Advances in Natural, Human-Made, and Coupled Human-Natural Systems Research: Volume 2 3030780821, 9783030780821

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Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 250

Svetlana G. Maximova Roman I. Raikin Alexander A. Chibilev Marina M. Silantyeva   Editors

Advances in Natural, Human-Made, and Coupled Human-Natural Systems Research Volume 2

Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems Volume 250

Series Editor Janusz Kacprzyk, Systems Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland Advisory Editors Fernando Gomide, Department of Computer Engineering and Automation—DCA, School of Electrical and Computer Engineering—FEEC, University of Campinas—UNICAMP, São Paulo, Brazil Okyay Kaynak, Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Bogazici University, Istanbul, Turkey Derong Liu, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, USA Institute of Automation, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China Witold Pedrycz, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Alberta, Alberta, Canada Systems Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland Marios M. Polycarpou, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, KIOS Research Center for Intelligent Systems and Networks, University of Cyprus, Nicosia, Cyprus Imre J. Rudas, Óbuda University, Budapest, Hungary Jun Wang, Department of Computer Science, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong

The series “Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems” publishes the latest developments in Networks and Systems—quickly, informally and with high quality. Original research reported in proceedings and post-proceedings represents the core of LNNS. Volumes published in LNNS embrace all aspects and subfields of, as well as new challenges in, Networks and Systems. The series contains proceedings and edited volumes in systems and networks, spanning the areas of Cyber-Physical Systems, Autonomous Systems, Sensor Networks, Control Systems, Energy Systems, Automotive Systems, Biological Systems, Vehicular Networking and Connected Vehicles, Aerospace Systems, Automation, Manufacturing, Smart Grids, Nonlinear Systems, Power Systems, Robotics, Social Systems, Economic Systems and other. Of particular value to both the contributors and the readership are the short publication timeframe and the world-wide distribution and exposure which enable both a wide and rapid dissemination of research output. The series covers the theory, applications, and perspectives on the state of the art and future developments relevant to systems and networks, decision making, control, complex processes and related areas, as embedded in the fields of interdisciplinary and applied sciences, engineering, computer science, physics, economics, social, and life sciences, as well as the paradigms and methodologies behind them. Indexed by SCOPUS, INSPEC, WTI Frankfurt eG, zbMATH, SCImago. All books published in the series are submitted for consideration in Web of Science. For proposals from Asia please contact Aninda Bose ([email protected]).

Svetlana G. Maximova · Roman I. Raikin · Alexander A. Chibilev · Marina M. Silantyeva Editors

Advances in Natural, Human-Made, and Coupled Human-Natural Systems Research Volume 2

Editors Svetlana G. Maximova Altai State University Barnaul, Russia Alexander A. Chibilev Steppe Institute of the Ural Branch Russian Academy of Sciences Orenburg, Russia

Roman I. Raikin Department of Radiophysics and Theoretical Physics Altai State University Barnaul, Russia Marina M. Silantyeva Faculty of Biology Altai State University Barnaul, Russia

ISSN 2367-3370 ISSN 2367-3389 (electronic) Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems ISBN 978-3-030-78082-1 ISBN 978-3-030-78083-8 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-78083-8 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

Program Committee

Roman I. Raikin, Candidate of Physical and Mathematical Sciences, Associate Professor, Vice Rector for International Activities, Associate Professor, Altai State University, Russia, Chairperson Evgeny V. Zhuravlev, Candidate of Physical and Mathematical Sciences, Assoc. Prof., Director, Institute of Mathematics and Information Technologies, Altai State University, Barnaul, Russia Sergey V. Makarov, Doctor of Physical and Mathematical Sciences, Professor, Director, Institute of Digital Technologies, Electronics and Physics, Altai State University, Barnaul, Russia Svetlana G. Maksimova, Head of the Department of Psychology of Communications and Psychotechnology, Chief Researcher of the Department for Organization and Support of Research, Development and Technological Works, Doctor of Sociology, Professor, Altai State University, Barnaul, Russia Anton A. Vasilyev, Director of the Law Institute, Head of the Department of Theory and History of State and Law, Doctor of Law, Associate Professor, Altai State University, Barnaul, Russia Marina M. Silantyeva, Dean, Faculty of Biology, Head of the Department of Botany, Doctor of Biological Sciences, Professor, Altai State University, Barnaul, Russia Ishenbek S. Kadyrov, Doctor of Technical Sciences, Professor, Department of Electrification and Automation of Agriculture, Kyrgyz National Agrarian University named after K. I. Scriabin, Bishkek, Kyrgyz Republic Evgeniy P. Krupochkin, Candidate of Geological Sciences, Associate Professor, Head of the Department of Economic Geography and Cartography, Altai State University, Barnaul, Russia Oleg V. Ostanin, Candidate of Geological Sciences, Associate Professor, Head of the Department of Physical Geography and Geoinformation Systems, Altai State University, Barnaul, Russia Alexander G. Redkin, Candidate of Geological Sciences, Associate Professor, Head of the Department of Recreational Geography, Tourism and Regional Marketing, Altai State University, Barnaul, Russia v

vi

Program Committee

Gennady Ya. Baryshnikov, Doctor of Geographical Sciences, Professor, Professor of the Department of Nature Management and Geoecology, Altai State University, Barnaul, Russia Alontseva, Daria L., Doctor of Physical and Mathematical Sciences, Professor, Department of Instrumentation and Automation of Technological Processes, East Kazakhstan State Technical University named after D. Serikbayev, UstKamenogorsk, Kazakhstan Ella P. Shurina, Doctor of Technical Sciences, Professor, Department of Computational Technologies, Novosibirsk State Technical University, Novosibirsk, Russia Aleksandr N. Dunets, Head of the Department of Economic Geography and Cartography, Doctor of Geographical Sciences, Associate Professor, Altai State University, Barnaul, Russia.

Organizing Committee

Mezhov, Stepan I., Doctor of Economics, Professor, Director, International Institute of Economics, Management and Information Systems, Head of the Department of Finance and Credit, Altai State University, Barnaul, Russia, Chairperson Alexander V. Matsyura, Doctor of Biological Sciences, Professor, Head of the Department of Zoology and Physiology, Altai State University, Barnaul, Russia Tatyana V. Antyufeeva, Candidate of Geological Sciences, Associate Professor, Head of the Department of Nature Management and Geoecology, Altai State University, Barnaul, Russia Sergey D. Mamenov, Lecturer at the Department of Physical Geography and Geoinformation Systems, Head of the R&D Program of the Geographical Institute of the Altai State University, Barnaul, Russia Lyubov A. Khvorova, Candidate of Sciences, Associate Professor, Head, Department of Theoretical Cybernetics and Applied Mathematics, Altai State University, Barnaul, Russia Alexander N. Sazhenkov, Candidate of Sciences, Associate Professor, Head, Department of Mathematical Analysis, Altai State University, Barnaul, Russia Viktor N. Sedalishchev, Doctor of Technical Sciences, Professor, Head, Department of Computer Engineering and Electronics, Altai State University, Barnaul, Russia Andrey N. Romanov, Doctor of Technical Sciences, Professor, Head, Basic Department of Information Technologies and Physical Methods in Environmental Research, Altai State University, Barnaul, Russia

vii

Contents

Advances in Natural Systems Research Water Resources of Transboundary Rivers in the Steppe Zone Under Modern Hydroclimatic Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Zhanna T. Sivokhip and Vladimir M. Pavleichik

3

The Role of Late Pleistocene Permafrost Processes in the Formation of Thufurs in the Southern Cis-Urals Steppe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Anna G. Ryabukha and Dmitry G. Polyakov

17

The Effect of Hydrogen Sulfide on the Activity of Thymocytes . . . . . . . . . Irina S. Rozhkova

25

Advances in Coupled Human-Natural Systems Research The Comfort Potential and Development Prospects of Cities in the Steppe Zone of Russia Using the Index Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Svetlana A. Dubrovskaya, Roman V. Ryakhov, and Vladimir M. Pavleychik Developing Institutional Support for Rational Steppe Land Use . . . . . . . . Alexander A. Chibilev, Sergey V. Levykin, and Grigoriy V. Kazachkov

35

45

Natural Fires in the Steppe Regions of Russia: Causing Factors and Detection Experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Vladimir M. Pavleichik, Juriy A. Padalko, and Zhanna T. Sivohip

59

Dynamics of Erosion Processes in Steppe Landscapes Caused by Agricultural and Oil Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Svetlana A. Dubrovskaya, Ksenia V. Myachina, and Roman V. Ryahov

69

Challenges in Developing Ecological and Economic Areas in the Mountainous Region of the Greater Altai, Russia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mikhail Yu. Shishin and Oksana Z. Engoyan

77

ix

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Contents

The Resource Availability and Resource Dependence of Yakutia, a Russian Economic Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Grigory S. Kovrov, Valentina V. Nikiforova, and Nikolay E. Egorov

85

Sustainable Development and Environmental Safety of Industrial Regions of Russia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Eugeny V. Sugak and Olga V. Brazgovka

93

Thermal Regimes of Landscape Surfaces After Steppe Fires According to Landsat Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 Vladimir M. Pavleichik and Ksenya V. Mjachina Ecological Expertise in the Management System of Environmental Use and Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 Valentina M. Yachmeneva, Evgeniy F. Yachmenev, and Alena A. Antonova Stripping Voltammetry as a Method for Assessing the Possible Effects of Microelements on Humans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 Galina B. Slepchenko, Igor A. Khlusov, and Eugenia S. Moiseeva The System of Complex Spatial Development Indicators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 Alexander P. Sizov and Elena G. Chernykh Resource Potential Assessment of the Russian Rural Areas from the Standpoint of Modern Concepts on Spatial Development . . . . . 149 Alla L. Popova, Ludmila N. Kosyakova, and Nikolay N. Kosyakov Transformer and Ozonator Systems for Livestock Buildings . . . . . . . . . . . 157 Vladimir F. Storchevoy, Nikolai E. Kabdin, Sergey V. Suchugov, Peter M. Umansky, and Alexander E. Kompaniets Sustainable Social Systems, Migration Flows, and Social Cohesion The Social Credit System as a Tool for Ensuring National Security . . . . . 169 Roman Z. Rouvinsky and Evgeny V. Tsarev Transformation of Close Relations in the Post-Soviet States . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 Vladimir A. Smirnov, Vladislav V. Gruzdev, and Vladimir N. Ershov The Impact of Globalization on National Law and Cultural Identity of Russian Citizens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 Vladislav V. Gruzdev, Vladimir N. Ershov, and Vladimir A. Smirnov Human Security Risks in the New Information Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 Vladimir N. Ershov, Vladislav V. Gruzdev, and Vladimir A. Smirnov Divergence in the Efficiency of Social Production: A Baseline Study . . . . 213 Elena N. Pochekutova

Contents

xi

Youth Subcultures from the Perspective of Tolerance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 Evgeniya V. Valiullina, Vadim V. Shiller, and Zlata V. Borovikova Current Problems and Methods of Preserving the Objects of Cultural Heritage in Russia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 Irina N. Kustysheva, Anna M. Ermakova, and Alevtina A. Shirokova Influence of Paternalistic Traditions of the Russian Statehood on the Formation of Effective Local Self-government Institutes . . . . . . . . 245 Elvira I. Zabneva and Sofia Yu. Balakireva Transformations of Trust Under Caused by Instabilities of Educational Interactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253 Sergey I. Chernykh and Irina G. Borisenko The Impact Estimation of Human Capital on Social Well-Being and Social Development in the Digital Era: A Mathematical Model . . . . . 263 Victor I. Medennikov, Tatiana V. Kokuytseva, Oksana P. Ovchinnikova, and Nataliia E. Ovchinnikova Human Resources in Western Siberia: Electrophysiological Myocardial Properties of Students Residing in a Northern City . . . . . . . . 279 Irina A. Pogonysheva, Inna I. Lunyak, and Denis A. Pogonyshev The Framework for Socio-economic Development in the Steppe Regions of Russia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287 Alexander A. Chibilyov Jr., Dmitry S. Meleshkin, and Dmitry V. Grigorevsky Formation Mechanisms of Civil Society in the Russian Federation . . . . . 305 Elvira E. Zabneva and Tatiana A. Evsina Conditions and Factors for the Development of Social Innovation . . . . . . 313 Yuliya A. Kuznetcova The Balance of Private and Public Interests to Accelerate the Development of Regional Institutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321 Andrey L. Pachin, Ekaterina S. Simonova, and Elena E. Smetanina Challenges to Social Structures Monitoring in the Arctic Regions . . . . . . 329 Oleg V. Tolstoguzov and Maria A. Pitukhina The Impact of the Pandemic on Educational Migration: Case Studies from India and China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345 Liliya Y. Zainiyeva and Aigul A. Abzhapparova Fundamentals of Developing Legal Mechanisms for the Protection of Society in the Context of Scientific and Technological Progress . . . . . . 359 Elena V. Provodina, Oksana Yu. Krasovskaya, and Natalya A. Greshnova

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Contents

Experience of Sociological Analysis of Proneness to Conflict in Regional Communities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369 Victor V. Nagaytsev, Anatoliy N. Domashev, and Elena V. Pustovalova Psychological Features of Formation of an Active Life Position Among Older Adults . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377 Ion Gotynzhan and Marina Al. Rushina Psychosocial Competencies of Bank Workers: Development Through Volunteering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389 Irina V. Fedosova, Alena V. Kibalnik, and Tatyana F. Usheva Advances in Cultural Traditions and Innovation, Development Barriers, and Social Stability Innovative Approaches and Management Mechanisms in Regional Service Sectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405 Irina A. Pryadko, Nataliia N. Muraveva, Aleksandra I. Novitskay, Tatiana M. Rogova, and Elena A. Repina Methodological and Organizational Peculiarities of Studying Practices in Forensic Examinations: A Comparative Analysis of Australia, Vietnam, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, and Russia . . . . . . . . . . . 411 Yury P. Garmaev and Farit G. Aminev Legal Challenges to Biological Security in the Arctic Zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421 Natalia G. Zhavoronkova, Vyacheslav B. Agafonov, and Natalia P. Voronina Corruption as a Threat to State Security: “Confiscation in Rem” as a Problem Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429 Ildar R. Akhmadullin and Olga V. Kashtanova Legal Regulation of Budgetary Relations in the EAEU and the EU: Economic Security in the Context of Digital Economy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435 Olga Yu. Bakaeva, Evgeny O. Pazyna, and Elena V. Pokachalova The Impact of Digital Technologies on Arbitration Courts . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445 Ekaterina P. Rusakova and Edgar Young Control Over the Allocation of Foreign Capital by Resident Individuals: Global Trends in Russia’s Legislation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459 Ekaterina A. Tsepova Latin Language for Historians: Traditional Approach or Necessity of Dead Language “Revival”? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475 Irina Yu. Vascheva, Natalia Yu. Sivkina, and Maria P. Samoylova

Contents

xiii

Visual Aspects of Traditional Japanese Cuisine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485 Olga S. Shibiko Digit Versus Logos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493 Anna A. Zwezdina and Irina V. Lantsova

Advances in Natural Systems Research

Water Resources of Transboundary Rivers in the Steppe Zone Under Modern Hydroclimatic Conditions Zhanna T. Sivokhip

and Vladimir M. Pavleichik

Abstract We analyzed the current condition and use of water resources in the steppe zone, considering the current hydroclimate change trends. Besides, we established an increase in the surface temperature in the Ural River basin, primarily in frostfree seasons. In addition, we revealed a stable trend in the seasonal distribution of precipitation within the transboundary basin of the Ural River. Also, we confirmed the transformation of the annual flow distribution in the Ural River basin, which is characterized by a decrease in the share of spring runoff and an increase in winter runoff. This trend was verified by an increase in the value of the minimum runoff in winter. Then, we determined the regional differences in the structure of water consumption due to natural-zonal and socio-economic factors. Considering the water supply indicators in the transboundary basins of the steppe zone, we estimated the anthropological burden on water resources. Furthermore, we discuss the need to take into account existing water resources, especially in low-water years. Also, we identified regions that are characterized by a moderate load on water resources and low values of potential water supply. The paper deals with the need to improve the efficiency of the use of water resources of transboundary rivers, which can be achieved by reducing the volume of irrevocable withdrawal of runoff and losses due to water transport. These factors reduce the Gross Regional Product and increase the recycled water in the structure of water consumption. As a result, we emphasize the relevance of developing international programs for water resources of transboundary rivers, which would be developed based on the basin approach and the integrity of river basins separated by national borders. Keywords Transboundary basin · Water resources · Steppe zone · Anthropogenic load · Complex use Z. T. Sivokhip (B) · V. M. Pavleichik Orenburg Federal Research Center, Institute of Steppe of the Ural Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Orenburg, Russia e-mail: [email protected] V. M. Pavleichik e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 S. G. Maximova et al. (eds.), Advances in Natural, Human-Made, and Coupled Human-Natural Systems Research, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 250, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-78083-8_1

3

4

Z. T. Sivokhip and V. M. Pavleichik

1 Introduction The issues of efficient use of water resources are becoming increasingly urgent worldwide in the context of climate change. In this regard, it is necessary to conduct regional research to study the complex relationship between climate change and the timing of river runoff formation, identifying long-term cyclical and unidirectional trends. The stochastic nature of many weather and climate phenomena determines the variability of river flow and significantly reduces the reliability of forecasts. According to the Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 2014), global warming is indisputable; and it has been observed most clearly in the last 30–40 years. In Russia, the warming rate is more than 0.45 °C/10 years; it varies in different parts of the country (Federal Service for Hydrometeorology and Environmental Monitoring [Roshydromet] 2014). One of the manifestations of climate change is the increase in the intensity and frequency of anomalous phenomena. The spatio-temporal transformation of the river and water regime is one of the consequences of the global and regional reconstruction of the climate system. In particular, the main trend characteristic of most rivers in the European part of Russia [EPR] is a refined alignment of the annual flow hydrograph due to a decrease in the runoff in spring and an increase in runoff in winter (Frolova et al. 2010; Dmitrieva and Maskaykina 2013; Bolgov et al.2014; Georgiadi et al. 2016; Magritsky and Kenzhebaeva 2017; Sivokhip et al. 2017; Demin et al. 2018). It is established that a significant increase in the flow of EPR rivers in the winter period is primarily due to a shift in the timing of winter low water and an increase in the frequency of thaw (Dzamalov et al. 2015). Therefore, in conditions of significant fluctuations in river flow, it is not easy to ensure guaranteed water resources for the economy and population. Against the background of climate change, such problems are particularly relevant in regions with insufficient and unstable moisture. We studied the basins of the Ural and Irtysh rivers, partially located in the steppe zone and including the landscapes of the Southern Urals, the Urals, Trans-Urals, the Caspian Sea, and the south of Western Siberia. The climatic conditions of the steppe zone determine a significant spatio-temporal heterogeneity of river flow within the studied basins in the long-term and seasonal aspects. A separate topical issue of water resources use is the cross-border location of the studied river basins; namely, complex natural and economic systems united by the unity of material and energy flows but separated by national borders. In particular, the spatial specifics of the transboundary basins of the Ural and Irtysh rivers reveal the existence of similar interests of Russia and Kazakhstan in the distribution of transboundary water resources. The Ural River is a major “donor” of river flow for the Kazakhstan regions, characterized by an active flow zone that forms in the upper and middle parts of the drained territory located within the Russian regions. The lower reaches of the Ural

Water Resources of Transboundary Rivers in the Steppe Zone Under ...

5

River (within Kazakhstan) are marked by the absence of a lateral inflow and the loss of annual flow of up to 20% within the transit part in different water content years. The transboundary basin of the Irtysh River crosses the national borders of three countries: (1) China, (2) the Republic of Kazakhstan, and (3) the Russian Federation. The middle part of the drained territory of the Irtysh coincides with the zonal distribution of steppe landscapes; it is located within the Republic of Kazakhstan (55% of the total area of the basin). The rivers of the middle part of the basin (tributaries— Tobol, Ishim, etc.) are characterized by significant variations in flow in seasonal and long-term sections (in low-water years, the flow of the Ishim River is 6–10 times less than the average value for many years (Frolova and Ivanovskaya 2015). Besides, the middle reaches of the Irtysh are characterized by a significant anthropogenic load— key centers of metallurgy and energy, large hydraulic structures (e.g., Bukhtarma hydroelectric power station) are located within the basin, and irrigated agriculture plays a significant role in agriculture. Therefore, to solve the problems of problematic use of water resources of transboundary rivers in the steppe zone, it is necessary to consider the current trends in water regime changes against the background of regional climate specifics.

2 Materials and Methods As a source for identifying regional trends in climate change, we used data from meteorological observations for 76 years (1940–2015) obtained from key weather stations located within the transboundary basin of the Ural River and adjacent territories. Additionally, we analyzed the average monthly and daily values of the surface temperature and the amount of precipitation. As the primary methodological approach, we calculated the linear trend coefficient, based on which we drew conclusions about the direction, magnitude, and regional specifics of climate change. We also considered the average annual air temperature anomalies by calculating the deviation from the norm for 1961–1990. The initial data for the study of the condition and use of water resources in the chosen area were statistical data on the availability, use, and conservation of water resources in Russia and Kazakhstan. We assessed the condition of water resources based on a comparison of the volume of water resources (1) with the volume of water use (coefficient of water use—Cuse ); (2) with the population size—potential water supply (thousand m3 /man); (3) with the area of the region—specific natural provision (thousand m3 /year at km2 ). In particular, the assessment of the load on water resources is characterized by the coefficient of water use (Cuse ), which is equal to the ratio of the total water consumption to renewable water resources (local and incoming river water from adjacent territories) (Shiklomanov 2008). The value of water supply is the amount of water per person, calculated to account for the population as a factor determining water use dynamics. We considered the potential water supply (the ratio

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Z. T. Sivokhip and V. M. Pavleichik

of average renewable water resources over many years to the population) and the actual water supply (the ratio of annual water resources over a three-year low water period to irrevocable water consumption and population) separately (Shiklomanov 2008).

3 Results and Discussion Considering the trends of climate change given above, we conducted regional studies of the current transformation of climatic conditions within the transboundary basin of the Ural River. A significant part of the territory belongs to the zone of temperate continental climate; the thermal regime is characterized by a significant amplitude of daily and annual cycles. We identified long-term trends in temperature changes using the linear trend coefficient (Ctr , °C/10 years). These data show that the most significant and general increase in air temperature was observed in frost-free seasons. In particular, the maximum Ctr values for August are typical for the central and south-eastern regions of the studied basin (0.86 °C/10 years—Dombarovka, 0.81 °C/10 years—Uralsk, 0.79 °C/10 years—Orenburg). Against the background of a long-term increase in temperature, one can observe an increase in temperature anomalies. According to the conducted studies of anomalies of the average annual air temperature for 1926– 2015 (deviation from the average for 1961–1990), the warmest years were noted in the last decade. In 2016, the average annual anomaly within the study area was + 2.6 °C, and the summer extremum—in 2010 (Orenburg + 4.8 °C, Uralsk + 4.9 °C). Based on the analysis of the statistical parameters of the summer extremum (July) of the surface temperature in Orenburg and Aktobe (Table 1), we revealed that the general nature of the changes was generally the same and was characterized by a well-defined trend of growth of the temperature extremum and the maximum values of the linear trend during 1991–2017. Stable growth in the average temperature in July was accompanied by an increase in the daily amplitude, which indirectly indicated the predominance of anticyclonic weather and confirmed the increase in the number of sunny days. These results correspond to the data on the increase in the number of days with abnormally high temperatures in most of the territory of Russia (Roshydromet 2014), except for the winter period. The distribution of precipitation is uneven in both space and time. In the steppe zone, the most significant amount of precipitation falls in the warm season, but the flow of Kazakhstan-type rivers is formed by the precipitation of the cold period. According to the analysis of the integral differential curve of changes in the annual amount of precipitation, currently, the Ural River basin territory is characterized by unfavorable natural moisture conditions in the annual and seasonal aspects (Fig. 1). Since 2010, there has been a steady trend in the development of the dry phase confirmed by the values of the linear trend coefficient (Ctr , mm/10 years). The decrease in natural moisture is primarily provided by reducing the amount of precipitation in the warm season (August–October)—(−3.14). In the regional context,

Water Resources of Transboundary Rivers in the Steppe Zone Under ...

7

Table 1 Statistical parameters of the summer extremum (July) of the surface air temperature in Orenburg and Aktobe Weather station Orenburg

Aktobe

Period

Number of years of observation

Tmed , °C

Tmax , °C

Ctr , °C/10 years

σ, mm

A, mm

1940–1960

21

21.5

41.6

– 0.80

3.1

13.2

1961–1990

30

22.1

41.4

0.18

2.6

13.2

1991–2017

27

22.3

40.3

1.07

2.8

13.8

1940–2017

78

22.0

41.6

0.04

2.7

13.4

1940–1960

21

22.3

41.0

– 1.40

2.7

14.0

1961–1990

30

22.8

42.2

0.08

2.5

14.0

1991–2015

25

22.7

41.5

1.30

2.8

14.3

1940–2015

76

22.6

42.2

0.08

2.6

14.1

Source Compiled by the authors

Fig. 1 Long-term changes in annual precipitation in the Ural River basin (Orenburg). Source Compiled by the authors

there is a significant rate of precipitation reduction in the mountain-forest-steppe landscapes of the Ural River basin (–13.7 in June, –8.81 in August, and –12.0 in September). Mountain-forest-steppe landscapes are located in the zone of active runoff formation; therefore, a decrease in precipitation negatively affects the water regime of the upper hydrographic chain of the basin. Moreover, we found that the decrease in precipitation is typical for the summer-autumn period, and in the springwinter period, it increases for most weather stations in the Ural River basin and adjacent territories (Fig. 2). Accordingly, we can note a steady trend of seasonal precipitation redistribution within the transboundary Ural River basin. The seasonal variability of natural moisture content is typical for Kazakhstan-type rivers, primarily in terms of guaranteed water resources and stable ecological and hydrological conditions. Increased precipitation during the cold period in the transboundary Ural River

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Z. T. Sivokhip and V. M. Pavleichik

Fig. 2 Changes in the share of warm and cold periods in the annual precipitation distribution (Orenburg). Source Compiled by the authors

basin corresponds to the current trends of climate change in the EPR, characterized by an increase in the number of days with a positive temperature in winter. The study of current trends in water regime changes is relevant for analyzing spatio-temporal features of the formation and distribution of water resources. As noted above, the transboundary rivers of the steppe zone are characterized by spatiotemporal variability of river flow. The coefficients of variation vary from 0.64 (Ural River, Uralsk) to 0.85 (Bolshaya Khobda River) in the Ural River basin; and from 0.25 (Irtysh River, Semiyarka village) to 1.03 (Tobol River, Kostanay) in the Irtysh River basin. The main part of the flow goes to the steppe rivers of the studied basin in the spring (on average about 70%), a feature of the rivers characterized by the Kazakhstan-type water regime. According to modern scholarship, there has been a significant change in the hydrological cycle, accompanied by increased water availability during dry periods, especially during the winter months in the considerable part of Russian territory over the past decade (Shiklomanov et al. 2010). Previously, we established some transformations of the annual distribution of river flow for the Ural River basin, such as a clear trend in the annual flow distribution typical for both the main river and most parts of the tributaries (Sivokhip et al. 2017). The dynamics of the minimum flow of the Ural River basin in winter also confirms this trend (November–March) (Table 2). The growth of the minimum river flow within the study basin indicates a particular alignment of the annual hydrograph of the rivers of the steppe zone due to the decrease in spring runoff and the relative increase of the runoff in winter. The trend towards increasing the minimum river flow within the Ural River basin has been observed since 1978, which was the threshold year for most EPR rivers. A significant increase in runoff in winter is primarily due to an increase in basic groundwater replenishment with a shift in the timing of winter low water and frequent thaws (Dzamalov et al. 2015).

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9

Table 2 Changes in the minimum daily flow in the Ural River basin in winter River hydrometric station Ural-Orenburg

Sakmara-Tat.Kargala

Ilek-Vesely

Period

Q, m/s (medium, absolute)

Cν

Variability, % 80

90

8.48

95

1950–1977

16.9 (2.3)

0.55

5.6

3.9

1978–2008

25.4 (7.7)

0.44

16.6

13.4

9.3

1950–2013

21.4 (2.3)

0.50

13.4

8.5

5.6

1950–1977

17.9 (4.12)

0.45

10.5

1978–2008

28.4 (11.8)

0.39

21.6

16.8

9.25

1950–2013

23.0 (4.12)

0.47

12.9

10.9

5.39 15.5 9.25

1951–1977

0.26 (0.001)

0.83

0.06

0.01

0.01

1978–2008

2.89 (0.028)

0.59

1.37

0.63

0.18

1950–2013

1.7 (0.001)

1.04

0.13

0.06

0.03

Source Compiled by the authors

Based on the above, we can say that in the conditions of long-term and seasonal fluctuations in river flow, the guaranteed supply of water resources to the economy and population remains an urgent problem in the transboundary basins of the steppe zone (Table 3). Table 3 Long-term description of total water resources within the Ural and Irtysh river basins (km2 /year) Region

Chelyabinsk

Total river flow

Minimum value

Local river flow

Cν

Specific water supply, thou. m3 /year/km2

7.4

2.8

5.9

0.40

103.9 76.0

12.7

4.2

4.6

0.52

Kurgan

4.3

1.2

0.7

0.87

99.3

Omsk

41.3

23.5

6.2

0.52

406.7

Altai Krai

Orenburg

55.1

38.7

19.4

0.24

367.3

West Kazakhstan

8.7

2.6

1.7

0.64

57.7

Aktobe

3.25

0.6

2.8

0.77

10.9

Atyrau

6.6

2.2

0.0

0.53

58.2

33.6

18.3

4.2

0.73

59.3

1.5

0.3

1.9

1.03

7.9

East Kazakhstan

35.6

20.6

27.8

0.25

129.7

Pavlodar

29.1

17.6

0.25

228.3

North Kazakhstan Kostanay

Source Roshydromet (2019), Tyumenev (2008)

0.05

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Z. T. Sivokhip and V. M. Pavleichik

At the same time, in current conditions, it is essential to analyze and consider both natural long-term fluctuations in river flow and the anthropogenic factors of changes in river water content. The transformation of river flow, which is influenced by anthropogenic factors, directly depends on the natural zonal features of the drained territories. The volume of irretrievable water consumption in the industrial, municipal, and agricultural sectors is significant in the southern regions, characterized by unstable moisture (Shiklomanov 2008). The use of water resources (first of all, the volume and structure of consumption) in the regions of transboundary basins of the Ural and Irtysh rivers is determined by the level of socio-economic development, population, and physical and geographical conditions (Table 4). Moreover, the influence of climatic factors on water consumption is zonal; in EPR, it increases from North to South and from West to East with a reduction in natural moisture; but in the zone with excessive and sufficient moisture, this factor practically does not affect the volume of water consumption (Shiklomanov 2008). Therefore, within the subjects of Russia, the main part of the resources is spent on industrial and municipal needs, and the minimum resources—on the needs of agriculture. Considerable attention is paid to recycled water in the Russian regions— 60–90%, representing the effective use of water resources in various economic Table 4 Indicators of water consumption in regions within the transboundary basins of the Ural and Irtysh rivers Region

Wwc , mln m3

Wrw , %

Wfw , mln m3

For needs, % I

C

A

Russian Federation Orenburg

2,710

64

979

88

8

0.9

Chelyabinsk

7,359

92

567

54

38

0.2

Omsk

1,456

87

185

42

51

3.2

Kurgan

333

85

51

47

45

0.9

Altai Krai

1,178

69

364

60

20

8.8

Republic of Kazakhstan West Kazakhstan

627

1

623

12

21

18

Aktobe

749

4

717

13

35

13

Atyrau

419

47

222

41

10

31

Kostanay

362

78

78

35

47

18

North Kazakhstan

353

47

187

88

9

3.7

Pavlodar

7,124

55

3,191

66

1

33

East Kazakhstan

970

40

582

34

10

56

W wc The volume of total water consumption; W rw The volume of recycled water; W fw The volume of freshwater; I Industrial sector; C Communal services; A Agriculture Source Compiled by the authors

Water Resources of Transboundary Rivers in the Steppe Zone Under ...

11

Table 5 Basic description of reservoirs (more than 1 million m3) in the transboundary basins of the Ural and Irtysh rivers in the steppe zone Water management basin/Watershed area

Number

Total volume, mln m3

Total

Long-term regulation

Tobol Turgai

6

3

Ishim

7

4

1,389.36

Irtysh

16

1

53,000.60

Ural-Caspian

6

3

827.91

Ural

141

1

4,675.80

Irtysh (Tobol river basin)

14

3

202.15

Republic of Kazakhstan 1,455.28

Russian Federation

Source: Tyumenev (2008); Federal Water Resources Agency [Rosvodresursy] (2013a, b)

sectors. Regional specifics characterizes the structure of water consumption in Kazakhstan regions; most regions are marked by the predominance of water consumption for industrial and municipal needs (Pavlodar, North Kazakhstan, Kostanay, Aktobe regions). Some regions are characterized by a traditionally high share of agricultural water consumption, including regular and estuarine irrigation (East Kazakhstan, Atyrau regions), which, in turn, affects the preservation of a significant part of the irrevocable withdrawal of water resources. Another sector of water consumption affecting the indicators of irretrievable loss of water resources is water flow regulation, which, with long-term and seasonal fluctuations in the water regime of rivers in the steppe zone, is essential for guaranteed water supply. The current hydro-economic structure of the transboundary basins of the Ural and Irtysh rivers in the context of water flow regulation is presented in Table 5. Furthermore, we should mention the reservoirs of long-term regulation reducing the peak of the flood, such as (1) Iriklinskoye in the Urals; (2) Karotomarskoye and Verkhnetobolskoye in the Tobol river; (3) Sergeyevskoye in the Ishim River; and (4) Bukhtarminskoe in the Irtysh river. The annual reservoir output increases the available water resources of the Irtysh hydro-economic basin in low-water years to 8.4 km3 (Institute of Kazgiprovodkhoz 2005). In this regard, the construction of reservoirs reduces water resources due to additional evaporation in river basins. The volume of irretrievable water loss due to evaporation is zonal and reaches the highest levels in regions with insufficient moisture. Thus, the irretrievable losses from evaporation in the Bukhtarma reservoir reach an average of 3.93 per year (Institute of Kazgiprovodkhoz 2005), and in the Ural river basin, total losses from the surface of reservoirs are 1.04 km3 (Rosvodresursy 2013a).

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Z. T. Sivokhip and V. M. Pavleichik

Fig. 3 The potential water supply of regions within the transboundary basins of the Ural and Irtysh rivers (thousand m3 /man). Source Compiled by the authors

As a result, the regional specifics of the use of river resources and their variability depend both on the environmental factors of the formation of water resources and on socio-economic factors, the indicators of which can be (1) the structure of water consumption, (2) the share of irrevocable withdrawal of water, or (3) the number of rural and urban populations. Comparing the population and the average renewable water over many years determines the amount of water shortage. Shiklomanov (2008) proposed such a criterion and used it to compare different regions in terms of the potential sufficiency of water supply, which allows one to assess the condition of water resources in the natural environment of their formation (Fig. 3). The assessment results indicate high water availability in most regions of the study area. First of all, this applies to the Russian regions of the south of Western Siberia (except for the Kurgan region). The water supply indicators of the Orenburg and Chelyabinsk regions are low; this is due to the insufficient volume of renewable river flow with significant water consumption for industrial and municipal needs. In Kazakhstan regions, the most difficult water supply situation is observed in Kostanay, North Kazakhstan, and Aktobe regions. The calculation of the water use factor based on the comparison of available resources and the volume of water use is a general approach to assessing anthropogenic load on surface waters. According to the calculations, within the Russian territory, the maximum values of the coefficient are typical for the Orenburg region (14%—moderate load) and the Chelyabinsk region (6.3%). In Kazakhstan, a moderate anthropogenic load on water resources is typical for the Pavlodar region (10.7%) and the Aktobe region (9.8%), within which large industrial metallurgical

Water Resources of Transboundary Rivers in the Steppe Zone Under ...

13

and energy centers have been formed. In general, the regions of Kazakhstan are characterized by a more intense anthropogenic load on water resources than the regions of Russia. Based on the analysis of the condition of water resources (the calculation of the coefficient of use of water resources and potential water supply), we can draw a conclusion about the regional characteristics of water resources. Despite the low or moderate load on water resources in the transboundary basins of the Ural and Irtysh rivers, a difficult hydro-economic situation is observed in some regions, such as (1) the Orenburg, Chelyabinsk, and Aktobe regions (the Ural River basin); and (2) Kostanay and North Kazakhstan regions (the Irtysh River basin). These regions are characterized by a moderate load on water resources (C = 5–15%) and low values of the potential water supply (1700–4700 m3 /year/person). However, currently, the formation of water resources occurs in non-stationary conditions, so the use of average values for many years to assess the condition of water resources does not always reflect the real situation. In this regard, it is advisable to assess the sufficiency of the water supply in the regions, taking into account the existing water resources (Shiklomanov 2008). Based on this approach, we calculated the actual water supply for the Russian regions considering the average values for the three years 2009–2011. The assessment results reveal significant differences in the indicators of real water supply (RW) and potential water supply (PW) (2015 level); primarily in regions with significant fluctuations in river flow over many years; for example, in the Chelyabinsk region (1.21 and 2.63 thousand m3 /person) and the Kurgan region (1.98 and 8.24 thousand m3 /person).

4 Conclusion The impact of fire on biotic and bio-sluggish components initiates several interrelated transformations in the microclimate of steppe ecosystems. The most obvious consequences of a fire in this aspect are (1) a change in the thermal regime on the surface; (2) a decrease in the thickness of the snow cover, a reduction in its duration; (3) increased freezing of the soil in winter and a decrease in soil moisture in spring. These systemic transformations form special ecotopic conditions, against the background of which restorative post-pyrogenic processes occur. Simultaneously, vegetation on burned areas after fires in late summer and autumn remains in specific (and even extreme in winter) hydrothermal conditions. We should pay attention to the regional features of the formation of the hydroeconomic situation in the transboundary basins of the Ural and Irtysh rivers, taking into account the spatial specifics of these basins. Thus, the stability of the hydroeconomic situation in the regions of the lower reaches of the Ural River basin (West Kazakhstan and Atyrau regions) mainly depends on the volume of the Ural River flow passing from the Russian territory. In 1996, the Kazakh-Russian Bilateral Committee

14

Z. T. Sivokhip and V. M. Pavleichik

on Transboundary Waters approved the Report on the Mutual Use and Conservation of Transboundary Water Bodies and Coordination of Hydro-economic Activities in the Ural River Basin to ensure the rational use and conservation of water resources (Federal water resources Agency [Rosvodresursy], 2013a). This report requires updating concerning the current trends in hydro-climatic changes in the Ural River basin. The hydro-economic situation in the transboundary Irtysh river basin is aggravated by the lack of trilateral cooperation between Russia, Kazakhstan, and China. The existing bilateral cooperation between Kazakhstan-China and RussiaKazakhstan does not solve the problems of water distribution and water shortage (Rybkina and Sivokhip 2019). Considering the identified regional trends in climate change and the water regime of the rivers of the steppe zone, we emphasize that one of the priority tasks in the transboundary river basins is to ensure the economically profitable and environmentally secure use of water resources for any water-consuming country. The successful solution of the set tasks can be achieved by increasing the efficiency of the use of river water resources by (1) reducing the volume of irrevocable withdrawal of runoff and losses during water circulation, (2) decreasing the water output of the gross regional product, and (3) increasing the share of recycled water in water consumption. In addition, the analysis of the condition and use of water resources of transboundary rivers of the steppe zone in modern hydro-climatic conditions confirms the need to develop conceptual programs based on the basin approach. Acknowledgements This work was conducted within the framework of the state assignment of the Institute of Steppe of the Ural Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences No. AAAA-A17117012610022-5 and grant of the Russian Foundation for Basic Research No. 18-05-00447.

References Bolgov MV, Korobkina EA, Trubetskova MD, Filimonova MK, Filippova IA (2014) Modern changes in the minimum flow on the rivers of the Volga river basin. Meteorol Hydrol 3:75–85 Demin AP, Muraveva EV, Volkova DS, Kuzmich VN, Pugach SL, Rybalsky NG, Cherepansky MM (2018) Water resources and water management of Russia in 2017 (Statistical handbook). NIA-Priroda, Moscow, Russia Dmitriyeva VA, Maskaykina SV (2013) Variability of the water regime in the upper reaches of the Don basin in the current climatic period. Bull Voronezh State Univ Ser Geogr Geoecol 1:17–21 Dzhamalov RG, Frolova NL, Telegin EA (2015) Winter runoff variations in European Russia. Water Resour 42(6):581–588 Federal Service for Hydrometeorology and Environmental Monitoring (2019) Water cadastre of the Russian Federation. Surface and groundwater resources, their use, and quality. Annual edition, 2018. Roshydromet, Saint Petersburg, Russia Federal Service for Hydrometeorology and Environmental Monitoring (2014) The second assessment report of Roshydromet on climate change in the Russian Federation. Roshydromet, Moscow, Russia Federal Water Resources Agency (2013a) Scheme of the integrated use and protection of water bodies of the river basin. Ural (Russian part). Book 1. Rosvodresursy, Yekaterinburg, Russia

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Federal water resources Agency (2013b) Scheme of the integrated use and protection of water bodies of the river basin. Irtysh (Russian part). Book 1. Rosvodresursy, Yekaterinburg, Russia Frolova NL, Ivanovskaya VV (2015) Features of water use in conditions of water resources deficit (on the example of the Ishim river). Water Econ Russia Problems Technol Manage 2:4–19 Frolova NL, Nesterenko DP, Shenberg NV (2010) Intra-annual flow regime of rivers in Russia. Bull Moscow Univ: Ser 5 Geogr 6:8–16 Georgiadi AG, Koronkevich NI, Kashutina EA, Barabanova EA (2016) Natural climatic and anthropogenic changes in the Volga and Don rivers runoff. Fund Appl Climatol 2:55–78 Institute of Kazgiprovodkhoz (2005) Scheme of integrated use and protection of water resources of the river basin Irtysh in the Republic of Kazakhstan. Institute of Kazgiprovodkhoz, Almaty, Kazakhstan Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2014) Climate change 2014: Synthesis report. Contribution of working groups I, II, and III to the 5th assessment report of the intergovernmental panel on climate change (Pachauri RK, Meyer LA, eds). IPCC, Geneva, Switzerland Magritsky DV, Kenzhebaeva AZ (2017) Regularities, characteristics, and causes of the rivers in the Ural river catchment annual and seasonal water flow variability. Sect Sci Appl Res: Earth Sci 3:39–61 Rybkina ID, Sivokhip ZhT (2019) Water resources of the Russian-Kazakhstan transboundary region and their use. South Russia Ecol Dev 14(2):70–86 Shiklomanov IA (ed) (2008) Water resources of Russia and their use. State Hydrological Institute, Saint Petersburg, Russia Shiklomanov IA, Georgievsky VY, Babkin VI, Balonishnikova ZA (2010) Research problems of formation and estimation of water resources and water availability changes of the Russian Federation. Meteorol Hydrol 1:23–32 Sivokhip ZT, Pavleichik VM, Chibilev AA, Padalko YuA (2017) Problems of dependable water use in the transboundary Ural River basin. Water Resour 44(4):504–516 Tyumenev SD (2008) Water resources and water supply in Kazakhstan: a textbook. KazNTU, Almaty, Kazakhstan

The Role of Late Pleistocene Permafrost Processes in the Formation of Thufurs in the Southern Cis-Urals Steppe Anna G. Ryabukha

and Dmitry G. Polyakov

Abstract In the moist meadow areas of Southern Cis-Urals, on lake banks and low river terraces, one can find small, bumpy relief, represented by low oblong hummocks separated by hollow depressions. In the secondary scholarly literature, it was named “thufurs.” The microrelief forms a polygonal grid and resembles the migration of permafrost mounds. This paper is the first to study the distribution, morphological structure, and formation of thufurs in the Southern Cis-Urals steppe. Our research revealed a complex of relict (polygonal terrain with a polygon side of about 2.5 m, ground wedges, cryogenic crushing in ground wedges) and modern (fresh microreliefs of hummocks, traces of frost sorting, seasonal ice formation, and rock heaving in conditions of high pre-winter humidity) cryogenic processes. The report indicates that the development of the thufur microrelief is caused by paleo-cryogenic processes: the dissection of the surface by frost-breaking cracks, the growth of polygonal-vein ice in them, and the formation of a complex soil cover after their thawing in the Holocene. Currently, the microrelief is maintained through contemporary processes of differential frost heave. Thufur soils combine paleo- and modern cryogenic features. Keywords Cryolithic zone · Pleistocene · Relic cryogenic microrelief · Thufurs · Migration permafrost mounds · Ground filling veins

1 Introduction The most current issue of physical geography and landscape science is the reconstruction of landscapes of past geological epochs. By understanding the causes and patterns of changes in landscapes in the past, one can understand their current structure and dynamics, identify areas of development, and create a basis for a longterm geographical forecast. In that respect, the Pleistocene stage, characterized by A. G. Ryabukha (B) · D. G. Polyakov Institute of Steppe of the Ural Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Orenburg, Russia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 S. G. Maximova et al. (eds.), Advances in Natural, Human-Made, and Coupled Human-Natural Systems Research, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 250, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-78083-8_2

17

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A. G. Ryabukha and D. G. Polyakov

global changes in climate and landscape, is of particular interest. Especially significant changes happened in the neo-Pleistocene landscape when a vast hyper-zone of tundra-steppes was formed across most of Eurasia (Velichko 1973). At this time, the modern steppes on the Russian Plain underwent active processes of cryogenesis and cryo-morphogenesis; frost weathering; frost cracking and rock sorting; slope and thermokarst processes. This caused the development of polygonal-block, thermokarst, and other forms of relief. During the transition from the Pleistocene to the Holocene, about ten thousand years ago, there was a sharp change in climatic conditions; the permafrost gradually degraded. A relic cryogenic relief was formed, which was discovered in the 1960s by Velichko (1965) and subsequently described in numerous Russian and foreign publications (Velichko 1973; Berdnikov 1976; Washburn 1988; French 2007; Vandenberghe et al. 2014; Bertran et al. 2014). The use of satellite images can expand and supplement our knowledge of the relic cryogenic microrelief in various Earth regions. On satellite images, the cryogenic microrelief can be determined by a spotty or polygonal pattern and can be well deciphered by a network of polygons. Paleo-cryogenic microrelief is widely distributed in the steppes of Southern CisUrals. Its topography includes polygon-block, block, block-pitted, hummock-pitted, merge-polygon, and reduced paleo-cryogenic relief (Ryabukha 2016). Our research conducted in the steppe Southern Cis-Urals revealed unique natural objects that resembled migration (segregational) permafrost mounds in the permafrost zone and, as we could see, were the legacy of the Pleistocene cryolithozone. They were a small, bumpy terrain, represented by low hummocks of oblong shape separated by hollow-shaped depressions (Fig. 1). The microrelief has a strictly ordered location and forms a polygonal network that is clearly readable on satellite images. Most authors attribute these objects located outside the permafrost zone to forms of frost heaving, which is a manifestation of seasonal cryogenesis in moistened areas (Gorbunov et al.1999; Gorbunova 1985; Gravis et al. 1974; Bondarev 1978). In English publications, they are named “earth hummocks.” In Russian publications and many other works by foreign authors, the Irish folk term “thufur” is widely used (Gorbunov et al. 1999). Thufurs occur in moist meadow areas, confined to places where underground water is discharged, to the shores of lakes, low river terraces, depressions in the terrain with the increased moisture content of the soil and underlying substrate. However, thufurs are always absent in swampy depressions with sedge vegetation (i.e., in areas with stagnant groundwater regimes) (Mudrov 2007). Despite the abundance of publications, there is no unambiguous interpretation of the genesis and age of thufurs. According to various sources, their age varies from 11,200 to 2000 years (Gorbunov et al. 1999; Gorbunova 1985; Washburn 1988). Thufurs were identified and studied in the Northern, Central, Eastern Kazakhstan, the Caucasus, southern Western Siberia, the Greater Altai, and other areas. In the Orenburg Region, thufurs were studied for the first time. This paper aims to study the distribution features, morphological structure, and mechanisms of thufur formation to confirm the role of permafrost processes of the late Pleistocene in their genesis.

The Role of Late Pleistocene Permafrost Processes in the Formation ...

19

Fig. 1 A thufur field in the valley of the river Tuzlukkol, Belyaevsky district of Orenburg Region. Source Photographed by A. Ryabukha

2 Materials and Methods The study area is located within the eastern Cis-Ural Plateau. Morphologically, it is a denudation plain with hilly rolling terrain. Quaternary alluvial and lacustrine deposits are also common. They are overlain by a cloak-like cover of loess-like yellow and brownish-yellow loam soils with numerous calcareous aggregates. (Chibilyov 1995). The study area with this microrelief is located at absolute altitudes of ~ 195 m above sea level. The climate is continental (Taver annual ~ 3.8 °C) with cold, harsh winters (average January temperature is −15.8 °C), and dry, hot summers (average July temperature is 22 °C). The average annual precipitation is 327 mm. The total heat summation is + 2,600 °C. The depth of winter freezing is 120–140 cm (in February), snow cover persists for 136 days with an average snow cover height of 20–25 cm. The frost-free period lasts for about 140 days (Bekhterev 2000). The soil cover is represented by chernozems; there are alkali and saline soils, with characteristic complexity of the soil and vegetation cover. The zonal type of vegetation is fescue-feather-grass steppes dominated by Lessing and Zalesski feathergrasses (Chibilyov 1995). Field research was carried out on a thufur field, located 12 km southwest of the village of Burlyksky, Belyaevsky District, Orenburg Region (51°15' 29.0'' N

20

A. G. Ryabukha and D. G. Polyakov

56°37' 12.5'' E), in the valley of Tuzlukkol River, a left-bank tributary of the Ural River (Fig. 2). We conducted ground route surveys and semi-stationary surveys in summer and winter to study the distribution and morphology of thufurs. Complex landscape and geomorphological surveys were carried out at the key site during field research. Thufur soils were studied in sections to a depth of 100 cm, laid on the various elements of the microrelief. In winter, we measured snow, snow cover, and soil surface temperature. Soil pits were laid to determine the degree of freezing, iciness, and cryotexture. Additionally, we studied high-resolution satellite images of Google Earth for this area. We analyzed numerous literary, cartographic, and archive materials relevant to this issue along with field research and interpretation of satellite images. Fig. 2 A fragment of the satellite image of the Tuzlukkol River valley with the thufur field. Source Google Earth

The Role of Late Pleistocene Permafrost Processes in the Formation ...

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3 Results The studied thufur field is located around the flattened, meadowed, lake-shaped spreading of the Tuzlukkol River. Its area is 0.5 km2 , around 0.1 km2 of which are occupied by thufurs. The field encircles the lake-shaped spreading with a strip of about 2 km long around the perimeter of the lake, with a width of 15 to 100 m (the most spread section is in the south-western part of the lake). The thufur field consists of a series of isometric hummocks separated by hollow depressions that extend in the direction of the surface slope. The size of the hummocks was from 0.5 to 2.5 m across. The height of the hummocks ranged between 30 and 50 cm; the maximum height was 60 cm. The shape of hummocks was usually rounded, sometimes slightly elongated, with steep slopes and a flattened top. In the north-western part of the study area, from the shoreline of the lake-shaped spreading to the periphery, three zones of hummocks successively replace each other. They differ in morphology and degree of vegetation stability. The first includes rounded hummocks about 40–50 cm high with flattened tops. The hummocks are covered with salt efflorescence and sparse vegetation. Their slopes are almost vertical, often devoid of vegetation. The second zone is represented by overgrown, slightly elongated hummocks, 30–40 cm high with smooth outlines, a flat top, and more gentle slopes. The shape of the hummocks changes to near-rectangular. In the third zone, the hummocks are transformed into parallel overgrown flat rampart-like ridges, about 15–20 cm high and up to 30 m long. The hummocks are separated from each other by hollow depressions, along and across the slope with a width of 30 to 60 cm. The relative excess of hummocks over depressions is 30–50 cm. Depressions are characterized by dense vegetation. The thufurs are located strictly in an orderly manner, forming a grid pattern or parallel rows (striped pattern). The grid pattern is typical of hummocks located along the lake. Then, up the slope, the hummocks stretch into flat ridges in parallel rows and gradually merge with the surrounding landscape. In plan, the hollow-shaped depressions form a continuous grid, in the cells of which hummocks occur, similar to islands that are elongated through a series of parallel chains. To study the internal structure of thufurs, we laid a soil section between the tops of two hummocks, cutting the depression located between them. The section revealed the layered framework, which was disrupted by a wedge-shaped structure in the micro-depression (Fig. 3). The top layer was represented by a dense, bound turf with a 3–5 cm thickness. Under the sod, we found a dark-gray loam (lightening to the bottom), root-permeated, moistened, with crushed stone inclusions; its thickness in the micro-depression was up to 50 cm. In micro-elevations, its thickness increased by the height of the hummock and reached 100 cm. From 50 to 95 cm, there was a bluish-gray wet clay with red spots; inclusions of crushed stone; and dark thin, sinuous interlayers. From a depth of 80 cm, water began to seep out of the wall, and immediately after opening the soil cut it, and settled at the level of 78 cm.

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Fig. 3 Schematic internal structure of the Tuzlukkol thufur complex. Legend: 1—turf, 2—darkgray clay loam, 3—bluish-gray clay, 4—ground vein, 5—groundwater level. Source Compiled by the authors

In micro-depression, we revealed a pronounced humus-permeated wedge with a U-like spreading in the upper part, 60 cm width. That spreading at a depth of 45 cm abruptly narrowed to 14 cm, and at a depth of 55 cm, transformed into a narrow S-shaped crack that went below the groundwater to a depth of 84 cm. The ground vein was filled with a humus-permeated light gray material that differed from the surrounding material in a lighter granulometric composition and loose structure. A similar ground vein was also found in a section laid higher up the slope in micro-depression. In winter, the processes of ice formation and differential frost heaving are typical for thufurs. Field surveys have shown that ice schlieren (ice-formed roof pendants) are formed only within micro-elevations. Here, the cryogenic texture of rocks has a thin-schlieren and layered pattern; the texture is created by ice schlieren 0.5–1 mm thick, repeating each 2–4 mm. Ice schlieren were located horizontally.

4 Discussion It is currently accepted that thufurs occur in areas with no permanent snow cover in winter, resulting in uneven seasonal soil freezing. Some areas begin to freeze earlier, and soil moisture migrates to them. The next stage is a frosty heaving and the creation of a bump due to the formation of small lenses of ice (Gorbunova 1985; Gravis et al. 1974). Another mechanism is possible, when the first freezing in the absence of snow can begin along frost-breaking cracks or drying cracks, if they are open. The cold air can penetrate them, resulting in a semi-enclosed space formation. The consequence is that the soil is forced up between the cracks (Bondarev 1978). The age of hummocks is also interpreted ambiguously. A number of authors consider them to be Holocene short-lived formations that can easily be destroyed and resumed again with small fluctuations in the hydrological regime (Gorbunov et al. 1999). Zoltai and Tarnocai,

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after studying thufur fields in the Mackenzie valley, concluded that where permafrost is absent, thufurs are relict in nature (Washburn 1988). In our opinion, it is not possible to explain the strictly ordered, polygonal arrangement of thufurs (up to 2.5 m across and separated up to 50 cm wide) only by modern cryogenic processes. We consider thufurs to be relict formations that inherited the polygonal structure of the permafrost relief distributed in the Late Pleistocene across cryolithozone in tundra-steppes. Their formation was predetermined by frostbreaking cracks that dissected the surface into polygons of about 2–3 m in size and the development of polygonal wedge ice in the grid cracks in the late Pleistocene. After thawing of polygonal wedge ice, as a result of permafrost degradation during the transition from the Pleistocene to the Holocene, the frozen massif broke up into block remnants separated by narrow, deep depressions. The paleo-cryogenic genesis of the microrelief is confirmed by the presence of wedge-shaped ground structures confined to the depressions between the hummocks. The fact that ground veins are permafrost forms and not desiccation cracks is proved by their shape, characteristic “tails,” and the nature of embedding and filling with enclosing and overlapping deposits, and also their location in the gley layer below the groundwater level. The strictly ordered polygonal location of hummocks also indicates their paleo-cryogenic genesis. Our field research conducted during the winter period confirms that thufurs are currently “active” (i.e., they are undergoing the processes of differentiated frost heaving with the formation of segregational ice schlieren). First and foremost, this was caused by the microrelief. During winter frosts, the hummocks start cooling more intensively than the surrounding flat-bottomed depressions that are covered here with accumulated snow. The cooled hummocks draw moisture from neighboring areas more intensively. Additional excess moisture within the hummocks gradually crystallizes, forming ice schlieren. Second, this fact is caused by the complexity (cryogenic spotting) of the soil cover. Thufur fields have a complex soil cover in the form of ring-shaped, rhythmically repeating elementary soil areas subject to paleocryogenic relief elements (humps and hollows). Fine-dispersed rocks are confined to hummocks; in depressions, the rocks have a lighter granulometric composition and loose structure. In winter, the fine sediments of the hummocks are characterized by ice formation and heaving. Pleistocene cryogenesis prepared the basis in the form of microrelief and soil cover complexity for differentiated frost heaving.

5 Conclusion Our research suggests the role of late Pleistocene permafrost in the distribution of thufur fields in the Southern Cis-Urals. Thufurs are unique forms of microrelief in the steppe biome that combine ancient and modern permafrost features. Their formation is predetermined by the late Pleistocene dissection of the surface by frost-breaking cracks, the growth of polygonal wedge ice in them, and the development of a complex

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soil cover after their thawing in the Holocene. In the steppe biome, thufurs currently function as migration (segregation) permafrost mounds in conditions of cold and dry winters in areas with high soil moisture. Acknowledgements The work was done as part of the Steppe Institute Research Theme No. AAAA-A17-117012610022-5 and under the RFFR grant No. 20-05-00556.

References Bekhterev IA (2000) Encyclopedia of the Orenburg Region. Orenburg Literary Agency, Orenburg, Russia Berdnikov VV (1976) Paleo-cryogenic microrelief in the center of the Russian Plain. Nauka, Moscow, USSR Bertran P, Andrieux E, Antoine P, Coutard S, Deschodt L, Gardère P, Hernandez M, Legentil C, Lenoble A, Liard M, Mercier N (2014) Distribution and chronology of Pleistocene permafrost features in France: database and first results. Boreas 43:699–711. https://doi.org/10.1111/bor. 12025 Bondarev IV (1978) On thufurs of the Caucasus. In Gorbunov AP (ed) Cryogenic Phenomena of high mountains. Nauka, Siberian Branch, Novosibirsk, USSR, pp 36–42 Chibilyov AA (1995) Nature of the Orenburg Region. The South Urals Publishing, Orenburg, Russia French HM (2007) The periglacial environment. Wiley, Chichester, UK Gorbunov AP, Seversky EV, Titkov SN (1999) Thufurs of mountains and plains in Kazakhstan. Earth’s Cryosphere 3:23–30 Gorbunova IA (1985) Cryogenesis of soils in the Steppe Zone of Kazakhstan (Ph.D. thesis in Geography Science). Moscow State University, Moscow, USSR Gravis GF, Zabolotnik SI, Sukhodrowsky VL (1974) Geocryological conditions of the Mongolian People’s Republic. Nauka Publishing, Moscow, USSR Mudrov YuV (2007) Permafrost phenomena in the cryolithozone of plains and mountains. Scientific World Publishing, Moscow, Russia Ryabukha AG (2016) The use of remote sensing data in the study of Relic cryogenic morphosculpture in the common Szyrt and Cis-Urals steppe province. Bull Orenburg Sci Center, Ural Branch of RAS 4. Retrieved from http://elmag.uran.ru:9673/magazine/Numbers/2016-4/Articles/RAG2016-4.pdf Vandenberghe J, French HM, Gorbunov A, Marchenko S, Velichko AA, Jin H, Cui Z, Zhang T, Wan X (2014) The last permafrost maximum (LPM) map of the Northern hemisphere: permafrost extent and mean annual air temperatures, 25–17 ka BP. Boreas 43:652–666. https://doi.org/10. 1111/bor.12070 Velichko AA (1965) Cryogenic relief of the late Pleistocene periglacial zone (cryolithozone) in Eastern Europe. In: Gromov VI (ed) Quaternary Period and its history. Nauka, Moscow, USSR, pp 104–120 Velichko AA (1973) Natural processes in the Pleistocene. Nauka Publishing, Moscow, USSR Washburn AL (1988) Geocryology. A survey of periglacial processes and environments (Transl. from English). Progress Publishing, Moscow, USSR

The Effect of Hydrogen Sulfide on the Activity of Thymocytes Irina S. Rozhkova

Abstract The research relevance is determined by the deterioration of the environment associated with atmospheric air pollution with sulfur—containing compounds. There are no research data on age—related and specific features of thymus tissue reactions to chronic sour gas intoxication and the dynamics of free radical oxidation processes caused by stress. Besides, in most works devoted to studying the thymus, the description of its anatomy is not based on age and variant morphology. This fact may affect the objective assessment of the research results obtained during experimental studies of this organ. The purpose of this article is to investigate the rhythmic activity of protein synthesis and peculiarities of free-radical processes in rat thymus tissue in postnatal ontogenesis under chronic intoxication. The chronobiological and biochemical research methods allowed me to assess age—related peculiarities of thymus tissue ultradian rhythms under normal conditions and in chronic intoxication with sulfur—containing natural gas. The identified fluctuations in the levels of total protein, albumin, and globulin can be characterized as ultradian rhythms with periods from 20 to 30 min. Experimental data showed that the resistance of thymus tissue decreases with age, and the antioxidant system is depleted in conditions of chronic intoxication. The research is significant for the development of methods for correcting adverse effects in conditions of intoxication. Keywords Ultradian rhythms · Thymus · Rats · Chronic intoxication · Protein synthesis

1 Introduction All living systems comply with the spatio—temporal design (Brodskiy 2014). In this regard, the relevance of the chronobiological approach in the study of ontogenesis is currently increasing. I. S. Rozhkova (B) Astrakhan State Medical University of the Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation, Astrakhan, Russia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 S. G. Maximova et al. (eds.), Advances in Natural, Human-Made, and Coupled Human-Natural Systems Research, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 250, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-78083-8_3

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Among all biological rhythms, ultradian rhythms play a particular role. They do not have evident exogenous initiators but still act as significant oscillators (Brodskiy 2014). Ultradian rhythms are primarily endogenous. They are associated with the specifics of cellular metabolism, reflecting its instability, and being a significant marker of morphological maturity and functional activity of tissues (Brodskiy et al., 2000; Brodskiy et al., 2003; Brodskiy et al., 2004; Brodskiy et al., 2005) in normal conditions and under the influence of stressful anthropogenic factors (Rozhkova et al. 2016; Yushkov et al. 1999). Hydrogen sulfide, contained in the natural gas of the Astrakhan Gas Condensate Pool, is highly toxic to living organisms (Boev and Setko 2001; Dotsenko and Serdyukov 2007). Due to the high permeability of hydrogen sulfide through blood— tissue barriers and its ability to form low diluted sulfides, enzymes are inhibited, and acid—base balance changes (Dubinina 2001; Rao et al. 1990; Shishkina et al. 2018). A change in the balance between the synthesis and destruction of peroxide and high concentration of free radicals in the thymus tissue leads to a decrease in oxygen uptake and, as a result, to the development of energy deficiency and oxidative stress (Rozhkova et al. 2015; Wallace and Wang 2015). Hydrogen sulfide causes acute tissue hypoxia by inhibiting electron transport in mitochondria through strong binding to iron in cytochrome oxidase molecules (Mazhitova 2012; Polunin et al. 1999; Fukami et al. 2017). The intensity of the protective reactions of the organism to external influences largely depends on the morphofunctional condition of the tissues (Schulber and Piasecki 2001). In chronic intoxication, sulfur—containing pollutants also express their effect on the circulating blood volume, disrupting the metabolic processes between the microcirculatory bloodstream and cells (Yaroshinskaya 2011). The review of the scholarship shows that there are no data on the reactions of ultradian rhythms of total protein, albumin, and globulin in rat thymus tissue under normal conditions and in chronic sour gas intoxication. The study examines the functional activity of male rat tissues under normal conditions under chronic exposure to natural gas from the Astrakhan field.

2 Materials and Methods As the research object, I selected 90 outbred male white rats. All animals were kept in a vivarium with free access to water and food. The studied animals were divided into two groups: control and experimental. Then, according to the age of the experimental and intact animals were still divided into three subgroups: (1) young (immature) individuals, (2) sexually mature, and (3) old rats. Studies were conducted on animals in the autumn–winter period to exclude the influence of seasonal rhythms. Experimental animals were subjected to chronic exposure to hydrogen sulfide— containing natural gas from the Astrakhan field at a concentration of 90 ± 4 mg/m3 for six weeks with a duration of four hours per day. I placed the control rats in the

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same chambers for the duration of the experiment, but with the composition of the respiratory mixture that did not contain natural gas impurities. After the end of the experiment, I intraperitoneally injected the animals with sodium ethaminal at a dose of 5 mg per 100 g of body weight and decapitated them, after which I isolated thymus tissue. I collected the material at intervals every 20 min for 3 h from the end of the experiment. I prepared the thymus tissue homogenate on a phosphate buffer pH 7.45 0.07 M immediately before measurement in the Downs homogenizer. I used the biuret method (Menshikov 1973) to determine the protein content in thymus tissue homogenates using a Bekman Spectrophotometer (USA) in the wavelength range of 500–560 nm. When determining the level of albumin in thymus tissue homogenates, I applied a unified method based on albumin interaction with green bromocresol. I carried out the measurements on a Bekman Spectrophotometer (USA) in the wavelength range of 630–690 nm. I also recorded the indicators of free radical processes according to the method of I. D. Steel, T. T. Garishvili in the modification of E. Stroeva and V. Makarova: the initial lipid peroxidation (POL) according to the level of malondialdehyde (MDA) in nmol/0.05 g of fresh tissue mass, the rate of spontaneous (Sp. POL) and ascorbate—dependent (Asc. POL) in nmol of the formed MDA in the sample during 1 h of incubation. Besides, I determined the oxidative modification of proteins (OMB) in blood plasma using the method of E. E. Dubinina and S. O. Burmistrova based on the reaction of the interaction of oxidized amino acid residues of proteins with 2.4—dinitrophenylhydrazine with the formation of colored derivatives of dinitrophenylhydrazone, determined at a wavelength of 270 nm also on the Beckman spectrophotometer (USA). Mathematical processing of rhythmic processes in the tissues of the spleen was done using the computer program Cosinor Ellipse 2006, which records the main indicators of rhythm: (1) periods and amplitude of oscillations, (2) acrophase, and (3) mesor. When determining the significance of differences between two average or relative values, I used the Student’s t—test. To process the research data, I applied Microsoft Excel 2007.

3 Results The detected fluctuations in total protein, albumin, and globulin level can be characterized as ultradian with periods from 20 to 30 min. Under the conditions of intoxication, I observed a significant inhibition of the synthetic activity of the studied proteins in all age groups. For example, compared to the control group, the total protein content in young experimental animals decreased by 7%, and albumin—by 46% from the average. There is also a decrease in the amplitude of the response, total protein level by 28%, and the level of albumin by 22%. These indicators show a low level of synchronization in the thymus tissues of young animals, which would ensure their optimal functioning in conditions of chronic intoxication.

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In older animals, the dynamics of the total protein and albumin content in the thymus tissue retain ultradian rhythmicity under intoxication conditions. However, with intoxication, there is significant inhibition of the synthetic activity of the studied proteins. Therefore, compared to the control group, the total protein level is reduced by 77% and albumin—by 45% from the average. Intoxication reduces the response amplitude fluctuations in the total protein level by 12.5% but increases the amplitude response fluctuations in albumin level by 16%, thereby changing the rhythmic curve that is probably due to its primary function as a transport protein. In the case of chronic intoxication in the thymus tissues of older animals, I observed the inhibition of enzymatic systems and the transport of cellular proteins and the inhibition of synthetic activity at the cellular and tissue levels. In the experimental group, there was a decrease in total protein level by 11% and albumin—by 48% from the average compared to the control group. Analysis of free radical oxidation processes in the thymus tissue shows that there are age—related functional features of the immune system in different periods of ontogenesis. Comparison of the control values of lipid peroxidation revealed that the number of substances reacting with thiobarbituric acid decreases with age from 7.32 ± 0.357 to 3.96 ± 0.457 µmol/mg (P < 0.05). I registered Sp. LPD and Asc. LPD enhancement in young rats compared to adult rats from 20.634 ± 2.1 to 55.57 ± 0.932 nmol/h (Sp. LPD) and from 18.76 ± 0.316 to 66.17 ± 0.553 nmol/h (Asc. LPD). An increase in the LPD intensity and oxidative modification of thymus tissue proteins explain oxidative stress reaction to exotoxic effects. Chronic sour gas intoxication increases the oxidative modification of protein (POM) in the thymus tissue of young animals from 0.26 ± 0.191 unit/mg of protein to 0.85 ± 0.040 unit/mg of protein (P < 0.01); the increase is more significant in thymus tissue of older rates—from 0.09 ± 0.044 unit/mg of protein to 0.73 ± 0.118 unit/mg of protein (P < 0.001). The research results are presented in Table 1. I recorded the enhancement of sp. LPD and asc. LPD (P < 0.05) in the thymus tissue of older rats compared to the thymus tissue of young rats from 40.11 ± 0.448 to 120.00 ± 0.693 nmol/h (sp. LPD) and from 52.7 ± 0.810 to 195.97 ± 0.694 nmol/h (asc. LPD).

4 Discussion Comparing the age—related features of the modifications of the rhythmic curves, I noticed that in older animals, the amplitude of the thymus protein fluctuation is lower than in young animals. This trend is probably due to a more “economical” mode of thymocyte activity and a high degree of synchronization. In older animals, the amplitude of protein fluctuations is lower than in adult and young animals at all stages of the experiment, which may be explained by the involutory activity of the thymus.

3.22 ± 0.346

55.57 ± 0.932

7.32 ± 0.357

66.17 ± 0.553

Initial LPD µmol/mg

Sp. LPD µmol/mg

Initial LPD µmol/mg

Asc. LPD nmol/h

Adult animals

Young animals

32.05 ± 0.722

Sp. LPD nmol/h 38.32 ± 0.584

Asc. LPD nmol/h

3.96 ± 0.457

Initial LPD µmol/mg

Older animals

20.30 ± 0.634

Sp. LPD nmol/h

18.76 ± 0.316

Asc. LPD nmol/h

Note Control—control group, Experimental—a group of animals exposed to sour gas; * p < 0.05–0.001 compared to control values Source Compiled by the author.

Experimental 4.44 ± 0.349* 40.11 ± 0.448* 52.70 ± 0.810* 4.69 ± 0.822* 30.00 ± 0.598* 48.32 ± 0.595* 18.90 ± 0.712* 120.00 ± 0.693* 195.97 ± 0.694*

Control

Group

Table 1 The level of free radical processes in the thymus tissue of rats of different ages (M ± m)

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The consequences of the development of oxidative stress allow me to formulate the goal of protecting the processes of free radical generation based on the use of corrective antioxidants.

5 Conclusion The change in the ultradian rhythms is mainly related to the amplitude of the fluctuation; it has practically no effect on the ultradian rhythm period and has a reversible nature. Chronic sour gas intoxication increases the number of free radical oxidation products and reduces the antioxidant protection of thymus tissues. The obtained research data indicate the practical value of using the antioxidant complex in conditions of chronic intoxication.

