], has become a guideline for learning and training in certain areas involved such as military, government, education, corporate, healthcare and industrial processes, among others [9, 10]. Among these, industrial level processes stand out because, due to certain circumstances such as occupational hazards, their accessibility is restricted [11]. Virtual reality is an efficient way of modeling industrial processes because it is possible to build different virtual prototypes that provide advanced techniques in terms of decision making, virtual model creation, and the creation of virtual models [12] What a hardware in the loop (HIL) environment implies is a virtual process and usually a real controller [13, 14] which has been implemented for several years in manufacturing systems, leading to reduced execution time [15]. In this aspect, for the control of the immersed level processes in different applications such as wastewater treatment, pasteurization, clarification, among others, there are several control techniques [16, 17]. One obstacle in manufacturing industries is to build different physical prototypes to evaluate human operation in assembly, which see the need to integrate advanced simulation techniques in a safe working environment. However, for systems with multiple inputs and multiple outputs, the technique of inverse process control, which consists of a strategy that seeks to cancel the dynamics of the process, so that the output is as close as possible to the reference input, is a very useful tool to control the process [18]. As described above, the proposal of this article contributes to the challenges in the field of teaching and learning, since it promotes the implementation of a controller for a soft drink bottling process, through the hardware in the loop technique. For
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a virtualization process, a mathematical model representing the dynamics of the process, which is located in the virtual environment, is considered while the proposed controller generates the control actions, in order to keep the process controlled by means of a feedback that is linked through wireless communications using an Arduino board. In addition, the behavior of the system can be visualized in a virtualized environment, which is developed in Unity 3D software, where the packaging process is represented in a more realistic way. In order to provide a real appreciation and immersion of the user to the process and in turn contribute to teaching and learning in the field of engineering.
51.2 Virtual Environment This section presents the virtualization of the industrial process, which can be divided into four main stages called P&ID diagram; 3D design of the P&ID; FBX file; and the virtualized process, as shown in Fig. 51.1. In the stage of the P&ID diagram, the design of the same is made, which allows the representation of the flow of the soda bottling process and contains the piping and instrumentation of this process; therefore, the correct use of the symbology of the elements is based on the ISA 5.1 standard. On the other hand, in the virtualized process is the design of the MIMO process of soda bottling level, which is developed in Plant 3D software, where you have to define the layers for each element as well as the design dimensions; the structures that contain the tanks to be controlled are also created, the reservoir tanks for syrup, water, and storage, the four valves are placed in their respective places, and the pumps
Fig. 51.1 Virtualization process
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are at the outlets of the syrup and water tanks; this design has the extension .dwg; once the design is finished, it proceeds to export the file in a native AutoCAD format which is a compact binary format that describes the content of the design data in 3D, and finally give a name to this drawing and save it. For the FBX export you already have the native file exported from the Plant 3D software, then you proceed to open the 3ds Max software, which helps to obtain the “FBX” file that is recognized by the Unity 3D software. Inside the 3ds Max, once imported, the top, front, left, and total perspective views of the design appear, as well as a window with the layers created, followed by exporting the file to the. FBX extension, where a 3D object is created once it has been saved. Finally, in the virtualized process a 3D virtual development environment is created; in this virtual environment, the different characteristics of the process are incorporated, such as watering, liquid filling, explosions, packaging, sounds, textures, among others, which contribute to a more realistic visualization. As for the bilateral connection between Unity and MATLAB, it is done through shared memories where, from MATLAB, the control algorithm and other variables such as valve openings and pump voltages are sent. In turn, Visual Studio scripts are used to read and write the variables, and finally, the mathematical model sends the input variables to the shared memory.
51.3 Process Modeling The industrial process to be controlled is shown in Fig. 51.2, which consists of three level tanks (LT-01, LT-02, LT-03), a syrup reservoir tank, a water reservoir tank, and a
V-01 LT 01
LIR 01
TANK 1
FINAL MIXTURE
V-02
LT 03
LT 02
TANK 2
TANK 3 V-03
RESERVOIR - SYRUP
V-04
PUMP 2
RESERVOIR STOCKYARD RESERVOIR - WATER PUMP 1
Fig. 51.2 Soft drinks bottling process
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storage reservoir tank, two pumps that provide constant flow, and four manual valves that will be used to disturb the system to be controlled. For the definition of the inlet and outlet flow of each tank, several principles are used, such as Bernoulli’s principle, continuity equation, and Torricelli’s law, where the potential energy balance is considered E p and kinetics of the system E c. Furthermore, the mass is represented as m and v is the velocity of the fluid, as presented by [19]. Ec = Ep 1 2 mv = mgh 2 v = 2gh
(51.1) (51.2) (51.3)
On the other hand, the outgoing flow through a cross section S is Q = Sv = S 2gh
(51.4)
While the flow through a valve Qe is given by: Q e = k 1 R1
(51.5)
Considering the mass balance equation, the liquid accumulation is equal to the in-flows minus the outflows. Ai
dh i = qi j − q0i dt
(51.6)
where, corresponds to the numbering of the disturbance valves and the numbering of the tanks. Based on this, the mathematical model of the process tanks is: dh 1 = qi1 − q01 dt
(51.7)
qi1 = K 1 R1 v1
(51.8)
A1
Therefore, the mathematical model of Fig. 51.2 can be expressed in matrix form, with the corresponding values of valve openings, voltages, and heads as: ⎤ ⎡ K 1 R1 h˙ 1 A1 ⎣ h˙ 1 ⎦ = ⎢ ⎣ 0 h˙ 1 0 ⎡
0 K 2 R2 A2
0
⎤
⎥ v1 ⎦ v2
⎡
⎤ √ − Aa11 2gh 1 √ ⎢ √ ⎥ + ⎣ Aa12 2gh 1 − KA3 R2 3 2g|h 2 − h 3 | ⎦ √ √ K 3 R3 2g|h 2 − h 3 | KA4 R3 4 2gh 3 A3
˙ h(t) = Bv(t) + a(t)
(51.9)
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Fig. 51.3 Validation of the control strategy
where R1 , R2 , R3 , and R4 are the valve openings; k 1 , k 2 , k 3 , and k 4 are the valve constants; A1 , A2 , and A3 : cross-sectional area of each tank (tanks one, two, and three); h1 , h2 , and h3 : height of tanks one, two, and three; g: gravitational constant; a: staging area; qi : input flow; qo ; outward flow; a ∈ R 3x1 : corresponding to the coefficients of the variations of the heights; B ∈ R 3x2 : corresponding to the coefficients of the pump voltages and the valve openings; v ∈ R 3x1 : corresponding to the pump voltages. Figure 51.3 shows the validation of the nonlinear model with different valve openings and inputs corresponding to the pump voltages, in order to check the behavior of the industrial process. The structure of the proposed system is shown in Fig. 51.4, which consists of a controller based on the inverse behavior of the process where a previously established control reference (tank level) is considered as input, which is deferred with the output signal emitted by the process. The comparison of these signals is entered into the controller that processes the information and sends an actuation signal. Therefore, for the appreciation of the behavior of the soft drink bottling process, a 3D virtual environment is developed. The virtual environment allows the immersion and interaction of the user with the process in a more realistic way. On the other hand, the HIL environment is developed as a technique for simulation and verification of the process behavior, where it is implemented in a control unit for bilateral communication between the process and the controller. For the design of the controller, the variables to be controlled are the heights of tank 1 and tank 2, since tank 3 depends on the height of tank 2, in addition to the stability analysis of the proposed control scheme.
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Fig. 51.4 Block diagram of a MIMO control—regulation
51.3.1 Control Algorithm The method to be developed through the application of the inverse behavior control of the process is obtained by evolving the model with a differential equation given by [20], ˙ h(t) = Bv(t) + a
(51.10)
On the other hand, with the consideration of process elimination and that the controller output is equal to the controller input is obtain: ˙ −a v(t) = B−1 h(t)
(51.11)
Error is defined as a variation Q h = hd −h, because of h˙ represents a rate of change and also takes into account that errors have to be weighed with an adjustment matrix W ∈2x2 where it turns out that control law is:
h(t) − a (51.12) uref (t) = B−1 WQ The design of the controller based on the inverse behavior of the process is carried out in the application of the regulation technique which remains the error derived in: P Q ˙ h(t) = −h(t)
(51.13)
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To obtain the closed-loop equation that determines the behavior of the model, replace (51.10) in (51.13) and as shown in (51.14) the process is suppressed. P Q h(t) = −WQ h(t)
(51.14)
The Lyapunov stability analysis concludes that in the proposed scheme the errors go to zero, and therefore, the system is globally uniformly asymptotically stable with matrix W defined positive.
51.4 Experimental Results In this section is present the HIL implementation for the soda packaging process as shown in Fig. 51.5, where the mathematical model and the virtual environment are located in the main computer that is characterized by having a Windows 10 operating system, 16 GB RAM memory, Intel Core i7 seventh generation 2.90 GHz processor in turbo mode, while the controller is located in the data acquisition board which in this case is the Arduino Uno, and for bilateral communication between the process and the controller is used Xbee S2 wireless modules. In the development of the virtual environment, different characteristics are placed to give a greater realism to the implemented process; this is achieved by means of explosions, watering of the liquid as shown in Fig. 51.6.
Fig. 51.5 HIL implementation of the soda bottling process
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Fig. 51.6 Elements of realism in the process
In Fig. 51.7, it is observed that the output signal, which is the height of the tanks, reaches the reference value quickly. In addition, the control of two tanks is presented because there is no control valve between tanks two and three. Figure 51.8 shows the control errors that are saturated between minus one to one and the control actions that are the measures to be taken by the controller to reduce the error; this makes the process behavior reach the reference value.
Fig. 51.7 Response of the soda packaging process implemented the controller based on the inverse behavior
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Fig. 51.8 Control errors and control actions of the soda packaging process response implemented the controller by based on the inverse behavior
51.5 Conclusions The development of the virtual environment of the soft drink bottling process contributes to the challenges of the teaching–learning process for higher education training, because it provides significant features for its interaction. In addition, the HIL simulation technique serves as an alternative method of design and implementation of the controller based on the inverse behavior of the process, with the advantage that it provides high performance in the real-time emulation environment, while providing an equivalent appreciation of its behavior, thus guaranteeing its operation. In conjunction, it allows modifying its variables without affecting or causing any damage either to the operator or to the real equipment, which provides results with a high degree of fidelity. Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank the Universidad de las Fuerzas Armadas ESPE; Universidad Tecnológica Indoamérica; SISAu Research Group, and the Research Group ARSI, for the support for the development of this work.
References 1. Tejedor, S., Cervi, L., Tusa F., Parola, A.: Education in times of pandemic: reflections of students and teachers on virtual university education in Spain, Italy, and Ecuador. Rev. Lat. Comun. Soc. 1(78), 1–21 (2020) 2. Nazir, S., Renganayagalu, S.K., Mallam, S.C.: Rethinking maritime education, training, and operations in the digital era: applications for emerging immersive technologies. J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 7(12), 428 (2019)
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Chapter 52
Virtual Training System of a Horizontal Three-Phase Separator Zahira Proaño C. and Víctor H. Andaluz
Abstract This paper presents a virtual training system, developed in the Unity3D graphics engine, oriented to control a three-phase horizontal separator. The design of the virtual environment aims to provide users with the ability to implement different control strategies to test the evolution of the process against different desired values. Besides, it allows to visually verify the variation of the level within the separator. The option of user levels strengthens the concept of monitoring, control, and supervision in an industrial plant, and these advantages of the system will consolidate the learning process of engineering students. Finally, it was determined that the virtual training system is good because the percentage of SUS usability was 72.5%.
52.1 Introduction According to the Association of the Hydrocarbons Industry of Ecuador (AIHE), oil represents 2.5% of the global GDP, while in Ecuador it represents 8.9% of the national economy as of 2019. For this reason, it has an impact on the economy of all nations, especially oil producing countries, thus becoming the most important energy resource worldwide. Furthermore, in OPEC’s Oil Market Report, it is mentioned that demand continues to increase. It is also said that South America holds 20% of the world’s proven crude oil reserves, with Ecuador holding 2.5% [1, 2]. In fact, oil is not consumed directly, it is necessary to refine it first. Refining consists of a series of separation, transformation, and purification processes to obtain its derivatives, e.g., gasoline, diesel, fuel oil, residues, jet fuel, LPG, asphalt, among others [3]. Thus, in the oil and gas industry, separators are commonly used to obtain water, crude oil, and gas from the emulsified mixture extracted from the reservoirs. Horizontal separators are thus vessels whose essential purpose is to release water, Z. Proaño C. (B) · V. H. Andaluz Universidad de las Fuerzas Armadas ESPE, Sangolquí, Ecuador e-mail: [email protected] V. H. Andaluz e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 A. Mesquita et al. (eds.), Perspectives and Trends in Education and Technology, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 256, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5063-5_52
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oil, and gas through independent pipelines using different separation methods [4]. However, the separation of the three phases is complicated by the fact that the control systems have difficulty adapting to internal changes in pressure and temperature, in addition to the formation of emulsion layers [5]. In this sense, the control of a horizontal three-phase separator, especially the interface level measurement, is considered a challenge for hydrocarbon processing, since the methods used in the oil industry are limited due to the demand for high reliability, variety of fluids, hostile environments, and intrinsic safety issues [6]. In fact, in marketing and custody transfer, to accurately determine the net volume of oil, water, and sediment content are measured [7]; therefore, a good separator performance is important. Due to the separation is a challenging process [8], controlling it implies knowing how the process works; selecting the necessary instrumentation to measure the variables to be controlled and monitored; understanding the control methods and techniques, among others. Thus, works have been found in the literature and can be grouped into three groups: (i) Modeling, where the mathematical model is determined by applying the laws of conservation of mass, the phenomenon of thermodynamic equilibrium, the Eulerian multiphase model, in order to describe the dynamic behavior of the horizontal three-phase separator, predict the behavior, and determine the efficiency of the separation [4, 9, 10]; (ii) Design of control algorithms, one of the purposes of the control algorithms is to modify the dynamics of the process to, e.g., maintain the water level inside the separator in a permitted range, smoothing the outlet flow of this phase, control the level and pressure inside the separator to improve the separation efficiency [11, 12]; and finally (iii) Simulation, were to validate the mathematical models or the designed control actions, simulation is used because the physical form of the separator is not available. This validation strategy is generally carried out using numerical simulation or through mathematical software [13–15]. Nowadays and according to the advance in technology, Virtual Reality (VR) is an alternative to simulate an industrial process. VR is a dynamic threedimensional simulation to recreate a real condition, using devices that stimulate the user’s senses [16–18]. VR develops the ability to concentrate because it allows the integration of three main components: immersion, interaction, and imagination. As a result, virtual laboratories have been developed; applications, for smart devices, in augmented reality in order to, e.g., train students in supervision, monitoring, and control of industrial processes; in the use of LACT units, in the oil & gas industry; in the design of cooperative controls of mobile robots; among others [19–21]. In this way, learning is favored, complementing theoretical and practical knowledge in the area of engineering [22, 23]. As described in the previous paragraphs, this paper presents a virtual training system, developed in the Unity3D graphics engine, oriented to control a three-phase horizontal separator. The design of the virtual environment aims to provide users with the ability to implement different control strategies in order to check the evolution of the process. The dynamics of the separation process are governed by a multivariable mathematical model, which means that, by changing the inputs, the system will react to satisfy the operation requirements, thus achieving greater realism in the virtual environment developed.
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52.2 Oil Separation Process Horizontal three-phase separators separate the gas phase from the liquid phase and also separate the water contained in the oil. For this reason, they are also known as free water separators (FWKO), used mainly when the fluids have a low gas-oil ratio [22]. The main parts of the separator can be defined as: (i) Inlet diverter, the incoming fluid collides with the internal baffle, causing a change of direction and velocity (change of momentum) of the mixture, achieving a first separation, the liquid goes to the bottom and the gas to the top; (ii) Coalescing plates, through the coalescing plates, most of the gas is separated from the liquid; (iii) Mist extractor, installed at the gas outlet, it produces coalescence due to the collision between the particles and against the surface, causing the larger droplets to fall by gravity. The force of gravity also acts on the fluid, leaving the liquid in the vapor phase; (iv) Weir, It divides the separator (vessel) into the separation chamber and the crude chamber. In the separation chamber, due to the difference in densities, the water is placed at the bottom and the oil at the top, which overflows (over the spillway) and crosses into the crude chamber; and finally; (v) Weir breaker, They are placed at the outlet of the water and oil piping, to avoid the formation of eddies and prevent the gas from exiting through these pipes [24, 25], see Fig. 52.1a. In the FWKO, the system inputs are considered to be the water, oil, and gas valve openings, while the outputs are the water level in the separation chamber, the oil level in the crude oil chamber, and the pressure inside the separator. There are three control loops for each of the controlled variables, in order to maintain their values at the desired values, see Fig. 52.1b. Where L in is the emulsified flow entering the separator; G in is the gas flow contained in the emulsified flow; G out is the gas exit flow; L out is the oil exit flow; Wout is the water exit flow; h T ; is the total level in the separation chamber; h W is the water level in the separation chamber; h L represents the crude oil level in the crude oil chamber. The dynamics of the separation process is governed by the multivariable mathematical model shown in (52.1), and is used to design the control law for the system
(a) Parts of a horizontal three-phase separator Fig. 52.1 Parts of a horizontal three-phase separator
(b) Variables controlled in separator
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[10]. ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ 17 2.4 X W (s) h W (s) − 206s+1 0 367s+1 ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ 43 126 169 X (s) ⎦ − 330s+1 ⎣ h L (s) ⎦ = ⎣ − 322s+1 508s+1 ⎦⎣ L 2.4 0 0 − 2s+1 h p (s) X G (s) ⎡
(52.1)
where, h p is the pressure inside the separator; X W represents the water valve opening; X L represents the oil valve opening; and X G is the gas valve opening.
52.3 Virtual Environment For the creation of the virtual environment, it is known that the location of the FWKO is in the facilities of the oil production operating companies located in the Amazon region, in this sense, an environment generated by the Standard Assets of Unity with Terrain, Trees, Grass, among others, is used. The digitalization of the FWKO starts with the design of the P&ID’s where the control loops are shown. The transformation of the 2D design to 3D is carried out in the 3D modeling software, Blender, to create the instruments, metallic structures, and equipment that do not have a 3D model available from the manufacturer. Then, the digitized model is imported into Unity 3D considering the proportion, scale, and use of materials for texturing. In the texturing process, the materials generated in the import, which correspond to each element that makes up the FWKO, are edited. The standard shader is also used due to the projected use of the application on a PC and with the premise of optimizing the use of resources, see Fig. 52.2. The programming of the virtual environment is done in separate scripts so that the elements have an independent behavior, but at the same time, the developed code allows communication between them when required. A liquid filling effect is programmed in the separation chamber and the crude chamber so that the level
Fig. 52.2 Development of the virtual environment
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evolves according to the value of the process output variables received from the simulation of the mathematical model in Matlab. This effect is achieved by using a 3D model for each chamber, so that the liquid takes the shape of the separator, in this case, a cylinder. The system will use two semi-cylinders modified in their extension and height dimensions, which will show the space occupied by the liquid inside the cylinder, see Fig. 52.3. In this sense, in the Unity 3D editor, a shader is prepared which, employing a control slider, allows the desired value of the levels of pressure to be set. The new shader fulfills the function of distributing two color variables in the texture applied to the 3D model, one color variable and the other a Base (RGB) trans (A). Using a Fade Map, the orientation and level of change between the two variables are defined, generally, a gradient is used between the colors black and white. Finally, the control is obtained by applying the Alpha cutoff to the shader, which resizes the entire surface of the 3D model to a value between 0 and 1, see Fig. 52.4. Also, the application must have real-time graphs to visualize the behavior of the input variables, output variables, errors, and control actions that show the performance of the control system developed in MATLAB. These graphs are displayed on the user interface and as dynamic information on the screens located in the control room. To this end, a class structure is created that allows the information mirroring to be executed in several instances. Since there are 3 variables in the process, a system of classes is used to reuse code and at the same time consume and send data between Unity and Matlab. On the other hand, bilateral real-time communication between the Fig. 52.3 Semi-cylinders for the filling effect
Fig. 52.4 Shader programming
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Fig. 52.5 Bilateral communication
Unity 3D graphics engine and the mathematical software is carried out using shared memories, see Fig. 52.5. Finally, avatars are generated that represent the privileges according to user level: operator, engineer, and supervisor. These are compatible with the Unity Rig to apply locomotion animations and specific tasks to be performed in the virtual environment.
52.4 Controller Structure This section presents the control scheme implemented in the Virtual Training System for the horizontal three-phase separator, see Fig. 52.6. In Fig. 52.6 h Wd is the desired value for the water level; h Ld is the desired value for the oil level; h pd is the desired value for the pressure inside the separator; eW is the error of the water level variable; eL is the error of the oil level variable; ep is the error of the pressure variable.
Fig. 52.6 Control structure
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The proposed controller considers the saturation of the commands xmin < xref (t) < xmax ; and receives as input signals hd (t)|t ∈ [t0 , t f ], which describe the desired values of the three-phase separator, in order to execute a regulation control of the water level, crude oil level, and pressure variables. The control problem is to find the control actions x(t)|t ∈ [t0 , t f ] to achieve the desired values at the output of the three-phase separator. Therefore, the control error is defined as e(t) = hd (t) − x(t), and as a consequence the control error is expressed as, lim e(t) = 0 ∈ R 3 .
t→∞
The proposed controller considers the mathematical model in the time domain of the horizontal three-phase separator represented by (52.2) ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ 17 − T ⎤ T 12 − 367 0 e − 206 e 206 h˙ W XW 1835 T T T ⎥⎣ 9 − 322 169 − 330 43 − 508 ⎣ h˙ L ⎦ = ⎢ e − 330 e e ⎦ XL ⎦ ⎣ − 23 508 T 6 −2 ˙h p Xp 0 0 −5e ⎡
˙ h(t) = J(t)x(t)
(52.2)
˙ Now, x(t) can be represented in terms of h(t) through the inverse matrix of J(t) ∈ R 3×3 , ˙ x(t) = J−1 (t)h(t)
(52.3)
where J−1 (t) = Adj(J)T |J|; therefore, the following control law is proposed for regulatory control of the water and oil variables xref (t) = J−1 (t)K tanh(e(t))
(52.4)
From Eq. (52.4) the control error is defined as e(t) = eW eL ep ; K ∈ R 3×3 is a positive definite matrix that weighs the control errors. The function tanh(.) is included to limit control errors e(t). The control error behavior is analyzed through the Lyapunov theory. Substituting (52.4) in (52.2), the closed loop equation is obtained ˙ h(t) = J(t)J−1 (t)K tanh(e(t))
(52.5)
Considering that J(t)J−1 (t) = I3×3 y e˙ (t) = −˙x(t), then (52.5) can be represented by e˙ (t) = −K tanh(e(t))
(52.6)
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For the stability analysis, it is considered, for the moment ρ = 0 and based on Lyapunov’s Theory the candidate function is considered V (e(t)) = 21 eT e. The derivative with respect to time and considering (52.6), it is possible to define that V˙ (e(t)) = −eT K tanh(e(t)) < 0. Therefore, it is concluded that the errors with control e(t) = 0 ∈ R 3 with t → ∞, that is an asymptotic stability. Considering a perturbation ρ(t) = 0 at the process input the closed loop equation considering (52.4) and (52.2) is, e˙ (t) = −K tanh(e(t)) + Jρ
(52.7)
Now considering the Lyapunov candidate function similar to the previous case, the first derivative with respect to time and considering (52.7), it is defined as V˙ (e(t)) = −eT K tanh(e) + eT Jρ
(52.8)
A sufficient condition for it to be negative is, T e K tanh(e) > eT Jρ
(52.9)
therefore, it is possible to conclude that the control errors are finally bounded, with bound e(t)
0 the gain matrix to balance control errors and ξ˙d = T x˙d y˙d θ˙d the desired velocity. Dynamic compensation, because the dynamics of the omnidirectional robotic platform are analyzed considering the displaced center of mass, these velocities need to be compensated by this block in order to reduce the velocity tracking error η˜ = ηc − η. The proposed control law is
ηref (k) = M(ς ) η˙ c − G ηc − η + C(s, η)η(k),
(57.17)
where the error is represented by η˜ = ηc − η; the desired acceleration is obtained from the first derivative of the velocity of the kinematic controller η˙ c ; and G > 0 represents the weight matrix to compensate for velocity errors.
57.4 Experimental Results This section presents the results of implementing a numerical method-based control algorithm for path tracking of an omnidirectional robotic platform in which it considered the displaced center of mass; see Fig. 57.3. This section tested several desired
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Fig. 57.3 Omnidirectional robotic platform built with center of mass displacement
paths to be fulfilled by the omnidirectional robotic platform and through testing shows the performance of the two proposed control blocks and the dynamic model considering the displaced center of mass. As can be seen in Fig. 57.4, the omnidirectional robotic platform follows the experimental trajectory that in this case has a sine shape by getting control errors to zero, where the direction of the robotic platform has to be calculated in each sampling period in order to reduce these errors.
Fig. 57.4 Movement of the robotic platform in tracking the desired trajectory
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57.5 Conclusions The proposed dynamic model of the omnidirectional robotic platform considers the displaced center of mass. A cascade control scheme is proposed that considers the kinematic model to solve the trajectory following problem, while the dynamic model is implemented to compensate for the dynamics of the omnidirectional robot. The results were obtained experimentally, which shows that the control errors tend to zero. Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank the Universidad de las Fuerzas Armadas ESPE; Universidad Tecnológica Indoamérica; SISAu Research Group, and the Research Group ARSI, for the support for the development of this work.
References 1. Andaluz, V.H., Sásig, E.R., Chicaiza, W.D., Velasco, P.M.: Linear Algebra Applied to Kinematic Control of Mobile Manipulators (pp. 297–306). Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. (2018) 2. Belanche, D., Casaló, L.V., Flavián, C., Schepers, J.: Service robot implementation: a theoretical framework and research agenda. The Serv. Ind. J., pp. 203–225 (2019) 3. Moradi, H., Kawamura, K., Prassler, E., Muscato, G., Fiorini, P., Sato, T., Rusu, R.: Service Robotics (The Rise and Bloom of Service Robots). IEEE Robot. Autom. Mag., pp. 22–24 (2013) 4. Guo, P., Kim, H., Virani, N., Xu, J., Zhua, M., Liu, P.: RoboADS: anomaly detection against sensor and actuator misbehaviors in mobile robots. In: Annual IEEE/IFIP International Conference on Dependable Systems and Networks, pp. 574–585 (2018) 5. García, Á., Facala, D., Díaz, U., Pigini, L., Blasi L., Qiu, R.: Inclusion of service robots in the daily lives of frail older users: a step-by step definition procedure on users’ requirements. Arch. Gerontol. Geriatr. 74, 191–196 (2018) 6. Baraka, K., Veloso, M.M.: Mobile service robot state revealing through expressive lights: formalism, design, and evaluation. Int. J. de Soc. Robot. 10, 65–92 (2017) 7. Campos, J., Jaramillo, S., Morales, L., Camacho, O.: PSO tuning for fuzzy PD + I controller applied to a mobile robot trajectory control. In: International Conference on Information Systems and Computer Science (INCISCOS), pp. 62–68 (2018) 8. Larkin, E.V., Antonov, M.A., Privalov, A.N.: The tricycle mobile robot movement simulation. In: ICMSC 2018, pp. 1–5 (2018) 9. Vargas, M.F., Sarzosa, D.S., Andaluz, V.H.: Unified nonlinear control for car-like mobile robot 4 wheels steering. In: Mendes A., Yan Y., Chen S. (eds) Intelligent Robotics and Applications, pp. 182–194, 2018. 10. Valero F., Rubio, F.: Assessment of the Effect of Energy Consumption on Trajectory Improvement for a Car-Like Robot, pp. 1–12. Cambridge University Press (2019) 11. Sarmento, L., Nunes, F., Santos Martins, R., Sepúlveda J., Sena Esteves, J.: Remote control system for a mobile platform with four Mecanum wheels. Int. J. Mech. Appl. Mech. 2017(1), 274–281 (2017) 12. Andaluz, V.H., Carvajal C.P., Arteaga, O.: Unified Dynamic Control of Omnidirectional Robots, pp. 673–685. Springer International Publishing AG (2017) 13. Andaluz, V.H., Carvajal, C.P., Santana, A., Zambrano, G.V.D., Pérez, J.A.: Navigation and Dynamic Control of Omnidirectional Platforms, pp. 661–672. Springer International Publishing AG 2017 (2017)
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14. Andaluz, V.H., Canseco, P., Varela J., Ortiz, J.S.: Modeling and control of a wheel-chair considering center of mass lateral displacements. In: ICIRA 2015, pp. 254–270 (2015) 15. Chen C.-M., Liu, F.-H.: Approach, the discrete-time equivalent of an analogue controller by a compensated. Int. J. Syst. Sci., pp. 287–294 (2001) 16. Gallo, L.V., Paste, B.D., Andaluz, V.H.: Control of an Omnidirectional Robot Based on the Kinematic and Dynamic Model. Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 (2021) 17. Ortiz, J.S., Palacios-Navarro, G., Andaluz, V.H., Recalde, L.F.: Three-dimensional unified motion control of a Robotic standing wheelchair for rehabilitation purposes. Sens. 21(9), 3057 (2021). https://doi.org/10.3390/s21093057
Chapter 58
Virtual Environment of an Industrial Process for Learning and Teaching Carlos A. Cueva, Kerly G. Erazo, César A. Naranjo, Fernando Saá , and Víctor H. Andaluz
Abstract Laboratory stations or modules are essential for the teaching-learning process, not having physical laboratories is a limitation for the educational and training process of future professionals. The use of virtual environments allows students to relate to these processes and replace the need to use a physical module partially or to complement their learning. The virtual environment has an interface like a video game, making students are attracted to the use of these tools; These virtual processes, like the real ones, are suitable for the immersion, inclusion, and subsequent evaluation of control techniques. With the use of the Unity 3D graphic engine, the typical laboratory pressure process is virtualized and through simple and advanced control strategies implemented in the Matlab software, it can be controlled with bilateral communication by shared memories.
58.1 Introduction Throughout this last century, constant technological evolutions have substantially transformed the educational field, making it a key requirement for the future and the preparation of students [1], With the Covid-19 pandemic, the perspective has C. A. Cueva · K. G. Erazo · C. A. Naranjo · V. H. Andaluz (B) Universidad de las Fuerzas Armadas ESPE, Sangolquí, Ecuador e-mail: [email protected] C. A. Cueva e-mail: [email protected] K. G. Erazo e-mail: [email protected] C. A. Naranjo e-mail: [email protected] F. Saá · V. H. Andaluz SISAu Research Group, Universidad Tecnológica Indoamérica, Ambato, Ecuador e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 A. Mesquita et al. (eds.), Perspectives and Trends in Education and Technology, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 256, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5063-5_58
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changed towards a “new normal” intervening in the way we used to study, a quick and efficient transition from traditional face-to-face learning to online learning is therefore necessary, which has been seen as a structural change in higher education [2]. As evidenced today, most teaching and learning activities have been integrated with different types of technologies, particularly with Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) [3], being one of the most changing and dynamic processes in the globalized world, to improve educational quality [4]. The pedagogical use of new technologies by educators represents a fundamental pillar to promote and develop the potential of new media in order to promote better quality learning [5]. This technology is often related to online learning, which generally involves the use of immersive applications [6–8]. Considering the use of ICT as configuring tools of environments or work and learning environments due to the capacity they have to transform the educational environment, through the innovation of particularly robust semiotic environments and with specific specifications [9]; with respect to virtual environments in E—A processes for e-learning or online learning such as Virtual Learning Environments (VLE) [10]; on the other hand, computer vision in industrial environments has had, and is, especially important due to the enormous performance it provides in the automation of repetitive and high-precision tasks [11]; this type of closed system in an industrial environment favor to a greater extent the achievement of the objectives of artificial vision [12]. The main applications of VLE cover sectors such as simulation, teaching, or medicine [13]. In the same way, the possible applications of these technologies in the industrial field have been studied, proving useful in any phase of a process [14]. Virtual reality and augmented reality can be used in validation, manufacturing phases, detail, and design as well as in support of assembly or maintenance tasks [15], virtual reality facilitates the implementation of computer aided design [16], the possibility of simulating the assembly and disassembly of components and the visualization of virtual prototypes brings a significant improvement in the detection of faults before the manufacturing process of a product [17]. Using these skills with appropriate instructional strategies for online learning activities can greatly enhance the virtual learning experience [18]; definitely, the virtual world has been considered as an important tool in modern educational practice, especially for collaborative learning [19], studies focused on the search for mathematical and programming models that optimize both production and planning of processes that are already immersed in the conversion to Industry 4.0 [20].
58.2 Problem Formulation Control and automation engineering aims to enhance the increase in productivity, quality of goods and services in the productive sector. An essential part of the professional training process is to carry out laboratory practices where students have the
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Fig. 58.1 Architecture of the physical and virtual training system
possibility of manipulating and knowing the different industrial processes to evaluate control techniques, using industrial didactic modules. Not having these modules limits learning and understanding in students, forcing the use of new teaching tools such as virtual reality, use of simulators, virtual environments, etc [21]. Due to what has been described above, this work proposes the implementation of a virtual environment of a typical SISO pressure process, which tries to approach the student through a high degree of immersion and realism, in order to mitigate the need for a real industrial process, partially or totally and be useful for the development of virtual laboratory practices. These environments also have a low cost of implementation and minimize the accidents that can occur when handling these real didactic modules. The integration of the environment is done using the Unity 3D graphics engine, taking as a reference a didactic laboratory module (Fig. 58.1) The integration of the environment is done using the Unity 3D graphics engine, taking as a reference a didactic laboratory module. The environment serves as the basis for the implementation of different real time control strategies, e.g., PID controllers, model-based predictive control (MPC), and fuzzy logic, embedded in Matlab software and communicated through shared memories with Unity 3D, where the process to be controlled is embedded.
58.3 Virtualization of the Industrial Environment The structure of the virtual environment has the ability to respond in real time and in a functional way to the requirements of a laboratory pressure system because it has two main components; the plant, where we find the instrumentation and the actual construction of the process with transmitters and indicators that show the current
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Fig. 58.2 Design process in unity 3D
state of the dynamic variable; and the monitor where the choice of control strategy and trend graphs are shown, making it intuitive and attractive to the user [22]. For the virtualization of the environment, a real industrial laboratory process is taken as a reference and through obtaining the P&ID diagram, it is modeled and integrated into a graphic engine considering the methodology mentioned in the following paragraph and it is represented in Fig. 58.2; (i) 3D modeling, each of the process components are chosen and based on different techniques are modeled, or in turn, prefabricated SketchUP templates are used, (ii) Production and integration, properties are given to the environment giving maximum realism, using the modeled components, digitized to integrate them to the Unity 3D graphics engine. Realism and immersivity are important attributes of the environment, so to achieve them, some characteristics are configured and introduced such as trend graphs, effects, and mobility, signage, lighting, sounds, animation, e.g., in this way we obtain an environment visually attractive and like a real process. Industrial processes to be controlled by algorithms require a mathematical model that defines them and is specific to each process; To obtain it, equations of the physical processes that intervene in an industrial pressure plant are used, such as temperature, the gases that enter the system or the existing mass balance, to finally obtain the first order model in the frequency domains. G(s) =
0.78e−3s 42.31s + 1
(58.1)
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58.4 Immersion and Control With the mathematical model of the process to be treated, different control strategies can be included, the selection of these strategies is made within the environment with an avatar or character, through which the user immerses, familiarizes, and manipulates the components through keys, computer mouse and using the senses of the users. With this character, manual control of the process is also carried out without the inclusion, for the moment, of a control strategy, in third or first person. The control algorithms used in this process are the classic PID and advanced controllers such as MPC and Fuzzy, embedded in Matlab software and communicated with Unity. The results obtained when using these controllers are observed in the virtual environment.
58.4.1 PID Control See Fig. 58.3. The PID control algorithm is one of the most used in the industry, therefore the one that is studied the most given its validity in the industrial world, its robustness and added to its efficiency when giving controllability to the system, it generates confidence, of there its wide use. Its operation is centered on the error (e), which is the result of the subtraction of the set point with the process variable and is defined by the equation in discrete time. u(k) − u(k − 1) = e(k)
Fig. 58.3 Control algorithms
k+
kT s 2
+
a1
ke(z) Ts
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−k kT2 s − a2
ke(z) Ts
+ e(k − 2)
ke(z) Ts
(58.2)
a3
u(k) = e(k)a1 + e(k − 1)a2 + e(k − 2)a3 + u(k − 1)
(58.3)
58.4.2 MPC Control For the MPC control algorithm, the optimization function is essential, since it oversees correcting the errors that occur between the reference path and the predicted outputs; on the other hand, the vector of future control actions, which depends on the prediction horizon, returns through the iterative optimization algorithm, considering that only the first element is sent to the pressure system; finally, the process is repeated for each moment arranged. J (N1 , N2 , Nu ) =
N2
2 α( j) ( yˆ (t + j|t)) − w(t + j)
j−N1
+
Nu
β( j)[u (t + j − 1)]2
(58.4)
j−1
58.4.3 Fuzzy Control The Fuzzy algorithm can control the system using common sense rules, these dictate the control action be taken, the diffuser is the union between the real and fuzzy inputs that allow all inputs to be mapped to a way that the rules can use them and the last element is a decoder which takes a fuzzy value from the rules and generates a real output; For the design rules, the decrease of the overshoot was sought, for this reason, the derivative of the error was applied, which allowed to attenuate the oscillations (Fig. 58.4).
58.5 Analyses and Results For the teaching-learning process to perform appropriately in the virtual environment, it was necessary to enhance the operational qualities proposed in the Unity 3D graphics engine; The VLE adopts the role of facilitator of constant learning, whose
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Fig. 58.4 Fuzzy logic implementation rules (surface)
operation is intuitive and, like a video game, the user has the option of moving within it and getting to know the different instruments and elements that make up the pressure process, with a character that allows you to have a third or first person perspective (Fig. 58.5). The environment has signage and transitory instructions for handling, making navigation within it friendly and does not require an extensive manual that is complex for users to understand. For a more detailed approach to the real process, the dynamic variable that intervenes and is measured are shown both in the process (field) and in the trend graph (control station), coupled in the environment. It is important to have the information that is generated from the different variables of the process in the instruments, in this way it is possible to represent the operation of the process. The choice of the controller to be used or evaluated is done in the control station, with the use of keys where load can also be added to the process or it can be added with
Fig. 58.5 Virtualized environment in the Unity 3D graphics engine
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Fig. 58.6 Control station and charging valve
the direct manipulation of the valve located at the outlet of the virtual environment tank (Fig. 58.6). The implementation of the control algorithms in the same process allowed them to be compared under the same operating conditions, highlighting the MPC controller, which is the one that best fits the process, since it has a shorter establishment time and reacts quickly to sudden changes in the set point and disturbances, a characteristic that was not achieved using the Fuzzy controller, since it requires a much longer stabilization time and does not respond adequately in short operating times, in addition, in these advanced controllers the absence of over impulses in their actions (Fig. 58.7). The PID controller works properly although it exhibits minimal variation in its process signal when loads are attached and its settling time is greater than MPC and less than FUZZY.
