Advances in Sustainable Materials and Technology 1685079679, 9781685079673

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Advances in Sustainable Materials and Technology

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Published by Nova Science Publishers, Inc. † New York

Contents

Preface

.......................................................................................... vii

Chapter 1

Possible Reuse of Excavated Material from Old Open Municipal Dump Sites ............................1 Ankur Choudhary, Ankita Shukla, Pankaj Sharma, Ajay Goyal and Ashish Kumar

Chapter 2

Traffic Monitoring System .............................................13 Sehla Altaf, Sandeep Singh and Jaipreet Kour

Chapter 3

Plastic Waste in Pavement ..............................................23 Vishav Gupta, Navee Sharma, Rajat Sagoch and Amit

Chapter 4

A Review on Performance Analysis of Asphalt Concrete with Steel Slag ...............................27 Nabin Kumar Yadav, Sagar Chhetri and Biki Niraj

Chapter 5

Utilization of Construction and Demolition Waste in Flexible Pavements: A Review Paper.............37 Chetan Thakur, Nitish Sharma and Abhishek Kanoungo

Chapter 6

Sustainability and Social Responsibility in the Construction Industry of the United Arab Emirates...........................................49 Anil Cherian

Chapter 7

Usability of Reed (Phragmites australis) as a Concrete Admixture ................................................67 Masahiro Hyodo

vi

Contents

Chapter 8

Assessment of Core Soils Vulnerability to Internal Erosion from Three Zoned Dams, under Drought Effect Due to Climate Change ..............85 Ahmed Jalil, Ahmed Benamar and Mohamed Ebn Touhami

Chapter 9

Study of Impact of Nano Silica on Durability of Reinforced Concrete Structures...............................101 Sarvesh P. S. Rajput

Chapter 10

Bitumen and Its Recovery Techniques ........................115 Abarasi Hart

Chapter 11

Diluted Bitumen: Composition and Spill Behaviour.................................171 Merv Fingas

Editors’ Contact Information ..................................................................197 Index

.........................................................................................199

Preface

The book entitled Advances in Sustainable Materials & Technology is a conglomerate of the research work and studies highlighted by different authors and researchers, with a clear focus on the core issues of sustainable development and the best of the materials with lesser environmental impact. It focuses on numerous relevant areas and innovative technologies, such as key construction materials and production, materials with lower energy impact, production processes encouraging lesser use of ever-depleting natural raw materials, minimization of the generation of Green House Gases (GHG), development of new environmentally friendly materials and agents, characterization of the properties of construction materials, and methodologies applied in the building of structures. The construction industry, and the materials consumed by it, have a huge global environmental impact that spreads across all sectors and walks of life. Researchers and academicians working in Science and Technology sectors have always strived and worked hard to lessen the impact on the environment through many breakthrough innovations. This book will definitely help in achieving environmental, economic, and social benefits for all stakeholders of the construction industry.

Chapter 1

Possible Reuse of Excavated Material from Old Open Municipal Dump Sites Ankur Choudhary1,, Ankita Shukla2, Pankaj Sharma1, Ajay Goyal1, PhD, and Ashish Kumar3 1Chitkara

University School of Engineering & Technology, Chitkara University, Himachal Pradesh, India 2University Institute of Biotechnology (UIBT), Chandigarh University, Mohali, Punjab, India 3Department of Civil Engineering, Jaypee University of Information Technology, Waknaghat, Solan, Himachal Pradesh, India

Abstract Even though in the recent past the practices of recycling, reuse, reduction, composting, incineration, combustion of municipal solid waste (MSW) have augmented significantly the practice of disposal of MSW on open dumps/landfill sites is widely held across the globe. Old dumpsites without the provision of liners and landfill gas collection mechanics are causes of local pollution. Contamination of surface and subsurface water due to the leachate percolation and increase in the concentration of greenhouse gases in the environment are some of the major local pollutions. In almost every developed and developing country a significant number of open dumps are there which were developed (without provision of environmental technologies for limiting contamination of water and emissions) before the establishment of regulations. Although, these dumpsites are no longer used but pollute the 

Corresponding Author’s Email: [email protected].

In: Advances in Sustainable Materials and Technology Editors: Abhishek Kanoungo, Sandeep Singh, Shristi Kanoungo et al. ISBN: 978-1-68507-967-3 © 2022 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

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Ankur Choudhary, Ankita Shukla, Pankaj Sharma et al. environment considerably. Therefore, restoration of a dumpsite always has been one of the serious issues to deal with. Microbial digestion plays a very crucial role in the management of organic waste because the organic waste in MSW landfills makes the landfill a very rich source to provide a natural habitat to microbes. An in-depth understanding of the role of microorganisms is therefore needed as this will shed more light on the maintenance of solid wastes and aid in better planning and future direction. This book chapter discusses the characteristics of excavated old open dumpsites. Besides, this books chapter also discusses the possible reuse, recycling, reduction, and energy potential of old open dumps with the help of landfill mining. This chapter also discusses remediation of old open dumpsites with the help of Landfill mining. Microbial communities involved in various biological degradation processes are also discussed.

Keywords: municipal solid waste, open dumps, geotechnical properties, landfills

1. Introduction Although in the last decades recycling, reuse, reduction, composting, incineration, combustion of municipal solid waste (MSW) has increased significantly but still disposal of MSW on dumping sites is the most popular and practiced method across the world (Choudhary et al., 2018, 2020b; Vaverková et al., 2018). Besides industrial countries like the USA, China, EU countries, and India still also rely on open dumping and Sanitary landfill and it is an essential part of their SWM practices (Agamuthu, 2013; Choudhary et al., 2018, 2020b, 2022). Few of the studies reported that approximately 1,300 million t of MSW is being produced by the whole world every year. It is anticipated that by the end of 2025 the generation of MSW will further increase to 2,200 million t/year (Hoornweg and Bhada-Tata, 2012; Srivastava et al., 2015). One of the central agencies has recently reported that about 135,198 t of MSW is being produced on a daily basis in India (CPCB 2017). In a study conducted by Choudhary et al., 2020b, it is reported that the generation of MSW is going to be increased by 6.7% in the coming due course (Choudhary et al., 2020b). Few of the studies also reported that in India 75-80% of the total MSW is directly being dumped on the landfill without any further treatment (Choudhary et al., 2018, 2020b). Alike, in the last decade, the number of landfills has been decreased although the average size of the landfills has

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increased in the USA (Rubinos and Spagnoli, 2018). In 2014, approximately 258 million t of MSW has been generated in the USA. Out of the total generation, approximately 34.6% were composted and recycled, 13% were combusted and about 53% were landfilled (Rubinos and Spagnoli, 2018). Although, landfilling should be the least preferable option still recently in the EU 23% of total generated MSW (i.e., 974 million t) has been dumped on the landfills (Rubinos and Spagnoli, 2018). In the same manner, approximately 60% of the MSW has been dumped on the landfills in China whereas about 29%, 8%, and 2% have been incinerated, untreated, and managed by other methods, respectively (Mian et al., 2017). In the majority of emerging nations, landfilling is the most practiced method to deal with MSW. Besides, open dumping, sanitary landfill without provision of leachate and gas collection mechanism, and failure of environmental regulation/ standards during the operations are very common practices (Choudhary et al., 2020b; Dedinec et al., 2015). Across the time unmanaged MSW on the landfills leads to contamination of the surface, subsurface water resources, air, and soil via releasing leachate and greenhouse gases (Choudhary et al., 2020a). Hence, management of dumpsite even after many years of disposal becomes the compulsory duty of the concerned authorities. Apart from that efforts towards reuse and recycling should be made. Hence one of the objectives of this chapter is to discuss the characteristics and compositions of the excavated waste from the old dump sites. Besides, to discuss possible reuse and recycle of excavated waste from the old dump sites. Further, this chapter also highlights the microbial communities involved in the biological degradation of municipal waste on the old dumping sites.

2. Waste Characterization The decision related to the treatment methodology, disposal option, reuse, recycling, and reduction is significantly influenced by the physical, chemical, and biochemical characteristics of the waste. In addition, an indication of the degree of degradation, environmental condition, qualities of the reclaimed fractions is very decisive for the design of the sanitary landfill. Generally, it has been reported that as the age of the landfill increases the fraction of food waste, yard waste, and paper waste decreases. Moreover, over the time of landfill, the fraction of the ferrous metals, glass, and nonferrous

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metals also decreases. Therefore, the overall composition and characteristics of the landfill change (Hull et al., 2005). Based on the age of the landfill Hull et al., 2005 prepared the three sample types. Further, in their investigation, they have found that in all the categories of excavated material the fine fraction (< 2.54 cm) was the largest one. Both types of samples i.e., hand-sorted and screened reported at least 50% of the particles to the categories of fine fraction. Similarly, in other reclamation projects, various researchers reported the finer fraction in the same range. Information regarding the fine fraction in excavated material is reported in Table 1. The remaining 50% of the total sample consisted of various items such as plastic, wood, HDPE, and PETE containers. Hull et al., 2005 reported a smaller amount of paper which attributes to the reason of possible biological degradation that had occurred within the landfill. Table 1. Percentage fine fraction of excavated material from old dumpsites Sr. No. 1. 2. 3.

Fine fraction (cm) < 2.54 < 2.54 < 1.91

Percentage (%) 45.9 41 59.2

Age of the Waste (years) 2-10 1-5 10-15

4.

< 2.54

50

7.5-11.5

Reference Miller et al., 1991 (Forster, 1995) (Goldstein Nora and Madtes Celeste, 2001) (Hull et al., 2005)

3. Remediation of Old Open Dumpsites The size of excavated material/soil has great importance during the remediation process. Literature reveals that there are various methods available for the remediation of excavated soil. However, remediation methods for the recovery are suggested only for limited grain sizes which are very highly contaminated. The remediation methods for the recovery are very costly if adopted for a large volume of inappropriate grain size with less contamination. Open dumps pollute the soil, water, and air in the vicinity. Hogland et al., 2004 reported, treatment of excavated material from the open dumps is one of the major concerns in Europe (Hogland et al., 2004). Hence, in this direction landfill mining of closed dumpsites has been recognized as an interesting technology in the past few decades. Landfill mining was introduced in 1953 and some fraction of the residual matrix was also utilized as fertilizers.

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Further, the research and development related to landfill mining have advanced in the 1990s (Krook et al., 2012). During this process, often unlined material from the dumpsite is excavated and further processed. A few of the important objectives of Landfill mining are as follows: To preserve the volume in the landfill, to mitigate the contaminated site, to remove the potential source of pollution, to increase the energy recovery, reuse and recycle form the excavated material, to reduce the management cost and redevelopment of open dump into a new location (Hogland et al., 2004). In the recent past, Enhanced Landfill Mining (ELFM) got a lot of popularity. In context to the ecological and social criteria, ELFM combines valorization of waste streams as energy and material (Jones et al., 2013). Further, once the excavated material has been reclaimed, the site can be renovated and reconstructed following the standard rules and regulations. Moreover, new waste can also be stored (Prechthai et al., 2008). Although, even after a lot of research in this field evaluation and implementation is still embryonic and do not practice standardized principles and regulation (Krook et al., 2012). Few uncertainties are as follows: composition of the waste stream, processing technologies, and health and environmental risk (Frändegård et al., 2013). After the recovery of the materials, the residual matrix, one of the key outcomes, coming from the landfill mining primarily consists of degraded organic substances. Jain et al., 2005 reported that residual matrix can be reused as the final or daily cover of the landfills (Jain et al., 2005). Landfills are transformed into temporary storage places that are operationally non-toxic storage place that permits reclamation of the materials from the waste stream. It also allows energy recovery and easy future access to resources whenever needed. It also facilitates the retrieval of materials from aged and abandoned open dumps or landfills. This short-term storage will permit an association among past, present, and future, and a new step in the direction of the circular economy (Bosmans et al., 2013; Choudhary et al., 2021, 2020c; Jones et al., 2013; Krook and Baas, 2013). A virtuous characterization of the site is desirable to categorize the problems associated with the method of recovery ((Raga and Cossu, 2013). Furthermore, a quantitative and qualitative investigation of the material is necessary, to find out the potential of reclamation operations and waste reusing (Prechthai et al., 2008).