References Boev VM, Setko NP (2001) Sulfide compounds of natural gas and their effect on organism. Medicine, Moscow, Russia Brodskiy VY (2014) Circahoralian (ultradian) metabolic rhythms. Biochemistry 79(6):483–495 Brodsky VY, Nechaeva NV, Zvezdina ND, Fateeva VI, Malchenko LA (2004) Small cooperative activity of old rat hepatocytes may depend on the composition of the intercellular medium. Cell Biol Int 28(4):311–316 Brodsky VY, Zvezdina ND, Nechaeva NV, Novikova TE, Gvasava IG, Fateeva VI, Gracheva H (2003) Loss of hepatocyte co-operative activity after inhibition of ganglioside GM1 synthesis and shedding. Cell Biol Int 27(11):935–942. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cellbi.2003.08.003 Brodsky VY, Nechaeva NV, Zvezdina ND, Prokazova NV, Golovanova NK, Novikova TE, Gvasava IG, Fateeva VI (2000) Ganglioside-mediated metabolic synchronization of protein synthesis activity in cultured hepatocytes. Cell Biol Int 24(4):211–222 Brodsky VY, Zvezdina ND, Nechaeva NV, Novikova TE, Gvasava IG, Fateeva VI (2005) The single short-term signal that enhances the cooperative activity of old rat hepatocytes acts for several days. Cell Biol Int 29(11):971–975 Dotsenko YI, Serdyukov VG (2007) Occupational hygiene during sour natural gas processing. Astrakhan Med J 2(2):71–72 Dubinina EE (2001) The role of reactive oxygen species as signal molecules in tissue metabolism in oxidative stress. Med Chem Issues 47(6):561–581 Fukami K, Sekiguchi F, Kawabata A (2017) Hydrogen sulfide and T-type Ca2+ channels in pain processing, neuronal differentiation, and neuroendocrine secretion. Pharmacology 99(3–4):196– 203 Mazhitova MV (2012) Free radical processes and antioxidant protection of different CNS parts during postnatal ontogenesis of white rats in normal conditions and under exposure of industrial Sulphur containing pollutants (Dissertation of Doctor of Biological Sciences). Astrakhan State Medical Academy, Astrakhan, Russia Menshikov VV (1973) Methodological guidelines for standard clinical laboratory methods of research application. Medicine, Moscow, Russia. Polunin IN, Asfandiyarov RI, Trizno NN (1999) Toxic pulmonary edema at acute sour gas intoxication. Astrakhan State Medical Academy, Astrakhan, Russia

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Rao G, Xia E, Richardson A (1990) Effect of age on the expression of antioxidant enzymes in male Fischer 344 rats. Mech Ageing Dev 53(1):49–60 Rozhkova IS, Teplyi BV, Feldman BV (2015) The analysis of morphophysiological changes of thymus in chronic intoxication and application of antioxidants. Astrakhan Med J 10(4):73–78 Rozhkova IS, Teplyi BV, Feldman BV (2016) The process of apoptosis in thymus cells in chronic intoxication at different stages of ontogenesis. Morphology 149(3):172–173 Schulber D, Piasecki D (2001) Oxidative glutamate toxicity can be a component of the excitotoxicity cascade. J Neurosci 21(19):7455–7462 Shishkina TA, Naumova LI, Davlatova IS (2018) Vascular reaction of the small intestinal wall to anthropogenic factors. Sci Theor Med J “Morphol” 153(3):323 Wallace JL, Wang R (2015) Hydrogen sulfide-based therapeutics: exploiting a unique but ubiquitous gasotransmitter. Nat Rev Drug Discov 14(5):329–345 Yaroshinskaya AP (2011) Functional and morphological condition of plasma and erythrocytes in young, adult, and older age in normal conditions and under sulfur containing pollutants exposure (Dissertation of Doctor of Biological Sciences). Astrakhan State Medical Academy, Astrakhan, Russia Yushkov BG, Klimin VG, Severin MV (1999) Blood system and stressful simulation of an organism. Ural Department of Russian Academy of Sciences, Yekaterinburg, Russia

Advances in Coupled Human-Natural Systems Research

The Comfort Potential and Development Prospects of Cities in the Steppe Zone of Russia Using the Index Method Svetlana A. Dubrovskaya , Roman V. Ryakhov , and Vladimir M. Pavleychik

Abstract The paper presents the results of assessing the comfort potential and development prospects of urbanized geosystems in the steppe zone of Russia based on the developed geographic information index. It is necessary to reduce the anthropogenic load on the environment to ensure a comfortable and sustainable living environment in cities. Urban green areas are an essential part of the well-being and health of citizens. The index was calculated based on indicators of the total area of technical geosystems of the territory, consisting of the sum of the areas of individual functional zones and the ratio of existing and planned natural and anthropogenic components to territories suitable for expanding green zones. We constructed cartographic models reflecting the differentiation of the territory of urbanized geosystems. Also, we identified areas with negative index values, where it is impossible (or minimally possible) to “green” the territory due to the high density of existing anthropogenic geosystems. Low positive indexes (from 0 to 0.5) refer to urban landscapes that are relatively suitable for planting trees and shrubs. The closer the positive value of the indicator is to 1, the higher the potential for recreational zones development, and the lower the existing anthropogenic load of a set of technogenic subsystems. Calculation of index values for the studied cities showed significant differences in the planning structure, spatial and temporal development of infrastructure, and the relief of the Volgograd and Orenburg urban landscapes. Keywords Urban landscapes · Anthropogenic load · Geographic information index · Green areas · Functional zoning · Steppe zone

S. A. Dubrovskaya · R. V. Ryakhov (B) · V. M. Pavleychik Institute of Steppe of the Ural Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Orenburg, Russia e-mail: [email protected] S. A. Dubrovskaya e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 S. G. Maximova et al. (eds.), Advances in Natural, Human-Made, and Coupled Human-Natural Systems Research, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 250, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-78083-8_4

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1 Introduction The accumulated knowledge in geoecology, geomorphology of urban landscapes, combined with environmental risks, reveals the current problems of the relationship between humanity and nature. The scholarship in this field is due to the need to develop and implement urban programs for the effective management of natural and human-made space, monitoring the state of biological and landscape systems to maintain and improve the quality of the urban environment. A high-quality environment is necessary to ensure comfortable living conditions for humans and other living beings (Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment of the Russian Federation 2003). The assessment should be based on criteria reflecting the social, economic, natural, and environmental factors in the formation of a high-quality urban environment. Differentiated integrated assessment of urban areas can only be achieved with a combination of two approaches, considering the specifics of a particular city and environmental conditions: (1) assessment of the deviation of the environment from the norm; (2) analysis of the degree of comfort and safety of the environment for human life. In the steppe zone cities, arid climate is combined with low afforestation. The anthropogenic component is superimposed on this natural factor: (1) high building density, (2) a minimum of green spaces, (3) surface coating with artificial materials, (3) industrial areas, and (4) traffic flow. These factors affect the microclimatic features of cities, which is a crucial component of creating a comfortable environment for citizens. It is necessary to introduce the maximum number of green areas into the artificial space, preserve and reconstruct the existing ones to improve the situation. There are no generally accepted methods for integrated urban environment assessment (Khomich et al. 2013). Many Russian and foreign researchers have developed and tested methods at the regional level (Bush and Doyon 2019; Kostin et al. 2016; Tikunov and Chereshnya 2017; Eprintsev 2013, 2014). The federal project Formation of a Comfortable Urban Environment and the national project Housing and Urban Environment developed a methodology for the formation of an urban environment quality index (Government of the Russian Federation 2019). This method allows one to determine the quality of the urban environment by calculating an integral indicator for each Russian city. To determine the quality of the urban environment, we used 36 indicators of the state of the urbanized territories and the living conditions of people. Assessment criteria are (1) the quality of the air basin, (2) water resources, (3) soil cover, (4) public health (Vinogradov et al. 2014). An essential step in the comprehensive analysis of the potential of ecological development of cities is the synthesis of different values of individual diagnostic indicators: (1) morphometric parameters, (2) features and trends of urban landscapes, (3) classification of functional zoning, and (4) modeling of correlations. Geoinformation mapping of the spatio-temporal structure of technical geosystems and its morphometric features reflect (1) the differentiation of the environment, (2) development patterns of technogenic influences, (3) processes and dynamics of the state of the urban environment (Yermolaev and Selivanov 2014). It is crucial to develop scientific methods to ensure environmental

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monitoring of the urban environment using geoinformation databases. To solve these problems, one can also use traditional mathematical models and software systems for the thematic processing of spatial information.

2 Materials and Methods The study develops a geoinformation index of the potential for a comfortable urban environment, taking into account the current and future anthropogenic load of cities in the steppe zone. Besides, we aim to build index cartographic models for the territories of the cities of Volgograd and Orenburg. The initial data were obtained from the phased processing of geographic information. Digital terrain models based on Aster or Global Digital Elevation Model [GDEM] data were adopted based on the spatial differentiation of urban landscapes by morphometric indicators. Also, we created a geoinformation database, including the features of horizontal and vertical differentiation, processed on the basis of an automated algorithm of artificial neural networks [ANN] in the ScanEx IMAGE Processor v.5.0 software package. To achieve our goals, we used the morphometric information of the values of heights, exposure, and curvature of the slopes. The classification was performed to determine the similarity of ANN nodes and genetic types of relief (landscape structure, Sls ) using the non-parametric method of self-organizing maps of Kohonen (Kohonen 2013). We constructed cartographic models of geomorphological zoning of urbanized territories, including 36 (Volgograd) and 15 (Orenburg) classes of typological units of landscape relief with a single set of characteristics. The cartographic landscape base was combined with modern functional zoning. Furthermore, spatial models of urbanized geosystems that determine the state of the natural, anthropogenic complex were created. To calculate the index of the potential for the development of comfort in the urban environment, we need comprehensive information on the distribution of functional zones and landscape structures. The formula uses the indicator of the total area of technical geosystems of the territory, consisting of the sum of the areas of individual functional zones (1): Sgts = Sra + S pb + Sind + Str + Ssp + S pd where: S S ra S pb S ind S tr S sp S pd

area; residential areas; public business development; industrial areas; transport infrastructure; lands for special purposes; areas of potential development and renovation.

(1)

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The Comfort Development Potential Index [CDPI] is calculated by the formula (2): CDPI =

Sls − Sgts − Sg Sgts − Sg   − S +S Sls Sls ∗ 1 + gtsSls g

(2)

where: S g the area of green areas of common use and natural forests; S ls the unit area of the landscape structure. We assessed the comfort potential of an urban landscape based on calculating the ratio of existing and projected natural and anthropogenic components to territories suitable for expanding green zones. The results obtained can justify an increase in existing recreational areas without changing the land use structure. The CDPI can take both positive and negative numerical values that determine the potential for ecological development of the urban environment within a landscape unit. The closer the positive value of the indicator is to 1, the higher the development potential of recreational zones, and the lower the existing anthropogenic load of a set of technogenic subsystems. The proportion of green areas (Sg ) is an important indicator of urban comfort in terms of technogenic pressure on the urban environment. Green areas, parks, and gardens of the urban agglomeration are vital for the environmental sustainability of urban landscapes.

3 Results and Discussion The results obtained allowed us to carry out an objective differentiation of the territory of urban geosystems and identify the landscapes that require effective environmental measures to increase the comfort of living. They are determined by the maximum index indicators (from 0.5 and above). Based on the developed scheme, we identified areas with negative values, where it is impossible (or minimally possible) to “green” the territory due to the high density of existing anthropogenic geosystems. Low positive indexes (from 0 to 0.5) relate to urban landscapes that are relatively suitable for planting trees and shrubs. They combine densely built-up residential neighborhoods with forest parks and agricultural areas, creating conditions for the reconstruction and expansion of green areas. Map models of geosystems of the urbanized steppe zone were created based on the method of calculating the CDPI. The first research object is Volgograd, which is characterized by negative and low positive index values (Fig. 1).

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Fig. 1 Map of the results of calculating the geoinformation index of the comfort potential of the urban environment on the territory of Volgograd city: I—relief types 1.1–1.2—accumulative (low-floodplain), 2.1—accumulative (high-floodplain), 3.1–3.6—floodplain-terraced (Khvalynsky abrasion and accumulative terraces), 4.1–4.26—watershed (near-ravines and near-watershed slopes of the Volga Upland), 5.1—watershed (southern part of the Volga Upland); II—water objects. Source Compiled by the authors

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The territory of the city includes accumulative landscapes of the river island, which differ from the main areas of development in terms of the calculated index. Features of morphometric and functional characteristics of the right bank of the river Volga (narrow coastal strip, hydraulic structures, industrial, and recreational facilities) affect the low values of the index. This part of the landscape structure is unsuitable for increasing the comfort of urban space. The island part of the accumulative floodplain landscape is characterized by positive index values, where it is advisable to carry out project work to restore and improve the ecological state of the territory. The high part of the Sarpinsky Island floodplain is characterized by a lower potential for developing a comfortable environment due to the agricultural impact. River island ecosystems are vital for increasing the comfort of the urban landscape. The lowest values of the index relate to floodplain terraces, shallow near-water ravines, and near-water slopes, including dense residential areas. The intensity of the values increases from North to South (from −0.4 to −0.2) and when the relative height of the relief from the riverbed increases (from −0.4 to 0.6). The maximum index values are confined to the slopes of the southern exposition with high surface slope values. The southern part of the Volga Upland, the slightly inclined elevated plain of the Volga-Don interfluve, differs in the heterogeneity of the calculation results. Values vary from −0.4 in the area adjacent to the historical part of the city to 0.3 in the northern and southern parts. The watershed territory includes a high area of trees and shrubs, but they require reorganization and expansion. The second research object is the city of Orenburg. The index values of the comfort development potential are significantly higher than the previous urbanized geosystem of the steppe zone (Fig. 2). Calculating the index within the Ural-Sakmar interfluve, we noticed stable positive values (up to 0.7). This type of relief includes territories of the potential development of urbanized geosystems (planned multi-floor, business, and industrial buildings) and the central area of urban agricultural land. Weakly shallow watershed slopes are the center of modern urbanization activity. They stand out close to zero and negative values of the index from −0.4 to 0.2. The accumulative denudation type of relief is represented by two steep slopes in the valleys of the Urals (Belovsky Yar) and Sakmara (near Mayak Mountain). The first section is located in the historical center of the city and is part of the recreational complex of the city embankment. It includes a loose array of tree stands (index value 0.35). With proper urban planning, this facility has the potential to develop a green zone. According to morphometric indicators, the territory near Mount Mayak is characterized by surface slopes of more than seven degrees and isolation, having a highly positive index of 0.74. Among the objects of the accumulative complex, the main potential for expanding and improving the condition of green zones is in the low floodplains of the Ural and Sakmara rivers (index values up to 0.75). Heterogeneous indicators characterize high floodplain areas. The least potential refers to prospective development in the Urals valley (up to −0.2), which are periodically flooded. At the same time, it is planned to increase the

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Fig. 2 Map of the results of calculating the geoinformation index of the development potential of the comfort of the urban environment of Orenburg. On the map: I—relief types 1.1–1.2—denudation (top watershed surfaces of the Ural-Sakmar interfluve), 2.1–2.3—erosion-denudation (subhorizontal drive-divide slopes of the Ural-Sakmar and Ural-Ilek interfluves), 3.1–3.2—accumulativedenudation, 4.1–4.4—accumulative (floodplain complex of the Ural and Sakmara rivers), 5.1–5.4 – accumulative (terrace complex of the Ural and Sakmara rivers); II—water objects. Source Compiled by the authors

share of residential areas and turn agricultural territories into cottage settlements. The index within river terraces, with the current structure of anthropogenic landscapes, takes extremely negative values. Resource expansion of green areas on river terraces is impossible due to the lack of promising sites.

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Under similar climatic conditions of the steppe zone, the cities under consideration have discrepancies in calculating the index. This phenomenon is related to the historical, landscape, and administrative features of the territory’s development. The expansion of Volgograd occurred with an increase in the length of the city along the accumulative terraces with a weak coverage of the watershed space. The entire area of the municipality is formed according to the functional purpose scheme, which does not contribute to further expanding the ecological framework within the administrative boundaries. The presence of ravine network objects creates natural corridors connecting floodplain and watershed spaces. The historical part of Orenburg is located in a relatively limited space (the place where two river systems merge) at the western border of the city. The general plan established the expansion of territorial zones to the east towards the former agricultural land on the gentle slopes of the Ural-Sakmara interfluve. Not all prospective sites have information on land use. The high density of capital development of river terraces does not allow the creation of ecological corridors from the floodplain to the watershed landscapes.

4 Conclusion The urban environment is continually developing natural and technogenic geosystems. Its functioning is unpredictable, and the processes of interaction of its multicomponent structure require further study. In this regard, there is a need to reduce or isolate the degree of anthropogenic load on the urban landscape with maximum preservation of the natural component. Based on the existing functional division of urban space, it is necessary to create new green zones and reconstruct the old ones that improve the comfort of the natural and technogenic geosystem. According to the research results, the use of the index of the potential for the development of comfort of the urban environment allowed us to highlight the features of differentiation of urbanized territories of the steppe zone of Russia. The main property of the developed CDPI takes into account the intensity of anthropogenic load. Besides, this index determines territories that require improvement of the environmental situation. It defines territorial structures suitable for creating a connection between cultural and natural landscapes, renovating existing and creating new forest parks, and organizing a natural and ecological network of steppe cities. Calculations of index values for the cities studied showed significant differences in the planning structure, the spatiotemporal development of infrastructure, and the natural components of the landscape. The developed methodology allows us to determine the share of complex differentiated urbanized landscapes and the potential possibility of expanding the existing green zones without changing the approved land use structure in the general plans of municipalities. Acknowledgements The study was carried out as part of the research plan of IS UB RAS No. AAAA-A17-117012610022-5.

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References Bush J, Doyon A (2019) Building urban resilience with nature-based solutions: How can urban planning contribute? Cities 95:102483. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2019.102483 Eprintsev SA (2013) Geoecological aspects of environmental quality of urban territories. Bull Tomsk State Univ 18(2):596–601 Eprintsev SA (2014) Assessment of ecological comfort of population of urban territories. Bull Tomsk State Univ 19(5):1410–1412 Government of the Russian Federation (2019) Order of the Government of the Russian Federation On approval of the methodology for determining the urban environment quality index (March 23, 2019 No. 510-r). Moscow, Russia Khomich VS, Kakareka SV, Kukharchik TI, Kravchuk LA, Struk MI, Kadatskaya VO, Sanets EV (2013) The urban environment: geoecological aspects. Belaruskaya Navuka, Minsk, Belarus Kohonen T (2013) Essentials of the self-organizing map. Neural Netw 37:52–65 Kostin AM, Belov SA, Malev IV (2016) Peculiar features of influence of the modern ecological state of the city of Chelyabinsk on economic and architectural indexes of the territory. In: Rodionov AA (ed) Proceedings of ICIEP-2016: international conference on industrial engineering. Elsevier Ltd., Chelyabinsk, Russia, pp 2025–2030. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2016.07.287 Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment of the Russian Federation (2003) Guidelines for assessing the quality of the environment according to the condition of living things (assessment of the stability of the development of living organisms by the level of asymmetry of morphological structures) (October 16, 2003 No. 460-r). Moscow, Russia Tikunov VS, Chereshnya OYu (2017) Pollution index and environmental stress index in the regions of the Russian Federation. Theoretical Appl Ecol 3:34–38 Vinogradov PM, Kurolap SA, Klepikov OV (2014) Geoinformation support for medical and environmental monitoring of the urban environment (on the example of the city of Voronezh). Bull Voronezh State Univ Ser Geogr Geoecol 4:39–48 Yermolaev OP, Selivanov RN (2014) The use of automated geomorphological clustering for purposes of urban planning (the example of the city of Kazan). World Appl Sci J 30(11):1648– 1655. https://doi.org/10.5829/idosi.wasj.2014.30.11.14229

Developing Institutional Support for Rational Steppe Land Use Alexander A. Chibilev , Sergey V. Levykin , and Grigoriy V. Kazachkov

Abstract In this study, we analyzed, summarized, systemized, and specified the fundamental notions of greening in steppe land use, required for sustainable development in Central Asian steppe regions. We carried out expedition field studies; employed logical, comparative-historical, statistical, and cartographical methods. The paper proposes a systematization of fundamental concepts related to the problem. We believe that the steppe zone, especially the post-virgin land space, has accumulated considerable potential for sustainable development, the realization of which may require adapting socio-economic actions to the changing natural and climatic conditions. These transformations call for developments on the scale of a national project. We offer our view concerning the greening of steppe land use aimed at achieving these goals. This study presents fundamental concepts connected with the institutional bases of steppe land use in the context of sustainable development. Keywords Sustainable development · Greening · Steppe land use · Steppe ecological optimum · Optimization · Co-optimization · Institutional framework

1 Introduction The UN ideology of sustainable development has seen active development since the mid-twentieth century. Its emergence was caused by the worsening of the resource and ecological problems. The USSR supported these initiatives—for example, a nature conservation law was developed in the country. However, the state of nature management (and steppe land use above all) became significantly worse. The systemic crisis of the steppe, caused by extensive plowing, turned into a tough problem that only economic reforms could solve.

A. A. Chibilev · S. V. Levykin (B) · G. V. Kazachkov Orenburg Federal Research Center, Institute of Steppe Ural Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Orenburg, Russia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 S. G. Maximova et al. (eds.), Advances in Natural, Human-Made, and Coupled Human-Natural Systems Research, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 250, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-78083-8_5

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Ecological problems served as an impetus for the green movement. By the late1980s, sustainable development ideas received a new impulse when Russia intensified its participation in international nature conservation activities. Current nature conservation policies include the declaration of the “Year of Ecology,” realization of the “Ecology” national project, and the implementation of “green economics” projects in the Eurasian Customs Union (Khomich et al. 2019). Considering its territory and the amount of untouched land, Russia can become the largest “biosphere donor” globally. This means that the realization of sustainable development ideas is urgent. The contradictions between socio-economic development and environmental conservation survived even during the change of market paradigms. Thus arose the question—how could one satisfy the growing needs but save resources for the next generations? Holarctic grass ecosystems face the most problems, mainly due to their major role in agriculture. The history of Eurasian steppes and North American prairies are similar—they suffered extensive plowing that destroyed many native species but then underwent rehabilitation and self-rehabilitation. The tragic fate of the prairies (especially of the bison that inhabited them) briefly became the focus of national development, which promoted the development of institutes for the reconstruction and amelioration of prairies (Freese et al. 2007; Schramm 1990; Walker et al. 2018). Same as prairies, the steppe regions of Central Asia are subdivided into old-developed and post-virgin lands. The former has higher bioclimatic potential and offers more prosperous and stable agricultural development. However, it suffered an actual loss of potential for self-rehabilitation. Former virgin land regions in the eastern Eurasian steppes (analogous to the west of the Great Plains) have less bioclimatic potential and riskier agriculture. These features led to mass abandonment of fields and, therefore, higher potential for self-rehabilitation. However, prairies and steppes are somewhat different—prairies of North America experienced large-scale rehabilitation measures, while the steppes of Russia and Kazakhstan rehabilitated themselves on plots of arable land that were for five or more years (Brinkert et al. 2016; Kamp et al. 2016). We examined these processes, separated the main areas, detected conditions, and built models. The paper defines such fundamental notions of steppe science as (1) the steppe model and (2) the concept of main types of steppes. We analyzed the endangered species included in Red Lists and the Red Data Book and substantiated the necessity for nature conservation actions. These actions are necessary for preserving the species that inhabit secondary steppes, but the realization of actions requires proper institutional support. The self-healing of the steppe is a spontaneous natural process that started up due to a sharp reduction of sown areas and replaced the traditional methods of amelioration used on underproductive arable lands. Later, planted areas of the steppe zone (as opposed to the forest zone) were restored, and Russia became the largest exporter of wheat. Vast areas of secondary steppe remain the legacy of a unique natural-anthropogenic experiment on steppe self-rehabilitation. However, they could be lost soon due to existing agricultural laws and other factors. Therefore, we offer to consider and solve the problem of institutional support for steppe land use in the framework of sustainable development.

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We believe that the production of wheat and sunflower in these areas can even exceed the late-Soviet level. At the same time, one can notice a sharp reduction in perennial grass sowings. Such a scenario is not conducive to sustainable development even under the adaptation of intensive technologies, and preservation and reproduction of soil resources. Currently, there is a risk of degradation of major biological species and steppe landscapes. The results of our multi-year studies, carried out in the Volga and Ural regions of the steppe zone of Eurasia, indicate the necessity and opportunity to substantiate the changes in steppe land use with the systematic restoration of major steppe species and landscapes. Practical experience of steppe restoration confirms that some concepts should be specified. The concepts should be arranged into an integrated system of steppe greening. The institutional base of this system should become a driving force in improving the state of steppes according to sustainable development criteria.

2 Materials and Methods In this study, we used logical method; methods of comparative-historical, comparative-typological, and statistical analysis; cartographic methods including Earth remote sensing; and methods of landscape research.

3 Results In our previous study, we examined the consequences of the 20th-century steppe agricultural megaprojects. In this paper, we determined that the potential of steppe self-rehabilitation in the post-virgin land areas is high. The paper also revealed the principal areas and dynamics of virgin and secondary steppes that can become the centers of the steppe ecological framework. We also specified the concepts of steppe land use, steppe ecological optimum, optimization of steppe landscape, and arrangement of landscapes into an interconnected system. The optimum criteria should be coordinated with standards. Standards should become the basis for optimization principles and strategy development. Development and systematization of central concepts help clarify the institutional foundations of sustainable steppe land use.

3.1 Norms of Steppe Land Use The standards are mostly conventional. They decide the “rules of the game” that answer the question, “How many can one take from nature without damaging it and

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ruining it for future generations?”. The corresponding question for steppes is “How much can one plow?”. Even though Russian science of steppe land has certainly evolved since the seventeenth century (Dokuchaev 1949; Kompaneyets 1971), most farmers still operate in such terms due to the enormous agriculture needs of the country. Real positive achievement in the formation of steppe norms was the adoption of the grass rotation system in the 1930s–1950s. The agricultural standard at the time dictated that one-quarter of sown areas was to grow perennial grass. The situation changed under N. S. Khrushchev’s rule—the former norm was abolished, and the norm of extensive plowing was adopted. Initially, the Virgin Land Campaign was launched. It mandated plowing only 13–15 mln. hectares of steppe lands, but the actual plowed areas were three times as much. In the 1970s, plowing standards increased again. These standards required developing dead woodland shelterbelts, unplanned field roads, former settlements, and areas reserved for railways and motorways. The use of solonetz-steppe complexes for crops at 25–30% was the standard, but this rate was later increased to 40%. The country decided to use steppe solonetz and eroded lands in intensive agricultural turnover. For example, the government proposed to develop about 750 thousand hectares of such areas in the Orenburg Region. The norm of land share intensified the regulatory directive of the post-virgin land epoch. The late-Soviet land structure was institutionalized and preserved despite the agro-ecological normalization of plowing the territory (Chibilev 1992; Klimentiev 1997; Rusanov 2003). In the context of highly dynamic natural and socioeconomic parameters, we are convinced of the inadequacy of rigid standards, especially regarding land management. Instead, based on the works of F. N. Milikov and A. A. Chibilev, we propose a two-level set of geographical restrictions on plowing steppe areas, which be a contender for the future correlation norm of the main types of agricultural land. The first restriction is the Ivanov’s moisture index and the coefficient of reduction developed by us (Levykin and Kazachkov 2016). The values of those should be at least 0.3. The second level of restrictions is comprised of the following: • Flat compact area with nearby valleys or watershed plain steppe of 100 hectares or more; • Slope of up to 5°; • Uniform contours of zonal and full-profile soil with the share of solonetz up to 10%; • Humus content of at least 3%; • Productive soil layer of at least 40 cm; • Humus reserves at least 100 t/ha. The space that meets these criteria must be recognized as suitable for intensive agriculture. In accordance, the land plot must be formed and recorded in the cadaster as a territorial unit of intensive agriculture. The register of such plots in the cadaster must become the norm. These lands should be considered the most valuable ones. Their institutionalization should become an invariable fund (a kind of reserved arable fund) by analogy with the principle of noble estates saved from sale in the Russian

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Empire in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries (Potulov 1889). It is necessary to preserve the best lands from being used for other purposes. In steppe agro-landscapes, the problem of forest plantation normalization is urgent. Its depth is related to deforestation and the consequences of large-scale afforestation projects of the steppes in the mid-twentieth century. Professionals in the fields of forestry and land reclamation suggest norms of forest area in agro-landscapes in the range of 3–5%. However, there are projects to increase forest areas in steppe regions (for example, in the Orenburg Region) to 10%. It is advisable to form a field protective forest structure in steppe forestry. Nevertheless, it should be distributed only for the best arable fund on an area of no more than 4% of this fund. We agree to create a permeable shelterbelt that will require legislated systematic support. In the rest of the steppe zone, restoration of the island and floodplain forests to their former growth areas should be considered the norm, taking into account climate change. The most significant result of sustainable development should be the restoration of some protected steppe territories. Our results agree with the IUCN recommendations (Henwood 2003) that promote conserving at least 10% of the initial biome area. The landscape structure components should be proportionally represented—for example, if virgin steppe lands initially occupied about 50–60% of the zone, they should have the same part of the area of protected steppe territories. At present, a slightly different approach is used. Its priority is preserving intrazonal elements, motivated by the uniformity of grass spaces and their almost complete plowing. In the European part of Russia, this problem can be solved by restoring steppe ecosystems, banning plowing of the secondary steppes, and introducing innovative forms of regional protection based on the development of the steppe ecological structure. We have developed a line of creative, low-cost types of territorial steppe protection and technologies for their use as possible standards. As the primary resources of the steppe, biological species should be maintained at ecological optimum in the system of compensatory agro-landscape turnover.

3.2 Steppe Ecological Optimum We assume that the main criterion of the steppe optimum is a restored ecosystem that has all components for the sustainable existence of the main steppe species. The optimal coexistence of the people and the steppe is a regulated natural-anthropogenic system, the significance of which lies in the achievement of high bio-productivity of agriculture, and of steppe natural and semi-natural ecosystems. The steppe natural and semi-natural ecosystems are based on the system of the main steppe biological species, which is maintained and controlled with the help of nature conservation technologies. Our understanding of the steppe optimum combines two approaches: geographical and botanical (Pilatov 1966). A new approach that is appropriate to the current situation, the nature conservation specificity of steppes and their potential for self-rehabilitation must be developed.

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This approach should consider steppes as a vivid natural basis of the geographic space combined with the most rational and timely human activity.

3.3 Steppe Landscape Optimization Ideas on ecological optimization of landscapes gained significant development in the second half of the 1980s and were mainly aimed at solving the emerging agro-ecological problems (Kontrimaviˇcius et al. 1987). The essence and methodology of ecological landscape optimization were brought to the maximum possible growth of their potential, including environmental protection measures and reclamation (Milkov 1993). The first step in the development was a fundamental arrangement in the field of ecological optimization of steppe agro-landscapes: a combination of actions aimed at identifying the optimal variant of nature management at the landscape level to balance the agroecosystem and the optimal conservation of landscape-biological diversity (Chibilev 1992, 1993). Further development led to two approaches: “humanization” and “naturalization” (Skorupskas 2018). The former proceeds from the priority of constant growth of societal needs (i.e., anthropocentrism). The main megaprojects of the steppe were implemented on this basis. On the contrary, the second approach proceeds from the priority of nature protection and requires the adoption of adequate environmental laws (Pilatov 1966). Neither of these approaches provides a solution to the problem of steppe landscape diversity conservation. It is difficult to optimize individual remnants of steppe ecosystems. The problem should be solved on the post-virgin land space by adjusting the structure of agricultural lands. The study of the steppe self-rehabilitation potential revealed several territories that underwent self-optimization processes. Such post-industrial landscapes are characterized by abundant natural resources and economic activity components that are adequate to modern natural and climatic conditions. The compromise approach should be based on optimization—balancing the interests of nature and society, the so-called “leveling optimization” or co-optimization (Skorupskas 2018). It ensures the coexistence of nature and people using nature conservation technologies. In the steppe zone, the process of ecosystem functioning and self-rehabilitation should be recognized as a form of nature creation. Responsible human activity is considered a positive, creative, and financial contribution of mankind to this process using intensive farming on the best lands and the restoration of grass ecosystems in less productive areas. A prerequisite for realizing this co-creative process is the institutionalization of the steppe ecological optimum as a general measure of nature management included in the standards of plowing, afforestation, and regional nature management. Considering these provisions and the development of previously developed notions of ecological optimization of steppe agro-landscapes (Chibilev 1992), we propose the co-optimization approach and the co-optimization itself for steppe agro-landscapes.

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We propose new meanings for the concepts of “optimization” and “cooptimization. Optimization (in its traditional sense) would have been necessary at the turn of the 1980–90s, when the system crisis of the steppe reached its peak, and a purposeful large-scale rehabilitation activity was required. However, this work was partly done by nature itself, via the activated potential of steppe self-rehabilitation. The area of arable land has been restored in the European part of Russia, while the secondary steppes and their development potential are similar to those of the postvirgin areas. Accordingly, optimization is still rational in the old-developed regions of the European part of Russia. However, in the post-virgin space, we advise using co-optimization, taking into account the environmental changes of the past 30 years. The conditions for co-optimization are as follows: (1) equality of every natural zone, (2) equivalence of virgin lands and secondary steppes, (3) recognition that steppes have the same national value as forests. Fundamental principles of co-optimization are the following: • Balance of interests between steppe ecosystems and human needs; • Compensatory agro-landscape turnover in the post-virgin lands; • Two-level system of conservation: (1) the “ark” principle (development of specially protected nature territories and Red Data books) and (2) the law of steppe agro-ecological framework (in the old-developed regions, priority should be given to an ark principle; in the post-virgin lands—to the agro-ecological structure); • S. A. Buturlin’s law of the ecological reserve of the stock of the major steppe species (Kozlova 2000); • Polarization of the land fund by its use: intensive development on the best lands and extensive development on low-yield plots; • Correction of steppe agro-landscapes structure to decrease the reduction of bioclimatic potential in arable lands; • Principle of the “beef belt”—south border of dry farming (according to Ivanov’s moisture coefficient and the ratio of reduction equal to 0.3); • Priority of intensive development in large-commodity steppe agriculture; • Cadaster assessment of geographical limits and possibilities of intensive field crop cultivation on arable land—cadaster plots should be formed and estimated with a chance of the fullest automation and intensive grain; • Adaptation of a livestock sector to local fodder resources and their seasonal distribution; • Priority of nature-like technologies. Co-optimization of steppe land use, in our opinion, will be possible only if these principles are enshrined, which requires a proper strategy.

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3.4 Co-optimization Strategy in Steppe Land Use Identifying the prospects and steps for achieving them is a prerequisite for the success of such large and complex projects as the co-optimization of steppe land use. The main task of modern management is to form the prerequisites for efficient interdepartmental communication. Failure to do so has been one of the main problems of nature conservation, especially steppe conservation. The strategic components of megaprojects did not include the creation of a system for steppe conservation. Currently, this component must be considered and integrated into major government strategies and projects for the development of the agro-industrial complex (AIC). At the beginning of the twenty-first century, new institutions supporting the agroindustrial complex were created in Russia. The main directions of the agrarian policy are the following: • Using as much of the “free power of nature” as possible; • Creating an economic system that adapts to natural-climatic conditions, using as much of biosystem potential as possible. The government planned to convert unproductive arable land into forage land and support the development of large agricultural holdings (Arkhangelskiy et al. 2002). From the point of steppe science, these rules look rational, and the prospect of their balanced implementation looks optimistic. By now, some agricultural holdings (primarily grain holdings) have emerged. However, the adaptive systems of the economy continue to develop. The entry of Russia into the WTO in 2012 led to the development of nonconsolidated support for agriculture on a per-hectare basis. In 2012, the foundations of the government policy on the use of the land fund in Russia were approved. In 2015, the Strategy of Sustainable Development of Rural Areas until 2030 was adopted (Government of the Russian Federation 2015). Concepts of sustainable development of beef cattle breeding in Russia and Kazakhstan were developed in 2017 (Amerkhanov et al. 2017; Ministry of Agriculture of the Republic of Kazakhstan 2017); this project aimed to promote the co-optimization of steppe agro-landscapes. In 2018, the law On Organic Production and Amendments to Certain Legislative Acts of the Russian Federation was passed (Russian Federation 2018). As the accumulated fertile soils were mobilized, its lopsided implementation would have led to large-scale plowing of the remaining areas of secondary steppes within the fallow lands. The Long-term Strategy of the Grain Complex Development in the Russian Federation until 2035 (Government of the Russian Federation 2019) ensures the optimization of sown areas by introducing unused land into circulation (mainly, areas that have remained unused for five years or more). Agricultural priority is dominant in the documents of state agencies concerned with increasing the gross indicator of agricultural production. The agro-ecological indicators and priorities of the steppe are presented minimally. We consider the existing processes of self-restoration in semi-natural steppe ecosystems as a self-developing co-optimization of steppe agrolandscapes. However, they are ineffective because of the increased requirements for

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the use of agricultural lands, especially those registered as arable land. Spaces of the secondary steppe were formed in the post-industrial land period; they are the natural habitats of many endangered species. There are now demands to plow them, so it is contrary to the law on nature conservation.

4 Discussion The results of field research and synthesis of policy documents on AIC development demonstrated the relevance of adding agro-ecological and steppe components to them. Modern steppe nature management should be based on reliable institutional protection of virgin and secondary steppes on agricultural lands, in the format of the development of adaptive management systems, which is recognized as one of the main directions of the government agricultural policy. We propose to recognize the strategy of steppe land use co-optimization as a system of agro-ecological and steppe additions to the primary program documents on the development of AIC. This method may contribute to the implementation of ecological and agro-ecological federal priorities and preserve virgin and secondary steppes on agricultural lands. The implementation of such a strategy requires an appropriate institutional framework of steppe land use, the formation of which is conducive to the transition to post-industrial society and “green economy.” Based on the above principles and the latest steppe science achievements, we believe that the strategy of co-optimizing steppe land use should be aimed at increasing the productivity of bioresources, steppe vegetation and animals (especially the main and economically valuable species). In addition, we consider ecosystem management as a way to achieve and maintain the results. Our proposed strategic approaches change a vast agro-desert picture with a minimal number of specially protected natural territories in the steppes (SPNT), incorporated into a more diverse overlapping natural-anthropogenic landscape. The conceptual principle is tripartite in nature: • Priority of “ark” and agro-steppes for old-developed regions; • Special status for the best arable fund; • Managed ecological reserve population of major steppe and game species on agricultural lands of permitted use between SPNT and best arable lands. The institutional foundations of steppe land use should be oriented to the preservation of this tripartite nature. Management agencies play an essential role in this process. While the government bodies should oversee SPNT or best arable lands, the flexible agricultural regime should be maintained in other areas, even though this would require special control. These bodies can also oversee unclaimed land and environmental assessment of its future use.

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4.1 Institutional Base of Steppe Land Use There is an urgent need to renew the institutions formed in the virgin land era in favor of the “fashion for steppes.” The movement, supported by science, must continue reevaluating steppes: from lucrative arable space to ecologically-significant biome (not unlike forest or tundra). This movement began in the late 1980s as a reaction to the steppe landscape-ecological crisis. At that time, the Orenburgsky, Daursky, and Rostovsky steppe reserves and the Institute of Steppe Ural Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences were established. Regional research and the development of conservation projects for low-yield plots and beef cattle breeding programs were intensified. Sponsors have begun to participate in supporting projects such as Wildlife of the Steppe and the Orenburg Tarpania. The development of the institutional foundations of steppe land use was supported by the participation of the President of the Russian Federation, V.V. Putin, in the project on the reintroduction of Przewalski’s horse. The process of development of institutional foundations in steppe land use can become an additional reason for closer cooperation of natural sciences, Earth sciences, agricultural practice, and landowners. Consolidation can increase the adequacy of the climatic and economic situation and trends of agricultural land structure, consisting of movement in two directions: active landowners (private property) and adjustment of their structure in adapting to natural and socio-economic conditions. The main obstacle is land tenure, which protected the late Soviet land network. Any structural changes inevitably led to property rights infringements, which were also exacerbated by agricultural land restriction. We offer the following principal steps to develop institutional support of steppe land use: • “Restart” of land reform and construction of more effective institute of the land property with improved agricultural use types. • Transition from allowing specific types of use to coordinating economic interests of the owner and user, according to agro-ecological constraints. • Adjustment of territorial planning. It should be transformed from a purely commercial activity, often rewriting late-Soviet data and maps into a real plan on a scientific basis, taking into account the trend of socio-economic and agro-ecological changes, perhaps as an expert commission on agriculture. Such commissions can control the management of unclaimed land. • Land legislation should be improved to form a differentiated and feasible approach to identifying an acceptable agricultural load on the types of country. A proper procedure for changing the types of land use should be established at the federal level, with the delegation of authority to lower levels. • Creation of unique governance bodies to deal with the conservation of ecological reserves on agricultural land in post-virgin regions, where the ratio of natural and secondary forage lands is high. • Intensification of legislative bases for conserving of soil, biological, zoological, and landscape diversity of the steppes.

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Institutional frameworks for the rational use of steppe lands must be formed in harmony with conservation laws. They should consider the need to preserve habitats of rare and endangered species as an argument in favor of transferring land from arable to grassland areas. They should be based on the assessment of agricultural economic efficiency, which takes into account climate change trends and the dynamics of territorial bioclimatic potential caused by climate change. Steppe ecosystems are restored faster than the general paradigm of steppe land use changes. Changing such models and forming the institutional foundations of steppe land use are issues of its culture, which should be developed to overcome prejudices and narrow thinking about the steppe, to realize the historical, cultural, aesthetic, and ecological essence of the steppe. We can conclude that the institutional basis of the rational use of steppe lands in Russia are insufficiently developed. It is necessary to strengthen the fundamental and scientific support of their improvement on steppe science and increase the influence of scientific experts for making management decisions in the field of land use.

5 Conclusion Late Soviet steppe land use, primarily in Russia and Kazakhstan, was incompatible with the idea of sustainable development. It was a costly, economically risky venture that threatened the biological and landscape diversity of the steppe. Currently, steppe ecosystems undergo active self-restoration. However, its realization requires institutional foundations for a scientifically-justified reorganization of steppe land use, systematic restoration of the main species and landscapes of steppes, and adequate management of modern steppe ecosystems. According to the positive world experience, the implementation of the proposed measures will allow the steppe zone to reach a new level of relationship between humans and nature, which can be considered a starting point for sustainable development. Russian steppes require a special national project. It should include the development of steppe land use norms, approval of specific criteria and interpretation of the steppe ecological optimum, and urgent measures for optimizing steppe landscapes. One can consider the positive development of rational steppe use and steppe culture as a target indicators of the project. The overall objective of the national steppe project and its social significance is to bring the steppe zone into an agro-ecological state consistent with the principles of sustainable development. The successful solution of the steppe problems will contribute to the ecological and food security of the country. Acknowledgements The study was performed in the framework of research subject No. AAAAA17-117012610022-5 of the Institute of Steppe Ural Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences.

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References Amerkhanov KhA, Miroshnikov SA, Kostyuk RV, Dunin IM, Legoshin GP (2017) The project of beef cattle breeding development in the Russian Federations to 2030. Herald of Beef Cattle Breeding 1(97):7–12 Arkhangelsky VN, Budarina AV, Bulanov VS (2002) Government regulation of market economics. Russian Academy of Public Service, Moscow, Russia Brinkert A, Hölzel N, Sidorova TV, Kamp J (2016) Spontaneous steppe restoration on abandoned cropland in Kazakhstan: grazing affects successional pathways. Biodivers Conserv 25(12):2543– 2561. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-015-1020-7 Chibilev AA (1992) Ecological optimization of steppe landscapes. Institute of Ecological Plants and Animals, Sverdlovsk, Russia Chibilev AA (1993) Landscape ecology and main content of ecological optimization of landscapes. In: Chibilev AA (ed) Theoretical and practical issues of landscape ecology and reserve management: collection of scientific works. Nauka, Yekaterinburg, Russia, pp 8–18 Dokuchaev VV (1948–1949) Selected works (vols 1–3). Selkhozgiz, Moscow, USSR Freese CH, Aune KE, Boyd DP, Derr JN, Forrest SC, Gates CC, Gogan PJ, Grassel SM, Halbert ND, Kunkel K, Redford KH (2007) A second chance for the plains bison. Biol Cons 136(2):175–184. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2006.11.019 Government of the Russian Federation (2015) Order “On the strategy of the sustainable development for rural areas in the Russian Federation until 2030” (February 2, 2015 No. 151-R). Moscow, Russia Government of the Russian Federation (2019) Order “On the long-term strategy of the grain complex development in the Russian Federation until 2035” (August 10, 2019 No. 1796-R). Moscow, Russia Henwood WD (2003) Grass ecosystems protection: think globally! Steppe Bull 13(4):4–8 Kamp J, Koshkin MA, Bragina TM, Katzner TE, Milner-Gulland EJ, Schreiber D, Sheldon R, Shmalenko A, Smelansky I, Terraube J, Urazaliev R (2016) Persistent and novel threats to the biodiversity of Kazakhstan’s steppes and semi-deserts. Biodivers Conserv 25(12):2521–2541. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-015-1020-7 Khomich VS, Loginov VF, Sanets EV (eds) (2019) Ecological-geographical issues in the course of a transfer into the green economy. StroyMediaProekt, Minsk, Belarus Klimentiev AI (1997) Soil-ecological grounds of steppe land use. Ural Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Yekaterinburg, Russia Komaneets MK (1971) Scientists-agronomists in Russia. Kolos, Moscow, USSR Kontrimaviˇcius V, Pauliukeviˇcius G, Pakalnis R (1987) Ecological optimization of the agrolandscape. Nauka, Moscow, Russia Kozlova MM (2000) Sergey Alexandrovich Buturlin (1872–1938). Nauka, Moscow, Russia Levykin SV, Kazachkov GV (2016) Development of theoretical bases of assessment of agricultural potential in agricultural lands to modernize steppe land use. In: Chibilev AA (ed) Optimization of the land fund structure and development of the SPNT network in the Russian steppe zone. Institute of Steppe Ural Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Orenburg, Russia, pp 21–32 McDonald JL (2001) Bison restoration in the great plains and the challenge of their management. Excellent Plains Res 11(1):103–122 Milikov FN (1993) Ecography is a new sector of modern landscape science. In: Chibilev AA (ed) Theoretical and practical issues of landscape ecology and reserve management: collection of scientific works. Nauka, Yekaterinburg, Russia, pp 3–7 Ministry of Agriculture of the Republic of Kazakhstan (2017) The National Program of Beef Cattle Breeding Development at 2018–2027. Retrieved from https://meatunion.kz/images/nacionalnaya programma.pdf Pilatov PN (1966) Steppes of the USSR as a condition of the material life of the community. To a problem—nature, and human. Upper-Volga publ. house, Yaroslavl, USSR

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Potulov AA (1889) On protected noble estates. Typolithography of the community by I. N. Kushnaryov and the Company, Moscow, USSR Rusanov AM (2003) A concept of arability of lands: content and meaning. In: Dubachinskaya NN (ed) Economical-legal and ecological issues of land use under the market economics in Russia and the CIS-countries. Orenburg State Agricultural University, Orenburg, Russia, pp 114–118 Russian Federation (2018) Federal Law “On Organic Production and Amendments to Certain Legislative Acts of the Russian Federation” (August 3, 2018, No. 280-FL). Moscow, Russia Schramm P (1990) Prairie restoration: a twenty-five-year perspective on establishment and management. In: Smith DD, Jacobs CA (eds) Proceedings of the twelfth North American Prairie conference. Knox College, Galesburg, IA, pp 169–177 Skorupskas R (2018) The main methodological aspects of landscape optimization. In: Chibilev AA (ed) Steppes of North Eurasia: materials of VIII international symposium. Institute of Steppe Ural Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Orenburg, pp 112–115 Walker BA, Dixon C, Drobney P, Jacobi S, Hunt VM, McColpin A, Straw L (2018) The prairie reconstruction initiative database: promoting standardized documentation of reconstructions. Ecol Restor 36(1):3–5. https://doi.org/10.3368/er.36.1.3

Natural Fires in the Steppe Regions of Russia: Causing Factors and Detection Experience Vladimir M. Pavleichik , Juriy A. Padalko , and Zhanna T. Sivohip

Abstract Wildfires are a typical phenomenon for steppe regions. However, their causes, scale, and ecological consequences have not been sufficiently studied. The study aims to identify the spatial and temporal patterns of the spread of steppe fires based on remote sensing data analysis. When choosing the study territory, we considered the administrative-territorial principle (Orenburg region and municipalities). This principle contributes to assessing the importance of individual indicators of agricultural production in the formation of the pyrological situation. We present a geographic information system database of fire areas by visually decoding satellite images representing the study region and surrounding areas in 2010 and in a series of key locations during 1984–2017. Based on indirect indicators, we prove that the most common cause of wildfires is agricultural areas of grass fires, which are used to improve the forage quality of pastures and facilitate arable land cultivation. Despite the legislative ban, grass fires have been and remain almost a traditional way of steppe nature management. Besides, we reveal that archival data on thermal anomalies has a limited number of tasks to be solved. However, this data is a valuable source of information about fires. Moreover, we prove the trend of activation of steppe fires. Since the 1990s, there was an opinion that the systemic crisis in agriculture (especially in animal husbandry) is the most significant factor of pyrogenic danger. Keywords Steppe fires · Burned areas · Intensification · Traditional nature management · Satellite image

1 Introduction Widespread wildfires happening worldwide over the past decade have often led to disastrous consequences for the environment, the economy, and the safety of the population. Wildfires are typical of most regions of the world with their grassland biomes. Often, they occur due to the traditional use of fire for agricultural purposes. V. M. Pavleichik (B) · J. A. Padalko · Z. T. Sivohip Institute of Steppe of the Ural Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Orenburg, Russia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 S. G. Maximova et al. (eds.), Advances in Natural, Human-Made, and Coupled Human-Natural Systems Research, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 250, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-78083-8_6

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The study of natural fire patterns at the initial stage faces a complex methodological problem: the need to select initial data and assess the limitations in their use, which determine the possibility of covering large areas and the degree of reliability of the results obtained. In this regard, with the example of a particular region, we analyze various sources of factual and indirect data that contribute to the conclusion about the regularities of the spread of wildfires. The relevance of the study of the prerequisites, causes, and consequences of wildfires is emphasized by the data on the trend of activation of wildfires (Dubinin et al. 2010; Pavleichik and Chibilev 2018; Shinkarenko 2018). As a study region, we take the Orenburg Region with an area of 123.7 thousand km2 , which includes the landscapes of the Zavolzhsko-Uralsky Region. The choice of research area was not random. The most extensive zonal forb-feather grass (northern) steppes in Russia remained after plowing in the Orenburg Region. Some of these territories are protected in clusters of the Orenburg State Nature Reserve. Therefore, the problem of fire protection is crucial for the conservation of biocenoses. The choice of an administrative division rather than a geographical region allows us to use long-term data on socio-economic indicators that have been registered by national statistical services. Data on the number of heads of grazing livestock and land areas within districts and municipalities contributes to assessing the spatial and temporal features of agricultural production development, which largely determines the pyrological period of land. In our opinion, steppe fires are fires that develop in the grassy ecosystems of the steppe zone, which are mainly used as hay and pasture agricultural land. The intensity of use of such lands and their pyrological state are heterogeneous in space and time. For this reason, part of the research aims to identify the correlation between the intensity of fire phenomena and the dynamics of agricultural production. The selected group of fires characteristic of the steppe zone is formed by the consequences of arson of stubble remains and haystacks that were not used during the cold period. Although such fires do not cause direct damage to steppe biota, they often cause the spread of the fire source to adjacent territories, form vast areas of smoldering territories, and lead to the mineralization of humus and degradation of soil biota. In the steppes of the Zavolzhsko-Uralsky Region, during the development of agriculture, the common practice of agricultural fires on land and arson of unclaimed vegetation reserves was introduced. Consequently, reducing the pyrogenic impact on steppe ecosystems requires the elimination of one of the traditional components of steppe nature management.

2 Materials and Methods We use several sources of fire data as the initial analyzed materials, which allows us to assess the reliability of the results obtained and identify options for their use: (1) a mosaic of Landsat and MODIS satellite images (Terra and Aqua)—for large

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areas in typical years; (2) a time series of Landsat images for key areas; (3) archive of thermal anomalies based on MODIS images. We conduct a visual interpretation of fire boundaries based on Landsat images within the borders of the Orenburg Region in the typical year of 2010. Also, we use MODIS images to study fires in the territories adjacent to the Orenburg Region. This step allowed us to identify the role of latitudinal-zonal heterogeneity in the spread of fires and determine the position of the territory in question in the macro-regional pyrological state. We take the map Zones and Types of Vegetation of Russia and Adjacent Territories on a scale of 1:8,000,000 as a scheme represented by the latitudinalzonal heterogeneity of the region (Ogureeva 1999). According to this source, the region is mainly located in the subzone of the northern steppes (73% of the territory) and includes the middle steppes (17%), forest-steppes (7%), and the Southern Ural mountain—forest region (3%) (Fig. 1). To identify long-term trends in the spread of fires (Landsat satellite images), we used fire databases for 1984–2017 in five key areas formed earlier (Pavleichik and Chibilev 2018). These two data components (the spatial component for 2010 and the component for 1984–2017) allow us to assess their compliance with another potential source of data on wildfires—the archive of 24-h data on the Fire Information for Resource Management System [FIRMS], namely, thermal anomalies, formed based on MODIS image analysis and having a maximum duration—from 2000 to the present. We analyze the spatial and temporal distribution of thermal anomalies, taking into account their location on arable and hay-pasture lands to assess the scale of agricultural fires and identify their role in the occurrence of steppe fires. We prepared the geographic information layer of arable land in Russia based on the time series analysis of MODIS images and adopted it as a cartographic basis (Bartalev et al. 2016). Thus, the analysis of various sources of initial data and their processing methods allow us to assess the spatial and temporal patterns of the development of wildfires occurring against the background of a complex interaction of several natural and anthropogenic factors.

3 Results and Discussion Aspects of studying the causes and consequences of wildfires are diverse. Nevertheless, almost every study faces the need to obtain reliable data on the time of occurrence and extent of the spread of fires. The formation of a constantly updated geographic information database on fires is necessary for fire research and ensuring fire safety. The most reliable results are obtained by using time series of satellite data on the surface of the Earth, revealing the areas of fire spread. The methodology of automated recognition of fire centers mainly concerns forest areas where the diagnostic signs (differences between burned and unburned areas) were significant and long-lasting. As for dry-steppe and desert areas, such differences are less significant due to the sparse vegetation cover and the rapid reduction of these differences (Shinkarenko

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Fig. 1 Location of the Orenburg region in the latitudinal zonality scheme. The fires of 2010. 1— borders of the Orenburg region; 2—borders of natural zones and subzones (FS— forest steppe, S-1— northern steppe, S-2—middle steppe, S-3—southern steppe, D-1—northern deserts, U—a mountain area of South Ural with broad-leaved forests); 3—fire area (Landsat); 4—fire outside the borders of the region; 5—key areas. Source Compiled by the authors

2018). Identification of fires in forb-feather (northern) steppes encounters another problem (the steppe condition after fires) has a spectral response similar to arable land. Therefore, the automated identification of ignition sources is complicated, which causes the need for a visual method of decoding Landsat images on the territory of the Orenburg Region. We should note that the visual decoding of fires is extremely time-consuming work. Thus, the database was formed only for one year (2010). According to the geoinformation database formed in 2010, 2,271 fires with a total area of 19.17 km2 were registered in the Orenburg Region. The average burned area in municipal districts was up to 13%. In some areas of the region (Akbulak, Kuvadyk, Orenburg), where the share of unused land was high, the total area of fires reached 50–60%. The proportion of land affected by fires ranged from 10 to 30% of the total area in almost all southern and south-eastern districts.

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As shown in Fig. 1, the pyrological situation is mainly determined by the latitudinal-zonal structure of lowland landscapes. The spatial heterogeneity of the development of grass fires is described by such features of natural zones and subzones as (1) the temperature regime, (2) humidification conditions, (3) the accumulation of snow cover, and (4) the pyrological properties of vegetation cover. In turn, some of these features mainly define the structure and intensity of agricultural production and the development of the region in general. The main factor limiting the spread of fires is the significant fragmentation of steppe landscapes (hayfields and pastures) by various natural and anthropogenic objects. Agro-developed regions often consider arable land to be such objects. In the Orenburg region, arable land occupies 49% of the total land area and 58% of all agricultural land. The diagram given above (Fig. 1) shows that the southern and south-eastern parts of the region are located in the middle steppe subzone, making the development of the agricultural sector extremely unstable due to the low quality of land resources and unfavorable agro-climatic conditions. In these areas, after agricultural development, large steppe massifs remained, and vast areas of fallow and pasture-and-hay lands were spontaneously formed. Consequently, within the southern and south-eastern parts of the region, a complicated pyrological situation developed, which indicated a slight agricultural development of the territory. Issues related to the reduction of fire risk were partially solved with operational fire monitoring systems using materials from remote sensing of the Earth and its algorithm for detecting thermal anomalies. We selected the product FIRMS MODIS Collection 6, which has a global reach and the most considerable monitoring time interval for our study. According to control field surveys, it was found that thermal anomalies register about 30–50% of actual fires. This discrepancy is due to objective reasons: (1) likely unfavorable weather conditions (cloud cover), (2) satellite detection of only active fires, and (3) low spatial resolution of spectroradiometers. Spatial comparison of the actual area of fires in 2010, the location of heat points, and interpreted square indicators (FIRMS) indicate these limitations in using archival data on thermal anomalies and the peculiarities of using this database in steppe regions. The rapid spread of the fire during steppe fires contributes to the fixation of only active fire centers at the time of examination. Most areas of steppe fires are represented as clusters of heat points. Simultaneously, the square data underestimate the real squares by an average of 1.8–2.0 times. Large arsons (about 25–35% of the total number) with an area of more than ten km2 are not often recorded. Fires with an area of less than 1–5 km2 reach about half of the total number of fires and about 20–25% of the total area. Such ignitions in a small area are typical (their number prevails) for the Orenburg region, so satellite thermograms did not often record them. We compared the burned area, which was given within five key plots for many years, and general data on thermal anomalies in the Orenburg region (Fig. 2). The dynamics of both indicators are homogeneous. In general—there is a period of increased values (2001–2010) and reduced values (2011–2017). In general, in 2001– 2017, the degree of correlation reached 0.58. Nonetheless, compared to fires in the middle steppes, the tightness of correlation relations reached a high degree (0.69). Therefore, by the nature of the pyrological situation, the southern part of the northern

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Fig. 2 Long-term dynamics of steppe fires in the Orenburg region. Y1 (graph, solid line)—a plot of the fire area at five key sites in the southern districts of the Orenburg Region based on Landsat image decoding. Y2—average density of heat points—total (diagram, dashed line) and distribution by land type (bar chart, black—arable lands, grey—pastures and hayfields). Source Compiled by the authors

steppes (in the Orenburg region) is close to the subzone of the middle steppes adjacent to the south, which was caused by a decrease in agricultural development in this part of the region over the past two decades. The results given above indicate that using the database of archives on thermal anomalies to study the factors and dynamics of the pyrological situation has a limited scope of tasks to be solved. Therefore, a 24-h analysis of the values allows us to identify long-term seasonal patterns and compare them with other factors (meteorological parameters, fire hazard indicators, etc.) of the year. Also, the archive of data on thermal anomalies is a useful source of information about fires, since (1) it allows to assess the scale of local fires associated with agricultural fires on arable land; (2) to identify the date of fire spread, which contributes to obtaining the necessary information about the actual areas of fires; (3) to form an unconditional sample of data for any period (days, seasons, years); (4) to objectively reflect the spatial heterogeneity, taking into account the degree of exposure to fires. The problem of accounting for agricultural fires on arable land lies in the fact that such areas are immediately subjected to further processing (plowing, harrowing, etc.). However, archives of data on thermal anomalies are practically the only reliable way to detect stubble burns within arable land. The geographic information layer itself, which is in the public domain, was considered a base reflecting the spatial structure of arable land (Bartalev et al. 2016). The dynamics of heat points shown in the chart given above (Fig. 2) is shown considering their distribution on land -pasture-hay and arable plots. The correlation coefficient of long-term data on active fires is high and reaches 0.88 on these land types.

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Fig. 3 Seasonal distribution of active fires (the share of MODIS thermal anomalies per day (%) of their total number for the period of fire danger, average values for 2001–2017). Source Compiled by the authors

The study aimed to develop a methodology that would reveal the scale of agricultural fires on arable land worth noting (Hall et al. 2016). Despite the complexity (almost impossibility) of obtaining reliable data, we achieved several intermediate results reflecting both geographical heterogeneity and the correlation with the prevailing harvest time of crops (Spring and winter wheat). Thus, the data on the seasonal distribution of fires within arable land corresponds to the results of US studies and confirm the significant role of agricultural ignition sources in general statistics (based on thermal anomalies) and in the spread of fire to adjacent territories. The diagram given below (Fig. 3) indirectly confirms the agricultural causes of most fires in the Orenburg region. Fires are observed almost immediately in the spring period (on average 1–2 weeks) after the snow cover melts. In this period, access to land is opened, and agricultural work begins. Pyrogenic properties of landscapes (increased moisture content of vegetation and soil profiles) do not correlate with a stable spring peak of fires. Minimum fires happen in the second half of May–June, and the subsequent months are characterized by a gradual increase in fires, with the next peak in September– October, along with the end of agricultural work. In summer, other sources contribute to the fire. As a rule, the cases are due to the careless handling of fire, such as smoking, bonfires, or faulty mechanisms. Speaking about the long-term process of fire spread in the Orenburg region (Fig. 2), we note that the pyrological situation mainly depends on the condition of agricultural land and the need for vegetative resources. The catastrophic decline in agricultural production in the steppe agricultural regions of Russia in the 1980s and 1990s is not a consequence of unstable production. This trend fully corresponds to the dynamics of similar indicators in other regions of Russia, Kazakhstan, and other former USSR countries. The most significant decline in the Orenburg region was observed in animal husbandry (Table 1). It was expressed in a sharp reduction in the number of grazing cattle (cattle, sheep, and goats), which later led to the restoration of the structure of the vegetation cover on pastures to almost its natural condition. The most significant and apparent reason for the sharp increase in fires since the 2000s was the subsequent

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Table 1 Some socio-economic indicators of the Orenburg region Indicators

Years 1970

1980

1990

2000

2010

2015

A total number of cattle, thou. heads 1638.1

1687.3

1756.0

819.8

651.4

596.6

A total number of sheep and goats, thou. heads

2302.0

2443.2

2154.7

288.2

280.1

335.2

A sown area, thou. ha

5854.4

6328.6

5569.2

4444.5

4061.4

4196.3

Source Federal State Statistics Service for the Orenburg Region (2014)

accumulation of plant debris. The correlation coefficient of long-term ranges of areas with fires and livestock reaches 0.7–0.8. With insufficient and irregular use of these lands, it becomes a common practice of nature management to purposefully burn out the dry grass canopy to improve the feeding quality of pastures. At the same time, during this period, there was a decrease in arable land and the formation of vast massifs with multi-age deposits. Despite the legislative ban on the uncontrolled use of fire for agricultural and other purposes, ignition sources have been and remain almost a traditional method of steppe nature management. The persistence and scale of agricultural fires on arable land indicate that they significantly reduce regional resources (soil organic matter), worsen the quality of atmospheric air (medical and geographical aspects), and affect global climate change (Witham and Manning 2007; Lin et al. 2012; McCarty et al. 2012). Given the traditional use of fire for agricultural purposes, wildfires can be attributed to a kind of nature-like technologies that ensure the achievement of the same ultimate result—the mineralization of unclaimed organic matter with the preservation (or even improvement) of the resource quality of the land and minimization of technological processing. However, the adverse effects of forest fires outweigh any of these benefits in nature management.

4 Conclusion On this basis, we conclude that, against the background of the lack of any information about the spread of fires in the steppe regions, the study obtained reliable data on the main spatial and temporal patterns of the influence of pyrogenic factors on steppe ecosystems. The pyrological situation should be considered to form an optimal system of nature management, which should combine the expediency of economic development and settlement of the steppe space with the need to maintain environmental stability. The research could be considered an explanation of a new scientific direction—pyrogeography, which would be aimed at ensuring the relationship between socio-economic and ecological-biological sciences in solving management problems in the current pyrological situation.

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Acknowledgements The article was prepared within the framework of the grant of the Russian Foundation for Basic Research No. 18-05-00088 and the topic of the state assignment No. AAA -1717-117012610022-5.

References Bartalev SA, Plotnikov DE, Loupian EA (2016) Mapping of arable land in Russia using multiyear time series of MODIS data and the LAGMA classification technique. Remote Sens Lett 7(3):269–278 Dubinin M, Potapov P, Lushchekina A, Radeloff V (2010) Reconstructing long time series of burned areas in arid grasslands of southern Russia by satellite remote sensing. Remote Sens Environ 114(8):1638–1648 Federal State Statistics Service for the Orenburg Region (2014) 80th anniversary of the Orenburg region. Jubilee statistical yearbook. Orenburg, Russia: Orenstat Publishing. Retrieved from https://istmat.info/files/uploads/54007/orenburgskoy_oblasti_80_let_2014.pdf Hall JV, Loboda TA, Giglio L, McCarty GW (2016) A MODIS-based burned area assessment for Russian croplands: mapping requirements and challenges. Remote Sens Environ 184:506–521 Lin HW, Jin YF, Giglio L, Foley JA, Randerson JT (2012) Evaluating greenhouse gas emissions inventories for agricultural burning using satellite observations of active fires. Ecol Appl 22(4):1345–1364 McCarty JL, Ellicott EA, Romanenkov V, Rukhovitch D, Koroleva P (2012) Multi-year black carbon emissions from cropland burning in the Russian Federation. Atmos Environ 63:223–238 Pavleichik VM, Chibilev AA (2018) Steppe fires in conditions the regime of reserve and under changing anthropogenic impacts. Geogr Nat Resour 39(3):212–221 Shinkarenko SS (2018) Evaluation of the dynamics of the area of steppe fires in the Astrakhan region. Mod Probl Remote Sens Earth Space 15(1):138–146 Witham C, Manning A (2007) Impacts of Russian biomass burning on UK air quality. Atmos Environ 41(37):8075–8090

Dynamics of Erosion Processes in Steppe Landscapes Caused by Agricultural and Oil Production Svetlana A. Dubrovskaya , Ksenia V. Myachina , and Roman V. Ryahov

Abstract The article shows the impact of oil field objects on the dynamics of linear erosion in steppe agricultural landscapes. Oil extraction in the steppe regions is associated with a multi-sided impact on agricultural production, revitalizing the development/multiplication of erosion processes, which contributes to the withdrawal of productive land from agricultural circulation. The key area of the study is a 10 × 10 km2 area located in the Orenburg oblast, which is part of the Volga-Ural oil and gas region. Digitization, mapping, and classification of objects of the erosion network for three-time sections—1985, 2000, 2019 were carried out. All elements of the erosion network available at the research site are classified, and the density values of their spatial distribution are analyzed. The assessment of the degree of activity of erosion processes is made, the main directions of erosion activity are highlighted. It was found that before the introduction of oil-producing infrastructure on the landscape, most of the study area was characterized by a low and very low degree of erosion activity. The activation of anthropogenic activities in the oil field initiated new and strengthened the current erosion processes associated with the impact of agricultural production. Over the course of the field’s in-service life, there has been a steady increase in the total length of the erosional network objects. Agricultural land located in the zone of influence of the oil field is subject to an increased risk of erosion processes. Keywords Steppe landscapes · Agricultural production · Oil extraction · Anthropogenic impact · Erosion processes · Revitalization · Girder network · Volga-Ural region

S. A. Dubrovskaya · K. V. Myachina (B) · R. V. Ryahov Institute of Steppe, UrB RAS OFRC UrB, Orenburg, Russia e-mail: [email protected] S. A. Dubrovskaya e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 S. G. Maximova et al. (eds.), Advances in Natural, Human-Made, and Coupled Human-Natural Systems Research, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 250, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-78083-8_7

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1 Introduction Oil production in the steppe regions is associated with a multi-sided impact on agricultural production, which is usually a priority sector of the economy in the plains of moderate-arid territories. At the same time, oil and gas are strategic resources, so their production is necessary and irreplaceable: the role of non-renewable energy sources, according to some forecasts, will grow by only 4% by 2040-from 12 actual to 16% (Sieminski 2016). More than 500 oil and gas fields are being developed in the Russian steppe regions, which determines the significant scale of man-made impacts on natural and agricultural landscapes. Against the backdrop of a growing global shortage of food resources, the most important task is to comprehensively assess the interaction of oil and agricultural production. The interpenetration of land allotments and infrastructure elements of these industries leads to the creation of multilateral relationships and interdependencies, which, in turn, cause certain socio-ecological and economic consequences. One of the main conflict aspects is the withdrawal from agricultural turnover of productive land plots for the organization of an effective oil field, the result of which can be the development/multiplication of erosion processes (Wang et al. 2012). Soil erosion is certainly one of the main factors of man-made destabilization of natural and agricultural landscapes, which can contribute to the loss of productive agricultural land, creating socio-economic tensions (Arabameri et al. 2020). As a result of long-term exploitation of oil fields in natural and man-made soils, there is an increase in the concentration of gaseous hydrocarbons that contribute to the formation of griffins (gas breakout from the annulus of a drilling well), causing subsidence of soil horizons. Further, when exposed to permanent and temporary watercourses in such areas, there is a gradual formation of an industrial gully-beam network. For the formation of a technogenic erosion network, it is sufficient to ignore the features of the terrain of the surrounding area, the absence of a well-equipped drainage system of surface, and near-surface ground water. In addition, erosion processes can occur and/or increase with the active use of machinery, and the movement of large volumes of soil and construction materials. The result of such measures is the redistribution of runoff in newly formed catchments, and the activation of erosion processes (Grigoriev and Rysin 2006). The main objective of the work is to analyze the influence of oil field objects on the dynamics of linear erosion of steppe landscapes.

2 Materials and Methods The key area of the study is a 10 × 10 km2 area located in the Orenburg region, which is part of the Volga-Ural oil and gas region. The key site contains a dense network of oilfield facilities, the introduction of which began in the late 80s–early 90s of the twentieth century. The oil field facilities are located on the left and right

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banks of the Bolshoy Uran river (see Fig. 3). The landscapes of the research area are characterized, for the most part, by flat terrain, which explains the presence of numerous agricultural lands (arable land, pastures, haymaking), interspersed with oil infrastructure facilities. The analysis of the impact of oil field development on the dynamics of linear erosion was carried out in three stages. At the first stage, digitization, mapping and classification of erosion network objects were carried out for three-time sections1985, 2000, 2019. It is important to note that in 1985 there was no oil production activity at the research site, which confirms the research representativeness of the selected key site. Based on the gradation of morphometric features (Leontiev and Rychagov 1979), all elements of the existing erosion network at the research site are divided into 5 types: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

erosive furrows (depth up to 30 cm), erosive potholes (washouts, depth up to 2 m, width up to 2.5 m), ravines (depth 10–20 m, width up to 30 m), girders (depth up to 30 m, width up to 50 m), river valleys (depth up to 50 m, width up to 200 m).

At the second stage, the calculation of the activity of erosion processes based on the author’s methodology is carried out. The methodology is based on the analysis of the density values of the spatial distribution of active components of the erosion networkfurrows, potholes, ravines, objects of secondary ravine formation. The obtained data on the spatial distribution of the density of the gully-beam network allowed us to identify the following zones within the boundaries of the key section: (1) very low density (less than 200 m/km2 ); (2) low density (200–400 m/km2 ); (3) medium density (400–600 m/km2 ); (4) high density (600–800 m/km2 ); (5) very high density (more than 800 m/km2 ). The results are converted to a vector format for collecting statistical information. At the third stage, the analysis of the degree of activity of erosion processes is performed. Vector data for three time slices is compared using the spatial information overlay algorithm in the ArcGis software package. Six areas of erosion activity are identified: 1—steady decline, 2—decline, 3—lack of dynamics of erosion processes, 4—weak growth, 5—steady growth, 5—significant growth.

3 Results and Discussion The results of the study showed that before the introduction of oil-producing infrastructure, most of the territory was characterized by a low and very low degree of erosion activity (Landsat image of 1985). Prior to 2000—the initial stage of field development—exogenous processes in the landscapes were rather weak (Fig. 1). the Activation of technogenic activity at the field initiated new and strengthened the current erosion processes associated with the impact of agricultural production (Dotterweich et al. 2013). Thus, a significant increase in erosion activity was detected in the study area by 2019.

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Fig. 1 Structure of erosive activity in the key study area: 1—very high, 2—high, 3—medium, 4—low, 5—very low

Fig. 2 Dynamics of the total length of elements of the erosive network in the study area, km/year: 1—erosive furrows, 2—erosive potholes (washouts), 3—ravines, 4—girders

There is a steady increase in the total length of objects in the erosive network over time (Fig. 2). It is found that the most dynamically developing small erosion forms-furrows and potholes (washouts), the vast majority of which are located within the boundaries of agricultural land. The increase in the number of oil and gas production facilities and its intensity coincides with an increase in the parameters of the erosion network at the key research site. It can be argued that the processes of oil production and field maintenance lead to the formation of man-made ravines. Man-made ravines are located both locally, around the collapse of well sites, and can become centers of man-made ravine formation, significantly activating destructive processes directed towards the basis of erosion. At the same time, there is a decrease in the length of girder forms due to the activation of secondary ravine formation processes near oilproducing infrastructure facilities, caused by a partial change in the structure of the local watershed. Some of the girder forms act as collectors of waste liquids, while others are destroyed or blocked during road construction, thereby creating a focus for precipitation accumulation, which leads to a rise in the water table, and as a result, the activation of secondary ravine formation processes. On the basis of the geo-information indicators obtained, an integral map of the long-term dynamics of erosion processes within the key area is constructed (Fig. 3). The map allows you to identify the landscape features of long-term trends, and

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Fig. 3 Integrated map of the dynamics of erosion processes and the structure of the gully-girder type of terrain in the key research area (1985–2019): I—Dynamics of activity of erosive processes: 1—steady decrease, 2—decrease, 3—no dynamics, 4—increase, 5—steady increase, 5—significant increase; II—Structure of the erosion network (for 2019): 1—erosion furrows, 2—erosion potholes (washouts), 3—ravines, 4—beams, 5—valley of the Bolshoy Uran river; III—oil and gas field objects

determine the degree of influence of oil and gas complex objects on the structure of the gully-beam type of terrain. Although the basis of the erosion network was formed before the active development of the oil field, oil production becomes an additional catalyst for exogenous processes. The map clearly shows areas of reduced activity of erosion processes, including on agricultural land that was subsequently withdrawn from agricultural circulation for one reason or another (Meyfroidt et al. 2016). Such sites are currently small and medium-aged deposits (Fig. 4). The category of land with a changed type of land use also includes land transferred from arable to pasture and hay.