58.6 Conclusions The educational innovation process implies incurring in a creative and innovative way in avant-garde theories, conceptions, practices, and training technologies, which leads to recognizing the usefulness and need for the use of ICT for teaching in an innovative way, for which the process virtualized in addition to having similarity to a real plant, it has a mathematical model that identifies it, which is obtained based on mainly physical laws that govern the process; The virtualization of environments allows a significant saving compared to the construction of these processes in a physical way since they do not need to incur in expenses of instrumentation, installation, etc., in addition, that of the realism through animations, virtual environments support failures that in the real life could mean the total destruction of some elements present in the process.
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Fig. 58.7 Execution of MPC, PID, fuzzy controllers
On the other hand, the controllers implemented in the pressure system were designed and built in the dedicated Matlab mathematical software; the instrumentation implemented in virtualization is essential since these parameters make the environment immersive and manage to resemble a real workspace; The implementation of the controllers in the same process, allowed the comparison and performance of the algorithms under the same operating conditions for reliable results, standing out the MPC controller for its speed when stabilizing the desired variable and the process variable, in addition to the Fuzzy controller had a very slow response compared to the others used, so it is the least appropriate for this process, at least if you want to control the system with sudden changes in the set point in short times. Acknowledgments The authors would like to thank the Universidad de las Fuerzas Armadas ESPE; Universidad Tecnológica Indoamérica; SISAu Research Group, and the Research Group ARSI, for the support for the development of this work.
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References 1. P. M. L. M. M. G. E. M. H. J. Á. P. I. Pérez Zúñiga, R.: The knowledge society and the information society as the cornerstone in educational technology innovation. SciELO 8(16) (2018) 2. CEPAL: Naciones Unidas CEPAL. UNESCO, 08 2020. [En línea]. Available: https://www. cepal.org/es/publicaciones/45904-la-educacion-tiempos-la-pandemia-covid-19. [Último acceso: 2021 02 28] 3. Sánchez, P.M.: Meaningful learning and its role in. Rehuso 4(2), 1–12 (2019) 4. Martha Concepción Macías, F.M.M.: Challenges of Higher Education System in Ecuador for the Age of. FORO EDUCACIONAL 26, 89, 114 (2016) 5. Brumell Aguiar, R.V.J.A.: Teacher’s innovation and the use of ICTs in Higher Education. ESPACIOS 40(2), 8 (2019) 6. «Glosario de Innovación Educativa,» Tecnológico de Monterrey, 03 02 2020. [En línea]. Available: https://observatorio.tec.mx/edu-news/glosario-de-innovacion-educativa. [Último acceso: 2021 03 01] 7. Zambrano, JI., et al.: Multi-user virtual system for training of the production and bottling process of soft drinks. In: 2020 15th Iberian Conference on Information Systems and Technologies (CISTI). IEEE (2020) 8. Yugcha, E.P., Ubilluz, J.I., Andaluz, V.H.: Virtual training for industrial process: pumping system. Lecture Notes in Computer Science, vol. 11614. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10. 1007/978-3-030-25999-0_33 (2019) 9. I. B. G. S. M. T. Llorente, J.S.: Analysis of TIC Technologies Use by Teachers of Pedagogical Institutes of Riohacha City. redalyc, 04 07 2016. [En línea]. Available: https://www.redalyc. org/jatsRepo/737/73749821005/html/index.html. [Último acceso: 01 03 2021] 10. Román, V.C.: Learning English as LE in Virtual Environments. Academia, 2018. [En línea]. Available: https://www.academia.edu/40015960/Aprendizaje_de_Ingl%C3%A9s_ como_LE_en_Entornos_Virtuales_Tesis_de_Maestria_. [Último acceso: 01 03 2021] 11. ITSCRE: Academic Platforms: A Partner of Higher Education and Virtual Education. ITSCRE, 25 06 2020. [En línea]. Available: https://www.cruzrojainstituto.edu.ec/plataformas-academ icas-un-aliado-de-la-educacion-superior-y-la-ensenanza-virtual/. [Último acceso: 2021 03 01] 12. Montemayor, A.S.: Artificial vision provides high performance in the automation of repetitive and high precision tasks. Canales sectoriales Interempresas, 28 02 2016. [En línea]. Available: https://www.interempresas.net/Robotica/Articulos/118622-Vision-Artificial-en-ent ornos-industriales.html. [Último acceso: 2021 03 01] 13. Marianela Delgado Fernández, A.S.G.: Creative didactic strategies in virtual environmentsforlearning. ResearchGate 2. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/28319119_Estrategias_ didacticas_creativas_en_entornos_virtuales_para_el_aprendizaje (2019) 14. UNESDOC: UNESCO. UNESCO, 2018. [Enlínea]. Available: https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ ark:/48223/pf0000133009. [Último acceso: 01 03 202] 15. CEPAL: Industry 4.0 Opportunities and challenges for productive development. United Nations publication, 8, 8, 14 (2019) 16. Pena, M.D.S.: «Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingeniería,» 2018. [En línea]. Available: http://bib ing.us.es/proyectos/abreproy/12456/fichero/PFC-2456-SANCHEZ.pdf. [Último acceso: 01 03 2021] 17. Navarro, I.B.: UPNA. 29 06 2018. [En línea]. Available: https://academica-e.unavarra.es/xmlui/ bitstream/handle/2454/29130/MEMORIA%20TFG.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y. [Último acceso: 01 03 2021] 18. Viñas, M.: Digital skills and essential tools to transform classes and advance professionally. 22 03 2020. [Enlínea]. Available: https://cooperaciondocente.com/competencias-digitalesy-herramientas-esenciales-para-transformar-las-clases-y-avanzar-profesionalmente/. [Último acceso: 01 03 2021]
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19. Losada, T.B.: «Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingeniería,» 2017. [En línea]. Available: http://bibing.us.es/proyectos/abreproy/91146/fichero/La+Industria+4.0+Aplicaciones+ e+Implicaciones.pdf. [Último acceso: 01 03 2021] 20. Lorenzon, E.: General Systems Theory Applied. Ciudad de la Plata: UNPL (2020) 21. Andaluz Victor, H., et al.: Conversational agent for industrial processes through virtual environments. Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-03072654-6_21 (2021) 22. Ortiz, J.S., Palacios-Navarro, G., Andaluz, V.H., Guevara, B.S.: Virtual reality-based framework to simulate control algorithms for robotic assistance and rehabilitation tasks through a standing wheelchair. Sensors 21(15):5083. https://doi.org/10.3390/s21155083 (2021)
Chapter 59
Advanced Controllers for Level Processes: Hardware-in-the-Loop Technique Manuel A. Quispe, Martha C. Molina, Franklin Castillo , and Víctor H. Andaluz Abstract One of the most important variables in the automation process is the liquid level; therefore, this work presents the design of advanced control algorithms such as model-based predictive control and fuzzy for a level process with multiple inputs and multiple outputs. These will be implemented under the hardware-in-the-loop technique. Where each controller is distributed in embedded devices (Raspberry Pi 4), in turn the mathematical model that presents the dynamics of the process is located in a main computer, in which a virtual environment is developed to contribute with a more realistic representation of the process. This is done in order to evaluate the behavior of the process, as well as to assess the performance of each control algorithm implemented. Finally, the experimental results obtained are presented, based on previously established parameters, which allow the identification of the controller with the best efficiency for process optimization.
59.1 Introduction Automation and control processes have appeared in the world since the beginning of the industrial revolution, due to the fact that man has set himself the task of investigating and proposing alternatives that contribute to increase productivity, reduce
M. A. Quispe · M. C. Molina · V. H. Andaluz (B) Universidad de las Fuerzas Armadas ESPE, Sangolquí, Ecuador e-mail: [email protected] M. A. Quispe e-mail: [email protected] M. C. Molina e-mail: [email protected] F. Castillo · V. H. Andaluz SISAu Research Group, Universidad Tecnológica Indoamérica, Ambato, Ecuador e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 A. Mesquita et al. (eds.), Perspectives and Trends in Education and Technology, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 256, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5063-5_59
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operating costs and save energy; all of this aimed at the global optimization of industrial processes [1]. This is why, through the advancement and development of technology, the term automation has taken on a significant importance in recent years, as it has incorporated mechanical, electrical, electronic and computerized systems, [1, 2] in order to replace the work of supervision and control by the operator on a scheduled basis, thus, facilitating the management of resources, time, physical effort and in turn increasing the quality and effectiveness of production processes, to achieve high levels of competitiveness within the market as stated in [3]. Therefore, automation is a subject of utmost importance within industrial processes, regardless of the sector to which it is oriented or its area of application, since they have become vital operations for the manufacture of countless products focused on satisfying consumers according to their needs [4–8]. In this sense, the final products go through a series of stages or procedures in which the raw material is involved in order to obtain them, either in more or less time, complying with several quality specifications. Therefore, for the fulfillm ent of this, the terminology of process control comes into play [9], which basically consists of minimizing the margin of error of a physical variable, be it temperature, pressure, flow or level, maintaining it in a previously specified reference or within a determined range, with the capacity to withstand fluctuating conditions called disturbances, as presented by [10]. This is based on the use of current technologies because the process control is immersed in a wide variety of applications such as water treatment, boiler management, reactors and turbines. Standing out among them the level processes, for this reason, this control system contributes to the increase of: safety, profitability and sustainability, ensuring ease of operation to keep the process under control [4]. Nowadays, automatic control strategies to keep industrial processes at a stable level have generated a great expectation for their results, transcending those usually used for SISO systems such as: PID control in its various forms, control by reason, control by pole reassignment, among others [11], same as can be used for MIMO systems, but the concept of loop decoupling must be taken into account [12], so that they can be easily implemented, but in turn these are limited to systems with an equal number of inputs and outputs. However, industrial processes are not traditional and have a degree of complexity, for this reason cannot be operated with conventional control strategies efficiently and require the use of advanced control techniques [13, 14], based on the integral knowledge of the system and the operating conditions that are represented in a very approximate way in the mathematical modeling. Among the various advanced control strategies for the most common level processes are: (i) fuzzy logic control; this controller is considered as "expert" and consists of four parts: The fuzzification interface is the transformation of numerical data or input data into linguistic terms. The knowledge base provides the necessary information for all the components of the fuzzy controller [15]. The fuzzy inference engine or logical decision making is the core or brain of the controller; it is able to simulate the decision making of human beings. At the end of the inference step, the result obtained is a fuzzy value that cannot be used directly to control the process. Therefore, this value must be defuzzified to obtain a numerical value. Each of these parts plays a different role in the control process, directly affecting the control performance and behavior
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of the entire system [16]. (ii) Model-based predictive control, this multivariable technique is characterized by the use of the dynamic model of the process, which is used to predict future outputs, that is, this controller is the only one that has the ability to anticipate control actions through the optimizer to achieve optimal control movements [17]. (iii) Neural control, part of the generation of data represents process conditions and control actions that lead the system to the desired values, as described in [18]. Incorporating this information to the learning of the neural network consists of a mathematical structure that represents the information in a very similar way as it is found in the human brain. This requires a training stage, where the information of the system is entered trying to make the network learn and another validation stage where the learning of the network is contrasted with other available data that are part of the system but that were not used in the training as described in the following description [19]. It is evident that industrial MIMO level processes require a fast, effective and efficient control to avoid industrial accidents and economic losses; due to this, the problem of control of this type of processes has been studied by different approaches, among them the implementation of conventional controllers. Therefore, the proposal of this article in a certain way contributes a contribution directed toward research and control, since it propitiates the implementation of advanced control algorithms for a MIMO level process, through the hardware-in-the-loop technique, in this work the mathematical model that represents the dynamics of the level process is located in a main computer. The proposed controllers use a previously defined control structure and according to its typology generate control actions, in order to keep the process controlled by means of a feedback that is linked through wireless communications using Raspberry Pi cards. The behavior of the system can be visualized in a virtual environment, which is developed in Unity 3D software, where the MIMO level process is represented in a more realistic way. With the purpose of evaluating the performance of each implemented algorithm, subsequent selection of the most appropriate control contributes to the optimization of the level process.
59.2 Level Processes The system proposed in this work, as presented in Figure. 59.1, consists of several advanced controllers, where its structure is based both on the behavior of the system and the application of previously established linguistic rules [20]. Considering the inputs as a control reference set by the operator (tank level), which in turn will be contrasted with the output signal to be emitted by the process. The difference of the two signals enters the controllers; this information is processed and send run signals to each control valve, in order to establish the level of each tank similar to the reference. Therefore, to visualize the behavior of the industrial system, a virtual environment is developed based on the P&ID diagram of the process considering the ISA 5.1 standard, which establishes the correct use of the symbology for its design. The virtualized environment will allow to emulate the behavior and evolution of
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Fig. 59.1 HIL proposed system
the level process, allowing the user to interact in a more realistic way with it. The HIL environment will be developed in a control unit that allows bilateral wireless communication between the MIMO level process and the advanced controllers. The design of the industrial MIMO level process was done in CAD Plant 3D software, using 3ds Max software to transform the CAD file with .dwg extension into a .fbx file, which is readable in the Unity 3D graphics engine (See Fig. 59.2), where real-world physical features such as instrumentation, audio data, work environment and other properties are incorporated, emulating a real environment to allow the visualization of the process behavior and evolution of the different advanced control algorithms. The industrial process to be controlled is shown in Fig. 59.3, and it consists of two-level tanks, two pumps that provide constant flow, and five valves. Two of them (LCV-100 and LCV-101) will be the control valves, while the other valves (LPV-100, LPV-101, LPV-101) will be used as disturbance of the system to be controlled. In order to determine the inlet and outlet flow of each tank, the Bernoulli principle is mainly considered, where the potential and kinetic energy balance of the system is considered E c = E p ; hence, 1/2mv 2 = mgh. On the other√hand, the outflow qout from the tank through a cross section S is: qout = Sv = S 2gh considering that √ the flow through a valve qv , is maintained in steady state, it is defined qv = kv av P, where k v represents a constant that defines the behavior of the valve; av is the passage area or percentage of valve opening; and P defines the differential pressure across the valve. Therefore, considering that the pressure difference is constant, the flow through the valve is proportional to the valve opening, i.e., in a practical way, it has a linear approximation. Therefore, inlet flow (1) and outlet flow (2) are represented by the expressions: qin = ki ai
(59.1)
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Fig. 59.2 Virtualization of the industrial MIMO level process
qout = ki ai 2gh j
(59.2)
where i corresponds to the numbering of the valves, either control or disturbance valves, and j represents the numbering of the tanks. On this, the mathematical process model for tank 1 is: dh 1 d V1 = A1 = q1−in − q1−out dt dt 1 dh 1 = k1 a1 − k3 a3 2gh 1 − k4 a4 2gh 1 dt A1
(59.3)
while tank model 2 is defined as: d V2 dh 2 = A2 = q2−in − q2−out dt dt 1 dh 2 = k2 a2 + k4 a4 2gh 1 − k5 a5 2gh 2 dt A2
(59.4)
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Fig. 59.3 MIMO level process
59.3 Control Strategies 59.3.1 MPC Controller Predictive control consists of a control strategy, which uses the mathematical model of the process, which in turn comes to represent the prediction model, whose purpose is to anticipate the value of the controlled variables in an extension of horizon [21]. Process model. The following expression is used to calculate the predictions yˆ (t + k), where an approximation of the behavior of the process dynamics is represented. Cost function: The purpose of this function is to obtain the control law, expressed by: J (N1 , N2 , Nu ) =
N2 j=N1
δ( j)[ y˜ (t + j|t) − w(t + j)]2 +
Nu
λ( j)[u(t + j − 1)]2
j=1
(59.5)
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Fig. 59.4 Control errors
where N 1 is the minimum prediction limit, with values greater than N 1 . A smooth response of the process will be obtained with dead time d: N1 > d; N 2 corresponds to the maximum prediction limit; Nu is the control horizon and in turn must be different from N 2 and δ (j), λ(t) represent weights that can be constant or exponential. On the other hand, the trajectory to the reference point in a prediction horizon is mainly based on the decrease of delays due to the fact that the reference signal can be known beforehand r(t + k). Considering a real reference trajectory r(t + k), which is different from a reference trajectory w(t + k), it obtained a smooth approximation of the current value of the output y(t) expressed by: w(t + k) = αw(t + k − 1) + (1 − α)r (t + k) k = 1, . . . , N
(59.6)
where if α ≈ 1 has a smoother approximation and if α ≈ 0 has a faster approximation in its errors, respectively, as shown in Fig. 59.4. Control law. It is defined by u(t + k) and is obtained by optimizing the cost function J, calculating the prediction model and replacing it in the aforementioned function. The strategy for structuring the control law is to use control horizon N u , which considers that after a control period of less than N 2 , the current control signal remains constant. u(t + j − 1) = 0
(59.7)
On the other hand, the future control signal u(t + k|t) does not remain constant, since when using the moving horizon, it must be calculated every next sampling, so that the process signal resembles the reference signal as shown in Fig. 59.5.
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Fig. 59.5 Process response with MPC controller
59.3.2 Control Fuzzy Based on the description of the industrial MIMO level process exposed in Sect. 3, a system based on fuzzy logic is designed through which the level of each tank is controlled. Therefore, the fuzzy controller was implemented, where it receives as inputs the error e corresponding to the difference between the desired level and the , while the output measured level of each tank; and the derivative of the error d(e) dt emits a signal proportional to the variation of the actuation voltage du applied to dt each control valve. The implementation of this controller was developed in the MATLAB fuzzy logic toolbox, in the FIS Editor window, where the number of inputs and outputs for the controller is entered with its respective label, as shown in Fig. 59.6. Membership functions. For the definition of the error inputs: (NG) large negative, (N) negative, (S) small, (P) positive, (PG) large positive, as presented in Fig. 59.7,
Fig. 59.6 Fuzzy controller block diagram
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Fig. 59.7 Membership functions for error input
Fig. 59.8 Membership functions for the input derived from the error
whereas the input defined by the derivative of the error is: (N) negative, (S) small and (P) positive, as shown in Fig. 59.8. The outputs are defined by: (NG) large negative, (N) negative, (Z) zero, (P) positive and (PG) large positive, as illustrated in Fig. 59.9. Base rules. To enter the linguistic rules presented in Table 59.1, the ruleedit command is used, which represents the existing relationships between inputs and outputs of the system, i.e., for any possible input, there is an output established by the rule. Inference mechanism. The inference mechanism is based on confidence factors, i.e., depending on the degree of membership of the inputs, the confidence factor for the output will be obtained. Defuzzification method. The Mamdani method was used, obtaining the output by the centroid method. Controller. Since the controller output is proportional to the derivative of the actuating voltage applied to the control valve, the defuzzification method is accurate and in turn integrates a saturation for the operation of the system.
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Fig. 59.9 Outbound membership functions
Table 59.1 Rules of inference e de dt
NG
N
S
P
PG
N
NG
N
P
PG
PG
S
NG
N
Z
P
PG
P
NG
Z
N
Z
PG
The control loop is basically that the output of the MIMO level process is compared with the reference to determine the error, which are shown in Fig. 59.10. The signals entering the fuzzy controller correspond to the error and its respective derivative, and the controller processes the information and issues the actuation signal in order to reduce the error, allowing the behavior of the system as shown in Fig. 59.11.
Fig. 59.10 Control errors
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Fig. 59.11 Response of the industrial process
59.4 Experimental Results This section presents the performance evaluation of the controllers implemented under the HIL technique described in section two and denoted in Fig. 59.2. In this evaluation, the following parameters were considered: rise time, settling time and percentage of overshoot resulting in the values shown in Tables 59.2 and 59.3. In tank 1 of the industrial MIMO level process, through a comparison of performance parameters between the Fuzzy and MPC controllers, it is found that, for different set points, the rise time differs between 0.02 and 0.6 [s], while the settling time from 0.2 to 1 [s] and the percentage of overshoot presented by these controllers are null. While for tank 2, the rise time differs between 0.02 and 1.76 [s]; the settling time from 0.4 to 1.1 [s] and the percentage of overshoot similarly to tank 1 presents a null Table 59.2 Comparison of tank 1 controllers Advanced controller
Performance parameters Set point
Rise time [s]
Settling time [s]
% of over-shoot
Fuzzy controller
1
6.1
9
0
MPC controller
2
2.8
3.3
0.01
3
2.3
4.01
0
4
5.4
6.03
0
1
5.9
8
0
2
2.9
3.5
0
3
2.28
3.4
0
4
4
5.6
0
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Table 59.3 Comparison of tank 2 controllers Advanced controller
Performance parameters Set point
Fuzzy controller
MPC controller
Rise time [s]
Settling time [s]
% of over-shoot
1
4.92
7.2
0
2
12.01
14
0
3
2.83
2.8
0
4
1.82
1.8
0
1
5.02
8.3
0
2
10.25
13.2
0
3
2.6
3.2
0
4
1.8
2.2
0
magnitude. Based on the results obtained, the difference between the implemented controllers with respect to response speed and settling time, the MPC controller is 1.76 [s] faster than the fuzzy controller and settles its response with respect to the reference at least 0.67 [s] faster. In addition, the degree of flexibility of the fuzzy and MPC controller is high, since it allows to vary its prediction horizon and its linguistic rules, in order to improve the control of the industrial process and its performance.
59.5 Conclusion The HIL simulation technique serves as an alternative and effective method in the design and implementation of advanced controllers that present drawbacks due to high cost or availability. HIL provides high performance in the field of real-time emulation, while providing an equivalent idea of the behavior of the industrial MIMO level process, thus ensuring the verification and evolution of its operation. In addition, it allows to modify its variables without affecting or causing any damage to the real equipment, providing results with a high degree of fidelity. Advanced controllers allow the optimization of raw materials in industrial processes, through the reduction of operation times. Therefore, through the comparison between the implemented controllers, it was verified that the fuzzy and MPC controllers present a similar performance, despite the fact that one uses linguistic rules for its development and the other uses the mathematical model of the process. However, the MPC controller is faster in response and stabilization of the industrial process variables. Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank the Universidad de las Fuerzas Armadas ESPE; Universidad Tecnológica Indoamérica; SISAu Research Group, and the Research Group ARSI, for the support for the development of this work.
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20. Ortiz, J.S., Palacios-Navarro, G., Andaluz, V.H., Guevara, B.S.: Virtual reality-based framework to simulate control algorithms for robotic assistance and rehabilitation tasks through a standing wheelchair. Sensors 21(15), 5083 (2021). https://doi.org/10.3390/s21155083 21. Andaluz, G.M., et al.: Modeling dynamic of the human-wheelchair system applied to NMPC. In: Lecture Notes in Computer Science, vol 9835. Springer, Cham. (2016). https://doi.org/10. 1007/978-3-319-43518-3_18
Chapter 60
Internet Access and Acceptance of a Scholar Information System in Mexican University Students Felipe Machorro, David Andrade Aguilar, Maria Vanessa Romero, and Eva Mora Colorado Abstract This study aimed to examine the effect of the quality of internet access on the acceptance of a scholar information system in a developing country. For this, we collect data from 956 students at a higher education institution in Mexico. The Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) was used to analyze the relationships between perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, the attitude of use and intention to use, and the effect that the quality of Internet connectivity has on students. For this, we designed a partial least squares (PLS) structural equation model. The results show that the quality of Internet access has a significant effect on the perceived ease of use, perceived usefulness, and the behavioral intention to use the system.
60.1 Introduction The COVID-19 pandemic caused education must be conducted remotely almost all over the world. Mexico was no exception, basic and higher education institutions had to find strategies to provide educational services at a distance. This meant not only offering classes but also ensuring that academic and administrative processes could be carried out online. In many cases, these school information systems already existed, but their acceptance had not been required since students had the option of attending in person to carry out their school procedures. F. Machorro (B) Universidad de las Americas Puebla, Puebla, Mexico e-mail: [email protected] D. A. Aguilar · M. V. Romero · E. M. Colorado Instituto Tecnologico Superior de Tierra Blanca, Tierra Blanca, Mexico e-mail: [email protected] M. V. Romero e-mail: [email protected] E. M. Colorado e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 A. Mesquita et al. (eds.), Perspectives and Trends in Education and Technology, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 256, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5063-5_60
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However, the health contingency forced the use of these systems in a general way, which raised another variable to consider, i.e., the quality of the Internet connection. Developing countries, such as Mexico, usually present great differences between their regions with respect to Internet access for their population [1], so the experience when using information systems will vary considerably depending on the quality of connectivity that the student has. Therefore, the objective of this article is to analyze the effect of the quality of internet access on the acceptance of a school information system in a higher education institution in Mexico. For this, we use the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) with internet access as an external variable. The document is composed of the following sections: a literature review of the TAM and its component variables, next, a description of the research method used, and then a presentation of the results obtained, conclusions, and discussion.
60.1.1 The Technology Acceptance Model The Technology Acceptance Model was developed by Davis [2] based on Ajzen and Fishbein’s theory of reasoned action [3]. This model attempts to predict people’s behavior through variables such as intention and attitude toward use, i.e., acceptance of a technological system, especially information technologies. The main objective of the TAM is to analyze the different elements that influence and determine the behavior and acceptance of technologies. It includes internal and external variables related to each other and proposes that perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use influence the attitude toward the use and finally the intention to use the technology. Figure 60.1 shows the variables that make up the model, as well as the relationships between them.
Fig. 60.1 Technology acceptance model. Davis [4]
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Perceived Usefulness (PU): The level at which people believe that the technology used will help them perform their work efficiently, i.e., improve their work performance. Perceived Ease of Use (PEOU): This is the level at which people think that they will have to make an effort to be able to use the technology used appropriately. It has a causal relationship with perceived usefulness. Attitude Toward Using (ATT): This factor is the sum of perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use, and represents the disposition that people have toward the technology used. It can be a favorable attitude, cause aversion, or provoke uncertainty. Behavioral Intention to Use (BI): The conscious process of intending to use a given technology. Actual Use: It is the final behavior of people, the use or rejection of a technological system. External Variables: Factors outside the technological system under study that influence its actual use, such as user characteristics, hardware used, previous induction, etc.
60.1.2 TAM in Universities Researchers often use the TAM as a reference to analyze the acceptance of technology by students in universities. For example the acceptance of various technologies such as educational social networks [5], digital library resources [6], electronic learning systems [7-9], virtual reality [10], mobile learning management systems [11, 12], blended learning systems [13, 14], universities web portals [15], among many others.
60.1.3 Internet Access as an External Variable of the TAM In the literature, several variables can be found that have been considered as external to the TAM, which influences the ease of use and perceived usefulness. Some of them are related to user characteristics, e.g., personality [15], self-efficacy [5, 12], perceived behavioral control [13], perceptions of external control [5], subjective norms [5, 13] and Perceived enjoyment [5, 12]. Another type of external variable is related to system properties, for example, output quality [5], perceived mobility value [11, 12], academic relevance [11], trust and security [8], university management support [11] and technological complexity [5]. In developing countries, one variable that is important for technology acceptance is the quality of internet connection. Zalat [16] concluded that unstable internet connectivity represents the biggest obstacle to e-learning, according to university
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Fig. 60.2 Hypotheses model
teachers’ perception in Egypt. Furthermore, Shakah [9] found that technical difficulties, such as low internet connectivity, decrease the acceptance of e-learning systems for students in Jordan. Because Mexico is a country in which there are significant differences in the infrastructure needed for internet connection in different regions, this research hypothesizes that the quality of internet access (IA) influences both PU and PEOU as an external variable of the TAM (Fig. 60.2).
60.2 Method 60.2.1 Participants The study was conducted in a technological higher education institution in the state of Veracruz in Mexico. The participants were undergraduate students, all users of an academic management system called the Integrated Management System (IMS). A non-random sampling was carried out in which the response to the instrument was requested through the IMS platform voluntarily. A total of 949 students responded to the survey. Table 60.1 summarizes the demographic characteristics of the participants.
60.2.2 Instrument Design The Technology Acceptance Model’s measurement instruments were adapted from Davis [2] and Wu and Chen [17]. Additionally, a question was included to measure students’ perception of the quality of their Internet access. All items considered a
60 Internet Access and Acceptance of a Scholar Information System … Table 60.1 Characterization of the sample
Demographic Background
Number
Percentage (%)
Gender
Male
467
49.2
Female
482
50.8
Local
518
54.6
Foreign
431
45.4
Engineering
581
61.2
Business
368
38.8
Residence Academic discipline
Table 60.2 Cronbach’s Alpha
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Variable
Items
Cronbach’s Alpha
Perceived usefulness (PU)
4
0.929
Perceived ease of use (PEOU)
4
0.932
Attitude toward using (ATT)
4
0.925
Behavioral intention to use (BI)
3
0.925
seven-point Likert scale. Table 60.2 shows Cronbach’s Alpha as a measure of the reliability of the instrument. All variables show high reliability with values greater than 0.9.
60.2.3 Data Analysis We analyzed the data using the structural equation technique with a partial least squares (PLS) approach to test the research model [18, 19]. For this purpose, SmartPLS 3.0 software was used [20]. PLS has certain advantages over Covariance-based Structural Equation Modeling (CBSEM) techniques, in terms of the requirements of the distribution of the sample variables, the type of variables, and the sample size [21].
60.3 Results 60.3.1 Measurement Model For evaluating the measurement model using PLS, we calculated the individual reliability per item, the convergent validity, and the divergent validity. The individual reliability of the item is assessed by examining loads of the measures with their respective constructs. To accept an indicator as a construct
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Table 60.3 Factor loadings Indicator
PU
PU1
0.895
PU2
0.904
PU3
0.913
PU4
0.921
PEOU
PEOU1
0.905
PEOU2
0.895
PEOU3
0.929
PEOU4
0.918
ATT
ATT1
0.898
ATT2
0.913
ATT3
0.903
ATT4
0.899
BI
BI1
0.920
BI2
0.940
BI3
0.939
member, it must have a load equal to or greater than 0.707 [22], which implies that the construct shares more than 50% of the variance of the observed variable. For the model presented, the loads per variable are more significant than the suggested value (Table 60.3). Convergent validity assesses whether the different items of a construct measure the same thing so that the fit will be significant and highly correlated. The Average Extracted Variance (AVE) was calculated since it provides the amount of variance that a construct obtains from its indicators to the amount of variance due to the measurement error. Fornell and Larcker [23] suggest that the AVE must be at least 50%. For the PLS model’s divergent validity, the square root of the AVE was compared with the correlation between the constructs. To affirm that the model has divergent validity, the AVE of each construct must be greater than the variance shared with the others (Table 60.4). Table 60.4 Convergent and divergent validity (Fornell-Lacker criterion) Variable
PU
PU
0.908
PEOU
ATT
PEOU
0.707
0.912
ATT
0.687
0.731
0.903
BI
0.647
0.714
0.723
BI
0.933
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60.3.2 Hypothesis Testing To test the study hypotheses, Table 60.5 shows path coefficients β. To obtain the p-value and t-value of the coefficients, we apply a bootstrapping procedure of 500 subsamples. According to the results of the p values, all beta coefficients are statistically significant. Also, to evaluate the effect size, we calculated the index f 2 , whose values of 0.02, 0.15, and 0.35 indicate a small, moderate, and strong effect, respectively [24]. Accordingly, IA had a small impact on PU (f 2 = 0.063) and a strong effect on PEOU (f 2 = 0.692), while PEOU had a quite strong impact on PU (f 2 = 0.400). The impact of PU on ATT was small (f 2 = 0.141), while PEOU had a moderate effect on ATT (f 2 = 0.295). Considering the impact of PU on BI, a small effect size was observed (f 2 = 0.099), and the impact of ATT on BI was moderate (f 2 = 0.338). Figure 60.3 shows the coefficient of determination (R2 ), which is a measure of the amount of variance of the dependent variables explained by the model. According to Chin [18] explanatory power is substantial if R2 value above 0.67, moderate if R2 value from 0.33 to 0.67, weak if R2 value from 0.19 to 0.33, and rejected if R2 value Table 60.5 Hypothesis testing Hypothesis
Relationship
1 2
Std. dev
IA- > PU
0.224
0.051
4.375
PEOU
0.639
0.031
20.493
PU
0.564
0.049
11.528
ATT
0.340
0.054
6.237
ATT
0.491
0.051
9.604
BI
0.286
0.052
5.445
BI
0.527
0.051
10.277
80); Average (50–80); Low (80); Average (50–80); Low (40 years old”, which differences reach 13.739 and 19.909 points, that correspond to more than 22% and 32%, respectively.
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Table 61.8 OCA results by age Age
Communication apprehension constructs Public speaking
Meetings
Group talking
Oral presentations
Total CA
40 years
20,342
19,806
21,696
19,965
81,810
Total sample
15,891
15,127
17,388
15,577
63,983
Key: Level of CA: High (>80); Average (50–80); Low ( 0] =
F(u + y) − F(u) , 1 − F(u)
(75.1)
As u → x F = sup{x ∈ R : F(x) < 1}, we often find a limit, Fu (y) ≈ Hσu ,γ (y) where H is the generalized Pareto distribution [1],
(75.2)
75 Extreme Value Theory—Application of the Peaks Over Threshold …
⎧ 1
⎪ x −u −γ ⎪ ⎪1 − 1 + γ >0 if γ = 0, 1 + γ x−u ⎨ σu σu + Hσu ,γ (x|u) = ⎪ x −u ⎪ ⎪ ⎩ 1 − exp − , if γ = 0 (γ → 0) σu
909
(75.3)
on what u is the threshold1 (u ∈ R), σu > 0 is a threshold-dependent scale parameter corresponding to selected u level, and γ is the shape parameter (γ ∈ R). For γ < 0, the GPD has finite upper endpoint at −σu /γ . The case γ > 0 is heavy-tailed, for which 1 − H (x) decays at the same rate as x −1/γ for large x. The case with limit as γ → 0 is the exponential distribution with mean value σu . The GPD has the propriety that for some high threshold ν > u, the observations above ν follow a GPD with the same shape parameter but with a modified scale, σν = σu + γ (ν − u).
75.2.1 Threshold Choice in a POT Approach Before modelling data using the GPD, it is important to choose an appropriate threshold u. However, the choice of u (or the k order statistics above u) is a matter of balancing bias and variance. If the u is too low, it can violate the asymptotic proprieties of the model and cause high bias, in addition to making unfeasible the strict application of the Pickands-Balkema-de Haan theorem; if u is too high, it will generate few exceedances for estimation and the variance increases [1, 2]. Therefore, to select the threshold, different approaches, like mean residual life plot [7], median residual life plot [22, 23], threshold shape parameter plot [4] and modified scale parameter plot [4] can be used. For details, see the above studies, as well as Silva [6].
75.2.2 Estimation of the Extremal Parameters The maximum likelihood method is considered the best method to estimate the parameters, because it has good asymptotic regularity conditions (consistency, normality, efficiency and functional invariance) when γ > −0.5 [24–26]. However, due to numerical analysis, it is more common to use the maximize the log-likelihood function , that according to the shape parameter behaviour, it is given by
1
Sometimes called location “parameter”.
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(σu , γ |y) =
⎧
k ⎪ 1 ⎪ ln 1 + γ σyui if γ = 0 ⎨ −k ln σu − γ + 1 ⎪ ⎪ ⎩
i=1
−k ln σu −
1 σu
k
+
yi
(75.4)
if γ = 0
i=1
with the constrain 1 + γ yi /σu > 0, i = 1, . . . , k, where σu > 0 for γ ≤ 0 and 0 < σu < 1/2 for γ > 0. Since the expression (75.4) does not have an analytic solution, the optimization can be done by Nelder-Mead [27] or BFGS [28] algorithms (among others).
75.2.3 Choose Between GPD or Exponential Model For to know if a model is better explained by GPD or exponential distribution, we can use a deviance statistic (D) and/or the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test (KS). The hypothesis is defined as, H0 : γ = 0 versus H1 : γ = 0
(75.5)
The deviance statistic is defined as, D = {(M1 ) − (M0 )}, M0 ⊂ M1 ,
(75.6)
where (M1 ) and (M0 ) are the maximized log-likelihood under models M 1 and M 0 , respectively. The D statistic follows a chi-square distribution with ρ degrees of freedom, χρ2 , where ρ = 1 is the difference in dimensionality of nested models 2 , or if M 1 and M 0 . At α-level of significance, we reject H 0 in (75.5) if D ≥ χ1;1−α p-value ≤ α. The Kolmogorov-Smirnov test is given by,
x(i) − u (k) − KS = max
1 − exp 1≤i≤k σ u
x(i) − u (k) i
i − 1
1 − exp , − k σu k (75.7)
where σˆ u stands for the maximum likelihood estimator of σu for the exponential model. The observed value must be compared with critical values given by Lilliefors [29], rejecting H 0 in (5) if the KS exceed the respective critical point for a certain α significance level or if p-values ≤ α.
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75.2.4 Select the “Best” Model Goodness-of-fit testing can be used to select de most appropriate model. The goal is to select a smaller u in order to reduce the variance, but not too low as to increase the bias. Controlling the false discovery rate [30] and the familywise error [31, 32], Bader [33] introduced a procedure, with an emphasis on automated sequential testing procedure and efficiency, using some tests, such as Anderson-Darling and Cramér-von Mises, with p-values obtained computationally. In a general way, a set of candidate thresholds u 1 < · · · < u m can be tested sequentially for goodness-of-fit to the GPD. The null hypothesis is H0(i) : the distribution of the ki exceedances above u i follows the GPD
(75.8)
The Anderson-Darling statistics is, k 1 (2i − 1) log Hσu ,γ x(i) |u (k) k i=1 +(2k + 1 − 2i) log 1 − Hσu ,γ x(i) |u (k)
A2k = −k −
(75.9)
The Cramér-von Mises statistic is, Wk2
k 2i − 1 2 1 Hσu ,γ x(i) |u (k) − + = . 12k 2k i=1
(75.10)
75.2.5 Diagnostics There is extensive literature on the attempt to choose an adequate (or optimal) threshold. In this study, the decision how well the selected model (checked in the previous section) fit the data were made by graphical procedures, like PP-plot and QQ-plot. Details about these plots, see in Coles [4] and Silva [6].