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4. Microbial Community Involved Waste Degradation on the Landfill At present, microbial digestion in the treatment and recovery processes of MSW has become a common practice. Generally, these solid wastes are discarded in landfills or either managed via the process of incineration. In the sites of landfills, the microorganisms play a very significant role in decomposing the organic wastes and it tends to produce different gases that play a decisive role in global warming. Also, farmers have conventionally increased the use of these organic wastes in the form of manures that is very useful in improving soil nutrition. However, the land spreading of the solid wastes or their reclaim in agriculture is limited due to their risk of soil contamination and propagating the syndromes in plants, and animals (Forastiere et al., 2011; Gunjal, 2019). Therefore, as a solution, studies have revealed the vast potential of biodegradable matter as an animal feed though with authoritarian and effective regulations (Salemdeeb et al., 2017). The landfill sites act as natural habitats for the growth of a large variety of microorganisms that are still not reported and characterized and comprise unidentified bacterial communities. According to various researches, microorganisms are amongst the largest group of undescribed biodiversity, and they are an incomprehensible cause of exploitable diversity (Dantroliya et al., 2022). So, the microbial digestion application for MSW treatment is ecofriendly, low cost, and effective for a zero-waste economy. Anaerobic digestion is one of the technologies that has been implemented for organic waste treatment. The application of microbes in this process has thus become obligatory as it boosts the hydrolysis rate and biomethane potential of MSW thereby shortening the lag phase to get high energy rapidly. According to the study conducted by the researchers at one of the oldest MSW dumping sites at Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India i.e., Pirana Landfill Site (latitude - 22.980368 and longitude - 72.56212) various microbial diversities has been identified (Dantroliya et al., 2022). In the study, vigorous attempts were done for the conversion of organic waste into valuable products in particular the scientifically central crude enzyme mix, biofertilizers, livestock feed, and compost utilizing the potential microbial consortium. The researchers have examined the outcome of three diverse microbial consortia on organic vegetable waste degradation. Consortia used in this study comprises fungi as well as the combinations of fungi–bacteria that are capable to produce various enzymes. Therefore, the study exemplified the role of

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bacterial–fungal consortia as an imperative bio-tool for converting organic waste into valuable products. Approximately, ninety-five bacterial cultures isolates were examined for their potential to yield amylase, cellulase, protease, pectinase, and xylanase activity at the Pirana dumping site (Dantroliya et al., 2022). As shown in Table 2 for the bacterial isolates B. subtilis and fungal isolates, T. pinophillus and M. verrucarria have shown the highest cellulase activity. For pectinase activity, B. licheniformis followed by A. terrus and M. verrucaria showed maximum activity. Although none of the bacterial isolates has shown lignin activity, M. verrucaria was one of the prevalent among all the fungal cultures tested. Table 2. Fungal and bacterial cultures isolated for enzyme generation and compatibility studies at pirana dumping site (Dantroliya et al., 2022) Activity Type

Isolate Type

Microorganism

Cellulase

Bacterial Fungal

Pectinase

Bacterial Fungal Fungal Fungal

B. subtilis T. pinophillus, M. verrucarria B. licheniformis A. terrus M. verrucaria M. verrucaria

Lignin

Activity (zone of hydrolysis) 6.4 cm 2.5 cm 2.5 cm 3.5 cm 3.0 cm 3.0 cm 2.8 cm

Medium Cellulosecontaining plate Pectin agar plate

Lignin agar plate

In another study, of Pulau Burung Landfill Penang in China, it has been found that sampling site is one of the major factors rather than sampling depth that is responsible for the makeup of the bacteria community (Chukwuma et al., 2021). For the Pulau Burung Landfill, Firmicutes, Bacteroidetes, and Proteobacteria were the most abundant phyla that contribute to the natural habitat. The study involves the understanding of microbial succession and diversity through aerobic digestion/composting. The microbial diversity that was found to be dominated hence recorded and are known to have lignocellulolytic enzyme activity that is largely responsible for organic matter decomposition. It has been found through research that bacteria in landfills are a rich pool of lignolytic and hydrolytic diversity (Chukwuma et al., 2021). The results have comprised known members of the bacterial community involved in cellulose, lignin, and hemicellulose degradation. Therefore, the study suggests the use in the form of lignocellulose-driven biorefinery and other industrial processes. The findings also aid in understanding the possible co-cultures of bacteria, because lignin and cellulose breakdown is achieved by

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the collaborative relationship of several microorganisms and not just by a single culture. For this study, in total, 40 phyla were found and four phyla, namely Proteobacteria, Firmicutes, Actinobacteria, and Bacteroidetes, were found out to be the most dominant amongst all samples. However at the family level, 377 different families were noticed, and approximately 708 were identified at the genera level. The topmost genera identified were Aerococcus, Pseudomonas, Stenotrophomonas, Sporosarcina, and Lactobacillus (Chukwuma et al., 2021).

Conclusion Adverse environmental impacts and occupation of land are some of the major problems associated with old dumping sites. Consequently, rehabilitation of a waste disposal site always has been one of the serious issues to deal with. The major major conclusion from the above discussion are as follows: 1. Food waste, yard waste, paper waste, ferrous metals, glass, and nonferrous metals are the major residual materials originating from the closed open municipal waste dumps. 2. Generally, it has been reported that as the age of the landfill increases the fraction of food waste, yard waste, and paper waste decreases. Moreover, over the time of landfill, the fraction of the ferrous metals, glass, and nonferrous metals also decreases. 3. In all the categories of excavated (i.e., hand sorted or screened) material, the fine fraction (< 2.54 cm) is the largest one and generally, it lies in the range of 50-50%. 4. Once the excavated material has been reclaimed, the site can be renovated and reconstructed following the standard rules and regulations. Moreover, new waste can also be stored. 5. After the recovery of the materials, the residual matrix, one of the main products, coming from the landfill mining primarily consists of degraded organic matter soil cover and residues of medium and large size. Jain et al., 2005 reported that residual matrix can be reused as the final or daily cover of the landfills. 6. Generally, the fine fraction is very rich (sometimes about 70%) in total organic carbon. Sometimes it is even more than that six-time when compared with conventional agrarian soil. Consequently, it can

Possible Reuse of Excavated Material …

7.

8. 9.

10.

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be used in various environmental applications. In fact, there is a huge demand for organic fractions. Chemical analysis performed by various researchers reports that there is always a presence of heavy metals in the excavated fine fraction. In case its concentration is low it can be used as bio soils. The fine fraction can also be utilized as substitution of the soil layer, or for the cultivation of non-edible crops. Microbial digestion of the organic municipal solid waste (OMSW) is the key mechanism for sustainable municipal waste management as it has incredible benefits in terms of the energy, environment, and economy via reducing the emission of greenhouse gases thus producing renewable natural gases, and also in producing natural fertilizers that aid in the quality of soil improvement. Efforts for the efficient conversion of the organic waste into valueadded products like industrially central crude enzyme mix, biofertilizers, livestock feed, and compost using a potential microbial consortium.

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Choudhary, A., Kumar, A., Kumar, S., Verma, V., 2022. Energy possibilities and future strategies for municipal solid waste in Himachal Pradesh. Mater. Today Proc., SCPINM-2021 48, 1455–1459. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2021.09.224. Choudhary, A., Kumari, A., Gorky, Kumar, S., Kumar, A., 2021. Managing sewage sludge and pine needles through anaerobic co-digestion in a hilly terrain: a lost cost approach. Int. J. Environ. Waste Manag. 28, 61–75. https://doi.org/10.1504/IJEWM. 2021. 117009. Chukwuma, O. B., Rafatullah, M., Tajarudin, H. A., Ismail, N., 2021. Bacterial Diversity and Community Structure of a Municipal Solid Waste Landfill: A Source of Lignocellulolytic Potential. Life 11, 493. https://doi.org/10.3390/life11060493. Dantroliya, S., Joshi, Chinmayi, Mohapatra, A., Shah, D., Bhargava, P., Bhanushali, S., Pandit, R., Joshi, Chaitanya, Joshi, M., 2022. Creating wealth from waste: An approach for converting organic waste in to value-added products using microbial consortia. Environ. Technol. Innov. 25, 102092. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eti. 2021. 102092. Dedinec, A., Markovska, N., Ristovski, I., Velevski, G., Gjorgjievska, V. T., Grncarovska, T. O., Zdraveva, P., 2015. Economic and environmental evaluation of climate change mitigation measures in the waste sector of developing countries. J. Clean. Prod., Sustainable Development of Energy, Water and Environment Systems 88, 234–241. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2014.05.048. Forastiere, F., Badaloni, C., de Hoogh, K., von Kraus, M. K., Martuzzi, M., Mitis, F., Palkovicova, L., Porta, D., Preiss, P., Ranzi, A., Perucci, C.A., Briggs, D., 2011. Health impact assessment of waste management facilities in three European countries. Environ. Health 10, 53. https://doi.org/10.1186/1476-069X-10-53. Forster, G. A., 1995. Assessment of landfill reclamation and the effects of age on the combustion of recovered municipal solid waste (No. NREL/TP-430-7449). National Renewable Energy Lab., Golden, CO (United States). https://doi.org/10.2172/ 101 22255. Frändegård, P., Krook, J., Svensson, N., Eklund, M., 2013. A novel approach for environmental evaluation of landfill mining. J. Clean. Prod., Special Volume: Urban and Landfill Mining 55, 24–34. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2012.05.045. Goldstein Nora, Madtes Celeste, 2001. The state of garbage in America. Biocycle 42. Gunjal, B. B., 2019. Value-Added Products From Food Waste [WWW Document]. Glob. Initiat. Waste Reduct. Cut. Food Loss. https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-5225-77065.ch002. Hogland, W., Marques, M., Nimmermark, S., 2004. Landfill mining and waste characterization: a strategy for remediation of contaminated areas. J. Mater. Cycles Waste Manag. 6, 119–124. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10163-003-0110-x. Hoornweg, D., Bhada-Tata, P., 2012. What a Waste : A Global Review of Solid Waste Management. World Bank, Washington, DC. Hull, R. M., Krogmann, U., Strom, P. F., 2005. Composition and Characteristics of Excavated Materials from a New Jersey Landfill. J. Environ. Eng. 131, 478–490. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9372 (2005)131:3(478).