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Fig. 4 Medium-aged deposit in the immediate vicinity of oil field facilities

4 Conclusion The suggested form of geoinformation analysis for assessing the long-term dynamics of erosion processes allowed us to determine the trends and causes of modern ravine formation in the zone of co-existence of agricultural and oil-producing industries. At the key site of the study, intensive erosion processes were detected, which are catalyzed by the functioning of the oil field. Agricultural lands located in the zone of influence of the oil field are subject to an increased risk of development of elements of the erosion network. Thus, the development of methods for preserving valuable agricultural land is a mandatory requirement for maintaining agricultural production, and prosperous socio-economic conditions in oil-bearing regions. Acknowledgements The reported study was supported by RFBR grant No. 20-05-00122A (No. AAAA-A20-120011390069-6) and under the theme of state assignment of IS UrB RAS No. AAAAA17-117012610022-5 (Goszadanie).

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References Arabameri A, Pradhan B, Bui DT (2020) Spatial modelling of gully erosion in the Ardib River Watershed using three statistical-based techniques. CATENA 190:104545 Dotterweich M, Stankoviansky M, Minár J, Koco Š, Papˇco P (2013) Human induced soil erosion and gully system development in the Late Holocene and future perspectives on landscape evolution: the Myjava Hill Land, Slovakia. Geomorphology 201:227–245 Grigoriev II, Rysin II (2006) Research of technogenic and agricultural ravines in Udmurtia. Bull Udmurt Univ Biol Ser Earth Sci 11:83–92 Leontiev OK, Rychagov GI (1979) General geomorphology. Higher School, Moscow, Russia Meyfroidt P, Schierhorn F, Prishchepov AV, Müller D, Kuemmerle T (2016) Drivers, constraints and trade-offs associated with recultivating abandoned cropland in Russia, Ukraine and Kazakhstan. Glob Environ Chang 37:1–15 Sieminski A (2016) International energy outlook. U.S. Energy Information Administration. Retrieved from 2016. http://www.eia.gov/pressroom/presentations/sieminski_05112016.pdf Wang G, Innes J, Yusheng Y, Shanmu C, Krzyzanowski J, Jingsheng X, Wenlian L (2012) Extent of soil erosion and surface runoff associated with large-scale infrastructure development in Fujian Province, China. CATENA 89(1):22–30

Challenges in Developing Ecological and Economic Areas in the Mountainous Region of the Greater Altai, Russia Mikhail Yu. Shishin

and Oksana Z. Engoyan

Abstract The paper is devoted to the sustainable social and economic development of the mountainous region in the Greater Altai. Socio-economic development of any region depends on its economic capacity. Social and economic framework promotes the active use of resources in the region. This factor puts anthropogenic pressure on the social and natural complex of the mountainous region and threatens its sustainability. Infrastructure plays a crucial role in this process. On the one hand, the infrastructure ensures the availability of resources. On the other hand, it improves the quality of life. Economic growth of the region is accompanied by threats to sustainable nature management. In order to assess the potential threats, we examine the dynamics of the physical indicators: (1) length of paved roads, (2) agricultural production index, (3) cargo turnover, (4) passenger turnover, (5) reforestation area. We found the medium and long-term threats to sustainable nature management based on the data analysis. To reduce the anthropogenic impact of economic activities on the mountainous region of the Greater Altai (including infrastructure), we use systematic approach. Besides, we consider the advanced formation, maintenance, and expansion of the regional “ecological framework” as mechanisms that compensate for the risks from anthropogenic pressure on the mountainous social and natural complexes. Keywords Sustainable nature management · Regional economy · Infrastructure · Ecological framework · Mountainous region · Greater Altai · Sustainable development

M. Yu. Shishin · O. Z. Engoyan (B) Polzunov Altai State Technical University, Barnaul, Russia M. Yu. Shishin e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 S. G. Maximova et al. (eds.), Advances in Natural, Human-Made, and Coupled Human-Natural Systems Research, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 250, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-78083-8_8

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1 Introduction Sustainable socio-economic development of the region is based on the economic capacity of its territory. On the one hand, the economic capacity of the territory is determined by the stock of natural resources and their availability and. On the other hand, it depends on the ability of the social and natural complex to restore and develop harmoniously. The socio-economic development of the region is reflected in the dynamics of the so-called “skeleton,” which means the combination of economic, social, and environmental frameworks. The economic framework assumes the formation of territorial and industrial complexes. Such complexes are the nodal elements that determine the use of the territory. Besides, these elements also define the volume, quality, and development level for all infrastructure types, the so-called “linear elements.” The social framework is a settlement system. This system has a multilevel nature and includes regional, inter-district, district, local (integral) nodes. Finally, the environmental framework contains the so-called “square” objects (cores) and linearly extended objects (bio-passages). The core (nodal) elements of social and economic frameworks have the largest population concentration (urban agglomerations). For the ecological framework, such cores mean specially protected natural areas that may include (1) natural parks, (2) wildlife areas, (3) national parks, (4) nature reserves, (5) green areas of urban agglomeration, and (6) areas of traditional nature management (provided that restrictive measures for economic activity are in place in these areas). The linear objects in all kinds of frameworks usually connect the cores. We can apply this term to bio-passages and various infrastructure types: (1) transport infrastructure, (2) energy infrastructure, (3) communication infrastructure, (4) environmental infrastructure, (5) financial infrastructure, and (6) social infrastructure. Biopassages are an essential condition for sustainable development of the mountainous region. The southern regions of Western Siberia, the region of the Greater Altai in particular, are located on one natural axis. A large part of the Greater Altai is united by infrastructure (primarily transport one), basins of the headwaters, upper and middle reaches of the rivers. Another unifying factor is the complex of socio-cultural and historical heritage (Shishin, 2013). This postulates the formation of a unified, synchronized policy of social and natural complex management and corresponding organization of a unified environmental and economic framework.

2 Materials and Methods The harmonization of socio-ecological and economic regional development is a nontrivial task. The difficulty lies in the uniqueness of the regions in terms of

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natural and climatic characteristics, resource availability (including demographics), and cultural and historical heritage. We should also take into account technological factors (existence of enterprises involved in common technological chains), sociopolitical ones (the desire of the population of any region to improve their standards of living), and many other factors (Kenny, et al. 2019). The systemic and innovative approach to the formation and operation of the complex regional framework (economic, social, environmental ones) with the use of modern digital technologies (for instance, geographic information system [GIS], the use of extensive database) allows reducing the pressure on the natural environment and increase the economic capacity of the area (Wiedenhofer, Fishman, Lauk, Haas and Krausmann, 2019; Lozano-Oyol, Contreras and Blancas, 2019; Tardieua and Tuffery, 2019).

3 Results and Discussion According to the “Spatial development strategy of the Russian Federation for the period up to 2025” (Government of the Russian Federation, 2019b), future economic directions for the Altai Republic include (1) mining, (2) forestry and logging, (4) crop and livestock production, and (5) tourism. Food production is considered a rather unpromising but critical regional economic area. The listed industries are focused on the intensive use of regional material resources (minerals, land resources, forest reserves, and recreational potential). This approach assumes a distributed location of economic actors around the region. In other words, the efficiency of such industries directly depends on the condition and improvement of the infrastructure. The infrastructure has a great impact on the social, ecological, and economic aspects of the region. On the one hand, roads, electricity, gas supply, and various means of communication ensure the existing standards of living of the population, creating conditions for the organization and development of economic activities and their optimization. Formation and improvement of infrastructure is a crucial condition for the regional development and improvement of standards of living of local communities (Tong and Qiu, 2020; Dyachenko, Kosulnikova, Sizeneva and Kazieva, 2019). Moreover, the destruction of transport links is one of the most significant consequences of anthropogenic and natural disasters. Therefore, many researchers (Thanh Nguyen, Trung Nguyen and Grote, 2020) note that household expenses are lower during drought than during the floods. On the other hand, more developed infrastructure leads to a higher pressure on the natural environment. Transport accessibility increases ecosystem risks (Bolognesi and Nahrath, 2020; Kangas and Ollikainen, 2019; Tardieua and Tuffery, 2019). Cutting the ecosystem with linear objects (roads, power lines, pipelines) leads to the fragmentation and subsequent deformation of natural complexes (Tardieua and Tuffery, 2019).

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Table 1 Dynamics of physical indicators Years

Length of paved roads, km

Agricultural production index, %

Cargo turnover, mln t/km

Passenger turnover, mln passengers

Reforestation area, ha

2007

684.30

115.40

133.90

93.20

3006

2008

672.40

102.80

130.40

95.70

3000

2009

678.40

109.70

123.80

92.30

3000

2010

678.40

101.30

85.00

105.30

3131

2011

691.10

110.40

105.00

106.20

3069

2012

861.80

103.20

95.00

126.20

2836

2013

862.40

102.10

79.50

124.00

1135

2014

863.10

98.30

195.90

138.10

1032

2015

863.10

100.50

130.10

130.10

925

2016

863.10

101.80

131.00

127.30

1009

2017

863.10

94.70

195.90

92.80

2030

2018

866.10

98.40

188.40

93.70

1009

Source (State Statistics Committee of the Altai Republic, 2008, 2010, 2013, 2016; Department of the Federal State Statistics Service for Altai Territory and the Altai Republic, 2019)

In particular roads, linear objects are closely related to the efficiency of the agricultural complex development. Land resources (both soil composition and water supply) serve as the primary production means. Access to these means (quality and length of roads, logistics, and location of consumers of the final products) is a critical factor in the efficiency of their operation (Bedritsky, 2018). In order to assess the situation in the social, economic, and environmental frameworks, we consider such physical indicators for the Altai Republic as (1) length of paved roads; (2) agricultural production index; (3) cargo turnover; (4) passenger turnover; (5) reforestation area (Table 1). As we can see from the graphs, the increase in the length of paved roads (Fig. 1) is accompanied by upward trends in cargo turnover (Fig. 2) and passenger turnover (Fig. 2). At the same time, the agricultural production index has a downward trend (Fig. 3). The dynamics of the reforestation area shows a marked downward trend (Fig. 3). The dynamics of the above indicators demonstrate an increase in risks in rational nature management. The researchers studying the mountain ecosystems emphasize their stabilizing role. Fragmentation of forest ecosystems resulting from the construction of linear objects should be considered in the context of potential risks (Beket, Shishin and Engoyan, 2015; Ivanov and Prusov, 2005; Bolognesi and Nahrath, 2020). Forests in the upper parts of the Ob river basin are nodal for the ecological development of the Altai Region. Also, the specially protected natural reservations have the status of nodal elements. There are several specially protected natural reservations

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Fig. 1 The length of paved highways, km. Source (State Statistics Committee of the Altai Republic, 2008, 2010, 2013, 2016, Department of the Federal State Statistics Service for Altai Territory and the Altai Republic, 2019)

Fig. 2 (1) cargo turnover, mln t/km; (2) agricultural production index, %; (3) passenger turnover, mln passenger/km. Source: (State Statistics Committee of the Altai Republic, 2008, 2010, 2013, 2016, Department of the Federal State Statistics Service for Altai Territory and the Altai Republic, 2019)

in the Russian part of the Greater Altai Region: (1) reserves, (2) national and natural parks, and (3) wildlife areas including UNESCO sites. They should be the basis of the environmental framework. In general, underdeveloped mountainous areas are used in the mining industry. However, their role in the global environmental framework is increasing (Edelgeriev, 2019). The environmental framework should compensate for the risks of nature management in mountainous regions. This approach should be ahead of the curve, as it

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Fig. 3 The reforestation area, ha. Source (The Altai Republic. Statistical Yearbook, 2007, 2010, 2012, 2015, 2018)

ensures the sustainability of the social and natural complex in the medium and long term (Ministry of Regional Development of the Russian Federation, 2013; Bedritsky, 2018). It is vital to address such issues in the context of climate change. Adaptation also involves designing the mechanisms for the population, infrastructure, and economy development (Sonnberger, and Gross, 2018). According to the policy documents, the result (IV quarter 2021) should be reflected in the “methodological recommendations for assessing climate risks for infrastructure, industries and population and the estimated costs of remediation or prevention of their impacts (or the benefits from their onset)” (Government of the Russian Federation, 2019a).

4 Conclusion The study confirms the hypothesis of increasing the economic capacity of the territory through the expansion of infrastructure (the length of paved roads) and the intensification of cargo and passenger traffic. At the same time, the area of reforestation is decreasing. Such combination of factors should be seen as a threat to sustainable nature management in the Greater Altai mountainous region. The solution to the problems of harmonization and optimization of structuring the ecological and economic regional space is the formation of the ecological and economic framework. The ecological framework of the region can compensate for the damage caused by anthropogenic impact related to economic activities. In turn, this can contribute to (1) increasing the economic capacity of the Greater Altai (Kangas and Ollikainen,

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2019), (2) elimination of demographic restrictions (Savona and Ciarli, 2019; LozanoOyol, Contreras and Blancas, 2019; Radosavljevic, Haider, Lade and Schlüter, 2020), as well as (3) to solving problems of socio-economic convergence of the Russian Federation regions (Minakir, 2019).

References Bedritsky AI (2018) National report on “Global climate and soil cover of Russia: assessment of risks and eco-economic impacts of land degradation. Adaptive environmental management systems and technologies (agriculture and forestry)”. Moscow, Russia: Inst. im. V. V. Dokuchaeva, GEOS, pp 271–306. Retrieved from https://www.rfbr.ru/rffi/ru/books/o_2088003#1 Beket U, Shishin MY, Engoyan OZ (2015). Problems of desertification in the greater Altai: threats and system solutions. Grand Altai Research & Education 2, pp 1–9. Retrieved from http://edu. secna.ru/media/f/1_1.pdf Bolognesi T, Nahrath S (2020) Environmental governance dynamics: some micro foundations of macro failures. Ecol Econ 170(106555):1–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2019.106555 Department of the Federal State Statistics Service for the Altai Territory and the Republic of Altai (2019) Statistical yearbook “Republic of Altai. 2014–2018”: Statistical collection. Gorno-Altaisk, Russia: Department of the Federal State Statistics Service for the Altai Territory and the Republic of Altai Dyachenko AV, Kosulnikova TL, Sizeneva LA, Kazieva ZM (2019) Meta-theory of influence of tourist-recreational activities on natural parks. Services in Russia and Abroad 13(1 (83)):19–34. https://doi.org/10.24411/1995-042X-2019-10102 Edelgeriev R. S-H (Ed) (2019) National report on “The global climate and the soil cover of Russia: desertification and land degradation, institutional, infrastructural, technological adaptation measures (agriculture and forestry)”, 2 (pp 217–224, 295–307). Moscow, Russia: MBA Publishing House LLC, 476 p. Retrieved from https://cc.voeikovmgo.ru/images/sobytiya/2020/ 03/docclipoch.pdf Government of the Russian Federation (2019a) National action plan for the first phase of climate change adaptation for the period up to 2022 (December 25, 2019a No. 3183). Retrieved from http://government.ru/docs/38739/ Government of the Russian Federation (2019b) Spatial development strategy of the Russian Federation for the period up to 2025 (February 13, 2019b No. 207). Retrieved from http://government. ru/docs/35733/ Ivanov VA, Prusov AV (2005) About the impact of mountain forests on high floods. Environmental Safety of Coastal and Shelf Zones and Integrated Use of Shelf Resources 12:402–409. Retrieved from https://www.elibrary.ru/item.asp?id=32703537 Kangas J, Ollikainen M (2019) Economic insights in ecological compensations: market analysis with an empirical application to the Finnish economy. Ecol Econ 159:54–67. https://doi.org/10. 1016/j.ecolecon.2019.01.003 Kenny DC, Costanza R, Dowsley T, Jackson N, Josol J, Kubiszewski I, Narulla H, Sese S, Sutanto A, Thompson J (2019) Australia’s genuine progress indicator revisited (1962–2013). Ecol Econ 158:1–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2018.11.025 Lozano-Oyol M, Contreras I, Blancas FJ (2019) An operational non-compensatory composite indicator: measuring sustainable tourism in Andalusian urban destinations. Ecol Econ 159:1–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2019.01.008 Minakir PA (2019) Russian economic space: strategic impasses. Ekonomika Regiona 15(4):967– 980. https://doi.org/10.17059/2019-4-1 Ministry of Regional Development of the Russian Federation (2013) Methodological recommendations for preparing draft schemes of territorial planning of the subjects of the Russian Federation

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(April 19, 2013 No. 169). Retrieved from http://www.consultant.ru/cons/cgi/online.cgi?req= doc&base=LAW&n=145707&fld=134&dst=100862,0&rnd=0.5944145520064015#063787933 80935763. Nguyen TH-T, Nguyen TR-TH, Grote U (2020) Multiple shocks and households’ choice of coping strategies in rural Cambodia. Ecol Econ 167(106442). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2019. 106442 Qiao Y, Martin F, Cook S, He X, Halberg N, Scott S, Pan X (2018). Certified organic agriculture as an alternative livelihood strategy for small-scale farmers in china: a case study in Wanzai county, Jiangxi province. Ecol Econ 145:301–307. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.10.025 Radosavljevic S, Haider LJ, Lade STJ, Schlüter M (2020) Effective alleviation of rural poverty depends on the interplay between productivity, nutrients, water and soil quality. Ecol Econ 169(106494):1–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2019.106494 Savona M, Ciarli T (2019) Structural changes and sustainability. A selected review of the empirical evidence. Ecol Econ 159:244–260. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2019.01.028 Shishin MY (ed) (2013) Altai is cross-border: Ways of international integration and sustainability. Moscow, Russia: Institute for sustainable development of the public chamber of the Russian Federation/Russian center for environmental policy. Retrieved from https://www.altstu.ru/media/ f/Altaj-transgranichnyj-2013.pdf Sonnberger M, Gross M (2018) Rebound effects in practice: an invitation to consider rebound from a practice theory perspective. Ecol Econ 154:14–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon. 2018.07.013 State Statistics Committee of the Republic of Altai (2008) Statistical Yearbook of the Republic of Altai. 2008: statistic collection. Gorno-Altaisk, Russia: Department of the Federal State Statistics Service for the Altai Territory and the Republic of Altai State Statistics Committee of the Republic of Altai (2010) Statistical Yearbook of the Republic of Altai. 2010: Statistic collection. Gorno-Altaisk, Russia: Department of the Federal State Statistics Service for the Altai Territory and the Republic of Altai State Statistics Committee of the Republic of Altai (2013) Statistical Yearbook of the Republic of Altai. 2013: Statistic collection. Gorno-Altaisk, Russia: Department of the Federal State Statistics Service for the Altai Territory and the Republic of Altai State Statistics Committee of the Republic of Altai (2016) Statistical Yearbook of the Republic of Altai. 2016: Statistic collection. Gorno-Altaisk, Russia: Department of the Federal State Statistics Service for the Altai Territory and the Republic of Altai Stratford B (2020) The threat of rent extraction in a resource-constrained future. Ecol Econ 169(106524):1–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2019.106524 Tardieua L, Tuffery L (2019) From supply to demand factors: What are the determinants of attractiveness for outdoor recreation? Ecol Econ 161:163–175. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2019. 03.022 Tong Q, Qiu F (2020) Population growth and land development: investigating the bi-directional interactions. Ecol Econ 169:106505. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2019.106505 Volk R, Müller R, Reinhardt J, Schultmann F (2019) Integrated material flows, stakeholders, and policies approach to identify and exploit regional resource potentials. Ecol Econ 161:292–320. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2019.03.020 Wiedenhofer D, Fishman T, Lauk CH, Haas W, Krausmann F (2019) Integrating material stock dynamics into economy-wide material flow. Accounting: concepts, modeling, and global application for 1900–2050. Ecol Econ 156:121–133. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2018. 09.010

The Resource Availability and Resource Dependence of Yakutia, a Russian Economic Region Grigory S. Kovrov , Valentina V. Nikiforova , and Nikolay E. Egorov

Abstract This article is devoted to the study of problems of raw material economy, including the study of typology of regions based on the assessment of resource availability and resource dependence, and their attribution to resource-type regions. The review of methodological and methodical approaches to the determination and identification of resource-type regions, to the assessment of resource availability and resource dependence of regions. An approach and algorithm of assessing the resource availability and resource dependence of regions are proposed, based on the analysis of which it is proposed to identify the criteria for assigning a subject to a resourcetype region. The mineral resource base and brief economic characteristics of the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia) are presented, and calculations of resource availability and resource dependence of the region’s economy are carried out. The assessment of resource availability was carried out based on the data of registered balance reserves and volumes of mineral extraction in the region, as well as taking into account the availability of resources per capita. Calculations of resource dependence are carried out in the form of a share of statistical indicators on type of economic activity “mining” in the structure of gross regional product of the subject. Based on analysis of the results obtained, the criterion of attributing the subject to resource-type regions is justified. Keywords Mineral resource base · Mining · Resource availability · Resource dependence · Assessment methodology

1 Introduction In modern world, economy of many countries is becoming more and more dependent on the exploitation of mineral resources. In this regard, deposits of almost all known minerals, including those important for the economic development of the country, such as oil, gas, diamonds, gold, and coal, have been identified in the bowels of Russia G. S. Kovrov (B) · V. V. Nikiforova · N. E. Egorov North-Eastern Federal University, Yakutsk, Russia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 S. G. Maximova et al. (eds.), Advances in Natural, Human-Made, and Coupled Human-Natural Systems Research, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 250, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-78083-8_9

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in varying amounts. Cash receipts from mining and processing of minerals, as well as their export in the form of raw materials and processed products, traditionally make up a significant part of the revenue of the state’s budget. We can easily state that the Russian mineral resource complex remains the basis of socio-economic development of the state’s economy. On the other hand, the state’s resource dependence shows insufficient development of industrial production, unprofitable investments, and unsustainable economy. Since the 1990s, the Russian economy has become more and more commodity-based, mainly dependent on the state of the oil market. In this regard, the study of dependence problem of the country’s economy as a whole and its individual regions on raw materials, therefore, the study of resource availability and resource dependence of regions for typology (classification) of economic entities, as well as their attribution to resource-type regions, is a very relevant scientific and practical issue.

2 Materials and Methods Several studies by foreign and domestic researchers are devoted to methodological and methodical aspects of building a typology of regions. Methods used for assigning regions to resource type are reflected in the works of Russian scientists M.V. Kurbatova, S. N. Levin, S. V. Belousova, V. A. Kryukov, and others. Some researchers suggest that resource-type regions include those regions characterized not only by high resource availability, but also by a degree of resource dependence (Kurbatova, Levin, Kagan, Kislitsyn. 2019), others-focus only on resource security (Belousova, 2015, Nefedkin, 2015), and others-offer to include those regions whose economy is based on export-oriented industries of the first-stage mining and manufacturing industry (oil, gas, coal, ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy, etc.), because they occupy a key place in the Russian economy and are the engine of its development. (Levin. Kagan, Sablin, 2015). In turn, the study (Rosstat, 2017) gives the following definition: “Regions with a dominant natural resource sector in the structure of their economy (including the mineral resource sector) can be defined as resource-type regions (resource regions).” Currently, in the world practice, two approaches are used to assess the impact of mining on the economic development of the country: resource abundance (literally “resource affluence”) and resource dependence. Although at first glance these approaches are similar, using different criteria and quantitative indicators, their application leads researchers to different conclusions about how specialization in mining affects economic development (Brunnschweiler and Bulte, 2008). An indicator of resource availability can be the level of exploration of mineral, fuel, other energy resources and volume of mining per capita. In this regard, the world leaders in production of fuel and energy resources per capita are Canada, Australia and Norway.

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Resource dependence focuses on the direct dependence of the country’s or region’s economic development on the extractive sector. Its measure is the share of the extractive sector in the state’s GDP. The analysis of works devoted to the issues of typologization of Russian regions shows that today there are two approaches to assessing the resource availability and resource dependence of the region’s economy: one-factor and multi-factor. (Kurbatova, Levin, Kagan and Kislitsyn, 2019), (Balatsky, Gusev and Yurevich, 2015). (E. I. Efremov, G. S. Kovrov, V. Nikiforova, N. N, Konstantinov, and M. V. Kurneva, 2016a), (G. I. Efremov, G. S. Kovrov, V. V. Nikiforova, N. N. Konstantinov, 2016b). Based on the analysis of the above-described works on this topic, the authors suggest the following approach and algorithm of actions for assigning a region to a resource type. At first stage, the subject’s resource availability is determined using the following formulas: Resource availability, years (Gender): ⟨ P Oa = R A

(1)

where: Z—reserves of mineral resources in physical terms; A—annual volume of mineral extraction in physical terms. Resource availability per capita (Ronas): ⟨ P Oac = R P

(2)

where: Z—reserves of mineral resources physical terms; {—population of the subject, people. Based on the analysis of the calculation results, it is possible to identify the potential of subject’s resource availability in terms of time (years) and per capita. Resource dependence of a subject is defined as the ratio of the volume of mineral extraction to the gross regional product (GRP). ⟨ RD = A GRP

(3)

where: A—annual volume of mineral extraction (volume of goods shipped by industry type of economic activity (TEA) “Mining”), million rubles; GRP—gross regional product of the subject, million rubles. To identify criteria for assigning a subject to a resource-type region, we consider it sufficient to estimate resource dependence using the formula (3) without taking into account income from the sale of resource for export.

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3 Results and Discussion As an example, the economic state and analysis of mineral resource potential of the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia) are presented to assess resource availability and resource dependence. Economy of the Republic. The main indicator of efficiency of the region’s economy is gross regional product (GRP). The article considers sectoral structure of GRP of the RS (Ya) by type of economic activity for 2015–2018, where the main share is taken by the TEA “Mining”—50%, in second place is construction (10%), and in third place is transportation and storage (7%). With respect to the volume of shipped goods of own production, executed works and services by own forces in the mining industry, the Republic on basis of 2018 took 6-th place in Russia (in the far Eastern Federal region—2 place), and in processing industry—only 70-th, which also determines the raw material orientation of the economy. The mineral resource potential of the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia) is represented by many types of minerals, including the main (strategic): diamonds, gold, oil, gas, coal, iron ores, silver, tin, antimony, from which diamonds, gold, oil, gas and antimony are currently being steadily extracted. The state balance of minerals in the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia) as of 01.01.2017, their reserves were (Kovalev, 2012). With respect to diamonds: 47 deposits, including 16 domestic and 31 placer deposits, of which 29 deposits (28 operating licenses) contain 81% of reserves in the distributed subsoil Fund. The main subsurface user is the ALROSA JSC. It annually produces an average of about 38 million tons of carats of diamonds. Regarding oil and gas: 34 fields with reserves in categories C1 + C2: natural gas2,716 billion m3 ; oil-546 million tons (recoverable). Forecast geological resources are estimated at 12 trillion m3 of gas and 2.6 billion tons of oil. Currently, more than 88% of all oil produced in the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia) is extracted from the fields of Surgutneftegaz OJSC. Prospects for increasing oil production on territory of the Republic are associated with the fields located in relative proximity to the “Eastern Siberia—Pacific ocean” pipeline system (ESPO) and the two main oil producing enterprises of Surgutneftegaz OJSC and «AAS-Yuryakh Neftegazdobycha LTD. The Republic’s gas transport system consists of four local gas transport systems that operate in a closed and technologically independent manner. Natural gas supplies are made to ensure the generation of electricity and heat for local needs. since 2018, the fields are being connected to the main gas pipeline “Power of Siberia.” With respect to coal reserves, the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia) ranks first in the FEFD in terms of coal production, accounting for 35% of the coal produced in the East of the country. The Republic of Sakha (Yakutia) has significant forecast resources of various quality of coal, which in the long term will serve as a basis for the development of coal, metallurgical and chemical industries. There are a total of 32 coal-bearing sites in the distributed Fund for the region.

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Table 1 Production of strategic types of minerals in the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia) for 2015–2018 Mineral resource

2015

2016

2017

2018/2015, %

Diamonds, million carats

38,3

37,4

39,6

− 4,18 35,33

Oil, thousand tons

9451,2

10,101,4

10,227,0

Natural gas, million m3

1938

2011

2010,3

− 0,69

Coal, thousand tons

15,291

17,043,7

16,822

14,26

Gold, kg

25,085

24,094,6

24,000

− 1,18

Antimony concentrate (30%)

21,624

22,066

20,000

− 5,70

Source Official website of the Ministry of Industry and Geology of the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia). https://minprom.sakha.gov.ru/deya/neftegazovaja-promyshlennost/ mestorozhdenija

With respect to gold, there are 840 deposits on the territory of the Republic, the main ore reserves are concentrated in the fields of the Kuranakh ore field, Nezhdaninskoe and kuchus. Currently, the deposits of southern and Eastern Yakutia are being developed. Major subsurface users-JSC Polyus Aldan, JSC Seligdar, JSC Neryungri Metallik, leading their production in southern Yakutia and many prospecting artels in Eastern Yakutia; Regarding antimony, the “Sarylakh” and “Sentachan” deposits are the only antimony deposits in Russia where production is conducted. The owner of the license for the right to use the subsoil of the “Sarylakh” and “Sentachan” fields is “GeoProMining” LTD. The dynamics of production of strategic types of minerals for 2015–2018 shows a significant increase in oil and coal production, which is associated with the development of new fields (Chayandinskoe oil and gas, Inaglinskoe coal), for other types there is a slight decrease (Table 1). To calculate the resource availability according to the above method, we use the average annual production indicators and approved balance reserves of strategic types of minerals as of 01.01.2019, and the population of the Republic as of 01.01.2019970105 people. (Table 2). From the above calculations, it can be seen that the highest level of resource availability is gas and coal resources. The low level of gold and raw materials resources can be explained by the lack of study of numerous placer deposits in hard-to-reach Northern and Arctic regions. The resource dependence of the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia) shows a fairly high level—72% on average for 2015–2018 (Table 3).

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Table 2 Resource availability of the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia) Mineral resource

Approved balance Average annual reserves by production for category A + B + 2015–2018 C1 + C2 As of January 1, 2019*

Resource security

Diamonds, million carats

829.6

38.0

22

855.2

Oil, thousand tons

125,585

10,781.1

12

129.5

Natural gas, million m3

1035.5

1971.0

526

1067.4

Coal, thousand 14,400 tons

16,657.2

864

Gold, kg

24,491.9

42

1.1 kg/qel

21,020.5

13

274.1 kg/ qel

1,036,727

Antimony, tons 265,951

Service life, years

Per capita, in thousands

14.8 t/qel

Source State report “On the State and Use of Mineral Resources of the Russian Federation in 2018”. (2019). 426 c. http://www.mnr.gov.ru/docs/gosudarstvennye_doklady

Table 3 Resource dependence of the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia) for 2015–2018, thousand rubles Indicator

2015

2016

2017

2018

Average

GRP RS (Y)

747,602

862,695

916,579

978,300

876,294

Foreign Economic Activity “Mining”

503,910

617,642

599,620

804,388

631,390

Resource dependence index (RZ)

0.67

0.72

0.65

0.82

0.72

Source Official website of Yakutia https://sakha.gks.ru

4 Conclusion The results obtained in the course of study show that the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia) has: • a pronounced raw material orientated economy, i.e. it refers to the regions with a resource type of development; • high resource availability of fuel and energy resources, especially gas and coal; • depletion of gold and raw material reserves prepared for development; • rather a high level of resource dependency. Therefore, for sustainable socio-economic development, the Republic needs to reduce its dependence on raw materials and refocus its economy on the development of manufacturing industry, since the Republic’s budget is subsidized, and the bulk of tax revenues from mining in the region go to the Federal budget.

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Thus, the suggested methodological approach and algorithm for assessing resource availability and resource dependence for the typology of resource-type regions can be considered adequate and can be used to identify the typology of regional economy. Acknowledgements The study was conducted in framework of the state task of the Ministry of education and science under the project No. FSRG-2020-0010 «Regularities of spatial organization and spatial development of socio-economic systems of the Northern region resource type».

References State report on the state and use of mineral resources of the Russian Federation in 2018 (2019) Retrieved from http://www.mnr.gov.ru/docs/gosudarstvennye_doklady Kurbatova MV, Levin SN, Kagan ES, Kislitsyn DV (2019) Resource-type regions in Russia: definition and classification. Terra Economicus 17(3):89–106. https://doi.org/10.23683/2073-66062019-17-3-89-106 Belousova SV (2015) Resource regions: economic opportunities and financial justice. ECO 6:40–48 Nefyodkin VI (2015) “The budgetary curse” of resource regions. ECO 6:5–24 Levin SN, Kagan ES, Sablin KS (2015) Regions of the “resource type” in the modern Russian economy. J Inst Stud 7(3):92–101 Kuleshov VV (ed) (2017) Resource regions of Russia in the “new reality.” Publishing house of IEOPP SB RAS, Novosibirsk Brunnschweiler CN, Bulte EH (2008) The resource curse revisited and revised: a tale of paradoxes and red herrings. J Environ Econ Manag 55(3):248–264. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeem.2007. 08.004 Sachs JD, Warner AM (1999) The big rush, natural resource booms and growth. J Dev Econ 59(1):43–76 Papyrakis E, Gerlagh R (2004) The resource curse hypothesis and its transmission channels. J Comp Econ 32(1):181–193 Balatsky EV, Gusev AB, Yurevich MA (2015) Resource dependence of Russia: imaginary and real threats. Soc Econ 10:5–29 Efremov EI, Kovrov GS, Nikiforova VV, Konstantinov NN, Kurneva MV (2016a) Assessment of the Potential of Clusterization of Fuel and Energy Complex of the Sakha Republic (Yakutia). Indian J Sci Technol 9(22). https://doi.org/10.17485/ijst/2016/v9i22/95543 Efremov EI, Kovrov GS, Nikiforova VV, Konstantinov NN (2016b) Coal mining industry as the background for shaping the South Yakutia coal cluster. Gornyi Zhurnal 9:13–16 Kovalev LN (2012) Mineral resources potential of the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia). Retrieved from http://federalbook.ru/files/FS/Yakutiya/Soderjanie/III/Kovalev.pdf Official website of the Ministry of Industry and Geology of the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia). Retrieved from https://minprom.sakha.gov.ru/deya/neftegazovaja-promyshlennost/ mestorozhdenija Official site of Yakutia (n.d.) https://sakha.gks.ru Rosstat (2017) Regions of RussiaL Socio-economic indicators. Moscow, Russia: Rosstat Publishing

Sustainable Development and Environmental Safety of Industrial Regions of Russia Eugeny V. Sugak

and Olga V. Brazgovka

Abstract The main tasks of modern society are (1) ensuring sustainable development, (2) creating favorable conditions for economic growth, (3) and improving the quality of life. These tasks can be solved by attracting investments to the real sector of the economy. The investment attractiveness of regions is determined by their investment potential and investment risk. We analyzed the components of investment potential and investment risk and concluded that the sustainable development of the industrial regions of Russia could be ensured by increasing the environmental situation to an acceptable level. Currently, there are practically no methods for reliable assessment of technogenic, social, and environmental risks to the population’s health in the region, which would account for the region-specific factors. We propose using data mining to assess and forecast social and environmental risks to the health of the population. We used the concentrations and volumes of major air pollutants as environmental indicators, and the long-term data on morbidity, mortality, and life expectancy as health indicators. Keywords Sustainable development · Environmental safety · Social and environmental risk · Data mining

1 Introduction The main tasks of modern society are (1) ensuring sustainable development, (2) creating favorable conditions for economic growth, and (3) improving the quality of life (United Nations, 2015). The specific features of the Russian Federation (its size, regional diversity, the state of the transition economy, etc.) require more proactive government measures for eradicating the economic imbalance, solving complex regional problems, and ensuring regional sustainable development (Sugak, 2014). The factors that hinder sustainable regional development are: (1) differences between the regions of Russia; (2) disparity in the development of productive forces; (3) focus E. V. Sugak (B) · O. V. Brazgovka Reshetnev Siberian State University of Science and Technology, Krasnoyarsk, Russia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 S. G. Maximova et al. (eds.), Advances in Natural, Human-Made, and Coupled Human-Natural Systems Research, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 250, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-78083-8_10

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on natural resource extraction; (4) flawed system of determining the need for differentiated regional investment; (5) social and environmental policies, and goals and indicators of sustainable development that are based on federal-level requirements and standards. Attracting investments to the real sector of the economy is a way of solving the tasks of ensuring sustainable development, intensifying economic growth, and improving the quality of life. The volume and growth of fixed investments are the main indicators of investment attractiveness and sustainable regional and national development. Increased investment attractiveness provides additional capital inflows and ensures economic growth.

2 Materials and Methods The key factors that determine regional investment attractiveness are investment potential and investment risk (Expert RA, 2016). The components of the investment potential are: • • • • • • • • •

Labor potential; Consumer potential; Production potential; Financial potential; Institutional potential; Innovative potential; Infrastructure potential; Natural resource potential; Tourism potential. The structure of investment risks includes (Expert RA, 2016):

• • • • • •

Social risk; Economic risk; Financial risk; Criminal risk; Environmental risk; Management risk.

Figure 1 presents the distribution of Russian regions by their investment attractiveness: the sum of the investment potential rating and investment risk rating (Sugak, 2017). Russian regions can be separated into three groups according to their investment attractiveness (Sugak, 2019a, b): • Regions with high indicators (the sum of rating is less or equal to 40); • Regions with average indicator values (from 40 to 120); • Regions with low indicator values (more than 120).

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Fig. 1 Distribution of Russian regions by the sum of the values of investment potential and investment risk. Source (Sugak, 2019a, b)

Using this classification, we examined the ways of increasing the investment attractiveness of regions, the investment potential of which is significantly offset by high investment risk. Figure 2 shows the distribution of Russian regions according to the difference in their investment potential and investment risk (Sugak, 2017, 2019a, b). The regions can be divided into three groups (Sugak, 2019a, b): • Regions, the investment potential rating of which is significantly higher than the investment risk rating [Group A]; • Regions, the investment potential rating of which is approximately equal to the investment risk rating [Group B];

Fig. 2 Distribution of Russian regions by the difference between the values of investment potential and investment risk. Source (Sugak, 2019a, b)

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• Regions, the investment potential rating of which is significantly lower than the investment risk rating [Group C]. This classification allowed us to identify the most attractive and the most problematic regions. We believe that this classification should be considered in the regional development plants and determining the main indicators of sustainable regional development. The tasks of ameliorating the inter-regional disparity in economic and social development, increasing the regional investment attractiveness, and ensuring sustainable regional development require identifying the key components of investment potential and investment risk. For example, increasing the investment attractiveness of the Group A regions entails reducing the investment risk and its components. Conversely, the Group C regions require increasing investment potential and its components (Sugak, 2019a, b). Detailed analysis of investment potential and investment risk components allows one to identify the main factors of sustainable development in a region or a group of regions. These factors should be considered in the plans of socio-economic development (Sugak, 2017, 2019a, b). Russian regions are divided into four main groups: financial-economic centers, export-oriented regions, industrial regions, and agricultural-industrial regions (Bobylev, 2007; Grigoriev, Zubarevich and Khasaeva, 2011). Industrial regions of Russia differ significantly from each other by the socio-economic development and human development index (HDI) and its components: per capita income, life expectancy (LEI), and education (Table 1) (Analytical Center under the Government of the Russian Federation, 2019). The per capita income and life expectancy in these regions are significantly lower than the average in Russia. For the industrial regions of Russia, the average investment potential rating is 32.3 (Table 2), and the average investment risk rating is 34.7 (Table 3). The main way to increase investment attractiveness and ensure sustainable regional development is to reduce the investment risk and its components. The average ratings of investment risk components in the industrial regions of are Russia are: • • • • • •

Social risk—35.4; Economic risk—39.9; Financial risk—33.5; Criminal risk—39.7; Environmental risk—45.1; Management risk—40.1.

The key risk in these regions is environmental risk (Sugak, 2019a, b). Therefore, mitigating environmental risk serves as the foundation for ensuring regional sustainable development and increasing the investment attractiveness of these regions. Then, the main indicators of sustainable regional development should include environmental safety indexes and socio-environmental risks to the regional population (Sugak, 2019a, b).

Russia

Republic of Tatarstan

Sverdlovsk Region

Lipetsk Region

Novosibirsk Region

–

5

7

11

13

15–17

15–17

15–17

–

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

23

24–25

27–28

29–30

10

11

12

13

Perm Region

Chelyabinsk Region

Yaroslavl Region

Udmurt Republic

Samara Region

Omsk Region

18

22

8

9

Krasnoyarsk Region

Tomsk Region

Belgorod Region

Region

Rating (Russia)

Place

22,895

21,058

19,976

20,493

19,265

21,558

20,893

24,708

24,386

31,435

24,378

28,147

29,993

24,877

GDP (PPP) per capita, USD

0.907

0.893

0.884

0.888

0.878

0.897

0.892

0.920

0.917

0.960

0.917

0.941

0.952

0.921

Index of income

Table 1 Index of human development of the industrial regions of Russia

69.7

70.5

71.2

70.9

70.8

71.1

71.2

71.6

70.0

70.0

71.7

72.9

73.6

71.9

Life expectancy, years

0.746

0.758

0.770

0.764

0.763

0.768

0.770

0.777

0.750

0.750

0.778

0.798

0.811

0.781

Life Expectancy Index (LEI)

99.6

99.7

99.8

99.6

99.5

99.7

99.6

99.6

99.8

99.6

99.7

99.7

99.7

99.7

Literacy, %

0.946

0.952

0.956

0.960

0.975

0.959

0.970

0.936

0.965

0.944

0.978

0.950

0.954

0.941

Education Index (EI)

0.866

0.868

0.870

0.871

0.872

0.874

0.877

0.877

0.877

0.885

0.891

0.896

0.905

0.881

(continued)

Human Development Index (HDI)

Sustainable Development and Environmental Safety of Industrial … 97

Nizhny Novgorod Region

31

32

33–35

33–35

15

16

17

18

43–45

46–47

46–47

24

25

26

40–42

40–42

22

Arkhangelsk Region

Khabarovsk Region

Tula Region

Republic of bashkortostan

Rostov Region

Novgorod Region

38–39

21

23

Ryazan Region

Vologda Region

36–37

36–37

19

20

Kaluga Region

Murmansk Region

Irkutsk Region

Kaliningrad Region

29–30

14

Region

Rating (Russia)

Place

Table 1 (continued)

18,157

20,307

19,318

18,880

15,804

22,994

21,097

16,776

19,548

19,703

24,540

24,978

20,094

GDP (PPP) per capita, USD

0.868

0.887

0.879

0.875

0.845

0.908

0.893

0.855

0.880

0.882

0.918

0.921

0.885

Index of income

70.8

69.1

70.6

71.0

72.2

69.2

70.2

71.9

70.8

71.2

70.9

68.2

71.9

Life expectancy, years

0.763

0.736

0.759

0.767

0.787

0.736

0.754

0.781

0.763

0.770

0.766

0.720

0.782

Life Expectancy Index (LEI)

99.8

99.8

99.7

99.6

99.7

99.7

99.6

99.7

99.7

99.8

99.8

99.6

99.7

Literacy, %

0.939

0.949

0.937

0.935

0.946

0.941

0.937

0.949

0.945

0.938

0.907

0.955

0.930

Education Index (EI)

0.857

0.857

0.858

0.859

0.859

0.861

0.862

0.862

0.863

0.863

0.864

0.865

0.866

(continued)

Human Development Index (HDI)

98 E. V. Sugak and O. V. Brazgovka

Kemerovo Region

Vladimir Region 14,988

53–56

Smolensk Region

64–66

34

–

–

Source Compiled by the authors

Average

Tver Region

Ivanovo Region

67–69

78

35

36

Kostroma Region

60–62

60–62

32

33

16,925

20,550

9,659

14,950

14,730

14,330

19,597

19,179

31

Republic of Khakassia

Primorsky Krai

18,147

53–56

Republic of Karelia

25,902

53–56

51

28

Leningrad Region

GDP (PPP) per capita, USD

29

48

27

Region

30

Rating (Russia)

Place

Table 1 (continued)

0.885

0.763

0.836

0.833

0.829

0.836

0.881

0.877

0.856

0.868

0.927

Index of income

70.7

70.8

69.2

70.0

70.9

70.3

68.7

69.3

69.7

69.8

71.7

Life expectancy, years

0.761

0.763

0.737

0.750

0.765

0.755

0.729

0.739

0.744

0.746

0.778

Life Expectancy Index (LEI)

99.7

99.7

99.7

99.7

99.6

99.7

99.7

99.7

99.8

99.7

99.8

Literacy, %

0.943

0.938

0.943

0.937

0.935

0.939

0.933

0.928

0.944

0.942

0.860

Education Index (EI)

0.863

0.821

0.839

0.840

0.843

0.843

0.848

0.848

0.848

0.852

0.855

Human Development Index (HDI)

Sustainable Development and Environmental Safety of Industrial … 99

16

11

Kemerovo Region

Novosibirsk Region

15

10

17

13

23

Samara Region 8

Perm Region

12

11

13

Republic of Bashkortostan

6

9

8

11

7

Rostov Region

Chelyabinsk Region

10

14

5

7

18

16

13

10

7

11

8

9

14

6

5

Consumer potential

16

20

14

12

9

11

8

10

15

6

5

Production potential

19

17

14

9

8

13

12

10

11

5

7

Financial potential

Ratings of investment potential components

Labor potential

9

9

8

4

10

Nizhny Novgorod Region

7

3

5

Krasnoyarsk Region

6

2

6

Sverdlovsk Region

5

1

Republic of Tatarstan

Region

Rating (Russia)

Place

Table 2 Investment potential of the industrial regions of Russia

26

9

16

8

12

11

6

10

13

7

5

Institutional capacity

37

6

17

11

18

9

12

4

16

5

7

Innovative potential

53

49

63

17

47

28

13

31

78

21

48

Infrastructure potential

4

40

6

47

21

24

33

57

1

41

12

Natural resource potential

(continued)

36

32

14

16

8

10

17

12

9

6

7

Tourism potential

100 E. V. Sugak and O. V. Brazgovka

27

16

Kaliningrad Region

33

19

Omsk Region

38

23

Yaroslavl Region

Vladimir Region

37

22

40

36

31

Kaluga Region 49

Tula Region

34

35

20

47

28

26

29

21

Khabarovsk Region

30

32

17

18

Leningrad Region

15

23

15

Volgograd Region

Irkutsk Region 20

Primorsky Krai 22

18

21

30

13

Belgorod Region

17

12

Labor potential

34

39

30

48

59

31

21

29

20

26

23

28

Consumer potential

40

41

31

37

36

32

17

22

23

24

18

21

Production potential

37

41

31

47

58

34

24

30

22

29

15

26

Financial potential

Ratings of investment potential components

14

Region

Rating (Russia)

Place

Table 2 (continued)

34

27

31

35

25

33

21

29

19

15

20

22

Institutional capacity

21

29

32

8

51

40

27

26

28

30

20

33

Innovative potential

32

18

11

16

3

64

60

7

50

46

74

4

Infrastructure potential

79

68

66

70

29

13

43

48

35

18

7

5

Natural resource potential

(continued)

20

18

51

37

35

23

64

19

39

11

13

38

Tourism potential

Sustainable Development and Environmental Safety of Industrial … 101

46

48

49

51

52

60

61

66

29

30

31

32

33

34

26

27

42

25

28

40

41

24

Rating (Russia)

Place

Labor potential

52

51

37

44

58

32

Novgorod Region

Republic of Karelia

Ivanovo Region

71

70

53

Ryazan Region 45

Arkhangelsk Region

Smolensk Region

Tomsk Region

Tver Region

Murmansk Region

Udmurt Republic

65

68

54

44

35

57

60

38

53

32

33

Consumer potential

58

68

55

43

54

51

44

47

49

34

30

Production potential

65

68

60

49

40

61

50

48

51

33

35

Financial potential

Ratings of investment potential components

Lipetsk Region 41

Region

Table 2 (continued)

60

57

47

42

46

18

45

36

55

37

41

Institutional capacity

34

47

41

42

38

56

10

35

57

31

66

Innovative potential

45

39

33

34

69

24

82

37

52

42

9

Infrastructure potential

78

25

81

56

19

71

37

59

11

64

73

Natural resource potential

(continued)

30

21

44

40

46

42

79

24

60

52

63

Tourism potential

102 E. V. Sugak and O. V. Brazgovka

Kostroma Region

72

77

–

35

36

–

Source Compiled by the authors

Average

Republic of Khakassia

Region

Rating (Russia)

Place

Table 2 (continued)

33.2

75

69

Labor potential

33.0

74

71

Consumer potential

31.4

67

62

Production potential

33.9

73

67

Financial potential

Ratings of investment potential components

29.3

70

68

Institutional capacity

30.5

81

73

Innovative potential

39.6

67

61

Infrastructure potential

40.1

32

72

Natural resource potential

32.3

78

47

Tourism potential

Sustainable Development and Environmental Safety of Industrial … 103

22

13

Kaluga Region 23

20

21

Novosibirsk Region

19

10

11

Ryazan Region 13

18

9

12

Vladimir Region

17

8

44

17

58

Samara Region 19

Rostov Region 37

Republic of Bashkortostan

7

9

22

15

Nizhny Novgorod Region

Tula Region

Republic of Tatarstan

4

7

8

4

Belgorod Region

16

11

6

3

Leningrad Region

12

4

2

Lipetsk Region 3

Social risk

24

6

34

13

28

22

1

50

25

3

4

20

12

Economic risk

14

43

15

9

30

48

7

24

10

13

26

3

11

Financial risk

Ratings of investment risk components

5

2

1

Region

6

Rating (Russia)

Place

Table 3 Investment risks of the industrial regions of Russia

55

19

61

39

30

26

16

17

18

22

4

15

14

Criminal risk

32

34

28

41

26

8

47

16

40

38

12

50

35

Environmental risk

57

40

23

50

31

20

62

29

48

22

63

5

6

Management risk

(continued)

− 10

− 12

14

−4

34

20

−4

−4

24

−2

11

23

38

Difference of ratings of potential and risk

104 E. V. Sugak and O. V. Brazgovka

Novgorod Region

Tver Region

30

34

36

41

43

45

46

52

19

20

21

22

23

24

25

26

31

42

64

38

15

12

Social risk

46

40

57

Irkutsk Region 68

Khabarovsk Region

Smolensk Region

Krasnoyarsk Region

49

11

26

49

67

21

76

47

14

51

8

35

38

55

65

Economic risk

17

51

56

28

50

57

36

52

21

19

16

12

31

Financial risk

Ratings of investment risk components

Primorsky Krai 52

Kaliningrad Region

Omsk Region

Tomsk Region

Chelyabinsk Region

28

27

16

Sverdlovsk Region

29

26

15

Yaroslavl Region

17

24

14

Region

18

Rating (Russia)

Place

Table 3 (continued)

59

43

53

44

24

77

72

49

73

27

35

45

2

Criminal risk

72

71

13

78

15

19

60

5

56

58

64

61

49

Environmental risk

61

15

18

43

16

33

35

28

59

12

39

37

21

Management risk

(continued)

− 34

− 14

4

− 36

5

30

− 13

3

1

20

− 17

− 21

14

Difference of ratings of potential and risk

Sustainable Development and Environmental Safety of Industrial … 105

Arkhangelsk Region

Udmurt Republic

54

56

59

60

62

64

65

69

72

–

28

29

30

31

32

33

34

35

36

–

Source Compiled by the authors

Average

Republic of Karelia

Murmansk Region

Kostroma Region

Republic of Khakassia

Ivanovo Region

Kemerovo Region

Volgograd Region

Perm Region

53

27

Region

Rating (Russia)

Place

Table 3 (continued)

35.4

70

66

32

60

54

53

29

33

45

36

Social risk

39.9

81

79

46

60

72

61

59

66

64

53

Economic risk

33.5

66

49

42

61

37

55

71

54

33

38

Financial risk

Ratings of investment risk components

39.7

60

52

71

48

66

34

47

33

54

25

Criminal risk

45.1

74

81

55

52

43

77

36

73

37

66

Environmental risk

40.1

68

51

82

55

74

24

38

32

76

70

Management risk

− 0.5

− 11

− 27

7

13

− 21

−9

1

− 40

− 31

− 40

Difference of ratings of potential and risk

106 E. V. Sugak and O. V. Brazgovka

Sustainable Development and Environmental Safety of Industrial …

107

The two main tasks of environmental sustainability determine the choice of environmental safety indicators. These tasks are (Bobylev, 2007): • Reducing anthropogenic impact on the environment, preventing the depletion of natural resources; • Improving the environmental conditions for human development, reducing environmental threats to human safety, health, and way of life. Currently, the second problem (ensuring human safety from the environment) receives much attention (Bobylev, 2007). The World Bank project for Russia presented a system of key priority indicators of sustainable development. The indicators are presented by the “problems-indicators” structure (Table 4) (Bobylev, 2007). Solving the first task of environmental sustainability (ecological safety) requires using all seven indicators. The main indicators for the second task (public health) are air emissions and water waste. Table 4 Priority basic environmental and economic indicators for Russia

Problems

Indicators

Consumption of natural resources Economic structure Technological level

1. Energy intensity

Accidents and disasters Environmental damage Updating the fixed capital Technological level

2. Coefficient of fixed asset renewal

Environmental pollution Public health Technological level

3(a). Air emissions per unit of GDP 3(b). Solid waste emissions from stationary sources 4. Liquid waste emissions per unit of GDP

Waste Technological level

5. Amount of unused and untreated toxic waste

Conservation of ecosystem functions and biodiversity

6(a). Areas of specially protected natural territories 6(b). Areas undisturbed by economic activities

Global climate change Source (Bobylev, 2007)

7. Greenhouse gas emission

108

E. V. Sugak and O. V. Brazgovka

3 Results In most industrial regions of Russia, the main polluters are (1) metallurgical, (2) oil extraction, (3) oil refining, (4) coal and gas production, (5) mechanical engineering, and (6) energy enterprises (Tsalikov, Akimov and Kozlov, 2009). Accordingly, the main problem in most of these regions is air pollution (Table 5) (Karanina and Vershinina, 2016). General recommendations on regional improvement must also include the analysis of the environmental situation. Therefore, the optimization of socio-environmental risks is the fundamental basis for sustainable development and increasing the investment attractiveness of Russian industrial regions. Then, the basic indicators of sustainable development are the indicators of environmental safety and socio-environmental risks to the population. Currently, there are practically no methods for reliable assessment of technogenic, social, and environmental risks to the population’s health in the region (Onishchenko and Zaitseva, 2014; Sugak, 2014). The existing methods are based on large-scale, long-term, and expensive biomedical and epidemiological studies and do not account for region-specific factors. Only the combination of conventional methods and data mining allows a complete and statistically-reliable estimate of the impact of the regional environmental factors on the population’s health (dose–response relationship). These factors include: (1) geographical and climatic conditions, (2) industrial and socio-economic development, (3) social structure, (4) lifestyle of the population, (5) quality of health services, etc. (Onishchenko and Zaitseva, 2014; Sugak, 2014).

4 Discussion Neural networks allow using artificial intelligence for efficient analysis and forecasting the changes in mortality and morbidity caused by fluctuations of environmental factors. These networks effectively establish dose–response relationships (Potylitsyna, Lipinsky and Sugak, 2013). The way that neural network models describe the initial data is satisfactory since the errors in various indicators of population health range from 0.4 to 4.7% (Pavlova, 2018; Potylitsyna, Lipinsky and Sugak, 2013). The obtained results allowed us to calculate the dose–response relationship for each environmental factor and create a comprehensive, quantitative, and statisticallyreliable methodology for analyzing and forecasting the socio-environmental risks to the regional population. The methodology uses the existing multi-year databases of emissions, concentrations of pollutants, and the state of public health (Khritonenko, Semenkin, Sugak and Potilitsina, 2015; Sugak, 2019a, b).

Sustainable Development and Environmental Safety of Industrial …

109

Table 5 Rating of industrial regions of Russia in terms of pollution and environmental impact Place

Rating (Russia)

Region

Ratings of the components Air pollution

Water pollution

Ecosystem disturbance

Ecosystem protection

The sum of the ratings

1

5

Irkutsk Region 59

27

19

58

163

2

8

Khabarovsk Region

36

17

8

36

97

3

10

Novgorod Region

18

30

34

29

111

4

11

Murmansk Region

86

34

12

32

164

5

12

Republic of Khakassia

70

7

36

21

134

6

21

Primorsky Krai

56

47

26

12

141

7

24

Krasnoyarsk Region

88

28

25

49

190

8

27

Sverdlovsk Region

73

69

32

55

229

9

30

Vladimir Region

10

45

47

24

126

10

32

Nizhny Novgorod Region

37

81

55

48

221

11

33

Yaroslavl Region

41

60

46

28

175

12

34

Arkhangelsk Region

62

23

15

43

143

13

35

Tomsk Region

77

31

21

70

199

14

36

Perm Region

54

46

40

31

171

15

37

Republic of Karelia

55

26

14

60

155

16

41

Udmurt Republic

61

37

65

44

207

17

43

Republic of Tatarstan

67

68

75

40

250

18

47

Smolensk Region

11

40

56

25

132

9

19

48

Tver Region

44

43

22

118

20

52

Samara Region 60

71

80

56

267

21

53

Novosibirsk Region

22

45

52

193

74

(continued)

110

E. V. Sugak and O. V. Brazgovka

Table 5 (continued) Rating (Russia)

Region

22

54

23

55

Place

Ratings of the components Air pollution

Water pollution

Ecosystem disturbance

Ecosystem protection

The sum of the ratings

Kostroma Region

22

51

38

72

183

Republic of Bashkortostan

65

52

57

38

212

24

56

Ryazan Region 34

85

68

26

213

25

58

Vologda Region

32

29

57

190

72

26

59

Omsk Region

71

36

54

71

232

27

62

Kaliningrad Region

69

39

52

35

195

28

63

Kemerovo Region

82

61

42

9

194

29

66

Chelyabinsk Region

81

84

63

30

258

30

67

Ivanovo Region

23

53

53

82

211

31

69

Leningrad Region

58

65

28

62

213

32

73

Rostov Region 53

74

81

13

221

33

74

Belgorod Region

42

86

80

252

44

34

77

Lipetsk Region 78

78

89

46

291

35

83

Kaluga Region 21

64

60

41

186

36

87

Tula Region

45

79

85

89

298

–

–

Average

53.4

48.6

46.6

44.1

192.6

Source (Karanina and Vershinina, 2016)

The neural network model can be adjusted by “learning” on new sets of data. With appropriate retraining and customization, the neural network model can be adapted to the conditions of any other region of Russia (Khritonenko, Semenkin, Sugak and Potilitsina, 2015; Sugak, 2019a, b).

5 Conclusion The transition to sustainable development requires including environmental factors in the socio-economic indicators of the industrial regions of Russia. Therefore, the

Sustainable Development and Environmental Safety of Industrial …

111

environmental safety indicators must reflect not only the current state of the environment but also the impact of the environment on the health of the population. These indicators should be included in regional sustainable development programs, economic development plans, and environmental action plans. To assess and forecast the socio-environmental risks to the population of an industrial region, one must consider the specific features of the region and the state of its environment. This task can only be solved using both modern information technologies (including data mining methods) and the conventional methods of assessment.

References Analytical center under the Government of the Russian Federation (2019) Report on human development in the Russian Federation for 2018. Moscow, Russia: analytical center under the government of the Russian Federation Bobylev SN (2007) Indicators of sustainable development: Regional dimension. Moscow, Russia: Acropolis Expert RA. (2016). Rating of investment attractiveness of the regions in 2015. Retrieved from http://www.raexpert.ru. Karanina EV, Vershinina NA (2016) Environmental risks of Russian regions. Bull Moscow Univ Financ Law 2:21–38 Khritonenko DI, Semenkin ES, Sugak EV, Potilitsina EN (2015) Solving the problem of city ecology forecasting with neuro-evolutionary algorithms. Vestnik SibGAU 1:137–142 Grigoriev LM, Zubarevich NV, Khasaeva GR (eds) (2011) Russian regions: economic crisis and problems of modernization. Moscow, Russia: TEIs Onishchenko GG, Zaitseva NV (eds) (2014) Health risk analysis in the strategy of state socioeconomic development. Publishing House of the Perm National Research Polytechnic University, Perm, Russia Pavlova SA (2018) Ecology: global challenges, current problems and ways to solve them in the light of innovative research. Moscow, Russia: SIC MISI Potylitsyna EN, Lipinsky LV, Sugak EV (2013) Use of artificial neural networks for solving applied environmental problems. Mod Probl Sci Educ 4:51–58 Sugak EV (2014) Modern methods of environmental risk assessment. Eur Soc Sci J 5(44):427–433 Sugak EV (2017) Investment attractiveness and social and environmental risks of the Krasnoyarsk region. Nauka Krasnoyarya 6(4–2):146–151 Sugak EV (2019a) Sustainable development and environmental security of the Siberian regions. Bull Altai Acad Econ Law 3:104–114 Sugak EV (2019b) Sustainable development and social and environmental risks of industrial regions of Siberia. In: IOP conference series: earth and environmental science, vol 395, p 012093 Tsalikov RH, Akimov VA, Kozlov KA (2009) Assessment of natural, technogenic and ecological security of Russia. Moscow, Russia: FGU VNII GOCHS (FC) United Nations (2015) Transforming our world, the 2030 agenda for sustainable development (Agenda-2030). United Nations: General Assembly Resolution A/RES/70/1. Retrieved from https://undocs.org/en/A/RES/70/1

Thermal Regimes of Landscape Surfaces After Steppe Fires According to Landsat Data Vladimir M. Pavleichik

and Ksenya V. Mjachina

Abstract Natural fires are a significant factor in the formation of biotic components of steppes. They also lead to changes in the hydrothermal characteristics of the landscape surface. We considered the microclimatic features of steppe ecosystems affected by fires and undergoing regenerative succession. The surface temperature is considered the main estimation parameter in this study. We determined its value by decoding the thermal channels of Landsat satellite images. The study was conducted at a sample site that differs by the state of the vegetation cover—Burtinskaya Steppe in the Orenburg Nature Reserve, Russia. Analysis of thermograms shows that the temperature difference does not exceed 4 °C in the adjacent areas (burnt and nonburnt) in summer. It regularly decreased until the end of the second growing year. We found that the lack of dense vegetation cover and the low reflectivity (albedo) of the burnt surface led to a significant decrease in snow cover depth and duration. This results in a reduced availability of meltwater and deterioration of the vegetation cover. The main factor determining the duration of regeneration processes is the continuous increase in soil moisture. The thermal regime of the landscape is among the main indicators for indirect generalizations about the state and dynamics of vegetation cover. Keywords Steppe fires · Burnt areas · Thermogram · Recovery successions · Surface temperature · Humidity

1 Introduction The modern appearance of steppe landscapes and the structure of biotic components are largely formed under the influence of steppe fires. In this regard, the pyrogenic factor in the development of steppe ecosystems has long been the subject of research (Rodin, 1981; Oparin and Oparina, 2003; Smelyanskiy, 2015). At the same time, V. M. Pavleichik (B) · K. V. Mjachina Institute of Steppe of the Ural Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences, Orenburg, Russia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 S. G. Maximova et al. (eds.), Advances in Natural, Human-Made, and Coupled Human-Natural Systems Research, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 250, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-78083-8_11

113

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some questions connected with the estimation of features of the state of steppe landscapes after fires are practically not studied. The lack of vegetation cover (especially during the first stages of restoration) leads to changes in the main physical properties of the surface, near-surface air, and underground sections. In turn, fire regimes of steppes form special conditions for the post-pyrogenic recovery processes, which should be taken into account in ecological and biological studies. Data content of multispectral satellite images contributes to the improvement of monitoring research methodology, including the assessment of pyrogenic effects. In secondary literature, burnt area identification and the post-pyrogenic restoration processes are studied via processing of the remote sensing data from different areas of Earth (Bartalev, Egorov and Krylov, 2010; Ukrainski, 2013; Wimberly and Reilly, 2007; Veraverbeke, Lhermitte, Verstraeten and Goossens, 2010; Zhang, Balzter, Zou, Xu and Tang, 2015; Vlassova and Pérez-Cabello, 2016). In this study, we used geoinformation methods of remote sensing data analysis to identify the microclimatic features of steppe burns and the duration of recovery processes. The importance of such studies is caused by the ever-increasing scale and frequency of pyrogenic impacts on grass ecosystems in the steppe, forest-steppe, and semi-desert regions of Northern Eurasia (Dubinin, Potapov, Lushchekina and Radeloff, 2010; Shinkarenko, 2018). These processes undoubtedly strengthen the negative ecological impact.

2 Materials and Methods A series of different seasonal Landsat TM and ETM (infrared data) images is used as a data source for obtaining surface temperature values. The study was conducted on a key territory with a total area of 1.5 thousand km2 , covering the reference steppe landscapes (Burtinskaya Steppe protected area, 45 km2 ) and mostly unused agricultural land (approx. 80% of the territory)—pastures, hayfields, and abandoned arable land. Low economic development and transport accessibility of the area, the presence of recreational and tourist facilities were the prerequisites for forming an unfavorable pyrological situation. The long-term dynamics of fire spread in the selected key territory is generally characteristic of the southern border (between the Russian Federation and the Republic of Kazakhstan) areas of the Orenburg Region. Satellite imagery includes both pre-fire images and images reflecting natural, undisturbed terrain features contained in a timeline of images taken after fires and demonstrating the restorative nature and diversity of the landscape in different seasons (Table 1). Before processing, the images underwent standard geometric and radiometric calibration with the conversion of the indicators from digital counts into spectral brightness ratio. The contours of the scorched areas were visually interpreted from high-resolution images. Underlying surface temperature values were extracted from Landsat TM and ETM satellite images and presented in the form of thermogram time-series. We compared temperature values for the entire area, which allowed us to identify specific features of the intensity of post-pyrogenic recovery for different

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Table 1 The list of used Landsat imagery

Pre-fire condition Post-fire condition

Steppe fire of September 24, 2009

Steppe fire of July 31, 2014

Date (MM.DD.YYYY)

No. satellite image

Date (MM.DD.YYYY)

No. satellite image

06.17.2009

2009-168

08.02.2014

2014-214

10.23.2009

2009-264

09.19.2014

2014-262

02.03.2010

2010-034

03.30.2015

2015-089

04.15.2015

2015-105

06.27.2010

2010-178

09.08.2010

2010-251

05.13.2011

2011-133

08.01.2011

2011-213

Source (Pavleichik & Mjachina, 2016)

landscape elements and for lands with different types of use. During the classification of initial thermograms, we used step values of 2 °C, which allowed us to optimize the analyzed images and reduce the number of contours while ensuring their compliance with the landscape structure and land use types. When choosing the scale of values, we also considered that the accuracy of temperature values on Landsat images varies from 1.3 to 2.0 °C (Weng, Fu and Gao, 2014). To obtain a more objective view of the differences in the thermal regime of the burned and unburned sections, we took the values from the original thermograms. To avoid averaging the data, we recorded temperatures along the profile lines (Fig. 1). The choice of sites for cut-outs was based on the comparative homogeneity of topography and land use. We selected four plots—approximately 1 km long (34 pixels of Landsat image) and 30 m wide (1 pixel). Their central nodes were sites located on the border of burns formed in 2009. Vectors of equal length (500 m) were laid in two directions from the central areas to the burnt and unburnt areas. These vectors are made up of kilometer-long segments. Using ENVI 5.3 software, we measured the underlying surface temperature for any pixel of each segment based on Landsat thermal channels. In addition, we assessed the snow cover character (dynamics of formation and destruction) both on burns and in the natural state using daily satellite images of Terra and Aqua. As a result, we drew conclusions about the effects of grass fires on the hydrothermal characteristics of steppe landscapes and about the peculiarities of post-pyrogenic recovery of the vegetation.

3 Results and Discussion The thermal regime of the key territory before the fires (image 2009–168) demonstrated significant heterogeneity due to natural conditions and anthropogenic factors. According to the classified thermograms, the temperature varied from +21 °C to + 45 °C (Fig. 2).

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Fig. 1 Outlines of burns on Landsat shot (2009–264) (1—a thermal cut-out location, 2—border of the Burtinskaya Steppe plot within the Orenburg Nature Reserve). Source (Pavleichik and Mjachina, 2016)

The higher end of the temperature range (between +39 °C and +45 °C) refers to both anthropogenic and natural landscapes. These mainly include recently cultivated arable lands before the active vegetation of crops. The same temperature range includes the steppe slopes of the southerly aspect that receive the most insolation. We also note that the surface temperature of arable land differs due to the crop types and their growth stage. In general, the thermal background is formed based on surface shading—the greater the area of above-ground parts of plants (e.g., sunflowers), the lower temperatures. Cereal plots often have higher temperatures, regardless of the stages of vegetation. Landscape elements occupying the lowest position above sea level (ravines, valleys of temporary watercourses, karst depressions) differ from other landscapes by lower temperatures, on average by 5–7 °C. The reference state of the vegetation cover of the protected area also determines the formation of a lowtemperature background compared to the adjacent rangelands. The minimum temperature values (+21 °C to +25 °C) correspond to the water surface. Areas capable of supporting the development of fires (steppe pastures and reference steppe vegetation of the reserve) are in the temperature range from +29 °C to +37 °C, which includes (according to the thermogram of the 2009–168 image) about 77% of the area of the key area. Satellite images from 2009–296 and 2014–214 reflect the active spread of steppe fires, which allowed us to identify the features of satellite thermograms as a source of

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Fig. 2 Thermograms of Landsat satellite images (the red line shows the border of burnt territory, the black line shows the border of Burtinskaya Steppe). Source Compiled by the authors

raw data. The fire front on thermograms is displayed in the form of linearly elongated groups of thermal anomalies. In the center of the anomalies, the maximum surface temperature ranges from 39.5 °C to 45.5 °C. The actual surface temperature is slightly higher and can locally reach about 200° with active and weak grass burning. The spatial resolution of Landsat thermal channels is 60 m, so temperature values in areas of active fires are averaged and slightly underestimated. The thermogram data confirm that the impact of fire on the surface is local and short-term, after which the temperature regime quickly returns to the values characteristic of the surfaces of burnt areas.

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Comparing temperatures of adjacent burnt and non-burnt steppe areas in different seasons of the frost-free period indicates that the reflectivity (albedo) of burnt surfaces was somewhat lower than in other areas. The maximum differences were observed in the first weeks after the fire and in the hottest summer periods—more than 4–6 °C (avg. 2–3 °C). Landsat satellites record the state of the surface at the same time each day: at about 11:00 local. This time does not correspond to the maximum insolation; therefore, the detected differences can be more significant. Additional instrumental measurements of surface temperature via thermal imagers and automated temperature recorders allowed us to verify the obtained data and identify features of the daily temperature regime. Landsat thermograms provide fairly reliable information on the surface temperature regime and the differences between the burnt and non-burnt areas. We concluded that the dense natural vegetation of the steppes contributes to the formation of special microclimatic conditions. They dissipate and partially preserve insolation and heat energy. In these natural conditions, the temperature background is more uniform throughout the day. In the burnt areas, it differs significantly according to the slope aspect. The temperatures in the burnt areas increased steadily from sunrise to an average of 13–14 h, after which the non-burnt areas warmed more intensely due to the accumulation of thermal energy in the nearsurface layer of air. Differences in surface temperature are caused exclusively by direct insolation, meaning that, in the presence of dense clouds or high soil moisture, these differences were not observed. We analyzed the spatial heterogeneity of fire effect intensity and temperature reduction rate via time series of thermograms. The findings indirectly reflect the intensity of restoration processes in various elements of steppe landscapes. We have found that the greatest damage (difference from the natural state) is inflicted upon the dense vegetation cover of shrubs and meadow steppes, occupying the slopes and bottoms of ravines. The tree and shrub cover takes a long time to recover, but the accompanying grass cover (being in favorable wet conditions) accumulates phytomass in the shortest time of the growing season, which leads to the restoration of the initially lowered temperature regime. The spatial distribution of temperatures in steppe regions after a fire differs more significantly due to the aspect heterogeneity of the surface. Slopes of the southerly aspect become hotter, and of the northerly aspect—colder. We revealed that one of the characteristic features of late autumn fires is the absence of grass cover (and in some places accompanying shrubs) until snow cover is formed. As an example, we examined the effects of the 2014 fall fire under conditions of shallow snow cover during the winter of 2014–2015. The small amount of winter precipitation and a series of thaws led to a weak and fragmented snow cover, observed only in non-burnt areas. The surface temperature was the same, but the absence of snow covers on the burnt areas led to deeper freezing of soil (according to automatic instrumental measurements). Subsequently, by March 30 (thermogram 2015–089), the fragmentary snow cover on burnt areas melted, and the surface temperature varied from 0 °C to +12.5 °C. In natural conditions, the temperature values on the snow surface ranged from −7 °C to 0 °C. These surfaces reached the temperature of burnt ones only two weeks later. Burnt areas differ sharply from the background areas in temperature indices and other microclimatic parameters (meltwater supply, depth of soil freezing, etc.).