75.2.6 Estimation of Other Important Quantities Let F be any distribution function (d.f.), whose quantile tail function U(.) of random variable X is defined as, U (t) := F ← (1 − 1/t) = inf{x ∈ R : F(x) ≥ 1 − 1/t}, t ∈ [1, ∞[.
(75.11)
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Probability of exceedance. The probability of a high-level x being exceeded is given by p x := P[X > x] which can be obtained using the expression, ⎧
1 ⎨ k 1 + γ x−u − γ if γ = 0
σu F(x) := P[X > x] = n ⎩ k exp − x−u if γ = 0 n σu
(75.12)
with x > u, and where k is the number of exceedances above threshold u, n is the sample size, and the k/n the sample proportion of sample values exceeding u. Right endpoint. When γ < 0, the GPD has finite upper endpoint at −σu /γ ; the right endpoint of the model F underlying the data is given by x F = U (∞) := u −
σu γ
(75.13)
Return levels. The return levels, this is, the levels of measure that is expected to be exceeded on average once every certain period of time or number of observations (return period or return interval or recurrence interval) are one of the main purposes of inference in extreme value analysis. With t large enough to ensure that U(t) > u, and ζu = k/n, the empirical ratio of exceedances, the return levels are obtained by the following expression, U (t) :=
u + σγu (tζu )γ − 1 if γ = 0 u + σu ln(tζu ) if γ = 0
(75.14)
The standard errors can be obtained by delta method and the confidence intervals by asymptotic approximation to the normal distribution [4, 6].
75.3 The Data The data set were collected from the World Athletics website (source: https://www. worldathletics.org). The sample is formed by 280 men’s decathlon athletes, and 185 women’s heptathlon, recruited since 01-01-1985 to 31-12-2020 and 01-01-1982 to 31-12-2020, respectively. Each subject contributed with only one performance, this is, the personal best. As consequence, each subject appears only one time in our list. The performances are measured in points. Some data occurs in clusters. Since these clusters can cause problems in the estimation process, we use a similar procedure as Einmahl and Magnus [34] and Silva [6] to smooth these data. For example, suppose
75 Extreme Value Theory—Application of the Peaks Over Threshold …
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b athletes, a personal best of v = 8644 on decathlon. Basically, we smooth these b results over the interval (8643.51; 8644.49), vi = 8644 − 0.5 +
2i − 1 , i = 1, . . . , b. 2b
75.4 Results 75.4.1 Randomness and Stationarity The randomness and stationarity were checked by the Mann-Kendall trend test [35, 36] and augmented Dicky-Fuller test [37]. For more and recent practical details, see Silva et al. [15]. Table 75.1 presents the results. At a 5% significance level, we do not have evidence to reject the null hypothesis of the absence of a trend, and we have evidence to reject the null hypothesis of the nonstationarity, respectively. In Fig. 75.1, the lowest curve shows that there is no significant trend. In a general way, the line of trend is practically horizontal, demonstrative of the absence of a trend. Table 75.1 Checking the randomness and stationarity, for decathlon and heptathlon series Mann-Kendall trend test
Augmented Dicky-Fuller test
z
p-value
θ
p-value
Decatlo
−2.0282
0.0925
−7.115
0.01
Heptatlo
−1.697
0.0897
−5.073
0.01
heptathlon 7200 7000 6800
performance
6200
6400
6600
8000 8200 8400 8600 8800 9000
performance
decathlon
0
50
100
150
200
250
0
n
Fig. 75.1 Decathlon and heptathlon series with lowest curve
50
100
n
150
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Table 75.2 Sample’s characterization: descriptive statistics x
s
Min
Max
Q1
Q2
Q3
Skewness
Kurtosis
Decathlon
8282
227.58
8000
9126
8109
8223
8413
1.055
0.742
Heptathlon
6468
218.92
6201
7291
6290
6404
6599
0.971
0.478
75.4.2 Sample Characterization Table 75.2 shows the decathlon and heptathlon descriptive statistics. The minimum corresponds to the minimum value shown on the World Athletics website, and the maximum to the current world record. In the two samples, the mean is higher than the median which means that we have a right or positive skewness, as we can see in the skewness estimate. The kurtosis is higher than 0 (remember that we have no excess estimates), which means a leptokurtic curve. The coefficient of variation (not showed) is under 4%, more precisely 2.7% for decathlon and 3.4% for heptathlon athletes, meaning that the data set have a weak dispersion.
75.4.3 Threshold Choice In each sample, we select several threshold candidates. For this, we use graphic procedures, like mean residual life plot, median residual life plot, threshold shape parameter plot, and modified scale parameter plot. In a general way, the idea is to choose the smallest threshold u such that the plot is linear (or approximately linear) above this point, or choosing a threshold such that the parameters above this u level are stable. In Fig. 75.2 for the decathlon and Fig. 75.3 for the heptathlon, it is clear that visual diagnostics determine the presence of several threshold candidates, but it is not clear which of them is the best. So, we will estimate the extremal parameters (σu , γ ), considering the following thresholds: Decathlon: 8526, 8575, 8580, 8609, 8628, 8642, 8661. Heptathlon: 6640, 6650, 6662, 6675, 6700, 6704, 6725, 6742, 6800, 6806, 6863.
75.4.4 Parameters Estimates Table 75.3 shows the threshold candidates, the number and the ratio of exceedances, the scale and shape parameter estimates, as well the respective standard errors and 95% confidence intervals, based on GPD and exponential distribution for athletics decathlon. In both distributions, in a general way, for scale parameter, we have an increase in standard errors (except for u = 8642); the lower bound of 95% confidence intervals decrease and the upper bound increase (except for u = 8069 and u = 8642). In all the GPD models, we see that γˆ > −0.5 which guarantees the regularity
Median Excess
Mean Excess
A
B C D
A : u = 8526 B : u = 8575 C : u = 8609 D : u = 8628
50
100 150 200 250 300
Mean Residual Life Plot: decathlon
0 25 50 75 100125150175200225
75 Extreme Value Theory—Application of the Peaks Over Threshold …
8000 8100 8200 8300 8400 8500 8600 8700 8800 8900
915
Median Residual Life Plot: decathlon
A B
D
8000 8100 8200 8300 8400 8500 8600 8700 8800 8900 9000 9100
u
-2
8400
Modified Scale Parameter Plot: decathlon
A
-10000
A : u = 8642
10000 20000
0
A
-1
Shape
1
Modified Scale
Threshold Shape Parameter Plot: decathlon
0
2
Threshold u
8300
8500
8600
E
C
A : u = 8526 B : u = 8580 C : u = 8609 D : u = 8642 E : u = 8661
8700
8800
A : u = 8642
8300
8900
8400
8500
8600
Threshold
8700
8800
8900
Threshold
Fig. 75.2 Selecting candidates to threshold with mean residual life plot, median residual life plot, threshold shape parameter plot and modified scale parameter plot for the decathlon Median Residual Life Plot: heptathlon
A : u = 6640 B : u = 6662 C : u = 6704 D : u = 6742 E : u = 6800 F : u = 6863
E
F
200
250 D
A
150
Median Excess
C
0 25 50 75100
AB
0
Mean Excess
50 100 150 200 250 300
Mean Residual Life Plot: heptathlon
6200 6300 6400 6500 6600 6700 6800 6900 7000
C D
A : u = 6640 B : u = 6650 C : u = 6704 D : u = 6742 E : u = 6806 F : u = 6863
6300
6400
6500
6600
6700
Threshold
6800
6900
4000 2000
Modified Scale Parameter Plot: heptathlon A B
C D
0
Modified Scale
C
-2000
0.4 0.2
Shape
-0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0.0
B A
F
u
Threshold Shape Parameter Plot: heptathlon
C : u = 6725
E
6200 6300 6400 6500 6600 6700 6800 6900 7000 7100 7200
Threshold u
A : u = 6650 B : u = 6675
B
A : u = 6650 B : u = 6675 C : u = 6700 D : u = 6725
6300
6400
6500
6600
6700
6800
6900
Threshold
Fig. 75.3 Selecting candidates to threshold with mean residual life plot, median residual life plot, threshold shape parameter plot and modified scale parameter plot for the heptathlon
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Table 75.3 Scale and shape parameter estimates, standard errors and 95% confidence interval of GPD and exponential models fitted to decathlon for each threshold candidate k
k/n
σu
se(σ u )
CI95% (σ u )
γ
se(γ )
CI95% (γ )
8526
43
0.150
201.2403
43.9871
(115.027; 287.453)
−0.19605
0.1594
(−0.5084; 0.1163)
8575
32
0.114
207.9912
53.5004
(103.132; 312.850)
−0.24624
0.1919
(−0.6223; 0.1298)
8580
31
0.111
209.9450
54.7902
(102.558; 317.332)
−0.25629
0.1947
(−0.6380; 0.1254)
8609
27
0.096
196.9573
57.6908
(83.885; 310.029)
−0.23539
0.2253
(−0.6770; 0.2063)
8628
24
0.086
200.5993
63.2113
(76.707; 324.491)
−0.26303
0.2459
(−0.7451; 0.2190)
8642
24
0.086
161.5225
55.7685
(52.218; 270.827)
0.12352
0.2796
(−0.6715; 0.4245)
8661
21
0.075
170.0390
63.6301
(45.326; 294.752)
−0.17343
0.3063
(−0.7738; 0.4270)
u +GPD
+Exponential 8526
43
0.150
167.7442
25.5805
(117.607; 217.881)
–
–
–
8575
32
0.114
165.9062
29.3281
(108.424; 223.388)
–
–
–
8580
31
0.111
166.0968
29.8316
(107.628; 224.566)
–
–
–
8609
27
0.096
158.2593
30.4571
(98.565; 217.954)
–
–
–
8628
24
0.086
157.2500
32.0985
(94.338; 220.162)
–
–
–
8642
24
0.086
143.2500
29.2407
(85.939; 200.561)
–
–
–
8661
21
0.075
143.9524
31.4132
(82.384; 205.521)
–
–
–
conditions, and the C I95% (γ ) ⊃ 0 what suggest that an exponential model can be supported as the best candidate. Table 75.4 shows the threshold candidates, the number and the ratio of exceedances, the scale and shape parameter estimates, as well the respective standard errors and 95% confidence intervals, based on GPD and exponential distribution, for athletics heptathlon. In both distributions, in a general way, we see a fluctuation in standard errors of scale parameter. In all GPD models, we constate that γˆ > −0.5 which guarantees the regularity conditions. In some models, u = (6700,
75 Extreme Value Theory—Application of the Peaks Over Threshold …
917
Table 75.4 Scale and shape parameter estimates, standard errors and 95% confidence interval of GPD and exponential models fitted to heptathlon for each threshold candidate k
k/n
σu
se(σ u )
CI95% (σ u )
γ
se (γ )
CI95% (γ)
6640
34
0.184
253.6611
51.6942
(152.342; 354.980)
−0.31902
0.1229
(−0.5600; − 0.0781) **
6650
33
0.178
246.7813
51.2987
(146.238; 347.325)
−0.31134
0.1258
(−0.5578; − 0.0649) **
6662
31
0.168
247.4329
52.8407
(143.867; 350.999)
−0.32045
0.1291
(−0.5735; − 0.0674) **
6675
31
0.168
224.7138
49.0911
(128.497; 320.931)
−0.27951
0.1341
(−0.5423; − 0.0167) **
6700
28
0.151
214.1132
49.5289
(117.038; 311.188)
−0.27075
0.1428
(−0.5507; 0.0092) *
6704
26
0.141
231.2195
54.3724
(124.652; 337.787)
−0.31310
0.1435
(−0.5944; − 0.0318) **
6725
25
0.135
206.0618
50.5148
(107.055; 305.069)
−0.26790
0.1515
(−0.5648; 0.0290) *
6742
22
0.119
214.4742
55.4344
(105.825; 323.124)
−0.29977
0.1595
(−0.6123; 0.0128) *
6800
20
0.108
135.6320
41.4157
(54.459; 216.805)
−0.10140
0.2091
(−0.5112; 0.3084) *
6806
19
0.103
136.7792
42.6217
(53.242; 220.316)
−0.10807
0.2124
(−0.5243; 0.3081) *
6863
11
0.059
166.2169
65.4064
(38.023; 294.411)
−0.24011
0.2631
(−0.7557; 0.2755) *
u +GPD
+Exponential 6640
34
0.184
194.7059
33.3912
(129.260; 260.151)
–
–
–
6650
33
0.178
190.3333
33.1324
(125.395; 255.272)
–
–
–
6662
31
0.168
190.0323
34.1305
(123.138; 256.927)
–
–
–
6675
31
0.168
177.0323
31.7957
(114.714; 239.351)
–
–
–
6700
28
0.151
169.7857
32.0868
(106.897; 232.675)
–
–
–
6704
26
0.141
178.6538
35.0369
(109.983; 247.325)
–
–
–
6725
25
0.135
163.9600
32.7925
(99.688; 228.232)
–
–
–
6742
22
0.119
167.3636
35.6820
(97.428; 237.299)
–
–
– (continued)
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Table 75.4 (continued) u
k
k/n
σu
se(σ u )
CI95% (σ u )
γ
se (γ )
CI95% (γ)
6800
20
0.108
123.1500
27.5372
(69.178; 177.122)
–
–
–
6806
19
0.103
123.4737
28.3268
(67.954; 178.993)
–
–
–
6863
11
0.059
134.8182
40.6493
(55.147; 214.489)
–
–
–
6725,6742,6800,6806,6863), the C I95% (γ ) ⊃ 0 what is suggestive that an exponential model can be the best candidate (*), and in the others models, the CI95% (γ ) < 0 which reject the exponential distribution (**).
75.4.5 Select Exponential Versus GPD Table 75.5 for the decathlon and Table 75.6 for the heptathlon show the results of the deviance statistic and Kolmogorov-Smirnov statistic, to test the null hypothesis H 0 : γ = 0, against the alternative H 1 : γ = 0. For the decathlon models, we do not reject the null hypothesis in all cases. For the heptathlon models, we reject the null hypothesis at a 10% significance level in u = (6640, 6650, 6662, 6704) using deviance statistics and u = (6704, 6742, 6863) using Kolmogorov-Smirnov test. Table 75.5 Deviance statistic and Kolmogorov-Smirnov test for making a decision about exponential or GPD, for the decathlon models u
Deviance
Kolmogorov-Smirnov test
D
p-value
Decision
KS
KS*
Decision
8526
1.190
0.275
Not reject H 0
0.084
0.164
Not reject H 0
8575
1.296
0.255
Not reject H 0
0.115
0.187
Not reject H 0
8580
1.354
0.245
Not reject H 0
0.119
0.190
Not reject H 0
8609
0.890
0.345
Not reject H 0
0.088
0.210
Not reject H 0
8628
0.934
0.334
Not reject H 0
0.097
0.211
Not reject H 0
8642
0.177
0.674
Not reject H 0
0.089
0.211
Not reject H 0
8661
0.285
0.593
Not reject H 0
0.101
0.234
Not reject H 0
75 Extreme Value Theory—Application of the Peaks Over Threshold …
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Table 75.6 Deviance statistic and Kolmogorov-Smirnov test for making a decision about exponential or GPD for the heptathlon models u
Deviance
Kolmogorov-Smirnov test
D
p-value
Decision
6640
3.715
0.054
6650
3.417
6662
KS
KS*
Decision
Reject H 0 (α 0.158 = 0.10)
0.182
Not reject H0
0.065
Reject H 0 (α 0.160 = 0.10)
0.185
Not reject H0
3.504
0.061
Reject H 0 (α 0.171 = 0.10)
0.190
Not reject H0
6675
2.526
0.112
Not reject H0
0.160
0.190
Not reject H0
6700
2.171
0.141
Not reject H0
0.170
0.200
Not reject H0
6704
2.876
0.090
Reject H 0 (α 0.195 = 0.10)
0.208
Reject H 0 (α = 0.10)
6725
1.957
0.162
Not reject H0
0.179
0.210
Not reject H0
6742
2.271
0.132
Not reject H0
0.216
0.226
Reject H 0 (α = 0.10)
6800
0.193
0.660
Not reject H0
0.167
0.234
Not reject H0
6806
0.212
0.645
Not reject H0
0.175
0.243
Not reject H0
6863
0.680
0.410
Not reject H0
0.324
0.320
Reject H 0 (α = 0.10)
75.4.6 Select Model By Anderson-Darling and Cramér-von Mises goodness-of-fit tests (9) and (10), respectively, using a procedure where the stopping rules were based on transformed p-values which were obtained computationally [33], the results presented in Table 75.7 shows that the “best” model seems to be the u = 8628 for the decathlon [rejecting H 0 in (8)] and u = 6704 for the heptathlon [not rejecting H 0 in (8)]. In the decathlon, the smaller is p-value the best is the model; in the opposite, in the heptathlon, the higher is p-value the best is the model.
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Table 75.7 p-values in each threshold models, for the decathlon and heptathlon, based on AndersonDarling and Crámer-von Mises tests Decathlon
Heptathlon
u
AD
CvM
u
AD
CvM
8526
0.2171103
0.1895291
6640
0.30784491
0.36086953
8575
0.1260270
0.0795584
6650
0.25071072
0.33327643
8580
0.1298825
0.0707006
6662
0.03539161
0.06442612
8609
0.0393162
0.0204581
6675
0.30169135
0.28856458
8628
0.0256730
0.0194661
6700
0.31304415
0.33487383
8642
0.1041439
0.0610948
6704
0.45699890
0.39135996
8661
0.0826403
0.0627610
6725
0.35976280
0.24761381
–
–
–
6742
0.20623551
0.18980746
–
–
–
6800
0.12618101
0.08971022
–
–
–
6806
0.05376488
0.04576429
–
–
–
6863
0.10471596
0.10524560
75.4.7 Diagnostics Diagnostic plots for the fitted exponential distribution (decathlon, u = 8628) and GPD (heptathlon, u = 6704) are shown in Fig. 75.4. The goodness-of-fit seems convincing more in heptathlon than in decathlon. However, in both models, all points are into the 95% confidence band in PP-plot and QQ-plot, and in the proximity of diagonal line, which means a good global adjustment.
75.4.8 Estimation of Other Relevant Quantities In this section, we will intend to estimate some important quantities, like the probability of exceedance of high-level u, right endpoint and return levels for t-individual records. We will use the approved models in each sample, this is u = 8628 for the decathlon and u = 6704 for the heptathlon. Probability of exceedance (12). The probability of the world record to be equalled or exceeded in any given year is about 0.36% in the decathlon and 0.89% in the heptathlon. Right endpoint (13). Only in the heptathlon, for the model with u = 6704, we have x F = 7442. This is a possible world record, given the “current state of the art”. Return levels. Table 75.8 shows the return levels estimates for different “times”, this is, different individual records (t), obtained using the expression (75.14). The standard errors (not shown) were obtained by the delta method and the 95% confidence intervals by asymptotic approximation to the normal distribution. As we can see, it is expected, on average, about 277 individual records in the decathlon and 1121
75 Extreme Value Theory—Application of the Peaks Over Threshold … PP-plot
-
-
0.2
-
0.0
-
- -
- -
-
-
0.2
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
0.4
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Empirical
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
- -
-
-
0.6
0.8
8700 8800 8900 9000 9100
0.8 0.6 0.4
Model
QQ-plot
Decathlon
-
Exponential: u=8628
-
-
--
-
--
--- - - - -- -- -
1.0
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
- - - --
8700
-
-
8800
8900
-
-
-
0.2
-
0.0
- -
0.2
-
- -
-
-
0.4
-
-
-
- -
-
-
-
- -
-
0.6
-
- -
-
-
-
0.8
-
-
Empirical
-
-
-
-
- - -
6800 6900 7000 7100 7200 7300
1.0 0.8 0.6
Model
0.4
-
-
-
9100
9200
QQ-plot
Heptathlon
-
9000
Model
PP-plot
-
-
-
-
Empirical
-
921
1.0
GPD: u=6704
-
- - -
-
-
-
-
-
-
6700
-
6800
6900
Empirical
-
- - -- - ------- - - -
-
-
-
7000
-
-
7100
7200
Model
Fig. 75.4 Diagnostic plots for threshold excess model fitted to decathlon (in above) and heptathlon (in bottom) model Table 75.8 Return level estimates and 95% confidence interval at selected return intervals (t) using the exponential model for u = 8628 in the decathlon and GPD model for u = 6704 in the heptathlon t
Decathlon Uˆ (t) 95% confidence interval
Heptathlon Uˆ (t)
95% confidence interval
100
8966
(8752; 9180)
7120
(7016; 7223)
200
9075
(8861; 9289)
7183
(7068; 7297)
277
9126
(8912; 9340)
–
–
300
9139
(8925; 9352)
7214
(7091; 7336)
400
9184
(8970; 9398)
7233
(7104; 7363)
500
9219
(9005; 9433)
7247
(7111; 7383)
600
9248
(9034; 9461)
7258
(7117; 7400)
700
9272
(9058; 9486)
7267
(7121; 7413)
800
9293
(9079; 9507)
7274
(7124; 7424)
900
9311
(9097; 9525)
7280
(7126; 7434)
1000
9328
(9114; 9542)
7285
(7128; 7443)
–
7291
(7129; 7453)
1121
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D. Silva and F. Caeiro
in the heptathlon to equalize the current world record (in bold). So, for t > 277 or t > 1121, respectively, exceeds the actual world record. However, by 95% confidence intervals, from t = 100 for the decathlon and from t = 200 for the heptathlon, the upper bound is higher than the current world record. In all cases, the lower bound is lower than the world record.
75.5 Conclusions We use the POT method, the GPD and the estimation of the parameters by maximum log-likelihood with optimization by Nelder-Mead or BFGS algorithms, to modelling the maximums of decathlon (1985–2020) and heptathlon (1982–2020). The current world record is expected to be exceeded, on average, once for every 277 individual records in the decathlon and once for every 1121 in the heptathlon. The probability of an athlete beat the world record is about 0.4% in the decathlon and 0.9% in the heptathlon. With the results of the present study, we hope to help the athletes, the trainers and all sports agents, involved in an attempt to reach a new world record, which difficulties were mentioned.
References 1. Pickands, J.: Statistical inference using extreme order statistics. Ann. Stat. 3(1), 119–131 (1975) 2. Balkema, A.A., de Haan, L.: Residual life time at great age. Ann. Probab. 2(5), 792–804 (1974) 3. Beirlant, J., Goegebeur, Y., Segers, J., Teugels, J.: Statistics of Extremes: Theory and Applications. Wiley, Chichester (England) (2004) 4. Coles, S.: An Introduction to Statistical Modeling of Extreme Values. Springer-Verlag, London (2001) 5. Embrechts, P., Kluppelberg, C., Mikosch, T.: Modelling extremal events. Applications in Mathematics, vol. 33. Springer-Verlag, New York (1997) 6. Silva, D.J.L.: Estatística de Extremos: Limites da Performance Humana um estudo com lançadores e saltadores do atletismo. Universidade de Évora, Portugal, Tese de Doutoramento (2020) 7. Davison, A.C., Smith, R.L.: Models for exceedances over high thresholds. J. Royal Stat. Soc. Ser. B (Methodological) 52(3), 393–442 (1990) 8. Ghosh, S., Resnick, S.: A discussion on mean excess plots. Stochast. Process. Appl. 120(8), 1492–1517 (2010) 9. Bai, F., Chen, X., Chen, Y., Huang, T.: A general quantile residual life model for length-biased right-censored data. Scand. J. Stat. 46(4), 1191–1205 (2019) 10. DuMouchel, W.: Estimating the stable index α in order to measure tail thickness: a critique. Ann. Stat. 11(4), 1019–1036 (1983) 11. Loretan, M., Philips, P.C.B.: Testing the covariance stationarity of heavy tailed time series: an overview of the theory with applications to several financial datasets. J. Empir. Financ. 1(2), 211–248 (1994) 12. Ferreira, A., de Haan, L., Peng, L.: On optimizing the estimation of high quantiles of a probability distribution. Statistics 37(5), 401–434 (2003) 13. Scarrott, C., MacDonald, A.: A review of extreme value threshold estimation and uncertainty quantification. REVSTAT—Stat. J. 10(1), 33–60 (2012)
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14. Caeiro, F., Gomes, M.I.: Threshold selection in extreme value analysis. In: Dey, D.K., Yan, J. (eds.) Extreme Value Modelling and Risk Analysis: Methods and Applications, Chap. 4, pp. 69–82. CRC Press (2016) 15. Silva, D., Caeiro, F., Oliveira, M.: Aplicação da metodologia peaks over threshold ao salto em comprimento do atletismo. Rev. Bras. Biometria 36(4), 753–779 (2018) 16. Henriques-Rodrigues, L., Gomes, M.I., Pestana, D.: Estatística de extremos em desporto. Bol. Soc. Port. Estatística, Primavera de 2015, 36–44 (2015) 17. Silva, D., Caeiro, F., Oliveira, M.: The r-largest order statistics model with application to javelin throw. Poster communication presented in Rao Prize Conference, May 12, 2017, Department of Statistics Eberly College of Sciences at Penn State, USA (2017). [Available] https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330521486_The_rlargest_ order_statistics_model_with_application_to_javelin_throw_2017_Rao_Prize_Conference 18. Silva, D., Caeiro, F., Oliveira, M.: Modelling of nonstationary extremes in women’s hammer throw track and field competitions. Oral communication presented in V Workshop on Computational Data Analysis and Numerical Methods, May 11–12 2018. Book of Abstracts, pp. 37–38 (2018). [Available] https://www.researchgate.net/publication/340665673_Modelling_of_non stationary_extremes_in_women’s_hammer_throw_track_and_field_competitions 19. Silva, D., Caeiro, F., Oliveira, M.: Modelação estatística de valores extremos: probabilidades de excedência, quantis extremais, limite superior do suporte e níveis de retorno no lançamento do disco do atletismo. Rev. Estatística da Univ Federal de Ouro Preto VII, 16–31 (2018) 20. Silva, D., Caeiro, F., Oliveira, M.: Método das r-maiores observações anuais na estimação de quantis extremais no triplo-salto masculino. In: Atas do XXIII Congresso da Sociedade Portuguesa de Estatística, 18–21 de outubro de 2017, pp. 59–73. Sociedade Portuguesa de Estatística, Lisboa (2020) 21. Silva, D., Caeiro, F., Oliveira, M.: Modelação de eventos extremos – uma introdução: aplicação ao decatlo e ao heptatlo atlético. Seminário online, Organização: Centro de Investigação em Matemática e Aplicações Departamento de Matemática, Programa de Doutoramento em Matemática, Universidade de Évora, em 27 de janeiro de 2021 (2021). ResearchGate. https:// doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.18257.35681 22. Ma, Y., Yin, G.: Semiparametric median residual life model and inference. Can. J. Stat. 34(4), 665–679 (2010) 23. Kidwell, K., Ko, J.H., Wahed, A.S.: Inference for the median residual life function in sequential multiple assignment randomized trials. Stat. Med. 33(9), 1503–1513 (2014) 24. Smith, R.L.: Threshold methods for sample extremes. In: Tiago de Oliveira, J. (eds) Statistical Extremes and Applications, vol. 131, pp. 623–640. Springer-Science+Business Media, B.V., Lisbon (1984) 25. Davison, A.: Modelling excesses over high threshold with an application. In: Tiago de Oliveira, J. (eds) Statistical Extremes and Applications, vol. 131, pp. 461–482. SpringerScience+Business Media, B.V., Lisbon (1984) 26. Hosking, J.R.M., Wallis, J.R.: Parameter and quantile estimation for the Generalized Pareto Distribution. Technometrics 29(3), 339–349 (1987) 27. Nelder, J.A., Mead, R.: A simplex method for function minimization. Comput. J. 7(4), 308–313 (1965) 28. Lewis, A.S., Overton, M.: Nonsmooth optimization via quasi-Newton BFGS. Math. Program. 141(1), 135–163 (2013) 29. Lilliefors, H.W.: On the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test for the exponential distribution with mean unknown. J. Am. Stat. Assoc. 64(325), 387–389 (1969) 30. Shafer, J.P.: Multiple hypothesis testing. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 46(1), 561–584 (1995) 31. Benjamini, Y., Hochberg, Y.: Controlling the false discovery rate: a practical and powerful approach to multiple testing. J. Roy. Stat. Soc. B 57(1), 289–300 (1995) 32. Benjamini, Y., Yekutieli, D.: The control of the false discovery rate in multiple testing under dependency. Ann. Stat. 29(4), 1165–1188 (2001) 33. Bader, B.: Automated, efficient, and practical extreme value analysis with environmental applications. Doctoral Dissertation, University of Connecticut Graduate School, USA (2016)
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34. Einmahl, J.H.J., Magnus, J.R.: Records in athletics through extreme-value theory. J. Am. Stat. Assoc. 103(484), 1382–1391 (2008) 35. Mann, H.B.: Nonparametric test against trend. Econometrica 13(3), 245–259 (1945) 36. Kendall, M.G.: Rank Correlation Methods, 4th edn. Charles Griffin, London (1975) 37. Dickey, D.A., Fuller, W.A.: Distribution of the estimators for autoregressive time series with a unit root. J. Am. Stat. Assoc. 74(366), 427–431 (1979)
Chapter 76
Distance Learning in an International Context: A Case of Success Catarina Freitas Mota , José Fernando Mota , Katia Augusta Maciel , and Marcelo Jardim de Campos
Abstract From 2020, due to the COVID-19 pandemic and its aggravation, the whole world turned to the transfer of information, that is, from the onsite to the distance learning modality, which involved a series of technological adjustments and mechanisms. However, such mechanisms of assisted technology are not recent, and it is possible to get a detailed observation over more than two decades of development of the most different possibilities and formats. Currently, adhesion is massive in everything that involves the virtual learning environment, and much is discussed about all stages of the processes. Thus, this article aims to demonstrate the importance of internationalization in the context of distance learning, through the analysis of a case study that consists of a set of partnerships involving the Training Institute of Portuguese Speaking Countries (Portugal), the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (Brazil), through its School of Music and School of Communication, and the Arts National Foundation (Brazil), when conducting a course in Photography and Digital Image. This was the first product of the partnership between the institutions in this context, and because it was a success, the decision was made to report, through this article, its development, and the respective results obtained.
C. F. Mota (B) CIDI-IESF, Instituto de Estudos Superiores de Fafe, Fafe, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] J. F. Mota Instituto de Formação dos Países de Língua Oficial Portuguesa, Fafe, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] K. A. Maciel Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brasil e-mail: [email protected] M. J. de Campos Centro de Letras e Artes, Escola de Música, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brasil e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 A. Mesquita et al. (eds.), Perspectives and Trends in Education and Technology, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 256, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5063-5_76
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76.1 Introduction The internationalization of education and training has grown exponentially with globalization and greater access to the Internet, particularly in the form of distance education and training. It was in this context that the Training Institute of Portuguese Speaking Countries (IF/CE-CPLP) and the Arts National Foundation (FUNARTE) initiated the proposals and invited the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), with which FUNARTE maintains a current cooperation term for the execution of the projects “Um Novo Olhar,” “Bossa Criativa,” and the National System of Social Orchestras, all curated by the UFRJ School of Music.1 The objective was to implement a training action, with a short course in the field of digital photography, creating an offer of vacancies for Brazil. “Um Novo Olhar” project was chosen to include this training course as it was a proposal from Funarte’s Visual Arts Center-CEAV, and also because the project already offers arts workshops in general, with an emphasis on visual arts and music, with training in art/education, inclusion and accessibility for elementary school teachers and training in choral conducting in various regions of the country.2 The course of Photography and Digital Image, with a 25-h duration, was consensually agreed by the institutions, with the IF/CE-CPLP as the training entity, which is a certified organization and headquartered in Portugal. The course addressed issues such as the History of Photography, Image Analysis and Semiotics, Image Capture, Equipment, and Objectives. In this context, the trainees concluded the course with a photo work entitled “A Arte no Confinamento” (Art in Confinement), in audiovisual format, in which a brilliant exhibition of photographs is presented, all taken during the course period.
76.2 Distance Professional Training Distance professional training, in particular for professionally active and non-active adults, is an element of development, innovation and individual, organizational, and national competitiveness that cannot be ignored. Such importance lies in the association that exists between employability and the level of qualification, skills, and knowledge that individuals acquire, which impact on their personal and professional 1
The UFRJ Music School is the oldest music school in Brazil. Founded in 1848 by the conductor and composer Francisco Manoel da Silva (1795–1865), author of the music of the Brazilian National Anthem, as Conservatory of Music, later National Institute of Music (1890), in the republican period. In 1937, it changed its name to National School of Music and, in 1965, to UFRJ Music School. 2 Currently, the documents that guide basic education in Brazil are Law nr. 9,394, which establishes the National Education Guidelines and Bases (LDB), the National Curriculum Guidelines for Basic Education and the National Education Plan, approved by the National Congress on June 26 2014. Other key documents are the Constitution of the Federative Republic of Brazil and the Statute of Children and Adolescents.
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development, on individual and group productivity levels and, ultimately, on organizations as a whole, which reflect on the very development of a nation. In this context, it is understood that the opportunities and mechanisms available for the acquisition of skills and knowledge are fundamental. In this sense, it is necessary to carry out training processes that promote and produce competences, among which are relational, technological, scientific, information, cognitive, metacognitive, and behavioral competences [1]. Investment in professional training is therefore imperative, as it makes it possible to expand and update the portfolio of skills that help individuals to survive growing social and economic changes. In this alignment, technologies also play a very important role, allowing, also in the field of adult education and training, to advance in a strategic and decisive way, on the one hand, through the production of more attractive materials, learning objects and resources, appropriate and interactive, on the other hand, in the provision of distance learning tools and platforms that enable the expansion of spaces for action and that open doors to the construction of shared knowledge, self-learning, and self-regulation. In this context, it is intended to show that the future of professional training also includes quality distance learning and that it is structured in a training perspective adapted to the adult learner, their training needs and learning rhythms, their professional contexts and expectations, as well as in technological tools and pedagogical strategies and quality training content, without ever forgetting the assessment of the occurrence of knowledge transfer [2]. Distance learning is based not only on the availability and accessibility of learning materials, that is, on the dimension of media coverage and content distribution, but also on the processes of interaction between the learner and the tutor, through the communicational dimension, with the purpose of enabling and promoting learning [3]. From the point of view of the productivity of companies and institutions, the network distribution of training mechanisms that enhance updating, reconversion, or recycling allows for greater speed, time savings, and cost-effectiveness related to the training of professionals in active service; this factor leads to the acquisition of skills within the framework of a lifelong learning policy and to the reinforcement of the individual’s self-learning and autonomy. On the other hand, in the current pandemic context, due to the spread of the SARSCoV-2 coronavirus, which causes COVID-19, it has been important to develop, with even more intensity and a high degree of innovation, the offer of distance training actions, given the reduced mobility of all those involved in training processes, including trainees and trainers, due to mandatory contingency and confinement measures imposed by States, in order to reduce contagions. Thus, without belittling or diminishing the fundamental role of face-to-face education in training individuals, it is important to reinforce the need for a strategic look at distance learning, which is important for a more promising future, for more professionally adapted individuals and for the innovative organizations and institutions.
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76.3 Technologies Related to Distance Learning According to Tidd and Bessant [4], regarding the innovations that can really be considered new to the world, these are restricted to only a small portion of all innovative projects or more specifically between 6 and 10%. The term MOOC, according to the Mcgill Association of University Teachers (2014), was coined by Stephen Downes and George Siemens to refer to a course they developed and entitled “Connectivism and Connectivity Knowledge” (CCK08) in the fall of 2008 and related to the theory of connectivism [5] and connective knowledge [6] as useful and opportune ways to understand and explore learning in the digital age, taking advantage of what they offer and also in what they question.3 The initial objective was to explore the possibilities of interactions between a wide variety of participants, from online platforms, to provide a rich learning environment, compared to traditional tools. The courses in the Art/Education + Accessibility + Inclusion series, from the “Um Novo Olhar” project, have different registration procedures, and access to classes and didactic material is given upon acceptance of registration, login to the virtual learning environment at UFRJ (AVA-UFRJ), and the course is all structured on the Moodle platform, in MOOC format (Massive Online Open Course), with content made available so that the proposed activities can be completed by a class in eight weeks. Four courses in this format have already been completed, and three more will be made available in 2021. To really assist students, incremental innovation must permeate the entire teaching and learning process, seeking to improve existing systems, making them more efficient and effective; thus, good knowledge management is extremely important. Among so many other researchers who have worked on this theme, Ruhe and Zimbro [7] define e-learning as “an instructional program distributed online or over the Internet. It includes tutorials, […] workshops, a short course, and instruction carried out at the workplace.” Thus, what is understood by distance learning is characterized by an evolutionary history, from courses by correspondence without any use of digital information and communication technology, advancing to radio experiences and television programs with educational projects, until reaching the current insertion of Digital Technologies of Information and Communication [8]. Consequently, e-learning uses multiple resources in a collaborative way, in order to integrate teaching and learning at the same time. This applicability is usually found in distance education, facilitating the integration of e-learning environments with expressive learning.
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Massive Online Open Course, literally translated into Portuguese, MOOC is nothing more than a distance learning format that uses Web tools to offer its content simultaneously to a large number of people.
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76.4 Portugal—Brazil Relationship in the Context of Distance Professional Training The existence of cultural, historical, and linguistic affinities between Portugal and Brazil makes it interesting to elaborate an analysis about their experiences with professional training. Portuguese and Brazilian training policies have been reconciling social demand with market demands, instituting a new form of legalization of public policies, in a context of academic and professional training [9]. There is also a need for a review of professional training policies, greater investment in the valorization of human resources in both countries, the reorientation of the training offer, the development of new job opportunities, and the promotion of quality and professional insertion. The reinforcement of this trend requires greater individual and collective responsibility in the face of training and the valorization of human resources, an essential factor for the convergence of the Portuguese and Brazilian economies, in response to the challenge of financial self-sustainability of professional training systems. There is no doubt that work and professional training will continue to be central spheres of twenty-first century societies, with regard to new forms of diversified and innovative learning. In this context, IF/CE-CPLP has been developing its relations with public and private entities, namely from Brazil, as well as UFRJ already works in partnership with dozens of universities in Portugal, through hundreds of terms of technical cooperation.