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Jain, P., Kim, H., Townsend, T. G., 2005. Heavy metal content in soil reclaimed from a municipal solid waste landfill. Waste Manag. 25, 25–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.wasman.2004.08.009. Jones, P. T., Geysen, D., Tielemans, Y., Van Passel, S., Pontikes, Y., Blanpain, B., Quaghebeur, M., Hoekstra, N., 2013. Enhanced Landfill Mining in view of multiple resource recovery: a critical review. J. Clean. Prod., Special Volume: Urban and Landfill Mining 55, 45–55. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2012. 05.021. Krook, J., Baas, L., 2013. Getting serious about mining the technosphere: a review of recent landfill mining and urban mining research. J. Clean. Prod., Special Volume: Urban and Landfill Mining 55, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2013.04.043. Krook, J., Svensson, N., Eklund, M., 2012. Landfill mining: A critical review of two decades of research. Waste Manag. 32, 513–520. https://doi.org/10.1016 /j.wasman. 2011.10.015. Mian, M. M., Zeng, X., Nasry, A. al N. B., Al-Hamadani, S. M. Z. F., 2017. Municipal solid waste management in China: a comparative analysis. J. Mater. Cycles Waste Manag. 19, 1127–1135. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10163-016-0509-9. Prechthai, T., Parkpian, P., Visvanathan, C., 2008. Assessment of heavy metal contamination and its mobilization from municipal solid waste open dumping site. J. Hazard. Mater. 156, 86–94. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2007.11.119. Raga, R., Cossu, R., 2013. Bioreactor tests preliminary to landfill in situ aeration: A case study. Waste Manag. 33, 871–880. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2012.11.014. Rubinos, D. A., Spagnoli, G., 2018. Utilization of waste products as alternative landfill liner and cover materials – A critical review. Crit. Rev. Environ. Sci. Technol. 48, 376– 438. https://doi.org/10.1080/10643389. 2018.1461495. Salemdeeb, R., zu Ermgassen, E. K. H. J., Kim, M. H., Balmford, A., Al-Tabbaa, A., 2017. Environmental and health impacts of using food waste as animal feed: a comparative analysis of food waste management options. J. Clean. Prod., Towards eco-efficient agriculture and food systems: selected papers addressing the global challenges for food systems, including those presented at the Conference “LCA for Feeding the planet and energy for life” (6-8 October 2015, Stresa & Milan Expo, Italy) 140, 871– 880. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.05.049. Srivastava, V., Ismail, S. A., Singh, P., Singh, R. P., 2015. Urban solid waste management in the developing world with emphasis on India: challenges and opportunities. Rev. Environ. Sci. Biotechnol. 14, 317–337. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11157-014-9352-4. Vaverková, M. D., Adamcová, D., Radziemska, M., Voběrková, S., Mazur, Z., Zloch, J., 2018. Assessment and Evaluation of Heavy Metals Removal from Landfill Leachate by Pleurotus ostreatus. Waste Biomass Valorization 9, 503–511. https://doi.org/ 10.1007/s12649-017-0015-x.

Chapter 2

Traffic Monitoring System Sehla Altaf, Sandeep Singh, PhD, and Jaipreet Kour Civil Engineering Department, Chandigarh University, Mohali, Punjab, India

Abstract Increased traffic density has resulted in more traffic jams, air pollution, and road mishaps as the world’s population grows. Traffic congestion in cities is a serious problem, particularly in developing nations. During the last decade, the global total number of cars has grown at an exponential rate. Monitoring traffic in scenarios is unquestionably a significant challenge in many communities. This is because many cities still rely on human and manual processing of this Hercules task. When manually controlling massive volumes of traffic, issues together to obtain ability, precision of control employees are frequently confronted. To combat this, various scientists have proposed many models of traffic monitoring systems. Various approaches to making the transportation system smarter, more reliable, robust have been proposed. In traffic monitoring system, traffic signals are used and road lanes are divided as per the size and weight of vehicles. Traffic monitoring system has many methods to monitor traffic by using camera on traffic junction, drone and many other traffic signals. In 21st century, time is most important thing in human life. To avoid wastage of time in traffic jams, traffic monitoring proves to be very efficient. For traffic monitoring, in situ approaches and in vehicle technology are used, however image processing techniques out perform these traditional methods.

Keywords: traffic density, traffic monitoring system, traffic congestion In: Advances in Sustainable Materials and Technology Editors: Abhishek Kanoungo, Sandeep Singh, Shristi Kanoungo et al. ISBN: 978-1-68507-967-3 © 2022 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

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1. Introduction Traffic jams, air pollution and the number of road mishaps have increased as the number of vehicles traveling on the roads has grown exponentially with the growth of the world’s population. During the last decade the global total number of cars has grown at an exponential rate. Traffic jams are a daily problem in large cities. Recurring and nonrecurring traffic congestion is the two main types of traffic congestion. A significant increase in traffic volume can be caused by repeated traffic congestion and non-recurring impacts that occur repeatedly in the same place at the same time. Because it necessitates real-time traffic information and estimation, as well as proper traffic management activities, recognizing recurring congestion are more challenging than detecting recurring congestion. Traffic congestion is, without a doubt, a waste of money. The following are some of the most common causes of traffic congestion: 1. There are too many cars on the road due to a lack of public transportation choices or other factors. 2. Obstacles on the road cause congestion and confluence. 3. Inadequate green or red lights. 4. Too many trucks on the road. 5. Poor weather condition. 6. Delayed removal of the vehicle that collided. According to some estimates, 50% of all accidents can be avoided if drivers are aware of potentially harmful situation actions 0.5 seconds before they occur. Drivers will be able to prevent secondary incidents if they are made aware of previous events. Some studies on collision avoidance at intersections have been conducted for this purpose. Multiple video cameras are used, with one facing inbound traffic and the other watching vehicles waiting to turn inside the crossroad. So, this is one of the significant advantages of traffic monitoring system by which accident at crossroads is prevented. Traffic monitoring system includes various video sensors for pedestrians and bike detection this may initiate traffic a lot safer and more efficient. Also, we can distinguish between pedestrians and cyclists with sufficient reliability. Another benefit of video detection is that it could be used for overall traffic monitoring. With the help of traffic monitoring system, overall situation during night hours is recorded. The expansion of smart cities and many efficient intelligent transportation systems relies heavily on real-time traffic

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monitoring technologies. A smart city requires a traffic monitoring system to detect, analyze, and integrate real-time traffic data. The essential performance characteristics are the precision and obtain ability of reported data, as well as the spatial dispersion of traffic sensors. Traffic Monitoring System: A traffic monitoring system for highways is a systematic technique for collecting, evaluating, summarizing, and maintaining highway-related person and vehicular traffic data, including public transportation on public highways and streets. A traffic monitoring system must cover traffic congestion, accident detection, vehicle identification/detection, automatic vehicle directing, smart signaling, forensics, traffic density, safe pedestrian movement, emergency vehicle transit, and other issues.

2. Literature Review In developing countries like India, where road network and infrastructure aren’t up to par, traffic congestion is a major issue. Intelligent transportation systems are predicted to require more dynamic ways to perceive and solve traffic challenges as the internet of things (IOT) era and smart cities become more prevalent. A smart traffic management system includes traffic monitoring as a standard feature. System life, weather conditions, and a few traffic data are all important factors to consider while developing a traffic surveillance system. Many methods for detecting and classifying cars have been created by researchers. Various treatments have been discovered to alleviate the congestion. To prevent accidents and improve road safety, a number of algorithms have been created to study and model driving behavior. Vehicle detectors including piezoelectric sensors and inductive loops, ultrasonic sensors, infrared sensors and sound sensors, acoustic sensors, video/image processing techniques, R.F based detectors, fuzzy logic systems, and cloud computing and IOT systems can all be utilized to evaluate traffic density. Researchers have proposed Iota-based traffic monitoring and accident detection systems. The system collects traffic data and generates the traffic information required to address issues such as traffic congestion and accidents on the road. Researchers have developed a cloud-based smart parking system that maintains parking spaces using narrow band IoT. In their study of traffic photographs at intersections, Kamijo et al., (2000) employed a spatiotemporal Markov random field to examine traffic pictures at crossings (MRF). It simulates a tracking problem by calculating the state of each pixel in an image

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and how it transits along both the horizontal and vertical axes for pictures as well as time. By analyzing monocular image sequences from pole-mounted video cameras, it splits and tracks obstructed autos in real time with a high rate of success, real-time vision system was proposed by Messelodi et al., (2005).Their experiment demonstrated reliable, real-time vehicle detection, tracking, and categorization over a period of time. Several hours of video were recorded in a variety of lighting conditions. To give particulars on directional traffic counts at crossings, Lee and Baik (2006) created a video-based vehicle tracking system. The hours were entered into a computer programme to construct an origin-destination trip table, which was useful for traffic impact studies and transportation planning. Aycard et al., (2011) presented an intersection safety strategy created as part of the European project INTERSAFE-2. Perception and threat assessment actions using on-board Lidar are part of a holistic safety solution. In addition, stereovision sensors were provided, and the findings were shown to be enhanced. Wang et al., (2015) proposed an approach based on simple feature point tracking, grouping, and association for real-time multi-vehicle monitoring and counting utilizing a fisheye camera. The data was transferred using motion similarity and neighbor-weighted grafting. Long and short point trajectories have different motion knowledge. Jodoin et al., (2016) proposed a tracking system to track a variety of participants of road traffic varying sizes and shapes. The road users were fragmented, separated and then merged using a finite state machine to rectify and improve the resulting object trajectories. This tracker performed admirably in a series of urban intersection recordings. In order to accurately classify vehicles, Liu et al., (2016) used a probabilistic classification technique followed by object segment refinement. Both classifications and segmentation from aerial LiDAR images and data were done with co registered aerial RGB. Low-resolution footage was used due to the employment of several cameras, diverse camera setup locations, low-resolution footage, insufficient tunnel illumination, and reflected lights on the tunnel walls... Vehicle detection in the tunnel was introduced by Huang et al., (2017), which is a difficult problem. The tunnel’s wall Background subtraction and Deep Learning were used to develop the proposed technique. The Belief Network (DBN) has a three-layered design. For vehicle identification and type detection, Tang et al., (2017) present a static image-based solution. This method was really practical and immediately

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useful. To discover the car over the input image, Hear-like features and AdaBoost algorithms were utilized to extract features and develop classifiers. The Gabor wavelet is then utilized to extract multistage and local binary patterns, as well as vehicle attributes that may be employed in several directions, using a transform and a local binary pattern operator. Video surveillance systems were employed by Ukani et al., (2017) to detect and classify automobiles in real time. The backdrop was subtracted from each detected vehicle’s SIFT features (Scale-Invariant Feature Transform). A neural network and a Support Vector Machine were used to classify the cars (SVM). SVM outperformed artificial neural networks in terms of generalization. Evans V. Roberts Jr. – This invention is related with traffic monitoring system using a Communications provide for traffic information through publicly switched telephone network (PSTN). Security cameras were used to determine traffic density using MATLAB, a traffic controller, and a wireless transmitter to transfer images utilizing the photographs of each segment, according to Osman et al., In this approach, fixed thresholds were used, which were depending on the number of cars on the route. An algorithm was used to determine the time duration for a red light for a specific lane at the intersection, which was determined by traffic density on the road and sent to the microcontroller and subsequently to the server. With the help of a telecommunication system, we may monitor the vehicle’s traffic flow in this invention. It can also be used to monitor traffic laws automatically and make decisions about traffic offences without the need for a human input. Also, provide information about law enforcement and unusual road events. Isaac Weissman – In this idea, traffic is monitored on a broad scale utilizing microwave radar across many sections of roadway/highway from an elevated position. Brook Lang – This invention relates to traffic monitoring systems, and more specifically to systems that offer real-time, detailed information on traffic congestion. Lapidot et al., – Traffic monitoring system monitors all users’ traffic. With the use of mobile phones, a population with a variety of mobile communication devices may communicate on the basis of the communication network and operating traffic characterizing parameter information about the location. Mark Finnern – This innovation is based on determining the vehicle speed between two locations, starting from a starting point and ending at a

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destination, by monitoring vehicle speed using wireless devices and calculating average speed. Luciani – This method of traffic monitoring focuses on determining the intensity and congestion of traffic on roads. The steps in this technique are to determine the geographical positions of a plurality of mobile devices at least twice, with a defined time interval between each determination. This system is designed to monitor short-range traffic.