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We tracked the duration of temperature differences between adjacent areas (burnt and non-burnt) using the prepared thermograms on the cut-out lines for 2009–2011. The figure below (Fig. 3) shows the distribution of average (for all four profiles) temperature values by dates on post-fire images. The average value for burnt and non-burnt plots is shown as horizontal cutoffs. These graphs demonstrate the overall rate and duration of post-pyrogenic vegetation recovery. The most significant differences were observed in the hottest months of summer. They gradually decreased in autumn and completely leveled out by the onset of long-term negative air temperatures. The temperature differences persist throughout the second year after the fire (2010) and the first half of the third year (2011). By the end of the second year of post-pyrogenic successions (August 2011), the temperature differences were almost negligible, averaging 0.2 °C. On the thermograms of 2011, the temperature background is approaching the natural one, but areas with increased values are preserved. These areas are dispersed clusters that usually occupy elevated parts of the terrain with sparse vegetation cover. The 2012 temperature values for areas burnt in 2009 are unreliable. The newly burnt areas from 2010–2012 are visible on thermograms. The equalization of the temperature background between burnt and natural vegetation indicates that the density of vegetation reaches values sufficient to restore the

Fig. 3 Distribution of the average temperature values on the surface (natural—on the left, burnt segments of cut-out—on the right). Source (Pavleichik and Mjachina, 2016)

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original microclimatic conditions. This fact was confirmed by the results of temperature regime studies conducted with autonomous temperature recorders for 2014– 2018. Restoration of the microclimatic regime does not indicate complete completion of the post-pyrogenic transformation of steppe ecosystems, the duration of which (by estimates of various researchers) can range from 4 to 8–10 years (Rodin, 1981).

4 Conclusion The impact of steppe fires on the physical (microclimatic) parameters of steppe landscapes consists of direct short-term consequences and the special thermal state of the surface, formed in the absence of vegetation cover and observed for a relatively long time. The use of satellite images allowed us to reliably assess the consequences of steppe fires, the duration of recovery processes, and features of their manifestation in different elements of steppe landscapes. Steppe vegetation is important for the formation of snow cover and forms special microclimatic conditions during the frost-free season. Therefore, the consequences of fires are diverse, expressed in the deterioration of conditions for full vegetation and the restoration of steppe ecosystems. Acknowledgements The study was funded by RFBR, project number 18-05-00088, and performed in the framework of the government task number AAA-A17-117012610022-5.

References Bartalev SA, Egorov VA, Krylov AM (2010) Study of the possibilities of assessing the status of forests damaged by fires according to multispectral satellite measurements. Mod Problems Remote Sens Earth Space 7(3):215–225 Dubinin M, Potapov P, Lushchekina A, Radeloff V (2010) Reconstructing long time series of burned areas in arid grasslands of southern Russia by satellite remote sensing. Remote Sens Environ 114:1638–1648 Oparin ML, Oparina OS (2003) The effect of felling on the dynamics of steppe vegetation. Povolzhski Ecol J 2:158–171 Pavleichik VM, Mjachina KV (2016) Features of the thermal regime of the earth’s surface after steppe fires according to Landsat satellites. Bull Orenburg State Univ 4(192):83–89 Rodin LE (1981) Pyrogenic factor and arid zone vegetation. Bot J 66:1673–1684 Shinkarenko SS (2018) Evaluation of the dynamics of the area of steppe fires in the Astrakhan region. Mod Prob Remote Sens Earth Space 15(1):138–146 Smelyanskiy IE (ed) (2015). Steppe fires and fire management in the steppe protected areas (environmental and environmental aspects). Analytical review. Moscow, Russia: Biodiversity Conservation Center Ukrainski PA (2013) Dynamics of the spectral properties of overgrown grass burns. Mod Probl Remote Sens Earth Space 10(4):229–238

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Veraverbeke S, Lhermitte S, Verstraeten WW, Goossens R (2010) The temporal dimension of differenced normalized burn Ratio (dNBR) fire/burn severity studies: the case of the large 2007 Peloponnese wildfires in Greece. Remote Sens Environ 114(11):2548–2563 Vlassova L, Pérez-Cabello F (2016) Effects of post-fire wood management strategies on vegetation recovery and land surface temperature (LST) estimated from landsat images. Int J Appl Earth Obs Geoinf 44:171–183 Weng Q, Fu P, Gao F (2014) Generating daily land surface temperature at landsat resolution by fusing landsat and MODIS data. Remote Sens Environ 145:55–67 Wimberly MC, Reilly MJ (2007) Assessment of fire severity and species diversity in the southern appalachians using landsat TM and ETM+ imagery. Remote Sens Environ 108(2):189–197 Zhang Y, Balzter H, Zou C, Xu H, Tang F (2015) Characterizing bi-temporal patterns of land surface temperature using landscape metrics based on sub-pixel classifications from Landsat TM/ETM+. Int J Appl Earth Obs Geoinf 42:87–96

Ecological Expertise in the Management System of Environmental Use and Protection Valentina M. Yachmeneva , Evgeniy F. Yachmenev , and Alena A. Antonova

Abstract The purpose of the study is to identify prospective directions for the development of ecological expertise in the Russian Federation based on an analysis of the existing administrative and legal mechanisms of environmental management and protection in both Russian and foreign economies. The methods used include general scientific and specific (concerning economic studies) groups of components. According to the research results, in the realities of the Russian economy, there is a decrease in the efficiency of natural resources use in dynamics. In this case, the priority is given to methods of government management of natural resources, and, in particular, ecological expertise. The special status of the latter is ensured by the preventive nature of activities, the ecologic and economic efficiency of which has been confirmed by practical application in several Western countries. At the same time, the specifics of the development of the national ecological expertise and environmental impact assessment, in general, differ significantly from similar processes under international management practices. These differences refer both to the chronology of development and the content of the corresponding transformations. The absence in the Russian Federation of an established framework of environmental legislation and a developed system of executive authorities in the area of environmental protection significantly limit the opportunities for the full establishment of an ecological expertise institute. The development of this environmental management tool is perspective in terms of administrative, legal, economic, organizational, and social activities. In turn, to ensure the efficiency of reforms, it is necessary to take into account both the best international practices and specific features of Russian economic development. Keywords Ecological Problems · State Ecological Expertise · Environmental Protection · Rational Environmental Management

V. M. Yachmeneva · E. F. Yachmenev · A. A. Antonova (B) Institute of Economics and Management, V. I. Vernadsky Crimean Federal University, Simferopol, Russia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 S. G. Maximova et al. (eds.), Advances in Natural, Human-Made, and Coupled Human-Natural Systems Research, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 250, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-78083-8_12

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1 Introduction Catastrophic pollution of the environment is one of the global problems of our time, caused by the lack of natural resources, as well as the need to ensure sustainable socioeconomic development. As a result of the ever-increasing human impact, consumer attitude towards nature, both at the level of individual countries and on a global scale, there are irreversible natural changes that threaten the foundations of global environmental safety. The decrease in the quality of natural resources, climate change, reduction of the biosphere gene pool presents only the “tip of the iceberg” in the overall scale of environmental problems. According to modern studies (World Meteorological Organization [WMO], 2019), if the current trends in environmental management are maintained, there is a significant threat to the integrity of ecosystems, sustainable economic development, and the overall well-being of the world community. In the context of existing global trends characteristic of the ecological status of the Russian Federation territory is also no exception. Thus, the zones of ecological disaster and emergency situations account for approximately 15% of the total territory of the country; desertification processes have acquired a threatening scale on the area of 27 subjects of the Russian Federation on more than 100 million hectares. According to experts, the cause of death of more than 300 thousand Russians is the so-called ecologically caused diseases (Kuznetsova, 2017). In turn, the annual economic losses directly related to the deterioration of environmental quality are in the range of 4– 6% of the total gross domestic product (Khilchenko, Atamanova, and Slavikovskaya, 2020). Taking into account the scale of existing environmental problems that hinder the implementation of citizens’ constitutional rights to a safe environment, improvement of the administrative and legal mechanism of natural resource use and environmental protection becomes a priority. In this case, many authors (Kosenko, 2016; Kuznetsova, 2017; Khilchenko, Atamanova and Slavikovskaya, 2020) analyze the problem of improving the efficiency of environmental protection measures from the perspective of consideration of general characteristics of public management of natural resources, including the aspect of administrative and economic reforms. At the same time, the issue of developing Russian ecological expertise as a promising method for addressing existing environmental problems is not adequately reflected in the literature. Along with providing a general description of the basics of legislative regulation (Erofeeva, 2018; Mishukov, 2016; Pinaev, 2016), the reasons for the existing problems, as well as promising directions for improving environmental protection measures in this area are not properly considered. The purpose of the article is to identify characteristic features of the existing level of development of the national ecological expertise, as well as identify prospective areas for improvement of this environmental management and environmental protection tool.

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2 Materials and Methods A systematic approach to considering ecological expertise as a highly effective method of state management of natural resources and environmental protection was used to achieve this goal. In the process of identifying characteristic features of the existing level and promising development directions of the Institute of Ecological Expertise, various methods of scientific research were used in the complex. In particular, both well-known general sciences (abstraction, induction and deduction, analogy, analysis, and synthesis of information) and specific methods of knowledge (statistical, economic, historical, and legal) were used. The main provisions and directions of the transformation of the existing regulatory framework within the object and subject of research are analyzed. At the same time, the trends of changes in the indicators of efficiency of natural resources use through the use of official statistical data have been studied (Federal State Statistics Service, 2019). Taking into account the need to adhere to the principles of integrity and consistency of research, the analysis of modern scientific works devoted to environmental protection and the development of an appropriate administrative and legal mechanism of natural resources management (Abarova, 2016; Erofeeva, 2018; Kosenko, 2016; Kuznetsova, 2017; Mishukov, 2016; Pinaev, 2016; Khilchenko, Atamanova and Slavikovskaya, 2020; Glasson, Therivel and Chadwich, 2020; Yastrebov, 2011).

3 Results The government ecological expertise in generalized form is an assessment of the level of potential negative environmental impacts carried out by verifying compliance with project documentation and legal requirements to ensure environmental safety. Consequently, these measures result in an official government document (an environmental and economic report) containing the expert commission’s findings on the expediency and environmental safety of the project under review. Thus, as a result of the government ecological expertise, the customer receives either a positive (in the case of determining the feasibility of project implementation) or a negative expert opinion (in the case of non-compliance of project documentation with statutory requirements). As evidenced by foreign experience in the implementation of environmental policy, the main task of the system of government management of natural resources and environmental protection is not to overcome the consequences of environmental violations, but to prevent the fact of their occurrence as such. In this case, project ecological expertise is an effective tool for addressing existing environmental problems at the local and national levels. The current dynamics of environmental management indicators in the Russian Federation demonstrate a whole set of unresolved environmental problems. In particular, deteriorating sanitary and hygienic living conditions and health conditions in the country, degradation of the gene pool, and

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Table 1 Commissioning of water and air protection facilities Indicators

Years

Rate of decline

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

Volume of wastewater treatment, thousand cbm/day

2850.0

360.0

411.0

1197.0

754

−73.5

Volumes of circulating water supply, thousand cbm/day

460.0

1906.0

464.0

1216.0

333.0

−27.6

Capture and neutralization of harmful substances, thousand cbm/hour

5291.0

3318.0

1598.0

2609.0

4802.0

−9.2

Source (Federal State Statistics Service, 2019a; Federal State Statistics Service, 2019b)

an increase in mortality rates are directly related to air, surface, and groundwater pollution. At the same time, despite the frequency of local environmental disasters and signs of a national environmental crisis, indicators of efficiency in the use of critical natural resources tend to decrease (Table 1). Against the backdrop of stable growth in the dynamics of air pollutant emissions, production and consumption waste generation, and an increase in the water pollution index, the leading role in overcoming the existing ecological and economic disproportions is assigned to the system of government management methods of natural resource use and environmental protection. At the same time, the special status of ecological expertise among other environmental management methods is ensured by the preventive nature of measures with high environmental and economic efficiency. Several studies conducted by Western scientists have shown that the implementation of an ecological expertise at the design stage significantly reduces costs for subsequent environmental protection measures. Thus, according to some experts, the cost of appropriate preventive measures is 4–5 times less than the cost of eliminating the consequences of unjustified management decisions (Abrova, 2016). At the same time, the high efficiency of capital investments in environmental projects is due to the system of introducing eco-innovations in various sectors of the economy. Multi-purpose environmental protection measures (low-waste technological processes and processing facilities, construction and operation of closed water supply systems, etc.) that are aimed at reducing negative environmental impact and correspondingly increasing economic performance of economic activity make the greatest contribution to improving the environmental and economic efficiency of projects. Among other things, according to Western experts, as a result of extensive application and improvement of the mechanism of state environmental expertise in several countries (Japan, the U.S., Canada, Sweden, etc.), the quality of the environment, as well as the value of indicators of efficiency in the use of natural resources has significantly improved (Glasson, Therivel and Chadwich, 2020). The establishment and development of the institute

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Table 2 Development stages of ecological expertise and evaluation Period of time

Characteristic features of the period International practice

The Russian Federation

Until 1970

A reactive approach to environmental protection activities (environmental protection is about combating existing pollution)

1970–1980

Adoption of legislative acts on environmental protection issues of a formal framework nature, establishment of specialized government bodies in this area

Lack of a legal and regulatory framework on environmental protection issues. Formal government ecological expertise, which is purely advisory in nature

1980–1990

Practical improvement of legislation, development of specific methodological recommendations on environmental assessment. Increase the role of the judicial authorities in environmental management issues

Acceptance of building norms and rules according to which for the first time from planners it was required to carry out an estimation of a condition of environment, and also working out of the forecast of influence of the project on quality of natural resources

Since 1991

Organization of international conferences, development and ratification of agreements on environmental impact assessment of transboundary nature

Adoption of the first targeted laws, formation of specialized authorities. Development of methodical guidelines of general character on environmental impact assessment

Source (Abramova, 2016; Erofeeva, 2018)

of ecological expertise in the Russian Federation have a number of significant historical features when compared in dynamics with similar processes typical for foreign countries (Table 2). Whereas environmental assessment in international practice was initially based on the relevant provisions of environmental laws, in the Russian Federation the regulatory documents regulating city planning and engineering surveys are considered the basis for developing an ecological expertise. For a long period of time, the Soviet system of state administration in the course of the ecological expertise was focused solely on the country’s economic development, ignoring the requirements of environmental safety and rational environmental management. In fact, the environmental assessment was carried out by teams of scientists whose goal was to provide scientific forecasts of changes in the qualitative characteristics of the natural environment under the influence of anthropogenic factors. The lack of clear legislative definitions, along with various interpretations of the term “expertise,” led to the ambiguity of opinions in understanding the essence of the government ecological expertise that differs from modern concepts. In particular, the expert work on the assessment of the natural and resource potential of a certain territory or region of the country was identified with the ecological expertise.

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Thus, if the general starting point in the development of ideas for a preventive approach to environmental protection is 1970, then in the future the pace of development of Russian environmental expertise was significantly inferior to the dynamics characterizing the global trends. This is primarily due to the closed system of development and decision making on social and economic development issues typical for the USSR, and the lack of traditions of constructive public discussion of environmentally significant issues. In terms of total state ownership, both on means of production and on natural resources, power structures acted as the initiator of activity, developer of project documentation, and expert control bodies. If in the Western models of environmental impact assessment one of the fundamental principles is timely informing and ensuring full participation of citizens, in Russian realities the public was not considered as an equal partner in the development and management decision-making.

4 Discussion Analyzing the development of the institute of ecological expertise, it should be noted that the characteristics of its current stage have the same features as the initial period of formation of ideas of environmental impact assessment in international practice (1970–1980). Russian environmental legislation in this area has no established, time-tested foundations, and the regulatory and non-legislative acts issued by various agencies have significant differences in their interpretation of the basic concepts and approaches to environmental impact assessment. Since 1991, more than 1500 regulatory acts have been adopted that are directly related to environmental protection and environmental management. As a result, many of the newly adopted legal documents have introduced fundamental changes to key environmental laws and resulted in the illegality of previously adopted regulations. Several authors believe that the country’s current environmental system is disorganized and the environmental policy is implemented is ineffective from a practical point of view because of all above. Federal Law “On Ecological Expertise” (Russian Federation, 1995), which is the basic one in environmental impact assessment, has 12 revisions in the last 5 years alone, with amendments and changes in each of the chapters and the majority of articles. In particular, since the adoption of this law, only articles that contain information on existing types of ecological expertise, civil liability for violations of existing legal provisions, as well as on the objects and procedures for conducting a public ecological expertise have remained unchanged. The situation is similar in the Federal Law “On Environmental Protection” (Russian Federation, 2002), which is a fundamental document in the system of national environmental legislation. One of the most dramatic changes over the entire period of the institute’s development is the reform of the structure of executive authorities in the sphere of environmental protection. Initially, the organization and conduct of a government ecological expertise was the responsibility of the Ministry of Environmental Protection. Later, in connection with its reorganization, these functions were transferred to a specially

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created independent environmental authority, the State Committee for Environmental Protection. This period of time was marked by positive changes: an expansion of the staff of environmental inspectors, an increase in the number of expert reviews and lawsuits for compensation for environmental damage, and the establishment of local committees. However, despite the undeniable achievements in environmental protection, there was a widespread belief that the activities of this committee hurt the pace of development of the country’s economy. In particular, the number of economists estimated that if the State Environmental Protection Committee was abolished, additional investments in the production sector would amount to tens of billions of dollars (Yastrebov, 2011). As a result of the confrontation between economic interests and environmental safety requirements, in 2000 an independent environmental authority was abolished, and the functions of ecological expertise and control were transferred to the Ministry of Natural Resources. Thus, the organization of the use of natural resources and the function of control over these processes was concentrated in one executive authority. The new administrative reform cardinally transformed the structure of state bodies in the sphere of environment protection once again by organizing a three-stage management system consisting of relevant federal ministries, services, and agencies. At the same time, on the one hand, there was a separation of legal and control functions in the sphere of ecological expertise, and on the other hand, an abundance of various control bodies with artificially divided powers led to a crisis of the state management system in this sphere. Along with several executive authorities with a part of powers in environmental activities, there was a need to create a single executive authority dealing with environmental protection and nature management in general. The ever-growing environmental situation in the country has led to further organizational and administrative changes and radical reforms in the environmental sphere. In today’s environment, the Ministry of Natural Resources and Ecology of the Russian Federation has regulatory functions, while the Federal Service for Supervision of Natural Resources and Ecology, which in turn is controlled by this ministry, exercises state environmental control at the federal level. At each stage of the government ecological expertise, timely and high-quality performance of the respective functions by full-time employees of the Federal Service for Supervision of Natural Resources Management is critical (Table 3). Although the consolidated opinion on the results of an environmental impact assessment is determined by the position of the majority of experts (non-staff employees—this ensures that the fundamental principles of objectivity and independence of experts are met), the entire procedure and, ultimately, approval of the results fully depend on the position of the Federal Service for Supervision of Natural Resources Management. This situation is aggravated by the lack of extensive databases to attract potential experts, as well as of centers that provide advanced training to such specialists.

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Table 3 The powers of staff members of the Federal Service for Supervision of Natural Resources Management in the context of various stages of the government ecological expertise Stages of ecological expertise

Staff member position and related authority Executor in charge

Head of structural department

Preparatory

Checking documentation Approval of the order to completeness, registering conduct an ecological materials and issuing expertise invoices; determining the category of complexity and cost of ecological expertise participation in the formation of the expert committee

Main

Organization of work of the expert commission with the meetings; participation as experts in the process of environmental expertise of simple objects

Concluding

Participation in the Approval of the consolidated preparation of a consolidated conclusion of the expert environmental expert commission opinion, its design, issuance to the customer; maintenance of the data bank on environmental expertise objects

Source (Mishukov 2016)

Summing up, it is possible to highlight the main directions contributing to further development of the institute of ecological expertise on the way to overcoming existing environmental problems and environmental and economic contradictions: (1). establishment of an authorized executive authority independent from the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (as abolished in 2000) with the authority to conduct environmental policy and comprehensive solution of environmental issues, including issues related to ecological expertise; (2). improvement and specification of methodological tools for environmental and economic assessment, development of federal and regional standards of permissible anthropogenic impact on the environment; (3). development an environmental education system that would form an active environmental position of the population and create conditions for civil participation in the ecological expertise process; (4). in addition to improving the legal and regulatory framework in this area, a wide range of economic instruments for ensuring environmental protection (preferential credit and financial policies and taxation of environmental facilities, financing environmental measures, etc.);

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(5). strengthening the supervisory function of the prosecutor’s office, toughening penalties for violation of environmental legislation; (6). obligatory screening stage, following the example of Western countries, to determine the necessity of environmental impact assessment for a particular project; (7). the transition from a multistage model (an environmental impact assessment organized by the customer precedes a similar consideration within the framework of the government ecological expertise to a single-stage model of conducting a set of relevant environmental activities; (8). ensuring development of federal, regional and local environmental monitoring and audit systems.

5 Conclusion In the current environment in the Russian Federation, the level of development of the government ecological expertise is at the stage of transition from “combating consequences” to the preventive nature of environmental protection measures. On the one hand, the legislation defines the basic requirements for conducting a government ecological expertise, and on the other hand, there are objective factors that hinder the practical implementation of conceptual provisions that are currently purely declarative in nature. As a result, given the ongoing process of reforming environmental authorities and legislative framework, the conducted administrative reforms do not have a significant impact on the environment or provide solutions to existing environmental problems. Among the main perspective directions of development of the ecological expertise should be noted the improvement of approved methodological developments on environmental impact assessment, implementation of a number of organizational measures aimed at ensuring the well-functioning of the environmental monitoring and control system. In this case, it is of key value to overcome the problem of lack of highly qualified personnel in project organizations and expert bodies to conduct ecological expertise and to develop an active environmental position of the population. At the same time, international experience and successful practice of solving environmental problems can serve as a basis for further development of the Russian institute of ecological expertise. In its turn, improving the effectiveness of the system of measures under the government ecological expertise will not only ensure the environmental safety of the territories but will also serve as a basis for the transition to a sustainable development model at both the regional and national levels.

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References Abrarova ZF (2016) State environmental expert review as an instrument of environmental protection. Bull Sci Pract 6(7):40–45 Erofeeva VV (2018) Problems of legal regulation of environmental impact assessment. Ecol Law 1:130–135 Federal State Statistics Service (Rosstat) (2019a) Key environmental protection indicators. Rosstat, Moscow, Russia. Retrieved from https://rosstat.gov.ru/compendium/document/13294 Federal State Statistics Service. (2019b). Russia in figures. Moscow, Russia: Rosstat. Retrieved from https://rosstat.gov.ru/folder/210/document/12993 Glasson J, Therivel R, Chadwich A (2020) (2013). Introduction to environmental impact assessment, 4th edn. Routledge, New York, NY Khilchenko NV, Atamanova EA, Slavikovskaya YuO (2020) diagnostics of environmental and social threats to territory development. Reg Econ 16(1):43–58 Kosenko TG (2016) Management of environmental activities. Electron Sci Methodol J Omsk State Adm 2:28–32 Kuznetsova NI (2017) Criminological characteristics of environmental crime. Bull St. Petersburg Univ Russ Ministry of Intern Aff 2(74):97–100 Mishukov DM (2016) Legal problems of the procedure for state environmental expertise. Labor Soc Relat 3:147–161 Pinaev VE (2016) Key aspects of preparing an environmental monitoring section for the state environmental expert review. Int J Sci. 8(5). Retrieved from https://www.elibrary.ru/item.asp? id=27440734. Russian Federation (1995) Federal Law “On Environmental Expertise” (November 23, 1995, No. 174-FZ, as amended on December 27, 2019). Moscow, Russia Russian Federation. (2002). Federal Law “On Environmental Protection” (January 10, 2002 No. 7-FZ, as amended on December 27, 2019). Moscow, Russia World Meteorological Organization (2019) Annual Report 2018 for WMO in the XXI century. Communication and Public Affairs Office, Geneva, Switzerland Yastrebov AE (2011). Russian government authorities in the field of environmental protection: main trends of reform. Cent Russ J Soc Sci, 1157–160. Retrieved from https://elibrary.ru/item.asp?id= 17113256

Stripping Voltammetry as a Method for Assessing the Possible Effects of Microelements on Humans Galina B. Slepchenko , Igor A. Khlusov , and Eugenia S. Moiseeva

Abstract The chemical composition of microelements in human body is changing due to the global and local anthropogenic stress on biogeochemical cycles. The elemental composition of human hair and the quantitative relationship between the elements serve as summary characteristics of the biogeochemical environmental conditions. Identifying the content of trace elements in the chemical composition of hair requires highly sensitive and selective methods of analysis—electrochemical analysis and, above all, voltammetry. These methods are highly efficient, sensitive, simple, and easily automated. To determine the biogeochemical situation, we examined 180 residents of Tomsk and Seversk and determined the volumes of trace elements in their hair by stripping voltammetry. We found out that the content of trace elements varied significantly, depending on the age and sex of people. Most of the Tomsk population had a deficit of irreplaceable elements (zinc, copper, etc.) in human hair. However, the differences in the content of those elements were statistically significant, which warrants further study on the factors of this variability. Keywords Evaluation · Trace elements · Method · Voltammetry · Hair · Screening · Uncertainty

1 Introduction Diagnosis and preventative measures are an important element of public health. Highly sensitive control over the content of toxic and vital trace elements helps in these tasks. Often, this control is carried via food products, and environmental and biological objects (Zaichick et al. 2009). Microelements may enter human body G. B. Slepchenko · I. A. Khlusov (B) · E. S. Moiseeva National Research Tomsk Polytechnic University, Tomsk, Russia E. S. Moiseeva e-mail: [email protected] I. A. Khlusov Siberian State Medical University, Tomsk, Russia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 S. G. Maximova et al. (eds.), Advances in Natural, Human-Made, and Coupled Human-Natural Systems Research, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 250, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-78083-8_13

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through various types of consumed products: plant and animal products, water, breast milk, chemically enriched foods, and biological additives (Padrón et al. 2020). Today, micronutrient deficiency is an extremely important problem for the Russian population. Moreover, the socioeconomic conditions of the transition period further exacerbated the micronutrient deficiency, which is equally reflected in all segments of the population and all age categories. Doctors pay particular attention to the trace elements of anthropogenic origin, especially in the industrial regions and cities, where toxic pollution is immense. Therefore, one cannot overestimate the importance of monitoring the content of elements and substances in the human body (urine, blood, hair, other organs and tissues) and the studying their pathways. Hair is an important indicator for assessing the environmental situation (Uriu-Adams and Keen 2005; Prashanth et al. 2015). It accurately shows the quantitative content of inorganic elements and substances in human organs and tissues. Hair can serve as an integral indicator of mineral metabolism and reflect the microelement status of the organism as a whole (Khlusov et al. 2019). Analytical researchers are tasked with developing control methods for the content of toxic and vital elements in various biological samples and materials. The task of developing fast and simple methods for determining the content of trace elements in biomaterials is rather complicated (Prasad 2013). Recently, electrochemical methods of analysis (especially voltammetry) became the most popular among the physicochemical methods, mainly because of their high sensitivity, low cost, minimal number of operations and consumables, and the use of automated sample preparation devices and analyzers. The literature review demonstrated that the electrochemical methods of analysis (EMA) are developing rapidly. Voltammetry (VA) occupies a leading position among them (Fig. 1). To date, the bulk of publications is devoted to VA methods for the determination of inorganic substances. Voltammetry is highly sensitive, fast, universal, economical, widely applicable to diagnosing components in various objects. It is also easily standardized—chemical reagents and sample preparation techniques are available at any laboratory. Moreover, voltammetry is automated, which makes laboratory diagnostics simple. Fig. 1 Distribution of publications according to electrochemical analysis methods. Source Compiled by the authors

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2 Materials and Methods The experiment was performed using an STA Analytical Voltametric Complex (TU 4215-001-20,694,097-98; Russia), containing three electrochemical cells and an IBM-compatible computer with the installed STA software package. The STA Complex allows selecting the optimal operating conditions for obtaining analytical signals of the determined components via various modes of recording voltammograms: (1) constant current, (2) stepwise, (3) differential-pulse, and (4) square-wave. In this experiment, we used two-electrode electrochemical cell with replaceable quartz glasses. The reference electrode was a saturated silver chloride (AgCl) electrode, filled with a one-mole solution of potassium chloride (KCl). The hole of the electrode was closed with a cork and held for at least 2 h to establish the equilibrium potential value during the first filling. After analysis, the electrode was stored by immersing it in a one-molar solution of potassium chloride (KCl). Voltametric measurements were carried out on indicator carbon-containing electrodes: graphite, impregnated with polyethylene and paraffin in vacuum, glassy carbon (GCE) and carbon-ceramic, modified mercury GCE, and mercury-film electrodes.

3 Results The aim of this study to develop a multi-element method for determining trace elements in samples of biomaterials (hair, blood and urine) by identifying the optimal conditions for obtaining analytical signals of elements on organically modified, carbon-containing electrodes. The use of modified graphite electrodes allowed us to improve the metrological characteristics, obtain reproducible results, and increase sensitivity. The preliminary sample preparation is significantly shorter, compared to other methods, due to the ability to use the effectively established conditions for conducting the electrode process in turbid and colored environments. We developed methods for determining the amount of trace elements in biological materials. The choice of indicator electrodes, background electrolytes, and modes of recording analytical signals are substantiated in preliminary research. Under the selected optimal conditions, the calibration dependences of the current for each element are linear. This allows using the method of adding standard solutions to determine the concentration of the element in the sample. In biological objects, zinc, cadmium, lead, and copper exist in various forms: (1) inorganic and organic soluble complexes; (2) colloids, compounds adsorbed on suspensions of sulfides, iron oxides, manganese; etc. These forms are often electrochemically unstable, so appropriate sample preparation is required for volumetric analysis. Biomaterials is a complex mixture of chemical components in which the elements are in bonded state. To eliminate the interfering effect of the organic matrix and the conversion of elements, various sample preparation options are usually used: (1)

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acid decomposition, (2) alkaline melting, or (3) ultraviolet irradiation. To transfer the determined elements into the solution, one must mineralize the organic matrix and dissolve the residue in the solvent. The dry ashing and wet methods with thermal or microwave heating are used for the decomposition of the organic matrix in open and closed vessels. For the sample preparation of these toxic metals, the most appropriate combinations of methods are dry and wet ashing, or dry ashing with additives. A mixture of nitric acid (HNO3 ) and hydrogen peroxide (H2 O2 ) was used as the preoxidation additive. At the same time, a slight idle correction was obtained, and losses (e.g., low-soluble sulfates) were avoided when the residue was transferred to the solution. Magnesium nitrate (MgN2 O6 ) additives accelerate the mineralization of the organic matrix. They are a rather large component for heavy metals and require additional purification. Mineralization of small volumes of samples was carried out in open quartz glasses, in which the measurements were later performed. The main problem of screening studies is the reliability of the results regarding pathologies. One should take into account the most insignificant deviations of the results, which imposes high requirements on accuracy of equipment, sampling, sample preparation and all stages of obtaining the final result. In this experiment, we selected people without clinical pathologies as the control group. We investigated men and women working in hazardous conditions were investigated. The representativeness of all samples was established by age criteria (men and women, aged 25–55). Table 1 compares the data on the heavy metal concentration in the bodies of people without identified pathological diseases with the people that have identified pathologies. When preparing the uncertainty budget (Table 2), we accounted for the uncertainties from the sampling procedure, sample preparation, effects associated with Table 1 Statistical summary of the concentration of heavy metals in hair samples Element

Element concentration, mg/kg Value

Root mean square

Interval

−

Extended uncertainty U (k = 2), mg/kg

Relative expanded uncertainty U (k = 2), %

Men Pathology

−

+

−

Zinc

132

407

53.3 189.6 15.2–334 82.4–3234

+

−

+

−

+

28.2

95.6

21

24

Copper

38.7 97.5 29.5 11.7

4.2

14.2

11

15

25.1–308 53.7–1,100 22

48.1

19

19

22.9

19

28

0.5–219

+ 0.5–561

Women Zinc

118

Copper

31.9 81.9 25.0 79.5

250

47.8 248

7.2–131

8.9–281

6.2

Note Minus sign (−) indicates the absence of pathology in the internal organs, according to ultrasound data Source Compiled by the authors

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Table 2 The budget for the uncertainty of the determination of heavy metals in the hair by the method of inversion voltammetry Source of uncertainty

Initial data

Random effects, Measurement values related to under conditions of measurements repeatability and reproducibility based on statistical data taking into account sample preparation

Type of probability distribution Normal

Method for calculating standard uncertainty U ( X¯ i ) X¯ i

√

The error of the analytical complex

± Δpr − margin of error

Effects due to electrode diffusion processes

Electrode potential and Rectangular diffusion coefficient

Rectangular

=

S( X¯ i )2 X¯ i

U pr

+

Sr m ( X¯ i )2 X¯ i

+

S Rmm ( X¯ 1 )2 X¯ i

Δ pr √ 3

U϶ =

√ U (E 0 )2 +

2 U (d √0 ) 3

Source (Ellison and Williams 2012)

the electrochemical processes (passivation of the electrode surface and diffusion phenomena), and the measurement equipment error (Taverniers et al. 2004). As the calculations showed, the sources presented in Table 2 have a rather significant impact, but for most of them the risk of random effects is minimized.

4 Discussion The developed methods for measuring and sample preparation allow introducing voltammetry to routine practice of biological sample analysis. Based on the developed methods, we conducted screening studies among the citizens of Tomsk. Despite the fact that indicators of toxic metals do not exceed the recommended values, the obtained data causes concern, since industrial production is more developed in neighboring regions. Average levels do not always reflect the true imbalance of trace elements. In this case, the percentage of cases of changes in mineral homeostasis should be analyzed.

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5 Conclusion Based on the experimental data, we selected the working conditions for the volumetric determination of trace elements and the conditions for obtaining modified graphite electrodes, which can significantly improve the metrological performance of analysis. Moreover, we developed an algorithm for sample preparation of biomaterials, taking into account the nature of the components to be determined and the composition of the matrix. Additionally, we optimized the sample preparation procedure that affects the results of the analysis and developed an algorithm for metrological evaluation, including evaluation of error characteristics and assignment of operational accuracy control standards. Acknowledgements The study was funded by the Competitiveness Enhancement Program grant of the Tomsk Polytechnic University. The study was conducted in the framework of the Government Task “Science (basic),” project No. 20.0025.GZB.2020.

References Ellison SLR, Williams A (2012) In: Eurachem/CITAC guide: quantifying uncertainty in analytical measurement, 3rd ed. Retrieved from https://www.eurachem.org/ Khlusov I, Slepchenko G, Moiseeva E (2019) An anthropogenic load of copper and somatic health. In: IOP conference series: earth and environmental science, vol 395, pp 012008 Padron P, Paz S, Rubio C, Gutierrez AJ, González-Welle RD, Hardisson A (2020) Trace element levels in vegetable sausages and burgers determined by ICP-OES. Biol Trace Elem Res 194:616– 626 Prasad AS (2013) Essential and toxic element: trace elements in human. Health and disease. Elsevier, Amsterdam, Netherlands Prashanth L, Kattapagari KK, Chitturi RT, Baddam VR, Prasad LK (2015) A review on role of essential trace elements in health and disease. J NTR Univ Health Sc 4:75–85 Taverniers I, De Loose M, Van Bockstaele E (2004) Trends in quality in the analytical laboratory II: analytical method validation and quality assurance. TrAC, Trends Anal Chem 23(8):535–552 Uriu-Adams JY, Keen CL (2005) Copper, oxidative stress, and human health. Mol Aspects Med 26(4–5):268–298 Zaichick V, Zaichick S, Karandashev V, Nosenko S (2009) The effect of age and gender on Al, B, Ba, Ca, Cu, Fe, K, Li, Mg, Mn, Na, P, S, Sr, V and Zn contents in rib bone of healthy humans. Biol Trace Elem Res 129:107–115. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12011-008-8302-9

The System of Complex Spatial Development Indicators Alexander P. Sizov and Elena G. Chernykh

Abstract In this study, we propose a comprehensive system of spatial development indicators for a region. This system includes four groups of indicators based on the land use data in the Tyumen Region from 1990 to 2018. We proposed several indicative units for the indicators of regional spatial development and developed a scale for their assessment. Moreover, we calculated the indicators of regional spatial development for each constituent of the Tyumen Region: the Khanty-Mansi Autonomous Region and the Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Region. The indicators confirmed the urgency of increasing the arable land fund and increasing soil fertility. Currently, 40% of arable land is not cultivated. In addition, the annual cultivation of many lands is impractical due to low natural fertility. Keywords Spatial development indicators · Land category · Tyumen Region · Land reform · Indicator assessment

1 Introduction The land reform in Russia began in the 1990s and aimed to facilitate the transition to various forms of land ownership, to rational and well-grounded land redistribution, and to land protection and restoration. Currently, agricultural lands account for 21.3% of the total land fund, while only 9.7% of arable lands are used. We believe it is necessary to confirm the negative “push” in the land reform, which affected the regional and national land fund. For this purpose, we introduced a fundamentally new set of regional spatial development indicators (Khabarov and Sizov 2017; Sizov 2012). A. P. Sizov (B) Moscow State University of Geodesy and Cartography, Moscow, Russia e-mail: [email protected] E. G. Chernykh Industrial University of Tyumen, Tyumen, Russia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 S. G. Maximova et al. (eds.), Advances in Natural, Human-Made, and Coupled Human-Natural Systems Research, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 250, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-78083-8_14

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2 Materials and Methods The system of regional spatial development indicators is based on the generalized analysis of data on the state and use of the land fund in the Tyumen Region from 1990 to 2018 (Federal Service for State Registration, Cadastre, and Cartography, 2018). We proposed several indicative units as indicators of the regional spatial development (Fig. 1). To analyze the obtained results, we developed a scale for the comprehensive assessment of the indicators (Table 1). The distribution of the land fund of the Tyumen Region by land categories is presented in Table 2.

Fig. 1 The system of indicators of regional spatial development. Source Compiled by the authors

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Table 1 Scale of an integrated assessment of regional spatial development indicators The range of values, % Change range Description ≤ 0.10

Minimal

Stable situation; quantitative changes in land use are practically absent; regional spatial development is frozen

0.11–1.00

Low

Consistent situation; quantitative changes in land use are insignificant; regional spatial development is slow

1.11–10.00

Medium

Shifting situation; quantitative changes in land use are moderate; regional spatial development is moderately intensive

10.01–40.00

High

Progressing situation; quantitative changes in land use are significant; regional spatial development is high

≥ 40.01

Maximal

Rapidly progressing situation; quantitative changes in land use are very high; regional spatial development is highly intensive

Source Compiled by the authors

Table 2 The distribution of the land fund of the Tyumen Region by land categories Land category

S—area, thousand ha 1990

2018

Δ in 28 years

Average annual Δ

1. Agricultural land

35,777.2

35,360.1

−417.1

−14.896

2. Land settlements

901.2

1529

627.8

22.421

3. Earth industry

307.3

596.0

288.7

10.311

4. Land of specially protected areas

2385.2

2386.6

1.4

0.050

5. Land of the forest fund

90,426.3

90,353.9

−72.4

−2.586

6. Land of the water fund

8792.6

8792.7

0.1

0.004

7. Land reserve

7827.5

7399.0

−428.5

−15.304

Total in the region

146,417.3

146,417.3

0.00

0.00

Source Federal Service for State Registration, Cadaster, and Cartography (2018)

2.1 Calculation of Regional Spatial Development Indicators for the Tyumen Region We consider the indicator of the dynamics of land in the region for the period from 1990 to 2018: ∑ ∑ (S2018 − S1990 )− (S2018 − S1990 )+ × 100 = × 100, % Pdz = ST R ST R

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where ∑ + ∑(S2018 − S1990 )− : increases in the land area of corresponding categories; (S2018 − S1990 ) : decreases in the land area of corresponding categories.

Pdz =

627.8 + 288.7 + 1.4 + 0.1 × 100 = 0.63 % 146, 417.3

(Increases in the land area of corresponding categories are in the numerator). Pdz =

−417.1 − 72.4 − 428.5 × 100 = 0.63% 146, 417.3

(Decreases in the land area of corresponding categories are in the numerator). Additionally, we calculated the rate (speed) of land dynamics by dividing the dynamics indicator by the number of years: 2018 − 1990 = 28 Pdz , % /year Vdz = 28 0.63 Vdz = = 0.0225 % /year 28 Pdz , % /year 28 0.63 Vdz = = 0.0225 % /year 28

Vdz =

The first two indicators confirm that the balance of lands in the region is stable and conservative. However, they also point to the insufficiently active development of the regional spatial development. Further, we calculated the indicator of urbanization and its rate from 1990 to 2018. The formulas are similar to the already used ones, but these indicators concern only the lands of the second and third categories: 627.8 + 288.7 × 100 = 75.84 % 901.2 + 307.3 75.84 = 2.71 % /year = 28

Purbanization = Vurbanization

These indicators show that urbanization increased considerably, growing at an unprecedented rate. The Tyumen Region is highly urbanized, with a large number of people concentrated in the cities. This is largely caused by the predominance of large enterprises and resource deposits. Increasing urbanization can be considered a progressive, positive phenomenon if all environmental requirements are followed.

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Next, we calculated the indicators of agricultural land development and its speed from 1990 to 2018. The indicator concerns only the first category of land. The negative values indicate that the land is falling out of use (mainly due to deterioration). −417.1 × 100 = −1.17% 35, 777.2 −1.17 = = −0.04%/year 28

Pagricultural development = Vagricultural development

Desertification of fertile lands, caused by negative environmental factors, is common in the Tyumen Region. During the land reform, issues of land conservation and increase were not resolved. Today, large swaths of agricultural land are overgrown, swamped, eroded, devastated, and degraded. Due to underfunding, restoration and reclamation of productive and disturbed lands were practically stopped. Moreover, agricultural land is often transferred to other categories, depending on the interests of potential investors. Such decisions are often made without regard to land quality, which negatively affects the state of the regional land fund of the region. The formulas for land naturalization and its speed from 1990 to 2018 are similar to the already used ones. The indicators concern only the fourth and fifth land category. Negative values point to deforestation. 1.4 − 72.4 × 100 = −0.08 % 2.385.2 + 90, 426.3 −0.08 = = −0.003% /year 28

Pnaturalization = Vnaturalization

There are two reasons for deforestation in the Tyumen Region: • Clearance of land for housing and urbanization; • Use of forests for subsoil studies and development of mineral deposits. We can conclude that the Tyumen Region is becoming highly urbanized: (1) the number of cities is increasing; (2) their boundaries and spheres of influence are expanding; (3) their ties with other settlements are strengthening; (4) settlement structures and infrastructure diversity are becoming more complicated. To increase the reliability and depth of the analysis, we calculated similar indicators separately for the south of the Tyumen Region, the Khanty-Mansi Autonomous Region, and the Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Region.

2.2 Calculation of Regional Spatial Development Indicators for the South of the Tyumen Region The distribution of land by categories in the south of the Tyumen Region is presented in Table 3.

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Table 3 Distribution of the land fund of the south of the Tyumen Region by land categories S—area, thousand ha

Land category name

1990

2018

Δ in 28 years

Average annual Δ

1. Agricultural land

5991.3

4565.1

−1426.2

−50.94

2. Land settlements

89.9

215.8

125.9

4.50

3. Earth industry

98.7

63.6

−35.1

−1.25

4. Land of specially protected areas

0.0

2.3

2.3

0.08

5. Land of the forest fund

9585.6

10,257.8

672.2

24.01

6. Land of the water fund

0

476.6

476.6

17.02

7. Land reserve

246.7

431

184.3

6.58

Total in the region

16,012.2

16,012.2

0.00

0.00

Source Federal Service for State Registration, Cadaster, and Cartography (2018)

The indicator of land dynamics in the south of Tyumen Region from 1990 to 2018: ∑ Pdz =

(S2018 − S1990 )+ × 100 = Ssouth

∑ (S2018 − S1990 )− × 100, % Ssouth

where: ∑ + ∑(S2018 − S1990 )− : increases in the land area of corresponding categories; (S2018 − S1990 ) : decreases in the land area of corresponding categories.

125.9 + 2.3 + 672.2 + 476.6 + 184.3 × 100 = 9.13% 16, 012.2 −1426.2 − 35.1 × 100 = 9.13% Pdz = 16, 012.2 Pdz =

The land dynamics are undergoing moderate quantitative changes. The rate of land dynamics in the south of the Tyumen Region: Pdz , %/year 28 9.13 = 0.326%/year = 28

Vdz = Vdz

The urbanization and its rate in the south of the Tyumen Region: 125.9 − 35.1 × 100 = 48.14% 89.9 + 98.7 48.14 = = 1.72%/year 28

Pur bani zation = Vur bani zation

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The urbanization indicator of 48.14% indicates maximum quantitative changes in the land, with the regional spatial development being at a record pace. The indicator of agricultural land development and its rate in the south of the Tyumen Region: −1426.2 × 100 = −23.80% 5, 991.3 −23.80 = −0.85%/year = 28

Pagriculturaldevelopment = Vagriculturaldevelopment

Due to the long period of agricultural reforms, the sown area in the south of the region significantly decreased over the 28 years. The arable lands outside of circulation were transferred to the category of conserved lands, where extensive greening occurs. Such lands are mainly used as pastures. Land naturalization and its rate in the south of the Tyumen Region: 2.3 + 672.2 × 100 = 7.04% 0 + 9, 585.6 7.04 = = 0.25%/year 28

Pnaturali zation = Vnaturali zation

While the situation is shifting, the moderate quantitative changes in land use are insignificant.

3 Results Similarly, we calculated the indicators for the two constituents of the Tyumen Region: the Khanty-Mansi Autonomous Region and the Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Region. Table 4 presents a summary of the results.

4 Discussion The difficult situation in the agricultural sector presupposes the complexity of land redistribution, its protection, and its rational use. Enterprises and population were not ready for land reforms. The problem of demand for land shares proved to be the biggest one. During reforms, a great part of arable land fund (888 thousand hectares, or 47%) fell into the hands of people who had no plans to use it for agriculture. Currently, there are only 158.1 thousand land shareowners in the region. As of January 1, 2019, 94% of them received ownership certificates, and only 80% registered their property. Around 76% of shareowners rented their land out, 4% organized

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Table 4 Summary of the indicators for the Tyumen Region and its constituents Indicators

Tyumen Region

South of Tyumen Region

Khanty-Mansi Autonomous Region

Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Region

Indicator of land dynamics, %

0.63

9.13

2.29

0.79

Indicator of the speed of land dynamics, %/year

0.022

0.326

0.082

0.028

The indicator of land urbanization, %

75.84

48.14

179.11

151.40

The rate of urbanization of land, %/year

2.71

1.72

6.40

5.41

Indicator of land development, %

−1.17

−23.80

−62.88

−1.31

The rate of agricultural development of land, %/year

−0.04

−0.85

−2.25

−0.05

The rate of naturalization of land, %

−0.08

7.04

0.51

0.32

The rate of naturalization of land, %/year

−0.003

0.25

0.02

0.01

Source Compiled by the authors

peasant farms, and 1% added their shares to their personal plots. About 104.9 thousand hectares are unused. The land rent and the de facto availability of “virtual” land shares contributed to the mass abandonment of land ownership.

5 Conclusion The analysis allowed us to conclude that the regional spatial development in the Tyumen Region is predominantly low due to the gradual improvement of land legislation and the adoption of new bills regulating priority types of economic land use. A slight increase from 0.63 to 2.29% was observed in the Khanty-Mansi Autonomous Region due to the increasing use of land for subsoil resource extraction.

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The greatest value (9.13%) was observed in the south of the Tyumen Region, where urban districts were actively formed (Bryson and Alston 2004). Most Russian studies on urbanization are related to the Soviet period, when the remote territories were actively explored, and new cities emerged. In our opinion, the closer the value of the urbanization indicator is to 100%, the more urbanized the region is. Judging by the obtained data, the Khanty-Mansi Autonomous Region (179.11%) and the Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Region (151.4%) are highly urbanized entities. Such rapid urbanization was facilitated by a new type of municipality— urban districts. These municipalities include not only the lands within the settlements but also lands of other categories within the boundaries of urban districts. This way, the other categories of lands also become urbanized since the master plan for land development presupposes constructing capital facilities. The indicator of agricultural land development was extremely low in the region, most often even negative. A particularly low value was observed in the Khanty-Mansi Autonomous Region (−62.88%). This may be caused by the fact that lands given to Cossack communities and indigenous peoples are classified as agricultural land. The developed oil fields often coincide with the places of traditional residence and economic activity of the indigenous peoples. Indigenous people migrate seasonally, constructing temporary housing inside hunting areas, which are often not marked on topographic maps. The existence of “virtual” land shares is another significant factor in agricultural land alienation (Allison and Kaye 1997). Among all constituents of the region, the highest value of land naturalization was observed in the southern part (7.04%), caused by the large-scale transfer of forest lands to industrial lands for the purpose of mining. Acknowledgements This study was supported by a grant from a nonprofit organization “LUKOIL Charity Fund.”

References Allison M, Kaye J (1997) In: Strategic planning for nonprofit organizations: a practical guide and workbook (A. M. Moiseev Trans. from English). New York, NY, John Wiley Bryson JM, Alston FK (2004) Creating and implementing your strategic plan: a workbook for public and nonprofit organizations. Jossey-Bass, San Francisco, CA Federal Service for State Registration, Cadaster, and Cartography (2018) Report “On the condition and use of land in the Tyumen Region in 2018”. Retrieved from https://rosreestr.ru/site/act ivity/sostoyanie-zemel-rossii/gosudarstvennyy-natsionalnyy-doklad-o-sostoyanii-i-ispolzova nii-zemel-v-rossiyskoy-federatsii Khabarov DA, Sizov AP (2017) Using the dynamics of land balance of the Russian Federation to analyze their environment-forming properties. Bull. High. Educ. Institute. Geodesy and Aerial Photography 3:57–61 Sizov AP (2012) In: Modern problems of land management and cadasters. Part. 1. Land management: textbook for master’s students. Moscow, Russia, Moscow State University of Geodesy and Cartography

Resource Potential Assessment of the Russian Rural Areas from the Standpoint of Modern Concepts on Spatial Development Alla L. Popova , Ludmila N. Kosyakova , and Nikolay N. Kosyakov

Abstract During its technocratic development, humanity has faced many global problems caused by inequality in socio-economic systems. To a large extent, these problems affected rural areas. Economic growth, traditionally regarded as a critical condition for social development, often leads to a deterioration of the economic and social situation of the rural population and the destruction of agro-ecological systems. This study aims to analyze the concepts of spatial development that underlie national strategic decisions on the resource potential of rural areas. The study involves two concepts of spatial development: (1) polarized spatial development (controlled contraction) and (2) endogenous economic growth. Both concepts claim that rural areas have low development potential, which assigns them the role of a resource generator for urban development. The current socio-economic situation in rural Russia and its development trends confirm this assumption. An analysis of demographic processes showed that since the beginning of the twenty-first century, two phenomena have been spreading in rural areas of Russia, leading to the degradation of human potential: depopulation and social desertification. The situation is aggravated by the marked informational inequality between residents of big cities and rural settlements, which has both social and economic consequences. In the information society, the qualitative and quantitative insufficiency of human and information resources in rural areas accelerates the degradation of other development resources. This situation cannot be improved by local investment in the material resources of socio-economic systems. Therefore, to solve the problem of sustainable development of rural territories, it is necessary to go beyond the framework of the considered concepts of spatial development and create mechanisms for forming the resource potential of territories with a priority role of human and information resources. A. L. Popova (B) · L. N. Kosyakova · N. N. Kosyakov Saint Petersburg Agricultural State University, Pushkin, Russia e-mail: [email protected] L. N. Kosyakova e-mail: [email protected] N. N. Kosyakov e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 S. G. Maximova et al. (eds.), Advances in Natural, Human-Made, and Coupled Human-Natural Systems Research, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 250, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-78083-8_15

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Keywords Economy · Management · Resource potential · Rural development

1 Introduction In general, rural development refers to the gradual improvement of the quality of life of the rural population. In this context, the quality of life results from various interrelated processes (social, cultural, historical, political, or environmental). However, modern society is characterized by a different intensity of these processes, which leads to imbalances in socio-economic systems and other problems. The rapid development of technology in production, which is necessary for economic growth, has the most negative impact on the environmental and social situation, especially in rural areas. Therefore, the term “rural development” is gradually giving way to the term “sustainable rural development,” which indicates the unified nature of the social, economic, and environmental problems of the social development. The idea of what is the basis of the resource potential of the development of territory is changing. Land remains a valuable resource, but the role of the rural population in development processes needs to be reviewed, taking into account the existing social potential of rural communities and the centuries-old experience of the interaction between humanity and nature. Unfortunately, the rural part of the territory’s potential is currently being reduced. The orientation of humanity towards a technocratic development leads to the continuous decrease in the need for agricultural labor. Many rural residents become unclaimed by the economy as labor resources. As a result, rural areas have higher unemployment rates than urban ones, especially among young people, and low income, resulting in a mass migration of working-age rural residents to cities. Demographic problems, lack of quality labor resources, and active economic activity in rural areas damage their productive potential, which increases the disparity in the development of territorial socio-economic systems. Therefore, the disparity in the development of socio-economic systems is manifested in the unfair income distribution between industries of social production and the uneven development of territories. The problems of rural development are multifaceted. To solve them, one cannot implement only local management measures for individual elements of this field. It is necessary to change the ideology of social development. Spatial development of a territory is a long process. Any management aimed at regulating its parameters should be strategic. Meanwhile, the development concepts of individual regions, territories, and the government often provide contradictory tools for solving development problems. Therefore, it is crucial to harmonize existing rural development concepts and create effective mechanisms for solving rural problems. This study aims to analyze existing concepts of spatial development in the context of assessing the resource potential of sustainable rural development.

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2 Materials and Methods In our opinion, the main modern approaches to territorial development issues are (1) organization of market space, (2) state retention (protection) of space, and (3) the so-called conservative approach implemented in Russia over the past decades. The conservative approach does not involve changing the existing principles of national spatial development and socio-economic relations, which does not meet the interests of a significant part of Russian citizens, and leads to further differentiation of territories and population groups in terms of income and quality of life. The organization of market space is based on the concept of polarized spatial development (controlled compression). In contrast, the retention of space by the government follows the concept of endogenous economic growth, which, according to Kurushina and Petrov (2018), does not exclude the combination of these approaches in solving problems of spatial development. Kurushina and Petrov (2018) suggest using the uniformly hierarchical model typical of the conservative approach for the development of the village. Thereby, they implicitly recognize the non-competitiveness of rural communities in relation to urban ones and their inability to mobilize internal resources for development (or the lack of them). The idea of developing territories through competition is based on the concept of growth poles. Here, we should note that initially, in the works of F. Perroux (1950) and Boudeville (1966), the greater competitiveness of individual regions was explained by the uneven distribution of economic resources and the presence of propulsive industries in regional economies (Perroux 1950). Only the concentration of propulsive industries in the region creates the potential for self-development, sufficient for autonomous solutions to socio-economic issues of its territory (Boudeville 1966). The theory of Knight (1944) on the possibility of ensuring unlimited economic growth through investment in the development of a resource that is fundamental to the modern economic system formed the basis of the concept of endogenous economic growth (Knight 1944). Consequently, in the knowledge economy, economic growth is possible through investment in knowledge and human capital, while its pace depends on a set of infrastructure and institutional factors, primarily administrative ones. With endogenous economic growth, the possibility of self-development of territories is determined by the degree of human capital concentration. The most significant positive effect is achieved with agglomeration. Therefore, the concepts of growth poles and endogenous economic growth suggest that self-development of the territory is possible only in conditions of high concentration of human resources and capital, that is, in large agglomerations. In these concepts, rural areas are assigned the role of space between developing agglomerations, used to house infrastructure, primarily transport, serving as a resource generator for agglomerations and access to social benefits created in large cities.

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We believe that the following set of measures should be taken into account for sustainable rural development: • Housing and communal infrastructure in rural areas; • Organization of inter-municipal public service centers that provide various benefits to both the population and entrepreneurs; • Construction, repair, and maintenance of the road network, public transport development; • Improving the competitiveness of far-sighted agro-industrial centers; • Diversification of rural employment; • Restoration of renewable natural resources in rural areas; • Preservation of natural and cultural heritage; • Development of the recreational function of rural areas; • Optimization of the location of social institutions in combination with the spread of mobile and remote forms of providing social services to the population. The concept of organizing a market space is attractive because it involves active economic integration of the growth poles and adjacent territories (creation of agglomerations). Let us consider the possibility of using this provision as the basis for the mechanism for forming the necessary resource potential for rural development. To assess the impact of the territory’s resource complex on its socio-economic development, scientists traditionally use economic and mathematical modeling methods. For example, Computable General Equilibrium models [CGE], New Quantitative Trade Models [NQTM], and interregional input–output models are used to estimate expected changes in socio-economic systems (Suslov et al. 2018). The feasibility of using a particular model is determined by the availability of data necessary for modeling a real socio-economic system. Unfortunately, the specifics of the statistical monitoring system at the regional level in Russia hinder the effective use of the CGE and NQTM models. In addition, these models are very cumbersome and difficult to build, so input–output models are preferable. The concept of the aggregate factor productivity of the region is of particular interest. This concept is related to the Solow-Swan model of economic growth (Solow 1956; Swan 1956) and is intended to explain changes in economic growth parameters that are not correlated with physical capital and labor. It is believed that after 1991 economic growth in Russia is determined precisely by aggregate factor productivity and not by capital accumulation, as it used to be in the USSR (Voskoboinikov 2003). According to Myasnikov (2018), the most significant components of aggregate factor productivity in the modern Russian economy are (1) the industry structure of production, in particular, the share of extractive industries in it; (2) the density of employment and investment per employee; (4) the presence of large urban agglomerations; (5) the overall level of urbanization; (6) road density (Myasnikov 2018). The significance of the impact of these factors on economic growth indicators does not exclude the possibility of increasing the total factor productivity of rural areas by increasing the influence of other elements, such as (1) environmental well-being, (2) low crime rate, and (3) preferential tax treatment.

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In addition, one can use methods for constructing tables of socio-economic development indicators and integrated indices of territory development to assess the socio-economic development of rural areas. This class of methods has been intensively developed recently, especially for comparative analysis of the social aspects of different countries. The tables of socio-economic indicators and integral indices lack universality since the controlled indicators may have different values for different territories (for example, per capita income level as the primary indicator of the development level of the territory). Also, the construction of indicator tables and integral indices for assessing the development of the territory involves using a large number of indicators tracked over significant periods (Kuklin and Korobkov 2018).

3 Results The concepts of territorial development that underlie the spatial development strategy of Russia regard rural territories as a connecting element in the system of growth poles and competitive urban agglomerations that concentrate economic resources. Currently, insufficient public attention to socio-economic processes in rural areas has led to specific systemic problems resulting in the degradation of the resource potential of rural areas. The decline in the human potential of rural areas is of particular concern in the emerging information society. As mentioned earlier, the unemployment rate in rural areas of Russia is almost twice the value of the same indicator for Russian cities (8% and 4.4%, respectively). Nevertheless, even employed rural residents are paid less for their work than urban ones. As a result, almost a third of Russians (27%) living in rural areas are below the poverty line (Federal State Statistics Service of the Russian Federation (Rosstat 2020). The poverty of the rural population, combined with the lack of economically significant industries, has led to the destruction of the social and engineering infrastructure of rural areas. In particular, access to pre-primary education for rural children is urgent (the provision of this social service among the rural population in 2017 was 31.4% lower than the urban level). Due to the low population density, the number of rural schools continues to decline. Besides, due to the low population density, medical care is becoming less accessible: in 2012–2017, the number of rural feldsher-midwife stations decreased by 980, and hospitals—by 53 (Rosstat 2017). Such differences in the quality of life between cities and villages affected the demographic situation in rural areas. Over the period 1995–2017 (23 years), because of the natural and mechanical movement of the population, Russian rural territories lost 2.5 million people (Rosstat 2019). Simultaneously, the natural decline of the rural population occurred both due to a lower life expectancy (compared to cities) and a decreased birth rate. Throughout the history of demographic observations conducted on the territory of modern Russia, a higher birth rate was recorded for the rural population than for the urban population. The situation changed for the first

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time in 2015. In 2017, the birth rate of the rural population was 11.2 ppm, urban11.6 ppm, in 2018−10.7 and 11.0 ppm, respectively (Rosstat 2019). The parameters of demographic processes allow us to forecast the further reduction of the rural population. Rural areas in Russia are expected to lose another 2.8 million residents by 2030 (Rosstat 2019). Along with the decline of the rural population, it is gradually concentrated in the territories directly adjacent to major cities. In fact, such territories, formally recognized as rural, are part of urban agglomerations, do not have village-specific systems of socio-economic relations, and develop according to urban scenarios (Omelchenko and Poliakov 2018). At the same time, in rural areas remote from large cities, traditional social systems are also destroyed, leading to their social desertification. For example, from 2014 to 2018, the number of rural settlements in Russia decreased by 700 (by 4.2%), which means that 700 communities with their collective socio-cultural experience were utterly lost (Rosstat 2019).

4 Discussion Analysis of demographic processes allows us to conclude that human potential as the main component of the resource potential of their development is degrading in most rural areas of Russia. In the current situation, a key role in creating conditions for economic growth and socio-economic development of territories should be assigned to high-quality human development factors, which corresponds to modern concepts of territorial development. Human potential allows ensuring the long-term integrity and stability of the territory’s resource complex. As a rule, attracting additional material and financial resources for development is ineffective due to insufficient nonmaterial resources. Speaking about the importance of human resources, one should note the role of information resources in post-industrial society. Today, information is part of the resource potential that determines the availability of traditional resources, such as labor, land, and capital, and allows one to change their properties and use. Therefore, the development of information resources and their accessibility in rural areas and human potential development is of primary importance. Until recently, rural development was not considered an independent task of managing socio-economic systems at the macro level. When studying the problems of rural areas, it is essential to differentiate their composition and severity depending on the main influencing factors. Besides, it is necessary to distinguish between the changes caused by the general development of civilization and problems arising due to artificially created imbalances in socio-economic systems. Consequently, the reduced share of workers in agricultural production can be attributed to natural changes caused by technology development and the transition to a new type of social production. Changes in the demographic processes can also be regarded as natural, explained by the technological development of humanity, which led to a sharp

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increase in life expectancy and the formation of an age structure of the population never observed in some territories before. However, rural poverty should be attributed to artificially created problems, since in this case, we are talking about an uneven distribution of income between sectors and subsectors of production, which indicates imperfect mechanisms for distributing social products. The problem of “rural poverty” is primary, since it can be reduced to all other socio-economic problems of the Russian countryside, such as (1) insufficient investment in agriculture, (2) low income of the rural population, (3) insufficient social and engineering infrastructure of rural territories, (4) rapid degradation of the resource potential of the village.

5 Conclusion The concepts of spatial development considered in this paper should not be applied in isolation. Goals and objectives, methods of execution of government decisions taken during their implementation cannot compete or overlap. However, it is essential to understand that all these territorial development concepts do not imply the preservation of the village as one of the main elements of the system of social production. Rural areas are regarded as a resource generator for cities: (1) human, (2) recreational, and (3) land ones. Therefore, it is crucial to develop mechanisms for forming the resource potential of rural development. In this regard, human and information resources should play a crucial role.

References Boudeville J (1966) Problems of regional economic planning. Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh, UK Federal State Statistics Service of the Russian Federation (2017) Social status and living standards of the population of Russia. Moscow, Russia, Rosstat Federal State Statistics Service of the Russian Federation (2019) Demographic yearbook of Russia, 2019. Moscow, Russia, Rosstat Federal State Statistics Service of the Russian Federation (2020) Labor market, employment, and salaries. Retrieved from https://gks.ru/labor_market_employment_salaries Knight FH (1944) Diminishing returns from investment. J Polit Econ 52:26–41 Kuklin AA, Korobkov IV (2018) The choice of an effective trajectory of the socio-economic development of the region. Econ Region 14(4):145–155 Kurushina EV, Petrov MB (2018) Success criteria for spatial development projects based on interregional integration. Reg Econ 14(1):176–189 Myasnikov AA (2018) Analysis of the determinants of total factor productivity in Russian regions. Econ Region 14(4):169–180 Omelchenko E, Poliakov S (2018) Everyday consumption of Russian youth in small towns and villages. Sociol Rural 58(3):644–664 Perroux F (1950) Economic space: Theory and applications. Q J Econ 64:89–104 Solow RM (1956) A contribution to the theory of economic growth. Q J Econ 70(1):65–94

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Suslov VI, Ibragimov NM, Melnikova LV (2018) Coalition analysis and effects of regional integration. Econ of Region 14(4):131–144 Swan TW (1956) Economic growth and capital accumulation. Econ Record 32(2):334–361. https:// doi.org/10.2307/1884513 Voskoboinikov IB (2003) In: Assessment of the total factor productivity of the Russian economy in 1961–2001, taking into account adjustments to fixed assets dynamics. Moscow, Russia, SUHSE

Transformer and Ozonator Systems for Livestock Buildings Vladimir F. Storchevoy , Nikolai E. Kabdin, Sergey V. Suchugov, Peter M. Umansky, and Alexander E. Kompaniets

Abstract A transformer-ozonator system was developed for livestock buildings. It allows one to operate in closed livestock buildings after theoretical and experimental studies, cleans the air from gas and bacterial contamination, and beneficially affects the productive and reproductive qualities of animals. Cleaning occurs due to the formation of the required concentration of ozone. When the transformer-ozonator system operates in closed livestock buildings, it may fail or not provide the operating mode for the required ozone concentration. Therefore, it is necessary to calculate the transient and steady-state processes occurring in the transformer-ozonator system and select its most effective, accident-free operating modes. The authors eliminated these problems due to the research of the obtained model with mathematical solutions of differential equations, containing algorithms and programs for solving a set of initial and boundary conditions. The solution of this mathematical model allows us to get the results of reliable operation of the transformer-ozonator system, avoiding failure of the transformer or breakdown of the dielectric in the plates of the barrier ozonator, without the required concentration of ozone in closed livestock buildings, which will make a significant contribution to the study of this system. Keywords Ozonization · Transformer-ozonator system · Transient and steady-state processes · Differential–algebraic equation systems · Equivalent circuit of the transformer-ozonator

V. F. Storchevoy (B) · N. E. Kabdin · S. V. Suchugov · P. M. Umansky · A. E. Kompaniets Russian State Agrarian University—Moscow Agricultural Academy named after K. A. Timiryazev, Moscow, Russia e-mail: [email protected] N. E. Kabdin e-mail: [email protected] P. M. Umansky e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 S. G. Maximova et al. (eds.), Advances in Natural, Human-Made, and Coupled Human-Natural Systems Research, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 250, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-78083-8_16

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1 Introduction General information regarding ozonation of the air of livestock buildings is available in the works of Ksenz et al. (2010, pp. 200–203), Leonova (2012), Manuylenko and Vendin (2018). The authors revealed the need to obtain the necessary ozone concentration in the room, which should not exceed the maximum allowable ozone concentration of 0.1 mg/m3 for animal respiration and have stable operating of the equipment created at the expense of this concentration. Transient and steady-state processes occurring in the transformer-ozonator system are complex. This system is used in closed livestock buildings to improve the microclimate. The research aims to obtain a mathematical model of the transformer-ozonator system allowing to conduct studies of transient and steady-state processes (changes in voltage and current over time) of the transformer-ozonator system for livestock buildings, its operating and emergency modes.

2 Materials and Methods Operating modes of the transformer-ozonator system can be represented as process parameters OPP (OSP = XL , XC , R) and process parameters OPP (OPP = I, U). where X L —reactance of the coil; R—active resistance; X C —reactance of the capacitor. OC can be linear OSP = const), and OPP can be non-linear OSP = f (OPP 1 , … OPPn ), that is probabilistic and deterministic (Venikov 1985). The following equations define transient and steady-state processes: g = (OPP , . . . , OSP , . . .) = 0

(1)

dOPP /dt = q(OPP , . . . , OSP ).

(2)

where OPP —process parameters; OSP —system parameters. Figure 1 (a, b) shows the transformer-ozonator substitution schemes that allow reaching the objectives. The solution of the presented scheme (Fig. 1a) is the following equations: U1 = E 1 + R1 I1 + j X 1L I1 ;

Transformer and Ozonator Systems for Livestock Buildings /

/

/

159 /

/

U2 = E 2 + R2 I2 + j X 2L I2 ,

(3)

where R1 ; X 1L —active and reactive resistance of the primary winding of the transformer; R/ 2 ; X / 2 —the given active and reactive resistance and resistance of the secondary winding of the transformer; R0 ; X 0 —active and reactive resistance of the idling transformer mode. The current in the transformer-ozonator system can be defined as the sum of the idling transformer mode current I1x and the secondary winding current of the transformer I/ 2 : /

I1 = I1x + I2 ,

(4)

The following equation determines power losses in steel in a magnetic circuit: 2 R0 I1x = ΔPcm .

(5)

Fig. 1 Ozonator equivalent circuits in the transformer-ozonator system. Source (Storchevoy et al. 2019)

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The next equation calculates the complex resistance in the idle branch: Z 0 = R0 + j X 0 .

(6)

Using the equivalent circuit (Fig. 1b), we can calculate the active and reactive resistance of the short circuit: /

Rκ = R1 + R2 ; /

X κ = X l L + X 2L .

(7)

The ozonator in the transformer-ozonator system is a non-linear active and capacitive reactance. Studying transient and steady-state processes, we neglect the nonlinear properties of the ozonator, which simplifies calculations and does not reduce the accuracy of operation and operation of the system.

3 Results The authors investigate two operating modes of the transformer-ozonator system. The first operating mode: there is no potential on the ozonator before we switch it on (the capacitor is uncharged) (t = 0; IK = 0; UC = 0). The second operating mode: at the time of disconnection, the ozonator has a charge (t = 0; ISSC = 0; UST = Em ). where I K —current at the time of switching on the unit; I SSC —steady-state current when the unit is switched off. The equations of the system operating modes have the following form: Ri + Ldi/dt + u = Um ;

(8)

i = Cduc/dt.

(9)

RC duc/dt + LC d2 uc/d2 t + uc = Um .

(10)

Substituting (9) in (8) we get:

Equation (10) has the following solution: UC = UST + UFR = UST + k1 ep1 t + k2 ep2 t , where U ST —steady-state voltage of the ozonator;

(11)

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U FR —the free component of the voltage of the ozonator. The solution to Eq. (10) looks as follows: LCp2 + RCp + 1 = 0.

(12)

The roots of Eq. (12) are defined as follows: p1,2 = −R/2L ±

√

(R/2L)2 − 1/LC.

(13)

The first operating mode: the current in the coil was always equal to the charging current on the ozonator: i = C du/dt = k1 p1 C ep1 t + k2 p2 C ep2 t .