76.5 Methodology 76.5.1 Case Study In a similar way to multiple areas of knowledge, Education/Training includes the case study as a privileged method, making it possible to conduct research to be applied to specific cases, that is, to carry out scientific studies through data obtained in a real situation. These same data are collected, processed, and analyzed in order to find answers to the questions posed and/or solutions to the problems highlighted. This analysis, according to Robert Yin, is one of the most relevant aspects for the success of a case study [10].
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76.5.2 Partnership Between IF/CE-CPLP, EM/UFRJ and FUNARTE The first meeting to discuss the course took place on November 6, 2020, with the participation of the teams from the UFRJ School of Music (the curator of the “Bossa Criativa” and “Um Novo Olhar” projects), Funarte, and IF/CE-CPLP. From that date until the effective start of the course, on December 2, only 27 days passed. In this short period of time, the working group defined the structure of the course, the strategy for dissemination in Brazil, the technical tests with the platform used (Google Classroom), the definition of the student enrollment process (with registration and selection of those enrolled), and the preparation of the partnership term between the institutions involved. Registration started on November 20 and was open until the 27th, that is, only one week. According to the communication strategy adopted, with a national publicity campaign, 436 registrations were received from 20 Brazilian states, in addition to Portugal, Cape Verde, and Colombia. We sought to contribute so that the selection was made based on the target audience and prerequisites defined by the EM/UFRJ and Funarte teams, which implied, at first, opting for enrollments from students who already had previous knowledge on the subject. The IF/CE-CPLP team defined the limit of up to 100 effective participants, which made it possible to use the Google Classroom platform.
76.5.3 Structuring and Production of the Photography and Digital Image Course The course is included in the National Qualifications Catalog (CNQ) published by the National Agency for Qualification and Professional Education (ANQEP— Portugal).4 Thus, the consensual condition was to set up a professional modular training designed and conceived in European and, more specifically, Portuguese parameters, to be taught to a public made up of students enrolled in several Brazilian universities. At the same time, a pair of trainers (whose anonymity will be maintained for reasons of scientific objectivity) was selected given their extensive experience in the field of professional training in Portugal and a refined knowledge of the area of Audiovisual and Media Production training, which includes the short unit training course (or module) concerned, Photography and Digital Image. The two professionals already knew each other and have been working on joint professional projects, essentially within two Portuguese professional schools (directly linked IF/CE-CPLP), related to training, onsite and distance learning (e-learning), and, also, blended (b-learning). 4
The National Qualifications Catalog was created under article 6. of Decree-Law nr 396/2007, of 31 December, as a “dynamic instrument for the strategic management of non-higher qualifications, essential for competitiveness and modernization of companies and the productive sector and for the personal and social development of the individual” (https://www.dgeec.mec.pt/np4/glossigo/).
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As already mentioned, Google Classroom was used as this tool is used in its professional form by the training entity. This platform allows having more than a hundred participants simultaneously, including trainees and trainers, without any technical problems of platform overload. In order to make the registration of participants operational, the IT department of IF/CE-CPLP created a list of specific e-mails for the access of each one to the Short Training Unit inserted in Google Classroom. In this way, in the “People” tab, the trainees were invited as “Students” and the trainers as “Teachers.” A schedule was built, including synchronous sessions (22 h) and asynchronous sessions (3 h). The synchronous sessions were broadcasted in livestreaming, that is, live in the Google Meet virtual room of the Google Classroom platform. The main trainer addressed the class directly, while the supporting trainer received questions from the trainees through the chat of the platform in order to be filtered and asked to the trainer if they were considered relevant to the evolution of the class. Otherwise, the answers to the questions were given in the chat in the session itself. In the same context, the technical team in the studio consisted of a technical director and two audiovisual technicians. In a meeting held on December 04, it was decided that the content of each class would be recorded and made available on Google Classroom, asynchronously, which would allow students to access it at other times. After enrollment was completed and students were selected, the “Um Novo Olhar” project team sent an email to everyone, with the technical guidelines of the Training Institute, including a Trainee User Guide to access the platform.
76.6 Outcomes There was a regular attendance of 85% in relation to the number of trainees who effectively remained in the course after the second session. In fact, in the first session, about 40% of the selected trainees did not attend the class and; in the second session, 60 trainees were effectively present. In the end, 47 trainees completed the course successfully and were given a certificate of participation and completion of the course. In the last session of the course, trainees were asked to complete a course evaluation survey. As it happens at the end of each training course organized by the Training Institute, the main objective is to collect data on several key parameters, to treat and analyze them, in order to continuously improve IF/CE-CPLP training offer and procedures. Using a survey created with the Google Forms tool, statistical data are obtained through the responses issued by the trainees. These answers originate from multiple-choice questions created in the scope of the training entity’s DGERT (Directorate-General for Employment and Labor Relations, Portugal) certification process. The analysis and treatment of these data culminate in a report based on the training course evaluation by the trainees, a document that aims to transmit, in an objective way, the opinion and evaluation of each of the 42 trainees who agreed
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to respond to the evaluation survey at the end of the course.5 The trainees’ answers reveal a high degree of satisfaction and the willingness to repeat the experience when new training actions may be carried out. In addition to the common opinion that the course was a success, in terms of content, team of trainers, operationalization, and among other parameters, it was an important starting point to cement the partnership between the entities involved. As a result of the course, a video was produced presenting the photographs prepared by the students for the final work as well as the teachers’ comments on the course. This video, “A Arte no Confinamento” (The Art in Confinement), was released on the “Arte de Toda Gente” channel (a YouTube channel), also in accessible formats for people with hearing and visual impairments.6 The video is presented in two versions: one with audio description and the other one with “libras” (Course on the Brazilian Sign Language) and subtitles for the deaf. A total number of 41 photographs were selected to compose the video. The NuMiDi team received the 41 photos and a video with testimonials from the two teachers of the course.7 The creation of the video exhibition started from the analysis of this material and made use of the theory and practice of editing to create an artistically attractive material. Editor Albert Jurgenson defines editing as the organization of a film’s plans according to certain conditions of order and duration [11]. The preliminary analysis of the material showed that the photos revealed a great diversity of themes and styles. In addition, the teachers’ testimonies addressed the realization of the course itself and not the photos specifically. They were materials that complemented each other but representing independent narrative layers. Therefore, editor Eduardo Martino and NuMiDi coordinator and screenwriter, Katia A. Maciel, discussed options for organizing the material and reached a strategic decision. The video exhibition would have an initial moment with the speeches of the teachers, as an introduction, and soon afterward, the photographs would be shown. The diversity of themes and styles, seen as an enriching element of the visual narrative, was highlighted. Following precepts of setting up attractions [12], in which plans are combined from oppositions of scale (for example, a general plan followed by an extreme close-up), or color contrasts (an image in B&W followed by a color), among other dialectical relations of the image, the 41 photographs were juxtaposed in a concomitantly thought-provoking and visual narrative. The question of the pace of the cinematic narrative was a topic that was debated and tested in the editing and everything needed to be assembled in such a way that the visual narrative could flow at a comfortable pace, guaranteeing the time necessary for the viewer to appreciate the artistic creation of each photo and the name of its author. An original music track was requested from the composer Elísio Freitas to create an waudiovisual experience that unites music and visual performance, since the duration of each image is felt 5
The evaluation report is not attached, as it is not a public document. The video exhibition “Art in confinement” was launched on the website of the Um Novo Olhar Project (https://umnovoolhar.art.br/) and can also be seen on the channel Arte de Toda Gente, on YouTube (https://www.youtube.com/c/ArteDeTodaGente/). 7 Digital Media Center of the UFRJ Music School. 6
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and perceived differently when there is a conjugation between image and sound [11]. Thus, inspired by the ideas of the philosopher Jean Mitry, the montage of the video exhibition “Art in confinement” sought to establish a close relationship between the rhythm of cinema and the music rhythm [13].
76.7 Discussion and Reflection The Photography and Digital Image course, being a success case, promoted an important sharing of information between the entities involved. On the one hand, the three entities involved allowed, in a single edition, that a significant number of Brazilian trainees had access to Portuguese content and training methodologies, creating, in these same individuals and in their networks, a particular interest in entering new training courses, on the same basis. On the other hand, concrete studies were initiated for other actions and projects between these same entities, as well as possibilities for other formats of courses, in the same sector, involving other partner institutions. As the main governmental promoter of artistic activities in the country, FUNARTE works, in partnership with UFRJ, on the principles of teaching, research and extension, which are the university tripod that technically enables the execution of the “Um Novo Olhar” and “Bossa Criativa” programs (Popular culture and Integrated Arts) and National System of Social Orchestras (support to orchestras of socio-cultural projects in Brazil). Together, they add up to countless internal actions and projects in their areas of activity, all interconnected by the “Arte de Toda Gente” connection. In each of the programs, the partnership aims to promote public social policies that provide the democratization of access to art as a form of cultural inclusion and a stimulus to the creative economy. The partnership between the institutions opened the door to cooperation with an international dimension, not only between Brazil and Portugal, but also within the CPLP (Community of Portuguese Speaking Countries) countries in various fields, namely in culture and training. Thus, the actors involved have been working to create, in a multicultural environment, conditions for an intense exchange of experiences and an increasing participation in joint projects. The positive evolution of distance learning in an international context depends, increasingly, on productive harmony between the entities involved, as observed in this case study. International partnerships between Higher Education entities in different areas, such as Erasmus Mundus, demonstrate extraordinary results. However, the participation of educational and cultural entities, public and private, of national and international dimension, can be the key to the success of distance education and training, in the context of lifelong learning.
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References 1. Trigo, M.: Trends of education and training for people. In: Silva, I., Leitão, J., Trigo, M. (eds.) Adult Education and Training: Development, Innovation and Competitiveness Factor (2002). ANEFA, Lisboa (2008) 2. Nogueira, M.: New Techniques and Training Methods in Civil Construction. Universidade Portucalense (2010) 3. Anderson, T.: Getting the mix right again: an updated and theoretical rationale for interaction. Int. Rev. Res. Open Distance Learn. (IRRODL) 4(2), 1–14 (2003) 4. Tidd, J., Bessant, J.: Managing innovation: integrating technological. In: Market and Organizational Change, 4th edn. Wiley, USA (2009) 5. Siemens, G.: Connectivism: Learning Theory or Pastime of the Self-amused? Manitoba. Learning Technologies Centre, Canada (2006) 6. Downes, S.: Learning Networks and Connective Knowledge, p. 92. University of Georgia, IT Forum (2006) 7. Ruhe, V., Zumbo, B.D.: Evaluation of Distance Education and E-Learning. Penso Editora, Porto Alegre (2015) 8. Rocha, R.S., Oliveira, G.P., Lim, G.S.: E-learning as a digital tool in hybrid education: a collaborative methodology in technical training. In: Redoc - Revista Docência e Cibercultura, vol. 4, no. 2. Rio de Janeiro (2020). https://doi.org/10.12957/redoc.2020.49453 9. Cabral, L.: Industrial Economics. Mc Graw Hill, Lisbon (2002) 10. Yin, R.: Estudo de Caso: Planejamento e Métodos, 4ª edn. Bookman (2010) 11. Marques, A.: Ideas in Motion: Producing and Making Films in Brazil. Rocco, Rio de Janeiro (2007) 12. Eisenstein, S.: The Shape of the Film. Zahar, São Paulo (1990) 13. Mitry, J.: Esthétique et psychologie du cinéma. Éditions Universitaires, Paris (1963)
Chapter 77
Virtual Lab Virtues in Distance Learning Tiago C. Pereira , Filomena Soares , Eusébio Costa , and Henrique Santos
Abstract Since the start of the COVID-19 pandemic, Portuguese schools have been closed twice. This fact causes teachers to quickly adapt the content of learning to the characteristics of distance learning. In some courses, this adaption is straightforward, although all activities on lab were limited to videos of experiments without any interaction by the students. These aspects could be very prejudicial to the learning process since the success of students in lab is proportional to the experimentation and training. To address this problem, a design science research-based project was launched to develop a prototype of a virtual lab that could allow the students the training that is as much as possible a replication of the real experiences’ protocols. The preliminary results of the use of this virtual lab prototype were conducted by chemical teachers (as expert judgment). At the same time, we have implemented in the prototype checking points to give feedback to the student that are spread from the solid quantity calculation for the solution through the techniques of prevention of contamination of the solution in the process. Next step in this research will be the evaluation of vLab in large scale, addressing the evaluation of virtual lab versus real lab context, user friendly and early adoption of technology (students and teachers). Besides this, the prototype will still be developed to evolve for a virtual lab with haptics. T. C. Pereira (B) · F. Soares · H. Santos Algoritmi Research Center, University of Minho, Braga, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] F. Soares e-mail: [email protected] H. Santos e-mail: [email protected] E. Costa CIDI-IESF, IESF—Fafe Institute of Higher Studies, Fafe, Portugal CEOS.PP, ISCAP—Polytechnic of Porto, S. Mamede Infesta, Portugal E. Costa e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 A. Mesquita et al. (eds.), Perspectives and Trends in Education and Technology, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 256, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5063-5_77
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77.1 Introduction Since the start of the COVID-19 pandemic, Portuguese schools have been closed twice. This fact causes teachers to quickly adapt the content of learning to the characteristics of distance learning. This fact causes teachers to quickly adapt the content of learning to the characteristics of distance learning. The development and introduction of new teaching/learning tools in different education cycles are considered to be extremely important. Several authors have devoted their attention to the area of education, in particular on how to implement new tools to motivate students in the learning process. In fact, advances in technology have made it possible to change traditional teaching inside and outside the classroom [1]. Several works have been published in the literature, registering this new teaching/learning paradigm. These studies focus on different areas, different ways of learning, different learning tools, and among many other concerns. In the digital age and with the “digital students,” this reformulation is particularly relevant. New tools applied to different education cycles and in different languages have emerged: from the first study cycles [2]–[10], through the intermediate level [11] to university education [12]–[19]. It is the age of learning by doing. Borgnakke stated [20] “no matter how we twist and turn learning, we cannot avoid doing.” Computer-assisted teaching via the web, coupled with the traditional classroom method, is a possible answer to teach in an attractive way [19]. Students become active for success [21]. Students can learn what they want, when they want, and where they want … The Internet thus appears as an attractive tool, as it allows exposing subjects in a structured, lively, colorful way, and always available to search for content. Virtual and remote labs have been a good example. Virtual [22] and remote [23]– [27] laboratories, interactive animations [27], and simulators [28] are some examples to teach specific topics to university students. The use of these tools became particular relevant in distance learning as we have been experiencing since March 2020. Following this trend, this paper is focused on the developing of a virtual laboratory where students can replicate real-world experimental protocols, in particular in preparing chemical solutions. The paper is organized in five sections. Section 77.2 identifies the problem addressed; Sect. 77.3 presents the proposed solution for the virtual lab. The first evaluation of the prototype is detailed in Sect. 77.4, and the final remarks are stated in Sect. 77.5.
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77.2 Identifying the Problem 77.2.1 Lack of Practice on Virtual Labs There is no practice in using virtual lab as a pedagogical tool in K-12 Education for many reasons like inexperience on the use of new Information and Communication Technologies (ICT), not knowing its existence and, finally, no motivation to use it. This last aspect became a necessity in COVID-19 pandemic context because simply there was no answer to substitute or complement the lab activities in terms of students training. There are only video recorded lab experiences that the students can watch but not interact. Even in Higher Education, there are some initiatives in reproduce virtual labs for orientation within the [1] real laboratories [10]. Beside this, there are not enough initiatives, in quantity and quality both commercial and non-commercial to a wide spread use, although, its use is considered as valuable as pedagogical tool [6]. For these reasons, a virtual laboratory with real-world tasks, as performed in laboratories, is needed. Virtual reality is already used in training on car industry to anticipate the learning curve of electrical cables in new models, among others [7].
77.2.2 Potential Solution Analysis Educational Technologies Over the last decades, we have seen an exponential growth in the use of ICT in different social contexts, which has caused widespread impacts on everyday life. In this context, the integration of ICT in educational processes is fundamental and irreversible for all developed countries, taking into account that the school system must adapt to the characteristics of the information and knowledge society. ICT integration involves a systematic use of technologies in the classroom, promoting new learning models and opportunities to collaborate and build knowledge, through the design and development of curricular projects supported by ICT [25]. The integration of multimedia, augmented reality, virtual reality, simulators, serious games, and among others, when properly applied, they can improve the teaching and learning processes. Naturally, this integration depends on many factors, namely the training and attitude of teachers, as well as the wiliness of the educational community to achieve a more flexible and inclusive education, closer to the outside world demands, more focused on the characteristics of students providing motivation and well-being [7, 29]. Educational innovation is associated with the concept of the development of good practice [8]. It refers to interventions that facilitate the development of teaching and learning activities in which the objectives are achieved in an efficient and integrative way, regardless of social, motor, or intellectual characteristics.
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Virtual Labs: Interactive, Simulation and Immersive Serious games are nowadays a well-known term, being present in many areas of knowledge, military, industry, education, medicine, and among others. Researchers argue that serious games are games used for purposes other than mere entertainment. They maintain the characteristics of entertainment but include learning objectives [29]. In an attempt to classify serious games, Laamarti et al. [30] defined the characteristics that are important in the design and success of a serious game. They suggest the following criteria based on information derived from the study of the literature related to serious games: area of application of the game (education, well-being, training, advertising, interpersonal communication, health care, and others); activity (physical, psychological and mental effort); game mode (visual, audible, haptic, smell, other); type of interaction with the user (keyboard/mouse, joystick, movement tracking, tangible interfaces, brain interface, eye contact, among others); game environment (uni/multi player, mixed reality, virtual environment, 2D/3D, mobility, location recognition, online). In mixed reality (MR) environments, there is an interactive combination of digital and real objects. MR integrates augmented reality (where virtual objects are overlapped in the real world) and virtual reality (where users are immersed in a simulated digital environment). MR is now being applied in different areas with different purposes, from game environments to educational purposes. In fact MR may be an interesting tool to engage students, from the different cycles of study, in the learning process. To be inside an immersive laboratory, that is a replica of the real-world laboratory at schools, can be particular relevant in the pandemic time we are living in. In [31], the authors present a markerless augmented reality (AR) virtual lab where the armature resistance of a DC motor is determined using a virtual environment. The lab was developed using Unity2018 and ARCore software development kit. The authors suggested that the application field could be extended to other fields and not only applied to electrical and electronics laboratories. Matthes et al. [32] present the collaborative virtual reality neurorobotics lab. The lab allows multiple collocated and remote users to experience, discuss, and participate in neurorobotic experiments in immersive virtual reality. The benefits of these tools, used as a complement to the classroom, could allow for increased approvals, increased student motivation, and greater student responsibility in the learning process. It should be noted that these tools should be a complement to classroom teaching. The teacher-student relationship is considered a key point in this process, emphasizing the social factor of learning and building social relationships and behaviors.
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77.3 Proposed Solution The solution proposed here is a serious game prototype, see Fig. 77.1, developed using Unity 3D targeted for many deployments platforms such as: Android, iPhone, Windows, Linux, and among others. The development of this prototype was based on chemical laboratories protocols with extra concerns about material contamination, proportion of the chemical materials, and an approximated color to real solution [33]. The objects are completed manipulated by the students to allow the various tasks of the experiment process happen. This process includes transfer of solids, solutions, mixed solutions, and store of solution achieved. At this moment, the objects are manipulated by mouse or by touchscreen although the target will be VR googles and haptic gloves. The tool allows formative evaluation for students since it has embedded a checkpoint circuit list that verifies each task of the experimental protocol that is completely done, see Fig. 77.2. The virtual lab is prepared to make three different trials with different volume solutions and different weights of chemical solid.
Fig. 77.1 vLab prototype screen measuring solid quantity
Fig. 77.2 Chemical experiment protocol and checkpoints
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77.3.1 Objects Manipulation There are many objects to be manipulated in the virtual experience; some of the most relevant are: • Avoiding lids contamination—In order to avoid the contamination of the lids of the glass jars, after picking up the lid with click and drag, we can click the object, and it will rotate until it is in a position suitable to drop over the desktop lab in a safely way; • Liquids Transfer—In order to allow to transfer liquids from an object to another, when the objects get near an automatic animation that rotates the source of liquid; • The digital scale has a functional button to turn on if it is clicked, and the same applies to reset the measure (TAR); • The spoon, when near the solids in the container, picks up the solids that then are placed on the clockglash, as reflected in the scale monitor proportional value.
77.3.2 Lab Experience Description The experience starts with a virtual tablet where the students can choose between three trials with different quantities of solids or distilled water. Then, a second display of the tablet presents to the student the chemical experience protocol. Next, the experience starts. The student should turn on the scale and put the clock glass on it. The scale shows in the monitor the weight of the clock glass that should cleared by TAR button. After this, the student should open the container, rotate the capsule and put it on the table, and pick up the spoon and get the solids that should be putted on the clock glass that already is on scale. The student should repeat the steps until get the correct measure of the weight of the solids. These steps are labeled as measure of the solids. The second phase is to compose the solution, see Fig. 77.3, and the student should pick up the clock glass and put its content in the beaker, add distilled water and mix with the glass rod; the color solution should be at this moment dark blue. After this, the student should transfer the solution to a flask with the help of a funnel and the glass rod. At this point, the solution should have a light blue color. In order to clean the beaker, funnel and the glass rod more distilled water should be added to the flask until the flask volume mark is achieved. The flask should be rotated and moved horizontally in order to get a mixed solution that should have an even lighter blue color. Finally, the student should store the solution in a container labeled by the solution formula, the date of storage, and the name of the student. The other trials are done in the same way but with different distilled water volumes and different solids quantities. The experience finishes with the green pick or Red Cross signalizing the correct procedure and missed procedures, respectively.
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Fig. 77.3 Fill the beaker with distilled water
77.3.3 Chemical Experience Protocol Procedures in the Virtual Lab Table 77.1 presents the procedures followed in the real-world experimental protocol and the corresponding implementation in the proposed virtual lab where the interaction is performed through mouse click and VR technology. Next step, will be to adapt the current prototype from mouse control to haptic control in VR mode. There is already an undergoing project to develop a two-finger glove for this purpose. The glove tests will be done over the actual prototype with haptic input. Table 77.1 Chemical experience protocol procedures coverage
Procedures
Mouse
Measuring
Covered with use of animation Covered
VR prototype
Dissolve
Covered with use of animation Covered
Transfer
Covered with use of animation Covered
Store solution Covered with use of animation Covered
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77.4 Evaluation of the Proposed Solution The evaluation of the prototype is based on two aspects: one is the accomplishment of the real experience chemical protocol, and the other will be the usability of the virtual lab by students.
77.4.1 Real-World Chemical Experience Evaluation In order to get and evaluate the chemical experience protocol implementation, we have contacted, as expert judges, two authors of educational books of chemistry who became interested in the project. Their feedback in what concerns the implementation of the lab experiences protocols were very positive, and they considered the virtual lab a valid tool for the chemical educational activities. Regarding the interaction with the virtual lab, they considered that it needs some improvements in order to allow a friendly and natural procedure similar to the real-world experiment. Here, VR could be an interesting solution.
77.5 Final Remarks COVID-19 pandemic forces schools to change the way they implement teaching; they were obliged to adapt to distance learning. In some courses, this adaption is straightforward; but in courses that need laboratory experiments, this adaption was very difficult. To overcome this problem, a prototype of a virtual lab focused on chemical experiments protocols was developed. The preliminary evaluation of this virtual lab was done by chemical teachers. They checked the procedure step-by-step, and they conclude the virtual lab fulfills all the requisites. Next step will be to implement VR to allow a friendly interaction to the virtual lab and then to evaluate it in a large scale with students and teachers. Acknowledgements This work has been supported by FCT—Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia within the R&D Units Project Scope: UIDB/00319/2020”. We also like to refer Higher School of Fafe, particularly, the collaboration of the two Chemical teachers Cristina Celina, Ph.D. and Carlos Cunha for evaluating the proposed prototype.
References 1. Dalgarno, B., Bishop, A.G., Bedgood, R.: The potential of virtual laboratories for distance education science teaching: reflections from the development and evaluation of a virtual chemistry laboratory. In: Proceedings of the Australian Conference on Science and Mathematics
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Chapter 78
Rivers Flowing Toward the Sea: Education Inequalities During COVID-19 Identified Through a Quality and Satisfaction Questionnaire to Students Concerning E-Learning Cândido Gomes , Cristina Costa-Lobo , Dulce Noronha-Sousa , Enrique Vázquez-Justo , Eusebio Costa , and Susana Sá Abstract This study focuses on preexisting inequalities in education and those maximized by the pandemic. It is based on the validation of scales for the construction of a quality and satisfaction questionnaire on students (QSQS) with distance learning for students of higher education to apply to quality assurance offices of higher education institutions. It is based on six dimensions, and, in this article, the result of one of the dimensions is also analyzed: student participation in e-learning. Through the QSQS to answer the following research question: What is the quality and satisfaction of students concerning e-learning? A large number of students and educators have suffered the consequences of a sudden transition to virtual education. In addition to the lack of equipment and people trained to support students in many households, this alternative means of teaching presents contextual differences. In addition, government actions express the concept of biopower, through mass regulations established
C. Gomes · C. Costa-Lobo · D. Noronha-Sousa · E. Vázquez-Justo · E. Costa · S. Sá (B) Escola Superior de Educação do Instituto de Estudos Superiores de Educação de Fafe, (IESF), Centro de Investigação, Desenvolvimento e Inovação do Instituto de Estudos Superiores de Fafe (CIDI), Fafe, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] C. Costa-Lobo e-mail: [email protected] D. Noronha-Sousa e-mail: [email protected] E. Vázquez-Justo e-mail: [email protected] E. Costa e-mail: [email protected] E. Costa CEOS.PP, ISCAP—Polytechnic of Porto, R. Jaime Lopes Amorim, S. Mamede Infesta, Portugal © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 A. Mesquita et al. (eds.), Perspectives and Trends in Education and Technology, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 256, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5063-5_78
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based on popular fear. The reconstruction of education needs to start now, in conjunction with societies and communities, planning to compensate for unequal learning losses. Financial resources are particularly important; however, those earmarked for the social sectors tend to be neglected in light of the debt burden in the following years. This may affect, on a large scale, the number of students attending private higher education institutions.
78.1 Introduction The pandemic, in addition to the “dilemma” life versus markets, has led to a succession of social and educational inequalities [1]. Rivers flow into the watershed and head, with ever-increasing volume, toward the sea. By contrast, cascading negative repercussions afflict the most vulnerable groups and people: The economic downturn leads to layoffs and the creation of fewer jobs for lower-paying occupations; in the most affected sectors, especially the services sector, the shrinking of tax revenues (when an increase in public spending is unavoidable) leads to the need to resort to credit. Those who have kept their jobs are stratified between those who can work from home and those who have to appear in person. The second group, mostly public transportation users, is more exposed to contamination, with a tendency to miss working days. Labor relations have become even more precarious: Those with lower incomes face poverty. In households, with or without home working, roles overlap: productive work, housework, and child care. Distance learning depends on electricity, access to equipment, and appropriate places to study, all of which is difficult to obtain when the household budget is affected. Loss of access, increased school dropout rates, reduced quality, learning deficits, students having to enter the work market too early, increased shadow economic activities, and mental health problems all synergize, as in a downward vicious circle. The state of exception, with the pandemic, follows the risks of terrorism. Indeed, are we still living under the democratic rule of law? These circular and cumulative processes evoke development theories, despite the different conditions of society and economy today, can be profitably revisited [2]. Thus, if on the one hand there is an upward spiral when rivers flow to the sea, on the other hand a downward spiral is established. Our main focus is to analyze the emerging inequalities during the pandemic, their implications, and suggested actions for the reopening of educational establishments. This creates a vest of strength for the quality assurance offices of higher education institutions, which have to be accountable to the guardianship.
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78.2 Theoretical Framework Spirals also affect education and its relations with social stratification. In the long debate on democratization of educational opportunities, there is a relative consensus in understanding that the socioeconomic backgrounds of students have a major impact on their achievement [1, 3]. This does not mean that school conditions, faculty, climate, composition of the student body, criteria for class formation, degree of curricular selectivity, and peer groups are not influential. The school can make a difference, so as to compensate for the effects of sociocultural baggage and the intergenerational transmission of poverty. This is why the school, according to the theories of reproduction, is a filter, guided by the cultural capital of the family and the student. Cultural arbitrary in curricular choices and in valued culture subtly favors the “heirs” and justifies school failure [4]. Thus, higher education transmits privileges, allocates status, and instills respect for the existing social order. Critics point out that while a stratified society shapes education, education can also change society. During the pandemic, these inequalities have been exacerbated by school closures and the abrupt shift from face-to-face to virtual modality, when students have access to it. In this case, confinement and public health interdictions are related to two concepts developed by Foucault [5, 6]: heterotopia and biopower. The former refers to a modified space, a kind of isolated self-exile where students must live face-to-face in isolation from their peers. The latter deals with a new form of domination: not only the sovereign’s right of life and death (by which the sovereign could send the population to wars to kill and die), but also biopower, the statization of the biological. The “superior” people would need racial cleansing in order to become more powerful. This gave rise to the numerous genocides of the twentieth century. Would not digital technologies be ways of compensating for social and educational differences? Why then do parents and students complain about incomprehensible classes, inadequate procedures, and poor time management? Why is there less time for learning? Because the “digital revolution” is not just about equipment. Expertise requires knowing why and what for. Computers are not simply devices, spinning not the wheel of fortune, but the wheel of production–consumption. The school has its own expressions of time and space. One crosses its physical space; there is a starting point, a route, and a finish line as the curricular content starts from no knowledge or previous knowledge toward the knowledge to be acquired [7]. Space and time have radically changed. The former is now a screen and the latter, a sudden blossoming of content. It is a present that lives in relation with its past and its future. It allows one to inhabit today as a possibility of learning something that is not yet. In digitalization, time moves at the speed of light. In instantaneous transmission or conveyance, there is a generalized finish line because everything arrives without having left. There is no blank or void on the screen as it is full of accessible information. Thus, learning becomes the result of computational work: Elements already available are combined, without the need of building thoughts gradually and critically. In other words, the
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ways of thinking, feeling, and acting have changed. Along with the hardships of isolation, these changes affect the mental health of teachers and students. Without wishing to be demeaning or critical of distance learning, philosophy has shown its limits and constraints. As lights and shadows are a double-edged sword, virtual education can both produce remarkable democratizing effects or the opposite. It is not a panacea, however exciting it may be. Are there such things as panaceas?
78.2.1 Features of the Situation Regarding employment, Cortes and Forsythe [8] show that the pandemic has exacerbated preexisting inequalities in the USA. The rope has tended to break at the weaker point, with employment losses being substantially larger in lower-paying occupations and industries, i.e., a downward spiral where those who had less suffered the most. These vulnerable groups include Hispanics, younger workers, women, and those with lower levels of education, up to complete secondary education. However, architecture and engineering, and computer and mathematical occupations saw negligible declines in employment.
78.2.2 Education and Mental Health UNESCO estimates that, since the beginning of the pandemic, 1.6 billion learners have been affected by school closures; of this number, nearly 370 million children are not receiving a school meal in 150 countries. Schooling loss may vary from 0.3 to 0.9 year of quality adjusted schooling if the estimate is not updated. This will correspond to a reduction of US$ 10 trillion dollars (at 2017 value) in life cycle earnings for the affected learners [9], with exacerbating inequalities. For Montoya [10] points out that, on average, children lost 54 days of instruction, but in low-income countries, this figure rises to 77. Analyzing learning performance data for children in Grade 3, she found that reading proficiency declined in 2019–20, with partially negative assessment of the effectiveness of television and computer. In this case, at least two factors may affect the results: first, the lack of access to equipment, in a context of economic downturn and loss of income, as well as to electricity, computer, and reasonably stable Internet connection, and second, the sudden shift to distance learning, focusing on learners still undergoing biopsychosocial development. A computer changes a constellation of behaviors, such as the ways of thinking, socially interacting, searching for data and information, understanding new languages, doing homework, doing exercises, and being assessed. Even with technology, learners need help from parents and other adults, with higher schooling, often busy, and/or presenting mental disorders. Much in the same way, the steam engine, at the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, changed landscapes, times, and spaces, promoted urban growth and sprawling, and revolutionized labor and consumption
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relations. It additionally changed values, attitudes, and behaviors, moving from the “traditional” to the “modern”. So it was not just a machine, it was the cornerstone of a new and unprecedented construction. If the discomforts of teachers and students, including boredom, have been known for a long time, the structural changes in education came in weeks. The image reflected by a mirror and infinitely reproduced by the opposing mirror made the populations more vulnerable to the pandemic from the perspective of income, access to health and sanitation, and the possibilities of carrying out effective confinement [1]. The new conditions create health problems, including mental health problems. Children and adolescents, even more so with the deprivation of face-to-face schooling, may experience psychosocial risk factors, such as self-conflicts, conflicts with family members, and school problems, such as language incomprehension, loss of routine, and massive use of the Internet. In severe cases, these could lead to psychosis, post-traumatic stress disorder, suicide, and suicide attempts [11, 12].
78.3 Methodology Quantitative research aims to explain, predict, and control phenomena, looking for regularities and laws, through the objectivity of procedures and the quantification of measures [13]. A study was carried out in a higher education institution (HEI) in Portugal, where the survey method was used for data collection, through the online application of questionnaire, to answer the following research question: What is the quality and satisfaction of students concerning e-learning? Since the study would be guided by the following objective: responding to the institution’s quality office and how are e-learning teaching and learning taking place at HEI. Initially, the students of the study cycle were provided with a link corresponding to the monitoring that reports to their study cycle. This task was the responsibility of the study cycle coordinator. It arose from the need for accountability of the quality office of a higher education institution (HEI) before the guardianship. The questionnaire was built by the researchers who are part of the research center of that same HEI. Information was given to the teachers with teaching service at the beginning of the week, and students were made aware of the need to fill in the questionnaire provided in the link—it was indicated that the data considered for this monitoring will be the ones made available by the students until 23:59 of the following Monday. In addition to the weekly twelve-week monitoring, students were asked to respond to the quality and satisfaction on questionnaire to students (QSQS) concerning elearning.
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It was constructed and administered of their own authorship that aims to identify the degree of effectiveness of distance learning practices adopted by the private institution that administered the questionnaires in the current context of suspension of face-to-face teaching activities. It aims to support the institution in future use of distance learning. After sending a weekly reinforcement e-mail, sensitizing to the participation in the study, 1346 students answered the questionnaire. In this study, we will only present the results of a pretest for the validation of the questionnaire applied to all master students (n = 111) of the institution. According to Coutinho (2013), in this type of sampling, the results obtained can hardly be generalized beyond the group under study. The scale used was the five-point Likert scale (values of scale 1 = totally disagree to 5 = totally agree). The questionnaire contains 26 items.
78.3.1 Scales Validation of QSQS Validation is a necessary procedure whenever we want to test a data collection instrument. According to De Ketele and Roegiers [14, p. 220], the validation of an information collection instrument is a “process by which the researcher or evaluator ensures that what he wants to collect as information is what he really collects and that the way it is collected adequately serves the purpose of the investigation.” In turn, Marôco [15, p. 123] defines an instrument’s validation as “a process that allows us to determine whether that instrument measures what it intends to measure.” Prior to the application of the questionnaire, students were informed about the nature and objectives of the study, being assured confidentiality and anonymity in the treatment of the data, as mentioned above. Statistical analyses were performed using the IBM/SPSS program, version 26.0. For each study, the significance level of p < .05 is considered. For the validation of the questionnaire, we highlight the statistical analysis centered on the study of the dimensionality and internal consistency of the responses to the items. In the exploratory factor analysis, we used the main components method to verify whether the data were subject to factoring. Then, we appreciate the homogeneity of the items within each dimension. Six dimensions were presented: (i) technical supports; (ii) stakeholders in the teaching process; (iii) learning time in elearning; (iv) participation of students in e-learning classes; (v) interaction between peers in e-learning; (vi) academic results.
78.3.2 First Exploratory Factor Analysis To analyze the dimensionality of this scale, based on the 26 items, an exploratory factor analysis was carried out, using the principal component method. In a first
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phase, we did not define the number of factors to be retained and asked for the escarpment chart, in order to understand what the results would be. In this sense, the results indicate six factors that present the eigenvalues, explaining a variance equal to 63.4%. The escarpment chart presents the first six factors very well positioned, corresponding to the original scale theory that indicates six dimensions: The graphic confirms the six factors that explain how students face e-learning teaching.
78.3.3 Second Exploratory Factor Analysis We proceeded to the second exploratory factor analysis of the 26 items, using the principal component method. Thus, we asked for six factors, setting the cutoff point in the saturation of the items to a value of .40 and a varimax rotation. In order to appreciate the adequacy of the factorization of the items, we obtained a KaiserMeyer-Olkin coefficient (KMO) of .810, above the minimum desirable value of .70, the Bartlett coefficient test of statistically significant sphericity of 3867,881 (gl = 561, p < .001), and variance explained by the six factors equal to 56.96%. This analysis allowed us to remove two items (6 and 11), due to the fact that, they have a value below the required coefficient of .40, in their saturation.
78.3.4 Third Exploratory Factor Analysis In this third exploratory factor analysis, considered the definitive one, we removed the two items because they did not reach the required 0.40 saturation, using the main components method. Excluding the two items, we performed a new factor analysis with 24 items. However, in order to appreciate the homogeneity and sphericity indexes of the correlations obtained between the items, we obtained a Kaiser-MayerOlkim coefficient (KMO) of .817, a statistically significant Bartlett coefficient of sphericity of 3780, 654 (gl = 496, p < .001), and variance explained by the first six factors (equal to 59.96%), suggesting the possibility of continuing the factor analysis. The result obtained presents an acceptable factorial solution confining the items to six factors and reducing their number to 20 items, excluding (13, 16, 17, and 19). Table 78.1 shows the saturation of the items in the six isolated factors, as well as the respective commonality. Likewise, we present the eigenvalue of each factor and the percentage of explained variance for each factor (n = 111). The results suggest the grouping of the 20 items into six factors, taking into account the contents that the items present and according to their dispersion by the factors. The first factor includes four items (1, 2, 12, and 21), which describe the technical supports. The second factor contains three items (3, 4, and 5), which refer to stakeholders in the teaching process. The third factor comprises three items (8, 9, and 10), which refer to the learning time in e-learning.