3. Methodology One of the following methods can be used to create an optimum traffic monitoring system: 1. Insite traffic detector technologies. 2. VSNs or probing vehicles (PVs), such as taxis and buses, and floating cars (FCs), such as petrol cars, are used for surveillance. 3. Image or video processing. In Site Technologies: In site traffic detector technologies are further split into two categories: intrusive and non-intrusive. Detectors are physically installed at or below the road surface in intrusive technologies, with the possibility of traffic harm during installation. Embedded magnetometers, pneumatic tube detectors, inductive detector loops, and Weigh-in-Motion (WIM) devices are examples of these. Detectors are installed at or above the road surface in a non-intrusive manner that causes minor or no traffic disturbance. Nonintrusive technology includes manual procedures, video data collecting, passive and active infrared detectors, and so on. Nonintrusive technologies include microwave radar detectors, ultrasonic detectors, passive acoustic detectors, laser detectors, and aerial photography. Image and Video Processing: Video surveillance and image processing have been extensively used in traffic management for a number of traffic difficulties. Classification can also be done using traffic density estimation and vehicle video surveillance systems. Using live video feeds from traffic cameras, video and image processing is used to calculate traffic in real time. It may be used to turn on and off traffic lights effectively. This results in less traffic congestion based on the route’s automobile density. As a result, there are fewer road accidents. It protects individuals while reducing fuel usage and waiting times. It will also supply essential data for road planning and analysis

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in the future. Multiple traffic lights can be synced with one another in later stages. The movement of traffic is unimpeded, some of the most challenging and well-researched image or video applications. Video processing includes things like traveler information, ramp metering, and traffic monitoring. Vehicle identification, automatic vehicle steering, accidents, and smart signaling are all terms that can be used to describe a vehicle. Cation/detection, forensics, traffic density, pedestrian safety, and so on are some of the topics covered. Although invasive detectors or sensors have been utilized in the past, they have recently become popular in traffic implementation because of their quick response time and lower cost. Their control and monitoring capabilities, as well as their installation, operation, and maintenance capabilities Wide regions, on the other hand, have additional problems, such as the necessity to dig up since it is on the road, which makes installation more expensive. In comparison to other traffic monitoring systems, it also gives a limited amount of data. Another method for determining a vehicle’s speed is to use a radar gun, however this method provides less traffic information. Despite the fact that the pressure tubes are reliable, they only provide a limited amount of traffic data.

Conclusion Every invention and research article offers new knowledge and suggestions for resolving difficulties in the environment and among humans in order to make things easier and more straightforward. Especially in traffic system we invent things only for reducing time, economy, and most important safety for humans and environment. The article includes an assessment of existing field research and attempts to design a system that is appropriate for growing countries. The project has two aims: one is to estimate the length of cars on the road in order to maintain a smooth flow of traffic without traffic jams, and the other one is to apply priority-based signaling. This will help to prioritize emergency vehicles such as ambulances. The microcontroller is simple to programme, enabling for the future deployment of more advanced algorithms. The sensors will be placed along the roadside and connected to the intersection controller. These are some difficult tasks that must be completed before the system can be implemented, but once it is, it will be successful. It will improve the efficiency of our transportation system and the smartness of our communities.

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Future Scope Currently, these systems offer a modest solution, but their success rate in full operation is low. Inductive loop detectors installed beneath the road stops when the road is in bad state. Where they are not useful in real time operation, IR detector on the density trace side computation performs less effectively. Furthermore, several alternative image processing-based technologies are outperforming the current traffic control system and assisting it in becoming capable. Computer vision, one of the prime researched sciences, is critical for future technologies. The use of video and image processing techniques in traffic monitoring and analysis is becoming more common. Intelligent traffic solutions such as monitoring, autonomous vehicle navigation, road mishap detection, smart signaling, detecting and identifying the vehicles, forensics, traffic density, and car theft can all be found and used successfully. Image processing and other methods have tremendous potential.

References Aycard, O., Baig, Q., Bota, S., Nashashibi, F., Nedevschi, S., Pantiles, C., Parent, M., Resende, P. Vu, T. D. Intersection safetyusing lidar and stereo vision sensors. In: 2011 IEEE Intelligent Vehicles Symposium (IV), pp. 863-869. IEEE (2011). Biswas, S. P., Roy P., Patra N., Mukherjee A., Dey N. (2016) Intelligent Traffic Monitoring System. In: Satapathy S., Raju K., Mandal J., Bhateja V. (eds) Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Computer and Communication Technologies. Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing, Vol 380 Springer, New Delhi. Blessy, A., Devi, Reeona. An automatic traffic light management using vehicle sensor and GSM model. Int. J. Sci. Eng. Res. 4(6), 2354-2358 (2013). Chakraborty, S., Pal, A. K., Dey, N., Das, D., Acharjee, and S. Foliage Area Computation using Monarch Butterfly Algorithm. In: 2014 International Conference on Non ConventionalEnergy (ICONCE 2014), JIS college of Engineering, Kalyani, January 16-17, 2014. [IEEE Xplore]. Chakraborty, S., Samanta, S., Mukherjee, A., Dey, N., Chaudhuri, and S. S. Particle Swarm Optimization Based Parameter Optimization Technique in Medical Information Hiding. In: 2013. Cyrille, B., Antoine, D., Sylvain, L., Damien, O. Road traffic management based on antsystem and regulationmethod (2006). Day, N., Samanta, S., Chakraborty, S., Das, A., Chaudhuri, S. S. Suri, and J. S. Firefly algorithm for optimization of scaling factors during embedding of manifold medical information: an application in ophthalmology imaging. J. Med. Imaging Health Inform. (Impact Factor: 0.623) (Science Citation Index Expanded (SciSearch), Scopus).

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Dey, N., Chakraborty, S., Samanta, S. Optimization of watermarking in biomedical signal. Lambert Publication, Heinrich-Böcking-Straße 6, 66121 Saarbrücken, and ISBN13:978-3-659-46460-7. Dey, N., Samanta, S., Yang, X. S., Chaudhri, S. S., Das, and A. Optimisation of scaling factors in electrocardiogram signal watermarking using cuckoo search. Int. J. BioInspired Comput. (IJBIC) 5(5), 315-326 (2013) (Impact Factor: 1.681) (Science Citation Index, Scopus). Gambardella, L. M. Ant colony optimization for ad-hoc networks. In: The first MICS workshop on routing for Mobile Ad-Hoc Networks, Zurich, 13 Feb 2003. Hussain, R., Sharma, S., Sharma, V., Sharma, S. WSN applications: automated intelligent traffic control system using sensors. Int. J. Soft Comput. Eng. 3(3), 77-81 (2013) Jain, N. K., Saini R. K., Mittal P. (2019) A Review on Traffic Monitoring System Techniques. In: Ray K., Sharma T., Rawat S., Saini R., Bandyopadhyay A. (eds) Soft Computing: Theories and Applications. Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing, Vol 742 Springer, Singapore. Kafi, A. M., Challal, Y., Djenouri, D., Bouabdallah, A., Khelladi, L., Badache, and N. Astudy of wireless sensor network architectures and projects for traffic light monitoring. In: International Conference on Ambient Systems, Networks and Technologies, pp. 543-552, 28 Aug 2012. Kale, S. B., Dhok, G. P. Design of intelligent ambulance and traffic control. Int. J. Comput. Electron. Res. 2(2) 2013. Kamijo, S., Matsushita, Y., Ikeuchi, K., Sakauchi, and M. Traffic monitoring and accident detection at intersections. IEEE Trans. Intell. Transp. Syst. 1(2), 108-118 (2000). Kilger, M. “A shadow handler in a video-based real-time traffic monitoring system,” in Proceedings IEEE Workshop on Applications of Computer Vision, Palm Springs, CA, USA. doi: https://10.1109/ACV.1992.240332. Leduc, G. Road traffic data: collection methods and applications. Working papers on energy, transport and climate change, vol. 1, p. 55 (2008). Lee, S. M., Baik, H. Origin-destination (OD) trip table estimation using traffic movement counts from vehicle tracking system at intersection. In: IECON 2006-32nd Annual Conference on IEEE Industrial Electronics, pp. 3332-3337. IEEE (2006) A Review on Traffic Monitoring System Techniques 577. Malik, T., Yi, S., Hongchi, S. Adaptive traffic light control with wireless sensor networks. In: Proceedings of IEEE Consumer Communications and Networking Conference, pp. 187-191, 2007/1. Messelodi, S., Modena, C. M., Zanin, and M. A computer vision system for the detection and classification of vehicles at urban road intersections. Pattern Anal. Appl. 8(1-2), 17-31 (2005). Nadeem, T., S. Dashtinezhad, Chunyuan Liao and L. Iftode, “TrafficView: a scalable traffic monitoring system,” IEEE International Conference on Mobile Data Management, 2004 Proceedings. 2004, pp. 13-26, doi: https://10.1109/MDM.2004.1263039. Nellore, K., Hancke, G. P. A survey on urban traffic management system using wireless sensor networks.Sensors 16(2), 157 (2016).

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Ozkurt, C., Camci, F. Automatic traffic density estimation and vehicle classification for trafficsurveillancesystemsusing neural network. Math. Computer. Appl. 14(3), 187196 (2009)544. Putra, A. S. and H. L. H. S. Warnars, “Intelligent Traffic Monitoring System (ITMS) for Smart City Based on IoT Monitoring,” 2018 Indonesian Association for Pattern Recognition International Conference (INAPR), 2018, pp. 161-165, doi: https://10. 1109/INAPR.2018.8626855. Samanta, S., Chakraborty, S., Acharjee, S., Mukherjee, A., Dey, N. Solving 0/1 Knapsack Problem using Ant Weight Lifting Algorithm. In: 2013 IEEE International Conference on Computational Intelligence and Computing Research (ICCIC), Madurai, and Dec 26-282013 [IEEE Xplore]. Samanta, S., Charge, S., Mukherjee, A., Das, D., Dey, D. Ant Weight Lifting Algorithm for Image Segmentation, 2013 IEEE International Conference on Computational Intelligence and Computing Research(ICCIC), Madurai, Dec 26-28 2013 [IEEE Xplore]. Sinhmar, P. A. Intelligent traffic light and density control using IR sensors and microcontroller. Int. J. Adv. Technol. Eng. Res. 2(2), 30-35 (2012). Srivastava, M. D., Prerna, Sachin, S., Sharma, S., Tyagi, U. Smart traffic control system usingPLC and SCADA. Int. J. Innov. Sci. Eng. Technol. 1(2), Dec 2012. Ukani, V., Garg, S., Patel, C., Tank, and H. Efficient vehicle detection and classification for traffic surveillance system. In: International Conference on Advances in Computing and Data Sciences, pp. 495-503. Springer (2016). Van Daniker, M. Visualizing real time and archived traffic incident data. In: Proceedings of the 10th IEEE International Conference on Information Reuse and Integration, pp. 206-211. IEEE. Wang, W., Gee, T., Price, J., Qi, and H. Real time multi-vehicle tracking and counting at intersections from a fish eye camera. In: 2015 IEEE Winter Conference on Applications of ComputerVision (WACV), pp. 17-24. IEEE (2015). Yousef, K. M., Al-Karaki, J. N., Shatnawi, A. M. Intelligent traffic light flow control system using wireless sensors networks (2010). Zhou, B., Cao, J., Zeng, X., Wu, H. Adaptive traffic light control in wireless sensor network-based intelligent transportation MATLAB. In: Vehicular Technology Conference Fall, IEEE 72nd, pp. 1-5, 6 Sept 2010.