(14)

If we substitute the initial conditions in Eqs. (11) and (13), we get the following expressions: 0 = k1 + k2 + E0} ⇒ 0 = k1 p1 + k2 p2 ⇒

) ( k1 = E0 p2 / p1 −p2 ( ) k2 = −E0 p1 / p1 p2 ,

then: ( ( ) ( )) } p2 t u = E0((1 + p2)ep(1 t − p)) 1 e ( / p1 −p2) ; ep1 t − ep2 t . i = E0 p1 p2 C / p1 −p2

(15)

If the roots of Eq. (13) are real, then the nature of the operation of the transformerozonator system will change according to the periodic law; if the roots of the equation are complex numbers, then it will change according to the aperiodic law: (R/2L)2 < 1/LC, then p1 = 1/τ+jω0 ; p1 = 1/τ−jω0

(16)

Simulteneously, τ = 2L/R; ω0 =

√ 1/LC−(R/2L)2

(17)

Solving Eqs. (16) and (15) together, we can calculate the voltage and current as follows: } u = E0 [1−e−t/τ (cos ω0 t + (1/τω0 ) sin ω0 t (18) i = (E0 /ω0 L)e−t/τ sin ω0 t The equation system (18) allows us to determine the voltage and current of the ozonator for the first operating mode of the system, which corresponds to graphs 1

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and 2 (Fig. 2). If we assume that the active resistance is minimal, then the voltage and current can be determined by the following formulae: ( ) } u = Eo 1−e−t/τ cos ω0 t √ i = Eo C/L e−t/τ sin ω0 t

(19)

In Fig. 2 (graph 2), the voltage of the ozonator reaches almost twice the value of Eo maximum current value I max = Eo. Graph 3 (Fig. 2) is defined by the following equation system: ( )} u = Eo 1−e−t/τ −(t/τ) e−t/τ i = (2 Eo/R) t/τ e−t/τ

(20)

The second operating mode: at the time of disconnection, the ozonator has the following charge (t = 0; I SSC . = 0; U ST = Em ), solutions of Eq. (10) are as follows: u = uycT + k1 ep1 t + k2 ep2 t i = iycT + k1 C p1 ep1 t + k2 C p2 ep2 t

} (21)

where U ST = Em ; I SSC = 0. If (t = 0), u = 0, i = I0 , then: Р

20000

1

18000

2 3

16000 14000

u, V

12000 10000 8000 6000 4000 2000 0

t, sec

Fig. 2 Ozonator voltages for different operating modes of the transformer-ozonator system. Source (Belopukhov and Storchevoy 2017)

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Table 1 Voltage and current for the second operating mode of the system t, sec

0

0.0013

0.0034

0.0057

0.0076

0.0107

U, V

0

19,781

12,051

9144

9074

9051

I, × 10–4 A

0

4.6

1.6

0.12

−0.21

−0.09

Eo, V

9051

9051

9051

9051

9051

9051

Source (Belopukhov and Storchevoy 2017)

) ( ) ( } 0 = E0 + k1 + k2 ⇒ k1 = E(o p2 + (1/C) Io /) p(1 −p2 ) I0 = k1 C p1 + k2 C p2 ⇒ k2 = − Eo p1 + (1/C) Io / p1 −p2 If the process is oscillatory, then: [ ] u = Eo 1 − e−t/τ (cos ωo t + (1/ωo t) sin ωo t) √ + Io ∗ L/C e−t/τ sin ωo t

(22)

If the active resistance is less than the oscillatory process of the system, the voltage and current can be determined as follows: √ ( ) u = Eo 1 − e−t/τ cos ωo t + Io L/C e−t/τ sin ωo t

(23)

√ i = Eo C/L e−t/τ sin ωo t + Io e−t/τ cos ωo t

(24)

If the active resistance is much less than the oscillatory process of the system, the voltage on the capacitor can significantly exceed the voltage Eo . Consequently, the system will fail. The maximum value of the ozonator voltage is determined in the following way: √ √ Umax C = Io L/C = (Eo /R) L/C,

(25)

Table 1 shows experimental values of voltage and current changes on the ozonator, which have damped values and are well combined with the calculated values.

4 Discussion As a result of the current research, based on the abovementioned studies, the authors conclude that it is necessary to use the assumptions and requirements for the design, manufacture, and operating of ozonation systems transformer-ozonator in closed livestock buildings. Operating and emergency modes of the transformer-ozonator system are determined by Eqs. (1) and (2), which solution relies on the proposed transformer-ozonator

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equivalent circuits (Fig. 1). Equations (3) and (6) are the solution of the circuit (Fig. 1a), and Eq. (7) allows to calculate of the active and reactive resistances of a short circuit (Fig. 1b). The equation systems of transient and steady-state processes in the transformerozonator system are solutions of the (10) equations. They allow, namely: (1) to evaluate the operating modes of the system, (2) to explain the processes occurring in the ozonator during the ozone formation; (3) to determine the effective energy parameters and operating modes of the transformer-ozonator system. Transient and steady-state processes in the transformer-ozonator system occur under two operating modes. The first mode of Eq. (15) is switching on the unit (there is no potential on the ozonator before switching on): from the system of Eq. (18), given the assumption that if the active resistance is minimal, the voltage and current can be determined by the formulae (19). Figure 2 shows the calculated values. The second operating mode of Eq.(21). At the time of disconnection, as the ozonator has a charge, and the authors consider the following assumptions: (1) if the active resistance is less than the oscillatory process of the system, the voltage and current can be determined by formulaes (23) and (24); (2) if the active resistance is much less than the oscillatory process of the system formula (25), the system may fail, and breakdown of the ozonator dielectric or the transformer windings may occur.

5 Conclusion As a result of transient and steady-state processes (changes in voltage and current over time) of the transformer-ozonator system for livestock buildings, the authors obtained a mathematical model of the transformer-ozonator system in the form of mathematical differential Eq. (10). Their solutions allowed us to determine the main operating modes of equation systems (15 and 21). Figure 2 shows the calculated values of the first operating mode: graph 1 and 2 show the voltage and current on the ozonator; graph 3 shows the maximum values of the voltage and current on the ozonator. The experimental and calculated values of the second operating mode are collected in Table 1. The research of the second operating mode allows to (1) identify the stable work of the system, (2) avoid emergency modes, and (3) obtain the required concentration of ozone in closed livestock buildings.

References Belopukhov SL, Storchevoy VF (2017) Ozone and its application in agriculture: Information and reference materials. Irkutsk, Russia, Megaprint LLC Ksenz NV, Sidortsov IG, Melikova OV (2010) Electrozonation of the air of livestock buildings. In: Gudkova TA (ed) Proceedings of the international scientific and technical conference Energy

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supply and energy saving in agriculture, vol 3. pp 200–203. Zernograd, Russia, State Scientific Institution All-Russian Research Institute of Electrification of Agriculture of the Russian Academy of Agricultural Sciences Leonova SV (2012) Air cleaning system in animal species by ozonization. In: Nikolaevna FN (ed) Proceedings of the international scientific and technical conference: energy supply and energy saving in agriculture, Blagoveshchensk, Russia, Far Eastern State University, pp 52–56 Manuylenko AN, Vendin SV (2018) Ozoning of air in animal species. In: Potapov NK (ed) Agricultural science in the innovative development of the agro-industrial complex, Belgorod, Russia, Belgorod SAU, pp 38–43 Storchevoy VF, Suchugov SV, Kompaniets AE (2019) Creation of an ozone-ion air environment in closed premises for keeping animals and poultry. Bulletin of the Moscow State Agroengineering University Named after V. P. Goryachkin 3(91):35–39 Venikov VA (1985) In: Transient electromechanical processes in electrical systems. Moscow, USSR, Higher school

Sustainable Social Systems, Migration Flows, and Social Cohesion

The Social Credit System as a Tool for Ensuring National Security Roman Z. Rouvinsky

and Evgeny V. Tsarev

Abstract The paper examines the role of new surveillance mechanisms based on using the latest technologies to ensure national security and public order. We primarily focus on the Chinese Social Credit System and its impact on the frequency of offenses against public order and crime. Besides, we analyze statistical data for the period 1997–2018, published in the yearbooks of the National Bureau of Statistics of China. The mechanisms of the Social Credit System can be useful for ensuring public order and national security. However, we conclude that the real impact of such mechanisms on the crime rate is ambiguous due to the problems with the reliability of official statistical information from the PRC and the use of other surveillance mechanisms in China. Keywords Social credit system · Surveillance · Crime rate · Offences · Public order · Law and order

1 Introduction It is no exaggeration to say that we live in an extremely turbulent time: the crisis of many social institutions, including the state and law. This time has rightly been called “the end of the world as we know it” (Wallerstein 1999) and the era of the “risk society” (Beck 1992). In the context of crisis and new challenges, the countries pay particular attention to ensuring national security. At the same time, some countries tend to adopt a prohibitive legal policy, trying to regulate the behavior of their residents as scrupulously as possible and to cover the most extensive field of public relations with mandatory rules. Other countries tend to use advanced social R. Z. Rouvinsky (B) Nizhny Novgorod Institute of Management, Russian Presidential Academy of National Economy and Public Administration, Nizhny Novgorod, Russia e-mail: [email protected] E. V. Tsarev Dzerzhinsk Branch of the National Research Lobachevsky State University of Nizhny Novgorod, Dzerzhinsk, Russia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 S. G. Maximova et al. (eds.), Advances in Natural, Human-Made, and Coupled Human-Natural Systems Research, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 250, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-78083-8_17

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control technologies, which create conditions under which undesirable behavior is preventively suppressed (Foucault 2007, pp. 36–90; Hildebrandt 2008). Today, China combines both strategies in the most striking way. Being implemented in recent years in the Chinese state administration, the Social Credit System (shehui xinyong tixi 社會信用體系) [SCS] has already become the subject of discussion and concern of scientists, human rights activists, and public officials. Today, this system is probably one of the most promising technologies in national security and law enforcement. The aim of creating the Chinese SCS was officially announced in the act published by the General Office of the State Council of the People’s Republic of China on March 23, 2007 (General Office of the State Council 2007). Initially, this project had mainly economic goals, such as (1) increasing the mutual trust of market participants, (2) combating tax evasion and malicious debt, or (3) preventing fraud. However, it has gradually shifted from financial goals to a broader understanding and application. The Chinese authorities began to perceive the SCS as a useful tool for (1) ensuring transparency and security of commercial relations, (2) increasing public confidence in the judicial system and the state apparatus, and providing social integrity, which means the security of citizens in work, health, and education (State Council 2014). Currently, the SCS project comprises the following components: • Joint mechanisms of punishment and rewards (blacklist of untrustworthy people and redlist of particularly trustworthy citizens); • Pilot rating projects based on point systems and providing for the assessment of the behavior of citizens and organizations (actually exist only on the local level and are administered either by local governments or by commercial companies; examples of such points systems are Xiamen Bailu and Baihang Zhengxin, jointly developed by the National Internet Finance Association and a few private companies). Contrary to popular belief, SCS at the current development stage does not represent a single platform for social regulation and control, so it is relevant to talk about systems (Kostka & Antoine, 2019; Liu, 2019) or a project (Dai 2020), within which specific regulatory and supervisory mechanisms are deployed and tested. SCS is a manifestation of a new trend in public administration; it is not autonomous but acts as one of the elements of a broader system of institutions and mechanisms for regulation, control, and surveillance. The scholars (Mac Síthigh and Siems 2019) have already noted that the Chinese SCS can become a kind of model for ensuring public order and national security. Certain surveillance mechanisms based on Big Data analytics are exported from China to Ecuador, Bolivia, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Pakistan, and several other countries (Ellis 2017; Jardine 2019; Mozur et al. 2019). Therefore, the Ecuadorian integrated security system ECU 911, using Chinese facial recognition and mobile device tracking technologies, was launched in November 2016 and is used by the police, armed forces, and fire brigades (Corral-de-Vitt et al. 2018; Mai 2018). Other countries, including Russia, also implement some Chinese SCS techniques (TASS 2019; Bitzonis 2020). However, at present, only the PRC has practical social rating projects and coercion mechanisms assuming negative consequences of illegal acts

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in addition to legal liability measures. Credit scoring is certainly not a Chinese invention (initially, China followed international scoring systems, e.g., American FICO (Creemers 2018)). Moreover, scoring tools are a widespread phenomenon in the current economy of mobile applications (e.g., through apps such as Uber and Airbnb). In China, these mechanisms and technologies were introduced into public administration with the most impressive results. The facts given above prove the importance of a thorough study of SCS. We tried to determine whether SCS can be considered an exemplary model for ensuring public order and national security and assessing the impact of SCS and related control mechanisms on offense and crime rate. To do this, we correlated the official statistics of crimes and offenses with information related to the SCS implementation.

2 Materials and Methods One of the main arguments in favor of the introduction of SCS used by the Chinese authorities is that SCS allows to make the activities of various social actors (citizens, economic entities, and even public officials) more transparent and reduce the crime rate. In other words, the SCS officially aims to create a more favorable legal environment, a secure and comfortable life for individuals and organizations. Similarly, the authorities of Ecuador explained the need for the ECU 911 introduction by ensuring social security and reducing crime (Informe de gestion annual 2017, p. 109; Servicio integrado de seguridad ECU911, n.d.). The analysis of official statistics is a traditional, well-established method that allows us to study the impact of various disciplinary and control mechanisms on the indicators of crimes and offenses. The National Bureau of Statistics of China publish official statistics for the PRC in statistical yearbooks (National Bureau of Statistics of China 1999–2019). There are data on the number of crimes and offenses against public order registered by the state security agencies for 1997–2018. This period is significant for our research; it shows the indicators of crimes and offenses both before the SCS introduction and after its introduction. Therefore, official statistical sources are of great importance.

3 Results In combating illegal behavior, new surveillance mechanisms proved to be useful, at least in China. According to the study of the Institute of Law of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, there was a long-term decline in violent terrorist attacks, traditional violent work-related crimes, and juvenile delinquency in 2017 (Fang 2018). Moreover, the number of crimes that endanger the security of food and medicine has decreased.

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8000000 7000000 6000000 5000000 4000000 3000000 2000000

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Fig. 1 Crimes registered by the state security agencies of the PRC, 1997–2017. Source National Bureau of Statistics of China (1999–2019)

Official statistics generally support these conclusions made by the Chinese lawyer, although these data undoubtedly require some effort for interpretation. Figure 1 shows that, in 1997–2015, the dynamics of crimes in the PRC registered by the state security agencies increased. In 1997, there were 1,613,629 registered crimes, while in 2001 this figure increased to 4,457,579; in 2010−5,969,892, and in 2015 it reached its peak−7,174,037 registered crimes. After the peak, there was a sharp decline in the number of registered crimes: in 2017, it was 5,482,570, which is lower than in 2009, and the dynamics continue to decline. Despite the trend towards an increase in the total number of reported crimes in 1997–2015, homicide and rape cases gradually declined (Fig. 2). The dynamics of injuries are somewhat more complicated: until 2010, the crime curve was growing, but since 2010, there has been a gradual decline, which has become sharper since 2013 (Fig. 3). The dynamics of theft cases registered by the PRC state security authorities (Fig. 4) almost entirely coincides with the overall dynamics of registered crimes (with a peak in 2015, after which there was a sharp decline). However, this coincidence can be explained by the predominant share of theft cases in the total number of registered crimes (55–71%, depending on the year). The situation with the statistics of robberies and fraud is most complicated. While the number of robberies registered in China has been gradually declining since the early 2000s, the number of frauds increased exponentially between 2006 and 2015 and continued to increase in 2018 after two years of decline (Fig. 5). It is also useful to analyze the official statistics on the number of cases of public order crimes. For the periods of 1997–2005 and 2006–2018, the National Bureau of Statistics of China used different approaches to the systematics of crimes in preparing statistical yearbooks. This fact hinders the study of the dynamics of cases of crimes against public order. In this regard, the statistical reports for the period 2006–2018 allow one to draw conclusions about the dynamics of specific categories of offenses.

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1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018

45000 40000 35000 30000 25000 20000 15000 10000 5000 0

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Fig. 2 Homicides and rapes registered by the state security agencies of the PRC, 1997–2017. Source National Bureau of Statistics of China (1999–2019)

1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018

200000 180000 160000 140000 120000 100000 80000 60000 40000 20000 0

Injury Fig. 3 Cases of injuries registered by the state security agencies of the PRC, 1997–2017. Source National Bureau of Statistics of China (1999–2019)

In any case, Fig. 6 clearly shows that from 2006 to 2012, there was an almost exponential increase in the total number of crimes against public order investigated and considered by the state security agencies of the PRC. On the contrary, in 2012– 2018, there was an almost equally sharp decline in the number of offenses. The curve of administrative offenses is similar in many ways to the curve of crimes; the only difference is that the peak of investigated crimes was in 2012, and the peak of registered crimes—in 2015. An analysis of the indicators of offenses against public order investigated and processed in 2006–2012 (i.e., the beginning of the introduction of the SCS) shows that

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6000000 5000000 4000000 3000000 2000000 1000000 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018

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Fig. 5 Robberies and frauds registered by the state security agencies of the PRC, 1997–2017. Source National Bureau of Statistics of China (1999–2019)

the Chinese state security agencies achieved the most impressive results in countering the following categories of illegal acts: (1) violation against the economic order (Fig. 7), (2) violation of rent control rules (Fig. 9), (3) theft and damage to public facilities (Fig. 8), and (4) beating other people (Fig. 10). The statistics of theft cases and damage to public facilities are particularly noteworthy: a sharp decrease in the number of these offenses coincided with the beginning of the SCS creation. The situation with the dynamics of cases of illegal behavior of citizens in public places is most complicated. Figure 11 and Fig. 12 show that in 2009–2015, the number of violations related to disorderly conduct in public places, causing quarrels and troubles, gradually decreased; however, since 2015, it has started to increase again. The curve shown in Fig. 11 is inflected, so it is difficult to assess progress in countering disorderly conduct in public places.

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Number of cases investigated and reviewed by the state security agencies 14000000

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Fig. 7 Cases of violations against the economic order investigated and reviewed by the state security agencies of the PRC. Source National Bureau of Statistics of China, (2007–2019)

4 Discussion The analysis of official data faces the possibility of their different interpretation. In the early 2000s, and especially in 2006–2008, China saw an increase of registered crimes and administrative offenses. At the same time, since 2012 (for administrative offenses) and since 2015 (for crimes), there has been a shift in statistics and a sharp decrease in the number of crimes and offenses. The SCS creation was announced in 2007, as we mentioned earlier. Nevertheless, some pilot projects, limited primarily to the creditworthiness of citizens and the sustainability of financial institutions, were launched in the early 2000s (Von Blomberg 2018, p. 86). During the same period, such projects as the Golden Shield, aimed at filtering and censoring web content (Chandel et al. 2019) and the Skynet, a mass surveillance system based on

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40000 35000 30000 25000 20000

15000 10000 5000 0 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 Theft and damage to public facilities

Fig. 8 Cases of theft and damage to public facilities investigated and reviewed by the state security authorities of the PRC. Source National Bureau of Statistics of China (2007–2019)

250000 200000 150000 100000 50000 0 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 Violations of rent control rules

Fig. 9 Cases of violations of rent control rules investigated and reviewed by the state security authorities of the PRC. Source National Bureau of Statistics of China (2007–2019)

AI technology, were introduced (Polyakova and Meserole 2019; Qiang 2019). In the first decade of the new millennium, the Chinese authorities became particularly concerned about national security, public order, and the stability of the state regime. This fact explains the surge in the number of crimes and offenses against public order: with the introduction of advanced surveillance technologies, illegal acts have become more visible to law enforcement agencies. Simultaneously, references to the introduction of SCS and other surveillance mechanisms can hardly explain the temporary changes in statistics for certain crimes and offenses. While the steady decline in the number of cases of theft and damage to public facilities seems to be explained by the introduction of SCS and other social control mechanisms, the inflection of the line of offensive behavior in public places (Fig. 11) raises doubts about the unambiguous dependence of the level of offenses on SCS and similar projects. The curve (Fig. 12) showing the dynamics of offenses

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5000000 4500000 4000000 3500000 3000000 2500000

2000000 1500000 1000000 500000 0 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 Beating other people

Fig. 10 Cases of beating investigated and reviewed by the state security agencies of the PRC. Source National Bureau of Statistics of China (2007–2019) 600000 500000 400000 300000 200000 100000 0 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 Disorderly conduct in public places

Fig. 11 Cases of disorderly conduct in public places investigated and reviewed by the state security agencies of the PRC. Source National Bureau of Statistics of China (2007–2019)

expressed in “causing quarrels and troubles” (using the language of Chinese statistical yearbook), may also require reference to some additional sources of information: steadily declining from 2009 to 2015, since 2015 this curve has started to grow again. The SCS does not just assess the behavior of citizens. Moreover, it provides a wide range of coercive measures for the perpetrators, which illustrates the case of the Seat Occupier (a man who, while traveling in a high-speed train, insisted on sitting at the window, which he was not assigned, and then was blacklisted for his intolerable behavior; that is, banned from boarding many types of trains, in addition to a fine of 200 yuan), a popular meme on Chinese social networks (Dai 2020, p. 39).

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180000 160000 140000 120000

100000 80000 60000 40000 20000 0 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 Causing quarrels and troubles

Fig. 12 Cases of quarrels investigated and reviewed by the state security agencies of the PRC. Source National Bureau of Statistics of China (2007–2019)

However, if the implementation of SCS mechanisms affects the crime rate, then after a certain period of gradual growth in the number of registered crimes, we should see the same gradual and steady decline in the crime rate. However, such a decrease is not observed in every case. Hence, the dependence of the crime rate and the frequency of offenses against public order on the use of SCS and other related mechanisms probably exists, but is not direct. Moreover, official statistics, especially those related to the PRC, must be carefully interpreted. Researchers have repeatedly noted the distortion of official data provided by the authorities and their use to legitimize and create a positive image of the existing regime (He 2014; Xu 2018). According to official data, the murder index of the PRC is one of the lowest in the world (0.6 per 100,000 population against 6.1 of the global average homicide rate); It corresponds to the homicide rates of such countries as Switzerland and Norway (0.5); furthermore, it is lower than the homicide rates of Finland (1.3), Sweden (1.1), and Denmark (1) (World Bank 2018). However, such good indicators are criticized by some Western experts, in whose opinion Chinese police underreport crime stats (Cheng 2018). According to B. Bakken (p. 6, 2018), “ < … > in Guangzhou, for example, the official crime rate constitute a mere 2% of the number of crimes reported to police,” while “the remaining 98% disappear in irrational bureaucratic incentive structures and outright bans on publicizing data on violent and serious crime.”

5 Conclusion Chinese SCS is undoubtedly an impressive project. This progress is due to the socalled “fourth industrial revolution,” which combined the latest technologies with

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existing and imagined disciplinary practices (some authors have already drawn parallels between SCS and Bentham’s “panopticon” (Tarasov 2020)). As part of a broader social control system, the SCS can be considered a useful tool for ensuring public order and national security. However, in our opinion, there are several points one should keep in mind when discussing the SCS and similar mechanisms. First, as we noted in the previous section, there are reasons to be critical of the official statistics published by the PRC authorities (by and large, this applies to the official statistics of any country, but, first of all, to countries with authoritarian political regimes, in which the activities of government officials are often opaque to citizens and external observers). Second, the analysis of official data shows that the dependence of crime and offense indicators on implementing the SCS and other related surveillance mechanisms, although undeniable, is not apparent, since we cannot explain this dependence, reveal its mechanics, and prove it. In addition to the introduction of technologically advanced surveillance mechanisms, an increase or, conversely, a decrease in the crime rate may be associated with the active use of traditional disciplinary methods (for example, the use of criminal justice, improving the work of police officers, increasing fines, etc.). Third, before trying to draw conclusions about the SCS effectiveness in ensuring public order and national security, one should understand the concepts of national security and public order. Certain social strata (primarily the government) can stand behind these seemingly neutral categories. The SCS project has great potential as a tool for social control and mass mobilization. Recently, we were able to see how effective the Chinese SCS and related surveillance mechanisms are in containing the spread of the COVID-19 pandemic. Meanwhile, this system exposes society to risk, in which the law (and even a government decree) destroys morality; legal responsibility expands to unthinkable limits. However, these issues require a separate thorough study. Acknowledgements The study was funded by the Russian Foundation for Basic Research, project number 20-011-00173.

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Transformation of Close Relations in the Post-Soviet States Vladimir A. Smirnov , Vladislav V. Gruzdev , and Vladimir N. Ershov

Abstract The paper deals with the peculiarities of the transformation of ideas and social attitudes of the residents of the post-Soviet countries concerning close relationships. We examine the impact of the current great challenges on changing perceptions of various aspects of such relationships. The research is based on the results of waves 3 and 6 of the international longitudinal study World Values Survey. Also, we conclude that traditional value orientations in post-Soviet countries are widely used as an adaptation strategy of the government and society in response to major challenges. At the same time, the paper draws a conclusion about the ambivalence and asymmetry of transformations in close relationships. We identified four models of such relationships in the post-Soviet countries. The first and second models are conservative; they are based on religious or Soviet discourse. The third model is a phenomenon of modern and postmodern society with a wide range of everyday experiments on the body, gender, and social relationships. The fourth is a fluid intimate relationship without a clear structure. We believe that public policy plays a particular role in the transformation of close relationships. This policy does not consider the peculiarities of various forms of relationships; it is pronatalist in nature and primarily aims to increase the birth rate. These features undoubtedly reduce the potential of the policy as a mechanism for the adaptation of the country to the demographic transition. Keywords Close relationships · Great challenges · Value orientations · Discursive consciousness · Demographic transition

V. A. Smirnov (B) · V. V. Gruzdev · V. N. Ershov Kostroma State University, Kostroma, Russia e-mail: [email protected] V. V. Gruzdev e-mail: [email protected] V. N. Ershov e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 S. G. Maximova et al. (eds.), Advances in Natural, Human-Made, and Coupled Human-Natural Systems Research, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 250, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-78083-8_18

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1 Introduction The concept of significant challenges has permeated social and political discourse since the middle of the twentieth century. In many ways, its occurrence is associated with the need to solve urgent and complex problems. In the 1950s and 1960s, such concepts as urgent problems and burning problems were actualized. These problems require not just a one-time solution but a whole system of social institutions that can mitigate them. Such measures as the reports to the Club of Rome, the development of the World3 model, the USSR military programs, and the United States somewhat actualize the great challenges and the search for various mechanisms to respond to them, often opposed. The escalation of globalization processes led to the fact that significant challenges became part of the agenda of almost all countries. The Decree of the President of the Russian Federation No. 642 defines great challenges as “a set of problems, threats, and probabilities that objectively require a response from the government, but the complexity and scale of which prevent their solution, elimination, or implementation solely by increasing the resources of the country” (Presidential Executive office 2016). The demographic transition is one of the central great challenges. It changes the way people live, the aging of the population, and the expansion of various kinds of social experiments, sometimes destructive. The de-standardized yo-yo transition (from childhood to adulthood), which resembles the toy of the same name, is a striking result of the demographic transition (Biggart and Walther 2006). No less significant changes occur among mature people, whose increased life expectancy also leads to social problems, such as loneliness (Blanchard and Anthony 2013). The adequacy and effectiveness of responding to great challenges depend on public policy and the viability of traditional social institutions, the most important of which is the family. The last decades of the twentieth century saw a significant transformation of the family, which gave rise to different forms of close relationships and partnerships (Carlback et al. 2012). We can place all kinds of close relationships in a two-dimensional space. Their criteria are the legal definition of relationships (for example, registered marriage or cohabitation) and the number of subjects of close relationships (couples without children or multi-generational families). Both continuums include different variants of such partnerships. For example, even outwardly traditional couples who live together can be divorced spouses raising children together. This type of relationship is often called fragile families (Bogenschneider and Corbett 2010). In recent years, scientists developed another important criterion for defining the subjects of close relationships, which is related to the gender of the participants. Legalizing same-sex marriage in several countries gave rise to terms that describe such partnerships more neutrally. For example, the French law on “Civil partnership” (Wendt et al. 2011) implies a form of marriage that allows people of the same sex to marry each other; in terms of the law, this procedure is simplified as much as possible.

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The research focuses on the peculiarities of the discursive consciousness of the residents of post-Soviet countries associated with the perception of close relationships. The discursive practices mostly determine the transformation of the institution of close relationships under the influence of great challenges reproduced in the mass public consciousness. They contribute to the expansion or, on the contrary, to the restriction of everyday social experiments (Giddens 1992), the reproduction of which ultimately leads to a change in close relationships.

2 Materials and Methods The paper is based on the longitudinal world survey World Values Survey (World Values Survey 2014). At the time of writing, the developers released the primary data from the six waves of the study, from 1981 to 2014. The total number of countries participating in the study was 60. Note that not all countries took part in each wave of the study, which significantly complicates the comparative analysis. To solve the tasks set in the paper, we used the results of Wave 3 (1995–1998) and Wave 6 (2010–2014), which allowed us to analyze the dynamics of social processes over more than a decade. The information base of the study includes seven post-Soviet states (Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Estonia, Georgia, Russia, and Ukraine). The information base volume was 13,974 and 10,372 records for each wave, respectively; the total number of features was 1446. For this paper, we selected 15 relevant features that enable us to study the transformation of close relationships. The research methodology is based on the postulates of the structuration theory (Giddens 2005), which allows us to study how the everyday communicative and practical actions of actors lead to the reproduction of social structures and institutions. To substantiate the theoretical conclusions, we applied the following methods: (1) the χ2 test to study the relationship between nominal variables; (2) the Mann Whitney Wilcoxon test to compare differences between samples (when analyzing quantitative or fictitious variables); and (3) principal component analysis to reduce dimensionality and determine latent structures in variables. The level of statistical significance of the tests (p. value) is 0.05. For statistical processing, statistical analysis, and data visualization, we used the R programming language.

3 Results To understand the dynamics of the transformation of close relationships, we use three integral indicators. The first indicator involves the stability and flexibility of close relationships as a social structure. This indicator is operationalized by analyzing dispositions concerning such phenomena as abortion, divorce, and homosexuality. The first two phenomena are indicators of sustainability. Indeed, the inability of a

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couple to maintain a relationship in a difficult life situation (divorce) and the interruption of the natural process of intergenerational reproduction (abortion) indicate its fragility, the inability to withstand not only great challenges, but also everyday ones. The assessment of homosexuality as a socially approved or, conversely, an unacceptable form of relations allows us to draw countrywide conclusions about the degree of variability of everyday social experiments in the process of structuring partnerships. The second indicator is the reproduction of traditional gender roles. It is important to determine (1) what happens to the perception at the level of discursive consciousness; (2) if there are attempts to cope with the great challenges through their actualization or, conversely, through the denial of them as rudimentary. The third indicator takes into account the values that structure close relationships. We used them to evaluate the qualities that, according to the respondents, should be instilled in children. Let us start the analysis with the first group of indicators. The study participants were asked, “Please tell me for each of the following actions whether you think it can always be justified, can never be justified, or something in between.” As a result, a range of phenomena was suggested, three of which we selected for the analysis. Respondents could rate the phenomena from one (never justified) to ten (always justified). The initial analysis using the Mann Whitney Wilcoxon test showed statistically significant differences between the respondent’s responses from different countries in each of the waves. To get a better idea of the results, we recorded all three variables into two characteristics: “rather unjustified” (1–4) and “rather justified” (5–10). Moreover, we calculated the ratio of respondents (out of the total number of respondents in each country) who tend to justify a particular phenomenon depending on the wave of the study (Table 1). We can divide the countries included in the sample into three groups regarding the dynamics of the studied indicators. In the first group (Azerbaijan, Armenia, Georgia), there is a significant decrease in the positive assessment of the phenomena mentioned Table 1 Dynamics of justification of homosexuality, abortion, and divorce Country

Homosexuality 1995 1998

Abortion 2010 2014

1995 1998

Divorce 2010 2014

1995 1998

2010 2014

Azerbaijan

11.4

1.8

53.1

25.5

54.6

30.6

Armenia

19.2

2.3

58.6

26.5

64.1

35.0

Belarus

29.1

20.4

62.5

45.0

70.9

68.3

Georgia

10.4

2.4

49.0

11.6

56.3

41.1

Russia

23.2

29.6

66.7

56.1

72.9

76.9

Ukraine

27.5

20.4

60.2

41.0

71.5

66.1

Estonia

28.8

38.6

67.9

64.4

80.0

81.4

Source (World Values Survey, n.d.)

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above. In the second group (Belarus, Ukraine), positive assessments are declining although not at the same rate, but in some indicators, they are approximately at the same level. The third group (Russia, Estonia) shows a slight but growing positive assessment of homosexuality and divorce. The number of respondents of different sexes who positively assess divorce is approximately the same in all countries in each of the waves. Therefore, there are no statistically significant differences between the perception among men and women). Men and women assess abortion differently. Women justify this phenomenon more often than men, regardless of the wave of research and the country of origin. This trend is probably due to the fact that a woman in a situation of a relationship breakup does not want to raise a child alone. A similar situation is observed when assessing homosexuality. In countries with gender differences, women are more tolerant and willing to justify this phenomenon. It is worth noting that the growth of disapproval of these phenomena among “family” respondents is also observed in the countries of the first group. Among those who live alone or in an unregistered marriage, this phenomenon is less pronounced. For example, the share of “family” respondents who approved of abortion in Armenia in the 1990s was 58%, and in the 2000s, it fell to 27%; the number of Azerbaijanis who are married and approve of divorce was 51.5% and 30.7%, respectively. Besides, we analyzed how the respondents of the studied countries perceived the boundaries of gender in different years of research. We considered three situations (in the form of a survey) that characterize the transformation of gender roles (Table 2): • When jobs are scarce, men should have more rights to work than women (Work); • In general, men make better political leaders than women (Politics); • If a woman earns more money than her spouse, it will certainly cause problems (Finances).

Table 2 Features of the transformation of gender roles Country

Work 1995 1998

Politics 2010 2014

1995 1998

Finances 2010 2014

1995 1998

2010 2014

Azerbaijan

63.6

76.5

71.5

67.8

57.8

37.8

Armenia

59.9

54.3

83.2

63.00

57.9

36.8

Belarus

44.6

28.8

70.0

65.7

41.3

23.7

Georgia

64.5

46.1

79.8

58.8

50.1

26.2

Russia

49.0

29.1

60.0

60.5

41.7

23.9

Ukraine

37.6

30.0

63.4

50.4

38.3

20.4

Estonia

33.0

18.3

69.2

51.1

51.2

25.4

Source (World Values Survey, n.d.)

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Table 2 shows the percentage of “I agree” responses to the three questions. These questions reflect the different interaction areas between men and women and the flexibility of gender boundaries in the mass consciousness. Indeed, it is much more difficult to recognize a woman’s right to be an effective political leader than to recognize her right to apply for a job or be financially successful. The gradual erosion of traditional gender roles is observed in all the countries studied; only Azerbaijan shows a slight increase in the first column. The number of positive responses reflecting conservatism in gender perception decreased with varying intensity in the 2010s. Men are much more likely to show a conservative attitude and traditional perceptions of gender roles than women. Thus, according to the results of Wave 6 of the study, for all countries, the number of women who disagree with the fact that “men make better political leaders than women” is almost twice the number of men’s responses (in Armenia, for example, the number of women who disagree is 3.5 times higher than men). Thus, it can be stated that the transformation of gender roles is primarily due to women who are expanding their set of social practices and going beyond the traditional social structures. We also note that the number of dissenters is significantly higher among respondents who are not officially married. Let us turn to the analysis of those qualities that, according to the respondents, are necessary for raising their children. We asked the participants to choose from ten characteristics that they would like to see in their children. To reveal the hidden structure of these characteristics, we used principal component analysis. When studying the Wave 6 sample results, we obtained three factors (varimax rotation), which explain 72% of the variance and allow for an informative interpretation of the obtained components. The first factor included (1) imagination, (2) determination, (3) perseverance, (4) independence. The second factor implied (1) hard work, (2) sense of responsibility, (3) respect for people, (4) thrift, (5) saving money. The third factor involved (1) religious faith, (2) unselfishness, and (3) obedience. The analysis allows us to formulate three parenting strategies, which, in our opinion, indicate different directions of the transformation of close relationships. We analyzed these strategies through the lens of justification theory (Boltanski and Thévenot 2013). The first strategy (component) assumes liberal and individualistic upbringing and a corresponding model of close relationships. Such qualities as independence, determination, and perseverance represent the modern type of people and society. They are ideologically close to the market polity. The second strategy (component) includes a traditional and collectivist upbringing model based on the Soviet values. In this case, we can undoubtedly distinguish the elements of industrial polity and domestic polity. Finally, the third strategy (component) involves religious upbringing based on the fundamental principles of any world religion (the inspired polity, based on the acceptance of divine grace). Figure 1 shows which strategies dominate in the studied countries (Fig. 1). Figure 1 shows the frequency of each of the three components in the studied countries (wave 6). On the left, the numbers of factors (components) are shown; in the columns, the percentage of frequency of each of them in a particular country. No parenting strategy is dominant (more than 50%) in any country. However, in Azerbaijan, the first strategy is more pronounced, while in Belarus and Estonia, the

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Fig. 1 Parenting strategies in the studied countries. Source (World Values Survey 2014)

second one is more distinct. In Armenia, Georgia, and Ukraine, the third strategy is more popular than in other countries. In general, there is a relatively high level of ambivalence among the residents of the former Soviet countries when choosing the qualities necessary for the formation of future generations. In our opinion, these trends show that in the face of great challenges, no country has a shared vision of its future. This is evident at all levels, including the process of structuring close relationships. At the same time, we note that the number of respondents choosing the first strategy is approximately the same in almost all countries. Therefore, we can say that Western values are widespread in the post-Soviet countries, which undoubtedly destroys the institution of traditional intimate relations even in fairly conservative communities (Starodubrovskaya 2019). A significant part of the respondents preserve Soviet values (the second component), which, undoubtedly, can be considered as an adaptation strategy in a situation of great challenges (Schwartz 2012).

4 Discussion The transformation of family and close relationships has been taking place since the 1960s; it is associated with globalization. The leading indicators of this transformation were (1) late marriages, (2) the increase in the number of divorces, (3) the expansion of various forms of partnership, (4) the decline in the birth rate, and (5) the reproduction of the phenomenon of voluntary childlessness (Van de Kaa 2003). The great challenges that modern countries face, especially in the field of demographic transition, have led to the development of various measures and programs in family policy. Undoubtedly, these measures affect the entire complex of close relationships (Wendt et al. 2011). The analysis presented in this paper shows that at the discursive level, a significant part of the residents of the post-Soviet countries is beginning to return to traditional, conservative values. Some researchers support this conclusion, while others talk about conservative mobilization (Sherstneva 2014), and the third group—about

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gender rollback (Temkina and Zdravomyslova 2014); this term implies a return to rigid gender structures in close relationships. Undoubtedly, this situation is directly connected with the public policy in the field of the family, with the active integration of the government with the official church organizations operating in the country. The return to conservative values in close relationships after the value pluralism of the 1990s is the result of public policy and the historical and socio-cultural characteristics of the post-Soviet countries. In his concept of value orientations, Schwartz argued that the experience of living under communist regimes in Eastern Europe has shaped such values in society as conservatism and hierarchy (Schwartz 2012). Undoubtedly, they are manifested in the disposition of the residents of the postSoviet countries analyzed in this article. Thus, we can say that in recent decades, in individual segments of post-Soviet society, at least at the discursive level, there was a return to traditional conservative models of close relationships. Simultaneously, such a return has a varying intensity in different countries. We revealed that it is mainly found in societies where traditional norms and attitudes and the patriarchal structure were quite strong, even during the Russian Empire, and did not undergo significant changes in the Soviet era. Other studies also confirmed this. Studies of close relations in the Caucasus show that they are based on (1) centuriesold traditions, (2) the dominance of the male sex, and (3) the leading role of the older generation (Molodikova and Watt 2014). Perhaps, the degree of religiosity of the residents of a particular country plays a crucial role in the process of value return. Indeed, we can note that respondents who consider themselves religious, although they participate at least once a week in religious ceremonies, are almost three times more likely to reproduce traditional and conservative discourse. The strategy of religious education dominates in countries where respondents are more likely to demonstrate the importance of conservative close relationships. For example, Polish researchers obtained similar results analyzing the influence of Catholicism on the preservation of traditional family forms in modern Poland (Mitr˛ega 2010). A return to the conservative attitudes of close relationships is undoubtedly an adaptive strategy to mitigate the threats caused by the great challenges. However, such conservatism should have limits. We have repeatedly noted that the “value return” results from government policy. Almost all the countries studied adopted various normative and political documents (for example, “The concept of state family policy in the Russian Federation for the period up to 2025”) aimed at the development of family and traditional family values (Temkina and Zdravomyslova 2014). Simultaneously, we should agree with the researchers who claim that the public family policy in post-Soviet countries is pronatalist (Strelnik 2014). It is based on the protective cocoon model (Giddens 1992); its primary goal is to increase the birth rate. At the same time, such a model of close relations began to form in the 2nd half of the eighteenth century and became deeply embedded in Soviet and post-Soviet family law (Muravyeva 2013). At the same time, the analysis shows that not all residents of the post-Soviet countries share these values. The study revealed the asynchronous transformation of close relationships at the value and discursive levels. Men and women have different

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assessments of the significance of certain types of social behavior and the boundaries of gender roles in the modern world. Many serious problems are undoubtedly affecting this trend, which are changing the daily practice of married couples. This asynchrony becomes an urgent problem, as the lack of a unified image of close relationships between men and women leads to an increase in divorce and the breakdown of relationships. This factor is not taken into account in the development and implementation of the national family policy. Moreover, it ignores other types of close relationships (other than conservative ones) formed in the post-Soviet space. We think that today, all four types of relations are formed under the influence of great challenges. The first type embraces conservative relationship, often referred to as familialism (Revillard 2007). This type is characterized by a stable relationship between a man and a woman, which most often has an official legal status, with a clear and traditional division of gender roles. This model combines traditional patriarchal and Soviet values. In such a relationship, both men and women are most likely to work; at the level of discourse, the former is perceived as a breadwinner and the latter as a homemaker (housewife) (Mitr˛ega 2010). The second type of relationship is religious. It is similar to the previous type, but a religious context is added to the traditional values, which acts as a justification for the traditional and conservative structure. The main characteristic of this model is exaggerated ritualism, the tendency of the couple to reflect the foundations of their relationship more strongly. Third, there are postmodern relationships. In this case, we are discussing the rejection of conservative values and a wide range of partnership forms. These can be monotonous parental families, same-sex unions, relationships based on the principles of double income, no kids or living apart together (Mitr˛ega 2010). Postmodern relations are also various kinds of social experiments related, for example, to the actualization and reproduction of non-binary gender identity. Finally, the fourth type is a relationship with an unstable system of rules. This type of relationship can be called fluid. Its characteristic features are impermanence, fast emergence and destruction of relationships, and the lack of explicit norms and structuring rules. Note that the first three types of relationships are quite clearly correlated with the three parenting strategies identified in this paper. The fourth has a latent nature and can only manifest itself through individual signs.

5 Conclusion Recent globalizing economic and geopolitical processes around the world have created several complex problems. Researchers, public figures, and politicians are increasingly using the term “great challenges” to refer to them. Among the technological and environmental problems, the demographic one occupies a specific place. It manifests itself in several destructive phenomena that can lead to the destruction

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and disappearance of particular societies. In recent years, some countries have taken some steps to reduce the adverse effects of the demographic transition. Undoubtedly, the success of these steps is primarily determined by the understanding of the direction and mechanisms of transformation of close relationships, including the institution of the family. The historical development of the countries under study determines the process of transformation of close relations in the post-Soviet countries. The traditional dominance of patriarchal culture, conservative, and hierarchical values led to a clear return to tradition in close relations. This is largely due to the activation of countries in the field of family policy. Such a return in the medium term undoubtedly serves as a mechanism to contain the negative consequences of great challenges. Simultaneously, all countries studied to demonstrate a high ambivalence and asymmetry in determining the model of close relationships. Respondents of different genders and social status perceive the ideal of close relationships differently and have different situations concerning gender roles, leading to latent conflicts and contradictions. Public family policy, which focuses mainly on increasing the birth rate, is strongly pronatalist and is supported by a strong pronatalist public family policy. The analysis revealed four types of close relations represented in the socio-cultural space of the former Soviet republics and the lack of social integration of the government and social policy. The post-Soviet countries need a new type of family policy that would take into account various forms of close relationships and the peculiarities of their transformation under the influence of great challenges. Acknowledgements The research was carried out with the financial support of the State task FZEW-2020-0005.

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The Impact of Globalization on National Law and Cultural Identity of Russian Citizens Vladislav V. Gruzdev , Vladimir N. Ershov , and Vladimir A. Smirnov

Abstract The paper focuses on the problems that arose during the collision of globalization processes in the economy, finance, politics, and traditional social institutions (government, law, and national culture). We believe that great challenges have the potential to change the social and economic development directions. Via the systematic approach, we established that the social and cultural characteristics of various public life sectors affect the government and the law. Their transformation also initiates the reverse process, when the government and the law trigger changes in traditional values. Besides, we pay particular attention to the factors that make society sustainable, a precondition for returning to traditional values. We claim that the conservative component of the government, the law, and the cultural identity of people stabilizes social and economic processes. We conclude that the attempts to revolutionize history are aimed at the government legal superstructure and cultural identity of citizens. Keywords Globalization · Government · Law · Cultural identity · Transformation · Person · Family

1 Introduction Globalization is firmly embedded in people’s lives. It reflects the transformation of the world, society, and interpersonal relationships. In 1980–1990, globalization was seen as a public good. In the twenty-first century, the attitude to this process became vague. Many people have changed their status, becoming winners or losers. Among V. V. Gruzdev (B) · V. N. Ershov · V. A. Smirnov Kostroma State University, Kostroma, Russia e-mail: [email protected] V. N. Ershov e-mail: [email protected] V. A. Smirnov e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 S. G. Maximova et al. (eds.), Advances in Natural, Human-Made, and Coupled Human-Natural Systems Research, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 250, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-78083-8_19

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the first winners were those who quickly mastered new markets and technologies. The same applies to the developing countries that opened up to the world and became part of the global economy. In this case, the losers were the countries where labor was traditionally expensive (e.g., the USA and the European countries) (Ross 2017). The main reason for the most current changes is economic globalization, which is straining the government and the law. If the impact of globalization on the government and law correlates with values and interests, then the issue arises about their combined influence on cultural identity (Beetham 1984). A. A. Gromyko said, “When assessing the damage caused by globalization, one should get rid of the arrogant cynicism about the heritage of the human mind. Such ‘forgetfulness’ leads to severe mistakes. To avoid them, one should see not only the impressive achievements of globalization but also its dangerous risks. The great risk of globalization lies in the desire to create a new economic and financial global empire and put the world history on the rails of power politics” (Gromyko 2013). The impact of globalization on government, law, and cultural identity is becoming increasingly relevant as more and more people from globalizing countries face these challenges. Changes in the traditional customs and lifestyle change people. The traditional markers shaping personality (subjective connections and relationships, appearance, language, and religion) were significantly transformed. Nowadays, people increasingly consider themselves citizens of the world, abandoning their ethnic identity (Hisler 1990). The main challenge for society, government, and science in Russia is the threat of losing the national and cultural identity of Russian citizens. Presumably, this is due to the growth of international competition and conflicts, global and regional instability, and the strengthening of the relationship between internal and external threats to national security (Presidential Executive Office 2016). In 2020, Russia and the whole world faced new challenges (COVID-19, the financial and economic crisis, the overpopulation of the planet, migration processes, and terrorist activities), which increase the relevance of this topic. These factors can become a crossroads, after which socio-economic processes can change their direction. Finding a consistent pattern for this trend is closely related to the impact of globalization on national law and the cultural identity of people. Analyzing the process of globalization, the legal system, and the cultural identity of citizens (considered as interacting elements of the system), we tried to identify the conditions and consequences of their interaction. This step will significantly reduce the risks associated with globalization. The forecast will strengthen the positive aspects of globalization—establishing common rules of the game and developing effective technologies, which generally contribute to enhancing security and cooperation in Eurasia.

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2 Materials and Methods The current study examines the evolution of government, law, and the sovereign state of the future. Discussions on this topic began as an academic debate but have recently become international and interdisciplinary. This topic affects many social, economic, and political processes. We used several theoretical and methodological approaches to determine the research vector and determine its novelty. We consider globalization an objective reality caused by the isolation of the planet, the formation of the world economy, global communications, and other factors (Ebzeev et al. 2006). We take into account that globalization affects the entire surrounding reality but develops unevenly. To a large extent, this process affects finance and the economy. Politics is less affected; spiritual life, traditions, and national culture are exposed to even less influence (Bryan et al. 1999). Since globalization simultaneously exists with such phenomena as regionalism, provincialism, and localism, there must be a constraint that prevents all exchange processes from becoming global. We believe that the global, multi-faceted processes cannot develop according to the same scenario. The predictive effectiveness of the results obtained depends on the main patterns and trends of socio-economic and cultural development and the most objective understanding of other options for social development. (Avkhodeeva 2015). This fact requires studying all aspects of the topic, paying attention to certain qualities, relationships, and connections. Therefore, we can consider the impact of globalization on the national law and cultural identity of Russian citizens. One should distinguish the conditions and prerequisites of globalism from its various forms and manifestations. Furthermore, it is essential to characterize the impact of globalization on national law and the cultural identity of citizens to reveal the objective reverse effects. This paper considers globalism not as a worldview or civilizational standard, but as a trend that projects itself onto civilization. Hence, we can identify the role and effect of strengthening economic, political, and cultural interaction; the legal superstructure, and the national cultural code as special links of other processes in their interrelation and interdependence.

3 Results The international flow of capital and the globalization of the economy are increasingly affecting government institutions. This fact affects the state sovereignty, which can become unstable and not obvious (Auby 2010; Benyekhlef and Gélinas 2001). The cosmopolitanism of capital determines its migration and the creation of a global market. The national government and legal systems prevent universal unification, standardization, and integration from becoming an obstacle in these processes.

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The strengthening of global factors increases their influence on government and the law. For highly developed countries, the impact of these factors is mainly determined by their interests; for developing countries—by their dependence on developed countries (Marchenko 2015). The increasing pressure of globalization on state and legal institutions can only occur with economic growth. Growth of employment, income, new technologies, digitalization of the economy, and the opening of markets have well-defined boundaries defined by the population and the territory of the Earth. In the face of scarcity, economic decline, or stagnation is only a matter of time (Van Creveld 1999). Countering globalization involves not only economic restrictions but also other measures that will hinder integration and promote disintegration. Many countries involved in globalization are either not ready or do not have the political will to implement changes in the public sector. The actions of the government depend on the cultural and ethnic attitudes of the voters. The worldview of the supporters of globalization is based on the idea of universal values. They consider it a progressive and advanced achievement of civilization, which must be duplicated in the economy, politics, social sector, and other sectors. This extrapolation leads to transforming culture into an instrument of standardization and unification of the values of people of different cultures, beliefs, nationalities, and countries. Moreover, the disappearance of barriers in intercultural communication creates supranational information and economic space, in which the importance of subjective relations, language, and religion as personal traits increases. The overall transformation is intricately linked to technological progress and the economy. Subsequent unification processes in social relations do not entail an equally rapid process of changing ethnic differences. Further, we can observe a multidirectional social, economic, and cultural movement, where the latter increasingly demonstrates separation and self-determination. Cultural identity can be represented as a reproduction of a social system in which traditional values act as anchors that allow a particular society to develop. The family plays a unique role in a changing world. As a stabilizing social factor in human society, family values do not always correspond to the rational logic of the development of economic relations. Their purpose is to develop moral principles and relations based on goodwill, the mutual responsibility of family members, society, and the country. Traditional family values are most fully focused on the birth and upbringing of children, which is not offset by any financial preferences on the part of society and the country. The loss or change of such values will have the opposite effect on the individual, society, and the country. Therefore, the speed of their transformation will increase. In the near future, one should decide what changes will occur in the leading social institutions. The socio-cultural features of various areas of social life that are under pressure from socio-economic factors affect the government and law, such as (1) the form of government, (2) the functions of the state, (3) the legal system, (4) the mechanism of legal regulation, and other elements. However, their transformation triggers the

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opposite process, when the government and law change the values that remained fixed for many generations. In this direction, the state-legal superstructure acts not only as a consequence but also as a cause that has the potential to protect and preserve the fundamentals of human existence.

4 Discussion Globalization as a multidimensional phenomenon has several aspects. One of them is related to the initial source of the current changes (the economy). Moreover, the idea that the globalization of the economy leads to the globalization of law is quite widespread (Majorina 2018; Mak 2015). In this regard, scientists consider multidirectional approaches. Some believe that under the influence of internationalization processes, national sovereignty is reduced, eroded, displaced, and gradually totally replaced by the power of global institutions (Dunn 1994; Väyrynen 2001). People living in different regions no longer serve the country and admire it but endure it (Creveld and Creveld 1999). The power that used to be a monopoly of the state is transferred to economic activity subjects. Therefore, if the face of the world changes, the law changes along with it (Mak 2015). Some people believe that the national government and law will be preserved in their traditional form (Beetham 1984). We think that this issue should be put differently. It is unnecessary to determine whether the government and the law will change or not, since their development is not self-sufficient and independent. It is crucial to solve the problem of their development in combination with other factors that balance the entire system. The international system cannot function without constructive interaction with national law. The impact of international law is carried out if the government recognizes it as an integral part of its legal system. International law is applied when the government implements mechanisms to ensure compliance with international legal norms and responsibility for their violation. Speaking about the impact of globalization as a complex of cross-border economic, financial, and trade interactions on the government and law, we cannot ignore the opposite effect. The historical facts indicate that the level of international economic integration can decline until the complete termination of relations, increased tension, and violent conflicts. In this case, we are not talking about global governance and international economic integration. The principles of might is right, and dog-eat-dog prevail. There is a paradigm of coercion and the law of power (Gromyko 2013). Then comes the period of stabilization. The norms of national law, which are adopted according to the national interests, maintain the stability of the system. The economy, which is beginning to grow rapidly, strengthens its resilience and the role of the national government. There must be something else in this spiral dynamic system that will give it additional stability and allow it to be flexible without losing the main elements.

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Otherwise, the system will not be restored. This something is the cultural identity of people, citizens of a country. This basis forces, presses, allows, and encourages the logic of actions following national interests.

5 Conclusion The future is not predetermined. The speed of socio-economic processes does not allow us to accurately predict the vector of development that the world will choose in a few years. This fact is due to many unknown quantities that are also subject to dynamics. However, we can talk about the interdependence between the speed and scale of social change and the transformation of traditional values. Just as the globalization of relations affects interpersonal relations and cultural attitudes, so the internationalization of the latter forms the necessary laws and conditions for accelerating changes. The question of reducing the speed of transformation or stopping it presupposes the justification of conditions, the onset of which will allow one to claim a return to traditional values, considered as a factor of a return to regionalization. Due to their inherent nature, the conservative component of the state-legal and cultural identity of the people contributes an element of stabilization to the socio-economic processes. In some cases, the direct opposition to globalism is based on national-cultural and legal components that prevent global unification. That is why the state-legal superstructure and the cultural identity of citizens are the goals of attempts to revolutionize the course of history, as a result of which society, the family, and the individual are often transformed from subjects to objects of experiments. Acknowledgements The research was carried out with the financial support of the state task FZEW-2020-0005.

References Auby JB (2010) La globalisation, le droit et l’Etat, 2nd edn. Lextenso éditions, Paris, France Avkhodeeva EA (2015) The research of the Meyerhold’s creativity in 1930–1960. Clio 6(102):174– 177 Beetham D (1984) The future of the nation-state’. In: McLennan G, Held D, Hall S (eds) The idea of the modern state. Open University Press, Milton Keynes, UK, pp 22–208 Benyekhlef K, Gélinas F (2001) The international experience in regard to procedures for settling conflicts relating to copyright in the digital environment. Copyright Bulletin 35(4):5–22 Bryan LL, Fraser J, Oppenheim J, Rall W (1999) Race for the world: strategies to build a great global firm. Harvard Business Press, Boston, MA Dunn J (1994) Introduction: crisis of the nation state? Polit Stud 42:3–15 Ebzeev, B. S., Aybazov, R. U., Krasnoryadtsev, S. L. (2006). Globalization and the state unity of Russia. Moscow, Russia: Formula Prava.

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Gromyko AA (2013) Globalization and global governance. MGIMO Rev Int Relat 5(32):16–23 Heisler MO (1990) Ethnicity and ethnic relations in the modern West. In: Montville JV (ed) Conflict and peacemaking in multiethnic societies. Lexington Books, Lexington, KY, pp 21–52 Majorina MV (2018) Private international law in context of globalization: from privatization to fragmentation. Law J Higher School of Econ 1:193–217 Mak V (2015) In: Globalization, private law, and new legal pluralism. New York, NY, NYU School of Law Marchenko, M. N. (2015). Trends in the development of law in the modern world. Moscow, Russia: Prospekt. Presidential Executive Office (2016) Decree “On the strategy of scientific and technological development of the Russian Federation” (December 1, 2016 No. 642). Moscow, Russia Ross A (2017) The industries of the future. Simon & Schuster, New York, NY Van Creveld M, Van Creveld ML (1999) The rise and decline of the state. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK Väyrynen R (2001) Sovereignty, globalization, and transnational social movements. Int Relat AsiaPacific 1(2):227–246

Human Security Risks in the New Information Medium Vladimir N. Ershov , Vladislav V. Gruzdev , and Vladimir A. Smirnov

Abstract This paper examines the impact of new technologies that are essential for Industry 4.0 on the human information medium and the risks that may arise with the active implementation of these technologies. We conclude that the shift in the technological order changes the industry and the economy and significantly transforms the human information medium, changing the channels and structure of communications, including social ones. Using a systematic approach, we identify the key trends changing the information landscape of a modern person and the risks arising from this process for the individual. We pay special attention to (1) possible options for manipulating information to influence the individual; and (2) the formation of a predictive emotional perception of information. Besides, we determined the elements of information interaction that are most exposed to the impact of advanced technologies and the corresponding risks. As a result, we draw conclusions about possible methods and means of using the latest technologies related to the information field, such as AR, VR, AI, and BigData, to influence people. We show that the role and place of family and close relationships are a significant factor in reducing the likelihood of successful information and psychological manipulation in a new technological way. Keywords Information medium · Prevarication · Risks · Industry 4.0 · New technologies · Personality · Family

V. N. Ershov (B) · V. V. Gruzdev · V. A. Smirnov Kostroma State University, Kostroma, Russia e-mail: [email protected] V. V. Gruzdev e-mail: [email protected] V. A. Smirnov e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 S. G. Maximova et al. (eds.), Advances in Natural, Human-Made, and Coupled Human-Natural Systems Research, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 250, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-78083-8_20

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1 Introduction After the approval of the strategy of scientific and technological development of the Russian Federation for 2016 and after the signing of the Decree of the President of the Russian Federation “On national goals and strategic objectives of the development of the Russian Federation for the period up to 2024” in 2018 (Presidential Executive Office 2018), Russia joined the great technological competition and started preparing for the new technological order. This strategy defines (1) the goal and main tasks of the scientific and technological development of the Russian Federation; (2) the results that should ensure stable, dynamic, and balanced development of Russia in the long term in new conditions; and (3) the most critical challenges for Russia. Awareness of the inevitability of ongoing processes actualizes the need to assess and minimize the risks that arise. Still, it should be borne in mind that the new industry was first mentioned in 2011, which means that the leading countries have been doing it for almost ten years. Prominent scholars systematized and described the global risks associated with the new technological order and the forecasts for developing the new industry (Schwab and Davis 2018; Kuznetsova 2018; Rukinov 2020; Gusev and Polovova 2018; Uskov 2019; Kuznetsov 2019). The fears of Klaus Schwab were justified, “Some benefited from globalization, and some lost. It played right into the hands of millions, hundreds of millions of people. But there are losers just as well. Today, the notion of social justice becomes more important. In this age of social media, we can no longer afford to leave people behind” (Korrespondent.Net. 2019). The risks related to changes in the industry, financial, and economic conditions are associated with changes in the external environment and are actively discussed. Simultaneously, the risks associated with changes in the information medium under the influence of new technologies of Industry 4.0, as a factor of influence on a personality, usually take the second place. A person as an object and a subject of information interaction is an essential element of information systems. The emerging technologies contribute to the acceleration of information processes and a sharp increase in the volume of information; moreover, they radically change the structure and environment of information dissemination. The impact of the information medium on a person has been considered for many years. This issue was extremely relevant and was actively discussed by scientists in the context of the transition to the information society and the mass dissemination of new information technologies in the 1990s and 2000s (Ezhevskaya 2009; Manoilo 2017). The peculiarity of information impact is that there is both direct and indirect impact on a person. This trend is due to the fact that information is capable of self-existence, becoming the content of human memory, transforming into ideas, knowledge, and skills (Manoilo 2003). Furthermore, the information can involve the mental processes of a person and affect their perception of reality, emotional, and even physical state. This feature, along with the unresolved problem of the information crisis caused by both the thirst for information and information dump, allows one to use information

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as a means of targeted influence. We will not delve into this topic or consider the concept and structure of information warfare; we will rather consider the relations between the subjects and objects of information influence, the role and place of the audience in strengthening or, conversely, weakening the information influence on the individual. Modern research in neurophysiology has already generated hybrid elements of informational influence on the psyche and elements of human behavior control, such as (1) neuromarketing, (2) neurosophy, or (3) neuroethics. The effects that may occur when manipulating information parameters (volume, processing speed, and presentation speed, when manipulating the sequence of information presentation; and the quality of information) are recorded as separate groups of distortions. Therefore, it is essential not only to know about their existence but also to identify options and opportunities for their occurrence. Consider the traditional information interaction schemes (source of information-information environment-audience of information) for a person as a subject and object of information influence. We will also try to assess the possible risks to human security associated with changes in the transfer medium and methods of information processing during the mass transition to Industry 4.0 technologies.

2 Materials and Methods The primary sources of information for a person include (1) Internet resources, (2) printed and electronic publications, (3) television, (4) books, and (5) personal communication. The choice of information sources and their credibility depends on many factors. However, the most pronounced factors are age-related preferences (predetermined by differences in lifestyles of different generations) and those related to educational level (predetermined by susceptibility to innovation and their development). We expanded the traditional scheme of information interaction, processing, and human verification of information. Figure 1 presents the scheme that we developed. We would somewhat agree that the process of working with relevant information for a particular person is important. The initial information comes to the person from one or more sources. Its processing takes two stages. At the first stage, primary interpretation, evaluation, and memorization of information took place. There is an input filtering of information, determined by personal preferences and the development of the so-called soft skills of a person (especially system and critical thinking) under the influence of the credibility of the information source. Depending on these factors, the type of information, and its content, rational and irrational processing systems are involved. A person reacts by recalling not only the processed information but also the emotional coloring, their feelings. At this stage, there are risks of information processing associated with the subjectivity and selectivity of its perception and cognitive distortions, such as the Rosenthal effect.

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Group communication

Information sources

Television

Interpersonal communication

Newspapers, journals, including electronic ones

Internal communication

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Obtaining information

Correction of facts and impressions

Discussion, assessment

Misinterpretations when perceiving

Internet sources other than social networks and electronic publications

Books, including electronic ones Misinterpretations when generating

Personal communication with people

Misinterpretations when interpretating

Fig. 1 Diagram of information interaction, processing, and verification during communication. Source Compiled by the authors

The next step is to verify information in a person’s social environment by discussing it in interpersonal communication, receiving feedback in the form of external value judgments, and reading the accompanying nonverbal information. At this point, the attitude to the original information may change significantly, as well as the things that will remain in memory. The associativity of the memory structure explains this fact. Depending on the focus of attention, the frequency of repetition, and the attitude of other people toward the information discussed, people either strengthen their opinion or change it. One part of the information is transformed, another part is replaced, and the third part is simply forgotten. Cognitive distortions, such as systemic attention error, are associated with this stage. In the secondary processing of information, the development of communication functions becomes essential. The more advanced the functions, the better one can evaluate the reliability and correctness of the information. In our case, by correctness, we understand a person’s compliance with moral and ethical ideas, norms, and internal beliefs. The more influential the opinion, the stronger the impact. Traditionally, the opinions of close relatives, especially the older adults, have the most significant influence (RIA news 2018). The survey results also evidence this fact—the importance of personal contact (comparable to books and online sources for groups under 46 years old) and trust in expert opinion (second place after reading, with an average of 30% for age groups under 54 years old). The influence force is shown in the diagram as bidirectional arrows of different thickness, where the thickness correlates with the influence force. It is necessary to understand that the survey results show a reasonable interpretation of the impact, which does not always correspond to an objective pattern. The next circle of verification includes relatives, friends, and comrades, with whom communication usually takes place in groups. At specific age periods or certain life stages, these two circles may alternate in the importance of impact. At the peripheral

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level, any discussion of information can be considered. Cognitive distortions, such as the illusory truth effect, are associated with this type of impact on the information. Therefore, the information medium is determined by a vast flow of heterogeneous information from the outside and multi-level elements of its secondary processing. The types of information presented in the first and second stages may differ significantly. If external sources are those from which we receive extremely heterogeneous information, then we usually operate with audio information containing significant data and visual information containing a non-verbal component in the process of communication. Understanding and accepting such a scheme of information processing, using a systematic approach, and analyzing the available information, we consider how certain technologies associated with Industry 4.0 and the rapid development of information technologies affect it (“Cross-cutting technologies of the National Technological Initiative,” n.d.; Schwab and Davis 2018). To make it simple, we limit ourselves to the technologies relevant to our research (technologies that can influence the presented scheme elements). These technologies must meet three requirements: (1) they are sufficiently developed now; (2) there are examples of the use of at least prototypes; and (3) we can evaluate the systemic effect of these technologies. In our opinion, such technologies include (1) augmented (AR), (2) mixed (MR), and (3) virtual reality (VR) technologies, (4) the Internet of Things, (5) artificial intelligence, and (6) new materials and robotics as elements of creating anthropomorphic robots. Note that these technologies do not level the risks mentioned above associated with cognitive distortions. On the contrary, they can be amplified by the latter. This situation is possible due to the distortion of information at the stage of its generation or creating initially unreliable information. We consider the risks associated with distortion, and those that arise when manipulating the perception of information, causing errors in checking and evaluating the correctness of information received from the outside, leading to the formation of the desired behavior pattern. Such an effect can indicate the risk of social isolation and the replacement of interpersonal communication with robotic systems. Based on the analysis of available data from sociological studies and cases of intentional or accidental use of technologies that lead to changes in human behavior or perception, we predict the possible risks of the impact of new technologies on a person by changing the above elements of the information environment.

3 Results Let us start with the sources of information. We are interested in the trend of (1) permanent weakening of traditional and print media, (2) the preservation of a significant influence of personal communication as a source of information, and (3) the presence of a significant share of people for whom expert opinion is an essential means of obtaining information (RIA news 2018; FOM 2019). Over the past ten

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years, there has been a significant reallocation of priorities in favor of online publications and websites. Thus, the share of television fell from 87 to 64%, with a clear shift in choice towards the older age group. Online news has become a provider of information for people aged 18–40 (an increase from 13 to 45%). Simultaneously, the importance of personal communication as a source of information has not changed much (just over 20%). Currently, there are no reasons to claim that these trends will change. Unlike these trends, the way information is obtained is increasingly shifting towards the most informative content, namely, audio, pictures, and video (RIA news 2018). The more internet, AR, VR, and MR technologies develop, the faster such changes will occur. The annual growth in the popularity of video services and the emergence of video social networks such as TikTok confirm this. The transformation of the advertising market, where digital audio and video resources demonstrate positive dynamics, can serve as the most objective assessment (AKAR n.d.). These trends lead to a substantial increase in the risk of information distortion at the stage of its generation or to the risk of creating initially unreliable information. To determine the nature of the risk, we consider possible human exposure options by changing information when applying these technologies to digital data sources and channels for their distribution. Let us start with the obvious factor of broadcasting unverified information. According to the Statista survey results (www.statista.com), in 2019, 10% of users were aware of sharing fake news; 49% of respondents found out later (Abramov n.d.). The situation is becoming increasingly acute; people are using advanced technologies to obtain fake and, at the same time, extremely plausible information (Khvostik 2019; Neznanov 2018; Venture beat 2019). Hence, there is a growing distrust of external information and, at the same time, increasing confidence in what is proclaimed by relatives and friends. FOM 2019). The development of artificial intelligence, AR, and VR makes it easier to create realistic graphical information that people have come to trust. It is better to see once than to hear about it a hundred times—it does not work in the modern world. Almost everything we see and hear can be unreliable and unrealistic. Indeed, even personal communication on social networks does not guarantee accurate and actual information. The threat of substitution of information and the creation of realistic information images allows one to manipulate people, their emotions, and even actions. Before internalizing the patterns of actions due to distorted information, the threat passes into the psychological or even physical security of a person. Therefore, it is vital to check the information, evaluate it, and, most importantly, instill critical thinking in those who are the authority for the person. It is necessary to develop mechanisms for detecting false information and protecting people from it. Processing information on a secondary and external basis is reduced to its verification through interpersonal communication and the feedback in the form of value judgments of members of the inner circle. Moreover, there are threats associated with the introduction of advanced technologies. The risks of manipulating the perception of information are significantly increased. The development of neurotechnology and the availability of information about the mechanisms of influence and ready-made technological solutions allows one to use them in communication consciously.

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Personal communication is changing. Before the mass spread of high-speed internet, it included primarily those who are closer geographically. Now it includes like-minded people and those whom social networks recommend to us as friends. Changing the subjects that we choose as experts, including moral and ethical assessment, is becoming extremely relevant. Previously, the family and the inner circle determined many things. However, today the network and media idols, which are custom-made and not put forward by society, replace them. Competence, in this case, is determined by the frequency of focusing attention, not by expertise. With the shift, and sometimes the replacement (especially for people under the age of 25) of personal communication to online space, this trend creates severe risks for the verification and evaluation of the correctness of information received from the outside. Due to the spring pandemic in 2020, this pattern will only intensify. The forced transition of older adults to this communication type will increase the risks caused by the possibility of those we consider experts to influence information assessment. For example, instead of contacting a doctor about evaluating a drug that someone recommended in a chat, a person will receive contextual advertising generated by artificial intelligence based on the analysis of key phrases and queries. The search engine will produce links determined by such factors as (1) the number of links, (2) the rating of the website, (3) the correctness of its SEO markup, and (3) the accuracy of the information. Contextual advertising will present subjective evidence (reviews) and possibly a set of information that promotes quackery. Predictive models based on artificial intelligence and Big data allow one to consider the specifics of providing information to promote the right products, dramatically increasing the likelihood of getting the right data and even emotions. The possibility of forming fake experts, especially virtual experts, who hide behind the success of the introduction of artificial intelligence in the field of medicine and engineering, will pose another danger (RBC n.d.; Skvortsov et al. 2019; Poryaeva and Evstafieva 2019). Increasing social distance, replacing personal communication with its online form within the framework of Industry 4.0, the designed technologies allow one, if necessary, to actively intervene in the communication process by introducing online elements of nonverbal communication during video broadcasts. For example, the use of Deepfake technology in the preparation of video reports, as was the case with Nancy Pelosi, the Speaker of the US House of Representatives, when minor changes in gestures and facial expressions together with the timbre and tempo of the voice, led to the conclusion that she was intoxicated (Mervosh 2019). The technology is becoming cheaper and more accessible. We will soon face the impossibility of distinguishing truth from fiction, even when evaluating an event or object visually. In this case, to minimize the risks of replacing the correct assessment of the information received and its verification, the role of personal communication with people, especially with those who have an authoritative opinion, increases. Keeping them as the primary sources of verified information will reduce the risks mentioned above. This approach can fundamentally change the understanding of the role and place of the family in the era of Industry 4.0. It is currently the content, form of presentation, and means of communication that are most vulnerable to deliberate

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manipulation. This happens because until a source of information is created that directly interacts with the human brain, its content and presentation pose a threat. Under the influence of technology, the sources, volume, structure, and medium of information dissemination change, together with the essence and function of communication. With a continuous shift towards virtual communication, it is of great importance to highlight the fundamental evaluation role of trusting interpersonal relationships as a mechanism for collective verification of good-bad or rightwrong. In most cases, unintentional distortion of information and its assessment are directly related to the closest relatives. Therefore, the preservation of traditional family relations ensures the stability of the assessment and its correct emotional and moral perception. Teaching critical and system thinking in children and adolescents is mostly determined by the perception and processing of information that their parents formed. Given that in the modern educational model, it is the parents who determine the child’s development trajectory, it is essential to update the understanding of the importance of the formation and development of critical and systemic thinking in the parents.

4 Discussion In this article, we will not discuss the trend of replacing interpersonal relationships with artificial intelligence. Now we focus only on the risk of losing such an essential component of communication as self-development in communication. At the same time, we can say that reducing the intellectual component of communication is likely to continue. Nevertheless, everything related to emotional intelligence development in a person can significantly suffer when switching to new communication formats. Even now, digital autism is becoming an urgent social problem. With the mass introduction of artificial intelligence and anthropomorphic robots, humanity may lose the ability to perceive and evaluate nonverbal information. This situation leads to (1) the inability to build comfortable social relationships; and (2) the tendency to isolate and replace human communication with robotic information systems. There is positive feedback that reinforces this adverse effect. The increased role, quality, and intensity of family communication and enhanced interaction between different generations of the same family can reduce such risks. Many other aspects of human interaction with the new technological world have yet to be evaluated and understood. However, we believe that the role and place of family and close relationships in the context of identity preservation and socio-cultural self-identification during the transition to a new technological way of life will only grow.