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Table 78.1 Factor analysis of the 20 items of the e-learning QSQS Items
h2
Component 1
2
3
4
5
6
1. Academic support from 0.920 treasury services is effective in an e-learning situation)
0.853
2-Academic support by the 0.903 treasury services does not depend on the type of education practiced (face-to-face or e-learning)
0.831
12-Academic support by 0.889 academic services (secretariat) does not depend on the type of teaching practiced (face-to-face or e-learning)
0.804
21-Academic support by 0.873 academic services (secretariat) is not effective in distance learning
0.782
3-Teachers acquire skills for online teaching with experience
0.793
0.659
4-The effectiveness of the support of the course coordinators does not depend on the type of teaching practiced (face-to-face or e-learning)
0.779
0.617
5-The support of the course coordinators is effective in the e-learning model
0.778
0.649
8-The needs for monitoring the functioning of teaching / learning are greater in e-learning
0.737
0.619
9-The working time necessary to carry out the teaching tasks is greater in e-learning than in the type of face-to-face teaching
0.585
0.416
(continued)
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Table 78.1 (continued) Items
1 10-The e-learning teaching schedule is rigid and mostly dependent on synchronous sessions
h2
Component 2
3
4
5
0.845
6 0.742
7-In most situations, students passively watch activities in online contexts
0.764
0.636
14-The participation of students in teaching activities is, as a rule, high, both in classroom teaching and in e-learning
0.761
0.611
15-Students working in online environments with digital content have a greater opportunity to manage learning rhythms
0.698
0.578
18-In classroom teaching, students achieve better academic results than in e-learning
0.824
0.704
20-Only face-to-face teaching guarantees solid and credible learning
0.786
0.678
23-Academic results do not depend on the type of teaching practiced (face-to-face or e-learning)
0.760
0.591
22-A interação dos estudantes, entre si não depende do tipo de ensino praticado (presencial ou e-learning)
0.541
0.309
22-The interaction of students, among themselves, does not depend on the type of teaching practiced (face-to-face or e-learning)
0.745
0.631
(continued)
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Table 78.1 (continued) Items
h2
Component 1
2
3
4
5
6
25-In e-learning, students interact more with the teacher than in face-to-face teaching
0.666
0.472
26-In e-learning, students interact more with each other than in face-to-face teaching
0.628
0.485
Own value
5.843
3.685
2.928
2.615
2.281
1.839
% Variance
18.261
11.517
9.149
8.173
7.127
5.746
Source Authors taken from SPSS
The fourth factor is grouped six items (7, 14, 15, 18, 20, and 23), which refer to the participation of students in e-learning classes. The fifth factor consists of two items (22 and 24), which address interactions between peers. Finally, the sixth factor includes two items (25 and 26), which refer to academic results.
78.4 Results Next, we describe the dispersion of the results item by item, indicating the mean and standard deviation for each item, as well as the color–relation ratio between the item and the total (ritc), and, finally, we indicate the value Cronbach’s alpha, as an indicator of the precision of the subscale or dimension when the item is eliminated. In Table 78.2, we indicate the coefficients obtained from these analyses, taking the responses to the items in scale five: interaction between peers in e-learning (n = 111). The results indicate a good amplitude in each item, a fact that we can confirm with the values of the averages that oscillate between 2.11 and 3.66. The standard deviation of the items is above the unit. Regarding the internal validity of the items, we found coefficients above .40, as is required in these situations, as they range from .56 to .82, presenting a good internal validity. The alpha value of the subscale is .91, a higher value than the desired .70 criterion, so it is an alpha value that we can consider to be quite good. The lowest average of this factor, interaction between peers (3.14), can be seen in the item (20-only classroom teaching guarantees solid and credible learning), that is, students are of the opinion that they both learn in classroom teaching and in elearning. This is confirmed by the results (3.11) obtained in the item (18-in classroom teaching students achieve better academic results than in e-learning). On the other hand, the average (3.28) in the item (7-in most synchronous situations students
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Table 78.2 Result of the items of the dimension participation of students in e-learning classes Items
Min/max
Average
SD
Ritc
α if item deleted
7-In most situations, students passively watch activities in online contexts
1–5
3.28
1.64
0.828
0.885
14-The participation of students 1–5 in teaching activities is, as a rule, high, both in classroom teaching and in e-learning
3.45
1.58
0.852
0.881
15-Students working in online 1–5 environments with digital content have a greater opportunity to manage learning rhythms
3.30
1.66
0.861
0.878
18-In classroom teaching, students achieve better academic results than in e-learning
1–5
2.11
1.44
0.564
0.935
20-Only face-to-face teaching guarantees solid and credible learning
1–5
3.14
1.65
0.821
0.890
23-Academic results do not depend on the type of teaching practiced (face-to-face or e-learning)
1–5
3.15
1.61
0.829
0.889
Source Authors taken from SPSS
passively watch activities in online contexts), may show a certain concern in the type of activities (methodologies) that, in general, teachers use in most online classes. It should be noted that some curricular unit classes have a duration of 4 hours. In any case, the item (14-the participation of students in teaching activities is, as a rule, high, both in classroom teaching and in e-learning) is with an average (3.45) of high positive responses. This provided a very reliable perspective of what the students’ satisfaction with e-learning is in the HEI in question. It accesses information regarding the study cycle you are attending, whether synchronous tools were used appropriately, whether asynchronous tools were used appropriately, the availability of teachers to support the learning process through computer means, e-learning activities and exercises/tasks relevant to the learning process, whether teaching/learning solutions were adequate to ensure learning, whether the quantity of e-learning activities was adequate in relation to the time available, whether the assessment of tasks was clear and adjusted to teaching/learning methodologies, and methodologies used of the curricular units attended.
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78.5 Conclusions The questionnaire on student quality and satisfaction with distance learning is an important, valid, and reliable tool for any quality office. Preparing for the post-pandemic period should begin now, so that improvisations are not repeated. What aspects of school are the most missed? Research points to its humanity, the living together face-to-face and learning to live together. From the cognitive point of view, we are faced with a huge deficit to be recovered, with multiple physiognomies, according to the students’ socioeconomic level, ethnicity, and gender. Let us not think of uniform, symmetrical plans, like gears, detached from societies and communities. Different situations should be checked, the curricula should be adapted, and the monotonous practices of before should be left behind. Distance learning needs to be used with caution, especially when it has left a trail of negative experiences. It is important to keep in mind the myriad differences among students, which are accentuated by the downward spirals of society, economy, and education. Obviously, money is needed right away for the social sectors, including education and health.
References 1. Gomes, C., Sá, S., Vázquez-Justo, E., Costa-Lobo, C.: A Covid-19 e o direito à educação. Revista Internacional de Educación para la Justicia Social 9(3e), 1–14 (2020) 2. Davanzati, G.: Gunnar Myrdal revisited: cumulative causation, accumulation and legitimisation. Participazione e Conflitto 6(3), 110–129 (2013) 3. Riordan, C.: Equality and achievement. Pearson Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey (2004) 4. Bourdieu, P., Passeron, J.-C.: A reprodução. Francisco Alves, Rio de Janeiro (1982) 5. Foucault, M.: Des espaces autres. Érès, Empan 54, 12–19 (2004) 6. Foucault, M.: Defender la sociedad: Curso en el Collège de France (1975–1976). Fondo de Cultura Económica, Buenos Aires (2008) 7. Gobbi, A., Rovea, F.: Enseñanza a distancia y enseñanza como distancia. Teoría de la Educación. Rev. Interuniversitaria 33(1), 71–87 (2021) 8. Cortes, G., Forsythe, E.: The heterogeneous labor market impacts of the Covid-19 pandemic. Upjohn Institute working paper 20–327, W.E. Upjohn Institute for Employment Research, Kalamazoo, MI (2020) 9. Borkowski, A., et al.: COVID-19: missing more than a classroom. The impact of school closures on children’s nutrition. FAO, Unicef, Roma (2021) 10. Montoya, S.: Assessments of learning loss and remote education inform data-driven response to COVID-19. Unesco Institute for Statistics, UNESCO (2020) 11. Amran, M.: Psychosocial risk factors associated with mental health of adolescents amidst the COVID-19 pandemic outbreak. Int. J. Soc. Psychiatry 1–3 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1177/002 0764020971008 12. Ye, J.: Pediatric mental and behavioral health in the period of quarantine and social distancing with COVID-19. JMIR Pediatr. Parent 3(1), e19867, 1–8 (2020). https://doi.org/10.2196/19867
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13. Almeida, L.S., Freire, T.: Metodologia da Investigação em Psicologia e Educação (5th ed), Psiquilíbrios, Braga (2008) 14. De Ketele, J., Roegiers, X.: Metodologia da Recolha de Dados, Fundamentos dos Métodos de Observações, de Questionários, de Entrevistas e de Estudo de Documentos. Instituto Piaget, Colecção Epistemologia e Sociedade, Lisboa (1999) 15. Marôco, J.: Análise de equações estruturais: Fundamentos teóricos, software e aplicações. ReportNumber, Pêro Pinheiro (2010)
Chapter 79
Digital Adaptation of the Portuguese Museums Educational Service in a Pandemic Context—Case Study Fátima Matos Silva , Isabel Borges , Eusébio Costa , Agostinho Sousa Pinto , and António Abreu Abstract The promotion and dissemination of cultural heritage, exhibited in Portuguese national museums, are of great importance, mainly in its educational aspect, but also as a foundation for the perpetuation of memory, both for the population in general and, above all, for children, adolescents and young adults. In this article, the main objective is to investigate the digital adaptation, resulting from the technological innovation implemented in six Portuguese national museums, namely in their educational services, as a way to overcome the problems created by the COVID-19 pandemic, problems that were aggravated during periods of lockdown and closure of these museums. We also intend to analyse the problem of accessibility to digital information and to understand how the institutional web contents F. M. Silva (B) CITCEM - FLUP, REMIT— Universidade Portucalense Infante D. Henrique, Rua Dr. António Bernardino de Almeida, 541, 4200-072 Porto, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] I. Borges REMIT, Centro de Investigação, Desenvolvimento e Inovação do Instituto de Estudos Superiores de Fafe (CIDI-IESF)—Instituto de Estudos Superiores de Fafe, Rua Universitária—Medelo, Apartado 178, 4824-909 Fafe, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] E. Costa CEOS.PP, ISCAP—Polytechnic of Porto, R. Jaime Lopes Amorim, S. Mamede Infesta, Portugal Centro de Investigação, Desenvolvimento e Inovação do Instituto de Estudos Superiores de Fafe (CIDI-IESF)—Instituto de Estudos Superiores de Fafe, Rua Universitária—Medelo, Apartado 178, 4824-909 Fafe, Portugal E. Costa e-mail: [email protected] A. S. Pinto · A. Abreu CEOS—Polytechnic of Porto, Rua Jaime Lopes Amorim, s/n, 4465-004 S. Mamede de Infesta, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] A. Abreu e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 A. Mesquita et al. (eds.), Perspectives and Trends in Education and Technology, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 256, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5063-5_79
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of these educational services of the museums under study, which depend on the Direção Geral do Património Cultural (Directorate General for Cultural Heritage), comply with the accessibility requirements contained in Web Content Accessibility Guidelines 2.0 (WCAG 2.0) of the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C), as set out in Directive (EU) 2016/2102 of the European Parliament and the European Standard EN 17161:2019. The final analysis revealed several weaknesses that affect the interest and motivations of users, given the wide range of museum product offerings.
79.1 Introduction A museum, nowadays, is a scientific institution, a place of entertainment, of promotion of tourism, but also of education. The educational action has, above all, a social function, so the knowledge of the different audiences (real and potential/face-to-face and virtual) is essential for the healthy maintenance of each cultural institution. Thus, the educational services are, in a solid and continuous way, one of the most dynamic areas of museums, namely those of the Direção Geral do Património Cultural. Its mission is to create a greater connection to the public, especially the schools, through specific pedagogical and recreational activities, programmed according to the themes and collections of museums. In the relationship between museums and the community, various activities are provided such as exhibitions, guided or commented tours, educational visits, animation programmes, seasonal workshops, travelling exhibitions, theatre, music, shows, conferences, among others. The aim is to develop the taste and respect for cultural diversity, the dissemination of knowledge, through experiences that contribute to regular visits, thus valuing cultural heritage and consequent social integration. Although we can create exhibitions on the Internet in order to reach a wide public, who may not be able to go to a museum, we know that face-to-face is also very important. We dream and idealize that museums and science centres are participatory, accessible and open to all [10]. There are no unique answers, but a set of possibilities should be articulated for the benefit of all. At each moment in history, the answers may be different, as museums are not institutions isolated from their time, so the forms of organization express and reveal the ways of thinking of each period. Due to the consecutive states of emergency in Portugal, museums have been temporarily closed to public. New technologies and the great need for an increasingly effective integration with the school community have redefined new commitments and new approaches in the construction of an educational dynamics at a distance. The main objective of this article is, therefore, to investigate this digital adaptation resulting from the technological innovation implemented in six Portuguese national museums, namely in their educational services, as a way to overcome the problems created by the COVID-19 pandemic. We also intend to understand how the web content of the educational services of six Portuguese National Museums complies with the accessibility requirements contained in the Web Content Accessibility Guidelines 2.0 (WCAG 2.0) of the
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World Wide Web Consortium (W3C), as set out in Directive (EU) 2016/2102 of the European Parliament and the European Standard EN 17161:2019. This paper is organized as follows: the second section is a brief review of the existing literature and the conceptual contextualization about the covered issues; the section three presents the method and data collection; the fourth section presents the discussion and the conclusion.
79.2 Literature Review and Contextualization Both the concept of cultural heritage and that of museums have evolved over time, being its definition very subjective and constantly being updated. This subjectivity stems from the fact that cultural heritage consists of cultural goods, whose value prevailing varies in each society at any given time. However, everyone usually agrees that cultural heritage and culture must be protected and preserved as a legacy of the past for future generations. The Krakow Charter [14, p. 5] considers that “Heritage is that complex of man’s works in which a community recognises its particular and specific values and with which it identifies. Identification and specification of heritage is therefore a process related to the choice of values.”. Cultural heritage, material and immaterial, tangible and intangible, in the view of others, increasingly has a direct relationship with the public. This relationship can and should be strengthened in order to articulate new development alternatives, through a cultural heritage management that enables its transformation into educational and also tourist resources. The development of tourism around cultural heritage is very important, since it provides the necessary sustainability for communities and an improved image through various factors such as the rehabilitation and conservation of heritage [4, 15]. This type of tourism can also contribute to reduce seasonality and encourage the opening to new markets. Museums are the showcase of this cultural heritage, especially the mobile, material or immaterial, but also a way of the collective memory of a country to the various sectors of the national and international population, of different ages and interests. This memory reaches the public through the most diverse cultural assets, whether archaeological, artistic, ethnographic or other typologies. According to the Statutes of The ICOM—International Council of Museums, approved at the 22nd General Assembly in Vienna (Austria) on 24 August 2007, the current definition of Museum states: “A museum is a non-profit, permanent institution in the service of society and its development, open to the public, which acquires, conserves, researches, communicates and exhibits the tangible and intangible heritage of humanity and its environment for the purposes of education, study and enjoyment.”. However, the difficulty in defining the museum is such that even today (March 2021) there is an ongoing questionnaire on the new definition of museum, promoted
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by ICOM (https://icom-portugal.org/) which states: “In view of the need to implement a democratic and transparent process of consultation with national and international committees, regional alliances and affiliated organizations of ICOM, the Committee for the Definition of Museum, designated ICOM-Define, formulated a methodology and a 12-phase schedule, aiming the presentation of a new proposal for the definition of Museum, at the 26th General Assembly of ICOM, to be held in Prague in 2022.”. A set of 20 keywords has been defined for consultation and subsequent contribution, from those who wish to do so, by completing the questionnaire, by 31 March 2021. The results will only be published after May 2022. Some of the most important elements of museums are generally defined in their mission, as well as in that of ICOM and include, among others, the promotion of educational values, inclusion and sustainability. However, the educational services of museums, whether national, regional, municipal or local, private or public, are essential for the sustainability of any museum. This is also seasonal, given that school visits to museums take place during most months of compulsory schooling, when there is a decrease in other publics, namely tourists, bridging the absence of the school public during holiday months. Despite the changes in recent years, regarding new visitor profiles that continue to understand museum spaces as repositories of memories, revealing perennial community identities [2, 3], it is undeniable that “museums can generate important economic benefits in areas such as employment, tourism, investment and urban rehabilitation, so they should be considered by public authorities as catalysts for local economic development” [6]. The museum is understood as a living space open to the participation of all audiences, a key player in the development where people can meet and learn, with a decisive role in rebuilding local economies and repairing the social fabric. As society becomes increasingly dependent on technologies, the rapid pace of change, particularly in a pandemic environment, encourages a more efficient and agile relationship, incorporating new forms of contemporary communication that stimulate greater knowledge sharing of museum spaces. One way or another, museums were already followed a digital strategy, with website, accessible collections databases and dissemination of events on social networks. However, the quantity and quality of the contents, as well as the importance given, were different. Museums were led to see the harmful circumstances of the crisis as an opportunity for change [11]. In fact, the way museums are promoting has evolved over time towards a more digital aspect, to adapt to needs and boost demand. Distances have been shortened through the use of digital platforms, such as websites, which become the “face” of the online museum. They must have the offer of the various services updated and clearly presented, so that it can be easily understood by the various audiences. For that it is crucial to understand how users will access the website and what they want when they access the website [12]. The COVID-19 pandemic is still seriously affecting cultural institutions around the world with a serious economic and social impact. The break in activity plans,
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exhibitions and educational programmes, essential to the formation of new audiences, is a major concern, so the digital transformation was an immediate requirement. ICOM [8], in a statement released during the first confinement in April 2020, expressed its concern about the future of museums and cultural heritage as an element of connection with the community and representatives of a people’s identity. However, unlike other sectors of activity, the closure of museums in Portugal did not necessarily correspond to a period of total distancing from their public, as some museums recreated, innovated and developed alternative digital content that allowed them to keep the memory present and the connection with the various publics. However, those museums that have not managed to adapt and develop their educational services towards accessible and inclusive digital platforms will find it very difficult to maintain their educational policy and to transmit to the public the heritage they have in their care. Indeed, the forced temporary closure of museums during lockdown suddenly brought digital communication with the public to another different level. Online activities have increased, especially the percentage of institutions that have created new digital communication channels after the lockdown started [7]. Museums continued to enhance their digital activities with professionals have resumed work on site again, but working from home is still widely encouraged or enforced but quite difficult to achieve [7], due to the higher or lower quality of the contents and activities available, as well as the degree of professionalism with which they were prepared and disseminated. But in a period of confinement, regardless of the quality of the digital offer, and with employees on lay-off regimes, any kind of effort to strengthen relations with the community, especially the school community, is always very valid and meritorious.
79.3 Method and Data Collection: Case Study The methodology followed in this research was based on a selective sampling, based on the number of entries in cultural equipment allocated to the Direcção Geral do Património Cultural, between 2014 and 2018 (published in 2019 by DGPC). However, given that the most visited are in Lisbon, we chose to diversify the choice by the territory of implantation so we selected six of the fourteen Portuguese national museums, namely Museu Nacional dos Coches (MNC) and Museu Nacional de Arqueologia (MNA), located in Lisbon; Museu Nacional de Machado Castro (MNMC), in Coimbra; Museu Monográfico de Conímbriga (MMC), in Condeixa-aNova; Museu Nacional de Soares dos Reis (MNSR), in Porto: and finally, Museu Nacional de Grão Vasco (MNGV), in Viseu. In addition, we analyse the entity responsible for these spaces, the Direção Geral do Património Cultural. To these six websites of the educational services of these museums, we carried out the study of their digital adaptation in times of COVID-19 pandemic, as well as the quantitative and, above all, qualitative analysis, always from the user’s point of view.
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We developed observing grids for compliance with the requirements of virtual accessibility, and, after the collection of the URLs, we carried out the quantitative and qualitative analysis of the information disclosed on the respective websites. For the quantitative analysis, we checked the degree of compliance with the WCAG 2.0 recommendations, currently implemented by AMA—Agência para a Modernização Administrativa, I. P. (Agency for Administrative Modernization)— Accessibilida-de.gov.pt project (acessibilidade.gov.pt/), and we used the automatic validator Access Monitor Plus, version 2.1. This software is an automatic validator of web accessibility practices (WCAG 2.1), which checks the application of accessibility guidelines in HTML content, on a scale of 1.0 to 10.0. The three types of results are stratified by three priority levels (“A”, “AA” and “AAA”). For a website to be considered accessible, text alternatives must be provided for any non-textual content. This allows for adaptation to each user’s needs, such as printing on enlarged characters, braille, the possibility of reading aloud, symbols and simpler language. All content should be adaptable, discernible and keyboard accessible. It is also important that there is the help option, and multimedia elements must provide content and texts properly identified, with subtitles or audio description (https://www.w3.org/Translations/WCAG20-pt-PT/). Unlike what we have been developing in other works [1, 5, 10, 13], we do not privilege quantitative analysis. We only checked the A, AA and AAA, level errors, concerning the acceptable, not acceptable and the warnings to be manually checked. The elements chosen for qualitative analysis, regarding the virtual accessibility of the educational services of the museums included in the sample, were those listed below: existence of the accessibility symbol, existence of search functionality, existence of virtual visit, existence of partnership with Google Arts & Culture and, finally, the existence of virtual educational activities. The digital adaptation resulting from the technological innovation implemented in six Portuguese national museums, namely in their educational services, as a way to overcome the problems created by the Covid-19 pandemic, for being very diversified did not allow the choice of fixed parameters. Although there are similar digital adaptations, we chose to make a description of what we consider most important for a website exclusively dedicated to the educational service.
79.4 Digital Adaptation and Accessibility of the Portuguese National Museums Educational Services Websites The tests performed on the museum education services pages, the first user interface, in Access Monitor Plus, were compiled between 6 and 12 March 2021. This is important as websites are constantly being updated, so the validity of the analysis is relatively short. The compliance of the websites is analysed with the different levels although variable (Table 79.1 and Fig. 79.1) presents average and weak values, with none
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Table 79.1 Characterization of some elements of the websites analysed Museum Educational Index Accessibility Search Virtual Partnership Online service Access symbol functionality visit with activities website Monitor Google arts Plus & culture MNC
http://mus 5.1 eudosc oches.gov. pt/pt/partic ipe/escolas/
No
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
MNA
http://mus 3.3 eunaciona larqueolo gia.gov.pt/? p=3146
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
MNMC
http://mus 6.1 eumachado castro.gov. pt/pt-PT/ser vicoeduca tivo/Served ucativo/Con tentList. aspx
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
MMC
http://pat 4.7 rimoniocu ltural.gov. pt/pt/mus eus-e-mon umentos/ rede-portug uesa/m/ museu-mon ograficode-conimb riga/
No
No
No
Yes
No
MNSR
http://mus 6.2 eusoaresd osreis.gov. pt/pt-PT/ser vico_educ acao/Con tentList. aspx
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
MNGV
http://mus eunaciona lgraovasco. gov.pt/? p=216
No
Yes
No
Yes
No
3.8
(continued)
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Table 79.1 (continued) Museum Educational Index Accessibility Search Virtual Partnership Online service Access symbol functionality visit with activities website Monitor Google arts Plus & culture DGPC
http://pat rimoniocu ltural.gov. pt/pt/mus eus-e-mon umentos/ dgpc/ser vicos-edu cativos/
7.4
Yes
Yes
–
Direção Geral do Património Cultural Museu Nacional Grão Vasco Museu Nacional Soares dos Reis Museu Monográfico de Conímbriga Museu Nacional Machado Castro Museu Nacional de Arqueologia Museu Nacional dos Coches
Yes
–
7.4 3.8 6.2 4.7 6.1 3.3 5.1 0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Fig. 79.1 Access monitor plus indexes for the websites analysed
reaching the desired value of 10. The results obtained reveal that these websites are not prepared to comply with the guidelines of the new European legislation, respectively, to the new guidelines made public on 21 March 2019 and set out in the European Accessibility Act and the Design for All Standard. Given that our main objective is to perform qualitative analysis from the user/consumer’s point of view, the elements chosen for qualitative analysis were the ones we have mentioned below and whose results we present in Table 79.1. In terms of the available languages, we verified that only the Portuguese language occurs, but currently the Internet functionalities allow for automatic translation, so we no longer consider this item. Also, the vast majority of the elements for analysis chosen do not exist on the web pages related to educational services, but on the home page of the museum and on another page, so we consider them as existing. It is not understandable that activities within the scope of educational services are dispersed, not mentioned on the pages of educational services, which are very static and relatively poor in terms of possibilities of virtual interaction. An example of this is the activity recently made available (February 2021) concerning the project entitled “MITOS ONLINE”. It is aimed at young people and families and is intended to make known, through QUIZZES, some myths and Gods of classical antiquity. This is a partnership between the Museu Nacional dos Coches and the Museu Nacional
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de Arqueologia, as well as other heritage spaces of the city of Lisbon, but it is not allocated in the pages of educational services. We started our analysis by the websites that present the best performance. The website of the Direcção Geral do Património Cultural presents a value of 7.4 in the web accessibility practices report (WCAG 2.0 of the W3C). It informs us that “the DGPC, under its social responsibility policy, does not guarantee that this website is 100% accessible but confirms an effort to improve the accessibility of this website conforming to the Resolution of the Council of Ministers No. 97/99 governing the accessibility to general government websites by individuals with special needs”. From the user’s perspective, this is a site that provides diverse information on the various types of Portuguese heritage and cultural activities, with emphasis on museums. As a differentiating element, it is worth mentioning the “Portugal: Art and Heritage” project, a partnership between Google Arts & Culture and the Portuguese Ministry of Culture, which enables any interested party, anywhere in the world, to enrich their knowledge about the collections of the museological spaces and national monuments in Portugal, in this way almost all museums have a virtual visit, even if partial. This is another example of information that could be available on the pages of the educational services. The DGPC’s educational services page displays all the links to the museums (13 in number and one house–museum) and monuments/palaces (eight precisely) under the responsibility of this institution of the Portuguese State, among other general information regarding the various museums as well as the brochure on the activities of the DGPC educational services in pdf format. Unfortunately, it only reports the 1st half 2017. It is mentioned that “the educational services are, consistently and continuously, one of the most dynamic work areas of the DGPC museums, monuments and palaces”. The Museu Nacional Soares dos Reis, the oldest public art museum in the country, founded by D. Pedro IV, has a compliance degree of 6.2. It presents a permanent exhibition of Portuguese painting and sculpture from the nineteenth century and first half of the twentieth century. On the occasion of World Puzzle Day, on 29 January, they suggested an original activity involving artists represented in their collection. Users were challenged to play online, from an already designed model, recreating the self-portraits of Aurélia de Sousa, the naturalist Artur Loureiro, popular scenes by Francisco José Rezende or José Tagarro. The Museu Nacional Machado Castro, with a rate of 6.1, has an educational service that provides several ongoing activities and the possibility of accessing others that have already ended. It promotes activities with its league of friends and allows the download of support materials but does not have online activities. It has an inclusion tab. Other spaces, with a low evaluation index, stand out with some differentiating activities, although not always available at a distance. At the Museu Nacional dos Coches, we find guided tours for groups with special needs. Information boards are available, with images in relief, texts in Braille and enlarged lettering, in Portuguese and English. Online has recently created the 3D virtual tour—MNCoches and 4D
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virtual laboratory naturally accessible to all. However, the educational service, presented in the schools tab, even though it presents several interesting activities, they are only possible with physical presence. A mention for the existence of guided tours for groups with special needs and others is for the visually impaired and blind. The Educational Service of the Museu Nacional de Grão Vasco was one of the pioneers in Portugal, having been created in 1960. It allows “an accessible understanding of the works exhibited and stimulates personal development, strengthening skills and awakening emotions, through multiple and diverse experiences” and has many activities, but all of them face-to-face. The page of the Museu Monográfico de Conimbriga—Museu Nacional is hosted in the DGPC website, that is, the museum does not have an autonomous website and achieved a weak rating of 4.7. In the educational services tab, static, it only says that “provides, by appointment, recreational and educational activities” and directs to a table with a link that does not work. There are references to accessibility, mentioning the absence of “architectural barriers that prevent access to disabled people in the face-to-face visit to the ruins can be partially visited”. Finally, the Museu Nacional de Arqueologia with an index of only 3.3 (which we find strange) has some concern about accessibility, allowing the possibility of increasing the font size and activities for children with difficulties. It states that until the reopening of the museum, it will be present on social networks, through Facebook and Instagram. It has a digital newsletter of great quality but does not present virtual activities directly in the educational services, which we have already mentioned. Given that it was not one of the main objectives of the preparation of this article, the quantitative analysis resulting from the study of the websites, through Access Monitor Plus version 2.1, was chosen for the analysis only the quantifiable results of level A, AA and AAA errors, concerning the acceptable, not acceptable and the warnings to be checked manually (Fig. 79.1). Was not one of the main objectives of the elaboration of this article the quantitative analysis resulting from the study of the something websites, through Access Monitor plus version 2.1 were chosen for the analysis only the quantifiable results of the errors of level A, AA and AAA, relating to acceptable, not acceptable and warnings to be checked manually (Fig. 79.1 and Table 79.2). The target audience of the educational services of museums is composed of general public, teachers and different types of educators, students or families who access the educational services available on the museums’ websites to try to access various information. In this way, they intend to obtain different information in order to occupy leisure time in a pedagogical way or to search information that serves as a basis and/or support as various programme contents of the different teaching levels. However, the results show very poor accessibility for anyone with or without any kind of difficulty. The website with the best degree of accessibility is the DGPC’s. The websites of the museums analysed are clearly deficient, as we have seen, with low to very low values in terms of performance when analysed on their virtual accessibility. The lack of information is also a fact, as we can see, and as accessibility is poor, they will have difficulties in finding and subsequently understanding the information they need. Thus, the quantifiable results of level A, AA and AAA errors, concerning
5.1
3.3
6.1
4.7
6.2
3.8
7.4
MNC
MNA
MNMC
MMC
MNSR
MNGV
DGPC
5
4
5
5
5
2
4
2
12
3
8
3
10
5
4
2
4
6
4
4
4
11
18
12
19
12
16
13
0
1
0
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Museum Access LEVEL A LEVEL AA LEVEL AAA Monitor Acceptable Non Warnings Total Acceptable Non Warnings Total Acceptable Non Warnings Total Index acceptable acceptable acceptable
Table 79.2 Results of the “A”, “AA” and “AAA” level tests found
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Fig. 79.2 Error totals of the “A”, “AA” and “AAA” level tests
acceptable, non-acceptable and warnings to be manually checked, show very high values, especially in the results of level A errors, with non-acceptable errors standing out, as we can see in Fig. 79.2. In this quantitative analysis of errors by level, we found high values and, as such, revealing the problems that the vast majority of websites present, in terms of conformity with what is intended to be considered an accessible website aimed at everyone. In conclusion, we can say that the quantitative data corroborate the qualitative data.
79.5 Discussion and Final Ideas Although Portugal, in 1999, was the first Member State of the European Union to adopt accessibility requirements for the contents and services provided by the Public Administration on the Internet, the research revealed several weaknesses that affect the interest and motivations of visitors and other users in the face of the varied offers of the cultural heritage and culture product, in general. The analysis of the results of the websites allowed for measurable data to be obtained is capable of enhancing the qualitative analysis concerning the strengths and weaknesses and the needs for improvement that the analysed websites require, from the perspective of any user and also of those who present, permanently or temporarily, limitations. The educational services of the museums analysed have to make a considerable effort to make universal accessibility a reality, both in terms of the enjoyment of the cultural heritage they manage and in terms of the virtual accessibility of their websites, as not complying with the basic principles of universal accessibility will
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negatively affect the sustainability of their institutions. We know that economic difficulties and the lack of professionals in various specialities continue to be difficult obstacles to overcome, but an effort must be made. This article also analysed the speed and the way in which most museums reacted to the necessary changes, mostly based on what one was forced to learn during this pandemic situation, almost immediately. Facing the new paradigm of the lack of socialization imposed by the COVID-19, producing and disseminating activities that accompanied those who were away from “normal” experiences were crucial. COVID-19 crisis has changed museums perception of the digital world forever, highlighting existing issues and accelerating several changes that were already in progress. Although the resulting social and economic crisis will obviously be a major obstacle in terms of the economic and human resources that museums will be able to invest, more and more institutions are aware of the crucial importance of an online presence. The economic impact of the COVID-19 crisis on the sector is serious, and the recovery from this crisis will be long and complex. To make this transition easier, it is imperative that governments and international organizations support museums in their processes of digital transformation, because in general and in the particular cases studied, there is still much to be done. The Museu Nacional de Arte Antiga and the Museu Nacional de Arte Contemporânea will have been, in Portugal, the first ones to adopt digital contents, creating remote activities that in an initial phase were essentially composed by videos about objects existing in their spaces. However, the majority of museums remain poorly equipped to deal with this, and other similar situations in the future and the different ways of engaging with the public remotely are very reductive. The final question is how visitors will react in a post-COVID phase. Will these digital dynamics be enough to regain the connection and the curiosity to return to these museum spaces? Will the implementation of the clean and safe seal, created by Turismo de Portugal, which validates health safety in infrastructure and services in various sectors (restaurants, tourist resorts, travel agencies, among others), including museums, be a factor supporting the decision? The remote access to the museums cultural offer and the way they captivated the different publics during the pandemic period, as well as the difficulty of international mobility, among other factors, will have a decisive role, for the continued development and sustainability of this digital revolution in museum spaces. Acknowledgements This work is financed by Portuguese national funds through FCT—Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia, under the project UIDB/05422/2020 - Universidade Portucalense, REMIT – Research on Economics, Management and Information Technologies.
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References 1. Borges, I., Silva, F.M., Costa, E., Pinto, A.S., Abreu, A.: Infoaccessibility on the websites of inbound markets of Portugal destination © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. Advances in Tourism, Technology and Smart Systems, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies, vol. 171, pp. 117–129 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-2024-2_10 2. Cadavez, C.: (Sempre a) Ver a Aprender, ou o Heterogéneo Habitus de Observação dos Turistas das Sociedades Coevas. Revista Iberoamericana de Turismo—RITUR, Penedo, Número Especial, pp. 27–47 (2015). http://www.seer.ufal.br/index.php/ritur 3. Cadavez, C.: “Mas que mundo é este?”, ou de como tem de ser diferente a divulgação das práticas de fruição cultural para os turistas millennial – um estudo de caso pensando nos museus. Revista Iberoamericana de Turismo- RITUR, Penedo, vol. 7, Dossiê Núm 3 (2017) 4. Cano, M., Garzón, E., Sánchez-Soto, P.J.: Preservation, and conservation of rural buildings as a subject of cultural tourism: a review concerning the application of new technologies and methodologies. J. Tour. Hosp. 2, 1–23 (2013) 5. Costa, E., Silva, F.M., Borges, I., Pinto, A.S., Abreu, A.: Usability and accessibility of institutional websites in demarcated wine regions: the cases of Vinhos Verdes and Douro. Advances in Tourism, Technology and Systems (ICOTTS 2020, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies), vol. 1, pp. 415–429. Springer Nature, Singapore (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/ 978-981-33-4256-9_38 6. ICOM Europe: Museus, Lugares Sociais Emblemáticos. Declaração do Funchal no Ano Europeu do Património Cultural (2018). Available at https://unescoportugal.mne.gov.pt/pt/not icias/declaracao-do-funchal-museus-lugares-sociais-emblematicos 7. ICOM: ICOM Follow-up report: Museums, Museum professionals and COVID-19 (2020a). https://icom.museum/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/FINAL-EN_Follow-up-survey.pdf 8. ICOM: Statement on the necessity for relief funds for museums during the COVID-19 crisis (2020b). Available at https://icom.museum/en/news/statement-on-the-necessity-for-rel ief-funds-for-museums-during-the-covid-19-crisis/ 9. Pinto, A., Costa, E., Borges, I. Silva, F., Abreu, A.: Virtual accessibility on digital business websites and tourist distribution. In: Advances in Tourism, Technology and Smart Systems: Proceedings of ICOTTS 2019, pp. 93–103 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-202 4-2_9 10. Rocha, J.: Norberto: Acessibilidade em museus e centros de ciências: experiências, estudos e desafios. Fundação Cecierj e Grupo Museus e Centros de Ciências Acessíveis (2021) 11. Roque, M.I.: Os museus face ao Covid: Uma ponte sobre águas revoltas, in a.muse.arte (2021). Available at https://amusearte.hypotheses.org/7194 12. Ryan, D.: Understanding Digital Marketing: Marketing Strategies for Engaging the Digital Generation. Kogan Page, United States (2014) 13. Silva, F., Borges, I.: Digital accessibility on institutional websites of Portuguese tourism. Technological Progress, Inequality and Entrepreneuship: From Consumer Division to Human Centricity, pp. 67–85. Springer, Cham (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-26245-7_5 14. The Charter of Krakow: Principles for Conservation and Restoration of Built Heritage (2000). Available at http://smartheritage.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/KRAKOV-CHA RTER-2000.pdf 15. Tuan, T.H., Navrud, S.: Capturing the benefits of preserving cultural heritage. J. Cult. Herit. 9, 326–337 (2008)
Chapter 80
Contemporary Education, Technologies, and Human Connectivity: From Native Generations to Digital Immigrants Dulce Noronha-Sousa , Eusébio Costa , Cristina Mateus , Ana Raquel Noronha , and Enrique Vasquez-Justo Abstract The twenty-first century constantly surprises us with vertiginous and persistent changes, from the habits of leisure time, to the means of work or study, as well as in the way we communicate. This study intends to contribute to a better understanding of contemporary education as a new paradigm of education in the twenty-first century, as well as the new morphology of school communication. For this, in the mixed research, with a sample of 338 individuals, random sample in a universe of northern Portugal in twelve districts and divided into two large groups the digital natives (subdivided into three age groups in relation to the Portuguese educational system) and the digital immigrants (subdivided into two groups the adults of working age and those over 65), using a semi-structured interview. We felt the need to characterize the technological behavior of the different generations and to understand how they result, in life changes, of society in this digital age, as an instantaneous and liquid structure, with impulse placed on the dynamics of transformations in education. In the struggle to unblame what we know as the concept of technological determinism, responsible for the transformations that have taken place in the family theater and changes in light of societal transformations, primarily in the school, we soften a pessimistic view where children, young people, adults, and the elderly reveal D. Noronha-Sousa (B) · E. Costa · C. Mateus · A. R. Noronha · E. Vasquez-Justo (CIDI-IESF)—Fafe Institute of Higher Studies, Fafe, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] E. Costa e-mail: [email protected] C. Mateus e-mail: [email protected] A. R. Noronha e-mail: [email protected] E. Vasquez-Justo e-mail: [email protected] E. Costa CEOS—Polytechnic of Porto, S. Mamede de Infesta, Portugal © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 A. Mesquita et al. (eds.), Perspectives and Trends in Education and Technology, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 256, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5063-5_80
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that technologies favor humanness, making life sweeter in leisure, at work, and in the endless process that is the human search for knowledge and learning connectively.