Chapter 3

Plastic Waste in Pavement Vishav Gupta, Navee Sharma, Rajat Sagoch and Amit Department of Civil Engineering, Chandigarh University, Punab, India

Abstract In India, disposing of plastic garbage is a huge problem. Because waste plastic is non-biodegradable, disposing of it is a huge issue. The burning of these wastes pollutes the ecosystem, posing a serious hazard to the ecology. Burning polymers such as polythene, rubber tyres, and other similar materials releases a chemical that is detrimental to human health. Plastic may be shredded and utilised as a bitumen binder material.

Keywords: bituminous concrete, plastic waste, rubber tyre, plastic bottles

1. Introduction The usage of plastic is widespread in India. Plastic is employed in almost every consumer product. Because plastic is non-biodegradable, disposal is a major concern. Every year, thousands of tonnes of plastic are collected. Burning plastic garbage is a viable option for disposing of plastic waste, but it produces pollution that is unavoidable. Plastic cannot be buried because it erodes the soil and releases hazardous toxins. Disposing of plastic in the sea poses a threat to marine life. As a result, plastics should be reused and recycled wherever 

Corresponding Author’s Email: [email protected].

In: Advances in Sustainable Materials and Technology Editors: Abhishek Kanoungo, Sandeep Singh, Shristi Kanoungo et al. ISBN: 978-1-68507-967-3 © 2022 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

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possible. Plastics may be recycled in a variety of ways. Using plastic debris in the pavement can help to create a more environmentally friendly environment and minimise pollution. It can also prolong the life of the pavement. Plastic is shredded, then heated and combined with bitumen that strengthens or increases its binding capacity.

2. Review of Literature The usage of rubber and plastic waste on the road can help to tackle the problem of pollution. The use of plastic waste and rubber in a modified binder raises the softening point and reduces penetration [1]. According to [2] incorporating plastic waste in bitumen reduces bitumen demand by around 6%. Plastic trash lowers the cost of bitumen binder and reduces the amount of bitumen binder required. When modified bitumen is used in the wet process, the temperature should be monitored and blended to prevent separation, while in the dry process, plastic waste is coated over aggregate to improve bitumen binding, which reduces rutting and allows the road to withstand heavy traffic. [4] investigated the performance of concrete mixes prepared by replacement of natural aggregates with 0%, 25% and 50% recycled concrete aggregates (RCA). Mechanical properties such as compressive strength, tensile strength, flexural strength and durability characteristics such as drying shrinkage, chloride ion permeability, water absorption, and sorptivity were determined as part of performance study of concrete mixes. All the samples were tested after curing period of 7, 28, 56, and 91 days. [3] found that employing plastic trash results in the disposal of a big volume of garbage as well as a reduction in cement use. Although all types of plastic trash cannot be utilised in building, recycling garbage can be used to replace a portion of cement. [5] conducted the laboratory study to investigate the usability of C & D waste in base and subbase courses of pavement. Waste materials were separated and passed through a crusher and 25mm sieve. California bearing ratio (CBR) tests and resilient modulus tests were conducted on two different prepared mixes for subbase and base after the characterization of waste aggregates. According to [6] plastic in bitumen can aid when the temperature is high and humid, which causes potholes, and when the temperature is over 50 degrees Celsius. Bitumen with shredded plastic waste is more durable than

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regular bitumen. The use of plastic binding increases the strength and longevity of the document. Although the cost of building a plastic road is high, it will save money in the long run by reducing maintenance costs, resulting in an environmentally friendly road. According to [7] employing 5-10% plastic waste by weight of bitumen improves strength and Marshall stability. Binders such as bitumen benefit from the binding capabilities of plastic. In this test, it was discovered that 1% to 2% of the aggregate was coated with plastics, which provided us good results in the impact value test and other tests. According to [8], plastic increases the melting point of bitumen, and this technique not only reinforces the road, but it also extends its life.

Conclusion After reviewing several articles, we came to the conclusion that using plastic trash is highly beneficial, since it boosts the binding capabilities, strength, and other properties of bitumen, extending the pavement’s life. It also lowers the bitumen content, which saves money. It also contributes to environmental preservation by eliminating plastic trash.

References [1]

[2]

[3] [4]

[5]

Gurpreet Singh, Dr. Rajiv Chauhan (2020), Experimental study on the behaviour of modified bituminous concrete mix developed using plastic waste and scrapped rubber tyre. International Journal of Advanced Science and Technology, Vol. 29 No. 06. Aditya Raut, Prof. Sagar W. Dhengare, Prof. Ajay L. Dandge, Prof. Harshal R. Nikhade (2016), Utilization of Waste Plastic Materials in Road Construction. Journal of Advance Research in Mechanical & Civil, vol. 3, no. 3, pp. 01–12. S. K. Khanna, C. E. G. Justo and A. Veeraragavan, “Highway Engineering,” 2014 edition. Guidelines for the Use of Waste Plastic in Hot Bituminous Mixes (Dry Process) in Wearing Courses (IRC: SP:98-2013). Indian Road Congress, New Delhi. Anonymous, 1992. IS Indian standard paving bitumen. Shubham Bansal, Anil Kumar Misra, Purnima Bajpai (2017). Evaluation of modified bituminous concrete mix developed using rubber and plastic waste materials, International Journal of Sustainable Built Environment, vol. 6, no. 2, pp. 442–48.

26 [6]

[7]

[8]

Vishav Gupta, Navee Sharma, Rajat Sagoch et al. Bhavin Kashiyani, Prof. Jayeshkumar Pitroda, Dr F. S. Umrigar, Plastic Waste: Opportunities for Eco-Friendly Material of Bituminous Road Construction. Conference: Proceedings of National Conference CRDCE13, 20-21 December 2013, SVIT, Vasad. Amit Gawande, G. S. Zaire, V. C. Range G. R. Bharsakalea and SaurabhTayde (2012). Utilization of waste plastic in asphalt of roads, Scientific Reviews and Chemical Communication, 2(2), 147-157. Dr. S. S. Verma, Road from Plastic state. ScienceTech Entrepreneur, March 2008 Gianni A. K. Mode, A. J., Bio Enzymatic Soil Stabilizers for Construction of Rural Roads‖, International Seminar on Sustainable Development in Road Transport, New Delhi, India, 8-10 November 2001.

Chapter 4

A Review on Performance Analysis of Asphalt Concrete with Steel Slag Nabin Kumar Yadav, Sagar Chhetri and Biki Niraj Chandigarh University, Chandigarh, Mohali, Punjab, India

Abstract Various kinds of construction materials are used for the construction of the road that is gained from natural sources. The burden created in the natural resources can be reduced by the utilization of different waste materials in the construction industries. Steel and iron industries produce a huge amount of steel slag as solid waste. There is much attention to the steel slag due to its application in the construction field. Steel slag can be utilized as a substitute for the aggregates. There is a large number of applications of the steel slag in the construction of the road. In this paper, the review of the asphalt concrete performance along with the steel slag is done. The various properties like the physical and chemical properties of the steel slag are analyzed during the asphalt mix stabilization. Special cautions are required to be followed to avoid undesirable performance changes. In this paper, the review of the moisture damage, the resistance of skid on the surface, rutting as well as fatigue is done.

Keywords: steel slag, mix design, asphalt mix



Corresponding Author’s Email: [email protected].

In: Advances in Sustainable Materials and Technology Editors: Abhishek Kanoungo, Sandeep Singh, Shristi Kanoungo et al. ISBN: 978-1-68507-967-3 © 2022 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

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Nabin Kumar Yadav, Sagar Chhetri and Biki Niraj

1. Introduction There is the use of a large number of construction materials in the construction of the road which is obtained primarily from natural resources. Aggregate is a major construction material that is utilized for road construction. There is an increase in the consumption of the aggregates with the incensement in the road construction. (Kumar and Varma 2021). There is the problem of storage for the industrial bioproducts which ultimately leads to pollution of the environment. For the consumption of the industrial by-products, construction industries have been a major place of consumption. Slag is the major byproduct of the steel and iron industry. They are classified as steel-making slag and blast furnace slag. During the process of reduction of the iron ore to pig iron, blast furnace slag are produced similarly steel slag are generated during the steel making process. The chemical composition of the slag produced by the steel-making process varies depending on the types of steel-making process being used. (Al-Negheimish, Al-Sugair, and Al-Zaid 1997). “Steel slag aggregate being the steel-making factories’ by-product have an exceptional property like higher resistance to abrasion and higher angularity. The main issue being faced is the potential of swelling of this material having the chemical composition of magnesium and free lime. It can be controlled by weathering during the stage of processing.” (Fakhri and Ahmadi 2017). “Using of steel slag contributes largely to green technology with the prevention of the natural ecosystem by decreasing the amount of dumped waste along with conventional aggregate consumption for the production of asphalt mix. The steel slag rich in magnesium oxide and free lime has a high tendency of expansion during the humid atmosphere So appropriate slag should be used. (Oluwasola, Hainin, and Aziz 2015). “The performance of the pavement is directly influenced by the property of aggregates that are used in the mixture of asphalt. There should have enough resistance of the aggregates that are being used for the asphalt mix for bearing the process of production, construction, transportation as well as the effect of climate and traffic load. There is the recommendation of using angular and rough surface aggregate during the design of asphalt mixture. (Chen and Wei 2016). There is the occurrence of cracking and rutting in pavement element structure. One of the most common forms of distress is the rutting in the asphalt concrete pavement. There is the occurrence of rutting on the rutting due to traffic volume load which is indicated by the rut depth along the path of the wheel. There is the occurrence of fatigue cracking from the tensile strain that is developed on the bottom of the asphalt pavement.” (Hasita et al., 2020).

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2. Literature Review In this paper, the evaluation of the feasibility of using steel slag for replacement of natural limestone were done in the asphalt concrete at the various size of aggregates. The steel slag and limestone performance in asphalt concrete were compared in this paper. The preparation of mix proportion was done by the separation of each original aggregates into 4 bins i.e., < 4.75 mm, < 12.50 mm, < 19mm, and < 25 mm with their trial mixing. There was the preparation of asphalt concrete a 4% air voids by the use of the method of marshal compaction. In this paper, they performed fatigue life, indirect tensile test, dynamic creep, resilience modulus as well as wheel tracking test. There was an improvement in the marshal stability by 50% by the use of still slag. The improvement in fatigue life, resilient modulus and rut depth resistance were 1.6, 1.4, 1.4 times higher than normal mix.” (Hasita et al., 2020). In the research work, there is the use of electric arc furnace steel slag produced locally in the manufacturing of concrete for their investigation. There were measurements of drying shrinkage as well as the mechanical properties of gravel concrete and slag. From the analysis of the result, it was found that there was a slightly higher value of flexural and compressive strength for the steel slag mix design than gravel concrete. The value of splitting tensile strength and modulus of elasticity was found to be higher with the value of drying shrinkage below the gravel concrete. It was understood that the use of steel slag as concrete aggregate having no negative effect on the properties of short term hardened concrete.” (Al-Negheimish, Al-Sugair, and Al-Zaid 1997). During this research work, the preparation of asphalt mixture with oxygen furnace steel slag was prepared and was used for laboratory testing to find out the engineering property of asphalt concrete. It was found that there was a higher resistance value to permanent deformation as well as moisture-induced damage with the addition of steel slag in the asphalt mixture. It was found that due to the angular and rough-textured particles, the interlocking was enhanced with providing good mechanical properties. From the obtained field data it was understood that steel slag could be used as surface coarse aggregates in the heavy breaking location of the pavement as well as the covering maneuvers. They did not find any rutting, cracking, or failures on the section in which steel slag had been used. From the test, it was concluded that it was appropriate for using steel slag as the substitute for coarse aggregates in pavement construction. (Chen and Wei 2016).