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Table 1 Summary of the considered risks with a list of factors reducing them due to close relationships Item number Wording of the risk

The predicted role of the family as a significant risk reduction factor

1

Risks related to cognitive distortions

Creating a culture of system and critical thinking

2

Risks of information distortion at the stage of its generation or initial creation of disinformation

Direct impact is impossible. Learning through discussion and demonstration of critical perception and objective evaluation of information and information sources

3

Risks that arise when manipulating the perception of information with inevitable verification errors and when evaluating the correctness of information received from the outside

Maintaining the authoritative expert position of older relatives ensuring the correct emotional and moral perception of information

4

The risk of social isolation and replacing human communication with robotic systems

Strengthening the role, quality, and intensity of family communication, enhancing the interaction between different generations of the same family

Source Compiled by the authors

5 Conclusion The family becomes a significant factor in reducing the considered risks of Industry 4.0, since the institution is an element of society, initially aimed at creating favorable conditions for the development of personality, ensuring its maximum protection and stability (Table 1). Acknowledgements The study is carried out with the financial support of the state task FZEW2020-0005.

References Abramov A (nd) How to use critical thinking in the information flow. Retrieved from https://www. rbc.ru/trends/education/5e81f1339a7947c0a7a6eef3 AKAR (nd) The volume of advertising in the means of its distribution in 2019. Retrieved from http://www.akarussia.ru/knowledge/market_size/id9112 Cross-cutting technologies of the National Technological Initiative (nd) Retrieved from https://nti 2035.ru/technology/ Ezhevskaya TI (2009) Psychological impact of the information environment on a modern person. Psycho Pedagogy Law Enforcement 2:38–41 FOM (2019) Information sources: preferences. Retrieved from https://fom.ru/SMI-i-internet/14256

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Gusev YuV, Polovova TA (2019) Managing changes in the national economy in the context of global strategic challenges. ETAP Econ Theory Anal Pract 5:18–28. https://doi.org/10.24411/ 2071-6435-2019-00046 Khvostik E (2019) Artificial intelligence has learned to produce fake news. Retrieved from https:// www.kommersant.ru/doc/4126694 Korrespondent.Net (2019) The collapse of globalization. World split in Davos-2019. Retrieved from https://korrespondent.net/world/4056464-krakh-hlobalyzatsyy-myrovoi-raskol-v-davose-2019 Kuznetsov A V (2019). Economic sustainability of Russia under the conditions of technological transformations. Hum Soc Sci Bull Finan Univ 9(6):45–52 Kuznetsova MO (2018) Risks of the industry 4.0 and their influence on industrial organizations. Vestnik Universiteta 11:115–122 Manoilo AV (2003) State information policy in special conditions. Moscow Engineering Physics Institute, Moscow Manoilo AV (2017) Technologies of modern information wars. Polit Sci Spec Issue 306–325. Mervosh S (2019) Distorted videos of Nancy Pelosi spread on Facebook and Twitter, helped by Trump. Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com/2019/05/24/us/politics/pelosi-doctored-video. html Neznanov A (2018) Artificial intelligence in the world of fakes. Retrieved from https://postnauka. ru/longreads/84103 Poryaeva EP, Evstafieva VA (2019) Artificial intelligence in medicine. Bull Sci Edu 6–2(60):15–18 Presidential Executive Office (2018) Decree “On national goals and strategic tasks of development of the Russian Federation for the period up to 2024 (May 7, 2018 No. 204). Moscow, Russia RBC (nd) Almost like humans: artificial intelligence in factories and fields. Retrieved from http://digital-russia.rbc.ru/articles/pochti-kak-lyudi-iskusstvennyy-intellekt-na-zavodakhi-mestorozhdeniyakh/ RIA news (2018) You are watching live: How and where do we get information today. Retrieved from https://sn.ria.ru/20181126/1533354878.html Rukinov MV (2020) Vectors of technological transformations and prospects of Russia’s secure development in the new technological paradigm. Izvestia Sankt-Peterburgskogo Gosudarstvennogo Ekonomicheskogo Universiteta 1(121):7–15 Schwab K, Davis N (2018) Shaping the future of the fourth industrial revolution. EKSMO, Moscow Skvortsov YA, Nabokov VI, Nekrasov KV, Skvortsova YG, Krotov MI (2019) Application of technologies of artificial intelligence in agriculture. Agrarian Bull Urals 8(187):91–98 Uskov VS (2019) Trends in formation and problems of digital economy development in Russia. Probl Territory’s Dev 2(100):53–66 Venture beat (2019) Starting in 2020, China will require videos created using AI or VR to be clearly marked. Retrieved from https://venturebeat.com/2019/11/30/starting-in-2020-china-willrequire-videos-created-using-ai-or-vr-to-be-clearly-marked/

Divergence in the Efficiency of Social Production: A Baseline Study Elena N. Pochekutova

Abstract The paper focuses on the problems of low labor productivity in a significant part of the world’s countries. Low labor productivity in the country leads to low income of employees and a high level of migration from these countries, creating a tense social situation in countries that accept migrant workers, who become social migrants. Globalization processes typical for the end of the twentieth century did not lead to the alignment of the economic and social development of countries. Changing the quantitative values of the differentiation of social production efficiency regarding the use of human capital should not lead to an erroneous opinion about the possible convergence of the economic development of countries. Instead of the rapid economic growth of third world countries, the twenty-first century shows a high sensitivity of developed countries to crisis phenomena. The gap in the level of economic and social development of countries has only increased in recent years. The analysis of the assessment of variation in labor productivity indicates an increase in production efficiency in countries representing the core of the population and located in its center. The leading countries suffered significant losses during the crisis of 2008– 2010, which affects the estimated values of assessment indicators of differentiation and may lead to an unreliable conclusion about convergence. Keywords Labor productivity · Employment · Labor · Efficiency · Poverty

1 Introduction The highly differentiated economic development of countries generates significant differences in the social sphere and the standard of living of the population. In the last decade, these huge differences led to significant social shifts. The globalization of the economy, open borders, and changes in the social policy of some economically developed countries in terms of removing restrictions on social assistance increased the migration flow to these countries (the Low-Income group of countries). There E. N. Pochekutova (B) Siberian Federal University, Krasnoyarsk, Russia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 S. G. Maximova et al. (eds.), Advances in Natural, Human-Made, and Coupled Human-Natural Systems Research, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 250, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-78083-8_21

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is another category of economically developed countries (the High-Income group of countries) that use migrant labor to a large extent. However, these countries do not provide social protection for migrant workers. Moreover, the government creates conditions for migrants that force or oblige them to stay in the country for a short time. Such countries provide social assistance solely based on citizenship status, violating the rights of migrant workers. According to Russian researchers, the deterioration of national socio-economic development and migration flows are significant factors in the formation of social tension in the country (Basayeva et al. 2016). Furthermore, as the authors note, social changes do not occur instantly, but with a certain time lag. Changes in economic conditions determine social changes more slowly. In our opinion, the longer the lag, the larger the system and the scale of the national economy (Basayeva et al. 2016). The scale of the national economy is determined by (1) the volume of production of goods and services (GDP), (2) the size of the country, and (3) the population. The larger the national economy, the more complex the social processes become, which consequences aggravate the socio-economic development of the country. Labor migration from a country is rarely beneficial to society. The outflow of the working-age population creates some illusions: (1) a reduction in the population and the amount of necessary social assistance in the form of education, (2) healthcare, and (3) job creation. In the future, these factors will hinder the development of the national economy. Traditional migration flows are directed from underdeveloped economic countries to countries with a high level of socio-economic development. The most important migration factor is poverty due to unemployment.

2 Materials and Methods According to the International Labor Organization [ILO], global unemployment in 2017 was 5.1% or 174.1 million people; according to forecast values in 2018, it should have been 5.0% or 172.5 million people. If unemployment were projected to decrease in relative terms in 2019 and 2020, then, in the total population, the forecast values would reach the level of 2017 (173.6 million people and 174.3 million people respectively) (International Labor Organization 2019). However, even such pessimistic forecasts did not come true. Adjusting the estimate of the global unemployment rate in 2019 implies an increase in the underutilization of the labor force. In 2019, the global unemployment rate would be 5.4%, which would correspond to the level of 2018. By 2021, the decline in the global unemployment rate would stabilize and even increase mainly due to the prolonged slowdown in the global economy (ILO 2020). According to ILO forecasts, the annual increase in unemployment would amount to 2.5 million people per year. Unfortunately, the world economy does not create new jobs for new participants in the labor market. At the same time, we can observe an interesting paradox: the countries of the HighIncome group have a higher unemployment rate than countries with a high level of economic development, which is determined by the high level of social protection

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(ILO 2019a, b). ILO estimated that in 2019, 165 million people worldwide were underemployed, with an additional 119 million people represented as a potential workforce. The total underutilized labor force in the world was 473 million people (or 14% of the workforce), which is twice the global unemployment rate (ILO 2020). The UN sees the threat of migration flows in growing unemployment in parts of South America, including Argentina, Brazil, and Colombia. High unemployment rates also characterize West Asian countries. The UN experts are particularly concerned about youth unemployment as a global problem that hinders achieving sustainable development goals. For example, in 2016, 35% of the unemployed global population aged 15–24, although this group makes up only 15% of the world labor force (United Nations 2017). Youth unemployment remains high in West Asia. Also, it is increasing in Latin America, the Caribbean, and parts of Southeast Asia. High youth unemployment can have significant long-term social and economic consequences, such as (1) reluctance to work, (2) lack of discipline, (3) formation of criminal groups, (4) external migration, (5) lack of demand for education, and (6) social unrest (United Nations 2017). The high level of differentiation of economic development in the world leads to enormous differences in working conditions and wages. For example, according to ILO, two billion people worldwide (61% of employees) are employed informally, which significantly reduces their right to decent pay and the social protection system on the part of the employer. One in five of all employed people in the world lives in extreme or moderate poverty, which is 630 million people. The daily per capita income for the extremely poor is below 1.90 dollars at Purchasing Power Parity [PPP]. For moderately poor households, daily per capita income ranges from 1.90 to 3.20 dollars PPP (ILO 2020). The problems of breaking through the socio-economic level of countries have always been complex issues of the historical and political development of humankind. The last third of the twentieth century, characterized by the globalization of economic development, demonstrates a slight degree of alignment of economic growth. According to Russian researchers, these processes resulted from an increase in the level of education and health in third world countries. By the 1990s, peripheral countries managed to achieve higher economic growth rates in terms of GDP per capita, which naturally reduced the gap in the socio-economic situation of economically developed and developing countries (Korotaev and Grinin 2017). According to foreign researchers, representatives of the Russian globally-historical systemic school, A. Korotaev and L. Grinin, made a significant contribution to the basic laws of long-term world history (Goldstone 2016). Russian scientists proved that the Great Divergence and the recent Great Convergence (the economic growth of developing countries) are the results of global economic modernization. Moreover, this process is cyclical. To a certain extent, the globalization of the world economy at the end of the 20th led to the convergence of the economic and social development of countries. As R. Barro (1991) points out, the growth of GDP per capita in the country tends to be inversely proportional to the initial level. Less economically developed countries have faster economic growth than developed ones. Therefore, in a certain period,

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due to the growth of the small, the convergence of GDP growth rates per capita is ensured. In addition, Barro (1991) adds that conclusions about the convergence of countries are based on the neoclassical economic growth model, according to which the return on reproducible capital decreases. Developing countries with low labor supply and major production assets (capital) demonstrate rapid economic growth when transferring technologies from developed countries to their territories. Nevertheless, cross-country comparisons of GDP per capita growth rates and the absolute values of this indicator refute the idea of the sustainability of global convergence. Accumulated human capital generates new products and ideas of developed countries that underlie the technological progress of countries that, in turn, determines sustainable factors of economic growth. As in developed countries, economic growth through the formation of institutions for the accumulation of human capital is ensured by the successor countries (Barro 1991). We should answer the following questions: • Is convergence a sustainable process? • Will the globalization of the world economy ensure the equalization of the economic development of countries? • Will the effects of economic inequality of countries be smoothed out: poverty and migration? According to Heshmati and Lee (2010), globalization promotes economic development and reduces the disparities of people with high economic opportunities. Globalization increases inequality but, at the same time, reduces poverty. Simultaneously, the regional concentration of poverty is growing within the country. For example, India and China demonstrate such development. The paper aims to determine the trends of divergence or convergence of countries based on labor productivity dynamics per employee. Much of the literature on divergence and convergence is based on (1) an analysis of the GDP dynamics, (2) the share of a country’s GDP in world GDP, and (3) GDP per capita. Russian researchers also note that the choice of units of measure has a significant impact on the convergence assessment results. Using the World Bank PPP conversion factors, we can say that convergence began in the second half of the 1990s. Besides, the share of Western countries in world GDP fell by half less than the rest (Korotayev et al. 2011). If the convergence assessment uses the GDP of countries in US dollars at the current exchange rate, then the share of Western countries in world GDP is still growing. At the same time, in the first decade of the twenty-first century, there is a rather high rate of convergence (Korotayev et al. 2011). Kazakova (2018) studied the convergence for 1960–2016, comparing GDP per capita in US dollars (in 2010 prices) and calculating the coefficient of variation. The research results suggest that convergence is due to faster growth in areas with a low standard of living compared to those with a high standard of living. Kazakova supports the idea of cyclical convergence. Moreover, she notes that the world economy has been experiencing a process of divergence of countries in income distribution since the 1990s. Currently, the global economy is characterized by a growing inequality: an increase in the share of income of the wellfiest people against the

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background of persistent poverty among millions of citizens of the poorest countries (Kazakova 2018). Why does the paper evaluate convergence processes precisely in terms of labor productivity? In his work, Lavrovskii (2015) indicates that labor productivity can serve as an estimate of the total (integral) characteristics of the technological development of a country. The need to increase labor productivity is due to the growth of the population and is a prerequisite for the growth of welfare (Lavrovskii 2015). As the example of China shows, capital accumulation plays a special role in labor productivity. However, a significant increase in investment costs to improve labor productivity is becoming increasingly burdensome, further affecting the country’s growth prospects (Lavrovskii 2018). ILO defines labor productivity as an important economic indicator that simultaneously characterizes economic growth, competitiveness, and standard of living in a country (ILO 2013). Based on the analysis of labor productivity dynamics, we can receive information on changes in social production efficiency and the quality of human capital. Moreover, we can answer the questions: • Are countries approaching each other in their economic development or not? • If convergence trends characterize the world economy, is this convergence due increased social production efficiency?

3 Results We assessed the processes of convergence or divergence of the efficiency of social production of countries according to the indicator “Labor productivity per employee.” Also, we used the data set of the International Labor Organization (ILO 2019a, b). According to ILO recommendations on the use of statistical indicators characterizing labor, labor productivity is calculated as the ratio of the country’s GDP to the number of employed people (ILO, 2013). To calculate labor productivity, ILO uses the constant indicator of 2010 GDP in US dollars. Assessing the convergence of the economic development of countries based on the labor productivity indicator, we obtain a generalized characteristic of the efficiency and quality of human capital involved in social production. For the assessment, we chose the period of 2000–2018. The total number of countries was 189. We calculated the following indicators: (1) growth rate, (2) increase rate, (3) average annual growth rates, (4) sample size, (5) median, (6) coefficient of variation, (7) ratio of average and median. We did not calculate the average labor productivity indicator in the world. Instead, we used the calculated ILO indicator. The dynamics of average labor productivity, median, and coefficient of variation are shown in Fig. 1. Based on the dynamics of the coefficient of variation, we can conclude that the twenty-first century demonstrates progress in the convergence process: • The value of the coefficient of variation decreased from 132.8% in 2000 to 124.25% in 2018. • In general, the coefficient of variation decreased by 8.55%.

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Fig. 1 Dynamics of the average, median, and coefficient of variation. Source: (The authors’ calculations based on ILO 2019a, b)

• The annual rate of decline was 1.27%. • The annual growth rate of the average labor productivity in the world was 1.29%. • The increase in average labor productivity in the world over the period was 32.12%. • Confirmation of the convergence of labor efficiency can serve as indicators of the median value dynamics: the increase for the period—39.4%, the annual growth rate—1.3%. The next argument in favor of the thesis about the convergence of the efficiency of social production of countries can serve as an indicator of dynamics for groups of countries. Labor productivity in the group of Low-Income countries increased by 25.33% between 2000 and 2018, from 1256.03 to 1574.17 dollars. In the group of Lower-Middle-Income countries in 2000, average labor productivity was 2912.6 dollars, in 2018—6170.24 dollars, labor productivity growth—111.85%. We can see an even greater significance of the increase in labor productivity in the group of countries called Upper-Middle-Income—124.31%. In absolute terms, we observe growth in labor productivity from 7776.08 dollars in 2000 to 17,442.75 dollars in 2018. The High-Income group of countries has the smallest increase in labor productivity—only 17.38%, from 77,298.09 to 90,733.76 dollars. The World Bank carries out the grouping of countries by income level in terms of Gross National Income [GNI] per capita (in US dollars converted from local currency using the Atlas method) (World Bank Country and Lending Groups). Data on income and the number of countries is presented in Table 1. Regarding the information provided, we should clarify some points. The World Bank does not include information on the Occupied Palestinian Territory in the grouping of countries, so the total number of countries for which ILO calculates

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Table 1 Dynamics of the number of countries by income Group of countries

GNI per capita in US$, 2000

Number of countries, 2000

GNI per capita in US$, 2018

Number of countries, 2018

Low-income

≤ 755

63

≤ 1025

31

Lower-middle-income

756–2995

50

1026–3995

45

Upper-middle-income

2996–9265

29

3996–12,375

53

High-income

> 9265

42

> 12,375

59

Source The authors’ calculations based on United Nations (2019)

labor productivity is only 188. Due to political changes in 2000–2018, there is no data for 2020 for the following countries: (1) Serbia, (2) South Sudan, (3) TimorLeste, and (4) Montenegro. In 2018, South Sudan and Timor-Leste were assigned to the Low-Income group of countries, while Serbia and Montenegro were included in the Upper-Middle-Income group. During the period under review, the World Bank made approximately the same “shift” of the right border of GNI per capita in all groups: (1) for the first group by 33.8%, (2) for the second group—33.4%, and (3) for the third one—33.6%. This means that the transition of a country to a group with a higher income is due to an increase in the indicator rather than a mechanical shift in the boundaries of the groups (World Bank [WB], 2020). According to Table 1, we can conclude that there is a process of convergence of the economic development of countries. The number of countries in the LowIncome group significantly decreased from 63 in 2000 to 31 in 2018. Given that the two countries were not classified in 2000, we can expect an even greater positive shift: from 65 to 31 countries. The number of countries in the Lower-Middle-Income group is stable, with changes of -5 countries. A significant increase in the number of countries in the Upper-Middle-Income group can indicate the convergence process: from 29 to 53 countries. Even if we consider that the data for the two countries in 2000 were not yet taken into account by the World Bank, the changes are still significant. The fact that the number of countries in the High-Income group is growing is even more important for assessing the convergence of economic development of countries. Over 19 years, the number of countries has grown from 42 to 59. By 2018, the Upper-Middle-Income group has included the following countries: • • • • • • • • • • •

Bahrain; Chile; Croatia; The Czech Republic; Estonia; Hungary; The Republic of Korea; Malta; Oman; Panama; Poland;

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Puerto Rico; Saudi Arabia; The Slovak Republic; Trinidad and Tobago; Uruguay.

From the Lower-Middle-Income group of countries, the High-Income group includes Latvia and Lithuania. None of the High-Income countries that were part of it in 2000 left the group by 2018. However, we should not conclude that the convergence process is slow. Calculating traditional indicators of dynamics and evaluating the variation of indicators can lead to erroneous conclusions. Dividing the world’s countries into groups according to the World Bank classification principle and assessing the dynamics of the group’s average values also do not allow us to get an objective picture. Let us return to the information about the dynamics of the coefficient of variation presented in Fig. 1. The value of the coefficient of variation of more than 30–35% means significant heterogeneity of the aggregate, which is an objective and undeniable fact in assessing the differentiation of social production efficiency and the economic development of countries in general. The reduction in variation of signs should confirm the convergence process. In Fig. 1, we can see a significant decrease in the variation indicator by 2018. However, it is necessary to track the dynamics during the entire period instead of extreme time points. We can observe a significant decrease in the coefficient of variation in 2009. In the next two years, the value of indicators is almost fixed. The reason for this is the economic crisis of 2008–2010, which led to a reduction in the production volumes (GDP) of the leading countries and, consequently, labor productivity. The maximum value of labor productivity belongs to Luxembourg, which decline in labor productivity in 2009 compared to 2008 was 9.98%; Denmark—1.96%, Switzerland—2.98%, Norway— 1.11%, Germany—5.53%. The only country showing growth was the United States, with a 1.12% increase in labor productivity. Also, we can notice a slight increase in labor productivity in countries with minimal values. Nevertheless, this growth cannot smooth out the differentiation. The dynamics of 2012–2014 is similar. The decrease in the rate of variation is due to a slowdown in the economic growth of the top countries. The increase in the value of the variation indicator by 2018 is caused by an increase in the labor efficiency of the leading countries with the highest labor productivity values. This means that there is no convergence in the social production efficiency. The decrease in the value of the variation indicator is due to the mediumterm decrease in the maximum values—a decrease in the efficiency of the large rather than an increase in the small. To assess changes in labor productivity of countries and variations of this indicator, we calculated the following characteristics: (1) range of variation, (2) relative range of variation, (3) quartile deviation (or average quartile distance), (4) mean linear deviation, (5) the ratio of the standard deviation and quartile deviation indicators, (6) the mean square deviation, and (7) the ratio of the indicator’s Standard deviation and Average linear deviation. The calculation results are shown in Table 2.

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Table 2 Indicators of characteristics of variation in labor productivity Indicator

2000

2018

Change (%)

Range of variation, $

220,821.97

227,715.24

3.12

Average, $

19,190.3

25,354.15

32.12

Relative range of variation

11.51

8.98

−21.98

Quartile deviation, $

14,619.40

17,445.09

19.33

Average linear deviation, $

26,719.51

29,019.60

8.61

Average linear deviation/quartile deviation

1.83

1.66

−9.29

Mean square deviation

35,218.65

38,722.50

9.95

Mean square deviation/mean linear deviation

1.318

1.334

1.21

Source Compiled by Authors

The change in the elementary indicator for assessing the variation of the aggregate (the range of variation) confirms the divergence processes. Over the period 2000– 2018, the value of this indicator does not decrease but increases by 3.12%. The ratio of the range of variation and the average value is defined as the relative range of variation. The value of the relative range of variation indicator decreased from 11.51 in 2000 to 8.98 in 2018; the decrease was 21.98%. A significant decrease in the indicator can be characterized as a convergence process that occurs due to an increase in average labor productivity in the world. The Average linear deviation indicator is more rigorous for assessing variation, in contrast to the Range of variation indicator. This indicator is calculated as the arithmetic mean of the absolute deviations of the attribute from the average value of the series. During the period under review, the value of the indicator increased by 8.61% from 26,719.51 dollars in 2000 to the level of 29,019.60 dollars in 2018. A 32.12% increase in average labor productivity led to an increase in the average linear deviation. Given the slowdown in labor productivity growth in the leading countries during the crisis and slow growth in the Low-Income countries, the increase in average labor productivity indicates that the social production efficiency in the world is growing at the expense of the Upper-Middle Income countries (which by 2018 also moved to the High-Income countries). Low-Income and Lower-MiddleIncome countries are characterized by slower growth in labor productivity, which does not allow for a decent level of wages and social protection. The dynamics of the Average quartile distance / Quartile deviation indicator confirms the continuing divergence of the efficiency of social production. The value of this indicator increased from 14,619.40 to 17,445.09 dollars, indicating an increase in the labor productivity gap between the first and third quartile countries. In the central part of the population, there was an increase in differentiation by 19.33%. Another interesting indicator for studying large populations is the ratio of the Average linear deviation to the Quartile deviation. In the study, the value of this ratio was 1.83 in 2000 and 1.66 in 2018. A higher value of this indicator means that there is a slightly changing core and a strongly dispersed environment around

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the core. A decrease in the calculated ratio indicates a decrease in the intensity of variation between the central part of the population and the periphery. Since the average linear deviation increased less than the quartile deviation, the value of the ratio of the average linear deviation and quartile deviation decreased. We can explain this trend by the slower dynamics of the average labor productivity compared to the average labor productivity in the world, which may indicate the divergence process.

4 Discussion The study allows us to draw several conclusions about the possibility of using different variation indicators to assess the divergence process of the social production efficiency. First of all, applying the average and magnitude of the variation is very sensitive to bursts. The minimum values of labor productivity for the period 2000–2018 decreased by 3.23%. The minimum value of labor productivity in 2000 belonged to Ethiopia, in 2018—to Somalia. The maximum value during the period is typical for Luxembourg. As noted above, during the crisis, the maximum value is more susceptible to change, namely decrease, which determines the dynamics of the coefficient of variation. A decrease in the coefficient of variation should not mislead about a decrease in the differentiation of labor productivity level in the world. To assess the dynamics of labor productivity of countries, we obtain more accurate results when using indicators based on the values of the median, which represents a typical value of the population (e.g., the Quartile deviation indicator, which dynamics indicates significant divergence processes between extreme groups of countries). The change in the number of countries in the Low-Income and Lower-Middle-Income groups and the significant increase in the number of countries in the Upper-MiddleIncome group shifted the median value from the Lower-Middle-Income group of countries to the Upper-Middle-Income group of countries (Table 1). This explains the decrease in the ratio of the average linear deviation and quartile deviation, indicating a decrease in the variation of the population core and the concentration of this core. The increase in the indicator Standard deviation for the entire period was 9.95%. An increase in the ratio of the Mean square deviation and Mean linear deviation indicators shows an increase in the number of countries with a significant deviation from the average labor productivity level. In general, we can conclude that the thesis of faster growth in countries with low development levels is not confirmed. The decrease in the differentiation of economic development in the world due to the middle countries of the Upper-Middle-Income group and the increase in the number of countries of the High-Income group confirms the formation of a core of countries where the increase in the efficiency of social production increases the average value of labor productivity in the world. Countries with minimal labor efficiency values have extremely low growth rates that do not allow us to claim the leveling process. Stable values of the magnitude indicate the

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absence of convergence trend. The conclusion about the stabilization of the divergence process is more relevant. Differences in the efficiency of social production in terms of the use of labor resources were recorded throughout the twenty-first century.

5 Conclusion The economic crisis of 2008–2010 has a major impact on the development of countries at the present time. Labor productivity demonstrates significant differences in the cross-country efficiency of social production and heterogeneity of economic and social development in the world. The convergence process that began in the 1990s proved to be completely unstable. In crisis situations, developed economies are forced to concentrate on helping their national economy, which is a manifestation of the social responsibility of the country. Measures to mitigate the consequences of the economic crisis within their countries do not imply mutual economic assistance to developing countries and, especially, to third world countries. According to the Boston Consulting Group, public policy should focus on creating incentives for investment in new target sectors, new infrastructure projects, and infrastructure support. The policy of China in the 1990s and 2000s is a striking example of the effectiveness of national economic policy aimed at ensuring economic growth. China invested heavily in (1) high-speed railways, (2) highways, (3) bridges, (4) ports, and (5) commercial energy supplies to boost labor mobility and economic growth (Sanchez et al. 2018). Stable divergence trends the characterize the twenty-first century. The decrease in variation indicators is caused by a decrease in the social production efficiency in developed countries. The relatively slow growth of labor productivity in third world countries results from the immunity of new technologies due to the low level of accumulated human capital. The divergence process, which is aggravated by quite frequent crises in the world economy in recent years, captures a high sensitivity to these phenomena of developed countries, which were previously considered a source of possible support for the economies of developing and third world countries. The frequency of the observed phenomena and the reaction of the leading countries during the economic crisis may serve as a negative signal for (1) the formation of specific trends in the return of production to the leading countries, (2) freezing the process of technology and production transfer to developing and third world countries. Against this background, expectations of wage growth remain illusory. There are no expectations of income growth and poverty reduction. The continuing trend of divergence in the social production efficiency suggests more effective measures on the part of all countries. National policy should ensure the creation of indirect conditions for increasing real wages comparable to the labor productivity growth and introduce measures for direct participation in the growth of social production efficiency. First of all, public policy should provide full employment and decent work for everyone who wants to work. It is necessary for (1) the development of the country, (2) the preservation of labor resources, and (3) poverty reduction.

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References Barro R (1991) Economic growth in a cross section of countries. Q J Econ 106(2):407–443 Basayeva E, Kamenetskiy E, Khosayeva Z (2016) Mathematical modeling of social tension of interacting social groups. In Malkov SY, Grinin LE (eds) Analysis and modeling of world and country dynamics: economic and political processes. Uchitel Publishing, Moscow, pp 130–144 Goldstone JA (2016) Great divergence and great convergence in a global perspective. Soc Evol Hist 15(2):194–200 Heshmati A, Lee S (2010) The relationship between globalization, economic growth and income inequality. J Global Stud 1(2):87–117 International Labor Organization (ILO) (2013) Decent work indicators: Guidelines for producers and users of statistical and legal framework indicators. ILO manual: 2nd version. Retrieved from https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---dgreports/---stat/documents/pub lication/wcms_223121.pdf ILO (2017) Quick guide on sources and uses of labour statistics. Retrieved from https://www.ilo. org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---dgreports/---stat/documents/publication/wcms_590092.pdf ILO. (2019a). Labor productivity – ILO modelled estimates, Nov. 2019a. Retrieved from https:// www.ilo.org/shinyapps/bulkexplorer40/?lang=en&segment=indicator&id=GDP_205U_NOC_ NB_A ILO. (2019b). World employment and social outlook: trends 2019b. Retrieved from https://www. ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---dgreports/---dcomm/---publ/documents/publication/wcms_6 70542.pdf ILO (2020) World employment and social outlook: trends 2020. Retrieved from https://www. ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---dgreports/---dcomm/---publ/documents/publication/wcms_7 34455.pdf Kazakova M (2018) Factors of convergence and divergence in the global economy: a brief review. Adm Consult 1(7):96–110 Korotaev AV, Grinin LE (2017) Divergence and convergence in the global economy. In: Grinin LE, Korotaev AV, Bondarenko VM (eds) The present. Condrates: crises and forecast in the light of the theory of long waves. View from modernity. Uchitel, Volgograd, pp 252–308 Korotayev A, Zinkina J, Bogevolnov J, Malkov A (2011) Global unconditional convergence among larger economies after 1998. J Global Stud 2(2):25–61 Lavrovskii B (2015) Russian and world trends in productivity. Stud Russ Econ Dev 26(3):278–284 Lavrovskii B (2018) Investment opportunities to accelerate labor productivity dynamics. Her Russ Acad Sci 88(3):220–229 Sanchez C, Türpitz A, Jaworowski J (2018) How governments can boost labor productivity. Retrieved from http://image-src.bcg.com/Images/BCG-How-Governments-Can-BoostLabor-Productivity-Apr-2018_tcm9-190894.pdf United Nations (2017) World economic situation and prospects 2017. Retrieved from https://www. un.org/development/desa/dpad/wp-content/uploads/sites/45/publication/2017wesp_full_en.pdf World Bank (2020) World Bank country and lending groups. Retrieved from https://datahelpdesk. worldbank.org/knowledgebase/articles/906519-world-bank-country-and-lending-groups

Youth Subcultures from the Perspective of Tolerance Evgeniya V. Valiullina , Vadim V. Shiller , and Zlata V. Borovikova

Abstract The paper presents the research results on the tolerance level among various youth subcultures. We conducted a comparative analysis of the general tolerance level among animeshniks [anime fans], role players, hipsters, goths, punks, emo, and gamers. Youth subcultures are an essential social institution for teenagers. They form the subjectivity of individuals and help them adapt to the environment in the process of socialization. Tolerance is the ability to accept other people as they are. It is necessary for interpersonal interaction. A certain level of intolerance at this age can indicate self-identification process. According to the research results, there are significant differences in the tolerance level between animeshniks, gamers, and emo. Animeshniks and gamers show greater tolerance to the representatives of other subcultures and communities than emo kids. The obtained results on psychological peculiarities of tolerance and intolerance among the representatives of youth subcultures can be used to develop programs for the prevention of destructive manifestations among the youth. Keywords Youth subculture · Research · Tolerance · Intolerance · Level of tolerance

1 Introduction Modern youth subcultures are characterized by a variety of forms and manifestations. Youth subcultures and informal groups integrated into traditional social culture can serve as alternative associations (parallel or countercultural). Many scholars study youth subcultures and their representatives, both in Russia and abroad. We can find the information on the origin and development of subcultures in the works of Belanovsky, Levikova; the typology and differentiation of subcultures studied by Golobokov, Shalaputa; their dynamics and socio-psychological aspects considered by Katasonova, Kozlova; socialization and value components researched by E. V. Valiullina (B) · V. V. Shiller · Z. V. Borovikova Kemerovo State Medical University, Kemerovo, Russia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 S. G. Maximova et al. (eds.), Advances in Natural, Human-Made, and Coupled Human-Natural Systems Research, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 250, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-78083-8_22

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Polhemus, Levikova and many other scholars. According to the monograph (edited by Kozlova), the informal youth subculture is a system of symbols, norms, values, and social institutions determining self-identification, behavior, and activities of individuals and groups, which regulate a significant part of their life (Kozlova 2008). Also, Belanovsky believes that subcultures are relatively autonomous social groups and self-replicating ones (Belanovsky 1989). Polhemus notes that young people do not always choose a particular subculture based on ideological preferences. Sometimes, they make their choice because they like its symbols, rituals, style, behavior patterns, music, and leisure (Polhemus 1996). Levikova emphasizes that representatives of youth subcultures identify themselves with them (Levikova 2004). On the other hand, according to Katasonova, self-identification of an individual with any subculture does not imply the complete replacement of other forms of identity (national, ethnic). Socio-cultural forms of subculture also do not imply excluding the individual from external social systems (Katasonova 2010). Today, scientists have received much information about youth subcultures: the history of their origin and formation factors, typology and differentiation of directions, lifestyle, and communication within groups. However, their psychological features are still contradictory and insufficiently studied. That is why it is necessary to consider this aspect. Descriptive studies highlight several common characteristics of youth subcultures: (1) specific fashion (hairstyles, clothing, accessories); (2) slang, symbols; (3) music; behavior; social environment (attributes, specific territory, sometimes its protection); (4) ignoring generally accepted norms and values; (5) the lack of interest in politics and economy; (6) aggressive or hostile attitude to other subcultures (Golobokov and Shalaputa 2016). From a psychological point of view, tolerance is the ability to accept other people, be patient with someone else’s lifestyle, opinion, behavior, or mindset. We paid much attention to the issue of tolerance in modern research. We can find the content, structure, and typology of the concept of tolerance in the works of Astashova, Bardier, The Valiullina, Vulfov, Kravtsov, Soldatova, and Schiller. Soldatova regards tolerance as an ability to accept other people as they are and voluntarily interact with them (Soldatova 2000). Vulfov understands tolerance as the ability of a person to coexist with people of a different mentality and lifestyle (Vulfov 2002). Astashova emphasizes the necessity to respect other people’s opinion, adequately assess their actions, and cooperate with them in resolving interpersonal conflicts (Astashova 2011). The term tolerance is used to describe situations of bigotry, violence, discrimination, violation of rights and freedoms, provoking social instability, and unwillingness to interact with people who differ in some way (Bardier 2007). On the other hand, Kravtsov believes that the development of tolerance in adolescence (the division of the environment into “friends” or “foes”) is a vital and natural process for personal growth. It serves as an indicator of the successful self-identification process (Kravtsov 2008). “The value system of teenagers is reflected in the world around them. They are no longer capable of unconditional acceptance of others. However, they have not yet developed the skills of patience and restraint that are typical of adult, mature

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people” (Valiullina et al. 2019a, b). We conducted research to study the levels of tolerance among representatives of various youth subcultures.

2 Materials and Methods In 2018–2019, the Siberian Federal district monitored extremist manifestations and sentiments. The study was conducted using the applied methodology “Diagnostic and Preventive Model of Regional Monitoring of Extremist Sentiments and Manifestations in Society,” developed by the group of authors, under the guidance of Schiller et al. (2019). The methodology allows us analyzing the following factors: (1) extremist sentiments in the region; (2) the degree of public support for destructive ideas and marginal politicians; (3) the ethnic and religious affiliation of the respondents; (4) the primary sources of information for young people; (5) the respondents’ leisure. In 2019, the monitoring was conducted in several regions of Western Siberia. In total, we interviewed 1498 people. The survey respondents attended secondary and high school or secondary vocational and higher educational institutions (46% of them were boys, 49% were girls, and 5% did not indicate their gender). The age range of respondents was from thirteen to nineteen years. Also, the methodology allows us to identify the variety of the respondents’ subcultural preferences. According to the data obtained, 76% of the respondents indicated that they do not represent a particular subculture, and 24% attributed themselves to different groups ("Schiller et al. 2019). Therefore, to achieve this study’s goal, in the further analysis of the results, we will consider only the representatives of youth subcultures (360 people as 100%) and their tolerance level. To determine various tolerance levels, we used the questionnaire “Tolerance Index” (Soldatova 2008). We performed statistical processing of the results using Microsoft Office 2013 (Microsoft Excel). We checked the validity of discrepancies using Pearson’s x 2 test; estimated differences in indicators using the Mann–Whitney U-test (nonparametric criteria were chosen based on the abnormal distribution of most indicators).

3 Results and Discussion The histogram (Fig. 1) shows the percentage of different youth subcultures we identified during the monitoring. We asked the respondents a closed-ended question: “Can you identify yourself with any youth subculture?” if the answer was positive, we asked an open question: “What subculture can you identify yourself with?” and the respondents wrote down their subculture. According to the data presented, we can see that the smallest number of the respondents (3%) is reflected in the combined group “rappers and others.” It included the respondents who consider themselves parts of the following subcultures: A.U.E.,

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Fig. 1 Percentage distribution of subcultures. Source Monitoring materials (Schiller et al. 2019)

gopniks, rappers, gangsters, LGBT, K-pop. These responses were given by one or two people, that is 0.2–0.3%. The most significant number of the respondents identify themselves as animeshniks (40%). The youth subculture “animeshniks” (from Eng. “animation”) unites fans of Japanese comics (manga) and animation (anime); it covers a broad target audience and includes various genres of the modern Japanese film industry. The appearance of animeshniks is marked by a kind of clothing from anime characters or historical Japanese costumes (samurai armor, kimonos). They have a bright hair color and different symbols in their accessories. They often use Japanese words and phrases in their speech. They use the characters from their favorite anime as avatars in social media. Their playlists are full of soundtracks from anime movies and television series. The personal and social life of animeshniks consists of collecting anime and manga, thematic posters, and action figures. They adore Japanese video games, drawing in the style of anime, write fan fiction. Less often, they are interested in Japanese culture and history or participate in cosplay and anime festivals. Approximately the same number of young people surveyed said they were punk (15%) and goth (12%). The subculture “punks” (from Eng. colloq. “bad,” “rot”) arose on the wave of popularity of rock and punk bands. This subculture is characterized by a particular style of music (aggressive, defiant), a specific appearance (Mohawks, unnatural hair colors, shaved sides haircuts, ripped jeans, chains, heavy boots, tattoos, and piercings), a unique attitude to society (from confrontation and denial to indifference and skepticism). A little later, based on the punk movement, the subculture “Goths” (from Eng. “Gothic,” “barbaric”) was formed. The classic “gothic image” includes black clothing, black lipstick, black nail polish, black hair color. Their aesthetics is based on vampire entourage, occult, punk, and satanic symbols. The “romantic-depressive view of life” is combined with the romanticization of death (in some groups, there is an initiation process connected with rituals in the cemetery). Among the goths, the theme of death prevails in literature, painting, art, and music.

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A small number of the respondents identified themselves as hipsters (11%) and role players (9%). The subculture “hipsters” (from Eng. “to be hip,” “to be in the loop,” or “to be fashionable”) first appeared as a specific fashion style of jazz music fans. Intelligence and independence of thought occupy a special place in the ideology of the subculture. On the one hand, the hipster look is a “creative mess”; on the other hand, they wear trendy vintage clothing, oversized hoodies, and skinny jeans. Their essential accessories are large wide scarves, hats, large eyeglasses in plastic frames, high tech gadgets, and devices. Hipsters often attend social events. They are fond of arthouse movies, indie rock or country music, contemporary art, and books by mainstream authors. “Role players” as a youth subculture united fans to organize and conduct role-playing games. They are a combination of a costumed theater, a sporting event, and a “real-life” computer game with mystical, fantasy, or historical characters. The role-playing movement has a truly diverse social, age, and cultural composition. Role players seek to escape from reality. It is their hobby and a desire to try on a new social role. Six percentage of young people surveyed identified themselves as a youth subculture “emo” (from Eng. “emotions, emotional”). Free expression of feelings and emotions is the main idea of the subculture. The theme of death, depression, and suicide is a part of emo philosophy. Their appearance suggests dark and pink shades in clothing, long fringe hairstyles, piercings, various bracelets, and sneakers. T-shirts with a naive print create an infantile and innocent image. In our study, the subculture of “gamers” accounts for 4% of the respondents (from Eng. “gamer, player”). It represents young people passionate about computer games. Gamers can spend many hours in front of the computer “without food and water,” playing games. In appearance, gamers almost do not stand out. Their fashion style and music can be different. Their speech is characterized by game slang, which they often use in real life. Many subcultures are differentiated into branches or subtypes. Each of them has some antisocial groups with destructive ideas or manifestations. For example, we can find many references to aggressive-extremist sentiments of role players; goth satanists with bloody rituals and sacrifices; the cult of aggression among anime fans and autoaggression in the emo movement, deliberately imposed on all its adherents; excessive egocentrism of hipsters, snobbery, pomposity and ignorance of accepted norms. The “Tolerance Index” method (Soldatova 2008) allows us to identify different tolerance types. “The general tolerance of the individual is formed by a complex combination of its main types: social tolerance (the attitude towards various social groups, classes, strata), ethnic tolerance (the attitude to other national, ethnic groups, confessional, religious teachings), personal tolerance (the perception of people in general and the diversity of the surrounding world)” (Valiullina et al. 2019a, b). To achieve the goal of the study, the analysis of the results considered only the indicators for the general tolerance level of the respondents. The results of calculating statistical indicators of general tolerance are presented in Table 1. Performing statistical processing of the results using Pearson’s χ2 -criterion, we found out that χ2 Emp indicators of the group “rappers and others” were less than the critical value. Thus, the discrepancies between the distributions are not statistically

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Table 1 Statistical indicators of general tolerance for subcultures Maximum

Minimum

χ2 Emp

7.15

110

86

17.59b

84.8

20.15

102

69

12.09a

Goths

88.5

10.05

92

85

13.77a

Hipsters

80.2

10.08

85

70

14.01a

Role players

84.6

18.7

107

65

16.09a

Emo

78.8

7.25

85

71

19.88b

Gamers

91.4

12.59

104

78

14.08a

Rappers and others

78.8

6.26

88

72

6.73

Subcultures

The average value

Animeshniks

98

Punks

The standard deviation

Note a Distribution discrepancies are statistically reliable at p < 0.05 b Distribution discrepancies are statistically reliable at p < 0.01 Source Compiled by the Authors

reliable. That is why we excluded the group “rappers and others” from further analysis. According to the presented data, animeshniks have the highest average value of general tolerance (98 ± 7.15). These results show that the general tolerance level among the majority of animeshniks is high and above average. The anime community follows a humanistic philosophy. Worldview and understatement of stories do not influence the perception of the world around them. High level of tolerance in personal or social terms determine a positive attitude to the world as a whole and acceptance of the diversity of the surrounding reality. They allow one to establish significant interpersonal relationships and promote the desire to accept other people without violating one’s own identity. The average indicators of general tolerance are slightly lower for gamers (91.4 ± 12.59) and goths (88.5 ± 10.05). For the majority of users and gamers, such indicators mark an average and above-average level of tolerance, which corresponds to the norms and characterizes “… the general tendency to a positive perception of the surrounding society, allows you to develop an understanding and acceptance of various ways of self-expression of people, their worldview and attitude, their way of life, idiosyncratic, individual and personal traits” (Valiullina et al. 2019a, b). Approximately the same indicators of the average tolerance parameter were shown by punks (84.8 ± 20.15) and role players (84.6 ± 18.7). The general tolerance level among the representatives of these subcultures varies from high to below-average. Despite the specific appearance of punks, their defiant music, and aggressive “historical roots,” nowadays, some of them have an optimum level of general tolerance. Craig O’Hara notes that over several decades of existence, punk culture has evolved from being outrageous and rejecting social norms to adhering to a whole range of positive values and ideals, such as anti-fascism, environmentalism, vegetarianism, and rejection of drugs. (O’Hara 1999). Also, we would like to note the most remarkable difference in the indicators of maximum and minimum indicators of tolerance

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among punks (102/69) and role players (107/65) among all subcultures presented in this study. This characterizes a somewhat contradictory, ambiguous image of the representatives of these youth subcultures and reveals the indicators from optimum tolerance to intolerance in all its manifestations. Hipsters (80.2 ± 10.08) and emo (78.8 ± 7.25) showed the lowest results for the average tolerance parameter. These results indicate that most of them have average indicators, some have low and below-average indicators of the general tolerance level. Hipster intolerance is defined by the philosophy of the movement: internal freedom, nonconformism, bohemianism, rebellion, and protest against any form of external and internal limitations. Low indicators of emo tolerance, at first glance, contradict the generally accepted descriptions of the subculture’s ideology. Emo kids are sensitive and vulnerable, sympathize, and empathize with everyone around them. If they hurt themselves physically, their main goal is to “relieve their mental pain.” The fact is that tolerance is a slightly different category than empathy, emotionality, and autoagression typical of emo. The empathy does not imply a willingness to evaluate other people adequately. The ability to express emotions does not determine the desire to accept others as they are. Masochism can hardly intensify the desire for interpersonal interaction. The comparative analysis of the expressiveness of interpretative parameters was carried out using the Mann–Whitney U-test. At this stage, we compared the subcultures by the parameter of general tolerance (the results are presented in Table 2). According to the presented data, we revealed statistically significant differences between the indicators of general tolerance of animeshniks and emo (UEmp = 1), gamers, and emo (UEmp = 9). Comparative analysis showed that high and above-average indicators of the tolerance level of animeshniks and above-average and average indicators of tolerance of gamers significantly differ from the average, below-average, and low indicators of the emo community representatives. The results show that animeshniks and gamers show greater tolerance for the representatives of other youth subcultures than emo kids. Identifying with their Table 2 Comparative analysis of the subcultures by the general tolerance parameter Animeshniks

Gamers

Goths

Punks

Role players

Hipsters

Emo

Animeshniks

–

8.5a

22.5a

37

21.5a

10.5a

1b

Gamers

8.5a

–

18a

16a

22

18

9b

Goths

22.5a

18a

–

33.5

32

24

9.5a

Punks

37

16a

33.5

–

31.5

23.5

10a

Role players

21.5a

22

32

31.5

–

39.5

20

Hipsters

10.5a

18

24

23.5

39.5

–

20.5

Emo

1b

9b

9.5a

10a

20

20.5

–

Subcultures

Note a The obtained empirical value (UEmp) is in the zone of uncertainty b The obtained empirical value (UEmp) is in the zone of significance Source Compiled by the authors

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communities, gamers and animeshniks recognize other subcultures and their right to differ in ideology, appearance, hobbies, and music preferences. Emo, more than gamers and animeshniks, are removed from other communities and society. Since they are immersed in their inner world and self-contemplation, they show intolerance in various areas (personal, social, ethnic, which are the components of general tolerance).

4 Conclusion Youth subcultures represent social communities that are significant for individuals. They allow youth to accept objective reality and build their subjectivity during socialization process. In contrast to the ethnic, national, territorial, and social affiliation conditions in which the individuals are born, choosing a particular subculture independently, they make their own choice. There is a common opinion that youth subcultures oppose themselves to society. This opposition is not always marked by open confrontation or conflict. There is a differentiation between “we” and “they,”; “we,” and “everyone else.” This division is a necessary psychological stage of personality formation to organize social life in adolescence. Tolerance is one of the qualitative regulators of interpersonal relations. It is a motivator of interactions in society and a criterion for the formation of the communicative skills of the individual. The complex nature of subcultural life implies specific psychological tools for studying tolerance and intolerance among the representatives of youth subcultures. It is necessary to create programs for the prevention of destructive sentiments and manifestations among young people. The discussion of tolerance and intolerance concepts is an integral element of the information dialogue at the regional, interregional, and state levels. This is especially important in multicultural space, diversity of social, religious, and ethnic communities. Acknowledgements The research was carried out with the financial support of the RFBR in the framework of research project No. 19-011-00411

References Astashova NA (2011) Tolerance as a condition for personal self-realization. BSU Herald 1:132 Bardier GL (2007) The social psychology of tolerance, dissertation abstract of the D. Psych. Sc. Saint Petersburg State University, Saint Petersburg, Russia Belanovsky SA (1989) The subculture of “Lubers”: Comparative analysis of aggressive adolescent subcultures, USSR Youth subculture of the 80s. Retrieved from http://www.sbelan.ru/index.php/ ru/index.html

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Golobokov AS, Shalaputa SA (2016) Russian and foreign researchers on the essence and features of modern youth subcultures. Int J Appl Fundam Res 8(3):460–463 Katasonova EL (2010) Otaku: pros and cons. A new generation of computer age people. Asia Afr Today 12:64–72 Kozlova AA (2008) Youth informal groups in Saint Petersburg: theory, practice, methods of preventing extremism. Contact, Saint Petersburg, Russia. Kravtsov OG (2008) Tolerance as a unit of research on personality ontogenesis, dissertation abstract of the D. Psych. Sc. Russian State University for the Humanities, Moscow, Russia Levikova SI (2004) Youth subculture. Vuzovskaya kniga, Moscow, Russia O’Hara C (1999) The philosophy of punk: More than noise. AK Press, London Polhemus T (1996) Style surfing. Thames and Hudson, London Schiller VV, Shapkina EV, Ognev DA (2019) Regional monitoring of extremist sentiments and manifestations: principles, methods, and practices. Kemerovo State Medical University, Kemerovo Soldatova GU (2000) Live in peace with yourself and others: tolerance training for teenagers. Genesis, Moscow, Russia. Soldatova GU (2008) Psychodiagnostics of personality tolerance. Smysl, Moscow, Russia Valiullina EV, Schiller VV, Borovikova ZV (2019a) Age dynamics in psychological factors of interethnic relations formation. Kazan Pedagogical J 4(135):177–182 Valiullina EV, Schiller VV, Borovikova ZV (2019b) Tolerance as a factor of interethnic relations. Sociodynamics 4:16–23 Vulfov BZ (2002) Tolerance education: the essence and means. Vneshkol’nik 6:12–16

Current Problems and Methods of Preserving the Objects of Cultural Heritage in Russia Irina N. Kustysheva , Anna M. Ermakova, and Alevtina A. Shirokova

Abstract The paper considers the problem of preserving abandoned cultural heritage sites in the Russian Federation. The research aims to determine the conditions for preserving cultural heritage objects and obtaining income from their use. The authors discuss the regulatory framework concerning objects of cultural heritage, features, methods of determining their value, and a system of criteria that affects their assessment. Besides, the authors analyze state programs in Russia and foreign countries to preserve cultural heritage objects for investments in such objects. Keywords Objects of cultural heritage · Principles and methods of valuation · Investments

1 Introduction Russia abounds with cultural heritage objects, which represent the centuries-old history and Russian heritage. Unique objects and natural resources are important for the state; they preserve its cultural and historical appearance and are a place of attraction for tourists worldwide. However, we should note that not all objects of cultural heritage are in satisfactory condition. Over time, difficulties arise with their protection and restoration. The role of state power in solving this problem is certainly great and must fulfill not only a controlling function but also take care that the facilities are not in an abandoned and emergency state. The issues of cultural heritage object preservation in Russia, as well as in other countries, are regulated by regulatory legal acts. Among them are (1) the Constitution of the Russian Federation (Russian Federation 1993), which establishes that every citizen is obliged to take care of the preservation of historical and cultural monuments, I. N. Kustysheva (B) · A. M. Ermakova · A. A. Shirokova Industrial University of Tyumen, Tyumen, Russia e-mail: [email protected] A. M. Ermakova e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 S. G. Maximova et al. (eds.), Advances in Natural, Human-Made, and Coupled Human-Natural Systems Research, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 250, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-78083-8_23

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and (2) Federal Law No. 73 of December 25, 2002, “On objects of cultural heritage of the peoples of the Russian Federation” (Russian Federation 2002), which contains the main features of the possession, use and disposal of such objects as a special type of real estate. Worth mentioning that the interest in the historical and cultural heritage sites (both in Russia and abroad) arose long before adopting the Federal Law. Back in the nineteenth century, European countries discussed measures to protect historical and cultural monuments. In 1966, Russia developed the “Society for the Protection of Monuments of History and Culture” and a specific register of monuments. The federal executive body (Ministry of Culture of Russian Federation) places on the register the authorized objects of cultural heritage and assigns the status of a monument. From now on, these objects are protected by the state. However, such a status does not necessarily mean that the object will be kept in good condition; sometimes, it leads to complete or partial destruction. A new period in the relation of cultural heritage objects began in 2006, with the adoption of legislative acts that introduced changes in their use and ownership mechanisms. According to Federal Law No. 258 of December 26, 2006, “On Amending Certain Legislative Acts of the Russian Federation in Connection with Improving the Separation of Powers,” starting from January 1, 2008, the privatization of cultural heritage objects is allowed (Russian Federation 2006). The main advantage of the Federal Law was that the political activity of the state enabled the subjects of Russia to collaborate with private investors on their own, to involve cultural heritage sites in the economic turnover with corresponding restrictions and burdens on their use. Only those objects that were necessary to fulfill state needs remained in state ownership. An important condition for the privatization of such objects was the “Guarantee commitment” of the new owner. It registers all restrictions and encumbrances of the cultural heritage site with its further use. In this case, to transfer cultural heritage objects to the potential investor, it was necessary to evaluate such an object and determine its value.

2 Materials and Methods The authors use a number of general scientific methods. The analysis and synthesis method provides a systematic and integrated approach to the research. The method of observation and collection of facts help to identify problems and determine solutions to the issue of involving cultural heritage objects in the economic turnover. For real estate that does not generate income, it makes sense to calculate the cost of reproduction. To calculate the value of the cultural heritage objects that generate income, it is advisable to do through market value. The investment value is determined to address rental issues related to the availability and improvement of cultural heritage sites. If an object has certain conditions or needs additional costs for its maintenance, then the cost of such an object relies on the concept of value with a limited market.

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Fig. 1 Limitations imposed on historical and cultural monuments. Source Compiled by the Authors

Since the current research raises the question of assessing unused cultural heritage objects that can be involved in economic turnover and generate income for the investor, the authors consider issues related to the procedure for assessing market value. To determine the market value of an object, considering all its features, is a difficult task for an investor. One must consider the object’s restrictions of the use, its economic, cultural, historical, and social value. The restrictions that the executive authorities impose on the object can significantly affect its value (Fig. 1). Figure 1 shows the restrictions are binding on the investor. A high degree of functional deterioration of architectural monuments significantly reduces their cost. When evaluating an object, the following features should be considered: 1. High level of repair and restoration work costs and their impact on the total cost; 2. Legal restrictions on the use of these objects (i.e., a ban on changing individual elements of a building, development of free space, etc.); 3. Restrictions on the disposal of the land where the cultural heritage object is located; 4. The use of special materials and restoration methods. When evaluating such an object, it is necessary to determine whether decorative and applied art objects are factors that lower or increase the value of a building. The following value categories of monuments have an impact on determining the value of the valuation object: 1. Historical and memorial value—buildings that contain a connection with different time periods possess this value. The priority of the time factor and the importance of the monument as a work of art are fundamental principles in assessing the historical and memorial value of an object of cultural heritage;

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2. Scientific and construction-technological values—when assessing, it is necessary to identify the originality of the material of the objects and evaluate the previously lost details. Cultural heritage sites undergo significant changes over time. Because of it, some architectural forms are lost, but the authenticity of the object is preserved. That is why the time factor is fundamental in assessing the object of a cultural object; 3. Urban development value—the object is considered as part of the planning structure. The location of the property significantly affects the determination of its value; 4. Architectural value—here, such a factor as “prestige” manifests itself and increases the value. Current methods of examination can evaluate functional and ergonomic qualities on the base of scientific characteristics, but when assessing the aesthetics qualities, one use art criticism methods of assessment; 5. Artistic value—the object is evaluated by the relationship of a particular architectural object with a spatial composition and its elements; 6. Functional value—this value lies in various structural elements, their strength level, etc. Each object of cultural heritage had a specific purpose during construction, and these functions determined the spatial solution of the premises. Evaluation is aimed to determine the ability of the evaluated object to perform the final functions after the restoration. If the examined objects have losses or are in an unsatisfactory condition, the assessment should consider the future state of the historical and cultural monument and its potential, taking into account the planned repair and restoration work. The criteria presented above allow us to evaluate the historical and cultural values of both a separate object of cultural heritage, and its elements, and the environment where it is located (Russian Federation 2019; Romanov 2013). The result is an integral measure of value. Both architects and monument conservation authorities rely on these aspects of value. However, they have different goals: architects seek to transform the environment, and monument conservation authorities seek to protect cultural heritage using prohibitions. This is due to the lack of development of measures that would satisfy everyone. The result of the contradictions is the loss or destruction of the cultural heritage object.

3 Results The research shows that Russia borrowed the experience of initiative budgeting, the essence of which is the power redistribution in favor of civil society institutions by involving citizens in the process of spending budget part. This institute is actively applied in practice. The successful application depends on four factors: 1. Active support of the local government of this initiative; 2. Civil society, which can defend its opinion; 3. Favorable political situation;

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4. The availability of financial resources. According to the Center for Initiative Budgeting of the Ministry of Finance of the Russian Federation, this practice is presented in two versions: 1. “People’s budget”—the choice of priorities for spending budget funds; 2. A program to support local initiatives—co-financing by the population, business, local and regional budgets of projects that received residents’ approval. The main feature of the “People’s Budget” program is not only the active participation of the population in identifying and prioritizing problems of local importance, but also quality control and acceptance of the performed work. These programs aim not only to solve issues related to the preservation of cultural heritage sites but also at solving other significant problems of the region. The People’s Budget programs are being implemented in several regions of the country (Fig. 2): Kirov, Vologda, and Leningrad Region. The second program is implemented with the support of the World Bank in seven regions: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Stavropol Krai (since 2007); Kirov Region (since 2009); Tver Region (since 2012); Since 2013—in Nizhny Novgorod Region and Khabarovsk Krai; Since 2014—in the Republic of Bashkortostan; Since 2015—in the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia).

The leader in terms of funding is the Kirov Region (6 million euro), and the second and third places were taken by the Tver Region (1.5 million euro) and the Republic of Bashkortostan (1.2 million euro). The funds of regional budgets prevail in the co-financing structure (more than 70% of funds). The local budgets account for 10–20%. The exception is the Tver Region,

Fig. 2 Implementation of government programs on the map of Russia. Source Compiled by the Authors

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in which 29% of the total amount from the local budget was allocated. Funds of the population range from 2% (Stavropol Krai) to 13% (Nizhny Novgorod Region) in the co-financing structure. The last place is occupied by legal entities and individual entrepreneurs with a share of 4–8%. Clearly, the introduction of initiative budgeting institutions in the domestic practice of local self-government has its advantages: 1. Increased growth of satisfaction with certain aspects of the activities of local authorities; 2. Increased public confidence in the authorities; 3. Transparency of budget spending; 4. Activation of civic consciousness and self-organization of citizens. This program aims to improve the territories of cultural institutions and not to repair and restore work to preserve cultural heritage sites. Almost half of the projects (45.5%) were implemented in the first direction (from 2007 to 2014), and only 1% of the projects—in the second. At the same time, in 2012–2016, through participatory budgeting, New York implemented 75% of projects aimed at preserving cultural heritage. The authors conclude that those programs that are successfully implemented in Europe and Russia “will not take root.” This is due to social, economic, and other factors. Therefore, all introduced programs must be adapted to the country’s conditions they will be applied to (Fig. 3). The experience shows that in Moscow, dozens of historical buildings are objects of cultural heritage. However, this status has not saved them from destruction so far. It is challenging to save objects at the expense of only budget money, although the capital spends about 4–5 billion rubles per year. Therefore, on January 24, 2012, the Moscow Government introduced the “One Ruble Per Square Meter” program as part of the solution to the issue of putting in order the cultural heritage objects of unsatisfactory, emergency, or ruined condition. The Moscow Government Decree No. 12–1111, which was developed by the City’s Cultural Heritage Department in conjunction with the Property Department, is based on the foreign experience of attracting investors to carry out repair and restoration work to preserve cultural heritage sites, known as the “Principle of One Euro Per Square Meter” (Government of the Russian Federation 2015a, 2015b). The program is a good opportunity to redirect part of the budget money to other purposes, allowing private investors to reconstruct historical buildings at their own expense in exchange for a soft rent. Opportunities for the investor include the following: 1. An object of cultural heritage in the unsatisfactory condition is leased for 49 years; 2. Rent amounts to 1 ruble per square meter per year; 3. Multifunctional use of the facility, including commercial purposes. To take advantage of all opportunities, the investor must carry out repair and restoration work within five years from the date of establishing a contract.

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Fig. 3 The objectives of the “Ruble per square meter” program. Source Compiled by the Authors

The procedure of transferring the object to the investor is as follows: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

The investor selects an object; Then, inspect the object and the lot documentation; Transfers the deposit and submits an application; An auction is held; The investor signs a lease for 49 years.

The investor carries out the restoration work of the object, then draws an act of the commission on acceptance of work and submits it to the Department of City Property. Only after these procedures, the investor receives a preferential rate. To participate in the “Rubles per square meter” program, a cultural heritage object must: 1. Be in the Unified State Registry of Cultural Heritage Objects; 2. Be in state ownership; 3. Have an unsatisfactory condition. In addition to the obvious advantages, this program also has several disadvantages, which affect the quantitative side of the project: 1. It is impossible to immediately assess the economic composition of the investment project and calculate all the risks (investors who undertake the building restoration do not always understand that they will not get off cheaply as the historical appearance of a building should be preserved. Therefore, the cost of investment in restoration work is very high since it is necessary to attract highly qualified specialists); 2. The investor bears the burden of responsibility for the maintenance of the monument throughout the term of the contract; 3. The current research shows that criteria and approaches to evaluate the objects of cultural heritage are not defined. To evaluate the investment projects’ effectiveness, it is necessary to simulate the revenue flow expected in case of its implementation. That is why it is common

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practice to divide investment activity into three areas: (1) operational, (2) investment, and (3) financial. In investment activities, the investor must determine the value of the cultural heritage object to decide on the feasibility of investing (Government of the Russian Federation 2015a, 2015b).

4 Discussion Almost every state has a personal experience of preserving cultural heritage objects for future generations and is developing its own model of state regulation of such objects. The research shows that there is a vital need to adopt incentive methods for involving cultural heritage objects in the economic turnover in Russia. For this reason, the study of foreign experience will make it possible to detect both positive and negative results of the innovative policy of historical and cultural heritage. A special role in creating conditions for the preservation of historical and cultural heritage objects is played by such countries of Europe as France, Great Britain, and Italy. In these countries, mechanisms have been developed for the efficient handling and conservation of such facilities. The main objective of the policies is to develop attractive conditions for investors to reduce the burden on the maintenance and restoration of cultural heritage objects on the state budget. Financial incentive programs are truly diverse, contain various subsidies, grants, tax privileges, as well as other subsidies and sources of incentives. Various kinds of subsidies can be provided both from the state budget and from non-state sources. For example, in the abovementioned countries, the expenses spent on restoration activities are subject to subsequent reimbursement. In other foreign countries, there is also the possibility of providing preferential taxation, which is embedded in the state’s financial policy. It should be noted that preferential taxation applies to investors and users of cultural heritage objects who restore them for their own residence. After the restoration, the objects’ value rises several times; therefore, the tax on such real estate rises. The European countries began to apply the concept of maintaining the previous tax rate on the object of cultural heritage, which was established before the restoration. It should be emphasized that the objects of cultural heritage in each country determine and increase tourism development and provide a return on investment in the reconstruction of the object. In case of the economic crisis in Europe, tourism can become one of the most popular activities that will partially offset the country’s budget. In addition to the above mechanisms, national lotteries, trust funds, and marked taxes are used in world practice (Muzychuk 2013; Ionnides and Debbage 2007). Monuments of history and culture are better preserved when they are involved in the full life of the locality in which they are located—when they are fully involved in the economic, social, and cultural life of the environment. Models implemented in Europe and the USA are aimed to attract public resources through civil society institutions. There are non-profit organizations in Italy that attract about 1.5 billion

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euro annually from foundations and private investors to maintain and restore cultural heritage objects (Objects of Cultural Heritage 2019). Indeed, the better the population is aware of their country’s cultural heritage or region of residence, the faster they will become full participants in the complex process of preserving cultural heritage objects. The state should attract the attention of the population to the cultural heritage and have sufficient opportunities to stimulate investors to invest in cultural heritage objects (for example, through tax legislation), as this will create a positive effect for the industry. Only through a close interaction between the state and society it will be possible to solve the problem of involving objects of cultural heritage in economic circulation.

5 Conclusion Even though in Russia, the powers of cultural heritage protection are transferred to regional authorities, the government must provide audits to manage the implementation of the powers transferred to them effectively. To develop and implement a monitoring system for such objects, the government should create a single database (geoinformation portal) for interested parties with up-to-date information on the cultural heritage object state. The authors also note that not a single state in the world is able to maintain all the sites of cultural heritage properly. The solution to this issue is to transfer the site to the caring hands of wealthy investors. But before handing it over, it is necessary to conduct a fair assessment. Summarizing the above, the authors propose to develop a methodology for assessing such objects, considering historical, cultural, social, and architectural values, to justify and fairly determine the sites’ value. The general conclusion lies in need to develop a clear algorithm and approach to the valuation of cultural heritage sites to preserve and involve them in the country’s economic turnover. Acknowledgements The authors thank the Committee on the Protection and Application of Historical and Cultural Heritage of the Tyumen region for providing statistical data.

References Economics and life. Objects of cultural heritage (2019). Retrieved from https://www.eg-online.ru Government of the Russian Federation (2015a) Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation “On approval of the lease of unused objects of cultural heritage included in the unified state register of cultural heritage (historical and cultural monuments) of the peoples of the Russian Federation that are in unsatisfactory condition and related to federal property, as well as on termination of

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the lease of such objects of cultural heritage” (September 11, 2015a No. 966). Moscow, Russia. Retrieved from: https://rg.ru/2015a/09/18/nasledie-site-dok.html Government of the Russian Federation (2015b) Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation “On approval of the classification criteria for cultural heritage sites included in the unified state register of cultural heritage sites (historical and cultural monuments) of the peoples of the Russian Federation as cultural heritage sites in unsatisfactory condition” (June 29, 2015b No. 646). Moscow, Russia. Retrieved from: http://base.garant.ru/71113166/ Ionnides D, Debbage KG (2007) The economic geography of the tourist industry. Routledge, London Muzychuk VY (2013) State support of culture: resources, mechanisms, institutions. Nestor-Istoriya, Saint Petersburg Romanov LA (2013) Preservation of cultural heritage: problems of effective lawmaking and law enforcement on the example of France and Russia. World of Arts, Moscow Russian Federation (1993) Constitution of the Russian Federation (December 12, 1993). Moscow, Russia. Retrieved from http://www.constitution.ru/ Russian Federation (2002) Federal Law On Objects of Cultural Heritage (Monuments of History and Culture) of the Peoples of the Russian Federation (June 25, 2002 No. 73). Moscow, Russia. Retrieved from http://www.consultant.ru/document/cons_doc_LAW_37318/ Russian Federation (2006) Federal Law On Amending Certain Legislative Acts of the Russian Federation in Connection with Improving Delimitation of Powers (December 26, 2006 No. 258). Moscow, Russia. Retrieved from http://www.consultant.ru/document/cons_doc_LAW_64874/ Russian Federation (2019) The Civil Code of the Russian Federation (November 30, 1994). Moscow, Russia. Retrieved from https://base.garant.ru/10164072/

Influence of Paternalistic Traditions of the Russian Statehood on the Formation of Effective Local Self-government Institutes Elvira I. Zabneva

and Sofia Yu. Balakireva

Abstract The relevance of the problem under study is due to the need to analyze the current functioning of local authorities. Despite the legislative consolidation of the autonomy of local authorities, pressure, control, and strict financial dependence on central power led to the situation, when society perceive local government bodies as primary government bodies, therebypersonifying municipal officials with government officials in the eyes of the public. The paper presents the problem of forming the institution of local authorities as a part of public authorities, creating the necessary conditions for political participation of citizens in solving local issues. The leading approach to the study of these problems is an index study of civic activity in the Kemerovo region. The study includes a mass survey of the population by the method of interviewing, which allows one to identify the level of involvement of citizens in public life, and factors that impede this involvement. We surveyed the population of three urban districts and two municipal districts of the Kemerovo region, N = 300. The age group of respondents ranged from 21 to 74 years. The survey period is November–December 2019. Based on previously unpublished data from sociological studies, we made conclusions about the profound influence of the paternalistic traditions of Russian statehood on the formation of an effective institution of local authorities. Keywords Social government · Public authority · Local government · Institutionalization · Civic engagement · Social control

E. I. Zabneva Novokuznetsk Branch of the Kuzbass State Technical University named after T.F. Gorbachev, Novokuznetsk, Russia S. Yu. Balakireva (B) Department of Education and Science of the Kemerovo Region, Kemerovo, Russia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 S. G. Maximova et al. (eds.), Advances in Natural, Human-Made, and Coupled Human-Natural Systems Research, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 250, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-78083-8_24

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1 Introduction The collapse of the socialist system led to the need to form new principles of interaction between government and society. Administrative reform has become a necessity that ensures the transformation of the institution in such a way that it could meet the requirements of the social government and contribute to the satisfaction of the needs of citizens. Such a reform was the formation of the institution of local authorities as a level of public authority that creates the necessary conditions for political participation of citizens in solving local issues. During the municipal reform, the local political space began to take shape and legislated the main vectors of municipal reform, such as (1) autonomy, (2) a high level of support from the local community, (3) development of social control through the institutions of local civil society. However, the formation of an effective local authorities’ system faced significant difficulties. Strong paternalistic traditions left the marked vectors only as declared postulates divorced from reality. Local authorities as an independent form of government with its attributes declared by law does not exist today.

2 Materials and Methods The results of a sociological study which we conducted confirms the hypothesis stated above. The population was surveyed in three urban districts and two municipal districts of the Kemerovo region, N = 300. We conducted the survey by interviewing. The age of the respondents ranged from 21 to 74 years. Moreover, we correlated the survey results with the results obtained by us five years earlier (Laboratory for Regional Political Studies // Access: cfi.hse.ru (verified on January 20, 2014). The main research method is an index study of the current level of civic activity of residents of the region (Kemerovo region). To correlate the results obtained with the national situation, we presented the results of similar studies in other regions of Russia (Laboratory for Regional Political Studies // Access: cfi.hse.ru (verified on January 20, 2014).

3 Results As of today, the concept of autonomy is questionable. Despite the fact that the Russian legislation clearly indicates that local authorities are separated from the system of state government bodies (Russian Federation 2003), this principle is practically not observed in real political and administrative practice. In recent years, the tendency

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of the development of local authorities is more related to the centralization of relations, governmentalization of such a social institution, with its integration as a lower management level in the vertical of power. In such conditions, the institution of local authorities develops without the participation of the local community. Besides, local authorities act as objects rather than subjects of managerial influence. Analysis of the results of our comparative sociological study in 2014 and 2019 in Kemerovo region showed that this opinion of local authorities among the population is progressing. The analysis of the results of 2014 has already been presented to the public (Zabneva 2015). A study with a time lag of five years showed that the percentage of respondents identifying local authorities with the local representatives of the central government intended for execution to perform public administration tasks increased significantly (52–59%). Only about a quarter (previously 34%) of the respondents believe that local authorities are a form of exercising their power by the public. Besides, the percentage of people who found it difficult to answer decreased from 14 to 17%. Similar survey results allow us to state that in the eyes of the public, the autonomy of local authorities became even more narrow. This situation reinforces the social mentality of the population, blocks the initiative of citizens, self-organization, and direct power. According to the results of the same sociological survey which we conducted in the period from June to August 2019 in the South of Kuzbass, almost half of the respondents do not believe in the effectiveness of the local authorities. One third of them perceive this institution as level of power acting in their own interests in isolation from the public. Almost 60% of the respondents do not know the members of the local legislative assembly. About half of the respondents have never shown any civic activity, except for participation in elections, 27%—did not participate in them. The involvement of the general public in the system of local government is legally defined as referendums, assemblies, or meetings of citizens. However, the analysis of practical activities showed that only 24% of the respondents expressed their will to participate in these forms of relations between the authorities and people, almost all of them are over 40 years old. The index of civic engagement in Kemerovo region as of December 2019 was 5.2 points out of 10, which indicates social exclusion and low degree of public confidence. The index study of civic engagement in Kemerovo region aimed to reveal its current level. The study consisted of a mass survey of the population by the method of interviewing, which allows us to identify the level of involvement of citizens in public life, as well as the factors hindering their involvement. Public opinion poll among the respondents in three urban districts and two municipal districts of the Kemerovo region, N = 300, age group of respondents from 21 to 74 years (Table 1). The residents are aware of the importance of civic engagement for the development of local authorities (7.8 points) but have little faith in its effectiveness (4.3 points). Based on these points, we note the lack of confidence of citizens in their significance in public life and disbelief in the ability of the population to influence current sociopolitical processes.