80.1 Introduction The contemporary reality characterized by cultural changes and the new paradigm of education in the twenty-first century, as well as the new morphology of school communication. [1] Discourses, such as “technological world,” “global world,” “information society,” “cultural diversity,” “intergenerationality,” “educating society,” “childhood culture,” or “connective connection”, are linguistic terminologies, of everyday life, regardless of whether we are dealing with the young digital natives or the older generations that have become digital immigrants. Contemporaneity is innovative [2, 3] in the way it considers man competent in the selfmanagement of his knowledge. In this way, skills such as resilience, creativity, initiative, problem solving, choice, and construction of knowledge present the new human characteristic in a process of rapid and transforming adaptability [2, 4]. Learning, accessible to all, in formal, non-formal, and informal educational settings, [5, 6] reveals the current educating society. Thus, in opposition to traditional education, a more informal “learning” emerges, with resources that are more accessible to all, enabling an endless vastness of knowledge, according to the interests of the researchers. In this structure of society and the search for knowledge, new theories about learning are emerging, breaking with myths [2, 3] and with the traditional ways of seeing human learning, the acquisition of knowledge, and the very concept of education. New technologies have been replacing old technologies in all generational groups [2], both natives and digital immigrants. We witness daily an increase of learning environments and actors, and of the routine means and uses of technologies and connective activity [3] in the various age groups of developed societies.
80.2 From Technological Society to Contemporary Education The world today presents a dizzying pace of change that technological transformation has caused in the sciences and in the rapid sociological evolution, driving social, economic, and labor, family and cultural transformations, directly affecting the way people learn, think, and relate [2, 7]. Thus, the concern arises to think about the school and the children of the twenty-first century, trying to respond to the demands of labor markets, families, and the needs of children as a generation that is connected and represents the so-called generation of digital natives. Studies developed in the last decades reveal that children spend most of their time watching television or using computers or other technological means, leaving aside
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any other daily activity, such as playing and having personal contacts. This result is largely due to the current increase in the situation in which families find themselves, with parents having to work more and more outside and for much longer, leaving children with the company of caregivers and technology. Ever earlier, we see children using computers, tablets, or cell phones, mastering the use of technological supports, connecting with the world through the “window,” represented in the form of a screen, managing the construction of their knowledge using the Internet. Nowadays, we can perceive a contemporary education [8] that is based on constructs, by antagonism to the old socio epistemological paradigms. Education [9, 10] is an act of collective competence, in the assimilation of the process of change, the recognition of the knowledge of multiple sciences, in an education and childhood construct [1, 5, 6, 8, 11] of today, called contemporary. The education of the twenty-first century, of the global and knowledge society, with digital native children, [8] leads us to reflect, to respond with education professionals, promoters, and potentiators of answers to deconstruct the socio epistemological paradigms of modernity and post-modernity, outlining the contemporary as a new paradigm for the twenty-first century.
80.2.1 From Human Connectivity to Education It has been defended the idea that the twenty-first century is not the century of technologies, but of connectivity [3]. This vision has been influencing pedagogical methods and a new paradigm of educational learning itself. The connectivity form of co-communication [10] is by excellence the most humanized configuration of human activity. However, children in the various stages of their linguistic and communicational development start early on the use of the technological tools that the adults in the household see and refer to them [4]. In education, and in some of the educational models recognized as the best in the world, human connectivity appears as a form of autonomous learning [2]. A vision defended since the first half of the twentieth century and the defenders of Scientific Pedagogy, giving protagonism to children. With an active pedagogy that perceives and is based on meaningful learning and its educational principles, only achieved by previous experiences and an understanding of the world and things. Relating and decoding the observed, that is, [2] connecting with the environment and all the stimuli received, the educational models assume education based on a form of connective network. From the earliest age, we are hostages of the brightness of screens, of the vibrant movement of luminous and dynamic images in color and movement… [10] and the tenderness of touch and smells are neglected as essential focuses of sensorimotor development, privileging the senses of hearing and sight, which do not require so much physical effort and are satisfactory in passivity with little need for motor and communicational dexterities and skills, as for interactions, we report appearing as limited as conductive and expository learning. The problem of the indiscriminate use and without rules and limits of technologies by children arises when they are
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influenced and end up forming concepts and getting to know the world through these contacts, in an inappropriate way and without the appropriate meaning, without previous experiences and experiences, but by the guidance of adults in the form of modeling and without the attribution of meanings. The world proves to be fascinating and involving because of the endless answers to all kinds of questions in real time. Certainly, the advances in technology fascinate everyone, but we must be aware of the consequences imposed by the excessive use of these resources, turning what should be a resource of excellence into an addiction, a promoter of dysregulation, and a potentiator of difficulties in socialization and communication between people. The evolution of today’s society will not be driven by force or energy [10] but by the domain of information. This is the true reality of the future, and children will have to be educated in it, preparing them for their own futures. But they will never stop growing up healthily among the technologies, the hugs from adults, the “pushes” from their peers, and the mud from their innocent games and dopamine games… [6, 9, 12] This is where parallel and inevitable concepts of the new communities come together: information society/knowledge society; communication society/global society; and digital society/culture society.
80.2.2 From Digital Natives to Immigrants: An Intergenerational Relationship Contemporary education, in the face of the abundance of information in the digital age society [13] and of sharing in social network sites, and the proliferation of invitations to use these sites, does not waste this competitive and rich medium, in the inherent active participation of students, taking into account the most intrinsic motivations of children and young people. It is important to take into account that the new generations live, with constant use, the technologies, and besides having high technical skills, they are also positioned in different ways before the information and the practical use of them [14]. Ways of recognizing different generational groups, with different cultures, involvements, and worldviews as well as their own interests, motivations and positively connected intergenerationally are emerging [4, 12] as mentioned by the American Presnky, at the beginning of this new century, when he presents his perspective on the distinction of digital natives and digital immigrants [15]. We can epilogize that the present time reinforces the connectivity as a way to democratize society and to enhance social equity [12]. The generation of children of the twenty-first century took us, due to the complexity of contemporaneity, to [10] analyze and know their speeches, since the way of expression of children is essential to better understand their social representations. The digital native child [9, 12] is the name given to the generation born after the 90s, which has a natural domain of digital technology and uses information and communication technologies with extreme ease. Digital natives emerge in an
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educating society, consisting of generational groups, where the child acquires and becomes a being of law, with competencies recognized in the Convention on the Rights of the Child. Living in hypermodernity [9], children are part of the society called contemporary society or communication societies [10] that is characterized by the increasing and incessant evolution of these technologies and the intense speed of the flow of information and communication. The Theory of Social Representations [6, 10] based on child representation models [5, 10], which regularly employs stereotypes to represent children, visualized the possibility of defining a new stereotype or model of child representation, concerning children and young digital natives, aiming to contribute to the field of research about the formation of the child in contemporaneity [7, 12]. The concept of hyper-realized childhood emerges, as a concept for childhood, composed of children who have all the possibilities of access to new digital technologies, develops the processes of learning and communication, as well as the insertion, as author and actor, of the digital world itself. The concept of childhood culture [1, 6, 8, 11] as a socially constituted process anchored in space and time, where children become cultural beings and socialize in a “constructive and changeable” process…children “learn the systems and conventions of representation, the codes of languages and cultures which makes them culturally competent to interact socially.” Today we are witnessing a greater interest in childhood and children as social groups, which may suggest that we are witnessing a process of decolonization of childhood [1, 5, 10, 13], thus contradicting the established worldwide culture that children are not heard, and that “adult-centered” responses to childhood are emerging, focusing on the adult, not corresponding to their motivations, desires, or intrinsic needs. Thus, the concern arises to think about the school and the childhood of the twenty-first century, trying to respond [4] to the demands of the labor market, the families, and the needs of children as a generation that is connected and represents the so-called digital native generation. In the literature, adults are often referred to as digital immigrants [10, 13, 16], an inner struggle to force the acquisition of late acquired skills and the need to adapt to modernity, both in social and family life and in work life. The adult, as opposed to the child, [8] was not born immersed in a digital world, living with little naturalness, the relationship with technology.
80.3 Information and Communication Technologies and the School of the Twenty-First Century The new century comes with a humanistic vision of the school, the family, and the child [8, 11, 12]. The sociology of the child advocates forms of social construction of contemporary childhood [11], as a specific social group, of the child’s person, recognizing the diversity of childhoods and opposing reductionist views of the way children integrate into adult society. The school has been assuming a growing autonomy of
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students [12] both as independent and competent human beings, as constructors of their own learning. Construct brought by active and socioconstructivist educational theories, where teaching presents limits of space and time [6, 7, 13] caused in the fast access to information, in the construction of knowledge and learning, [4, 6] the connotation of collaborative dialogic knowledge in the development of student autonomy and, consequently, in the construction of knowledge in the digital age, from learning with mobile devices and the development of applications for these devices, theme addressed in the article, generates other pedagogical strategies, which contribute to the authorship of the student in the learning process.
80.3.1 Childhoods in the Digital Age and the Transformation of Education Studies on childhood have been creating visions of the school and new paradigms of contemporary education [8, 12] opposing traditional views on the incompetence of children to [18] “…appropriate and manage the spaces that surround them…” this space [public or private], fought as a concept of mere space [18], where social action takes place linearly, or as a product of material conditions. The attention to the concrete and subjective experience of place, as of the children in the family, competent, and full-bodied actors, where the space of the house and its representation, leads to promote the construction of the child’s own family identity, is formative of a social learning, and it is through this dynamic and fluid movement of the contemporary child [inside and outside the house] that his sense of family belonging is built. The child is a “competent actor” and “whole-body” to whom the “social dimension” is recognized regarding the relationship with the physical space, attributing the sense of place. Contemporary education humanized and placing the child at the pinnacle of educational action, assumed as central focus an “educational body” [5, 6] structured in the triad: development, autonomy, and learning, where teachers and educational technicians are qualified, regardless of the cycle to which it belongs in the Portuguese Educational System, urges professionals whose training is based on three fundamental paradigms for the work: caring, educating, and intervening.
80.3.2 Teaching, Technological Environments, and Innovative Pedagogies Innovative pedagogy looks at technologies from their “sun side” in contrast to the negativist version that looks at them from the “moon side,” which accuses them of dependence and excess in the daily lives of both children and adults, when the problem lies in the lack of self-regulation or rules of life. Thus, an evolution in education should tend toward an alternative to the use of traditional teaching methods, by
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means of new strategies supported by the integration and use of the technologies available at school. ICT favors dynamic and active teaching [1, 2, 5, 11, 13, 19], where participation and decision making are partially assumed by students from different school cycles, promoting initiative, creativity, self-regulation, and autonomy. The educational environment assumes a new role in contemporary education, [1, 5–8, 13, 19–21] where the connectivity with others and the world leads the individual to connect with himself, thus empowering addressing the relevance of technological resources and possibilities of use in pedagogical practice [7, 11, 19] is essential. It is important to consider the innovative potential of ICT in teaching different subjects, mobilizing resources, promoting oral skills, and learning through playfulness [5, 6, 22]. Valuing the benefits of ICT is necessary to generate advances in the training offer of teachers, in their confidence to use ICT effectively, and in the qualitative transformation of teaching learning processes that foster holistic and meaningful learning for “digital native” students [2, 4, 6, 7, 9–11, 13, 16, 19–21]. ICT is one of the feasible resources to boost educational practices, which are available to both teachers and students [19]. Although it is not necessary to be an expert in technology to integrate it into teaching practices, it is essential to know how to use various technological resources and educational software [11]. Thus, through the computer, the teacher can provide [19] learning about the world, art, written language, and mathematics, promoting learning opportunities for all, [5, 9] with equitable responses typical of an inclusive and democratic school. ICT also facilitates the pleasure of learning [4, 11, 16] through play and problem solving, as well as support the relationship between parents and school, in a joint educational project. The teaching profession wears an innovative garb of educator [6, 12], instead of teacher, where the cognitivist sense is lost, prisoner of rigid curricula, and of the mere transmission of knowledge, for a holistic approach to human development and education, [6, 12] consisting of care, with respect for the idiosyncrasies of each individual, responses that are channeled toward the construction of the pillars of the education of the future, such as inclusion and equity. In the Pedagogy of Connectivity [19], the alternative learning theories, promoting the systematic and systemic updating of knowledge, present itself as a process of connecting specialized nodes or sources of information, which may reside in non-human devices, promoting the ability to know, constantly adapting to change, in institutional or virtual environments of distance learning or e-learning, facilitating continuous learning and the ability to see connections between ideas [1, 2, 4–6, 8, 13, 19]. This new education places the teacher as an educator and educational tutor, inspiring divergent and proper thinking, openness to collaborative work, and flexible sharing of ideas, where the ability to understand concepts, choose and use, in a digressive and transversal way, the areas of knowledge, emerges as a fundamental ability. The individual, as the main actor of his education, where the environment is presented as stimuli and encouragement of previous and significant learning and the student, becomes a social actor. The school ceases to be adult-centered, to be a place of the child and childhood, and loses the emphasis of invisibility to assume the concept [2, 6, 13, 23] of E-ofício of the child, as an educational construct, of its
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culturality and generationality where the action of the child is materialized, in the era of digital technologies. To require a fundamental evolution in education, an initial and continuing education structure for teachers [3, 19] that allows them to overcome ignorance and fears by, placing the teacher as educator and educational tutor, inspiring divergent and appropriate thinking, openness to collaborative work, and flexible sharing of ideas, where the ability to understand concepts, choose and use, in a digressive and transversal way, the areas of knowledge, emerges as a fundamental ability.
80.4 Methodology The driving problem of this research is constituted by the researchers’ interest in understanding the evolution of education as a reflection of the daily life of the different generational groups as far as technologies are concerned. We started from the problem: To what extent do the new communicational networks integrated by intergenerational cultures enhance innovation in contemporary education. In order to know, by structured survey, the relationship between cultural diversities resulting from the age group, as well as the effects of the information society in the connective links that differentiate the different elements of families, divided into groups that constitute the digital natives and the older elements that we call digital immigrants. We also used to identify the use of traditional technologies such as telephone, radio, and television, as opposed to the most recent technologies, to which we still refer as new technologies, referring to the computer and tablet. This study in the area of technologies and education, presented as a continuation of other investigations by this team, aims to know the daily life of families and the technological habits of the different age groups that constitute it, as specific objectives: (a) to know the connectivity of the family members; (b) identify the technological behavior of digital natives and immigrants; and (c) recognize the technological daily routines of communication. The mixed research methodology used was analytic-quantitative. In the method followed, the sample was collected by convenience, in accordance with research ethical care, safeguarding the voluntary, anonymous, and confidential collaboration of the participants, in a random universe from northern Portugal, in a total of 338 individuals, of 42 families, from 12 cities. The research measure resulted from a structured interview for data collection, obtained via telephone, in the impossibility caused by the COVID-19 pandemic, seeking communication with physical distance. The participants presented an operational definition where we defined five age groups divided between: (a) 0–6 years; (b) 6–15 years; (c) 15–25 years; (d) 25–65 years; and (e) older than 65 years. The interview selected five equipment groups: (a) computer; (b) television; (c) phone; (d) tablet; (e) radio, eight search engines (a) Google; (b) Yahoo; (c) YouTube; (d) Bing; (e) Amazon; (f) Pinterest; (g) Google Maps; (h) Google Images, and also 15 applications (a) Teams; (b) Zoom; (c) Skype; (d) WhatsApp; (e) Viber; (f) Instagram; (g) Facetime; (h) Twitter; (i) Dating App; (j) Banking
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App; (l) E-mail; (m) Facebook; (n) Messenger; (o) Dropbox; and (p) Line. The data treatment used Excel to quantify averages and percentages obtained in the results.
80.5 Analysis and Discussion of Results The study sample consisted of 338 individuals, distributed in five age groups, such as (a) 29; (b) 29; (c) 30; (d) 180; and (e) 70. We subdivided these five groups into: digital natives with 88 individuals, representing 26.04% of the sample, including the first three age groups (a), (b), and (c). The remaining two groups (d) and (e) entitled digital immigrants add up to 250 individuals representing 73.96% of the sample (Fig. 80.1). The individuals that make up the sample belong to 42 families living in 12 cities in northern Portugal, distributed among the cities (Table 80.1). In the study, after presenting the sample users, we present the distribution, in hours and percentages, distributed by three areas of time use activity: leisure, work, and study/knowledge. The group of digital natives, with regard to the use of technologies in leisure activities occupied 111.5 h, equivalent to 42.5% of use; as for work, we found four of the respondents already working, resulting in 30 h daily in the item work, corresponding to 11.30% of use; with regard to study/knowledge, the data show that 123 h are used, making up 46.50% of daily time. As for the natives’ average use of technologies, we identify that at work, only the group of the oldest, 15–25 year olds (c), use a total of 36 h, corresponding to an average of 1.2 h, since the others have zero hours of work activity. As for leisure, the distribution is: (a) 42.5 h, average 1.5 h; (b) present 41 h with an average of 1.4 h; and group (c) uses 49 h with an average of 1.6 spent. With regard to the use of technologies for study/knowledge, group (a) spends only 7 h, equivalent to an average of 0.2, which is quite different from group (b) 97 h with an average of 3.3,
Fig. 80.1 Percentage of the sample by age groups
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Table 80.1 Table of respondents’ distribution by cities/age group CIDADES
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
Amarante
0
1
2
6
3
Baião
1
0
0
3
0
Braga
0
0
1
9
3
Cabeceiras de Basto
2
2
0
5
0
Fafe
7
11
10
65
17
Felgueiras
13
8
3
33
25
Gaia
1
0
1
5
4
Guimarães
4
1
1
12
1
Maia
0
1
4
6
5
Penafiel
0
0
2
2
1
Porto
1
4
3
23
6
Póvoa de Varzim
0
1
3
11
5
as well as group (c) 86 h with an average of 2.9. It should be noted that in this group if we add the time spent on work with study/knowledge, it results in an average of 4.1, or if we add leisure it totals an average of 5.7 daily hours of activities using technologies. The sample shows the 338 respondents, where the natives are 88 individuals aged up to 25 years, predominantly students, only four young people worked, totaling an absolute frequency of 264.5 h using the technologies, revealing an average of more than three hours of daily use. We can state that in our sample, the excess or supposed addiction that has so worried families and even health professionals is not a cause for concern. The use seems to be very balanced, even taking into account that the first group represents very young children, making the daily average drop, but where we can analyze that as for leisure time, the results point to similar values in the three groups studied. As for the study, it was surprising the average of 0.2 in the group of young children, revealing that in times of pandemic, early childhood education schools were connected at a distance with their students at home, keeping them cognitively active. In the next groups, both the students of basic education of the three cycles existing in Portugal, between 6 and 15 years of age, the data reveal identical results with the older students of secondary and university education between 15 and 25 years, curiously, leisure time is higher in the older ones (from 1.4 to 1.6 of average) and as for studying, the results are inverted, the younger ones having reached higher values than the older ones (3.3–2. 9 of average), as for work we are pleased to verify that there were only four young people who work, totaling 36 weekly hours and 1.2 of average, this group of older natives the total hours between study and work total 122 h with an average of 4.1 daily hours and the total of 171 h in general points to an average of daily use of technologies has an average of 5.7 daily hours, seeming acceptable, and again without exceeding what we could consider dangerous or abusive.
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As for the groups referring to digital immigrants in a sample of 250, the total use of the sum of traditional and new technologies amounted to 669 h, an average of 2.7 h a day, with use divided between 323 h devoted to work corresponding to an average of 1.3 h per subject, 103 h devoted to study/knowledge with an average of 0.4 h, and, finally, leisure time, 243 h, an average of 1.0 h. To better understand the results, we distinguished the two age groups that comprise the digital immigrants, highlighting the last group of those over 65 years old, equivalent to a population mostly comprised of retired people. Thus, the results of the population in group (d), with a n = 180, with a total daily use of 487 h, with an average of 2.7; distributed between 304 h of work, with an average of 1.7; and 82 h of study/knowledge with an average of 0.5; in leisure time the group uses 101 h with an average of 0.6. In group (e), in the elderly, with n = 70, totaling 182 h of use of all technologies surveyed, an average of 2.6. The group uses 19 h in work, with an average of 0.27; 21 h in study/knowledge, with an average of 0.3; and finally, 142 h spent in leisure with an average of 2.02. As for the adults, a total of 250 respondents was interviewed, the two groups we call digital immigrants made up of individuals between the ages of 25 and 65, ages approximating to the time of their professional activity, and those older than 65 as a representation of the elderly. The use of the Internet, whether for leisure, work, study, or knowledge, is distinct, as revealed by the data quantified in hours and predominant options, both among the two groups studied and the digital natives. We emphasize that the adult workers of the sample have adapted very well in what concerns the use, since they totaled 96.66% of technology users, leaving only 6 of 180 who only use the old technologies such as telephone, television or radio, a value that the elderly show in 67.14% in the use of traditional technologies to 32.85% of new technologies, revealing less use. The respondents present a choice of search engines, divided by age groups, following (Table 80.2): As for the Structured Survey Applications, we got the following responses (Table 80.3). In times of global pandemic, where children and young people began to perform via virtual classes promoted an early and intense technological activity within our Table 80.2 Distribution of respondents by age groups/search engines Age groups
(a)
(b)
(c)
d)
(e)
Google
18
25
36
175
23
Google Maps
0
0
20
152
12
YouTube
25
26
27
158
20
Pinterest
0
5
9
50
3
Google Images
1
10
23
116
9
Yahoo
0
0
10
12
2
Bing
1
0
3
12
1
Amazon
0
0
21
45
1
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Table 80.3 Distribution of respondents by age groups/app Grupos Etários
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
Team
3
9
18
45
0
Zoom
6
20
24
75
0
E-mail
3
20
27
155
13
WatsApp
4
11
20
109
15
App Bancos
0
0
19
111
21
Instagram
0
10
25
110
5
Facebook
0
12
26
69
23
Messenger
0
11
24
133
14
Facetime
0
3
12
55
0
Skype
2
3
6
70
6
Viber
0
0
2
7
0
Dropbox
1
3
15
72
1
Twitter
0
0
6
14
0
App Encontros
0
0
0
6
0
Line
0
1
1
1
0
respondents under six years, group (a), have a daily use of Google of 62% of users, and the respondents of group (b) in age belonging to basic education use Google daily in 86.20%. The young people of group (c) with ages from 15 to 25 years attending high school and university have 100% of Google users. Digital immigrant adults use Google in the elderly by 32.9% and the rest by 97.2%, with YouTube dominance in the children.
80.6 Conclusion Recognizing that we live in a digital age focused on the rapid increase of human connectivity [2, 5], influencing communication and learning in different age groups and socioeconomic structures, transforming the multigenerational cultures of local and international populations, this study aims to know the daily habits of different generations, comparing them both in time, choices and uses of the most accessible technological media. Thus, knowing the technological typologies of the families, we will be able to transmit in the school realities [13] the family cultures, as well as, the way education can interact both didactically with the students, and at the relational level and share the family culture within the family nucleus itself [4]. As an objective to know the habits of the Portuguese population of different age groups daily, comparing them both in time, choices and uses of technological media used more in their daily lives. By knowing the habits regarding the use of old and new technologies, we will be able to perceive the level of technological connectivity of the
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families, as well as their adaptability to the working world with reflexes on leisure. Today driven by telecommuting or distance learning that the COVID-19 pandemic has thrown at us and where hours of activities with technological resources are used by all age groups although with different distributions. In an attempt to understand the distribution of the loads previously presented, we found the distribution by grouped ages and corresponding to childhood before entering compulsory school, dominating the use dedicated to leisure in an average of an hour and a half daily, taking into account that the limitation of leisure spaces we can say that it is important these experiences, enriching the overall development and promoting early learning. In the second group corresponding to children attending elementary school, the reality is quite different since the leisure time is significantly lower, but on the other hand, this group triples the daily use time with the study time. As for the third group of young people, high school and university students, the reality is similar, approximately half. In previous studies, the authors knew the perceptions of elementary school teachers, about the importance of ICT in their practices and their training, and the typology of resources in the teaching work, now appeased with family life. Since the child’s E-Officio [1, 3, 6, 11, 19] reveals the performance of children’s learning activities as active users of information and communication technologies in school, family, and other non-formal education environments, creatively constituting the expansion of the child’s action as an impressive act of renewal of the contemporary child’s social status, the functional identity of the E-Officio aggregates the child who uses the technologies as a leisure and playful space, and the student studies in the various learning environments with the lightness of the digital natives. Access to cyberspace by today’s adults as a privileged use in everyday life, especially at home and in the family environment [4]. The boundary between work and home environments that is configured in the child in leisure time, and in adults with mastery in working time, does not prevent adults and children from accessing the unlimited and competently the gigantic and diverse virtual global space, [14] also for study, informative research focused on various applications. In an attempt at a positive intergenerational relationship, between the digital native and immigrant groups, lies the common space dedicated to leisure time and study. We conclude from this study that the education we advocate, and the Era in which we live, the Contemporary, materializes in a technological response that replaces the current ICT, in a new version, where communication/human interrelationship is privileged, presented in TCC, that is, the Technologies of Knowledge and Connectivity.
References 1. Sousa, D.N.A.: Conetividade humana e as redes comunicacionais: Da comunicação à aprendizagem no seculo XXI. ESEFafe. Rev. Artigos Pedagógicos 14(5), 2–14. Fafe, Portugal (2019) 2. Sousa, D.N.: As crianças nativas digitais e o Mundo Contemporâneo. IESF, Rev. Educa para o Futuro 5, 2–14. Fafe, Portugal (2018)
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3. Tomás, C.: “Há muitos mundos no mundo”: Cosmopolitismo, Participação e Direitos da Criança. Edições Afrontamento, Porto (2011) 4. Em Psicologia. Faculdade de Ciências e Letras de Assis – UNESP – Universidade Estadual Paulista. Brasil. Consultado em março de 2018 https://repositorio.unesp.br/bitstream/handle/ 11449/139408/000864835.pdf?sequence=1 5. Tomas, C.: Paradigmas, imagens e conceções da infância em sociedades mediatizadas. Media & Jornalismo 11, 119–134 (2007) 6. Da Mota, J.C.: Web 2.0 ao e-Learning 2.0: Aprender na rede. Dissertação de mestrado em Ciências da Educação, especialidade Pedagogia do e-Learning, Universidade Aberta, Portugal (2009) Disponível em: http://orfeu.org/weblearning20/ 7. Brito, R.: As TIC no jardim-de-infância: Práticas de educadores de infância e criançportuguesas. In: Rocha et al. (eds.) Atas da 5ª Conferência Ibérica de Sistemas e Tecnologias de Informação. Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela Espanha, pp. 264–268 (2010) 8. Medeiros, G., Bergmann, J., Wangenheim, C.H.: Práticas pedagógicas com o desenvolvimento de aplicativos para dispositivos móveis por estudantes da educação básica. Artigo Revista Textura 22(49), 99–119 (2020) 9. Dias, A.L.A.: A criança nativa digital no contexto de filmes publicitários. Tese Doutoramento (2015) 10. Sousa, M.D.N.A.: Supervisão e aquisição da competência profissional: Um modelo de etutoring na formação de educadores de infância (Tese de Doutoramento). Universidad de Salamanca, Salamanca, Espanha (2015) 11. Costa, E.: Avaliação da integração de plataformas e-learning no ensino secundário (Tese Doutoramento). Universidade de Salamanca, Salamanca, Espanha (2010) 12. Noronha-Sousa, D., Oliveira, I., Mateus, C.: Equidade pela Creche: Uma resposta Educativa Inovadora para a primeira infância. Sisyphus—J. Educ. Instituto de Educação, Universidade de Lisboa, 7(03), 92–106 (2019). 10.2574,9sis.18585 13. Antunes, N.: Avaliação do Programa e.escolinha no 1.º Ciclo do Ensino Básico (Tese Doutoramento). Universidade de Salamanca, Salamanca, Espanha (2012) 14. Mateus, C., Noronha-Sousa, D.: A educação em mudança no século XXI: Ecos de ciências na educação contemporânea para a 1ª Infância. Saber e Educar 21, 76–85 (2016) http://revista. esepf.pt/index.php/sabereducar/issue/view/25/showToc 15. Noronha-Sousa, D.: A Educação Formal Contemporânea e Equidade entre crianças. capítulo do livro: As crianças: Infância pobreza e qualidade de vida. UNESCO (2019) 16. Chipaco, E.: O LMS como ambiente tecnológico de suporte ao ensino e aprendizagem na perspetiva dos estudantes e dos professors (Tese Doutoramento). Universidade Católica, Porto, Portugal (2018) 17. Presnky, M.: Nativos Digitais. De On the Horizon (NCB University Press, Imigrantes Digitais (2001) 18. Almeida, C.M.S.: A perspectiva do utilizador do Facebook relativamente à escolha de alojamento turístico. Universidade Europeia (2016) 19. Sirota, R.: Les Métieres de lénfant a láge de Línternet: Métier D´‘énfant, Métier D´Éleve. In: Delicado, A., et al. (ed.) Infância Crianças Internet: Desafios na Era digital. Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian, Lisboa, pp. 139–156 (2009) 20. Bidarra, I.: A transformação digital do ensino e aprendizagemdesafios para uma nova morfologia da escola (Tese Doutoramento). Universidade Católica, Porto, Portugal (2018) 21. Sarmento, M.: As culturas da infância nas encruzadas da 2º Modernidade. In: Sarmento, M.J., Cerisara, A.B. (org) Criança e Miudo. Perspetivas socio-pedagogicas da Infancia da Educação. Porto Asa (2004) 22. Hanna, L.: Parent perception of technology on children’s language development. Honors Theses and Capstones, p 297 (2016) 23. Vieira, V., Costa, E., Oliveira, Í.M., Noronha-Sousa, D., Mateus, C.C.: A integração das tecnologias da informação e comunicação no 1. º ciclo do ensino básico: perceções docentes. In: GarcíaValcárcel, A., et al. (eds.) Inovação na educação com TIC: ieTIC 2019 Atas da Conferência, pp. 190–204 (2019)
Chapter 81
Distance Learning in Pandemic Times: A Case Study of the Portuguese Tourist Sector José Luís Braga , Isabel Borges , José Carlos Meneses , Catarina Mota , and Sandra Brás Abstract The main goal of this paper is to analyse the webinars of the regional tourism entities of Porto and Norte (ERTPNP) and Centro de Portugal (ERTCP) that were held after the emergence of the pandemic crisis. The present work led us to infer that these events were well accomplished, namely in addressing success stories, sharing experiences, best practices and national, as well as international, know-how. Technological adaptation was particularly evident in educational institutions, which absorbed new learning opportunities—this was the case of Turismo de Portugal and its twelve schools that introduced significant changes in organisation and training methodology. Tourism and education fields use technologies of the new digital era that enable the development of digital skills. This way, they fill gaps that, in other times, would cause much deeper economic and social crises. The methodology adopted in the present study focused on a case study of the two J. L. Braga (B) Centro de Investigação, Desenvolvimento e Inovação do Instituto de Estudos Superiores de Fafe (CIDI-IESF); GOVCOPP; CiTUR—Centre for Tourism Research, Development and Innovation, Polytechnic of Leiria, Fafe, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] I. Borges Centro de Investigação, Desenvolvimento e Inovação do Instituto de Estudos Superiores de Fafe (CIDI-IESF), CEGOT; REMIT, Fafe, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] J. C. Meneses Centro de Investigação, Desenvolvimento e Inovação do Instituto de Estudos Superiores de Fafe (CIDI-IESF)/Laboratório de Paisagens, Universidade do Minho, Património e Território—Lab2PT, Braga, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] C. Mota · S. Brás Centro de Investigação, Desenvolvimento e Inovação do Instituto de Estudos Superiores de Fafe (CIDI-IESF), Fafe, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] S. Brás e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 A. Mesquita et al. (eds.), Perspectives and Trends in Education and Technology, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 256, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5063-5_81
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abovementioned regional tourism entities. Within this scope, data collection techniques used comprise direct observations arising from the viewing of conferences, semi-structured interviews and documentary analysis.
81.1 Introduction Over the last year, we came across a new reality on a global level, due to the COVID19 pandemic. In what regards tourism and distance learning, higher education institutions and public bodies have had to adjust to the current situation, doing so in a responsible manner despite the constraints. These adaptations were only possible due to the structural changes that have taken place in recent decades, due to the integration of technology, which has brought countless economic and social implications worldwide, particularly in the tourism industry, which has had unprecedented growth in Portugal in recent years [1]. In this context, institutions play a key role, as numerous technological infrastructures had to be devised to help higher education institutions prepare for learning opportunities, which had to be considered in pedagogical planning, not only by academics but also by various institutional leaders [2]. In what concerns national tourism organisations, namely Turismo de Portugal, this public entity decided to provide a large number of online training courses, in the area of tourism, through the Academia digital—Turismo de Portugal platform, led by professionals from the tourism sector [3]. Still regarding Turismo de Portugal, its twelve schools have been introducing significant changes in their organisation and in their training methodology, as they were forced to a sudden change and faced with the need to create prompt solutions. For the 2021–2022 school year, it is foreseen that virtual school projects will be undertaken, with the development of digital support services, namely pedagogical support, study support, personal and creative development, among other services, without the usual physical presence in schools. Thus, through the provision of more flexible means, which combine online training with face-to-face training, these schools also intend to strengthen their international attractiveness [4]. It can be concluded that the current pandemic crisis has raised the need to use technologies and the web to replace or complement face-to-face teaching, in online form or using blended teaching methods. We foresee the beginning of a new era, where these models will prevail. Therefore, online pedagogy has its own distinctive characteristics, and one of its essential features is the use of technology in a creative way and as a way of developing several skills, including digital skills. This paper aims to provide knowledge about the context in which these webinars were held by the regional tourism organisations of the North and Centre of Portugal in the backdrop of the pandemic crisis and the processes inherent to the preparation of these events. Consequently, two starting questions seem relevant: (1) to what extent did the webinars rendered by the studied ERTs were successful? (2) why have ERTs adopted webinars as a means of tourism training? [5].
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The methodology applied in the current research was a case study that included the collection of data pertaining to the ERTPNP and the ERTCP. The data collection instruments used were direct observations resulting from the viewing of the conferences, semi-structured interviews and document analysis. This paper is organised as follows: the second and third sections present a brief review of the extant literature. In turn, section four describes the methods used in the current research, while section five reveals the research findings. Finally, the last section of the paper addresses the discussion and conclusion of the study.
81.2 Information Technology, Communication, Education and Tourism According to Rentz et al. [6], organisational communication can be divided into three main categories: internal-operational, external-operational and interpersonal. External-operational communication—where webinar initiatives are included— concerns the communication of the organisation with its public: suppliers, service companies, customers, government agencies and with society in general. This includes all the activities that the company carries out to improve its relations with its public, through planned advertising or via formal or informal contacts between its employees and the world outside the organisation (Fig. 81.1). In contemporary society, information distribution channels have undergone a revolution towards their democratisation: any company, organisation, government department and even individuals, using the Internet, can disseminate the message
Customers (consumers, business customers, the government…)
Core business Partners (suppliers, contract workers, manufacturers, shippers, distributors...)
Your company Public Groups (community groups, citizen groups, nongovernmental organization, schools and foundation…)
Industry partners (competitors, similar businesses, lobbyists...…)
Regulatory Agents (the government, trade alliances, union offficials, national and international legal experts…)
Fig. 81.1 Probable external audiences of today’s organisations. Source Rentz, et al. (2011, p. 9)
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they like [7]. Today’s society is characterised by the intensification of information exchange which is processed at an extremely high speed [8]. We are witnessing an informational and cultural globalisation and the emergence of a ‘ubiquitous society’ [9]. The Internet, by allowing the worldwide dissemination of any message through a website, is an extremely useful tool for the promotion of tourism products at national, regional and local levels. It presents important advantages since it allows the display of information on a website which can be changed without print costs [10]. On the other hand, because it allows the global marketing of a product at a reduced cost, the Internet makes it possible for small and medium enterprises to compete with large companies in the tourism sector. In addition, the simultaneous viewing of the same information in countries with different time zones, provided by the Internet, is an undeniable advantage when acting in a global market [11]. The Internet is also beneficial to tourists as it can provide them with an up-to-date list of bed availability at the destination, present virtual colour catalogues, provide reservation services and online customer support, as well as assist in the payment of air tickets, leisure products, among other possibilities [10]. As far as distance learning is concerned, this methodology has proved to be crucial as a substitute for classroom teaching in times of pandemic. However, distance learning will have to undergo profound changes if it is to be an effective substitute for the classroom. In fact, distance learning should not be approached as a mere reproduction of face-to-face teaching in a cyber setting. It is up to educators to create content adapted to this teaching support, by creating interactive models that avoid one-way communication [12]. The new technological era must necessarily begin in education if it is to cover all dimensions of human activity. In tourism, we must also take gamification into consideration, since it is critical to increase the competitiveness of tourist destinations [13]. It is in the realm of gaming applied to the tourism industry that a remarkable experience has been provided to tourists through a new element that changes the marketing and business paradigm: gamification (i.e. use of game elements and design in non-game contexts) [14]. Gamification is designed to ‘achieve motivational or behavioural effects to attract more customers, enhance their experience and stimulate consumer retention in the business sector’ [15] (p. 93). In short, the new technological era (third globalisation) is irreversible, and education is a beacon to keep it balanced with humanist values that, since the Greco-Latin civilisation, through the Renaissance, to the present-day, remain current.