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Nabin Kumar Yadav, Sagar Chhetri and Biki Niraj

In this paper, the investigation of the effect of recycling coarse steel slag and fine reclaimed asphalt was done on the fracture resistance asphalt mixes. They prepared the set of specimens with and without warm mix asphalt in two levels of aging and conducted five freeze and thaw cycles. They determined the strain energy release rate and index of flexibility. They compared the obtained value with each other. The susceptibility increased by the use of steel slag aggregates. They found it beneficial in improving the fracture resistance and moisture susceptibility of the conventional asphalt mix.” (Fakhri and Ahmadi 2017). “In the study, the authors evaluated the electric arc furnace steel slag and the copper mine tailing which was used as the conventional aggregates substitute for the construction of highway and road. They investigated four mixed designs that contained CMT and EAF at different proportions. The authors evaluated moisture susceptibility, marshal stability, indirect tensile resilience modulus as well as the dynamic creep test. They found that the use of steel slag aggregates helped in improving the performance property of the asphalt mix. They found the mixture that contained 80% EAF steel slag with 20% CMT as the best result. (Oluwasola, Hainin, and Aziz 2015). The authors performed the laboratory test for investigating the sustainability of electric arc furnace steel slag as an alternative of paving material of asphalt pavement. They prepared four material mixtures of 16 mix designs. They used 80% EAF steel slag with 20% CMT for testing purposes. From the result, they came to know that CMT and EAF steel slag gave a better performance in rutting with less susceptibility to permanent deformation. While comparing it with the control mix design. They concluded that EAF steel slag and CMT was best alternative material that could be used as the substitute of natural aggregate.” (Oluwasola, Hainin, and Aziz 2016). During this research work, the authors used 6 different types of asphalt mixture which contained three types of aggregates i.e., steel slag, recycled concrete, and dacite to prepare the specimen for the Marshall test. They determined the value of optimum asphalt binder content. They also evaluated the mechanical characteristics of the mixture by the method of Marshall stability, indirect tensile fatigue tests, dynamic creep, and the indirect tensile resilience modulus. They got the optimum value for the mixture content of steel slag coarse aggregate and the recycled concrete fine aggregates.” (Arabani and Azarhoosh 2012).

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2.1. Physical Properties of Steel Slag The steel slag aggregate used shows the result of meeting the HMA requirement of aggregates specified by the Washington State Department of Transportation except for the angularity of the fine aggregates that are slightly lower than the value required. The used steel slag aggregate shows a higher value of bulk-specific density in comparison to basalt aggregate. The expansion rate is found to be 2.05% for the steel slag aggregate. The value of bulk specific gravity of coarse aggregate is 3.25, fine aggregate is 3.15 for steel slag. The water absorption value for coarse and fine steel aggregate are 2.5 and 3.7. The angularity of fine aggregate is 43.30% with 1% flat and elongation. The value of Los Angles abrasion is obtained to be 18.60%.” (Wen, Wu, and Bhusal 2016). “The value of specific gravity of coarse steel slag is 3.02 for bulk, 1 for SSD, and 3.14 for apparent similarly the value of specific gravity for fine steel slag aggregate is 3.17 for bulk, 3.19 for SSD, and 3.25 for the apparent. The Los Angeles abrasion value is found to be 20%. There is the presence of 6.1% flat elongated steel slag particles in the test. (Arabani and Azarhoosh 2012). “The value of specific gravity of steel slag coarse aggregate is found to be 3.01 and steel slag fine aggregate 3.06. The Los Angles abrasion value is found to be 14.2 for the steel slag aggregates.” (Goli, Hesami, and Ameri 2017).

2.2. Steel Slag Chemical Composition The chemical constituent of steel slag if found to be having 18.72% Sio2, 35.16% Fe2 O3, 2.75% Al2O3, 25.585 Cao 7.50% MgO, 2.09% Na2O, 1.60% TiO2, 0.13% K2O and 0.30% MnO. (Goli, Hesami, and Ameri 2017). “During the test it is obtained that the composition of lead is 26.6 mg/Kg in sample of steel slag A, similarly the composition of Antimony (Sb) is < 0.005 mg/Kg, copper 1.1 mg/Kg, cadmium 3.5 mg/Kg, tota chromium 2428.3 mg/Kg, Arsenic < 0.001 mg/Kg, selenium 100,000 mPa.s) and a density > 1.0. A light oil product typically produced from a gas well and used as a diluent for marketing bitumen products. Diluted bitumen with about 30% diluent, typically transported by pipeline. Diluted bitumen with synthetic crude and another diluent – usually condensate. Traditionally condensate but could be a variety of light hydrocarbon materials. Undiluted bitumen, if shipped by heated rail tank cars. Diluted bitumen with about 15% diluent, typically shipped by rail tank car. Bitumen diluted with synthetic crude.

1. Introduction This paper deals with products from Canada’s oil sands, the majority of which are located in Alberta. These oil sands cover an extensive area and are the third largest oil deposit in the world (RSC, 2010). The Alberta oil sands have been produced for about 50 years. More than 25 companies are now producing at more than 15 sites. There is significant variance in production methods and refining methods, therefore the bitumen produced is highly variable in properties. Bitumen is typically marketed as a refined product (Synthetic crude) or as a diluted product (Dilbit) (RSC, 2010; Strausz and Lown, 2003).

1.1. Background The objective of this chapter is to provide composition, properties and spill behaviour prediction information on three types of diluted bitumen. This is based on the published information as of now. Because of the high variability of each of the products, there is a high variability in behaviour as well. This variability becomes very important to deal with the products once spilled.

Diluted Bitumen

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Diluted bitumens can be divided into four classes dependent on the diluent (Crude Monitor, 2020): • • •

Standard Dilbit, if the diluent is a gas condensate Synbit, if the diluent is a synthetic crude, or Dilbit, diluted with a synthetic naphtha.

Synbits are sometimes modified by the addition of a gas condensate to meet the pipeline specifications and these are alternatively called Dilsynbits. The dilution of bitumen is governed by pipeline specifications which are in turn governed by pumping and pipe considerations. The most common specification for pipeline inputs is - a maximum of 940 kg/m3 (0.94 g/mL) density and 350 cP (mPa.s) viscosity (NRC, 2013; Polaris, 2013). It is important to note that the percentage of diluent can vary between winter and summer as higher temperatures in summer allow for lower amounts of diluent to maintain the same viscosity.

2. A Summary of Oil Composition and Behaviour Petroleum oils, including bitumens, are mixtures of hydrocarbon compounds ranging from smaller volatile compounds to very large non-volatile compounds (Fingas, 2012; ESTC, 2020; AOSTA, 1984; King et al., 2017; NRC, 2013; Trans Canada, 2014). This mixture of compounds varies according to the geological formation of the area in which the oil is found and it strongly influences the properties of the oil.

2.1. Bitumen The composition of the oil sands and related bitumens are dominated by unresolvable compounds (Strausz and Lown, 2003). These oils, however, can be refined into usable products. To be transported to refineries, bitumens must be diluted with condensates or with synthetic crude oils. The properties of some bitumens are given in Table 1 (ESTC, 2020).

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It is noted from Table 1, that most bitumens have a density > 1.0 g/mL and a viscosity of about 500,000 cP with the exception of Cold Lake and Lloydminster bitumen. Table 1. Bitumen properties Density Range Viscosity Range kg/m3 mPa.s (cSt) Athabasca 1006 to 1016 90,000 to 900,000 Cold Lake 977 to 1006 100,000 to 450,000 Lloydminster 980 to 1016 100,000 to 450,000 Peace River 1001 to 1006 90,000 to 900,000 (ETC - 2014, AOSTA, 1984, Strausz and Lown, 2003) Name

Sulphur % % 4.4 to 5.4 4.1 to 6.9 4.1 to 6.9 4.4 to 5.4

2.2. Condensates Condensates are liquid hydrocarbons taken from gas wells and gas production facilities. These condensates vary widely; however, in Alberta, there are several steady streams which are used as bitumen diluents as shown in Table 2 (Crude Monitor, 2020). Enbridge uses significant amounts of condensate to transport Dilbit in pipelines. Enbridge has set minimum specifications for this diluent condensate as shown in Table 3 (CAPP, 2012).

2.3. Diluted Products 2.3.1. Dilbits Dilbit, the mixture of two highly variable products, bitumen and diluent, results in very variable end products. Table 4 shows the summary properties of various Dilbits (Crude Monitor, 2020). It should be noted that these properties are similar if the diluent is straight condensate or a C4/C5 enhanced condensate. There is shortage of condensate in Western Canada to dilute bitumen (Armstrong and Brandt, 2013; KMC, 2013). This shortage will continue to rise in the future, necessitating the use of other products to dilute bitumen. One of the solutions is to use C4 (butanes) and C5 (pentanes) as a supplement to the diluent streams to produce the amount of condensate needed. This reduces

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Diluted Bitumen

the amount of condensate needed, however increases the flammability of the product when released and decreases the Dilbit stability. An increasing amount of alkanes such as C4 or C5 can cause the asphaltenes to precipitate. Currently, the amount of C4 is set to a maximum of 5% (of total oil mass) after which there is a penalty for this product. This practice is largely confined to transport over small distances. The resulting properties of the Dilbits shown in Table 4 would not change much with the addition of C4, however less diluent would be used (Crude Monitor, 2020; Strausz and Lown, 2003). Table 2. Condensates Name

Supplier

Cochin Condensate CRW Fort Saskatchewan Condensate Peace Condensate Pembina Condensate Rangeland Condensate Southern Lights Diluent (Crude Monitor, 2020)

U.S. Midwest via Ft. Sask. Enbridge Aggregate Keyera Enbridge Aggregate Pembina pipeline Plains Midstream U.S. Midwest

Density kg/m3 659

Sulphur % (%) ND

BTEX total (vol %) 1.59

734 694

0.08 0.07

3.81 2.76

762 760 781 669

0.08 0.12 0.21 0.02

4.15 6.12 6.91 1.9

Table 3. Specifications for condensates Quality parameter Density Viscosity Sulphur total Olefins Reid Vapor Pressure Aromatics (BTEX) Mercaptans & volatiles 1 1 or >1

2 days

~0.98

1/2 day

~0.98

1/2 day

~ 300 ~5,000 0.93 cSt g/mL Dilsynbit synthetic crude & gas ~ 300 ~8,000 0.93 condensate cSt g/mL * Ending properties are estimated after about 2 weeks of weathering. ** Estimated using typical weathering characteristics after a spill.