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Table 1 Level of civic engagement No

Criteria

Points average

1

How important is the involvement of citizens in the public life of the municipality?

7.8

2

How do you participate in the public life of the municipality?

3.7

3

How productive is the participation of the population in solving social problems?

4.3

Source Compiled by the Authors

We should note that the research results are quite close to the data obtained in the same period by other sociologists. For example, according to a study funded by the RFBR (Russian Foundation of Basic Research) as part of the research project No. 16-36-00314 Index Study of Civic Engagement in the Constituent Entities of The Russian Federation (On the Example of Yaroslavl Region) the index of civic engagement in Yaroslavl region was 4.2 points (Frolov 2017). Therefore, regarding the development of local authorities in modern Russia, the ideals of civil society still have little in common with effectiveness. The situation with public control is even more complicated. The formed patronage type of governmental power, which created conditions for the institutionalization of the vertical of power in modern Russia, led to the fact that even the initiative to create formal structures of civil control as attributes of civil society belongs to the government. Consequently, the potential of local authorities in Russian society cannot be fully realized without conditions for increasing the civic engagement of the population as a subject of local authorities. The shortest distance between the government and the population, which determines the maximum accessibility of government bodies for the citizens, is exactly at the level of local authorities. Nonetheless, the residents of municipalities are passive in relation to their participation in social control. Based on the results of the sociological survey mentioned above, we can conclude that, on the one hand, citizens believe that social control is necessary (78%). On the other hand, 54% of the respondents do not want to participate in it, and 84%—have never participated. Again, it is worth noting the similarity of the results obtained in other Russian regions. For example, the sociological survey Technologies of civil control in the practice of local government: essence, implementation mechanisms and social effects conducted in 2013 in the Belgorod region, showed almost identical results (Babintsev and Davtyan 2016). Therefore, we can conclude that the majority of local communities in Russia are characterized by a crisis of trust, both on the part of the population to the authorities, and vice versa. Furthermore, this crisis lasts for quite a long time. The latest legislative changes related to the elections do not contribute to civic engagement and public control. They provide the possibility of a new way of electing the head of the municipality: by a representative body from among the candidates identified by the competition commission. The order of formation of the competition commission involves the appointment of half the members of the representative body

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of the municipality, and of the other half—either a higher official of the subject of the Russian Federation (if it is the municipal district, an urban district, intra-city municipality of the city with federal status), or the head of the municipal district. The new model of electing heads of local authorities, which expends the circle of regional elites to form a system of municipal government in certain territories, has been extremely popular in many Russian regions (Maikova and Simonova 2017). However, this procedure (1) ignores the votes of the population in the elections of the head of the municipality, (2) significantly lowers the degree of organizational autonomy of local authorities, (3) consistently reduces the list of issues of local importance that require direct participation of the population, (4) considerably distorts local authorities from the population, and (5) downgrades the influence of the population on the government. Maikova and Simonov believe that the legislation creates prerequisites for limiting public participation in the development of mechanisms of local authorities, as well as for intensifying the influence of government bodies on the activities of local authorities, thereby, strengthening the vertical management and centralization of power (Maikova and Simonova 2016). The results of a sociological study of the attitude of population to the ways of filling the position of the head of the municipality, including through competition. This is confirmed by the public opinion poll among the respondents in three urban districts and two municipal districts of the Kemerovo region, N = 300. The period of survey—November–December 2019. The survey was conducted by interviewing respondents of the age group from 21 to 74 years. Over 60% of the respondents are absolutely sure that direct elections should exist under our democratic system. Only 34% believe that other options are preferable for several reasons: (1) opinion of the population does not affect the election results—22%; (2) elections are expensive for municipalities—8%.

4 Discussion As a result, we can draw a general and sad conclusion that a genuine local authorities, as a power based on the self-organization of citizens, has not yet been formed in modern Russia. It is too early to speak about the completion of the institutionalization of local authorities as an independent autonomous institution of public authority and an element of civil society. There was no transformation of the institutional relations between the central and local authorities, declared by the constitution. The activities of local authorities are primarily related to the delegation of powers, where relations are based on the division of rights and obligations of each level of government, and not on their interaction and cooperation in solving managerial tasks. Financial dependence in the form of donations, subventions, and subsidies does not contribute to the economic activity of local authorities, and the internal resources of municipalities are not involved. The socio-managerial exclusion of local authorities negatively affects the civic engagement of the population as a subject of local authorities, while hindering the

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democratization of society. Moreover, exclusion becomes a factor in rising sociopolitical risks. Dysfunctionality, which manifests itself in the representation of the population in the insufficiently effective work of local authorities, results from the opacity, conservatism, and formalization of their activities. Another reason for the dysfunctionality is the lack of a role model of the municipal employee of a new type, as a professional. Currently, the requirements that the society imposes on this professional community are still not defined. Municipal service is still quite new for the Russia public administration system. In this regard, a number of key aspects of professionalism, particularly institutional memory and the transfer of basic knowledge to new generations, are impossible. Created in the 1990s, local authorities did not have the professional base that would contribute to their effective work. Knowledge, skills, abilities, professional norms, and values of the municipal service are only developing, which causes a low level of professionalism and continuous criticism from the population. Today, we do not have a role model of a municipal employee in terms of competence. The key competences of the modern municipal employee are not developed, hindering the definition of their competency profile and its difference from that of government employees or other professional groups. In addition, there are no competencies that could be used for professional standards of municipal employees, according to the position and the supervised municipal area. Therefore, it is necessary to form the basis for the goals and objectives of professional education programs in the form of those required to ensure the success of the professional activities of local authorities. To change the situation, one must understand how, in the conditions of the authoritarian political past of Russia, embedded in the mental grounds and behavioral patterns of stereotypes, to effectively implement the tasks associated with the democratization of socio-political relations. We need mechanisms which would (1) primarily contribute to the understanding of the main idea of local authorities by both the population and the authorities; (2) increase the level of use of potential opportunities of local authorities; (3) reduce the dependence of local authorities on financial support from higher authorities; (4) increase the activity of the population as subjects of administrative activity in the system of local authorities; (5) improve the personnel support of municipal authorities, the system of training, retraining, and advanced training of personnel, rational use of the potential of municipal employees, and their professional formation and development.

5 Conclusion It is obvious that only through such solutions it is possible to overcome the state of post-Soviet anomie, which hinders (1) the institutional transformation of the sociopolitical system of the country, (2) the formation of a civil society, (3) pluralistic democracy, and (4) social market economy.

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References Babintsev VP, Davtyan DV (2016) Civil control in the practice of the local self-government: sociocultural aspect. Vlast 2:29–34 Frolov AA (2017) The index of civic activism: research results in the Yaroslavl region. Vlast 9:120–126 Maikova EYu, Simonova EV (2016) Models of the election of the head of local self-government in modern Russia: theory and the real municipal practice. Vlast 1:57–63 Maikova EYu, Simonova EV (2017) Competitive model of election of the head of local selfgovernment in the modern Russian municipal practice: advantages and shortcomings. Vlast 8:83–89 Russian Federation (2003) Federal Law “On general principles of organization of local selfgovernment in the Russian Federation” (October 6, 2003 No. 131-FZ, edited by November 9, 2020 No. 37-FZ). Moscow, Russia. Retrieved from http://www.consultant.ru/document/cons_doc_ LAW_44571/ Zabneva EI (2015) The peculiarities of establishment of municipal service as professional activities. Rev Econ Law Soc 2:205–208

Transformations of Trust Under Caused by Instabilities of Educational Interactions Sergey I. Chernykh

and Irina G. Borisenko

Abstract The digital mass media update is taking place in almost all spheres of society’s life and causes an expanded interest in the consequences of this truly global process. For such spheres of public activity as production (business), science, and education, which particularly determine the “breakthrough” nature of the technologies used today, the consequences of the development, and the digital mass media [DMM] usage volume have a differentiated nature. This differentiation reflects “many-in-one,” as it is clearly (especially in the advanced organizational forms of consolidation of business—science—education) combined with the integration of the mentioned industries and their “attachment” to changing human potential and the processes of its capitalization. The development of distance/e-learning is one of the consequences of using the DMM in education. Considering the DMM as the material basis for a new education ecosystem, we can clearly see the need to research the consequences of this process to manage and forecast the learning and education itself and determine the future architecture of educational interactions. In this regard, arises the significant research trend—to forecast the attitude of the main subjects of educational interactions (individuals (educators and learners), family, civil society, government, and business) towards the updated DMM. The present article aims to trace a trend based on sociological research that can be characterized as a “form of interaction with a teacher” or consulting activity. Consultation is considered a special type of informative and teaching activity distinguished by two qualities—individualization and a high degree of trust. Besides, the consultation is a universal type of pedagogical work with many levels (student–teacher; scientific supervisor—postgraduate student; head of the laboratory—intern, etc.). Naturally arises the question of dominant trust: whom to trust—the educator (“live” communication) or the technologies and information of the Internet (final form of formalized algorithms)? As a result of independently conducted and involved research, the authors formulated a S. I. Chernykh Novosibirsk State Agrarian University, Novosibirsk, Russia e-mail: [email protected] I. G. Borisenko (B) Siberian Federal University, Krasnoyarsk, Russia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 S. G. Maximova et al. (eds.), Advances in Natural, Human-Made, and Coupled Human-Natural Systems Research, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 250, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-78083-8_25

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hypothesis that with the development of DMM usage volume and distance learning, the need for live communication with the educator decreases, and “digital literacy” both among learners and educators—increases. Keywords Educational relations · Digital mass media · Digital Literacy · Educator status · Distance learning

1 Introduction Martin Heidegger, in his essay “Science and Understanding,” formulated the fundamental proposition that “the age of (classical—auth.) education is coming to an end.” His foresight was applied to the signaling education, standardization of educational interactions based on prescription, and the formation of a person according to the patterns set in the industrial age (Heidegger 1993). Martin Heidegger’s forecast recognized the onset of that era in the change of education when the new ecosystem, as a duty of human existence, would presuppose a person’s understanding of themself. Modern scientism in quantum-transhumanistic form sees the future of education and humankind in a slightly different way. The ontological foundations of learning as a structure-forming foundation of educational ecosystems finally lost their universal character. The differentiation of the types of educational interactions is unusually large. The education organization as a “space of subjects and interactions” is diverse. The intensity vectors of the passage of educational interactions combined with commercialization in private and public educational institutions led to the erosion of the meanings and values of the classical education discourse, defamation of the pedagogical community, and the need to comprehend the formation of the new ontological foundations of education. The voluntary compulsory intrusion of the DMM into educational activities generated many ambiguous situations and opened a new page in the confrontation between the “classics” and “innovators.” The innovators mainly act “from above” and, what is impressive, “individually”—from below. The “classics,” which are gradually losing ground, stubbornly defend their already slightly modernized meanings (Chernykh and Parshikov 2016). The contradictions that often manifest themselves in “planned confrontations” of groupings (in attempts to form a strategy for the development of education that is advantageous to them) have a very negative attitude from the pedagogical community. However, the most important thing is that they determine the imbalance of the entire educational sphere and the impossibility of developing a genuinely optimal strategy for the development of the Russian educational space in its vertical (preschool—school—university—post-university) and spatial (educational space at the federal (country), interregional and regional) levels.

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1.1 Problem Setting For this very reason, the attitude towards educational technologies introduced “from below” due to the motivation, meaning, and value of the main educational interactions, the subjects become some kind of barometer, which partially, but legitimately shows the actual vector of interests of learners. One of these indicators is trust in the teacher as a “personifier” of the entire educational system. This trust is built not as a distrust of new digital technologies but as an awareness of the need for live communication with the educator. Thoughts on this matter represent the subject of this article. The research hypothesis was to confirm (refute) the thesis that students are way more labile to new technologies than teachers, but live communication is no less essential for them, than direct communication. The survey involved first-year full-time students (Siberian Federal University [SFU]) and correspondence students (Novosibirsk State Medical University [NSMU]). The teachers’ position (trust) in new, predominantly online, technologies is a separate subject and is not discussed in current research.

2 Materials and Methods Research methods are built according to the problem set. It is based on answers to the following questions: (1) Who (what) does the youth trust? (2) What place does the educator occupy in the trust rating? (3) What forms of interaction with the teacher do you prefer? The main survey areas are the SFU and NSMU. The current research used the following methods: statistical and comparative analysis, questioning, and interviewing the experts. Some of the conducted results were published earlier, so they will be used to confirm or refute the article’s hypothesis.

3 Results Today, the subject-subjective relationship of “learner—educator,” which lays at the core of educational interaction, is undergoing a severe transformation. First of all, it is due to the establishment and radical introduction of information carriers of impersonal nature into the educational process and system. Edtech, as the space of constant generation of new network educational tools, also continuously changes the forms of educational interactions, its traditional values, and its meaning. Online courses, network efficiency, and adaptive programs suggest that educational technology’s disruptive function begins to prevail over its’ constructive foundation. The director of education research at the Clayton Christensen Institute (one of the “fathers” of the disruptive innovation theory), Julia Freeland Fisher (co-authored with Fisher) in their research on the symbolic title “Who Do You Know?” says that “over the

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past decade … teaching technologies have begun to generate tectonic shifts … The introduction of new network tools suggests that in the next decade, the disruptive potential of the Edtech market will no longer be limited to breakthroughs in online courses … Looking ahead, schools can start using edtech for connection; over time, undermining not only the historical limits of how and when students learn but also who they know” (Fisher and Fisher 2018; Chernykh 2020). Implicitly, the authors talk about who the future learners will trust: a person as an educative subject or technology (which they will “learn”). Such a forecast raises the problem of informational and educational trust as its invariant from a new perspective. The studies show that the networks surrounding young people shape their career ambitions and paths, regardless of students’ aptitudes for specific disciplines (Fisher and Fisher 2018). The authors claim this remark as highly relevant, since it directly indicates that a new value of the educational space is not only the professionalization and quality of education but also the individual ecosystem and social capital of the learner. This trend is actualizing, first of all, the establishment of an appropriate education ecosystem, and second, increase the responsibility of experts, mentors, and peers in interpersonal relations. Discussed problems associated with the low level of career guidance in schools and the large gap between study programs and features required for future work reduce the trust in education as a system and learning technologies that are practiced today. Individualization demands a rise of trust in innovative educational practices, not in traditional ones. This is confirmed by conducting pilot sociological surveys of SFU first-year students. Here are their results. In total, 82 students of SFU participated in the survey. To the question: “Have you used traditional resources when completing assignments (computational and graphic work), defending, preparing for an exam (test) on your own?”, the respondents answered: “Yes, they did (mostly)”—(41.5%); “No, did not use”—13.4% and “Partially used”—45.1%. Summing up the results, doubts arose—whether the students actually used traditional, printed textbooks or study guides, which brought two new questions. The first question is “What do you mean by traditional resources, and what by innovative?” To systematize the answers, a list of resources was proposed: (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)

Book (printed edition); Electronic textbooks, study guides found on the Internet; Electronic library publications of the educational institution; Internet search engines; Voice request in a smartphone, such as: “Ok, google”; “Hello galaxy”…; E-learning course [EC], developed by the teacher for a mixed model teaching; Massive open online course (MOOC) on an external platform.

The answers were divided into three groups. Group 1 (14.6%) classified the book (printed edition) as a traditional resource, the rest—as innovative resources (electronic textbooks, study guides found on the Internet; electronic library publications of the educational institution; internet search engines; voice a request in a smartphone, such as: “Ok, google”; “Hello galaxy”…;

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EC developed by a teacher for a mixed model teaching; a massive open online course (MOOC) on an external platform. Group 2 (52.4%) claimed the following list as traditional resources—books (printed edition), electronic textbooks, study guides found on the Internet; electronic library publications of the educational institution. Innovative included internet search engines; voice a request in a smartphone, such as: “Ok, google”; “Hello galaxy”…; EC developed by a teacher for mixed model teaching; a massive open online course (MOOC) on an external platform. In group 3 (33%), the respondents marked the book (printed edition), electronic textbooks, study guides found on the Internet; electronic library publications of the educational institution, internet search engines; voice a request in a smartphone, such as: “Ok, google”; “Hello galaxy”… as a traditional resource. EC developed by a teacher for mixed model teaching and a massive open online course (MOOC) on an external platform has been chosen as innovative. Two conclusions come to mind: first, the concepts of “traditional-innovative” have changed. Modern students consider the information they are accustomed to in school as “traditional” and claim “innovative” what they have recently learn (for example, EC and MOOC). Second, and stunning—a traditional printed book (edited, reviewed, approved by the Ministry of Education and Science), has ceased to be a source of knowledge already in schools. Students (former school students) are not taught to use the printed textbook. Moreover, for 33% of students, network educational practices and resources have become traditional. The second question is: “Have you used the book (printed edition) when completing assignments (computational and graphic works), defending, preparing for an exam (test) on your own?”. Only 22% of respondents gave a positive answer. The rest of the students (it turned out to be 78%) use any electronic resources available at the moment; the quality of the presented information in some sources can only be guessed.

4 Discussion The problem of the trust itself in its psychological, economic, and philosophical explications has ethical, sociological, and psychological models, which are often revised according to the ongoing changes (Kupreychenko and Mersiyanova 2013; Shtompka 2002; Fukuyama 2008; Seligman 2002). An interdisciplinary approach based on considering trust as a social relation allows one to widely interpret its content: from trustfulness as a subject-psychological phenomenon to the most important resource of social and human capital. Kozyreva generally considers the level of trust not only as an expression of the accumulated stock of social capital, but also as a process of its formation; and Mashev claims that trust is an economic and moral resource that directly correlates its level with the system’s stability in which an individual is functioning (Kozyreva 2009; Makeev 2009). In his work devoted to the trust problem, Fukuyama argues that “a nation’s well-being, as well as its

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ability to compete, is conditioned by a single, pervasive characteristic: the level of trust inherent in the society.” According to F. Fukuyama, societies with a high level of trust are eliminated from the need to spend money on surveillance and control. These additional expenses lead to about 50% increase in operating costs (Fukuyama 1999). If this is actually the case, trust as a sociological phenomenon may have some statistical expression (through surveys and expert assessments). Russian and foreign sociology of the variety of life of subjects of different levels is diverse and voluminous. However, the research about youth (students in particular) is trending, as well as studying the values and meanings of Millennials and Zoomers (generation Y and Z). In large-scale studies, trust, faith, trustworthiness, and trust-based relations are often interpreted as a resource of social capital development, and reasonably stable statistical and multidirectional tradition, they create the foundations for various projects (strategies, programs, foresight, etc.). From the mentioned scope, we are interested in the learner-educator trust through the prism of “preferring” them (living individuals) to technologies (“impersonal subject” of educational interaction). From 2013 to 2017, the Russian Academy of Sciences conducted a large study named “Youth of Modern Russia—a key resource for modernization,” which revealed that “among those who are least trustworthy, students named first of all State Duma deputies (66%), local deputies, mayors and governors (61%). They are immediately followed by journalists and television (56%), which is combined with a relatively high level of trust in television as a source of information: only 21% of students consider TV as a source of information, 42% trust it. Police officers (54%) follow journalists in the mistrust rating. On the other hand, the military and special services were put in the middle of the trust rating: the military with its’ 63% was behind scientists, university professors, and schoolteachers; and the special services (53%) overtook judges and lawyers but were slightly behind doctors. The last place of the top ten are priests (40%)—they are 1% less than the heads of foreign companies operating in Russia. At the same time, 39% of respondents highlighted the growing influence of the church in the country’s life as one of the reasons for possible migration…”. Among the reasons also are “… difficulties with work and career (73%), fears associated with the risk of nationalism and possible interethnic conflicts (63%), a possible increase of political instability (58%), adoption of laws that make it difficult to travel abroad (53%)” (Shabunova, 2013). Let us extract from this study the percentage of trust in university professors and schoolteachers who are constantly in a state of “live communication” with learners. The percentage is 65%, which is higher than trust in the military. According to the latest research by the Center for European and International Studies, it is much higher than trust in the President of Russian Federation, the army, and seven units lower than trust in volunteer organizations (72%). However, this sociological and statistical survey demonstrates only the level of trust, recorded as “generalized expectations”, and explicated in the form of “trustfulness as a personality trait.” Author of the theory of social learning and the locus of control theory Haggbloom suggested that the manifestation of trust is mostly influenced not by generalized expectations, but by “specific expectations” arising from the interaction of people with certain people (individuals), groups of people,

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specific situational and certain social institutions in the volume of which the personality is forming, developing and functioning. He also pointed out “environmental expectations” as a specific volume of “generalized expectations” and referred them to “situations in which a person finds himself during his life.” (Haqqbloom et al. 2002). Consideration of multiply definitions of trust as a relationship that develops in a specific society, specific historical space–time, and which is described by the expectation of reliable behavior of the interacting parties in relation to the subject (learner)—social institution (education) can be interpreted (by the learner, at least) as a set of ideas (expectations) about how a specific social institution (education in our case) will realize its potential (“brought” to a specific educational institution), in other words, increase its (learner’s) resources. Awareness (in the broadest sense) of the interacting (in educational terms) parties and the technology of cooperation today is becoming the primary tool forming supervision and control relations. Honorary Chairman of the National Register of Corporate Directors of Russia, A. D. Berlin, speaking at the scientific seminar “Realistic Modeling,” identified four trust levels, which are quite adequate to our further reasoning. These levels are: (1) “Personal or interpersonal—when it comes to one’s character and competencies; (2) Social level—when social groups create the following group identity; (3) Organizational level—the structure and rules of a particular organization and, finally, (4) An institutional that represents rules and norms in society.” (Berlin 2019) A crisis of trust in education is manifesting itself at all levels. This is proved by the discussion about the benefits and drawbacks of higher degrees (institutional level), the development of alternative education (organizational level), and, finally, discussion about changes in trust at the personal level, where one can observe the “quiet information confrontation,” and the transformation of “live communication.” The most expressive sociology is characterized today by the crisis of confidence in education as a whole. It is a global trend (Caplan 2018). A joint study by Yandex and Aquarelle Research confirms this trend by analyzing data on the attitude of “X,” “Y,” and “Z” generations to higher education. Moreover, these data are very revealing. Here are a few extracts from the study: 1. Generation X is considered more mature; this generation sees a higher degree as a guarantor of future stability. And indeed, the highest share of people with secondary education is among the “Xes”—27.2%. But, according to Aquarelle Research, 79% of respondents believe that one can succeed without a higher degree. And only 20% of the respondents answered that it is a shame not to have a higher education; 2. Generation Y: 62.1% of “Gen Y” have higher education and believe that it provides individual growth opportunities. This growth in real life, however, is not due to the acquired academic knowledge, but due to “the contacts and acquaintances acquired at the university”; 3. Generation Z: due to age, this generation is actively studying—at school or university. Only 16% currently have completed higher education. Among those

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who do not have a university diploma, 86% would like to obtain one. More than half (54%) of “Zs” agree that higher education offers excellent future opportunities. In general, their attitude towards obtaining a diploma is ambiguous: according to Aquarelle Research, 67.8% of respondents believe that these opportunities are realized mainly through links and acquaintances at the university, and not the education itself.” There are two interesting trends in these insights: the first is that in all three generations (X, Y, Z), trust in education does not decrease too much, and the second is—trust in the method of obtaining a diploma as a “symbol of education” decreases (due to connections and acquaintances, not due to knowledge). The deepening of the confidence crisis in traditional education sharply intensified after 2005 (among Generation Z born after 1997). A survey of the TD Ameritrade company showed that today’s youth want to learn in a new way or not go to university at all. This was reported by one in five representatives of Gen Z and millennials. Many participants expressed doubts about the effectiveness of traditional education as well, which confirms the results obtained by Aquarelle Research. 54% of Gen Zs want to start their own company. 89% of “zoomers” and almost 79% of young millennials are considering abandoning the traditional four-year course of study at the university (Elkina n.d.). Julia Freeland Fisher, in “The next decade of disruption in education. Revealing networks” writes that “We are entering a new decade of innovation, which is still based on technology, but offers a different value dimension. This new wave is not just about transforming HOW students learn, but revolutionizing HOW they connect (connect)—with experts, mentors, and peers. This is a fundamental difference… They (connection—authors) open up new channels to help students accumulate what sociologists and economists call “social capital.” Studies show that the networks surrounding young people shape their career ambitions and paths, regardless of students’ aptitudes for specific disciplines (Fisher and Fisher 2018).

5 Conclusion The replacement of traditional resources with innovative ones has become a prevailing trend for learners (school and university students). But equally important that the trust in the book as a printed “information source” is being replaced by trust in digital sources of information. Simultaneously, the second, acquiring the character of the undoubted information value and intercepts the “traditional” status of the printed source. Barbashin and Gulyaevskaya confirm these changes, emphasize their initial nature, and determine four subject-significant figures in the formation of the electronic/distance education ecosystem. From their point of view (at the university), those are teachers, administration, instructors (technicians-programmers), and learners (Barbashina and Gulyaevskaya 2019). Trust and connections between these actors determine the educational processes’ effectiveness, its intensity, organization,

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and quality (Borisenko and Chernykh 2016). However, it should be noted that more than half of the students today do not dogmatize (sometimes unconsciously) “trust in innovative sources as subjects of traditional education.” This is confirmed by the multiple results of surveys in Krasnoyarsk and Novosibirsk (Yakovleva and Kudashov 2019). A sufficient amount of research confirms that traditional teaching technologies have reached their turning point, and learners realizing this (albeit theoretically) are transforming their value attitudes in a different direction. So far, trust in educators (as individuals and professionals) is superior to trust in nonsubject information technologies that deliver information to students. Hence appears (still) an implicit conclusion that the ecosystem of educational interactions should be reshaped, taking into account new attitudes. The terms “social learning” and “emotional learning” appear increasingly frequently in scientific vocabulary. Many educators consider critical thinking, communication, cooperation, and creativity to be the main attributes of the future. General life skills are becoming a trend not only in higher but also in professional education; therefore, learners are increasingly “educate” themselves using networks and “local network communities,” which impersonate educational practices and trust-based educational interaction in interpersonal, educational ecosystems.

References Barbashina EV, Gulyaevskaya NV (2019) Distance/e-learning: minimizing complexity. Prof Edu Mod World 9(3):2997–3008 Berlin AD (2019) Five perspectives of trust. Confidence in five ways. Materials of the scientific seminar “Realistic modeling.” November 29, 2018 Moscow, USSR. Anal Bull 2(716):6–14 Borisenko IG, Chernykh SI (2016) Virtualization of domestic educational space: a monograph. Siberian Federal University, Krasnoyarsk Chernykh SI, Parshikov V (2016) Innovative education in Russia. Int J Econ Finan Issues 6(15):239– 242. http://www.econjournals.com/index.php/ijefi/article/view/2386/pdf Chernykh SI (eds) (2020) Digitalization of education as a disruptive innovation. The problem of higher education and modern problems of socio-humanitarian knowledge. In: Proceedings from VIII Arsent’ev readings. Materials All-Russian. Scientific conf. (Cheboksary, Dec 15, 2019) (254–259). Cheboksary USSR: Sreda. https://phseda.com/ru/actiow/104/info Caplan B (ed) (2018) The case against education: why the education system is a waste of time and money? Princeton University Press, Princeton Elkina V (n d) Generation Z does not want to immediately go to college and dreams about his business. Retrieved from: https://rb.ru/young/generation-z-education/ Fisher JF, Fisher D (2018) Who you know? Unlocking innovations that expand students’ networks. Published by Jossey-Bass, San-Francisco Fukuyama F (1999) Trust: social virtues and building wealth. A new post-industrial wave in the West. Anthology. USSR: Academia, Moscow Fukuyama F (2008) Trust: social virtues and the path to prosperity. USSR: ZAO NPP Ermak, Moscow Haqqbloom SI et al (2002) The 100 most eminent psyhologists of the 20th century. Rev General Psyhol 6(2):139–152. https://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2680.6.2.139 Heidegger M (1993) Time and being: articles and speeches. The Republic, Moscow Kozyreva PM (2009) Interpersonal trust in the context of the formation of social capital. Sociol Stud 1:43–54

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Kupreychenko AB, Mersiyanova IV (eds) (2013) Trust and distrust in the development of civil society. National Research. University Higher School of Economics, Moscow Makeev VA (2009) Business reputation development strategy and its influence on the image of the organization. Vlast 3:52–56 Russian youth are patriotic and apolitical. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://newizy.ru/news/society. Seligman A (2002) The problem of trust. Ideal Press, Moscow, USSR Shabunova AA (ed) (2013) The youth of modern Russia is a key resource for modernization. Institute of Socio-Economic Development of Territories of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Vologda USSR Shtompka P (2002) Trust: sociological theory. Sociol Rev 2(3):56–67 Who does Russian youth trust? (n.d.). Retrieved from https://zen-yandex.ru/mtdia/pstat/komu-dov eriaet Yakovleva LS, Kudashov VI (2019) The role of personality self-determination in online education. Prof Edu Mod World 9(4):3215–3223

The Impact Estimation of Human Capital on Social Well-Being and Social Development in the Digital Era: A Mathematical Model Victor I. Medennikov, Tatiana V. Kokuytseva, Oksana P. Ovchinnikova, and Nataliia E. Ovchinnikova

Abstract The paper aims to characterize the approaches to assess the impact of human capital on social well-being and the development of society. Also, we emphasize the role of education in human capital. The study also shows the changes in human capital in the digital economy. To assess human capital and build an integral indicator of social well-being, we use economic and mathematical methods and an expert method of estimates. With the help of the comparison method, we compare the indicators of human capital and social well-being. As a result, we can trace the influence of human capital on the social development of the region. The paper provides theoretical insights on how to evaluate human capital in terms of the digitalization of the economy and what factors affect its level. We assume that human capital positively affects social development. To estimate human capital through the level of its digitalization, we use the effective informational, scientific, and educational resources of the university. Therefore, we can state that the digitalization of education is one of the critical aspects of the social well-being in the region or country. Due to the chosen research approach, the study results may be generalized. Consequently, scholars can test the proposed model in their further studies. The paper includes implications for the development of human capital management, satisfying the need to study how human capital management can promote regional and national social well-being. Keywords Human capital · Social well-being · Digitalization · Assessment of human capital

V. I. Medennikov Federal Research Center Informatics and Management, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia T. V. Kokuytseva (B) · O. P. Ovchinnikova Department of Architecture and Civil Engineering, Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia, RUDN University), Moscow, Russia e-mail: [email protected] N. E. Ovchinnikova Independent Researcher, Moscow, Russia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 S. G. Maximova et al. (eds.), Advances in Natural, Human-Made, and Coupled Human-Natural Systems Research, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 250, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-78083-8_26

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1 Introduction Nowadays, human capital is steadily transforming from a factor of economic development into a target for its development. Therefore, it is necessary to reassess its social development role and various capital types in the economy. Improving the quality of human capital is an urgent issue in Russia. However, despite the relevance of this problem, the increasing number of publications, the methodological issues of assessing the impact of human capital on social well-being and development are still not well designed. The existing assessment approaches are far from perfect and difficult to put into practice, especially in the digitalization era. In these processes, physical capital, identified with labor, which is part of the productive social forces, yields leadership to intangible productive forces. It is necessary to consider human capital concepts such as social well-being and development to assess human capital adequately. According to 1, society is a stable system of relationships formed within a long historical period within the human community with established mechanisms and means of production, distribution, and consumption of goods (material and spiritual) within the framework of existing political, moral, spiritual, and social institutions. Social well-being is an integral criterion determining the fundamental factors of the quality of people’s life: (1) financial situation, (2) health, (3) security of individuals, and social life in general. This criterion reflects the effectiveness of public administration in everyday life (Gareeva et al. 2013). In (Ragulina et al. 2019), social well-being refers to the following factors: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21.

Average monthly cash income per capita; Share of expenses on food among the population; Purchasing power; Share of the poor in the total population; Share of expenses on culture and leisure in the structure of all expenses; Gini coefficient (reflects the inequality of population income); Material well-being of the population; Average life expectancy; Registered number of patients with a diagnosis established for the first time (per 1000 people); Death rate (l per 100,000 people) from road accidents; Number of suicides; Death rate (per 100,000 people) from alcohol poisoning; Number of patients with alcoholism; Number of drug addicts (per 100,000 people); Health care; Number of homicides (per 100,000 people); Number of recorded crimes; Number of victims of crimes (per 1000 people); Crime rate; Confessional and national conflict level; Birth rate (per 1000 people);

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22. Level of regional migration; 23. Number of orphans. The choice of indicators may vary based on their importance for the research. K. Marx showed the primary nature of the economy concerning social relations. Nevertheless, contemporary scholars recognize that all the constituent institutions (economic, political, social, and spiritual) are interconnected, and none of them dominates the others. As of today, human behavior depends on the state of all four spheres, as people daily enter political, economic, social, and cultural relations. A systematic approach to social development is necessary to understand the main trends and significant changes in modern society under digitalization. Contemporary science refers to human capital [HC] as the sum of knowledge, health, skills, experience, and culture used by an individual to generate income (Ketova et al. 2019). Schulz and Becker state that human capital includes the acquired knowledge, motivation, skills, abilities, and energy of an individual that can be used for a certain period to produce goods or services (Chajnikov et al. 2018). Some scholars describe HC through such indicators as (1) the cost of migrating workers from places with relatively low wages to places with higher ones, which is a consequence of labor productivity and other sources of household income (Chajnikov et al. 2018); (2) quality of life (Ilinskij 1996); or (3) as the ability to innovate (Agabekov 2003); (4) the birth and upbringing of children. However, the scholarship mainly uses such HC aspects as education, health, and culture. Investing in education leads to an increase in the number of highly qualified specialists, which, in turn, leads to (1) an increase in labor productivity, (2) product quality, and (3) production volume. Investing in healthcare leads to an increase in the working hours of people due to the prevention of diseases. Investing in culture through strengthening moral standards ultimately leads to an increase in the level of social security and the development of the creative potential of the individual. Depending on the level of investment in specific HC indicators, its value increases by a certain age (usually the end of the second decade of work experience), after which it begins to decline. According to the Higher School of Economics, in the coming years, the most active part of the Russian population contributing to the economic growth will account for about 40% of the population, characterized by a high level of education with an advanced consumption model, who are focused on personal development. Therefore, it will be possible to allocate two-thirds of the funds for culture, housing, education, healthcare, and reserves for future investments.

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2 Materials and Methods 2.1 The Problems of Mathematical Modeling for Assessing the Impact of Human Capital on Social Well-Being and Development of Russia As follows from the definition of human capital, society, and social well-being, their interrelation can be defined as follows (see Fig. 1). As we noted above, the main factors contributing to the well-being of countries or regions are (1) the effective management and development of human capital, (2) the ability to create and master the latest technologies crucial for sustainable economic development. Modern technologies are the main factors of well-being for countries and regions. The balanced development of political, moral, spiritual, and social institutions increases social well-being, improving human capital. The digital transformation of society, economy, and HC strengthen this relationship. The theory of systems is engaged in research of various indicators, as a rule, characterizing a system in dynamics. Moreover, changes in indicators are often interconnected. From the point of view of the theory of systems, to manage them, it is necessary to study the nature of the relationship between indicators (features). In this regard, statistical methods are the most relevant. Most studies of existing socio-economic relations are conducted using these methods. Using statistical analysis of dependencies, we can identify the cause-effect relationships between phenomena, which allow identifying factors affecting changes in the phenomena and processes established by the research object (productive signs). Factors (x) are called signs that cause changes in other—productive signs (y). Mathematically, this can be expressed as y = f(x).

Fig. 1 The interrelation of HC, society, social well-being, and digital transformation. Source Compiled by the authors

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However, we must consider certain restrictions imposed by statistical methods on the characteristics, based on the relationship between productive characteristics and factors. The signs that must be included in the analysis must be quantifiable. There should be no interrelation of signs. In other words, they must have a functional relationship. Functional relationship, expressed mathematically, between productive attributes and factors in the form y = f 1 (x) and x = f 2 (y), often leads to an unconditioned system, resulting in the unreliability of estimates. In real conditions, solving applied problems, when given features are interconnected, statisticians developed the rules for the competent and correct conduct of such studies (Gataulin 1992). Therefore, we can see the difficulties of designing methodological approaches to assess HC impact on social well-being and development. Many studies on mathematical models for assessing the HC impact on social well-being using econometric methods establish a correlation between these indicators. With such constituent factors, we could notice the impact of social well-being on human capital. The impact of these indicators requires thorough justification. Therefore, many studies are devoted to assessing only certain factors on a particular resulting indicator, even though some of them are multidimensional, like human capital. To reduce the resulting multidimensional indicator to a scalar quantity, one usually uses the so-called convolution procedure. However, this process has its challenges. The convolution of the indicators included in the resultant is used if all their values are comparable, otherwise expressed in one measure unit. Alternatively, a normalization procedure is performed; for example, the logarithm of some criteria for such a convolution. Consequently, we can wait a long time for a general description of the relationships of the system shown in Fig. 1.

2.2 Transformation of the Human Capital in the Digital Economy Many countries are concerned about increasing labor productivity due to the efficient use of human capital in the digital transformation of the economy and society. The race for leadership during the transformation does not allow one to slow down. Many people understand that the digitalization of production and business through the introduction of ICT will lead to the transformation of management systems and HC. However, one needs to calculate the ratio of these investments to bring national economies onto the path of accelerated growth in a rapidly changing world with the greatest efficiency. This task requires an appropriate assessment of the impact of investments in ICT in organizational and human capital. Moreover, each of these capitals consists of specific factors, which should also be evaluated. For instance, the most famous method for assessing the level of HC is the Human Development Index, which appeared in 1990 in a section of one of the UN programs to compare the level of well-being, education, and age characteristics between countries,

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serving as the main indicators of their human potential. The developed indicators of human potential are generally accepted and available in the statistics of almost every country. There is currently no unified quantitative methodology for assessing HC value within each state, region, industry, organization, or individual. The problem of assessing the effectiveness of human capital in its new interpretation arose with the development of information technologies, which are also considered a significant lever for increasing productivity. The first step of the research was the study of the return from the investment in ICT. This problem remains relevant over the past few years. The first studies conducted by Nobel laureate R. Solow could not identify econometric methods for the direct relationship between investments in ICT and efficiency (well-known “IT Productivity Paradox”). Further thorough econometric studies carried out in 2003 by the Economist Intelligence Unit led to several significant conclusions regarding the ICT impact on labor productivity and economic growth (Akaev and Rudskoj 2017). 1. ICT lead to economic growth, but only when a certain threshold of the entire ICT infrastructure is reached. Therefore, the level of implementation and technology for the use of ICT must exceed a particular critical value, above which ICT will begin to show a significant positive impact on national economic development. 2. There was a significant time lag between investing in ICT and their positive impact on the economy and productivity. Consequently, we cannot count on a quick and substantial return on investment in this area. To obtain significant conclusions, one should consider the attraction with appropriate investment in related intangible assets, affecting the ICT implementation. 3. As a result, at the level of ICT development below the threshold value, the financial result from the implementation of ICT may not appear at all, or it may turn out to be negative. To confirm these conclusions, Timothy Bresnaan and Shane Greenstein conducted important research within the complementarity theory (Akaev and Rudskoj 2017), developed by Milgor and Roberts (Akaev and Rudskoj 2017). Their work confirmed the comprehensive nature of ICT implementation. The scholars concluded that ICT investments are more effective with the corresponding significant investment level in other complementary assets (human and organizational capital). Therefore, the investments in all three capitals are aligned and interconnected in specific proportions with a certain degree of variability. Some assets, changing at a faster rate, serve as a transformation locomotive: its speed, in accordance with the chain of relationship, causes certain changes in other complementary assets. Then, any organization will have more volatile assets, on which other assets that do not correspond to its rate of change have a deterrent effect. Brynjolfsson et al. (2002) made a significant contribution to the study, confirming complementary connections between ICT, human, and organizational capital. They found numerical correlations of the combination of ICT and organizational capital when their joint development creates more significant value than individually. Currently, investments in computer capital significantly affect the value of the

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company. The market value can increase by about 12 times with a single investment in ICT and a little more with a single investment in other tangible assets. Consequently, there is a need for an investment for the digital transformation of companies to improve management, the quality of human capital, and digital technologies. A different path will lead to managerial backwardness. This conclusion is especially relevant for the agro-industrial complex due to the significant gap between these areas. At the International Likhachev Scientific Readings, Zyabrikov (2018) mentioned studies by Capgemini Consulting and MIT Sloan School of Management, confirming the above results. Thus, it has been demonstrated that the economic efficiency of enterprises depends mostly on the sharing of complementary assets. If an enterprise improves the human capital in its management system by traditional methods without digital technologies, this leads to an increase in its profit by 9%, and if at the same time, digital technologies are by 26%. When an enterprise introduces digital technologies without improving its HC, we can observe a profit decline of 11%. At the same time, it is unacceptable to ignore the HC digital transformation because it leads to a 24% decrease in the company’s profit in relation to competitors (Zyabrikov 2018).

3 Results 3.1 The Experience of Mathematical Modeling of Impact Assessment of the Human Capital on Social Well-Being In Sect. 1, we discuss the problems of mathematical modeling of impact assessment of human capital on the social well-being and development of Russian society. Developing the corresponding models, only individual indicators are chosen as both a result and a factor attribute, usually economic ones. Let us consider some models. Following the above studies (Ivanova and Hejnonen 2016), econometric modeling has already given a quantitative assessment of the impact of HC on social wellbeing, based on Fig. 1, through economic indicators on the example of 78 regions of Russia according to the Federal State Statistics Service for 2007–2014 based on the Mankiw-Romer-Weil Model, a modification of the Cobb–Douglas Production Function. We assessed the impact of HC on the economy of Russian regions using various HC components (forms): 1. By the proportion of university graduates per one thousand labor force; 2. By the share of personnel in research and development to the total number of the labor force; on the costs of research and technological innovation, referring to the number involved in these works;

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3. By the amount of investment in education, culture, healthcare, the value of which includes government spending on activities in social and cultural life and the cost of forming a private business. The calculations also confirmed the positive HC impact on economic growth. As a criterion for economic growth, we selected gross regional product [GRP], calculated for one working person in monetary terms, considering the discounting of Consumer Price Indices [CPI]. According to the first criterion, we found out that HC contribution to the economy in 2007 amounted to 7.82%, in 2008–2012 there was an increase from 4.94 to 10.03%, for two years of 2014 there was a decline to 2.03%. According to the second criterion, the HC contribution made up on average 4.97% of the average per capita GRP over 2007–2014. According to the third criterion, the HC contribution was only 1.62%. The most interesting calculations are based on the fourth criterion. It affects all HC forms (although not all indicators of forms used in science are true). Therefore, the calculation results showed that the contribution of human capital was significant, about 20%. According to the fourth criteria, the general results of the calculations are as follows: HC contributes to the growth of the regional economy in the range from 1.8 to 27%, depending on the form of HC, while physical capital makes an enormous contribution from 24 to 40%. In the paper (Yamilova and Nigmatullina 2014) and the previous research, based on mathematical modeling, the HC impact on the GRP index per capita of the working-age regional population is considered. To eliminate the heterogeneity in the size of the regions, by the k-means algorithm, they were divided into the corresponding classes in decreasing order of the GRP per capita of the working-age regional population (very high, high, above average, average). In each class, calculations were carried out for 2003, 2006, 2009, and 2012. At the same time, there was a hypothesis that the main form of accumulation of HC is the share of university graduates among people involved in the economy. Therefore, two of the three forms of HC represented education, and only one share of wages of the total amount spent on HC increase. Depending on the class, the most appropriate regression models were built. So, for the first class, the model is as follows: ln y = 2.62 + 0.63 ln k + ε where y—GRP per one employed in the economy; k—capital ratio; n—number of employees with higher education; v—consolidated budget spending on education; z—salary (average monthly); i—region code; t—year code.

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For the second class, the model is as follows: ln yi = 3.03 + 0.49 ln ki + εi For the third class: ln yit = −4.3 + 0.37 ln vit + 0.68 ln z it + λi + γt + εit , where λi —region effect; γt —year effect; all ε—residuals of equations. And finally, for the fourth: ln yi = 2, 05 + 0, 43 ln ki + 0, 09 ln n i + εi . Due to the calculation, we concluded that in the first and second classes of regions with a high level of GRP per capita of the working-age population, HC is insignificant compared to physical capital. With significant scientific and technical potential and a GRP per capita of the labor force above the national average, HC began to play a crucial role in the third grade. Thus, a 1% increase in education spending is reflected in GRP growth by 0.37% and wages by 0.68%. In the fourth grade, both physical and human factors affect the corresponding GRP growth, although the latter on a much smaller scale. An increase in a capital-labor ratio by 1% leads to an increase in GRP by 0.43% and an increase in the number of employees with higher education by 0.09%.

3.2 The Leading Role of Education in the Development of the Human Capital Analyzing HC development publications, mathematical modeling of its impact on social life, one often comes across education for HC formation and assessment. Today, the importance of education is difficult to overestimate. A report, “Education for people and planet: creating sustainable futures for all,” released by UNESCO (Belyackaya and Knyazkova 2018), assesses the growing role of education in the modern digital society. They state that by 2020 there will be a shortage of about 40 million people with higher education. The UN indicated the growing importance of education in the report “My World” (Belyackaya and Knyazkova 2018). For this research, there was a survey of over seven million people on the importance of achieving its development goals. The central answers were “good education” and “best medical care.” In most cases, the priority was given to the most critical factors, regardless of age and gender, financial situation, and the declared education

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of the participants. The status of education by country is also paid great attention by UNESCO, which maintains a Worldwide Database on the Status of Education Worldwide. This database allows one to analyze the significance of different factors on the possibility of getting education based on the index of educational development (Belyackaya and Knyazkova 2018), according to which Russia was ranked 31st among 118 countries in 2015. In Sect. 2, the problems of investing in education and their effectiveness in the transition to a digital economy have already been considered. Zyabrikov (2018), in his report, states that with investments in HC without the introduction of digital technologies, the profit increases by 9%; and by 26% when it is used with them. The introduction of digital technologies without investing in HC, leads to a decrease in profits by 11%. Therefore, education is an essential component of the social sphere of the country, which ensures that an individual obtains systematic knowledge, skills, and abilities for applying them in their professional activities. Additional education and training in the workplace increase the degree of knowledge of employees, thereby increasing both the volume and quality of HC. The quality of education also increases labor efficiency due to labor productivity or changing jobs to more skilled ones. Studies at the University of Pennsylvania partially confirmed the findings of Zyabrikov (2020). An increase in the level of education by 10% leads to an increase in the latter by 8.6%, and with investments in the same volume in fixed assets—by only 3.4%. Thus, HC return on investment is 2.5 times higher than the return on investment in new equipment (Dobrynin and Dyatlov 2010). Currently, to analyze the impact of education on public life, much attention is paid to training problems in ICT. In particular, we studied the following indicators (Belyackaya 2016): (1) access to ICT and the level of skills to work with these technologies; (2) the use of computer and Internet technologies and related cloud technologies; (3) development of state electronic services and access to them (in healthcare, justice, business, and science). As a result of the efforts of various countries, humanity eventually approaches a kind of global informational, educational Internet space. Russian education also depends on its level of development. Modern digital technologies with a systematic approach provide an opportunity to rebuild our present based on entirely new communications in society, especially in education, leading to a restructuring of the economy and society. Therefore, the main task today is to carry out such a digital transformation of society on a scientific, integrated approach, so as not to slide into the digitalization of existing economic relations, bearing in mind the words of W. Churchill “Generals are always fighting the last war.” The current development of humankind does not allow slowing down the pace of digital transformation necessary to bring the economies of countries to the accelerated growth in a rapidly changing world.

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4 Discussion Thus, social, political, economic, and other benefits are obtained by those countries and organizations with access to information and, more important, practical technologies for its processing and use. The quality of HC and the effectiveness of its use in social development depend on this factor. In Russia, the current digital transformation stage is characterized by a chaotic, uncontrolled development of informatization and Internet technologies. Each organization, including universities, creates its websites based on many subjective and objective factors without considering their integration, the interests of a wide range of potential users. This trend leads to a significant cost overrun and a decrease in the quality of education. The digital transformation of the economy requires integrating information systems [IS], related information resources [IR], and tools for their design and development. Furthermore, its educational services should be oriented to the dynamically segmented needs of society and the global market. This integration is carried out by (1) developing standards for the integration of information technology, (2) applications (management functions), as well as (3) through a systematic approach to the design, development, and implementation of IP. The digitalization of education, as well as the entire economic sphere of the country, as mentioned earlier, needs (1) a deep theoretical understanding of the use of these technologies, (2) a generalization of the results of the passed stage of informatization to develop, based on the opened-up ICT capabilities; (3) fundamentally new methods of the digital transformation of the educational process. One of the promising areas of digitalization of universities and research institutes is the formation of a unified Internet space of scientific and educational res [EIIPNOR], which will play a threefold role: (1) support research, (2) increase the level of education (sometimes retraining) for all segments of the population, (3) an effective system for transferring knowledge to the economy due to unlimited access to this knowledge for traditional users represented by scientists, students, and teachers, future applicants, employers, government agencies, producers, business, management, other categories of the population. Such a space should remove the contradictions between the volumes of accumulated information, knowledge, and their practical use, as well as a tool to improve the quality of the HC, its assessment, and the impact on the social well-being of the country. Moreover, education must be flexible and take into account the long-term needs of the real economy. The concept of EIIPNOR is presented in our previous papers. Moreover, there is a corresponding tool for assessing the effectiveness of these resources [INOR]: Informational Scientific and Educational Resources, which can also be used for HC assessment. At the same time, we considered the requirements of the Ministry of Education and Science, Rosobrnadzor, to the content of the websites of educational institutions to evaluate their activities in the form of self-examination reports. However, these requirements take into account neither the countries nor efficient technologies for scientific and educational resources; neither their need in a proper

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economic system, nor their impact on the quality of training of specialists and scientists (HC); neither assessing educational institutions with the help of their websites (sitometrics methods), reflecting their image and reputation, nor current Internet trends and information services in the form of electronic labor exchanges and trading platforms. Therefore, these data had to be included in the tool for assessing the effectiveness of the use of INOR. An analysis of the sites of production and consulting organizations allowed us to determine the types of INOR that are in demand in the economy and available on the websites of research institutes and universities: (1) development, publications, (2) consulting services, (3) regulatory and legal information, (4) distance learning tools, (5) software products, (6) databases (Medennikov et al. 2014). The most significant indicators of the useful activities of universities are (1) the training of qualified specialists and scientists, (2) the production of scientific products significantly affecting HC in the economy. These indicators are examined through the process approach. The “entrance process” is applicants. The “way out” are qualified specialists and scientists (HC) and scientific activity results. Resources are the tools that are necessary to convert the input to output. Usually, they include (1) teachers and employees of educational institutions, (2) employees of regulatory bodies, and (3) fixed assets. The management is understood as a system influencing the process aimed at effectiveness to achieve the set goals. Management is mainly informational and regulatory: (1) documents with requirements, (2) laws, (3) standards, (4) methodologies, (5) instructions, (6) plans, and (7) executive orders. Moreover, the effectiveness of INOR, which can be used to assess HC from the point of view of research methods (Medennikov et al. 2014), deals with the following goals: 1. The level of information accessibility for a broad audience; 2. Various types of presenting information; 3. Quality, completeness, efficiency, reliability, and credibility of the stored information; 4. Simple system of obtaining the required information; 5. Optimization of design, development, and maintenance of information systems. As we can see, to assess the effectiveness of INOR, we considered significant indicators affecting HC, such as distance learning [DL], which especially relevant nowadays to improve the HC quality. Besides students or teachers, DL is not less important for (1) future applicants, (2) employers, (3) government agencies, (4) manufacturers, (5) scientists, (6) managers, and (7) society in general. When assessing HC impact on social well-being and development, all factors affecting HC are taken into account. Besides, this process is associated with a reliable information base with some mechanisms that are not available in Russia. Other countries also do not always have the necessary information. Therefore, sometimes the collection procedure is too complicated. That is why modern theories tend to focus on the study of individual parts of HC: (1) knowledge, (2) skills, (3) spiritual aspects. However, the leading role in the development of the national economy belongs to

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education, especially in the digitalization of society. Consequently, most of the works are devoted to this issue. In the presented mathematical model for assessing the impact of HC on the social well-being and development of Russia, we will also adhere to this trend. Mathematical description of the model. i—integration level code INOR, i ∈ I ; l—storage form code INOR, l ∈ L; n—type code INOR, n ∈ N ; m—educational institution number, m ∈ M; h—Secondary IR representation code, h ∈ H ; t—settlement time point (when EIIPNOR is implemented, calculations can be made at any time); P jtm —private criterion for assessing the effectiveness of the use of IR m university for j indicator at the moment—t, j ∈ J ; P tm —general criterion for assessing the effectiveness of using IR m university at the moment - t; αi1 —weight factor of INOR integration level; αl2 —weight factor l of the storage form INOR; αn3 —weight coefficient n view of the INOR; β j —weighting factor for assessing the effectiveness of using INOR by j indicator; vitmln 0 —the number of INOR i integration level, l storage forms, n view type at m university at the moment t; v f itm ln f —the number of INOR i integration level, l storage forms, n view type at f faculty m university at the moment t; vkitmln k —the number of INOR i integration level, l storage forms, n view type at k department m university at the moment t; λitmln —INOR score i integration level, l storage forms, n kind of presentation m university at the moment t; λitmln = (vitmln 0 +

{ f

v f itm ln f +

{ k

vkitmln k )/ max(vitmln 0 + m

{ f

v f itm ln f +

{

vkitmln k );

k

drt2m —the number r site score indicator for sitometrics method in m university at the moment t, r ∈ R; qrt2m —value r-go site assessment criteria with the help of sitometrics method in m university at the moment t; ωr2 —weight coefficient r site assessment criterion metric with the help of sitometrics method; qrt2m = drt2m / max drt2m ; m

t3 dsm —value s site assessment criteria indicator of electronic trading platforms (Medennikov et al. 2017) in m university at the moment t;

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ωs3 —weight coefficient s site assessment criteria indicator of electronic trading platforms; t4 dgm —value g site assessment criteria indicator for electronic labor exchanges (Medennikov et al. 2017) v m university at the moment t; ωg4 —weight coefficient g site assessment criteria indicator for electronic labor exchanges, g ∈ G; t5 dhm —quantity h indicator of the effectiveness of the use of secondary IR v m university at the moment t, k ∈ K ; t5 qhm —value h indicator of a criterion for assessing the effectiveness of using secondary IR in m university at the moment t; 5 ωhm —weight coefficient h indicator of a criterion for assessing the effectiveness of using secondary INOR in m university, k ∈ K ; t5 t5 t5 qhm = dhm / max dhm ; m { { tm 1 2 3 tm { 2 t2 Then: P tm = β j · P jtm , where P1tm = λi ln αi αl αn ,P2 = ωk qkm , j

P3tm =

i,l,n

{ s

t3 ωs3 dgm , P4tm =

{

t4 ωg4 dgm , P5tm =

g

k

{

t5 ωh5 qhm .

h

In the above statement, the value P tm can be defined as an estimate of HC producing m educational institution. To assess HC impact on social well-being and development, we consider the criteria for such an assessment at the regional level. We use several regional rankings Rktm reflecting their social well-being, where k is the ranking number, k ∈ K . To simplify the model, we assume that there is one university in the region. If there are several, we mean P tm a particular convolution of the estimates of regional universities. And then m also defines the region. P tm As a result, we will get the rankings of universities according to the HC assessment P 0tm . introduce a certain generalized regional social well-being ranking R tm = {We K ( k=1 ηk Rktm )/K , where ηk – the positive numbers reflecting the weights of the {K terms and k=1 ηk = 1. Weights are selected depending on the industry potential of the regions and the degree of statistical dependence of P 0tm and Rktm . An example of calculations of such a statistical dependence is presented below. In this regard, Rktm is a component of social well-being. In this regard, we can consider two groups of categories: 1. The first group of criteria during normalization is ranked by the degree of increase of the indicator (the best values of the component of social well-being have lower values; for example, regions with a lower Ginny coefficient are the most socially secure because there is less income difference between the population, and etc.): • Ginny coefficient (income distribution); • Poverty level; • Unemployment rate;

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• Death rate. 2. The second group of criteria during normalization is ranked by the degree of decrease of the indicator (the best values of the component of social well-being have higher values; for example, regions with a higher level of employment are the most socially favorable, etc.): • • • •

Level of employment; Birth rate; The share of the population with higher education; Life expectancy.

Then, the HC impact on social well-being and development of the region will depend on the ratios P 0tm and R tm . The ratio P 0tm < R tm , which means that HC in the region is undeveloped due to (1) the lack of funding, (2) poor teaching staff, (3) the training program not meeting the requirements of the region, and many other factors. The ratio P 0tm > R tm means that regional authorities and business do not sufficiently use HC. There may be different reasons for that: (1) insufficient innovation in the region; (2) the need for specialists is less than the potential of universities, (3) the greater migration of graduates from the region, the training program exceeds the requirements of the region, and many others. Correlation P 0tm = R tm means the balance of the potential of universities and the needs of the region in specialists. If necessary, this rating scale can be displayed on a numerical scale. By introducing the value Δtm = P tm − P t−t1 ,m (where t-t1 - the time lag), we can evaluate the degree of change for the better or worse HC quality. We can assess the HC impact on social well-being and development in Russia can be obtained by summing up the relevant regional estimates with some weights. For this, we can use appropriate methods (Medennikov et al. 2014) to find the statistical dependencies of university rankings, reflecting the HC quality, and five regional rankings reflecting the socio-economic situation of the regions.

5 Conclusion The transition to the national unified educational and scientific information space is an urgent task in the digital economy. It will significantly (tenfold, to be exact) reduce the costs of developing, implementing, and maintaining IP in science and education. The proposed digital platform can become a powerful tool for (1) improving the quality of the national economy, (2) improving social well-being, and (3) introducing the most effective innovative solutions to the economy. Therefore, when one posts publications, development strategies, or other types of knowledge on university websites, they can be automatically placed in other databases, including e-libraries. This process would be much easier if all these organizations switched to a single site form. More than that, assessments of HC impact on the social well-being and development of regions and countries could be obtained automatically online.

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Acknowledgements The reported study was funded by RFBR, project number 19-29-07125.

References Agabekov SI (2003) Innovative human capital and the evolution of the societal and innovative structure of Russia. Nauka, Moscow Akaev AA, Rudskoj AI (2017) Convergent ICT as a key factor of technological progress in the coming decades and their impact on world economic development. Int J Open Inf Technol 5(1):1– 18 Belyackaya TN, Knyazkova VS (2018) Digital capital and intellectual potential of e-economy. In: Morozov SV (ed) Collection of participants’ reports. In: International scientific conference dedicated to the 90th anniversary of S. P. Kapitsa “Human capital in the format of financial economy”. Russian New University, Moscow, pp 65–71 Belyackaya TN (2016) Economics of the information society. BGUIR, Minsk, 200 p Brynjolfsson E, Hitt L, Yang S (2002) Intangible assets: computers and organizational capital. Brookings Pap Econ Act 2002(1):137–181. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/1209176 Chajnikov VV, Kulikov VV, Kuvshinova YA (2018) Human capital, investment and long money. In: Morozov SV (ed) Collection of participants’ reports. In: International scientific conference dedicated to the 90th anniversary of S. P. Kapitsa “Human capital in the format of financial economy”. Russian New University, Moscow, pp 221–229 Dobrynin AI, Dyatlov SA (2010) Human capital in a transitive economy. Nauka, Saint Petersburg Gareeva ZK, Bilalova LM, Ivanova OM, Chernikova TA (2013) Modern theories of social wellbeing: a textbook. IGU, Irkutsk Gataulin AM (1992) System of applied statistical and mathematical methods for processing experimental data in agriculture. MSKHA, Moscow, 191p Ilinskij IV, Ilinsky IV (1996) Investing in the future: education in investment production. Saint Petersburg State University of Economics and Finance, Saint Petersburg, 250 p Ivanova TA, Hejnonen VA (2016) Modeling the impact of human capital on economic growth based on the Mankiw-Romer-Weil model. Aktual’nye Problemy Sovremennoj Nauki, Tekhniki i Obrazovaniya 2:124–127 Ketova KV, Romanovskij YuM, Rusyak IG (2019) Mathematical modeling of the human capital dynamics. Computer Research and Modeling 11(2):329–342 Medennikov VI, Muratova LG, Salnikov SG (2014) Models and methods of forming a unified information Internet space of agricultural knowledge. GUZ, Moscow, p 426 Medennikov VI, Salnikov SG, Muratova LG (2017) Methodology for evaluating the effectiveness of the use of information scientific and educational resources. Analitik, Moscow Ragulina JV, Lobova SV, Alekseev AN (2019) Informatization of the Russian society: evaluation and perspectives. In: Popkova E (ed) The future of the global financial system: downfall or harmony. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-00102-5_36 Yamilova LS, Nigmatullina LS (2014) Impact assessment of parameters of human capital assets on social and economic development of regions (members) of Russian Federation. Nauka-rastudent.ru 11 Zyabrikov VV (2018) Digitalization of management: prospects and hidden threats to the cultural development of the nation. In Zapesotsky AS (ed) Proceedings from ILSR ‘2018: digitalization of management: prospects and hidden threats to the cultural development of the nation. NP-Print, Saint Petersburg

Human Resources in Western Siberia: Electrophysiological Myocardial Properties of Students Residing in a Northern City Irina A. Pogonysheva , Inna I. Lunyak , and Denis A. Pogonyshev

Abstract Modern national strategies focused on developing the Arctic regions include programs aimed at preserving the health of newly-arrived residents. Therefore, studies on cardiovascular indicators of the population in extreme environmental conditions remain relevant. In this study, we examined the functional state of the cardiovascular system among the students of Nizhnevartovsk State University in the Khanty-Mansi Autonomous Region (area equated to the Far North). In this study, we employed the dispersion mapping of low-amplitude cardiac cycle oscillations. The study aims to assess the functional state of the cardiovascular system in students and identify the early predictors of myocardial electrical instability. The analysis of Rhythm and Myocardium indicators provided us with data on preclinical disturbances in the electrophysiological myocardial properties. For most students, the indicators of electrocardiogram dispersion mapping were in the upper boundaries of the physiological norm. This indicates possible stress of the circulatory system. The study shows that gender peculiarities are statistically irrelevant in the resting values of Myocardium and Rhythm micro-alternations. Among male students, the pre-pathological values of the Rhythm index were more common (31.7%) than among female students (19.1%). Such high values among male students can be explained by the dysfunctions of the autonomic nervous system. The results allow clarifying professional risk factors and causes of cardiovascular pathologies, as well as identifying public groups that need protection from cardiovascular diseases. Keywords Cardiovascular system · Electrocardiogram dispersion mapping · Electrophysiological myocardial properties · Students at northern universities

I. A. Pogonysheva (B) · I. I. Lunyak · D. A. Pogonyshev Nizhnevartovsk State University, Nizhnevartovsk, Russia e-mail: [email protected] D. A. Pogonyshev e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 S. G. Maximova et al. (eds.), Advances in Natural, Human-Made, and Coupled Human-Natural Systems Research, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 250, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-78083-8_27

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1 Introduction Human adaptation and maladaptation in extreme environmental conditions is an essential issue of medical and environmental studies. Russian scholars pay special attention to the adaptation mechanisms and health risk factors for newly-arrived (non-indigenous) residents of Arctic regions. Fundamental studies indicate the peculiar reactions of functional body systems (FBS) to the northern geo-climatic factors (Agadzhanyan and Ermakova 1997; Gudkov et al. 2012; Solonin et al. 2013; Soloviev et al. 2016; Khasnulin and Khasnulin 2012). Foreign scientific publications mainly discuss the health of indigenous northern populations and the impact of environmental factors (Hueffer et al. 2019; Heather et al. 2018; Ilardo and Nielsen 2018; Sawatzky et al. 2018; Young and Bjerregaard 2019; Young 2013). Natural conditions of the Far North and areas equated to the Far North are extreme due to climatic, geophysical, and extraplanetary factors. These conditions cause maladaptations and strain the human body. Such regions have long and harsh winters, short cold summers, high amount of cosmic radiation and geomagnetic disturbances (particle and wave radiation is higher than at mid-latitudes), disturbances in photoperiodism, increased weather variability, desolate and monotonous landscape, scarce flora and fauna, deficiency of vitamins and minerals (Gudkov et al. 2012; Khasnulin 2013). According to some studies, the chronic stress of the population grows with the increase in climatic and geophysical discomfort. Khasnulin noted a high level of psycho-emotional stress among healthy people permanently residing in the North. An increase in the level of helio-geo-physical disturbances is considered a significant cause for the environmental stress of the northern population (Gudkov et al. 2012; Khasnulin 2013). The impact of adverse climate and geophysical factors is exacerbated by technogenic and social conditions in the northern industrial areas. The level of environmental stress can be seen through the FBS indicators. The human cardiovascular system is an indicator of environmental adaptation. The system is the first to react to the changing environment, both independently and in interaction with other FBS. There are several syndromes and symptoms associated with the adaptation and maladaptation of the cardiovascular and respiratory systems to the extreme polar conditions: . . . . .

Polar dyspnea, or circumpolar hypoxic syndrome; Northern pneumopathy (Avtsyn et al. 1985); Polar metabolic type (Panin 2013); Northern fatigue (Roshchevsky et al. 1993); Polar tension syndrome (Kaznacheev 1983; Khasnulin and Khasnulin 2012).

Some studies pointed to the intense stress experienced by the cardiovascular system of the newly-arrived northern residents (Kubushka et al. 2004; Pogonysheva and Pogonyshev 2017; Khimikova et al. 2013; Khasnulin et al. 2000). Studying the ways to maintain the optimal health state and improve the adaptive capabilities of young people in northern areas is highly relevant. The climate and geophysical conditions of the northern territories predispose to cardiovascular

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281

diseases even among young people of productive age. Cardiovascular dysfunctions developing in the North are associated with a significant decrease in the functional circulatory reserves due to decreased adaptation and recovery potential (Khasnulin et al. 2000). Staying asymptomatic for a long time, cardiovascular diseases may remain unnoticed and increase the risk of life-threatening conditions. Early diagnostics of pre-pathological cardiovascular conditions are used to address this issue. Some studies show that the risk factors of cardiovascular pathology are often manifested among students (Evsevieva et al. 2011). The modern environment affects all indicators of FBS, adaptation mechanisms even more so. This further necessitates the need for evaluating the cardiovascular functions of young people in the northern territories and identifying the risk factors of cardiovascular pathologies. In 2013, Russian scholars (Solonin et al. 2013) studied the electrocardiogram dispersion mapping (ECG-DM) indicators among different age groups of people living in the European North. However, there have been no publications studying electrocardiogram (ECG) micro-alternations of the population in the North of Western Siberia. This work aims to assess the functional state of the cardiovascular system of students at a northern university (via ECG-DM) and identify the early predictors of myocardial electrical instability.

2 Materials and Methods In this study, we examined 170 clinically healthy students of Nizhnevartovsk State University located in Nizhnevartovsk, Khanty-Mansi Autonomous Region. The groups included 110 female students (Group 1) and 60 male students (Group 2), aged 20.05 ± 1.5 years on average. They were examined voluntarily and gave informed consent. The survey was conducted in compliance with the ethical standards of the WMA Declaration of Helsinki—Ethical Principles for Medical Research Involving Human Subjects (WMA General Assembly 1964). For testing the functional cardiovascular condition of students, we used a computer screening system CardioVisor-06 s (registration number FSR 2007/00155 dated July 16, 2007, manufactured by Medical Computer Systems, LLC in Moscow, Zelenograd). This computer system is designed to rapidly assess the heart state using ECG signals from the limbs, based on ECG-DM. CardioVisor-06 s instrument projects the dispersion characteristics map onto the surface of a digital threedimensional anatomical heart model called portrait of the heart or quasi-epicardium. The green color indicates the areas with the normal distribution of dispersion deviations. Deviation from standard values is indicated by yellow color or various shades of red. The larger the shift area, the greater the deviation from the norm (Medical Computer Systems n.d.). When analyzing the dispersion map, we used the indicators Myocardium (or the index of electrophysiological myocardial changes) and Rhythm. For the statistical processing of the results, we used Statistica-6.0 software with the sample characteristics of the mean (M) and the standard error of the mean (m).

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The significant differences in the main integral indicators were evaluated by a t-test, subject to a normal distribution of the initial values. The differences were considered statistically significant at p < 0.05.

3 Results The average values of the integrated ECG-DM indicators for both groups are presented in Table 1. When we examined the students at rest, the Myocardium indicator was within the standard values and corresponded to 14.4 ± 0.7% for Group 1 and 14.8 ± 0.5% for Group 2. There were no significant differences between the two groups (Table 1). Physical activity (PA) allows evaluating the effectiveness of adaptive mechanisms and the degree of cardiovascular tension in case of a hidden pathology. During the examination, the students were asked to exercise (20 squats in 30 s). In both groups, the Myocardium indicator did not go above the standard values. In Group 1, the indicator was 15.1 ± 0.5% right after the physical exercise and 14.5 ± 0.4% after 3 min of rest. In Group 2, the indicator was 15.4 ± 0.7% after the exercise and 14.9 ± 0.6% after 3 min of rest. We considered the Myocardium indicator to be normal if it reached the initial values after 3 min of rest (Table 1). At background examination, the average values of the Rhythm indicator for students in Group 1 and Group 2 were within the physiological norm—18.5 ± 0.9% for Group 1; 19.5 ± 1.5% for Group 2. No significant difference was identified. In Group 1, the Rhythm indicator after PA was 20.4 ± 1.2%, which does not exceed the normal range. In Group 2, the indicator was 24.5 ± 1.6%, which is significantly higher. The Rhythm indicator showed significant differences between the groups (p < 0.05) after PA (Table 1). The Myocardium indicator of less than 15% (indicating the absence of pathological changes) was observed among 82.7% of students (with the “portrait of the heart” colored green). Around 17.3% of the examined students had stressed heart activity (the Myocardium indicator of 15–25%). The examination showed no significant dysfunctions (Myocardium indicator over 25%), marked by a predominance of red tones on the monitor, among the students in Group 1 (Table 2). Table 1 Values of integrated indicators in student groups, (M ± m) Indicator

Group 1 Resting

PA

3-min rest

Resting

PA

3-min rest

Myocardium, %

14.4 ± 0.7

15.1 ± 0.5

14.5 ± 0.4

14.8 ± 0.5

15.4 ± 0.7

14.9 ± 0.6

Rhythm, %

18.5 ± 0.9

20.4 ± 1.2

18.7 ± 1.4

19.5 ± 1.5

24.5 ± 1.6a

19.2 ± 1.3

a

Group 2

Note Significant differences between groups at p < 0.05 Source Compiled by the Authors

Human Resources in Western Siberia: Electrophysiological Myocardial … Table 2 Values of integrated dispersion mapping indicators in student groups

Indicators Myocardium

Percentage (%)

Group 2, %

Below 15

82.7

76.7

15–25

17.3

23.3

Over 25 Rhythm

Group 1, %

283

–

–

0–20

80.9

68.3

Over 20

19.1

31.7

Over 70

–

–

Source Compiled by the Authors

Among Group 2, the Myocardium indicator of 76.7% of students did not exceed 15%, indicating normal heart activity. About 23.3% of Group 2 students had moderate myocardial changes and possible pre-pathological cardiac abnormalities, with no significant dysfunctions noted (Table 2). For the Rhythm indicator, 80.9% of Group 1 students and 68.3% of Group 2 students had normal values. Around 19.1% of students in Group 1 and 31.7% in Group 2 had somewhat strained regulatory systems (Table 2).