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81.3 National and Regional Tourism Organisation in Portugal It was only in the twentieth century that some attempts were made to structure an organisation capable of framing and boosting tourist activity, in a country, Portugal, that was taking its first steps in this industry [16]. In terms of historical contextualisation, Portugal’s territorial planning, in the tourism sector, began under the regime of the First Republic and was substantiated in art. 3 of Law no. 1121 of the Government Gazette of 21 April 1921 [17]. This normative stipulated the implementation of comissões de iniciativa e turismo (i.e. local tourism organisations), with the aim of carrying out works and improvements, which were subjected to the government’s or the administrative corporations’ approval of projects [17]. During the Estado Novo, this regime was revoked by Decree-Law 31095 of the Administrative Code [17]. In turn, art. 102 of the Government Gazette of 1940, approved by Decree-Law 27424 of the Government Gazette of 1936 [17], established the dependence of the newly created tourism organisations on municipalities administered by municipal councils (where their headquarters belonged to tourism areas) or by tourism boards (where they did not). This legislative hesitancy caused many issues regarding decision power, either due to lack of financial means, political will, or because of the local inability of municipalities in what concerns tourism dynamics. The Plan of Costa do Sol (PUCS) was launched in 1935 and approved in 1948 [18]. Later, in the 1960s, the creation of the Algarve Master Plan, described as Dodi Plan [19], brought no answers in normative issues, producing no effect on local tourism planning [17]. Tourism planning was again addressed in the III Republic. According to Cerdeira [17], with Portugal’s integration into the European Community and the resulting opportunity to access structural funds for rural development, the possibility of developing the territory and opening it up to new markets rose. The inception of the Instituto do Turismo de Portugal I.P., in 2007, was meant to create a single public structure that would pursue the mission of promoting the enhancement and sustainability of national tourism [20]. This entity, responsible for the promotion, enhancement and sustainability of the national tourism activity, is currently integrated in the Ministry of Economy and Digital Transition. Turismo de Portugal, incorporated in a Secretariat of State responsible for tourism policies at national level, in turn, consists of Directorates and Departments, divided according to the different areas of intervention: Planning (Strategy Directorate, Knowledge Management Directorate); Business (Supply Enhancement Directorate, Investment Support Directorate, Sales Support Directorate, Training Directorate, Gaming Regulation and Inspection Service and Internationalisation Department); and Support (Financial and Technology Directorate, Human Resources Directorate, Legal Directorate and Communication Department) [21].
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After successive amendments, the regional tourism entities (ERT) were created in 2013 [22], consisting of five regional areas, resulting of a combination of the public and private sectors, in addition to the already existing Regional Tourism Directorates of the Azores and Madeira. According to Cunha and Abrantes [23], the current ERTs overlap with the areas included in the Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics (NUTS II) of Portugal. Their attributions are as follows: definition of the regional tourism plan; monitoring of the regional tourism activity; organisation and dissemination of tourism information; ensuring the promotion of the region in the internal market; and collaborating with the central bodies with a view towards meeting the objectives of the national tourism policy. This management model encourages the participation of private agents. The designation and headquarters of the Portuguese regional tourism organisations are the following: Turismo do Porto e Norte de Portugal, based in Viana do Castelo; Turismo Centro de Portugal, based in Aveiro; Turismo da Região de Lisboa, based in Lisbon; Turismo do Alentejo, based in Beja; and the Turismo do Algarve, based in Faro. In addition, in the islands, tourism falls under the scope of the Regional Secretariat for Economy, Tourism and Culture of Madeira and the Regional Secretariat for Energy, Environment and Tourism of the Azores. The ERTs are responsible for the valorisation of their respective destinations and for regional tourism development, aligned with the national guidelines for the tourism area and with the aim of managing and promoting tourism resources [21]. ERTPNP aims to promote and develop the value chain of its territorial coverage which includes 86 municipalities and comprises four subregions—Porto, Douro, Minho and Trás-os-Montes [24]. For its part, the mission of the ERTCP is to enhance and develop the tourism potential of the respective regional area and of the domestic market of its 100 municipalities, congregated in the subregions of Ria de Aveiro, Viseu Dão Lafões, Coimbra Region, Serra da Estrela, Leiria Region, Middle Tagus, West and Beira Baixa, as well as to tackle internal promotion [1, 25].
81.4 Methods The present research contemplates a multiple case study, in the sense that our assessment focuses on two units of analysis, which are both regional tourism organisations (ERT): Turismo do Porto e Norte de Portugal (ERTPNP) and Turismo do Centro de Portugal (ERTCP). In this context, we intend to grasp the phenomenon of the webinars held by both ERTs in the immediate aftermath of the health crisis motivated by COVID-19 [26]. The use of the case study methodology purports to answer to two research questions: (1) How did the webinars coordinated by the studied ERTs worked out? (2) Why have ERTs adopted webinars as a means of tourism training? [5]. Our aim is, therefore, to clarify whether this innovation in the way of communicating has been successful given the strategy adopted by the ERTs under study. We also intend to
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know if we can generalise the findings of this specific study to the broader topic of the use of new technologies in the context of the pandemic [27]. Case studies may combine quantitative and qualitative data. However, the present study will seek to obtain a holistic and inductive view of the phenomenon studied, thus the qualitative approach will be preferred. In the present study, we chose the qualitative approach because we favoured: (1) an emergent rather than pre-ordained research plan; (2) meaning using words as opposed to measurement using numbers; (3) a natural, interactive, personal setting rather than an impersonal, controlled, manipulative one; (4) developing theory rather than confirming it; (5) an eminently intuitive as opposed to rational research process [28]. Although method triangulation (i.e. using a combination of qualitative and quantitative techniques) has not been applied here, an attempt will be made to triangulate information using primary sources (interviews and observation) and secondary sources (documentary analysis). Triangulation improves the validity of the study [29]. Thus, according to [5], case studies have several advantages, including the ability to explore the social processes that take place in organisations, to analyse little known behavioural processes and to explore atypical processes. In line with the above, the present study used two semi-structured interviews, five direct observations of conference videos available on the Internet and documentary analysis of a press release issued by the ERTCP as sources of evidence. The use of semi-structured interviews aimed to provide an in-depth understanding of the behaviour of these two organisations, in the context of the pandemic, and followed an interview script, with ten questions. This type of data collection instrument suited our purposes, as we only had one opportunity to interview the heads of the ERTs. Since the interviews were conducted via email, there was no room for probes regarding topics of interest verbalised by the interviewee [30]. Observation of the videos of the several webinars was another data collection technique used. Observational methods have several advantages, including: (1) they provide a means to investigate non-verbal expression; (2) they allow us to find out who is interacting with whom and how participants are communicating with each other; (3) they allow us to observe situations reported in the interviews, while being aware of possible distortions or inaccuracies detected in the descriptions provided by the interviewees [31]. The documentary analysis, in this study, included the electronic correspondence sent by the ERTCP. Documentary analysis allowed us to replace the on-site recording of activity through direct observation. Documentary analysis is suited to provide information about frequencies or contingencies contained in the data [32]. For this case study, we obtained informed consent from the participants, since the interviews whose data we analysed could contain identifying information. Nevertheless, at no time was there any intention to identify the individuals in the sample. Thus, we tried, as much as possible, to avoid including descriptions that referred to time, people and places, whenever this could jeopardise the privacy of the individuals involved.
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81.5 Results The available documentary sources allow us to conclude that the webinar initiatives organised by the ERTPNP and by the ERTCP were successful. In fact, the conference cycle entitled Vê Portugal ON, held by ERTCP from April 2020, exclusively in online format, was the most attended ever (press release, 2020). Therefore, the average number of participations in webinars, organised by that regional tourism body, was of 300–500 participants registered on the Zoom platform, to which were added another 200 participants who accessed the webinar through the social network pages provided by ERTCP. As regards the results of the webinars organised by the ERTPN, in a pandemic context, these had an average number of participants that reached 600. To this contingent should be added 100–150 people who participated in actions organised by this entity and targeted to a specific audience. The webinars are meant to achieve several objectives. In this context, it was intended that the webinars would serve to educate entrepreneurs and the public on the state of the tourism and events industry during the health crisis caused by the COVID19. In addition, the aim was to adopt strategies and actions that would contribute to the recovery of the tourism sector in the period following the first pandemic outbreak. Thematic webinars and capacity-building actions were also expected to address success stories, share experiences, good practices and national and international know-how in the field of tourism (observation, 9 Feb 2021), as well as clarify questions that urgently needed elucidation. In a scenario of uncertainty caused by the outbreak of the pandemic, the clarification of legislation and the support provided to people potentially interested in resorting to the different lines of credit made available to the tourism sector was of relevance (observation, 16 Apr 2020). The presentation of new or renewed tourism products or brands was also one of the purposes of the webinars held. The webinars organised by the ERTCP focused on a theme to which one or several experts had been invited to discuss. Interactivity was ensured by the possibility offered to the audience members to ask questions to the guests. This same methodology was adopted in one of the webinars held by the ERTPNP (observation, 9 Feb 2021). The platform used in the videoconferences organised by ERTCP was Zoom. This regional tourism body organised fifteen webinar sessions entitled Vê Portugal On which had a total duration of twenty-four hours and thirty minutes. Thirty-three speakers were invited to these initiatives. Concerning the overall number of participants in the conferences, this figure reached four thousand and the videos disseminated on Facebook and YouTube reached 75,706 views (ERTCP press release, 21 Dec 2020). Regarding the criteria which led to the choice of the themes of the videoconferences organised by ERTCP, it relied on the importance of finding solutions to the pressing problems affecting national tourism and the need to overcome the challenges posed by the emergence of the health crisis (ERTCP personal communication, 8 Mar 2021).
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The pandemic period we are living has been the moment chosen by the leaders of both ERTs to rethink their strategies, structuring new tourism products that are likely to meet the needs of the new tourist who visits their destinations. This new tourist is uncompromising when it comes to choosing ‘authentic experiences’ and ‘original discoveries’ (personal communication ERTPNP, 15 Mar 2021). In the case of the ERTPNP, the objective of promoting and disseminating its destination to current and potential tourists is clear. In this sense, the webinars held with the presence of people in charge of the sector, as well as national and regional players, aimed to define common strategies and generate consensus (personal communication ERTPNP, 15 Mar 2021). Therefore, strategic products were defined and structured considering the new national and international conjuncture. In this way, creativity and innovation were intended to serve as an antidote to the contingencies derived from the pandemic. The criteria adopted for choosing the guests for the videoconferences, in the case of the ERTPNP, favoured the surprise factor. In both cases, of course, these regional tourism organisations sought to select renowned national and international experts on the topics under consideration. It was intended that these experts had proven know-how, in-depth knowledge of the themes, high notoriety, convenient academic training and experience in implementing good practices. Notably, ministers, mayors, entrepreneurs and consultants were invited to take part in these events (ERTCP press release, 21 Dec 2020). The webinars were also seen by the ERTPNP as instruments for the creation of collaborative networks between public and private partners. In this context, the synergies with the Associação das Termas de Portugal (observation, 22 Dec 2020) and with the Grupo Dinamizador da Rede Portuguesa de Turismo Industrial (observation, 9 Feb 2021) are worth mentioning. In turn, ERTCP, through its President, also expressed his wish that the brand developed by that tourism body would serve as a mediator, fostering the creation of solutions to the concrete problems faced by the various stakeholders in that territory (observation, 26 Jun 2020). Regarding the evaluation and monitoring of the webinars, the ERTPNP officials held meetings after each of the initiatives undertaken, seeking to reflect the measurement of the indicators obtained therein in subsequent actions (ERTPNP personal communication, 15 Mar 2021). Concerning the satisfaction generated by the initiative, the ERTPNP informant revealed that the participants were very enthusiastic about the reflections and good practices shared in the webinars (ERTPNP personal communication, 15 Mar 2021).
81.6 Discussion and Final Remarks The evolution of the communicative process is inherent to human history. In fact, man’s alleged superiority over other animal species is based on the successive discovery of increasingly complex communicative systems [33]. The communication of the other animal species, even today, does not seem to be different from that
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which existed before our subspecies, homo sapiens sapiens, roamed the earth (their communication is still expressed by sounds, smells, gestures and sounds). Conversely, human communication comprises ‘the passage from the individual to the common’ [33] (p. 22) and, in the pandemic context in which we live, webinars have been a powerful communication channel. One of the functions of communication is to share information to reduce the uncertainty that we experience in our lives [34]. In addition, organisations are economic and social systems which, in order to produce goods and services, need to coordinate the activities of various groups of people (e.g. employees, suppliers, customers, legal advisors, community leaders and government bodies). In the current era of globalisation, of shortening distances and time, three trends have had a strong impact on the way business communication has taken place: the constant development of new information technologies, the increasingly global nature of business and the increasing diversity of work environments [6]. Therefore, the organisation of webinars by the ERTs under analysis served several purposes. First, it allowed the empowerment of public and private sector participants who joined it. This communication channel is the antithesis of the traditional mass communication since the debate it conveys tends to be more individualised [33]. Webinars have several advantages that counteract the isolation that the current pandemic scenario has caused. Through these initiatives, the confined interlocutors were able to intensify their training and remain active by participating in collaborative networks with the various stakeholders of the tourism sector. According to ERT officials, videoconferences have other benefits, such as the ease of their organisation and the economy of means they provide (ERTCP press release, 21 Dec 2020). Webinars, when broadcasted on social networks, can be viewed by groups of individuals who are typically alienated from their home communities—as happens with Portuguese emigrants scattered around the world. The webinars also proved to be a versatile means of communication, welcoming diversity and facilitating access to participants, minimising the problems of reconciling their agendas. In this way, participants can be connected regardless of the distance between where they are and where the host is moderating the debate. In addition, webinars can complement traditional communication channels by expanding the reach of the conveyed messages (ERTPNP personal communication, 15 Mar 2021). However, there are some disadvantages inherent to this communication channel that should not be overlooked. One of the main ones is that, unlike face-to-face conferences, webinars do not encourage networking. Face-to-face conferences, according to the informants of this study, allow the creation of a more personalised environment, where the exchange between participants is necessarily greater. In addition, webinars do not stimulate the flow of people that favours the economy of the territories where they take place, as face-to-face conferences do. In this regard, they make the experience of the territory, which is something fundamental in tourism, impossible. Finally, webinars are less ‘photogenic’ than face-to-face conferences, hence they are less appealing events to share on social networks (personal communication ERTPNP, 15 Mar 2021).
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This case study has some limitations, namely the small size of the chosen sample. However, it was decided to focus on two extremely dynamic ERT during lockdown, which invested on training at different levels. If we had adopted a more comprehensive sample (we studied only two regional tourism entities), the validity of the results obtained here could have been higher. Regarding the adopted methodology, this paper can be assessed having in mind its fidelity, credibility and validity [28]. Thus, the possibility of generalising the results of this case study to other research scenarios is restricted [28]. Despite the shortcomings of this research, there are possible future lines of investigation. Further studies may use these research findings as a pre-test for the development of a comprehensive survey of the importance of webinars in a pandemic scenario. Another research possibility is the elaboration of a prospective study that anticipates the effects that videoconferences may have in the world of work. Specifically, we refer to the impact of ‘digital nomadism’ in human mobility in general and in the tourism activity in particular [22].
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16. Cerdeira, P.: A Sociedade de Propaganda de Portugal e a Construção do Turismo Moderno (1888–1911) (E-book). Imprensa de Ciências Sociais, Lisboa (2019) 17. Machado, V.: Sistemas de turismo e ordenamento do território no regime jurídico das áreas regionais de turismo e polos de desenvolvimento turístico. Dos Algarves 19, 37–59 (2010). http://www.dosalgarves.com/revistas/N19/3rev19.pdf 18. Ferreira, A.F.: Gestão Estratégica de Cidades e Regiões. Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian (2005) 19. Pina, P.: Portugal - o Turismo no Século XX. Lucidus, Lisboa (1988) 20. Reis, J.: Ensaios de Economia Impura. Almedina, Coimbra (2007) 21. Turismo de Portugal, I.P.: Organização e Parceiros (2021b). http://www.turismodeportugal.pt/ pt/Turismo_Portugal/Organizacao_Parceiros/Paginas/default.aspx 22. Cunha, L., Abrantes, A.: Introdução ao Turismo. 6ª ed. Atualizada (2019). Lidel – Edições Técnicas, Lda, Lisboa 23. Cunha, L.: Turismo e Desenvolvimento. Lidel - Edições Técnicas, Lda., Lisboa (2017) 24. ERTPNP—Entidade Regional de Turismo do Porto e Norte de Portugal (2021). Apresentação Institucional. http://www.portoenorte.pt/pt/porto-e-norte/ 25. ERTCP—Entidade Regional de Turismo do Centro de Portugal (2021). Regiões. https://turism odocentro.pt/regioes/ 26. Stake, R.: Multiple Case Study Analysis. The Guilford Press (2006) 27. Beeton, S.: The case study in tourism research: a multi-method case study approach. In: Ritchie, B., Burns, P., Palmer, C. (eds.) Tourism Research Methods. CAB International (2008) 28. Henderson, 1990 as cited in Finn, M., Elliot.-White, M., Walton, M.: Tourism & Leisure Research Methods: Data Collection, Analysis, and Interpretation. Pearson Education Limited (2000) 29. Phillimore, J., Goodson, L. (eds.) (2004) Qualitative Research in Tourism: Ontologies and Methodologies. Routledge. 30. Bernard, R.: Research Methods in Anthropology: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches (3rd edn). Rowman & Littlefield Publishers (2018) 31. Kawulich, B.: Participant observation as a data collection method [81 paragraphs]. Forum Qualitative Sozialforschung/Forum: Qualitative Social Research 6(2), Art. 43 (2005). http:// nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:0114-fqs0502430 32. Stake, R.: The art of case study research. Sage Publications, Inc. (1995) 33. Parafita, A.: Antropologia da Comunicação: Ritos, Mitos, Mitologias. Âncora Editora (2012) 34. Gamble, T., Gamble, M.: Interpersonal Communication: Building Connections Together. Sage Publications (2014) 35. Neto, R.: São os Nómadas Digitais os Novos Turistas? Publituris (2020). https://www.publit uris.pt/2020/11/20/sao-os-nomadas-digitais-os-novos-turistas
Chapter 82
Distance Learning Has a High Training Potential in the Workplace—Executive MBA, EaD, Business Management Miguel Magalhães , Laurentino Guimarães , Cristina Costa-Lobo , Enrique Vázquez-Justo , and Ricardo Matos Abstract The workplace presents a high formative potential for distance learning (DE). The Executive MBA, EaD, in business management, allows professional socialization among participants, in addition to being a process that continues through the active life of graduates (alumni), presenting itself as a process of formative digitalization applied to the real business context or the activity of each participant. Everything is embodied in the “educational knowledge” in the workplace, observed over 67 editions during 18 years, representing a universe of 1340 participants, distributed over 17 activity sectors. It should be noted that participants developed informal learning processes, by experiencing events at the workplace that are learning and competence-generating. However, this type of training, such as the EaD training “Educational Knowing” in the workplace, rarely caused a problematic record. The present research intends to validate that “EaD presents a high formative potential” in the workplace, besides, representing a different look on strategic management training, given its importance in the workplace. It allows the construction of professional and formative trajectories oriented toward productivity and desired results. The aim of this research is to understand the meaning of this type of learning for the participants of the executive MBA, EaD, in business management, namely the way in which they contributed to the development of educational and professional skills.
M. Magalhães (B) · L. Guimarães · E. Vázquez-Justo · R. Matos CIDI-IESF—Fafe Institute of Higher Studies, Fafe, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] L. Guimarães e-mail: [email protected] E. Vázquez-Justo e-mail: [email protected] R. Matos e-mail: [email protected] C. Costa-Lobo Education and Society, CIDI—IESF, CEOS-IPP, UNESCO Chair in Youth, Porto, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 A. Mesquita et al. (eds.), Perspectives and Trends in Education and Technology, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 256, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5063-5_82
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82.1 Introduction The workplace is, above all, a space of professional socialization, determining the more or less conscious internalization of values, norms, and rules for action, and allows workers to build specialized institutional worlds, to acquire specific knowledge [1]—“professional knowledge”—and to develop roles directly or indirectly dependent on the social division of labor [2, 3]. DL in the workplace involves other formative times, based, for example, on moments of group reflection on the different syllabuses applied to each business or to the active life of the participants, on the application of the case method in a real context, on the exchange of educational and professional experiences, on the promotion of benchmarking learning, on the teaching method through frameworks to obtain a strategic diagnosis, on the realization of the evaluation of results “in the job” and on the promotion of virtual study visits to the participants’ organizations. Having this research aimed at identifying informal education/training processes, in particular, the “educational knowledge built in action” [4, 5], and problematizing it from the point of view of its meaning for everyday professional practice in solving problems, embracing challenges, and taking advantage of business opportunities with the focus on achieving goals.
82.2 The Workplace as a “Space” for DE Training The problem of the relationship between education/training and work is a central issue in adult education today, especially for all working professionals, but also for employers. Professionals want to update and improve their skills, on the one hand, and employers, on the other hand, are obliged to comply with article 131, of the Labor Code, which establishes that the employee is entitled to 40 h of training per year. Thus, we have the legal imperative of continuous training, the need to educate/train professionals, and the current conditioning of the pandemic environment we live in, contributing to the appearance of an increasing number of EaD education/training programs. Although there are many differences in the different approaches and objectives of the education/training models, in general, the works developed are based on the assumption: “the exercise of the work is a producer of skills, but it is not in itself sufficient for the worker to keep up with the technological evolution of business” [6]. Unlike what happens in the academic context, where often only monodisciplinary skills are developed, that which is developed in the workplace is complex, interdisciplinary, disruptive, and ordered around a field of practices. However, learning in professional practice often occurs in a disorganized, unstructured way, under more or less predictable and routine conditions, and the individual does not always understand what he or she is learning. In this sense, the workplace is constituted as an “education/training” space, as a non-formal and, above all, informal education process [7]. Informal education/training processes cover a variety of learning, more or less conscious by workers, which influence professional practices and identities
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in different ways. Despite the importance of all learning, of the greatest interest for education/training is related to the development of an experience-based informal education/training process, which occurs following situations in which professionals think about the events they experience and are at the origin of subsequent changes in behaviors and attitudes. These learnings, which are intentional, are influenced by the social position of the subjects in the workplace and are therefore not politically neutral [8]. The case study of the evaluation of the impact of education/training of the “Executive MBA, EaD, in Business Management” results from the observation of 67 editions carried out over 18 years, representing a universe of 1340 participants, distributed across 17 sectors of activity. This case study consists of the recognition of the goals achieved as a result of the education/training actions acquired in the Executive MBA, EaD, in Business Management, and by the events and processes that originate the productivity of professionals, generating changes in behavior and attitudes, such as problem-solving, embracing new challenges, identifying new business opportunities, designing new ways and working practices that are important for the business model, for the professional himself, and also for the work team. The methodology adopted in the Executive MBA, EaD, in Business Management allows articulating the moments of education/training in a virtual classroom called WIZIQ (EaD), where a set of frameworks on the theme of business strategy is transmitted by the teacher to the participants. Each participant will apply it to the context of his own business, involving or not the collective of workers of his workplace, and then gives feedback and present his Business Case in the session or in the following sessions to all the participants of the Executive MBA. Thus, allowing to “Know if you learned” and to “Show that you learned” in a real work context [9]. As mentioned by Neves [10], the “reconciliation of the interests of the various actors, the stakeholders, with the bounded rationality principle that people make rational decisions only in relation to the aspects of the situation that they can perceive and interpret.” Unlike other pedagogical education/training actions that develop DE, organized, and developed by various institutions, this methodology requires the crossing of pedagogical training concerns with applied empirical knowledge in order to transmit knowledge that is able to reproduce competencies using as the “research center,” the specificities of the “workplace,” but above all, to be able to educate/train the participants in the centrality of the competencies of the business or the activity of each one, favoring the survey and the problematization of learning occurring in the workplace or in the development of professional activity. In the past, the objective of an organization was “profit maximization.” It was later replaced by “maximization of shareholder wealth.” Today, it calls for “maximization of the organization’s value” [11], in this perspective, the way to train will also have to be different. The present case study counted with the participation of one thousand three hundred and forty participants and the teacher of the business strategy discipline of the institution involved, throughout several evaluation moments (on-the-job evaluation), which correspond to the different weeks in which the education/training sessions take place. The themes addressed throughout the ten sessions, is the realization of a diagnostic study and present strategic analysis of the participant’s organization, looking at the present, reflecting, and observing
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the strategic and tactical pertinence of the organization facing the future. Subsequently, an organization’s business plan (action) is prepared, which integrates the management control system where performance is measured. In the plenary session (10th session), all participants’ Business Plans are presented. It should be noted that, throughout the various sessions, aspects related to the use of different data collection techniques are discussed: such as the interview, the observation, the report, and the diary. Based on the course contents, the participants carry out several pedagogical exercises in a real work context, using the frameworks provided in the sessions, and it is verified whether or not these tools generate learning and skills acquisition in the several pitches carried out. The inverted classes and the virtual study visits made to the various companies of the participants are also mechanisms of growth and learning. The scientific aspects, however, are not ignored; they are an integral part of the program of the sessions. Participants present and reflect on the data collected, and conduct a literature review of the topics covered. They apply various qualitative and quantitative techniques. After the presentation of each participant’s pitch, the group of participants, in the plenary session, reflect on and discuss the projects presented by the colleague, in order to allow the construction of a “map” of performance, make a critical evaluation of the goals achieved, suggest improvements, evaluate the limitations that conditioned the change in behavior and the inhibiting attitudes for the acquisition of skills. In this case study, it is worth mentioning that the educational level of each participant is different (elementary school, high school, and college) and the average professional experience is 9 years. Only participants with a minimum of 5 years of professional experience can attend the Executive MBA program, EaD, in Business Management. The participants’ recognition of this education/training method is highly valued, because it addresses the participant’s own business, allows it to be conducted at the workplace or at another location of the participant’s choice, is a multicultural program with participants located in 15 different countries, allows the quantification of the improvement of personal skills, is a less formalized system and allows the analysis of cases in a real context. In this sense, the case study method allows to ensure a relationship between education/training and the workplace, built from the centrality of the business or activity of the participant and seeks to adopt a set of frameworks that allow the development of good practices for problem-solving [5], in a context of the relationship between the business/activity and the participant. This case study also led to reflection on the challenge between DE education/training and the workplace in the current higher education context.
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82.3 Data Collection Techniques Used 82.3.1 The Data Collection The focus of the case study, Executive MBA, EaD, in Business Management, was based on a qualitative and ethnographically inspired approach to the object of study [12], having privileged the exploration of the nature of learning occurring in the workplace. In this sense, data collection was carried out throughout the 67 EaD editions, which favored the description and interpretation of the situations experienced by the participants themselves. Complementarily, we used the NPS—Net Promoter Score method, created by Bain and Company, and its partner Fred Reichheld, in 2003, to measure the participants’ level of satisfaction about the Executive MBA, EaD, in Business Management. Reports were obtained from 1340 participants in the various editions held so far, of managers, senior and middle managers, and we sought to collect information from them on the impact of the degree of satisfaction of the Executive MBA, EaD, in Business Management program systematically over 18 years. After collecting the information, there was a work of analysis and treatment of the data that allowed to improve and correct the quality of teaching in relation to the expectations of the participants. Priority was given to the interpretation of the data on the degree of satisfaction with the postgraduate program and to understand what was the contribution of the Executive MBA, EaD, in Business Management in the workplace for the improvement and acquisition of new skills. In this way, it was sought to verify the level of learning from the taught frameworks, whether they allowed to improve the professional experience of the participant. We also evaluated the impact of the Case Study methodology in a real context among the group of participants, and what was the usefulness of the elaboration of the Business Plan and the Business Case. But also, if it represented an added value for their organization. The Benchmark effect and the synergetic effect of the participants’ business knowhow and experience were also evaluated. In this specific case, the methodological choice was to obtain qualitative information that allowed the triangulation of the data collected [13].
82.3.2 The Observation Only the participants [12] of the Executive MBA, EaD, in Business Management, senior, and middle managers who participated in the 67 editions of the graduate program were observed, although the participants’ organizations were also of high interest from the research point of view. This choice was made taking into account that this moment was considered decisive in the participants’ professional daily lives, for the evaluation of the impact of the program on the improvement/acquisition of competencies. A total of 12,060 records were obtained on the observations made during the 67 editions of the Executive MBA, EaD, in Business Management and an
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NPS—Net Promoter Score® of 8 points was calculated. The usefulness of the various frameworks used and applied in several concrete situations in a real context, and their added value was described. This resulted in an improvement of professional skills. Another relevant aspect was the impact of the Case Study teaching methodology, at the individual and collective level of the participants in each session. This allowed for the observation of different sectoral realities, the observation of different types of organizations, and the benchmarking effect. The usefulness and diversity of the different Business Plans and Business Cases presented and debated in the plenary session were verified. Namely for those who have executed them and for those who are watching, raising a clear, reflected, and consistent learning. The interpretation of the records in which the participants raise doubts, problems, and dilemmas they faced in the application of the different frameworks, allowing the teacher to help in their resolution, acting as a “facilitator,” was also a fundamental document for the program’s continuous improvement process. This modus operandi has increased the proximity and the development of interrelationships between the participants and the teacher and has become a habit. However, since the 66th session, at the beginning of the program a WhatsApp group is created in order to promote the contact between all the program stakeholders, which also serves to be an agile vehicle for the clarification and sharing of doubts between the teacher and the participants. In the last two editions, on the initiative of the teacher and the participants, a name/brand has been assigned to the Executive MBA group, and the initiative has been warmly welcomed (e.g., “Champions 66—2020” and “Executive MBA 67—2021”). This form of digital registration has become a complementary form of EaD communication and continues to endure as a tool of alumni between the participants and the institute.
82.3.3 The Interview Since session 62 the participants are invited to conduct semi-structured interviews through Google Forms, based on a set of questions previously defined and discussed in the education/training sessions. The script presents as a generic theme questions about: the “impact of the strategy on the economic and social environment where the participant and the participant’s company operate,” and in what way, “the education/training sessions contributed to improve the performance of the participant’s skills and company.” The intention was to identify the challenges of the company and the participant, “looking at the present,” make a diagnosis, and learn to reflect and observe the strategic relevance on the future, thus allowing the identification of which competencies need to be improved. In particular, the events and processes experienced in education/training were able to generate changes in behavior and attitudes, which have benefited and will benefit the professional career of the participants. Data processing and content analysis and the identification of emerging categories were carried out in Google Forms. A total of 125 interviews were collected, which, in terms of duration, could vary between 25 and 30 min. The participants generically described their professional challenges and those of the organizations
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they represent. They reported striking situations that generate changes in behavior and attitudes arising from the Executive MBA education/training, EaD, in Business Management.
82.3.4 The Report This data collection technique consisted in the evaluation of the education/training experience of the participants of the Executive MBA, EaD, in Business Management in the Moodle platform, and in the EaD room called Wiziq. Moodle/Wiziq is an online platform and virtual room for learning management, which allows the teacher to create a dynamic and appealing education/training program, providing participants with resources and EaD pedagogical activities, and is an effective communication channel between stakeholders. It is a customizable EaD learning platform/room, with numerous features, presenting a huge potential, in order to achieve success in learning and student motivation, but, since the participants started using other platforms, such as Microsoft Teams and Zoom, they are of the opinion that the Moodle platform/EaD room, presents some limitations. Namely, in terms of the ease with which content is loaded and a better visualization of the participants.
82.3.5 The Diary The diary is a set of frameworks carried out by the participants and presented in the virtual room with information of high value in the context of qualitative evaluation, but also quantitative, since it allowed obtaining records that are both objectives, demonstrating the performance and the description of events in a real context, but also subjective, through the interpretations of situations experienced. In this way, it was intended to obtain a description and reflection on the effectiveness and efficiency of education/training among the participants of the Executive MBA, EaD, in Business Management. In particular, about the most outstanding events that had been experienced and that had generated learning. Due to the degree of subjectivity that reveals the personalized nature of each participant’s reflections, diaries are not a traditional technique. However, of all the documents collected, the diary is the most coherent, consistent, and analytical record to evaluate the participants’ education/training. We collected 13,400 diaries, handwritten documents of different working sessions of 2 h each. These records, contained detailed descriptions of the “Business Plans” about the organizations, in addition to Empathy Maps, Business Models, systemic analysis of the socioeconomic environment and the social, individual, technological, and
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organizational subsystems of the organizations, a qualitative and quantitative SWOT analysis and diagnosis, the current and future business case design, among others. There will be questions, various issues raised by participants about their daily lives, reflections on the design and organization of the leadership and management system of organizations, etc., but, above all, intimate speeches and confessions saved by writing and oral presentation in the pitches made.
82.4 The Data Analysis 82.4.1 Diversity of Learning Stories, Spaces, and Times Due to the nature of the approach and the data collection techniques, the information collected is characterized by diversity. Diverse is the stories reported and the events that generate them, in the space and time during which it was possible to meet and learn about workplace education/training. We surveyed 1340 participants with different professional careers and of different durations, from senior and middle management of public and private organizations, profit and non-profit, industrial and service companies, participants with different levels of education, and obtained descriptions of situations, reflections, doubts, and interpretations about the most diverse situations and moments in the history of 67 editions of the Executive MBA, EaD, in Business Management in the workplace. The possibility given to the participants to talk about their experiences has allowed us to obtain stories marked by professional experience in Micro, SME, and Multinational companies, during the time that the sessions take place. These experiences marked the participants differently and promoted different learning experiences through the exchange of experiences among the group members. The data allowed us to see the added value of education/training in the workplace, giving rise to a multiplicity of situations. Initially, the theoretical framework of each framework is presented, then each participant individually executes their business case (“learn-by-doing”). Then, he presents his business case, in a plenary session, which originates in a natural way the discussion of the business case among all the members of the Executive MBA, EaD, in Business Management group. This methodology translates a global reflection in search of consensus and future orientations. It also produces the establishment and reinforcement of interpersonal relationships. Amusingly, there always appear some “bench coaches” who give their hunches. But the focus is for the group to seek a consensus synthesis with the mentoring of the teacher. This way, you get a learning in a real context—“online”—with high added value. Let us see, each business case describes problems, challenges, and opportunities, which the participants face in their daily lives, questions arise in the development of tasks, which naturally generate reflection “in action and on action.” They also explore strategic options that went well, others that would have been more advantageous to the organization at the beginning, but that later turned out to be harmful, generating discussions and disagreements within the
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organizations. In the last session of the Executive MBA, EaD, in Business Management, like in any other Business School, key issues of everyday life that severely affect the market are debated, such as the unexpected COVID-19 pandemic, which surprised people and organizations, and which never expected to become a global disease. It had its start in the Wuhan market in the Chinese city of Wuhan. Was it just a place where there was a cluster of cases of this new disease and not the point of origin of the disease? The animal at its origin is still to be identified, and its path may have been much longer than is thought. And the hypothesis that the pandemic was caused by a virus that escaped from a Chinese laboratory has been completely ruled out by the United Nations mission in Wuhan. However, many businesses flourished in the pandemic, others, almost disappeared! People had to change their working and living habits. On-the-job EaD education/training, e-commerce, digital platforms have grown exponentially. Tourism, commerce, shopping centers had to close their doors! Reflections ensued, about: • Who was prepared to face the COVID-19 pandemic we currently witness? No one. • Does the need for a new “P” in marketing-mix in organizations arise or not? The “P” of pandemic? It is necessary. • What was the capacity of organizations to digitalize their business? There was a need to redesign the business model of many organizations others had already done the digitization of their business. The Executive MBA, EaD, in Business Management, for almost two decades, went through periods of economic expansion and contraction of the economies, until reaching the current pandemic crisis. In short, if at the beginning of the Executive MBA, EaD, in Business Management is marked by the novelty of the situation, in the course of the program, we witness the “homogenization of learning” among participants [14]. During the program, situations related to the development of technical, management, and leadership skills of the participants are reported, inherent to the assimilation of the theoretical–practical contents, which originate modifications in the working methods, in particular, in the adoption of agile methods based on frameworks [15]. Besides, the diversity of experiences among participants, there is also a diversity of activities and businesses, which contribute to the occurrence of situations that generate changes in behavior and attitudes. Also, the different accounts of events in their daily lives that were significant in the development of their professional tasks contributed a lot. Given the diversity of the information obtained, several analytical categories were created to allow the interpretation of the data collected. In this context, we present four of the categories of the strategic diagram defined, namely (1) Strategic diagnosis (where are we?). (2) Strategic relevance (which strategy or strategies should we choose facing the future?). (3) Strategic implementation (how are we going to implement the strategy?). (4) Strategic control and monitoring (how do we measure performance?). Strategic diagnosis (where are we?). In the first session, the Executive MBA, EaD, in Business Management begins with the question: Where are we? What is the current situation? What is the current fundamental frame of reference? The aim is to collect the largest
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set of insights, allowing participants to make a current informal diagnosis of the activity of each one and of the companies they represent. EaD learning on the job, is based from the first moment on the establishment of an interpersonal relationship between the teacher and the participant, and in turn, among the group of participants, through the implementation of various frameworks, which require, from the outset, the largest possible number of insights, in the field of the perception of personal and business Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats (SWOT acronym) [16], which will allow participants to make a diagnosis with the objective of making an organizational diagnosis. In this vein, it can be seen that the diagnosis represents a challenge for the participants. They are used to putting a set of insights, in the block of Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats, and nothing else! And what is that for? That is not Thinking, Studying, and Understanding [17]. Too often, of the participants and the companies they represent, are so settled into their “status quo” that they are unable to see the changes and shifts in the market. Beside this, and from a rational point of view, it is imperative to perform a diagnosis from time to time, and it is part of the life of organizations and people: “we are born, we live, we get sick, we heal or restructure an organization, we are faced with a merger or an acquisition, etc. To be aware on a daily basis, whether we are competitive or not. It is fundamental. Performed the systemic SWOT matrix, using the three basic techniques: “zoom, inter-relationship and dynamics between the set of insights,” until reaching the conclusion of the diagnosis, it raises the emotional tone of the participants’ reports, to reflections about the permanent need to update and, above all, to innovate and acquire new skills in an increasingly competitive market. These events related to the diagnosis, generate significant learning, leading participants to develop behaviors of critical detachment of “action–reflection–action,” avoiding “status quo” situations, in an attitude designated by Kotter [18], in “increasing the sense of urgency” to create a climate of organizational change and try to find new attributes in the organization’s value proposition that allows designing a blue ocean strategy, [19]. Strategic relevance (which strategy or strategies should we choose facing the future?) The orientation toward “caring” for organizations emerged at the Harvard Business School as a dominant concern in 1908, having given rise to different theoretical and practical models in management and strategic leadership over time. Although these models show differences among themselves, he points out some common aspects to all of them, such as the importance of strategic choice taking into account the fundamental framework of an organization in the present facing the future. As Toffler said, “The illiterate of the Twenty-First Century will not be the one who cannot Read or even Write, but the one who cannot Learn, Unlearn, and Re-learn” [20]. In general, the data collected revealed the importance that the participants attribute in having a framework that helps them in making strategic choices. In general, the collected records revealed the importance that the participants attribute to the existence of a model that allows them to be a “sieve” to help them choose among one or more strategies chosen a priori. Hence, we can use a framework called “3It’s”, created by Magalhaes in 2013, where the participant can check if the chosen strategy [21]: (1) Is strategic implementation possible, (2) Is it feasible to
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implement, and (3) Is it profitable to implement. The frameworks designed for this purpose can be observed. Due to the closer work that participants develop at this stage with the teacher, participants are often the first to detect the usefulness of this “3It’s” framework, because it helps to easily identify which is the strategic path to follow (strategic decision support). The respondents mention that these skills had never been acquired in other training courses throughout their professional lives, considering it a good methodology in the strategic decision support process and integrating it with the management team, covering a large number of attributes and diverse situations that managers and directors have to face in business life. It is, without a doubt, a very clear and objective framework that gives good support and confidence to the management team.