Days product is flammable**

~ 300 cSt ~ 300 cSt ~ 300 cSt

Ending Density*

Dilbit

Starting Density

Diluent

Ending Viscosity*

Diluted Product

Starting Viscosity

Table 6. Summary properties of diluted bitumens

2-3 days 1 day

It was found that when initially spilled, all three products can form entrained water mixtures in turbulent waters (Fed. Gov., 2013). After

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weathering, Dilbits are too viscous to form such products. Entrained water types would break down naturally after a few hours once the turbulence is removed. At any rate, in inland waters emulsification is rare. Table 6 was compiled from the average of the data presented in this paper to provide a summary of the properties of the products.

References AOSTA, 1984. The Thermodynamic and Transport Properties of Heavy Oils and Bitumen, AOSTA - Alberta Oil Sands Authority. Armstrong, M., and M. Brandt, 2013. Strategies for Improved Naphtha Processing, Retrieved: Nov., 2014, http://www.digitalrefining.com/article_1000881.pdf. CAPP, 2012. Quality Guidelines for Western Canadian Condensate, Presentation by Randy Segato, Suncor to CAPP, http://www.coqa-inc.org/docs/default-source/ meeting-presentations/Segato0608.pdf. Crude Monitor, 2020. http://www.crudemonitor.ca/home.php, Retrieved: Feb., 2020. ESTC (Environmental Technology Centre), 2020. World Catalogue of Oil Properties, www.ETC-CTE.ec.gc.ca, Retrieved: Feb., 2020. Fed. Gov., 2013. Properties, Composition and Marine Spill Behavior, Fate and Transport of Two Diluted Bitumen Products from the Canadian Oil Sands, Government of Canada, 2013. Fingas, M.F., 2012. The Basics of Oil Spill Cleanup: Third Edition, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 256 p. Fingas, M., 2013. “Modeling Oil and Petroleum Evaporation,” Journal of Petroleum Science Research, (JPSR) Volume 2 Issue 3, July. Fingas, M. and B. Fieldhouse, “Studies on Crude Oil and Petroleum Product Emulsions: Water Resolution and Rheology”, Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects, Vol. 333, pp. 67-81, 2009. Haus, F., O. Boissel, and G.-A. Junter, 2004. “Primary and Ultimate Biodegradabilities of Mineral- based Oils and their Relationships with Oil Viscosity”, International Biodeterioration and Biodegradation, 54: 189-192. Jokuty, P., M. Fingas, S. Whiticar, and B. Fieldhouse, 1995. “A Study of Viscosity and Interfacial Tension of Oils and Emulsions”, Manuscript Report EE-153, Environmental Protection Service, Environment Canada, Ottawa, ON, 43 p. King, T.L., J. Mason, P. Thamer, G. Wohlgeschaffen, K. Lee, and J.A.C. Clyburne, 2017. “Composition of Bitumen Blends Relevant to Ecological Impacts and Spill Response,” Proceedings of the Fortieth AMOP Technical Seminar, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Ottawa, ON, 463-475. King, T.L., B. Robinson, C. McIntyre, P. Toole, S. Ryan, F. Saleh, M.C., Boufadel, and K. Lee, 2015. “Fate of Surface Spills of Cold Lake Blend Diluted Bitumen Treated with

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Dispersant and Mineral Fines in a Wave Tank,” Environmental Engineering Science, 32 (3): 250-261. King, T.L., B. Robinson, M. Boufadel, and K. Lee, 2014. “Flume Tank Studies to Elucidate the Fate and Behavior of Diluted Bitumen Spilled at Sea,” Marine Pollution Bulletin, 83 (1): 32-37. KMC, 2013. The Diluent Market, Kinder Morgan Presentation at the Wells Fargo Fundamental Forum. NOAA, 2013. Transporting Alberta Oil Sands Products: Defining the Issues and Assessing the Risks, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Washington, D.C. 153 pp. NRC, 2013. TRB Special Report 311: Effects of Diluted Bitumen on Crude Oil Transmission Pipelines, The National Academies Press, Washington, DC. NTSB, 2012. Enbridge Incorporated, Hazardous Liquid Pipeline Rupture and Release, Marshall, Michigan, July 25, 2010, National Transportation Safety Board, Washington, D.C. Polaris, 2013. Comparison of the Properties of Diluted Bitumen Crudes with Other Oils, Polaris Consultants for Kinder Morgan. RSC, 2010. Environmental Impact of Canada’s Oil Sands Industry, Royal Society of Canada Expert Panel, Ottawa, ON, 440 pp. Strausz, O.P. and E.M. Lown, 2003. The Chemistry of Alberta Oil Sands, Bitumen and Heavy Oil, Alberta Energy Research Institute, Calgary, Alberta, 695 pp. Trans Canada, 2014. Energy East Pipeline Project Volume 6: Accidents and Malfunctions, Trans Canada Pipelines, Calgary, Alberta, 48 pp. Witt O’Briens, 2013. Dilbit Fate and Behavior, Report of the Gainford Trials, Witt O’Briens for Kinder Morgan Canada, Burnaby, BC.

Editors’ Contact Information Dr. Abhishek Kanoungo, PhD Chitkara School of Engineering & Technology, Chitkara University, Himachal Pradesh, India Email: [email protected].

Dr. Sandeep Singh, PhD Chandigarh University, Mohali, India Email: [email protected].

Shristi Kanoungo Research Scholar, Punjab Engineering College, Chandigarh, India Email: [email protected].

Dr. Ajay Goyal, PhD Chitkara School of Engineering & Technology, Chitkara University Himachal Pradesh, India Email: [email protected].

Index

A abrasion test, 38, 46 adhesion, 34, 35, 126, 180, 185 admixture for concrete, 67 aggregate impact value test, 38 aggregate testing, 37 aromatics, 119, 120, 121, 183, 184 asphalt mix, 27, 28, 29, 30, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 47, 48 assessment, 19, 40, 44, 47, 53, 56, 63, 64, 92, 128, 162

B benefits, 9, 50, 54, 55, 56, 144, 152, 156 biodegradable materials, 39 biodegradation, 180, 184 bitumen, vi, 23, 24, 25, 41, 44, 45, 47, 99, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 121, 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 130, 133, 135, 138, 139, 140, 142, 143, 144, 145, 146, 148, 150, 151, 152, 154, 156, 159, 160, 161, 163, 166, 167, 168, 169, 171, 172, 173, 174, 176, 177, 178, 179, 180, 181, 183, 184, 185, 191, 192, 194, 195 bitumen in situ catalytic upgrading, 116 bituminous concrete, 23, 25, 40 bituminous concrete pavements, 40 building code, 51, 56, 62 building demolition, 40 burn, 69, 83, 182, 191

C C&D waste, 37, 39, 40, 45, 46, 48

carbon dioxide, 51, 116, 125, 133, 134, 137, 143, 154, 167 catalyst deactivation, 157, 160, 161 challenge(s), 11, 13, 15, 37, 40, 50, 53, 54, 55, 56, 62, 63, 64, 82, 103, 111, 132, 136, 141, 143, 147, 160 chemical properties, 27, 126, 150, 180, 181 chemical(s), 3, 23, 27, 28, 31, 35, 67, 68, 72, 76, 103, 110, 112, 116, 125, 126, 128, 129, 131, 132, 133, 137, 150, 156, 163, 166, 179, 180, 181 cleanup, 177, 182, 191 climate change, vi, 10, 21, 85, 86, 99, 134, 135, 194 combustion, 1, 2, 10, 122, 128, 138, 145, 147, 152, 154, 157, 159, 160, 163, 164, 166, 167 compaction, 29, 32, 43, 45, 86, 87, 88, 89 compounds, 103, 121, 122, 173, 179, 180, 183, 184, 185 concrete structures, 101, 102, 103, 105, 109, 111, 112 concrete structures and their service lives, 103 construction, vii, 27, 28, 29, 30, 34, 37, 38, 39, 40, 42, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 61, 62, 63, 64, 86, 97, 101, 102, 103, 105, 110 construction and demolition waste, 37, 38, 39, 42, 45, 47 construction industry, v, vii, 34, 49, 50, 52, 54, 55, 57, 59, 63, 64, 112 construction materials, vii, 27, 28, 101 contamination, 1, 3, 4, 6, 11, 132

200 core soil, vi, 85, 86, 88, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 99 corrosion, 102, 105, 135, 137 corrosion in reinforced steel, 102 cracking in concrete structures, 103 crude oil, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120, 121, 124, 131, 133, 134, 135, 136, 139, 140, 146, 157, 161, 163, 164, 165, 171, 173, 176, 178, 179, 191 crushing value test, 38, 46

D dam, 85, 86, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 95, 96, 97, 99 deformation, 29, 30, 33 degradation, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 47, 86, 98, 101, 102, 104, 107, 109, 116, 129, 184 deposits, 115, 116, 118, 128, 157, 178 desiccation, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 97, 98, 99 destruction, 40, 41, 42, 44 detection, 14, 15, 16, 19, 20, 21, 22 determining the strength of concrete on nano-scale, 107 dilbit(s), 171, 172, 173, 174, 175, 176, 177, 178, 179, 180, 181, 182, 183, 185, 186, 187, 188, 189, 190, 191, 192, 193, 194, 195 diluent, 156, 171, 172, 173, 174, 176, 183, 185 diluted bitumen, vi, 171, 172, 173, 180, 185, 191, 192, 193, 194, 195 dispersion, 15, 131, 136, 144, 160, 180, 183 displacement, 34, 129, 133, 134, 135, 136, 139, 142, 146, 152, 165, 168 distillation, 138, 140, 177, 179 drainage, 128, 136, 143, 147, 152, 162, 163, 166 drought, vi, 85, 86, 87, 88, 97, 98 drying, 24, 29, 85, 87, 88, 95 dumping, 2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 11, 45

Index durability, 24, 83, 84, 101, 102, 104, 105, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 184 durability of concrete, 102, 109, 112 durability of concrete structures, 109 durability requirements, 101

E ecology, 23, 53, 127 ecosystem, 23, 28, 51 electrical conductivity, 150, 151, 153 emission, 9, 51, 52, 154, 156 emulsions, 131, 181, 182, 184, 190, 191 energy, vii, 2, 5, 6, 9, 11, 21, 30, 39, 40, 51, 52, 53, 60, 62, 64, 69, 89, 115, 127, 137, 138, 140, 143, 144, 148, 151, 154, 159, 160, 161, 182, 183, 184 energy consumption, 51, 62, 127, 144, 151 energy efficiency, 51, 127 energy recovery, 5, 39 enhanced oil recovery, 117, 136, 166, 168 environmental aspects, 55, 61 environmental factors, 83, 102 environmental impact, vii, 8, 40, 60, 127, 146, 154 environmental sustainability, 51, 55 environment(s), vii, 1, 9, 19, 24, 28, 34, 35, 37, 38, 47, 50, 51, 53, 56, 60, 62, 68, 70, 111, 125, 159, 179, 180, 184 erosion, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 97, 98, 99, 100 evaporation, 116, 145, 177, 180, 181, 182, 183, 186, 189, 190 exposure, 111, 178, 185, 193 extraction, 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 134, 138, 143, 161, 168, 169

F field trials, 132, 133, 137, 155 filtration, 99, 128 flammability, 175, 189, 190, 191, 193 flooding, 88, 117, 128, 129, 131, 132, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 138, 139, 140, 141, 142, 145, 146, 162, 163, 165, 166, 167

201

Index floods, 85, 88 flowability, 67, 70, 72, 73, 74, 75, 80, 82, 83, 111 flue gas, 147 fluid, 41, 73, 124, 129, 133, 134, 135, 136, 138, 152 formation, 86, 87, 97, 105, 115, 122, 128, 129, 131, 132, 133, 134, 136, 137, 138, 140, 141, 142, 143, 144, 145, 146, 148, 150, 151, 154, 156, 160, 173, 180, 181, 182, 185 fracture resistance, 30 fractures, 141, 145

159, 160, 161, 162, 163, 164, 165, 166, 167, 168, 169, 178, 192 heavy oil recovery techniques, 116, 161 heterogeneity, 129, 134, 135, 143, 145, 154 highway pavement, 40 highways, 15 hole erosion, 86, 89, 97, 98, 99 humidity, 87, 98 hydrocarbons, 116, 117, 119, 122, 124, 134, 136, 145, 147, 152, 160, 174, 184 hydrogen, 76, 116, 119, 137, 152, 156, 157, 159, 164, 165

I G garbage, 10, 23, 24 geology, 128, 131, 132 geotechnical properties, 2, 47 global scale, 54 global warming, 6, 9, 99 gravity, 31, 115, 116, 118, 123, 128, 134, 135, 136, 139, 140, 141, 142, 143, 144, 147, 152, 157, 158, 159, 162, 163, 166, 178 greenhouse gas emissions, 51, 144 greenhouse gas(es) (GHG), 1, 3, 9, 51, 102, 127, 129, 135, 144 groundwater, 88 growth, 6, 14, 54, 104, 137 growth rate, 137 guidelines, 42, 85, 93, 94, 97, 98

impact assessment, 10 impurities, 122, 156, 157, 162 India, 1, 2, 6, 9, 11, 13, 15, 23, 26, 27, 35, 37, 38, 39, 46, 101, 197 industries, 27, 28 industry, vii, 28, 34, 40, 49, 50, 51, 52, 54, 55, 57, 59, 63, 64, 103, 115, 137, 156, 178 influencing the durability, 101, 109 infrastructure, 15, 39, 49, 54, 63 inorganic component, 67, 82 integration, 55, 57 iron, 27, 28, 31, 150, 161, 162 issues, vii, 2, 8, 13, 15, 50, 51, 53, 102, 107, 127

K

H

kinetics, 9, 85, 88, 92, 93, 94

heat loss, 140, 141, 143, 144, 145, 149, 150, 154 heating oil, 140, 151 heavy crude oil, 116, 140, 146, 157, 163, 164, 165, 166, 178 heavy metals, 9, 122, 154, 161 heavy oil, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 121, 122, 128, 129, 130, 132, 133, 135, 136, 138, 139, 140, 142, 143, 144, 145, 146, 147, 148, 149, 151, 152, 154, 156, 157,

L landfill(s), 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 40 liberation, 123, 125, 126 life cycle, 51, 56, 57, 64, 104, 110 lifetime, 51, 103, 109, 122, 157, 160 limestone, 29, 162 long-term strength, 67, 68, 82

202 M macromolecules, 121, 161 magnitude, 117, 138, 145, 191 manufacturing, 29, 34 marine environment, 111 Marshall stability test, 38, 46 materials, vii, 5, 8, 11, 23, 24, 25, 27, 28, 39, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 47, 48, 52, 53, 56, 61, 62, 68, 70, 71, 72, 76, 77, 79, 82, 86, 89, 91, 97, 101, 107, 108, 110, 112, 131, 172, 180, 184 mix design, 27, 29, 30, 33, 107 mixing, 29, 109, 112, 123, 133, 136 mixture, 28, 29, 30, 33, 34, 37, 68, 70, 76, 77, 79, 83, 99, 102, 108, 109, 112, 118, 121, 126, 133, 173, 174 moisture, 27, 29, 30, 32, 89 molecular structure, 119, 120 molecular weight, 116, 120, 121, 152, 183, 184 molecules, 117, 120, 136, 149, 151, 160 municipal solid waste, 1, 2, 9, 10, 11, 39

N nano silica, 108, 111, 112 nanoparticles, 156, 160, 161 nanotechnology, 160, 167 natural gas, 9, 51, 143, 144, 154, 159 natural habitats, 6 natural resources, 27, 28, 37, 38, 40, 52 neural network, 17, 22, 103, 112 nitrogen, 76, 120, 133, 135, 136, 143, 144, 159 non-polar hydrocarbons, 119

O oil, 49, 51, 84, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120, 121, 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 128, 129, 131, 132, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 138, 139, 140, 141, 142, 144, 145, 146, 147, 148, 149, 150, 151, 152, 153, 154, 156, 157, 158, 159, 160, 161, 162, 163,

Index 164, 165, 167, 168, 172, 173, 175, 176, 177, 178, 179, 180, 181, 182, 183, 184, 185, 190, 191 oil production, 51, 131, 133, 141, 149, 150, 157, 159 oil sands, 115, 118, 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 128, 148, 150, 151, 153, 154, 161, 162, 165, 168, 172, 173, 191 oil spill, 176, 177, 180, 182, 191 open dumps, 1, 2, 4, 5 ores, 122, 123, 124 organic component, 67, 69 organic compounds, 160 organic matter, 7, 8 organic solvents, 122, 127 oxidation, 145, 146, 147, 180, 182, 183 oxygen, 29, 120, 145, 147, 183

P petroleum, 51, 84, 115, 116, 131, 133, 136, 143, 151, 156, 162, 163, 164, 165, 166, 167, 168, 169, 173, 177, 178, 180, 184, 194 physical and mechanical properties, 108 physical characteristics, 108, 117 physical properties, 87, 179 pipeline, 118, 123, 157, 159, 172, 173, 175, 176 plastic bottle(s), 23 plastic waste, v, 23, 24, 25, 26, 41, 47 plastics, 23, 25, 38 polar, 120, 149, 151, 183 polarization, 150, 153 pollutant(s), 133, 156 pollution, 1, 5, 13, 14, 23, 24, 28, 40, 60, 144 polymer(s), 23, 112, 113, 128, 129, 132, 165, 166 population, 13, 14, 17, 37, 54 preservation, 25, 88, 103, 104 problems related to C&D activities, 40 project(s), 4, 16, 19, 21, 38, 40, 49, 50, 51, 53, 54, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63,

Index 103, 110, 134, 135, 138, 142, 154, 159, 195 pure water, 178 purification, 68, 83 pyrolysis, 145, 146, 152

R railbit(s), 171, 172 reactions, 103, 122, 131, 132, 145, 146, 152, 159, 161 reconstruction, 103 recovery, 4, 5, 6, 8, 11, 104, 115, 116, 117, 118, 121, 122, 124, 125, 126, 128, 129, 130, 131, 132, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 138, 139, 140, 141, 142, 143, 145, 146, 147, 148, 149, 150, 152, 154, 155, 156, 157, 159, 161, 162, 163, 164, 165, 166, 167, 168 recovery process, 6, 162 recycling, 1, 2, 3, 24, 30, 37, 39, 46, 47, 51, 56, 62, 63, 64, 145 reed ash, 67, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 78, 79, 82, 83 reed powder, 67, 72, 73, 80, 81, 82, 83 reinforced concrete, vi, 101, 102, 105, 106, 108, 109, 111 reinforced concrete structures, vi, 101, 105, 109, 111 reserves, 102, 115, 118 residual matrix, 4, 5, 8 resins, 117, 119, 120, 121, 151, 152, 167, 180, 181, 182, 184 resistance, 27, 28, 29, 30, 32, 33, 34, 85, 88, 89, 91, 93, 96, 98, 110, 113, 116, 148, 149, 177 resources, 5, 37, 40, 43, 50, 51, 52, 56, 60, 115, 118, 167 rubber, 23, 24, 25 rubber tyre, 23, 25

S service life, 101, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 109, 111

203 service life design, 101, 104, 111 silica, 68, 75, 101, 102, 105, 108, 109, 111, 112, 113, 157, 161 simulation, 34, 57, 103, 107, 147, 163, 168 slag, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 83 sludge, 10, 99 social responsibility, v, 49, 50, 58, 60, 62, 64, 65 soil particles, 86, 91 solid waste, 1, 2, 6, 9, 10, 11, 27, 38, 39 solution, 6, 16, 20, 47, 71, 72, 73, 119, 129, 131, 132, 133, 143 solvents, 119, 121, 127, 137, 144, 160 specific gravity, 31, 34, 42, 43, 177, 178 specific surface, 43, 84 specifications, 56, 101, 103, 109, 117, 124, 161, 173, 174, 176 steel, v, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 102, 105 steel industry, 34 steel slag, v, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36 stimulation, 137, 140, 141, 166, 168 structural damages in reinforced concrete, 102 structure, 28, 44, 86, 87, 101, 104, 108, 110, 111, 119, 162, 164, 167 study of impact of nano silica on durability, vi, 101 surface mining, 115, 122, 123, 161 surfactant(s), 119, 129, 131, 132, 137, 162, 163, 165, 166 susceptibility, 30, 85, 88, 92, 93, 97, 98, 99, 102 sustainability, 30, 47, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 55, 56, 57, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 87, 104, 107 sustainable development, vii, 10, 26, 49, 50, 52, 55, 57, 60, 62, 63, 64 sustainable growth, 49

204 T temperature, 24, 33, 69, 71, 72, 76, 77, 83, 85, 87, 98, 117, 121, 122, 123, 125, 126, 128, 132, 134, 136, 137, 138, 140, 141, 142, 145, 146, 147, 149, 152, 156, 157, 159, 160, 161, 166, 177, 178, 179, 180, 192 tensile strength, 24, 29, 32 tension, 125, 128, 129, 131, 132, 134, 137 thermal energy, 146, 154, 160 thermal expansion, 87, 138 traffic congestion, 13, 14 traffic monitoring system, 13, 14, 17 transport, 21, 53, 54, 86, 111, 115, 121, 138, 154, 157, 159, 161, 174, 175 transportation, 13, 14, 15, 16, 19, 22, 28, 51, 118

U utilization of C&D waste in highway construction, 40 utilization of construction and demolition waste in flexible pavements, v, 37

V vehicles, 13, 14, 16, 18, 19, 20, 21, 32 viscosity, 116, 117, 118, 119, 123, 124, 125, 128, 129, 132, 133, 134, 135, 136, 138, 140, 141, 142, 144, 145, 146, 148,

Index 149, 150, 157, 158, 159, 161, 163, 171, 172, 173, 174, 176, 177, 178, 179, 181, 182, 183, 185, 186, 187, 188, 191, 192 vulnerability, vi, 85, 86, 88, 92, 94, 97, 99

W waste, 2, 3, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11, 14, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 34, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 52, 55, 56, 84, 99, 124 waste disposal, 8, 39 waste management, 9, 10, 11, 55 wastewater, 62, 125, 133, 154 water, 1, 3, 4, 24, 31, 32, 41, 42, 43, 51, 52, 53, 60, 62, 67, 68, 71, 72, 73, 75, 80, 86, 87, 88, 89, 91, 95, 98, 101, 102, 109, 116, 117, 118, 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 129, 131, 132, 133, 135, 136, 137, 140, 143, 145, 147, 149, 150, 151, 154, 159, 161, 162, 163, 165, 177, 178, 180, 181, 182, 183, 184, 186, 191, 193 water absorption, 24, 31, 73, 75, 80 water evaporation, 86, 87 wells, 137, 139, 142, 147, 149, 150, 163, 166, 167, 168, 174

X x-ray analysis, 69 x-ray diffraction (XRD), 70, 77, 78, 83