82.5 Strategic Implementation The data collected from the participants also allowed us to see that the professionals recognized the existence of different levels of professional competence, determined by experience and by the situations experienced throughout their careers with regard to strategic implementation. It is generally recognized that this is the most critical phase of the entire strategic diagram. These are moments in which it is necessary to know-how to act, and it is one of the most significant skills that participants have to develop, many situations suggest learnings that were at the origin of other skills, such as identifying rapid changes to the state of strategic implementation, crisis management, risk mitigation, strategic alignment, and adoption of a contingency plan. In addition, many other reports were obtained regarding the development of different levels of professional competence. Some referred to situations in which participants recognized the difficulty of aligning people with the strategy, acted, but could hardly explain the reasons why they had taken certain decisions. These somewhat intuitive actions were described mostly by participants with few years in management positions. In this sense, participants also reported several events in which they had carried out successful actions, which allowed them to give examples of implemented measures to younger managers. The learning that enabled the development of the participants’ skills was based on an uncertain and unpredictable everyday life in the markets [22]. However, everyday life in workplaces was also made up of numerous situations that the participants were familiar with, but the Executive MBA, EaD, in Business Management made them look at certain events in a different way and they could select and use new frameworks that helped them in their interventions and achieve successful outcomes namely the Business Model Design. Premium 20 blocks [23]. The use of this framework led participants to conclude that professional practice presented moments that generated reflection, but also consisted of numerous
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situations that required the redefinition of the business model, allowing the development of changes in behaviors and attitudes. Likewise, the framework helps to unfold a macro-task (MT) defined to implement one of the chosen strategy, into tasks (T) and, in turn, into micro-tasks (mT) in order to facilitate the strategy implementation (Klauss Scale).
82.6 Control and Strategic Monitoring In general, all participants work well in teams, follow a rational orientation of the work established by each organization (Culture and Values) where they develop their activity. Each organization records the existence of numerous standards, rules, and procedures for action, which all employees should “know and follow” according to the implemented internal and organizational control system. However, sometimes employees act in a way other than that which is established, giving rise to “normative infidelities.” Of all the normative infidelities reported, the “status quo,” the “human error,” the “non-conformities in the tasks performed” and the “non-fulfillment of goals” are pointed out. For example, “status quo” is linked to self-complacency [18], being a feeling that someone sees the problems and yet does not feel that the problems require changes in actions. The “status quo” is associated with the expression “laissez-faire, laissez passer,” attributed to Turgot, a French economist, used to indicate a policy of nonchalance. Whereas, “errors” were defined as acts performed in a way that was not in accordance with procedures. These encompass mistakes in the execution of certain procedures and failure to follow the rules. Deviations from the targets of the established budgets are related to the preparation of “figurative” budgets, in investments, sales, purchases, external supplies, and services, production and personnel expenses, previously defined and approved on paper. Having as a premise, that paper holds everything, because, in practice, the results of its implementation are quite different. In this sense, we always highlight the apparent lack, of a good communication plan that allows the strategic alignment of the organization with the strategy [21]. Graphic skills are assuming more than ever a high importance in organizations. Graphicacy is a learned ability to decipher and project images, particularly around symbols, graphs, numbers, and text. Graphics are becoming essential tools for representing visual messages and statistics. Xenia and Norman [22] draw on the work of Edward Fry to offer a new series of classifications for pictorial devices. As well, participants recognized the added value of applying various frameworks in this domain developed during the Executive MBA, EaD, in Business Management which Magalhaes [21] called the strategy on an A4 page. For the data collection of this paper, all participants gave their consent to the collection (GDPR), analysis, and processing of the valid data obtained for the writing of this article.
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82.7 Limitations The only limitation that arose from this research study was the inability to address all of the various frameworks addressed throughout this program in order to portray the participants’ observations and degree of satisfaction about them. However, this limitation does not affect the overall conclusions drawn in the study conducted.
82.8 Suggestions for Future Research Based on the methodology adopted in this paper, we propose to extend this study to short- and long-term distance training, to other training courses in order to measure the impact and effectiveness to other scientific areas of applied research in training in job.
82.9 Conclusion The research project on the Business Case—Executive MBA, EaD, in Business Management represented the possibility to analyze and evaluate if the workplace presents a high formative potential for distance learning (EaD). The reflection on the learning developed in the workplace allowed us to see that in the professional practice of the participants associated with the training “in the Job,” this is a generator of knowledge, and that this, despite the most diverse regularities in the exercise of their professions, was enriching, taking into account the different points of view of the different experiences and the different degrees of maturity of the participants, which allowed for moments of discussion and search for consensus within the 67 sessions held. Learning took place following the presentation of the theoretical–practical framework for each framework, according to an agile methodology, but with a certain number of formal, non-formal and informal rules in its filling out, information gathering, and presentation of the conclusions of the different participant business cases. Each resolution is only given as finalized, after its plenary presentation, hence often resorting to improvements, avoiding what happens in most papers, are submitted with technical inaccuracies that do not allow participants to really learn. The definition of the rules is influenced by both the objective and the goals of each framework established by the results achieved by the participants. Thus, the participant should “be able” upon completion of the Executive MBA, EaD, in Business Management: • Be able to evaluate, interpret, combine, and explain various framework models in strategic business management. • Be able to interpret and apply various frameworks to business cases in real context.
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• Be able to develop the skills to categorize, compile, summarize the information from a strategic diagnosis. • Must be able to communicate and defend the conclusions reached about the diagnostic studies and strategic analysis carried out. In this way, learning is developed gradually—learning by doing—leading to a high dissemination of knowledge for the participant and among peers in the group. As well as, it was verified its enlargement to the interior of each participant’s own organization.
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19. Kim, C., Mauborgne, R.: A Mudança Oceano Azul. Actual Editora (2019) 20. Costa-Lobo, C., Lopes, F.C., Pereira, C.S., Durão, N., Magalhães, M.: Human interaction skills and employability at information technology internships. In: da Silva Pereira, P.A., Titrek, O., Sezen-Gultekin, G. (eds.) Proceedings, pp. 105–114 (2017). ISBN: 978-605-66495-2-3 21. Magalhães, M., D’Orey, F., Pereira, M.: The marketing strategy and implementation of strategic business units how to choose a methodology of segmentation strategic marketing? Int. J. Entrepreneurship 23(3), 1–17 (2019) 22. Magalhães, M., D’Orey, F., Cardoso, A., Pereira, M., Cairrão, A., Figueiredo, J.: Canvas marketing plan: how to structure a marketing plan with interactive value? In: Handbook of Research on Emerging Technologies for Effective Project Management. IGI Global (2019). https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-5225-9993-7.ch009 23. Magalhães, M.: La problemática de la delimitación de una Organización en Unidades Estratégicas de Negócio (U.E.N.). Doctoral Thesis, Universidade de Vigo, Espanha (2013) 24. Danos, X., Norman, E.W.L.: The development of a new taxonomy for graphicacy. In: Norman, E., Spendlove, D. (eds) (2009)
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Digital Transformation in the Teaching and Learning Process: Case Study of a School of the Future Pompeu Martins , Agostinho Pinto , Eusébio Costa , and António Abreu Abstract Recognizing the importance of information technologies in teaching and learning contexts, the Municipality of Fafe, in line with the Ministry of Education, assumes much of the responsibility in educational policy. This paper presents a pilot project in the field of innovative learning environments resulting from a long and mature process within the Intermunicipal Education Council of CIM Ave, aligned with the Inclusive Growth Plan of Ave, which was at the basis of the Innovative Integrated Plan to Combat School Failure (PIICIE Ave). Its main objective is to improve the quality of learning through experimental and innovative approaches at the level of educational practices. To develop this study, a case study methodology of exploratory nature was used following a qualitative approach, in which a contemporary case is explored through data collection using different sources of information, such as observation, interviews, and reports. The adoption of six technologically equipped “classrooms of the future” enabled student-centered learning, increasing student motivation and multidisciplinary achievement.
P. Martins Câmara Municipal de Fafe, Fafe, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] A. Pinto (B) · E. Costa · A. Abreu CEOS—Polytechnic of Porto, S. Mamede de Infesta, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] E. Costa e-mail: [email protected] A. Abreu e-mail: [email protected] E. Costa CIDI-IESF, Fafe Institute of Higher Studies, Fafe, Portugal © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 A. Mesquita et al. (eds.), Perspectives and Trends in Education and Technology, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 256, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5063-5_83
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83.1 Introduction Education, at this beginning of the twenty-first century, has to respond to the social needs of the future. Living in a society strongly supported by digital, today’s children and young people are already familiar with IT in their daily lives, which makes them digital natives [1]. Information technology imposes significant changes on society [2], and on the individual’s behavior [3], as well as on teaching and learning processes. In a constantly changing world, in an information society, a new approach to education is required. Thus, the need arises for the school to use technological resources, creating the necessary conditions for the development of an education for and with technologies [4]. The school of the future is conditioned by pedagogical approaches, more focused on the student, on his/her skills and on the effective integration of IT in teaching and learning contexts. The student should be an integral part of the teaching and learning process [4]. ICT can enrich learning environments where the student, interacting with the objects of that environment, has the possibility to build his knowledge. In this case, knowledge is not passed on to the student. The student is not instructed, taught, but is the builder of his own knowledge. This is the constructivist paradigm where the emphasis is on learning rather than on teaching and on the construction of knowledge rather than on instruction. Students are encouraged to take responsibility in their learning process, determining their own pace of study [5]. In Portugal, the Municipalities in line with the Ministry of Education assume great responsibility in education policy. The decision to create a pilot project in the schools of the municipality of Fafe within the scope of innovative learning environments resulted from a long and mature process within the Intermunicipal Education Council of CIM Ave, aligned with the Plan for Inclusive Growth of Ave, which was at the basis of PIICIE Ave (Integrated Innovative Plan to Combat School Failure of Ave). The political articulation with the other educational agents was fundamental throughout the whole process of elaboration of Ave’s PIICIE, since it is recognized that it is the educational communities who best know the contexts, the difficulties, and potentialities, being, therefore, the most prepared to find local solutions with the aim of improving educational practices and students’ learning.
83.2 Context 83.2.1 Purpose of the Study The option to create in Fafe a set of six “classrooms of the future” fits especially in the fourth strategic objective of PIICIE Ave where it aims to “Improve the quality of learning through experimental and innovative approaches to educational practices”
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in order to enhance educational resources as a way of motivating the school community. Regarding specific objectives, it is intended to: “Provide access to digital pedagogical resources suitable for promoting the quality of learning”; “Promote better understanding of the pedagogical content of core subjects through the promotion of experimental activities”; “Provide students with digital skills in interaction with curriculum content”; “Promote extracurricular activities that encourage students and facilitate the learning of program content.”
83.2.2 Legal Framework and the Education System in the Municipality of Fafe With the publication of the Decree-Law 55/20181 that regulates the application in Portuguese schools of the concept of curricular flexibility, it was assumed that “the achievement of significant learning and the development of more complex skills presuppose time for consolidation and an integrated management of knowledge, valuing disciplinary knowledge, but also interdisciplinary work, the diversification of procedures and assessment tools, the promotion of research skills, relationship, analysis, the mastery of presentation and argumentation techniques, and the ability to work cooperatively and with autonomy.” These assumptions have evidence in the efficient use of spaces such as those presented here and meet the maximization of this, which is a reality that is starting in our country, but already with proven efficiency in several countries, particularly in Europe and Asia [6]. The flexibility of the curriculum by favoring the contextualization of learning, inspired by the meaningful recognition of contents, leads necessarily to an approach to the local environment where the student, besides existing, realizes his life project. This brings an entire educational community closer and transforms the way a physical space becomes a learning environment [6]. The challenge is positioned in the relationship between technological innovation and pedagogical innovation, having the Municipality of Fafe understood that this is a turning point in the way the concept of school is understood as an organization (in the relationships it creates internally and externally), as a teaching space and above all as an innovative space that generates learning (Fig. 83.1).
83.2.3 Educational Innovation The school will have to change its pedagogy and make the potential of IT profitable, to become a place where students will replace passivity by activity, it will have to be seen as a center where the student is participatory in his/her learning, instead of a 1
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Fig. 83.1 Prime Minister’s visit to the room of the future in Fafe
space where the teacher is the center and transmitter of knowledge. In this perspective, the school should become a space where the means are provided to build knowledge, attitudes, values, and the acquisition of skills [7]. With the technological revolution, several changes were observed at different levels of society, such as in culture, education, and forms of communication, thus directing a new look at this information society, where communication goes beyond the barriers of space and time, creating a virtual world, and influencing the way individuals think and act [8]. Schools, at the different educational levels, cannot remain indifferent to this context, as it is their role to train young people with skills that allow them to integrate into the activities of social life and work as “friendly” as possible and meet their expectations. For Serna [9], there is only a change of attitude toward digital when practices are changed and organizations are flexible. Technologies are irreversible companions in this process. Their contribution at school cannot be disregarded, and teachers’ adaptation to their use cannot be delayed any longer. The school of the future implies pedagogical changes, more focused on the student, on his/her skills, and on the effective integration of IT in the teaching and learning context. The learner has to be an integral part of the teaching and learning process (Fig. 83.2). Learning abilities differ between students and can be worked on in various ways using individual learning styles with the use of reasoning, listening, seeing, logic, and analysis. Teaching methods should be diversified in order to capture the students’ attention [10].
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Fig. 83.2 Classroom of the future
The school will have to change its pedagogy and take advantage of the IT potentialities, to become a place where students will replace passivity by activity, it will have to be seen as a center where the student is participative in his learning, instead of a space where the teacher is the center and transmitter of knowledge. From this perspective, the school should become a space where the means are provided to build knowledge, attitudes, values, and the acquisition of skills [7] (Fig. 83.3).
Fig. 83.3 Emerging technologies in education
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83.2.4 The New Technologies in the Teaching-Learning Process Technologies tend to stop being instrumental in the teaching and learning process, assuming a motivating role for the acquisition of knowledge and enhancing the application of the skills acquired. Their contribution in school cannot be disregarded, as well as the adequacy of teachers to its use. The school of the future is pending on pedagogical change, more focused on the student, on his/her skills, and on the effective integration of IT in the teaching and learning context. The student has to be an integral part of the teaching and learning process. The integration of IT in teaching and learning contexts, whether face-to-face or virtual, does not mean innovation, and it has to be accompanied by new pedagogies. IT, when properly applied, can promote the articulation between knowing and doing. Technology cannot be seen as academic entertainment. They have to be analyzed in order to enhance, extend, and enrich learning [11].
83.2.5 Innovative Learning Environments The school, as an organization, has its information systems (IS) properly computerized. Its management processes incorporate technologies in order to improve the effectiveness and efficiency of routine work. However, in the context of teaching and learning, we are still very far from the potential of technologies, namely at the level of multimedia, augmented reality, virtual reality, simulators, games, etc. For Costa [7] in education, change is encouraged, but in fact traditional models with technological integration are reproduced in practice. It is verified that, for several reasons, educational institutions still have some structural difficulty in innovating, experimenting, inventing innovative participative virtual, and or face-to-face pedagogical models. With the integration of digital technologies, traditional classrooms have undergone a profound transformation, becoming more creative, exclusively student-centered, providing engagement, motivation, and well-being [12]. This presents both schools and teachers with a new challenge: to make school an enjoyable place for students and, at the same time, to offer them the key to a true understanding of the information society. It is desirable that the school becomes an institution capable of using information technology to transform not only teaching-learning, but also the ways and means of making information available to students. Technical, technological advances, and increased physical capabilities enhanced by the opening up of broadband Internet connections have enabled widespread access to distributed multimedia content [8].
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83.3 Methodological Approach To develop this study, the case study methodology of exploratory nature was used, following a qualitative approach, where a contemporary case is explored through data collection, using different sources of information such as observation, interviews, and reports. The case study is a methodological approach used to answer “how” and “why” questions, when the researcher has little control over events and when the focus is on contemporary phenomena within a real-life context [13]. As a research strategy, the case study can be used in a variety of situations, which include: politics, political science, public administration, community sociology and psychology, organizational and management studies, social work, and among others [13]. Its application may have several purposes, such as: the investigation of real situations in which its limits are not well defined, to preserve the unitary character of the object under study, to narrate the situation in the context in which a particular research is carried out, allows the formulation of hypotheses and development of theories and also to explain what causes a given phenomenon [14].
83.4 Case Study Analysis 83.4.1 Conception of the School of the Future Project The team responsible for the design of the project, aware of the responsibilities and major challenges inherent in pedagogical and other changes in the teachinglearning process, more student-centered, established a strategy to learn about the most advanced developments being implemented in the country and in Europe, and incorporating concepts and recommendations for digital transformation in education. In order to integrate all the Municipalities of the Intermunicipal Community (CIM) and other stakeholders, the following activities were developed: • Meetings with the PIICIE Ave Operative Team. This body was formed by the technical team of Ave CIM and a technician in the area of education from each municipality. Its function was to liaise with local education partners during the planning stage, and it was responsible for liaising with school groupings and for drawing up and applying information gathering tools necessary for the evaluation and monitoring of PIICIE Ave. • Meetings with the Technical Steering Committee of CIM do Ave. A body composed of technicians from the municipalities of NUT III Ave is responsible for the follow-up and monitoring of the PDCT of Ave (Pact for Development and Territorial Cohesion). This body followed up the construction of the supramunicipal and municipal operations to be integrated in Ave’s PIICIE and the responsibility of following up the financial execution of Ave’s PIICIE.
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• Meeting with the Directors of School Groupings and Non-Grouped Schools in NUT III Ave, for the analysis and discussion of the main measures to fight school failure and early school leaving to be integrated in PIICIE do Ave, duly articulated with the Strategic Action Plans of each school. These educational actors assumed the responsibility to follow-up the implementation of the projects in the respective schools and to articulate with the operational team for a better evaluation and monitoring of them. • Meeting with the Mission Structure for Promoting School Success and with the Directorate General of Education of the North, for the presentation and discussion of PIICIE of Ave and collection of relevant contributions to be integrated in it. • Besides this collaborative work with local and national partners, the Councilors for Education got to know, in loco, successful examples at international level in the scope of new teaching/learning methodologies, part of them resorting to the use of innovative environments, namely in Spain and Finland. In these two countries, meetings were promoted with national, regional, and local political representatives in the area of education, as well as with directors and teachers of the different teaching levels. In addition to these meetings, schools (from pre-school to university) were visited in order to gather inside classrooms and laboratories privileged information from students and teachers on this subject. These visits were an added value for the application of new approaches in Portuguese municipalities, as the strengths and weaknesses of each of the options carried out in these establishments could be seen.
83.4.2 Implementation of the Project “School of the Future” Associated with the creation of these innovative learning environments, the “+Educational Success” Team was created, and a multidisciplinary team made up of municipality technicians (two teachers and a psychologist) to mediate, together with the teaching community, and the dynamization of these spaces. It was considered fundamental that the teaching class faced a new teaching/learning approach with confidence and that this was assisted by a team whose main mission is to create contents adjusted to the different curricula in order to facilitate its approach as well as the use of different means. In this sense, the multidisciplinary team carried out training sessions for small groups of teachers, focusing on the use of technology combined with new teaching methodologies. The training sessions for teachers were carried out in a tripartite way: the multidisciplinary team intervened in the first instance, the team of professionals associated with the companies that created the technological solutions, and the Francisco de Holanda Teacher Training Center in the second one. The planning of these moments was done together in order to maximize and articulate resources, taking into account the specificity of each participant.
83 Digital Transformation in the Teaching and Learning Process …
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This exchange of didactic strategies between teachers and the multidisciplinary team has generated interest and security in the pedagogical approach and, at the same time, has successfully achieved the creation of lesson plans that provoke in the students the enthusiastic learning of the respective contents. Two approaches would be possible in the management of these new spaces, one involving full-time use by a single class and another involving shared use by several classes in the same school. Taking into account that there are only two classrooms per school grouping, we opted for shared use in order to reach a wider public. The use of these new spaces is seen as a transforming element in pedagogical practices, in a gradual process of change. In other words, there is no absolute rupture with the methodologies that have been used in a classic classroom context, but rather a positive combination of resources. The teachers who joined this project started to plan their lessons, relying on the use of these classrooms on average once a week. This use, although weekly, has also transformed the pedagogical practices in the classroom context, not only by introducing what is programmed for the new classrooms, but because this programming ends up influencing the whole content and teaching methods. The technological means existing in these classrooms are: a 70” Interactive board, mobile, with camera, a kind of “giant tablet” multi-tactile and collaborative, with access to Apps; an interactive table, which allows up to six children to collaborate at the same time, for collaborative work by project and consolidation of concepts, with hundreds of activities and activity editor for teachers and students to create their activities; a teacher laptop and a set of 16 tablets per room; a tablet carrying case, an ActivExpression response system for each student; a document viewer; video editing equipment; a 3D printer, 5 × WeDo2 robotics kits for first cycle per room. The multidisciplinary use of these spaces and their respective means is fully achieved. As an example, the construction of a robot will be a facilitating element for the creative power in terms of esthetic options of the object, the training, and application of calculation methodologies, and its purpose may be associated with any discipline. Within the scope of this new approach, digital platforms have also been added that are an added value for the teaching of various contents with concrete initiatives in the scope of Mathematics, Portuguese, and the local curriculum. The Hypatiamat platform is an online platform that aims to enhance the learning of mathematics through the use of new technologies, with different APPS and games that students from 1st to 9th grade can use to develop their performance in mathematics. The +Citizenship platform, aimed at pre-school and primary school children, provides a learning environment rich in technology, facilitating learning, collaborative work, and the sharing of ideas. This platform allows/favors dynamic and playful activities, involving the various actors of the educational community, in a network capable of promoting and developing knowledge, skills, and values that help children to play an active role in the community. This platform also has content associated with the development of skills in the Portuguese language, English, science, and environmental studies, with particular focus on local cultural heritage.
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83.4.3 Validation and Monitoring of the Escola do Futuro Project Information and Communication Technology (ICT) skills are increasingly indispensable for harmonious and natural coexistence among citizens. School is the place where the essential skills for this integration must be acquired, eliminating the asymmetries created by differences in acquired skills [15]. Learning has to be more collaborative, more active where the teacher is a facilitator. Students take part of the responsibility for their learning, reflecting on their cognitive processes and responsibility for their learning, and reflecting on their cognitive processes and skills development. In this way, teaching and learning become shared experiences; social and teamwork skills are enhanced through consensus building [16]. Therefore, the value of the collaborative learning methodology lies in the fact that there is an adherence and sharing of efforts among the members who make up the group, such that the group’s objective at the end of the process produces an individual benefit in each of the participants [5].
83.5 Conclusion The current school lives a reality in which technologies are partners of the institutions. The breaking of prejudices regarding the use of IT in the context of teaching and learning must happen urgently. Today’s teacher is no longer the only source of knowledge, but the one whose mission is to diagnose students’ needs, to organize the curriculum, to facilitate access to information and to assist in the acquisition of skills. But, changes in education do not depend only on teachers, but on all the agents involved who must present balance in the management of technological, human and administrative resources, contributing for this new learning environment to be effective. With the publication of the Decree-Law 55/2018 that regulates the application in Portuguese schools of the concept of curricular flexibility, it allowed to change the relationship between technological innovation and pedagogical innovation, having the Municipality of Fafe realized that this is a turning point in how to approach the concept of school as an organization, but above all as an innovative and learning generator space. The Municipality has equipped six classrooms of the future with interactive panels and interactive tables that allow up to six children to collaborate, one laptop per teacher, 16 tablets per room, video editing equipment, 3D printers, and robotics kits. The adoption of these school environments has enabled student-centered learning, increasing student motivation and multidisciplinary achievement. These innovative learning environments are suitable for age groups of students familiar with the use of information technologies.
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The COVID-19 pandemic conditioned the evaluation of the project, as students were forced to attend distance learning classes, preventing the use of the so-called “Rooms of the Future.” Therefore, once they returned to face-to-face teaching, it will be possible to evaluate the impact of the project on students’ learning, which will be the subject of new publications.
References 1. Prensky, M.: Digital Native, Digital Immmigrants. Digital Native immigrants. On the horizon, MCB, vol. 9, no. 5. University Press (2001) 2. Castells, M.: The Power of Identity: The Information Age: Economy, Society, and Culture, 2nd edn. Wiley, United Kingdon (2010) 3. Bates, A.: Teaching in a digital age: Guidelines for designing teaching and learning. Tony Bates Associates Ltd. (2015). Retrieved from http://wiki.lib.sun.ac.za/images/f/f3/Teaching-in-a-dig ital-age.pdf 4. Abreu, A., Rocha, Á., Cota, M., Carvalho, J.V.: Caderneta Eletrónica no Processo EnsinoAprendizagem: Visão de Professores e Pais de alunos do ensino Básico e Secundário. RISTI— Rev. Ibér. Sistemas Tecnologias Inf. 16, 108–128 (2015). https://doi.org/10.17013/risti.16. 108-128 5. García-Valcárcel, A., Basilotta, V.: Evaluación de una experiencia de aprendizaje colaborativo con TIC desarrollada en un centro de Educación Primaria. Edutec. Rev. Electrónica Tecnol. Educativa 51, 1–12 (2015) 6. Nuho˘glu Soysal, Y., Wong, S.Y.: Educating future citizens in Europe and Asia. In: Benavot, A., Braslavsky, C., Truong, N. (eds) School Knowledge in Comparative and Historical Perspective. CERC Studies in Comparative Education, vol. 18. Springer, Dordrecht (2007). https://doi.org/ 10.1007/978-1-4020-5736-6_5 7. Costa, E.: Avalição da integração de plataformas e-learning no ensino secundário. Universidade Salamanca, Tese de Doutoramento (2010) 8. Abreu, A., Afonso, A.P., Carvalho, J.V., Rocha, Á.: The electronic individual student process (e-ISP). Telematics Inf., 1–11 (2018), 1 Dez 2017. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tele.2017.11.011 9. Serna, M.: Enseñanza Virtual para la Innovación Universitaria, 2a edn. Narcea, Madrid (2006) 10. Felder, R., Brent, R.: Understanding student differences. J. Eng. Educ. 94(1), 57–72 (2005) 11. Harmes, J.C., Welsh, J.L., Winkelman, R.J.: A framework for defining and evaluating technology integration in the instruction of real-world skills. In: Handbook of Research on Technology Tools for Real-World-World Skill Development, pp. 137–162 (2016) 12. Johnson, L., Estrada, S.A., Becker, V., Freeman, A.: Horizon Report, Edição Educação Básica 2015. The New Media Consortion, Austin, Texas (2015) 13. Yin, R.: Pesquisa estudo de caso-desenho e métodos, 2ª edn. Edições Bookman, Porto Alegre (1994) 14. Gil, A.: Como elaborar projetos de pesquisa, 4ª edn. Atlas, São Paulo (2002) 15. Tejedor, F., Muñoz-Repiso, A., Costa, E.: Avaliação da integração de plataformas e-learning no ensino secundário. Rev. Iberoamericana Educ. 58/4 (1912) 16. Kirschner, P.A.: Using integrated electronic environments for collaborative teaching/learning. Learn. Instr. 10(1), 1–9 (2001). https://doi.org/10.1016/S0959-4752(00).00-021-9)
Author Index
A Abreu, António. See 959. See 1015 Afonso, Carla Winter. See 833 Aguilar, David Andrade. See 739 Aimacaña-Espinosa, Luis. See 195 Albuquerque, Cristina Pinto. See 517 Almeida Aguilar, María Alejandrina. See 145 Almeida, Joana Gomes. See 517 Alves, Palmira. See 871 Andaluz, Víctor H.. See 419. See 573. See 587. See 621. See 633. See 661. See 675. See 689. See 703. See 713. See 725 Angélica, Garcia Medina Maria. See 93 Anunciação da, Pedro Fernandes. See 229 Araque, Edison J.. See 621 Arceo Moheno, Gerardo. See 145 Arellano, Chadwick Carreto. See 47 Ariño-Mateo, Eva. See 59 Avalos-Bravo, Vladimir. See 47 Avila Alexander, Ricardo. See 145 Azevedo, Ângela Sá. See 895
B Baeza, Rubén. See 133 Balyakin, A. A.. See 473. See 485 Barragán-Quintero, Reyna Virginia. See 649 Barreto, Maria Antónia. See 495 Bastos, Danielle Ferreira. See 803 Bastos, Susana Moreira. See 281 Becerra-Pérez, Luis Armando. See 269 Benites, Luis. See 163
Bonilla-Chaves, Eithel F.. See 607 Borges, Isabel. See 959. See 987 Borsic, Zlata. See 433 Braga, José Luís. See 987 Brás, Sandra. See 987 Bueno, Adauto. See 253
C Cabracancha-Montesinos, Lenin Rolando. See 343 Caeiro, Frederico. See 907 Caicedo, Andrés. See 73 Cajamarca, Alex A.. See 621 Caldeira, Suzana Nunes. See 527. See 551 Callefi, Mario. See 253 Campos de, Marcelo Jardim. See 925 Cara de, Gláucio Roberto Bernardo. See 803 Carmen Rodríguez-Jiménez del, María. See 59 Carmiol, Ana M.. See 461 Carmo do, Gerson Tavares. See 803 Carpio-Jiménez, Lilia. See 301 Carreira, Francisco. See 749 Carvalho de, Ana Branca Soeiro. See 455 Carvalho, João Vidal. See 253 Carvalho, Milena. See 765 Castelo, Adelina. See 395 Castillo, Franklin. See 725 Castro, Maria João. See 765 Catota, Marco V.. See 661 Chacón-Castro, Marcos. See 195 Chimbana, Lenin I.. See 675 Chorão, Graça. See 777
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 A. Mesquita et al. (eds.), Perspectives and Trends in Education and Technology, Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 256, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5063-5
1027
1028 Colorado, Eva Mora. See 739 Conde, Bruno. See 495 Copaja, Stefany Juliana Noa. See 323 Cordero, Diego. See 433 Corona Ferreira, Arturo. See 145 Costa, Eusébio. See 813. See 935. See 945. See 959. See 973. See 1015 Costa Leonídio da, Uelinton. See 833 Costa, Giannina. See 133 Costa, Joana. See 841 Costa-Lobo, Cristina. See 861. See 945. See 999 Coutinho, Jarbele. See 561 Cristina, Lengua Cantero Claudia. See 93 Cruz-Ayala, Katiusca. See 269 Cueva, Carlos A.. See 713 Cunha, Andreia. See 35
D Díaz-Millón, Mar. See 153 De La Cruz, Kevin Mario Laura. See 323 de Sousa, Reudismam. See 561 Dias, Paulo C.. See 895 Dinis, G.. See 537
E Erazo, Kerly G.. See 713 Espejo-Peña, Dennis Alberto. See 343 Esteves, Francisco Joaquim Madeira. See 229
F Farfán, Camilo. See 433 Fernandes, Dárida Maria. See 789 Ferreira, Humberto M.. See 833 Filho, Moacir Godinho. See 253 Flores, Paula Maria. See 789 Flores-Osorio, Alejandro Isaías. See 343 Fonseca, Marta. See 495 Freitas de, César Miranda A. M.. See 853 Fuentealba, Diego. See 133 Furtado, Marco. See 219
G Galego, Nuno Miguel Carvalho. See 17 Galindo-Villardón, María-Purificación. See 163 Gallo, Luis V.. See 703 Gatica, Gustavo. See 133
Author Index Gebera, Osbaldo Washington Turpo. See 323 Girardi, Samara. See 281 Gomes, Cândido. See 945 Gomez-Tone, Hugo C.. See 383 Gonçalves, Inês Oliveira. See 841 Gonçalves, Maria José Angélico. See 407 Gonçalves, Paulo Jorge Pinheiro. See 367 Gonçalves, Sofia. See 853 González-Contreras, Ana Isabel. See 59 González-Díaz, Romel Ramón. See 1. See 241. See 269 González, Joe Alexis. See 163 González, Jorge Toro. See 47 Gordón, Jacqueline. See 73 Guanilo, Santos Lucio. See 269 Guimarães, Laurentino. See 999 Gutiérrez, Kevin J.. See 573
H Herrera Paltan, Luis C.. See 119
I Icaza, Daniel. See 433
J Jadán-Guerrero, Janio. See 195 Jennifer, Cedeño. See 109 Jerónimo Yedra, Rubén. See 145 Jesús de, Acosta Meza David. See 93 Jorge, F.. See 311 Jorque, Byron S.. See 689
L Lagos, Paulina. See 133 Lemos Dinis de, Vitor Manuel. See 229 Lima Palacios, Leslie R.. See 119 Lobo-da-Costa, Nielce Meneguelo. See 343 Lourdes Machado Taylor de, Maria. See 407 Lozada, Gissela F.. See 587 Luís, Carlos. See 83. See 355 Lugo-Báez, Cecilia Margarita. See 241 Luis, Sánchez. See 109. See 207
M Machorro, Felipe. See 739 Maciel, Katia Augusta. See 925 Magalhães, Miguel. See 999
Author Index Maia, Ana. See 883 Mamonov, M. V.. See 485 Marcelino, Maria José. See 83. See 355 Martínez, Alexandra. See 461 Martin-Gutierrez, Jorge. See 383 Martins, Pompeu. See 1015 Martins, Rosa. See 813. See 823 Martins, Sandra Cristina Batista. See 861 Martins, Susana. See 765 Mateus, Cristina. See 973 Matos, Ricardo. See 999 Mauricio, Sónia. See 355 Medina-Patron, Yurkyna Xiomara. See 241 Mejías, Jose Andrés. See 461 Melo, C.. See 537 Meneses, José Carlos. See 987 Menezes, Nídia. See 455 Miranda, Mario. See 621 Molina, Martha C.. See 725 Mollocana, Jéssica D.. See 689 Moniz, Ana Isabel Damião de Serpa Arruda. See 527. See 551 Monteiro Lopes, Tiago. See 445 Moreno, Alba M.. See 675 Moreno, Davys. See 883 Moreno, Yanira Soledad Díaz. See 241 Mosquera, Edison A.. See 675 Mota, Carlos. See 35 Mota, Catarina. See 987 Mota, Catarina Freitas. See 925 Mota, José Fernando. See 925 Moya, Alexander P.. See 675
N Naranjo, César A.. See 573. See 587. See 713 Neves, Catarina. See 765 Nogueira, Sónia. See 289 Nogueiro, T.. See 311 Noronha, Ana Raquel. See 973 Noronha-Sousa, Dulce. See 945. See 973 Nunes, Jerónimo. See 183 Nurakhov, N. N.. See 473 Nurbina, M. V.. See 473. See 485
O Oliveira, Íris M.. See 895 Oliveira, Helena Costa. See 445 Omar, Cedeño. See 207 Ovalles-Toledo, Luiz Vicente. See 269
1029 P Pacheco, Daniel Costa. See 527. See 551 Pérez-Jorge, David. See 59 Paillacho Chiluiza, Dennys F.. See 119 Paillacho Corredores, Jonathan S.. See 119 Palos-Sánchez, Pedro R.. See 607 Panchi, Edy I.. See 661 Paredes, Daniela E.. See 621 Pareti, Stefania. See 649 Pascoal, Rui Miguesl. See 17 Pascoal, Sara. See 219 Pascoinho, João. See 813. See 823. See 853 Passos, Daniela Matté Amaro. See 367 Paste, Byron D.. See 703 Paulo, Estrela. See 813. See 823. See 853 Pedro, Carla. See 853 Peixoto, Paulo. See 517 Pereira, Adalmiro. See 35 Pereira, Joana. See 823 Pereira, Maria Isabel Alves Rodrigues. See 495 Pereira, Tiago C.. See 935 Pilicita, Jimmy J.. See 573 Pinho, Maria Inês. See 789 Pinto, Agostinho Sousa. See 833. See 959. See 1015 Pinto, Dimas. See 841 Pinto, Oscar. See 133 Proaño, Zahira C.. See 633 Pruna, Jazmín K.. See 587 Puertas-Hidalgo, Rosario. See 301
Q Quesada-López, Christian. See 461 Quispe, Manuel A.. See 725
R Ramos Méndez, Eric. See 145 Ribeiro, Sandra. See 777 Rivera, Fabián E.. See 419 Rivera-Trigueros, Irene. See 153 Rocha Teixeira da, Filipa. See 407 Rocha, Helena. See 505 Rodrigues-Carvalho, Joana. See 841 Rodríguez, Oscar I.. See 661 Romero, Maria Vanessa. See 739 Ruales, Belén. See 675 Ruff-Escobar, Claudio. See 163 Ruiz-Toledo, Marcelo. See 163
1030 S Saá, Fernando. See 713 San Martin, Lilian. See 133 Santos, Fernando Mamede. See 455 Santos, Filipe. See 495 Santos, Henrique. See 935 Santos, Teresa. See 871 Saraiva, M.. See 311 Sarmento, Anabela Mesquita. See 367 Sá, Susana. See 823. See 871. See 945 Schvirck, Eliandro. See 281 Segovia, Jenny A.. See 621 Silva, Aldina Sofia. See 841 Silva, Anabela Martins. See 749 Silva da, Amélia Ferreira. See 749 Silva, Domingos. See 907 Silva, Fátima Matos. See 959 Silva, Osvaldo. See 183 Silva, Osvaldo Dias Lopes. See 527. See 551 Silva, Rui. See 749 Soares, Filomena. See 935 Solorzano Alcivar, Nayeth I.. See 119 Sousa, Áurea. See 183 Sousa, J.. See 537 Souza, Dyego. See 561 Subía, Andrés. See 73 Suing, Abel. See 301
Author Index T Tallone, Laura. See 219 Taranenko, S. B.. See 485 Tavares, Célia. See 777 Tumbaco, Willam W.. See 621
U Uriarte-Soto, Daniela. See 241
V Valdez-Rodríguez, Roxana Janette. See 241 Valencia-Anci, Betty K.. See 383 Vareiro, Laurentina. See 289 Varela-Aldás, José. See 689. See 703 Vasquez-Justo, Enrique. See 973 Vaz, Ângela. See 35 Vázquez-Justo, Enrique. See 861. See 945. See 999 Vestena, Carla Luciane Blum. See 861 Villagómez, Javier A.. See 675
X Xavier, Gysele. See 289