4 Discussion The dispersion mapping indicators demonstrated no pathological deviations in the electrophysiological myocardial properties of students. Preclinical myocardial dysfunction can be examined via the Myocardium micro-alternation index. This index pointed to tension in cardiovascular activity and possible dysfunctions for 17% of Group 1 students and 23.3% of Group 2 students. The integral Myocardium indicator varies from 0 to 100% and reflects the average amplitude of the ECG microalternations. The Myocardium indicator of 0% indicates the absence of significant deviations from standard values. The Myocardium values of less than 15% are within the norm; the values from 15 to 25% (borderline state) indicate possible dysfunctions and heart stress, while those above 25% indicate a significant pathology (Software 2006). For most students, the Myocardium dispersion mapping indicator was at the upper limit of the physiological norm. We took additional tests to diagnose hidden dysfunctions and determine the reaction of the cardiovascular system to an additional load. In both groups of students, the average value of the Myocardium indicator was within the norm, both during the background examination and after PA. The diagnosed parameters reached initial values after a 3-min rest, which corresponds to the physiological norm. We used the tension of the autonomic nervous system assessed according to the Rhythm indicator, which is similar to Baevsky’s Rhythm variability index, as an additional diagnostic parameter. The Rhythm indicator ranges from 0 to 20% in case sympathetic and parasympathetic influences are optimally balanced. In the case of

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vegetative dysfunctions or tension of regulatory systems, this indicator goes over 20%. The values above 70% correspond to significant changes characterizing severe arrhythmia (Software 2006). The Rhythm indicator allows assessing the balance of sympathetic and parasympathetic influences of the autonomic nervous system. At background diagnosis, the Rhythm indicator for Group 1 corresponded to the norm, whereas it was at the upper limit of the norm for Group 2. After PA, the Rhythm indicator was at the upper limit of the norm for Group 1 and above the norm for Group 2, which indicated possible pre-pathological conditions. In Group 2, we observed high values of the Rhythm indicator more frequently (31.7%) than in Group 1 (19.1%). The results of dispersive ECG mapping of the Myocardium indicator are consistent with the data presented by Solonin et al. (2013), who conducted their research in the European North of Russia and tested people aged 20–29 (Solonin et al. 2013). The average value of the Rhythm indicator for the Group 2 students (19.5 ± 1.5%) was higher than for the young people living in the European North (17%).

5 Conclusion ECG-DM changes allowed identifying pre-pathological conditions and assessing the electrophysiological myocardial properties. We recommended the students with possible cardiac abnormalities to attend an additional examination and see a cardiologist. For most students, the ECG-DM indicators (Myocardium and Rhythm) were at the upper limit of the physiological norm, indicating a possible tension of the circulatory system. At the background examination, average values of integral indicators were within the normal limits. We observed no significant gender differences in ECGDM indicators. The Rhythm indicator showed that autonomic dysfunctions were observed in both groups, but Group 2 students had more pronounced autonomic disorders symptoms. Using non-invasive monitoring of ECG micro-alternations allowed us to identify early adverse changes in cardiovascular activity and predict individual cardiovascular risks for students living in the northern territories.

References Agadzhanyan NA, Ermakova NV (1997) Ecological portrait of a person in the North. KRUK, Moscow Avtsyn AP, Zhavoronkov AA, Marachev AG (1985) Pathologies of people living in the North. Meditsina, Moscow Evsevyeva ME, Nikulina GP, Sergeeva OV, Baturina MV, Rostovtseva MV, Naymanova ZN, Podushinskiy AY (2011) On the correlation between some cardiovascular risk factors and blood pressure dysregulation among young people. Cardiovasc Ther Prev 10(2):41–46

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Gudkov AB, Popova ON, Lukmanova NB (2012) Ecological and physiological characteristics of climatic factors of the North. Literature review. Human Ecol 1:12–17 Foulds HJ, Bredin SS, Warburton DE (2018) Cardiovascular dynamics of Canadian Indigenous peoples. Int J Circumpolar Health 77(1):1421351. https://doi.org/10.1080/22423982.2017 Hueffer K, Ehrlander M, Etz K, Reynolds A (2019) One health in the circumpolar North. Int J Circumpolar Health 78(1):1607502. https://doi.org/10.1080/22423982.2019 Ilardo M, Nielsen R (2018) Human adaptation to extreme environmental. Current Opin Genet Dev 53:77–82. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gde.2018.07.003 Kaznacheev VP (1983) Essays on the theory and practice of human ecology. Nauka Publication, Moscow Khasnulin VI, Khasnulin PV (2012) Modern ideas about the mechanisms of northern stress at high latitudes. Hum Ecol 1:3–11 Khasnulin VI (2013) Human health and cosmogeophysical factors of the North. Hum Ecol 12:3–13 Khasnulin, VI, Shurgaya AM, Khasnulina AV, Sevostyanova EV (2000) Cardiomethopathy in the North. SB RAMS, Novosibirsk. Khimikova OI, Tretyakova ON, Blinov AV, Efremov DS, Palamarchuk AS (2013) The results of studying cardiovascular functional indicators of people living in the North. Bull New MedTechnol 1:103 Kubushka ON, Gudkov AB, Labutin NY (2004) Some cardiorespiratory reactions at the stage of adaptive stress experienced by young working-age people moving to the North. Hum Ecol 5:16–18 Medical Computer Systems (n.d.) CardioVisor-06c heart screening software: user guide. Retrieved from https://mks.ru/netcat_files/209_32.pdf Panin LE (2013) Fundamental problems of circumpolar and arctic health care. Siberian Sci Med J 33(6):5–10 Pogonysheva IA, Pogonyshev DA (2017) Morphological and functional parameters of young people living in different climatogeophysical environmental conditions. Bulletin of Nizhnevartovsk State University 1:68–74 Roshchevsky MP, Evdokimov VG, Ovsov AS (1993) Seasonal changes in the cardiorespiratory system parameters of the people living in the North. Hum Physiol 19(6):44–50 Sawatzky A, Cunsolo A, Jones-Bitton A, Middleton J, Harper SHL (2018) Responding to climate and environmental change impacts on human health via integrated surveillance in the circumpolar North: a systematic realist review. Int J Environ Res Public Health 15(12):2706. https://doi.org/ 10.3390/ijerph1512 Solonin YuG, Markov AL, Boyko ER, Lysenkov II, Efimov AV (2013) Peculiarities of features of electrocardiogram dispersion mapping indicators of healthy citizens living in the North. Prev Med 16(5):48–52 Soloviev VS, Litovchenko OG, Solovieva SV, Pogonyshev DA, Naimushina AG (2016) Integrated studies of human adaptation in the North. Bull Surgut State Univ 3(13):54–56 WMA General Assembly (1964) Declaration of “ethical principles for medical research involving human subjects”. WMA, Helsinki Young K, Bjerregaard P (2019) Towards estimating the indigenous population in circumpolar regions. Int J Circumpolar Health 78(1):1653749. https://doi.org/10.1080/22423982.2019 Young K (2013) Circumpolar health—what is next? Int J Circumpolar Health 72:20713. https:// doi.org/10.3402/ijch.v72i0

The Framework for Socio-economic Development in the Steppe Regions of Russia Alexander A. Chibilyov Jr. , Dmitry S. Meleshkin , and Dmitry V. Grigorevsky

Abstract The study aims to provide a spatial assessment of the socio-economic framework within the steppe regions of Russia. To achieve this goal, we described the density of the social-ecological structure and the development stage of the main cities. We offered a methodology for evaluating the level of socio-economic development. A conjugate analysis of six indicators revealed the density of the socio-economic structure. A similar interpretation of nine indicators identified the index of development of key cities in the socio-economic framework in 18 steppe regions of Russia. In addition, we developed a schematic map representing the spatial distribution of the studied indexes. In the steppe zone of Russia, we revealed several features of urbanization. The formation of a megacity in the eastern part is not easy. Moreover, the considerable remoteness of the main cities from each other hinders the development of agglomeration processes. In the western part of the studied region, one can form highly urbanized territories during advanced development. Therefore, there is an imbalance in the density index of the socio-economic framework between the southwestern and eastern regions. The development of the socio-economic framework in the studied area reflects the spatial arrangement of the economy and population of the steppe zone of Russia. This is confirmed by the close relationship between the index of development of the major cities in the socio-economic framework and the value of the gross regional product. According to the Chaddock scale, the correlation coefficient between the corresponding indicators is 0.94. Keywords Socio-economic framework · Main cities · Population · Steppe regions of Russia

A. A. Chibilyov Jr. · D. S. Meleshkin · D. V. Grigorevsky (B) Orenburg Federal Research Center, Institute of Steppe of the Ural Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Orenburg, Russia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 S. G. Maximova et al. (eds.), Advances in Natural, Human-Made, and Coupled Human-Natural Systems Research, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 250, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-78083-8_28

287

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A. A. Chibilyov Jr. et al.

1 Introduction One of the most important directions of the Russian policy at the regional level is to ensure the stable socio-economic development of its subjects. Nowadays, there are several scenarios for the implementation of the expected view of the spatial arrangement of the steppe zone: from the polarized growth to the settlement in a new place of megacities. The polarized growth scenario assumes that the economic growth of the territory is based on the growth of the megacities, which, in turn, are characterized by competitive advantages within the regional economy. In this case, the optimization of the spatial distribution of population and production is achieved by its compression around the main points of economic growth (Mikheeva 2017). Supporters of the concept of settling megacities to avoid genetic degradation admit that the city plays a role of the most potent mutagenic factor. They insist on the need to implement deurbanization projects. Based on this scenario, spatial planning should follow a complex approach with an emphasis on the development of small towns and rural areas. Both polar scenarios and general variants of the spatial development of the steppe zone suggest forming a new structure of the territorial arrangement in the studied area. In this regard, it is relevant to assess the current state of the socioeconomic framework of the steppe regions of Russia. Under the socio-economic framework, we understand the totality of cities and main streets that determine the critical parameters of the regional socio-economic development (Baklanov 2007; Druzhinin et al. 2010). Simultaneously, the cores of such structures are cities with a population of more than 100 thousand people. During the intensive development of human economic activity, the urban and socio-economic framework [SEF] of settlement and production are formed, which are based on the territorial structure of the national economy. Baransky was the founder of the concept of the urban framework of the territory in the internal economic and social geography. In the study On Economical-Geographical Research of Cities, Baransky (1946) formulated the central regulation of the financial base of the territory. Later, the idea of the urban context was developed by Maergoyz (1975). He developed the concept of the territorial structure of economy and settlement, which consisted of three inseparable forms with an urban framework as a decisive link. A framing approach was reflected in the works of Lappo (1983, 1997). He proposed the main types of the urban framework and noted that it unites any compound part of the territorial structure of the economy. Theoretical conceptions on the socio-economic framework were formulated in the works of Polyan and Treivish (Treivish 2009; Treivish et al. 2014; Polyan 1984, 2014; Polyan and Treivish 1988), where the urban framework was distinguished as a form of generalization of the territorial structure. The scientists considered the urban context of settlement as a large-scale unity of basic and linear components. The settlement plans focused on urbanized forms.

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289

2 Materials and Methods The study aims to provide a spatial assessment of the socio-economic framework of the steppe regions of Russia based on a conjugate analysis of integral indexes characterizing the density of the socio-economic structure and the development indicators of its main cities. The key socio-economic indicators of the subjects of the Russian Federation in 2018 are taken from the Federal State Statistics Service website (Federal State Statistics Service 2018a). As the information base of the study, we used socio-economic characteristics of administrative centers of regions and cities with a population of more than 100 thousand people (Federal State Statistics Service 2018b). The calculation of integral indexes is based on data characterized by heterogeneity. The comparability of indicators represented by various measurement units was calculated by a formula of normalization of indicators in the interval from 0 to 1, where 1 corresponded to the maximum value of the corresponding index between the studied regions: xnorm = ij

xij max xij j

,

(1)

where: xinorm —a normalized value of j-indicator of which i-region subject possesses, j max xi j —a maximal value of j-indicator among the studied subjects of Russia. j The integral index of a density of the socio-economical framework is calculated (I p ) as a sum of the normalized indexes of the main socio-economical indicators in the steppe regions of Russia (Table 3): Ip =

6 {

Inorm , i

(2)

i=1

where: Iinorm —a normalized value of i-indicator in a region: (1) the population density; (2) the share of urban population; (3) areas under building and roads in a region; (4) the density of free motorways; (5) the number of cities in a subject; (6) a part of large cities (with the population more than 100 thousand people) of the total amount of cities in a subject (Table 1). Integral indicators of socio-economical characteristics of large cities (core cities) were calculated for every 18 subjects of the studied territory: Pj =

k { c=1

xj ,

(3)

4.20

7.8

74.7

75.5

112.9

101.0

66.2

Adygea Republic

Republic of Kalmykia

Krasnodar Krai

Volgograd Region

Rostov Region

Stavropol Krai

Bashkortostan 142.9 Republic

2.51

52.2

Voronezh Region

4.05

2.80

5.65

0.27

0.45

2.33

28.3

42.2

41.6

22.2

74.8

3.6

58.3

44.7

57.1

4

62.2

58.6

68.1

77.1

55.2

45.6

47.1

67.8

67.5

5

2.7

3.9

3.7

2.5

5.3

1.2

5.1

4.4

4.8

6

3

1.55

2

27.1

1

Areas under building and roads (%)

Square Population Population Share of (thou. (mln. density the urban (people/km2 ) population km2 ) people) (%)

Belgorod Region

Subjects of the Russian Federation

306.0

272.0

264.0

146.0

472.0

49.0

571.0

359.0

731.0

7

895

21

19 -

168

201 16

17

23 408

1

12

463 43

19 1

437

475 32

6

26 -

382

426 37

7

3 -

113

127 13

1

2 -

51

60 7

2

15 1

445

479 31

3

-

190

13

9

11

9

-

-

-

1

-

-

-

-

5

6

2

3

1

1

-

2

4

4

1

11

-

-

3

1

10

12

15

11

2

1

11

8

5

5

7

3

4

1

1

1

2

10

23.8

26.3

30.4

15.8

15.4

33.3

50.0

6.7

18.2

11

The share of the main cities (%)

(continued)

Number of the More 50 – 100 50 Less main than 1000 – – than cities (More 1000 500 100 50 than 100 thou. people)

Cities according to the number of population (thou. people):

212

8

A density Municipal units of public motorways Municipal Urban Urban and (km at regions districts rural 2 1000 km ) settlements

Table 1 Characteristics of a density of the socio-economic framework in the steppe regions of Russia, 2018

290 A. A. Chibilyov Jr. et al.

2.33

2.79

53.6

101.2

71.5

88.5

168.0

177.8

141.1

Saratov Region

Kurgan Region

Chelyabinsk Region

Altai Krai

Novosibirsk Region

Omsk Region

1.94

3.48

0.83

2.44

3.18

13.8

15.7

13.9

39.3

11.7

24.1

59.4

72.8

79.1

56.7

82.7

62.1

75.9

79.8

60.3

Samara Region

15.9

123.7

Orenburg Region

1.96

Square Population Population Share of (thou. (mln. density the urban km2 ) people) (people/km2 ) population (%)

Subjects of the Russian Federation

Table 1 (continued)

1.7

1.5

2.0

3.2

2.0

2.6

4.3

2.7

Areas under building and roads (%)

99.0

112.0

215.0

238.0

133.0

170.0

326.0

167.0

6 1

391

424 32

1

14 455

1

5

490 30

12 -

650

719 59

10

30 1

269

319 27

15

9 -

425

451 24

2

18 -

309

351 38

4

11 1

296

342 27

9

-

1

29

445

832 12

13

9

-

-

1

-

-

1

1

1

-

-

1

2

4

1

2

2

1

4

-

1

1

3

1

2

2

2

7

5

11

8

22

7

13

5

8

9

1

2

3

5

1

3

4

2

16.7

14.3

25.0

16.7

11.1

16.7

36.4

16.7

The share of the main cities (%)

(continued)

Number of the More 50 – 100 50 Less main than 1000 – – than cities (More 1000 500 100 50 than 100 thou. people)

Cities according to the number of population (thou. people):

487

54

A density Municipal units of public motorways Municipal Urban Urban and (km at districts rural regions 2 1000 km ) settlements

The Framework for Socio-economic Development in the Steppe … 291

Source Federal State Statistics Service (2018a)

27.7

66.9

2.8

1611.8 42.4

Total

51.0

6.1

73.2

26.1

Republic of Crimea

1.91

Areas under building and roads (%)

Square Population Population Share of (thou. (mln. density the urban km2 ) people) (people/km2 ) population (%)

Subjects of the Russian Federation

Table 1 (continued)

220.9

494.0

8

526

6 520

267

7 200 136

16 254

-

11

279

5

-

40

3

45

2

169

11 53

3

Number of the More 50 – 100 50 Less main than 1000 – – than cities (More 1000 500 100 50 than 100 thou. people)

Cities according to the number of population (thou. people):

14

A density Municipal units of public motorways Municipal Urban Urban and (km at districts rural regions 2 1000 km ) settlements

19.9

18.8

The share of the main cities (%)

292 A. A. Chibilyov Jr. et al.

The Framework for Socio-economic Development in the Steppe …

293

where: x—a value of j-indicator of the socio-economic development of c—a large city in the subject; k—the number of the main cities in a subject. According to cities: (1) x 1 —a population number; (2) x 2 —an average annual number of workers in organizations; (3) x 3 —an average monthly nominal salary; (4) x 4 —investment in basic capital; (5) x 5 —a presence of basic assets in organizations; (6) x 6 —a number of enterprises and organizations; (7) x 7 —a bulk of shipped goods of own production, works and services carried out by own force according to types of economic activity [EA] in the industrial sector; (8) x 8 —a bulk of work realized on EA Construction; (9) x 9 —a nominal retail turnover (Table 2). The integral indicator of the main cities of the socio-economic framework in the region (I n ) represents itself a sum of normalized indexes, socio-economical characteristics of its large cities (Table 4): In =

9 {

Pnorm , j

(4)

j=1

The study aims to estimate the spatial distribution of indexes I p and I n on the studied territory.

3 Results To study the development of the SEF of the regions, we tested the methodology on the steppe regions of Russia for carrying out multi-scale research of the area and reveal imbalances and patterns within the territories characterized by different climatic conditions but located in the same natural zone. The leading indicators of the study are (1) a number, (2) density, and (3) part of the urban population. Krasnodar Krai is characterized by the maximum value of the density of the socioeconomic framework among all indexes obtained from the regions. The basis of its SEF includes 26 towns (the majority of which (85%) is towns with population less than 100 thousand people), where more than 3 million people live, so it is more than the average population (2.3 million people) of the studied regions. There is an imbalance between the south-western and eastern regions: in Belgorod Region, Krasnodar Krai, the Republic of Adygea, and the Republic of Crimea values I p more 4, values I p less 2.5. It is seen in frontier regions (with the same few populated subjects of the Republic of Kazakhstan) and distant areas (Altai Krai, Novosibirsk, Omsk, Kurgan, and Orenburg Regions and the Republic of Kalmykia). Chelyabinsk Region is an exception. It was characterized by the highest indicators of the number of cities (30) and, correspondingly, the share of the urban population (82.7%). It can

20.3

273.2

58.8

31.9

37.6

111.1

249.9

233.8

171.7

Taganrog

Shakhty

Volgodonsk

59.3

1130.3

Volzhskya

33.1

243.4

Rostov-on-Don

325.2

Volgograda

94.9

71.3

Kamyshina

209.2

1013.5

Armavira

507.4

334.5

Novorossiyska

291.2

990.2

Krasnodara

Sochia

37.2

28.4

142.0

103.1

260.7

Elista

1047.5

Voronezh

64.7

107.2

Maykopa

391.6

224.1

Belgorod

Stary Oskol

2

1

3

Population The average annual (thou. number of people) employees in organizations (thou. people)

The main cities of the socio-economic framework

35.3

26.7

30.8

40.6

24.2

31.4

33.7

26.4

41.6

39.0

42.0

26.6

27.4

35.2

34.0

33.6

4

An average monthly nominal salary of workers in organizations (thou. rubles)

22.3

2.8

6.3

147. 3

0.7

17.8

93.1

2.2

35.9

43.2

121.1

3.0

4.1

90.6

199.8 3.0

39.9 3.2

80.3 6.6

1273.7 45.4

16.4 1.2

175.7 6.0

1 113.2 27.5

24.8 3.6

546.1 8.6

1008.8 21.2

2380.6 63.4

58.5 2.7

72.6 3.7

881.7 43.9

371.7 20.9 166.8 7.2

7

A number of enterprises and organizations (at the end of a year, thou. units)

18.7

6

Basic assets (bln. RUB)

b

5

Investment in basic capital (billion RUB)

74.9

23.4

75.4

316.6

10.8

161.0

561.9

23.3

49.1

22.9

372.4

2.6

14.2

190.3

212.7

95.5

8

Industrial production (a bulk of shipped goods, (bln. RUB)

15.3

2.2

4.3

92.3

0.2

1.5

21.2

5.1

14.4

8.7

35.2

0.6

0.9

18.9

3.0

6.2

9

39.6 19.1

10.3

11.1

17.0

119.6

6.6

24.7

116.2

11.7

36.5

62.3

190.9

4.6

9.1

103.9

10

(continued)

A bulk of Nominal retail turnover work on EA (bln. RUB) Construction (bln. RUB)

Table 2 Characteristics of the main cities in the socio-economic framework within the steppe regions of Russia, 2018

294 A. A. Chibilyov Jr. et al.

233.2

1163.4

707.4

Orska

Samaraa

Toliyattia

26.0

113.8

579.8

Oktyabrsky

Orenburga

30.8

139.3

Neftekamska

160.8

354.1

45.4

165.6

41.6

279.6

152.4

Sterlitamak

Salavat

55.7

16.6

313.3

108.7

1131.4

Essentuki

Ufaa

24.0

117.4

Nevinnomyssk

38.8

16.3

213.8

136.4

115.9

Kislovodska

434.1

Pyatigorska

Stavropola

12.8

20.2

126.7

108.4

Bataysk

36.7

168.0

Novocherkassk

Novoshakhtinsk

Population The average (thou. annual people) number of employees in organizations (thou. people)

The main cities of the socio-economic framework

Table 2 (continued)

33.4

39.3

26.9

36.5

32.8

31.3

38.7

31.4

42.3

28.6

34.8

28.9

31.8

33.3

22.5

30.6

29.7

An average monthly nominal salary of workers in organizations (thou. rubles)

23.2

84.0

21.5

56.8

2.2

2.5

16.7

5.1

102.7

1.0

10.2

3.7

1.9

16.2

0.8

1.1

3.3

Investment in basic capital (billion RUB)

A number of enterprises and organizations (at the end of a year, thou. units)

495.4 28.0

1578.8 59.3

84.7 4.0

1047.9 18.9

17.8 1.7

22.4 2.0

179.5 1.9

69.5 3.7

1425.8 47.2

16.2 1.8

90.8 1.9

32.0 2.0

72.2 4.9

614.4 18.1

7.1 0.6

10.9 2.1

74.1 3.9

Basic assets (bln. RUB)

453.5

317.2

40.9

212.1

26.4

37.8

210.0

98.4

745.5

2.5

95.7

4.6

20.1

44.4

5.1

4.1

62.7

Industrial production (a bulk of shipped goods, (bln. RUB)

2.3

26.0

1.0

8.8

1.5

1.6

6.1

3.2

27.9

0.5

2.7

0.5

0.3

5.0

0.7

5.3

1.9

67.1

148.2

11.0

60.2

4.8

8.2

9.1

19.3

145.7

4.9

6.3

3.0

14.4

41.6

3.6

7.7

10.5

(continued)

A bulk of Nominal retail turnover work on EA (bln. RUB) Construction (bln. RUB)

The Framework for Socio-economic Development in the Steppe … 295

15.1

289.2

1612.8

103.6

1172.0

Novosibirsk

Berdsk

Omsk

402.4

42.7

26.9

211.6

158.3

144.1

Barnaula

40.2

23.7

Rybtsovsk

696.4

Kopeyska

29.0

117.5

Biyska

167.1

150.3

Miassa

416.5

169.0

Magnitogorsk

Zlatousta

1202.4

Chelyabinsk

330,7

35.2

93.7

189.8

318.0

50.5

Balakovo

226.2

Engels

30.3

230.5

Kurgan

104.3

843.5

Novokuybyshevsk

Saratov

172.0

Syzrana

42.9

Population The average (thou. annual people) number of employees in organizations (thou. people)

The main cities of the socio-economic framework

Table 2 (continued)

35.6

31.4

41.9

23.7

24.6

31.0

31.4

32.3

26.7

40.8

38.2

31.2

25.8

26.9

32.5

37.3

27.8

An average monthly nominal salary of workers in organizations (thou. rubles)

59.8

1.2

66.1

2.4

3.9

19.9

1.2

3.1

1.2

49.9

52.7

8.5

6.6

6.8

45.1

13.2

6.1

Investment in basic capital (billion RUB)

A number of enterprises and organizations (at the end of a year, thou. units)

676.0 37.4

12.4 6.4

1063.9 150.8

18.0 1.8

38.8 5.2

352.6 33.2

22.8 1.7

46.9 4.4

33.0 2.9

351.6 9.5

872.7 62.0

265.2 8.3

72.4 3.2

43.2 4.4

1011.4 27.0

93.4 2 592

58.9 2.6

Basic assets (bln. RUB)

770.7

14.0

289.0

17.5

42.1

94.8

20.9

51.2

14.2

482.5

14.0

82.5

29.0

64.1

171.1

52.0

43.6

Industrial production (a bulk of shipped goods, (bln. RUB)

16.7

0.2

10.6

0.7

1.9

4.3

b

0.4

0.1

20.8

8,8

2.1

1.8

2.4

7.3

1.3

7.0

111.5

4.5

196.1

6.2

14.3

73.8

6.8

9.7

7.0

27.9

135,4

32.0

9.7

17.3

87.1

6.4

11.1

(continued)

A bulk of Nominal retail turnover work on EA (bln. RUB) Construction (bln. RUB)

296 A. A. Chibilyov Jr. et al.

22.7

150.6

120.4

Kerch

Evpatoriyaa

On an urban district; b Data is not calculated Source Federal State Statistics Service (2018b)

a

108.7

362.3

Simferopola

20.5

Population The average (thou. annual people) number of employees in organizations (thou. people)

The main cities of the socio-economic framework

Table 2 (continued)

24.1

28.8

33.8

An average monthly nominal salary of workers in organizations (thou. rubles)

1.3

48.3

40.6

Investment in basic capital (billion RUB)

A number of enterprises and organizations (at the end of a year, thou. units)

11.5 1.8

369.7 1.6

380.2 13.4

Basic assets (bln. RUB)

1.3

10.1

28.4

Industrial production (a bulk of shipped goods, (bln. RUB)

0.5

10.6

32.1

3.2

4.4

38.3

A bulk of Nominal retail turnover work on EA (bln. RUB) Construction (bln. RUB)

The Framework for Socio-economic Development in the Steppe … 297

298

A. A. Chibilyov Jr. et al.

Table 3 Density indexes of the socio-economic framework in the steppe regions of the Russian Federation [RF] RF subjects

I1norm

I2norm

I3norm

I4norm

I5norm

I6norm

Ip

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

Belgorod Region

0.76

0.82

0.78

1.00

0.37

0.36

4.1

Voronezh Region

0.60

0.82

0.72

0.49

0.50

0.13

3.3

Republic of Adygea

0.78

0.57

0.84

0.78

0.07

1.00

4.0

Republic of Kalmykia

0.05

0.55

0.20

0.07

0.10

0.67

1.6

Krasnodar Krai

1.00

0.67

0.86

0.65

0.87

0.31

4.4

Volgograd Region

0.30

0.93

0.40

0.20

0.63

0.32

2.8

Rostov Region

0.56

0.82

0.60

0.36

0.77

0.61

3.7

Stavropol Krai

0.56

0.71

0.64

0.37

0.63

0.53

3.4

Republic of Bashkortostan

0.38

0.75

0.45

0.42

0.70

0.48

3.2

Orenburg Region

0.21

0.73

0.45

0.23

0.40

0.33

2.4

Samara Region

0.79

0.96

0.70

0.45

0.37

0.73

4.0

Saratov Region

0.32

0.92

0.42

0.23

0.60

0.33

2.8

Kurgan Region

0.16

0.75

0.32

0.18

0.30

0.22

1.9

Chelyabinsk Region

0.52

1.00

0.52

0.33

1.00

0.33

3.7

Altai Krai

0.19

0.69

0.32

0.29

0.40

0.50

2.4

Novosibirsk Region

0.21

0.96

0.25

0.15

0.47

0.29

2.3

Omsk Region

0.18

0.88

0.28

0.14

0.20

0.33

2.0

Republic of Crimea

0.98

0.62

1.00

0.68

0.53

0.38

4.2

Source Compiled by the authors

be explained by the region’s economic orientation to metallurgical enterprises and the machine-building industry (and, consequently, the development of mono-cities around them) as well as a large quantity of closed administrative-territorial units (Tables 3 and 4). A maximum value I n is noticed in Krasnodar Krai—7.0. Indicators of investments to basic capital (16%) of investments in all core cities, a bulk of basic assets (20%), and retail trade turnover (14%) make a significant contribution to such high values. A maximal indicator of the bulk of shipped goods of own production effecting on a high value I n is noticed in Bashkortostan—1118.1 billion rubles—16% of the number of shipped goods from any core cities in the studied region. In the Republic of Kalmykia, the values I p and I n are minimum, 1.6 and 0.3, respectively. This region is characterized by the lowest indicators of (1) the number of population (272.6 thousand people), (2) the density of population (3.6 men/km2 ), (3) the part of urban population (45.6%), (4) the part of territories under constructions and roads (1.2%), (5) the density of motorways. The only large city (Elista) has a minimum (1) population number (103.1 thousand people), (2) the number of

The Framework for Socio-economic Development in the Steppe …

299

Table 4 Indexes of the development of the main cities in the socio-economic framework within the steppe regions of Russia RF subjects

P1norm

P2norm

P3norm

P4norm

P5norm

P6norm

P7norm

P8norm

P9norm

In

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

Belgorod Region

0.28

0.29

0.31

0.09

0.14

0.18

0.28

0.08

0.19

1.8

Voronezh Region

0.48

0.44

0.16

0.45

0.22

0.28

0.17

0.15

0.34

2.7

Republic of Adygea

0.06

0.06

0.13

0.02

0.02

0.02

0.01

0.01

0.03

0.4

Republic of Kalmykia

0.05

0.05

0.12

0.01

0.01

0.02

0.00

0.00

0.02

0.3

Krasnodar Krai

0.93

0.83

0.69

1.00

1.00

0.62

0.42

0.52

1.00

7.0

Volgograd Region

0.66

0.55

0.41

0.55

0.33

0.22

0.66

0.19

0.49

4.1

Rostov Region

1.00

0.80

1.00

0.18

0.43

0.41

0.50

1.00

0.60

5.9

Stavropol Krai 0.46

0.36

0.73

0.16

0.21

0.18

0.15

0.07

0.23

2.6

Republic of 0.83 Bashkortostan

0.79

0.82

0.64

0.43

0.36

1.00

0.33

0.62

5.8

Orenburg Region

0.37

0.36

0.29

0.39

0.29

0.15

0.23

0.08

0.24

2.4

Samara Region

0.98

1.00

0.64

0.63

0.56

0.59

0.77

0.30

0.77

6.2

Saratov Region

0.58

0.54

0.39

0.29

0.28

0.22

0.24

0.09

0.38

3.0

Kurgan Region

0.15

0.16

0.14

0.04

0.07

0.05

0.07

0.02

0.11

0.8

Chelyabinsk Region

0.96

0.92

0.78

0.53

0.34

0.51

0.52

0.25

0.62

5.4

Altai Krai

0.48

0.39

0.37

0.13

0.10

0.26

0.14

0.06

0.31

2.2

Novosibirsk Region

0.78

0.71

0.34

0.33

0.27

1.00

0.27

0.09

0.67

4.5

Omsk Region

0.54

0.49

0.16

0.30

0.17

0.24

0.69

0.14

0.37

3.1

Republic of Crimea

0.29

0.26

0.40

0.45

0.19

0.11

0.04

0.35

0.15

2.2

Source Compiled by the authors

employees in organizations (28.4 thousand people), (3) the average monthly salary (26.6 thousand rubles), (4) investment in a basic capital (3 billion rubles), (5) a bulk of shipped goods (2.6 billion rubles), (6) a number of works on EA Construction (0.6 billion rubles).

300

A. A. Chibilyov Jr. et al.

4 Discussion Based on the calculation of integral indexes and statistical data, we designed a generalized schematic map (Fig. 1) representing the spatial disproportion of the socio-economic framework’s development in the steppe regions of Russia. A unique “chain” distribution of the urban population is seen. Despite distinct points of population concentration in the regional centers, it is noticed an increased density in cities placed in a diametrically opposite location (Rostov-on-Don 3238.7 thousand people/km2 and Novosibirsk 3166.6 thousand people/km2 ). Chelyabinsk Region is located on the equal distance from the cities mentioned above; it is the region with a maximal part of the urban population (82.7%). Thus, one can notice a formation of certain lacunas of estrangement (few populated territories located between developed socio-economical centers, as rule centers of regions-subjects) in the following areas: (1) Rostov-on-Don, (2) Voronezh, (3) Volgograd, (4) Samara, (5) Orenburg, (6) Chelyabinsk, (7) Kurgan, (8) Omsk, (9) Novosibirsk. One of the leading features of the development of the socio-economic framework in the steppe zone to varying degrees is the progress of south-western, central, and eastern parts of the area. The urban structure of settlement in the region forms 52 cities with a population of more than 100 thousand people, including seven millionaire cities. Nevertheless, the integral indexes of the development of the major cities in most districts are characterized by low values (they do not exceed 4.0 in 11 out of 18 cities). Urban processes in the regions of the steppe zone have some unique features. Despite the average urban population (67%), 8.3 billion people live in 7 millionaire cities (29.2% of all urban population in the studied territory). These large cores of the socio-economic framework are located the more to east, the more distant they are from each other. This fact significantly hinders the development of agglomeration processes, complicating the formation of megacities. Highly-urbanized territories were formed in the western part of the examined region due to the sharp growth of the urban population in recent decades.

5 Conclusion During the study, we revealed that the index of development of the main cities in the socio-economic framework depends on the size of the gross regional product of the district. There is a high correlation between the corresponding indicators (0.94 on the Chaddock scale) (Fig. 2). The main reason for this dependency is that most enterprises, private and public organizations that make a significant contribution to the formation of internal products are concentrated in cities with more than 100 thousand people. The most significant indicator of the gross regional product was registered in Krasnodar Krai (2225.9 billion rubles) that exceeds the average indicator at 2.6 times along the steppe zone of Russia.

Fig. 1 A schematic map of integral indexes of the density of socio-economical framework and the development of the main cities within the steppe regions of Russia. Source Federal State Statistics Service (2018a)

The Framework for Socio-economic Development in the Steppe … 301

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A. A. Chibilyov Jr. et al.

Fig. 2 The correlation between the integral index of the development of the main cities in the socio-economic framework and the gross regional product in the steppe regions of Russia. Source Federal State Statistics Service (2018a)

The currency of the development of agglomerations as critical points of geopolitical influence in the frontier steppe territories is being strengthened. The growth of the socio-economic potential in the southern and south-eastern regions of the steppe border area can contribute to the agglomeration processes. In turn, they can activate the competitiveness of the economy to control migration, industrial, social, and intellectual impacts (Nefedova and Treivish 2003, 2019). On the one hand, large cities are drivers of growth, centers of potential concentration, and intensification of activities. On the other hand, the larger city the more vulnerable it is to the new challenges of the twenty-first century. Urbanized centers are facing a crisis due to the so-called coronavirus pandemic in early 2020. It exposed the vulnerability of cities, agglomerations, and megacities. In this regard, the development of new spatial forms of urbanization requires solving a wide range of issues. Currently, the problems are relevant not only for experts in social geography. The complex and interdisciplinary nature of the development of the socio-economic framework involves (1) economists, (2) geographers, (3) sociologists, (4) ecologists, (5) demographers, (6) medics, and other researchers. In our opinion, the main vector of SEF transformation in the steppe regions at the beginning of the twenty-first century should be the change of point objects (main cities) and the formation of additional zones of influence (organization of a supraagglomeration structure) as well as the synchronization of these processes with the creation of balanced chains of the natural and ecological framework. Acknowledgements The paper was done withing the framework of the study Steppes of Russia: landscape-ecological bases of stable development, grounds of nature-similar technologies under nature and anthropogenic changes of the environment (No. GR AAAA-A17-117012610022-5).

The Framework for Socio-economic Development in the Steppe …

303

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Formation Mechanisms of Civil Society in the Russian Federation Elvira E. Zabneva

and Tatiana A. Evsina

Abstract This paper focuses on the formation mechanisms of civil society in the Russian Federation. The relevance of this topic is dictated by the problems that the Russian Federation faces in the formation of civil society and the specific features of interaction between the civil society and the government in the globalization era, which seriously challenge Russian democracy. Currently, there are several mechanisms for incentivizing the formation and development of the Russian civil society. The purpose of this study is to identify, describe, and analyze these mechanisms. Using various theoretical and practical methods, we analyzed scholarly sources, legal instruments, statistical data, and various approaches to the identified problem. This allowed us to establish the cause-effect relationship and interdependence of each mechanism of civil society formation. We concluded that the local government, Russian non-profit organizations, and social design serve as the mechanisms for forming civil society. This study is based on (1) clarifying the concept of each mechanism, (2) establishing their importance in forming civil society, (3) identifying the internal problems, and (4) presenting recommendations for overcoming them. Keywords Civil society · Russian Federation · Democratic government · Local government · Non-profit organizations · Social design

1 Introduction Currently, sustainable social development is only possible in the context of constructive dialogue between the government and society. Global challenges related to every aspect of the human socio-economic activity require that every person answers them responsibly. At present, the safety of public life depends on each citizen—the COVID-19 pandemic has clearly demonstrated this. In this context, the problem of civil society formation is gaining significant importance. E. E. Zabneva · T. A. Evsina (B) Novokuznetsk Branch of the Kuzbass State Technical University Named After T.F. Gorbachev, Novokuznetsk, Russia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 S. G. Maximova et al. (eds.), Advances in Natural, Human-Made, and Coupled Human-Natural Systems Research, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 250, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-78083-8_29

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The situation shows that the concept of civil society as a “developed, stable, wellorganized, spiritually rich, moral, and legally-educated society with a sufficiently high standard of living” (Kirsanov 2013) does not correspond to reality. One could speak volumes about the reasons for the current pandemic. However, one thing is for certain—the development of civil society requires the legal and socio-economic mainstays that Russia lacks. For this reason, the study pays special attention to civil society development in Russia, as well as the interaction between civil society and the government. The ideas of formation, establishment, and development of civil society in Russia are covered in numerous works of Fastovich (2018), Vishanova (2018), Natuev (2018), Mikityuk (2018), and Butorov (2019). The role of local government in the context of civil society was studied by Kolesnikova and Ryabova (2016), Pakhomov (2018), and Yakovleva (2015). Interaction between non-profit organizations and civil society became the basis of studies of Nosanenko (2017), Repnikov (2019), Chernyshov (2018), Jakimova (2013). The issues of social design are covered in works of Pastukhova (2019), Eremina (2015), Gorev and Kozlova (2015). The study goal is to reveal the mechanisms of civil society development in the Russian Federation for their effective usage as the basis for sustainable development of the law-governed country.

2 Materials and Methods In this study, we employed both theoretical and empirical methods of research. With the help of the empirical method, we studied scholarly articles and current studies on the topic of civil society; conducted a comparative analysis of different views on the concept and essence of civil society; examined non-profit organizations, local government, and social design. Via the theoretical method, we systematized collected scholarly material; identified and described the main mechanisms of civil society development.

3 Results The establishment and development of civil society began only recently. Grandeur phrases on civil society are extremely common in Russian scholarship: “not a formal citizenship, but spiritual solidarity with the government, acceptance, and awareness of the national goal” makes a citizen (Ilyin 1993); “self-realization of each citizen in their useful activity” (Florensky 2008); “the responsibility of each for themselves and for everyone” (Berdyaev 1911). However, there is no practical experience of its construction. The term civil society was introduced for political and scholarly use only in the 1990s. However, it is not reflected in the Constitution of the Russian Federation

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(1993), nor in the 2020 amendments to it. At the same time, the fundamental ideas of civil society are enshrined in Article 2 of the Constitution. It declares human beings, their rights and freedoms as the highest value, and delegates the responsibility for recognition, observance, and protection of human and civil rights to the government. In the 30 years of the proclaimed democratic system, civil society could not go through the evolutionary path of its development and become what the “proWesterners” want it to be. Moreover, it is evident that Russia will not follow this envisioned way. People need to understand and accept that the Russian way of civil society formation will be unique and different from all models available today. The first issue that Russia faces in civil society formation is the role of the government. Historically, “top down” decision-making was the most productive in Russia (as contrasted with the “bottom up” model, popular in the West). This was determined by historical, natural-geographical, geopolitical, and many other factors. Throughout Russian history, human personality was sidelined—from the feudal disunity and the rule of the Mongol Empire to the serfdom (which was abolished only in the second half of the nineteenth century) and the totalitarian Soviet system. The strong-arm government was of prime importance—it could deflect external threats and maintain order on vast territories, serving as the source of progress, ideas, and innovations in all areas of Russian society. The civic identity, as the substance of civil society, still needs to be taught. In the public consciousness, “the priority of the affective area over the rational, catastrophism as a natural reaction to a crucial change of the system and societal breakdown, ignorance of the law; in the political behavior of citizens—the lack of a basic consensus, insufficient tolerance, permanent fragmentariness, excessive difference in kind” (Denisova 2017). The Russian civil culture still needs to be shaped, the selfrealization of citizens as full-fledged members of society, their rights and freedoms, and social responsibility must be developed. Personal qualities have a significant role in this process. People need to fight political absenteeism; stop being afraid to think, speak, and act freely but responsibly. The first concern of the government should be to give citizens an opportunity for self-actualization, provide the development of economy, social sector, and civic initiatives. The idea that “the government and civil society are natural allies in achieving common goals, the major of which is the well-being of people” (Putin 2016) should not remain a mere statement. A major challenge that the government faces is creating an adequate legal framework for the creation of civil society. This framework should (1) take into account the interests of various social groups, (2) strengthen the protection of people via constitutional guarantees, (3) create pluralism in society, (4) develop new forms of political activity, and (5) improve local government structures and civil movements. Local government must play a leading role in meeting the identified needs. Being one of the institutions of civil society, local government directly encourages independent and responsible activities of the regional population. Involving the regional population in solving social problems provides the key needs of a person, ultimately having a tremendous impact on the quality of life. This process should lead to changes in people’s psychology, awareness of their personal responsibility and autonomy.

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Local governance is an effective mechanism of encouraging social activism, but it is underutilized in Russia. It is hindered by, on the one hand, monopolies and corruption at the local level and by the strict vertical power structure, on the other hand. Local authorities are regarded as the extension of the central government. Most of what is done at the local level is initiated “from the top.” Local government “forces” its power upon the regional population, which forms a negative attitude to the authorities in general, and to the local authorities in particular. The problem of civil and legal illiteracy of the population is worsening, and citizens are simply not aware of their rights concerning local government. The indifference of citizens to working for local government bodies should become the basis of the civil movement. Therefore, it is necessary to modify the Russian system of local government—mainly reduce the dependence of municipal authorities on the governments of federation subjects and central governments. This is not an easy task. The government is used to rigorous enforcement of decisions and is afraid of risking economic and political instability. The regions, especially the subsidized ones, do not take responsibility for the necessary transformational changes. They mostly fulfill the will of the government by introducing inconsequential transformations. Moreover, some degree of dependence on central government is determined by the procedure for appointing governors—they are proposed or (in case of early resignation) appointed by the president. Municipalities are even more economically and politically dependent, so they have no choice but to follow the will of the government. Giving greater independence to municipal governments will allow them to fulfill their direct function—governing independently at the local levels, involving most of the population in governance, increasing civic engagement, autonomy, and responsibility. Non-profit organizations (NPOs) are another mechanism of civil society formation. According to data from the Federal Statistics Service (Rosstat) from April 22, 2019, there are 214,212 registered organizations (Official website of Ministry of Justice of the Russian Federation n.d.). The number of organizations itself indicates an evident interest in their formation and their significant role in the life of Russian society. They often, indeed, replace the government in dealing with problem situations—their purpose is not to profit but to solve socially significant tasks. National administrative authorities also actively support the development of the “third” sector within the “Government ↔ Businesses ↔ NPOs” partnership framework. The government is transferring a number of societal powers to non-profit organizations, which should free up government power resources for other equally serious tasks and, more importantly, for the strengthening of citizenship. This kind of governmental support is reflected in the subsidizing of non-profit organizations, entering into a contractual agreement with them to implement socially important services, joint social programs, and legislative activity. Simplified registration of NPOs is extremely important. But in all of this, the credibility of the NPOs in Russia is still quite low—they are not actively used by citizens, businesses, or the government. By extensively initiating the activities of NPOs, national administrative authorities form a negative attitude of the population towards them. Citizens look cautiously and distrustfully

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at everything government-related. The activities of NPOs are often merely formal— NPOs are often required only to carry out certain, clearly defined tasks, without much innovative activity. Russian reality demonstrates many factors that hinder the dynamic development of Russian NPOs. These include: (1) insufficient legislation that needs to be refined and clarified, including terminology (Repnikov 2019); (2) the lack of any real mechanism for NPOs to work in social partnership; and (3) financial difficulties associated with the legal status of NPOs. Taken together, this makes NPO activities vague, haphazard, and dependent. The solution to these problems should bring the development of Russian NPOs to a new level, which will raise the status of NPOs among citizens, and ensure the presence of stable horizontal links in social partnership. NCOs must quickly become a real mechanism for solving socially significant and socially useful tasks, which will automatically increase the level of civic engagement, independence, and responsibility, and ultimately become an impetus for the development of civil society. Special attention should be paid to another mechanism of the civil society formation—social design. Social design should launch a mechanism for managing society “bottom-up,” which is currently missing in the context of civil society development. Therefore, a voluntary association of citizens, social initiative, cultural selforganization, and responsibility are the direct object of social design, aimed at creating non-profit projects in the social sector to meet the needs and solve the urgent problems of any given group of people. The key indicator of effective social design should be a developed civil society in Russia. From the point of view of social design, civil society is perceived as a comprehensive view of the national population, including their social activity, the development of market relations, national narrative, and spiritual and moral policy. Achieving these categories is impossible without the timely development of the human personality. It is clear that the construction of civil society in terms of social design is primarily based on the education of the younger generation. The students should only become acquainted with the legislative provisions but fully participate in the life processes of civil society. It is necessary to ensure the transfer of knowledge, skills, and abilities, as well as the ability to translate social perspectives into real life. From this point of view, social design is an effective mechanism for developing civic initiatives. A system of social values and practices is formed via social design. At the same time, social design serves as a process of modeling and constructing new social objects, connections, and relations aimed at changing the social environment.

4 Discussion We can conclude that the development of civil society is not just a pressing issue but a serious challenge for Russian democracy. Civil society is at the initial stage of development. Its formation in Russia will require considerable time for the effective functioning of all its major institutions due to the dire socio-economic situation in

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the country and the world. The formation and development of civil society depend entirely on the authorities and Russian citizens. The driving forces in its formation are political stability and civil accord.

5 Conclusion In this study, we identified some recommendations for a more effective civil society formation in the Russian Federation. These include the following: 1. Giving greater freedom and independence to local and municipal governments, allowing them to solve issues of local significance with the highest involvement of the population, which will directly increase the activity, autonomy, and responsibility of citizens. 2. Increasing the credibility and importance of Russian NPOs through the amendments to the legislative framework, development of real mechanisms for NPO work within the framework of social partnership, and financial protection of NPOs. 3. Strategic development of education for the younger generation in the Russian Federation, taking into account social design mechanisms. Due to modern global challenges, solving the problem of the formation of civil society is an indispensable condition for the sustainable development of any country.

References Berdyaev NA (1911) Philosophy of freedom. Retrieved from http://www.odinblago.ru/filosofiya/ berdyaev/filosofia_svobodi Butorov SA (2019) Formation and development of civil society in Russia: history and modernity. Serv plus 13(3):67–76 Chernyshov AN (2018) Interaction between the government and NPOs: opportunities, mechanisms, problems, and ways to solve them. Manage Consultation 10:87–98 Denisova LL (2017) Civil society and political culture of modern Russia: theoretical approaches. Bull Polesie State Univ Soc Hum Sci Ser 2:30–34 Eremina LI (2015) Social design in the professional training of students. Soc Sociol Psychol Pedagogy 3:23–28 Fastovich GG (2018) To the question of the legitimacy of government power: theoretical and legal aspect. Age Sci 16:71–75 Florenskij P (2008) The expected state structure in the future. Gorodec, Moscow, Russia Gorev PM, Kozlova EV (2015) Social design in high school: directions and structure of project descriptions. Concept 4:1–13 Ilyin IA (1993) About the future of Russia. Selected articles. Voenizdat, Moscow, Russia Jakimova TV (2013) Non-profit organizations as the main institution of civil society in Russia. Bull Tomsk State Pedagogical Univ 12(140):116–119 Kirsanov AU (2013) Civil society institutions in a democratic country governed by the rule of law. Judicial Sci 4:47–50

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Kolesnikova NA, Ryabova EL (2016) Civil society in modern Russia. Etnosotsium, Moscow, Russia Mikitjuk UV (2018) Historical and legal prerequisites for the formation of civil society. Philos Law 2(85):150–156 Natuev VE (2018) Formation of civil society in Russia. Bull Chelyabinsk State Univ Ser Law 1(3):19–23 Nosanenko GU (2017) Models of interaction between the “third sector” and the government (based on empirical research). ANI Econ Manage 1(18):259–262 Official website of the Constitution of the Russian Federation (n.d.) Retrieved from http://www.con stitution.ru/en/10003000-01.htm Official website of the Ministry of Justice of the Russian Federation (n.d.) Retrieved from https:// minjust.gov.ru/ Pahomov DV (2018) Interaction of civil society and local government as a factor in the development of Russian democracy. Theor Probl Polit Stud 7:27–34 Pastuhova LS (2019) Social and project activities as an open educational space for the development of civic qualities of young people. Bull Mari State Univ 2(13):289–294 Putin VV (2016) Meeting of the council for civil society and human rights. Retrieved from http:// en.kremlin.ru/events/president/news/53440 Repnikov SP (2019) Non-profit organizations as a part of civil society in Russia: current state and problems. Law State Theory Pract 11:82–84 Vishanova PG (2018) Features of civil society formation in Russia. Law State Theory Pract 3(159):82–93 Yakovleva MA (2015) Legal aspect of the interaction between the government and civil society. Sci Acad 4:7–12

Conditions and Factors for the Development of Social Innovation Yuliya A. Kuznetcova

Abstract All countries of the world recognize social innovation as a tool for solving social problems. The work aims to summarize the results of the research in social innovation to obtain the complete picture of the key areas of their application, factors affecting sustainable development, and differences in replicating social innovation in developed and developing countries and the Russian Federation. The study used several methods of scientific research: (1) comparative thematic analysis of foreign and domestic scientific works, (2) the study of innovative processes in the social sphere based on open information sources (official websites of the Centers for Social Innovation in 51 regions of Russia and websites containing information about social innovation in 34 Russian regions where the Centers ceased to exist or were not created). The research generalized the positive and negative features of the development of social innovation for the countries of the world. The features of industry research on social innovation were indicated. The author distinguished the factors influencing the sustainable development of social innovation. Additionally, crosscountry differences in social innovation were found. It was determined that, despite the long-term development of individual components of innovation processes in the social sphere, a mature management system has not yet been formed, which is inherent for developed and developing countries. The most complicated social innovation elements are their dissemination and performance assessment, for which corporate strategies are increasingly used. Keywords Social problems · Social change · Innovation · Social innovation · Factors of sustainable development

Y. A. Kuznetcova (B) Novokuznetsk Branch of the Kuzbass State Technical University named after T. F. Gorbachev, Novokuznetsk, Russia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 S. G. Maximova et al. (eds.), Advances in Natural, Human-Made, and Coupled Human-Natural Systems Research, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 250, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-78083-8_30

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1 Introduction The twenty-first century has brought an abundance of new knowledge and technology. However, to date, no sustainable progress was achieved in solving the social problems of society. The emergence of new solutions to meet social needs is usually attributed to social innovation [SI]. Numerous national governments and large organizations recently adopted this term (e.g., OECD, EU, UNESCO, and others). The use of innovations to increase the efficiency and effectiveness of social phenomena and processes is the basis of SI, which is a response to the inability of traditional approaches to solving the pressing problems of society. Even though SI is of decisive importance for a radical improvement in the population’s life, a mature system of their management has not yet been formed. To a greater extent, this applies to develop countries, although not all elements of this system are highly effective even in developed countries. Numerous innovative initiatives emerging at the local level to solve local social problems cannot be further developed due to numerous circumstances. All over the world, SI is the main subject for discussing the features of modern processes of reforming social policy (Sinclair and Baglioni 2018). The key areas of applying SI projects include food security, employment, and care provision for certain population groups. The study results by Langer, Eurich, and Guntner, dedicated to the specifics of innovation in social services, were published in 2019 (Langer et al. 2019). The factors significantly affecting the SI are new technologies, technologization, digital transformation, and contextual innovation. The authors distinguish four groups of actors—agents of innovative social changes: (1) actors initiating innovations at the level of regulation in a system of complex interdependencies (more often, at the macro- and meso-level); (2) actors at the management level advocating the introduction of new processes in their own and other organizations; (3) specialized personnel at the level of implementation of innovations that advocate and promote change based on their professional experience; (4) users, user groups, and their families, who can actively participate in social changes. In modern studies by foreign authors, SI is considered a solution to ensure a sustainable future at the macro and micro levels, since the creation of more value than just profit can lead to a sustainable competitive advantage (Schmitt 2014). Thus, Osburg and Schmidpeter (2013) argue that SI creates value for society and will become a key factor in business success in the near future. Many researchers explain that “there is ample evidence that SI will become increasingly important, not only in terms of social inclusion and equal opportunities to combat the greenhouse effect but also in terms of maintaining and expanding the innovative potential of companies and societies” (Hans-Werner et al. 2012). The key factors affecting the sustainable development of SI are new combinations of social practices and the correspondence of theoretical research and real approaches. The significant influence of society’s aging on the development of SI is highlighted as a specific factor.

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Even though the concept of SI has been discussed worldwide for a long time, the study of its influence on the development of new business strategies is actively developing. Mainly debated is the question that, on the one hand, SI is a factor in transforming corporate social responsibility, and, on the other hand, inclusive business models are increasingly influencing SI. According to L. Portales, corporate SI is becoming the successor to corporate social responsibility. The main factor of corporate SI is social intrapreneurship (corporate entrepreneurship) (Portales 2019). It has been determined that, in recent years, scholars and specialists most often investigate such areas of SI as: (1) the relationship and interdependence of innovative technologies and social change (Majumdar et al. 2015); (2) the role of public and private higher educational institutions in the formation of effective social entrepreneurship; the importance of public administration for the development of SI as a tool to reduce population inequality (Brundenius et al. 2017); (3) the content of innovative projects in some sectors of the social sphere to identify the possibilities of their application to others; the identification of the potential for cooperation of various actors to promote social innovation projects (Cnaan and Vinokur-Kaplan 2015); (4) the importance of entrepreneurial strategies for the development of SI (Shukla 2020). According to research by the leading European charity organization in the field of innovation for society, NESTA (UK), SI is stimulated by having the right strategies and a clear organization to combine real social needs with new, workable ideas to solve them (NESTA 2008). However, very few intermediary bodies function to match the supply of new ideas with their demand. Additionally, funding is highly controversial, and, therefore, the heads of social institutions do not have enough incentives to find and implement new and improved solutions. Despite the apparent obviousness of the “financial” factor, NESTA specialists prioritize the reorientation of managers to new ideas and the desire to think “differently.” Exploring the shortcomings of the SI system in Great Britain, G. Mulgan, a pioneer in SI, cites the following: (1) insufficient understanding of innovation drivers; (2) the lack of intermediary bodies that promote the growth and diffusion of innovations; (3) the volatile market for the dissemination of SI results; (4) legislative, regulatory, and administrative obstacles on the part of the authorities (Mulgan 2019). In 2012, K. Robinson, D. Robinson, and F. Westley proved that SI Agencies are an effective platform for their development and promotion (Robinson et al. 2012). Heather (2012) added that social entrepreneurs are the backbone of the social innovation ecosystem. A similar opinion was expressed by Portales, who pointed out the dual nature of social entrepreneurship. On the one hand, it is a tool to improve the world through social change. On the other hand, social entrepreneurs revolve

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around the commercial side around the business, which leaves its mark on innovative social changes (Portales 2019). In this case, the following become essential elements of social innovation changes: business models and methods of generating value in social enterprises, determination, and coordination of the mutual influence of SI and entrepreneurship. The studies of Asian scientists evidence the importance of partnership for the development of SI. In particular, Hou and Han connected the SI perspectives with the unification of people, business, and technology and the introduction of new forms of organization. Additionally, the authors argue that the social innovation system demonstrates the universal path to a more humane global society (Hou and Han 2016). As for the Russian experience, along with a significant number of effective, innovative ideas in the social sphere and significant coverage of regions with the activities of Innovation Centers in the social sphere, there is insufficient information transparency of their activities, unclear policies (which seems to be one of the factors behind the termination of many of them), and the fragmentation of the SI development (Kuznetcova 2020). Thus, the available scientific groundwork on the indicated problem is significantly diverse and multidirectional. This situation requires a generalization of the research results of leading scientists and specialists to understand: . which areas of SI are subject to the thorough study in the country context, . what factors stand out among those that have a significant impact on the sustainable development of innovative processes in the social sphere, . the fundamental differences in replicating SI in developed and developing countries, since the most challenging thing that any innovation faces is implementation.

2 Materials and Methods Based on the analysis of scientific works of scientists and specialists from different countries, this work examines the specifics of the formation and development of SI. The author conducted a comparative case study of the areas of the greatest application of innovative approaches. The factors with a significant impact on the sustainable development of SI are generalized. The differences in the features of the spread of SI in different countries are revealed. Using the previously obtained results of a two-level study of innovative processes in the social sphere in all Russian regions based on Internet sources, the author revealed the features of the distribution of SI in the country (Kuznetcova 2020). The first level includes 51 regions with the Social Innovation Centers. The second level includes 34 regions where the Social Innovation Centers are ceased to exist or were not created. Russian and foreign experience in this sphere is compared.

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3 Results The analysis of research on innovation processes in the social sphere in different countries of the world made it possible to generalize and highlight the positive and negative features of the latter (Table 1). It was determined that the greatest need for the development of new approaches in developed countries relates to global processes (for example, social inequality, gender problems, environmental crisis, etc.) and spheres that drive innovative changes (creative economy and culture, education, health, artificial intelligence, etc.). In developing countries, SI is necessary for better implementation of basic human needs. In Russia, particular emphasis is placed on the sphere of social protection of the population, education, and culture. A new area of research in different countries of the world is studying the peculiarities, relationships, and mutual influence of the corporate sector as a recipient and user of SI, and the area of SI as a new area of using corporate strategies and business tools. Generalization of the research results in terms of identifying the factors that have the most significant impact on the sustainable development of SI made it possible to single out the following: (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)

psychographic features of the initiator, recipient, and conductor of the SI; entrepreneurial abilities of the SI initiator; the features of the medium for the propagation of SI; the functionality of the Centers for Social Innovation; the quality of interaction of stakeholders with government authorities; the opportunities of the corporate sector and science in support of SI.

Table 1 Positive and negative characteristics of the SI development process Positive features

Negative features

1. Increasing the speed of SI penetration into traditional approaches to solving social problems of society

1. The lack of stability and the survival rate of SI; often, their single-use nature

2. Increased demand for innovative ideas, the scale of SI

2. Low adaptability of SI, instability of supply and demand

3. The business’s growing focus on the implementation of SI and the focus of SI on corporate strategies

3. Poor study of the issue of assessing the impact of innovative approaches on social change, assessing the effectiveness of SI, and tools for their dissemination

4. The recognition of the need to form a single SI platform at all levels of government. The development of Social Innovation Centers

4. Insufficient understanding of the content of SI among the majority of the population. Pronounced territorial fragmentation of the SI development

5. Expanding the network of actors of the social innovation system

5. The lack of a transparent system of vertical and horizontal interaction between actors

Source Compiled by the authors

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Table 2 Cross-country differences in the spread of SI Developed countries

Developing countries

Russia

1. Government support in identifying and implementing the most significant SI

1. Local government support for low-cost initiatives

1. The most active SI distribution processes are observed at the horizontal level (social entrepreneur—social entrepreneur)

2. A well-developed network of coworking spaces with a wide range of services offered at various rates

2. Focus on the broad promotion of those initiatives that can meet the basic needs of society with high efficiency at low cost

2. The growing importance of Innovation Centers in the social sphere, mainly in consulting and training services

3. The availability of highly specialized Innovation Centers in the social sphere dealing with 1–2 areas across the entire range of work

3. Strong focus on partnerships to stimulate the replication of innovative projects

3. The high importance of network communities and social networks during the distribution of SI

4. Large-scale information support

4. The orientation to the principles of circular (circular) economy in the formation of the SI system

Source Compiled by the authors

The study of the specifics of spreading innovative social ideas beyond the place of their origin and local implementation in different countries made it possible to identify fundamental differences without taking into account European, American, and Asian features (Table 2).

4 Discussion Social innovation is the area where success largely depends on effective partnerships between charismatic and committed citizens. Difficulties of perception and acceptance always accompany the emergence of something new. However, SI is often something that people initiate themselves or wait for their appearance because they solve many social problems using new approaches based on unusual ideas. SI have specific features in different countries of the world. This concerns the structural content of SI, the area of application, and the control system. Generalization of foreign experience from positive and negative features of the development of SI allowed us to obtain some of them inherent in innovative processes in the social sphere in any country. In developed and developing countries and Russia, the positive dynamics of the emergence of SI are increasing. Simultaneously, the initiators of ideas in the overwhelming number must not be seekers of income sources but those who have experienced or are experiencing the negative impact of a particular social

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problem. However, one cannot but focus on the significant territorial difference in the flexibility of responding to changes in the external environment. Business representatives are increasingly involved in the search and implementation of the most effective approach to social problems. Nowadays, they, along with the state, recognize the high potential of SI. Their joint actions lead to the emergence of new structures that become a single platform for implementing high-quality activities by social innovators (in particular, the Centers for Innovation in the Social Sphere). The negative processes of SI development are associated with the meaningful features of the social innovations themselves and external influences. Such negative processes as the imbalances in supply and demand of the SI, the difficulty in replicating effective, innovative ideas, and the presence of insufficient methodological developments on issues of assessing the effectiveness of SI and the parameters of the impact on social change are manifested most of all. A comparative analysis of the greatest application branches and using innovative social ideas allows us to speak of a sharp territorial differentiation. Thus, if developed countries are experiencing the great need for the search and implementation of SI in global problems of society, then developing countries need SI to satisfy the basic needs of the population. The implementation of SI in Russia is most marked with assistance to people in difficult situations. As with any other area of life, SI is influenced by numerous factors. The most significant influence on the sustainable development of the SI is exerted by those innovations that characterize the SI actors, the environment for the dissemination of innovations, the activities of supporting organizations, and, which is especially important, the interaction of all persons interested in the development of this sector. It seems that special attention should be paid to the study of those factors that influence the spread of SI, since, in the conditions of the need to achieve high-quality social change, the key task is to bring SI to the maximum number of interested recipients.

5 Conclusion Thus, social innovation is a recognized tool for solving social problems of society, a condition for sustainable social change. However, this is an area that, despite its high importance, requires the comprehensive support of a significant number of actors. The population largely determines the success of SI. This provision should be the basis for forming an effective system for SI control based on the use of its advantages and consideration of disadvantages in different countries.

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References Brundenius C, Goransson B, Carvalho de Mello JM (2017) Universities, inclusive development, and social innovation. Springer International Publishing, Cham, Switzerland Cnaan RA, Vinokur-Kaplan D (2015) Cases in innovation nonprofits: organizations that make a difference. SAGE Publication Pvl. Ltd., Lonon, UK Hans-Werner F, Hochgerner J, Howaldt J (2012) Challenge social innovation. Springer-Verlag, Berlin Heidelberg, Berlin, Germany Heather C (2012) Social entrepreneurs in the social innovation ecosystem. In: Nicholls A, Murdock A (eds) Social innovation: blurring boundaries to reconfigure markets. Palgrave Macmillan UK, London, UK, pp 199–220 Hou S-T, Han I (2016) Social innovation and business in Taiwan. Palgrave Macmillan, New York, NY Innovation Foundation “NESTA” (2018) Social innovation: new approaches to transforming public services. Retrieved from https://media.nesta.org.uk/documents/social_innovation.pdf Kuznetcova YuA (2020) Social innovations in the Russian Federation: Institutional and informational aspects. IP Petrovsky, K. V, Novokuznetsk, Russia Langer A, Eurich J, Guntner S (2019) Innovation in social services. VS Verlag fur Sozialwissenschaften, Wiesbaden, Germany Majumdar S, Guha S, Marakkath N (2015) Technology and innovation for social change. Springer India, New Delhi, India Mulgan G (2019) Social innovation. In: Mulgan G (ed) How societies find the power to change. Policy Press, Bristol, UK, p 306 Osburg T, Schmidpeter R (2013) Social innovation—solutions for a sustainable future. SpringerVerlag, Berlin Heidelberg, Berlin, Germany Portales L (2019) Social innovation and social entrepreneurship: fundamentals, concepts, and tools. Palgrave Macmillan, Geneva, Switzerland Robinson K, Robinson D, Westley F (2012) Agency in social innovation: putting the model in the model of the agent. In: Nicholls A, Murdock A (eds) Social innovation: blurring boundaries to reconfigure markets. Palgrave Macmillan UK, London, UK, pp 162–177 Schmitt J (2014) Social innovation for business success. Shared value in the apparel industry. Gabler Verlag, Wiesbaden, Germany Shukla M (2020) Social entrepreneurship in India. Quarter idealism and a pound of pragmatism. SAGE Publication Pvl. Ltd., London, UK Sinclair S, Baglioni S (2018) Social innovation and social policy. Theory, policy, and practice. Policy Press, Bristol, UK

The Balance of Private and Public Interests to Accelerate the Development of Regional Institutions Andrey L. Pachin , Ekaterina S. Simonova , and Elena E. Smetanina

Abstract The paper aims to study the main elements of the legal status of regional development institutions, which are understood as organizations created to ensure innovative, industrial, and economic development of constituent entities of the Russian Federation. This goal is achieved by providing investment entities with legal, financial, and marketing services, guarantees, sureties, grants, and subsidies. Regional development institutions perform an essential public function, which is expressed in creating conditions for investment activities in the regions and ensuring a balance of private and public interests in implementing investment projects. This function should be taken into account in the development of legislation regulating the legal status of regional development institutions, particularly such elements as the organizational and legal form of activity, funding sources, goals and types of activities, and the presence of power. Keywords Regional development institutions · Legal status · Private and public interests · Investments · Development of territories

1 Introduction In Russia, more than 70% of development institutions were initially created at the federal level (Vilensky et al. 2015). These include: “Federal Corporation for the Development of Small and Medium Enterprises” JSC, “Bank for Development and Foreign Economic Affairs” State Corporation (Vnesheconombank), “Fund for Assistance to Small Forms of Enterprises in the Scientific and Technical Sphere” Federal State Budgetary Institution [FSBI], “Russian Venture Company” JSC, and others. Regional development institutions [RDIs] are of great importance in ensuring sustainable development. These are organizations, the main purpose of which is to ensure the innovative, industrial, and economic development of Russia’s federal A. L. Pachin · E. S. Simonova · E. E. Smetanina (B) Orel State University Named After I. S. Turgenev, Orel, Russia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 S. G. Maximova et al. (eds.), Advances in Natural, Human-Made, and Coupled Human-Natural Systems Research, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 250, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-78083-8_31

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constituent entities. This goal is achieved by organizing and supporting investment projects implemented in a particular constituent entity of Russia. In particular, regional development institutions provide consulting, legal, and organizational support to the investor when concluding an investment agreement with state authorities of Russia’s constituent entity. RDIs also coordinate people involved in the creation of investment infrastructure and the construction of industrial parks. There are currently more than 200 development institutions operating in Russia (Ministry of Economic Development of the Russian Federation n.d.). RDIs are also called regional development agencies, regional development corporations, investment agencies, regional industrial development funds, management companies of innovative territorial clusters, etc. Simultaneously, they are created in the organizational and legal forms of commercial organizations (mainly joint-stock companies) and non-profit organizations (government agencies, foundations, and associations). The correct choice of the organizational and legal form is vital for the RDIs’ status because the form affects the ability to endow RDIs with the necessary powers and affects property responsibility and the possibility of direct participation in investment legal relations. Because the powers of regional development institutions extend to a limited territory (the subject of the Russian Federation), the legal consolidation of their status should be carried out at the regional legislation level. In the literature, the opinion is expressed that there is a need for the centralized legal regulation of the activities of regional development institutions, which will unify their legal status and consolidate their powers to the extent necessary to achieve set goals (Vasilieva 2017). However, even federal development institutions do not have unified legal regulations. Their legal status depends on the organizational and legal form in which they are created. In the absence of a special federal law on the corresponding development institution (as, for example, in the case of state corporations, for each of which the government adopted a separate federal law), the main burden of regulating the legal status of the federal development institution falls on the constituent documents of a particular legal entity. In them, the goals of creation, types of activities, the system of governing bodies, and sources of financing are determined. Thus, local regulation specifying the general norms of federal legislation is of great importance. The observance of the principle of balance between private and public interests is essential in forming the RDIs’ terms of reference. The reason for this is that the activities of institutions include elements of public administration with the use of mechanisms for attracting business entities to solve public problems, particularly the tasks of economic and social development of territories. As noted in special studies, ensuring a balance of interests has a particular specificity depending on the type of legal relationship (Bogdanova and Pyankova 2019). Another critical problem in forming the RDIs’ status is the delineation of the competence of institutions and public authorities operating in the field of investment development and the competence between several RDIs operating in one region. It should be noted that not all researchers equally assess the importance of development institutions to achieve economic goals. Such institutions may matter, but they are not exclusive (Sachs 2003).

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2 Materials and Methods The study aimed to use a complex of scientific knowledge methods, which included general and special scientific methods. The systematic approach was chosen as the primary research method. Using this method, the authors managed to approach the study of the legal status of regional development institutions as a set of elements united by the principle of maintaining a balance of private and public interests. The application of a systematic approach was also manifested in the study of the legal status of RDIs, enshrined at the regional level and federal legislation. The analysis also occupies an important place among the used methods. In particular, the authors analyzed the information contained in regional and federal legislation, reports of state authorities, reports of scientific organizations, reports of nonprofit organizations operating in the field of investment development (Russian Federation 2014; Government of the Kurgan Region 2013; Ministry of Economic Development of the Russian Federation n.d.; Vilensky et al. 2015; Non-profit Organization “National Association of Investment and Development Agencies” 2016). Along with the methods indicated above, the work used structural–functional, formal-legal, and comparative-legal methods. All the used methods allowed us to study the research subject comprehensively and draw theoretical and practically significant conclusions.

3 Results RDIs solve several public tasks while not being state authorities and local selfgovernment bodies. The constituent entities of the Russian Federation are the founders of RDIs. The analysis of regional development programs approved by the supreme executive authorities of the constituent entities of Russia showed that the creation of new regional development institutions is a priority area of the regional investment policy (Government of the Kurgan Region 2013; Government of the Orel Region 2017; Government of the Arkhangelsk Region 2019). The choice of organizational and legal form is essential for the legal status of the RDIs. RDIs are mainly created in the form of JSC, autonomous non-profit organizations, government agencies, and foundations. The chosen form should take into account the RDIs’ powers. It is advisable to create an RDIs in the form of a joint-stock company if a direct participation in the implementation of commercial projects, the provision of services, and the creation of investment infrastructure in the absence or minimal presence of regulatory functions are predominant. As an essential element of the legal status of RDIs, one can name the source of funding for activities. Government contracts, grants, and subsidies (funding from the state budget) can be the primary source of funding for the RDIs created in the form of a non-profit organization. RDIs organized as JSC have entrepreneurial activity as the primary source of income.

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4 Discussion A cursory analysis of the organizational and legal forms of federal development institutions [FDI] shows a wide variety. FDI can be commercial (joint-stock companies) and non-commercial (state corporations and state budgetary institutions). We see the same diversity when studying the organizational and legal forms of RDIs. The analysis of the constituent documents of RDIs, created in the form of jointstock companies, shows that, despite the status of a commercial organization, their activities are initially focused on meeting public interests (“Murmansk Region Development Corporation” JSC 2019; “Orel Region Development Corporation” JSC 2016). In most cases, the RDIs’ features indicate social and public goals (creating and promoting a region’s positive image, creating new jobs, increasing the growth of entrepreneurial activities, developing natural resources, and others) as the main goals of their activities (“Orel Region Development Corporation” JSC 2016; “Corporation for the Development of the Far East” PJSC 2014). The goals of making a profit, as a rule, go last, which indicates that profit is a concomitant goal of the activities of such companies. Additionally, the analysis of the types of activities carried out by FDI leads to the conclusion that their main goal is to reconcile private interests (investors) and public interests (state bodies). For example, the charters of various FDI include such activities as the development of interaction mechanisms within the framework of investment projects of regional government bodies, local government, and private investors; the organization of interaction between government bodies, business, investors, and scientific resources; the coordination of interaction between participants in investment projects, etc. (“Corporation ‘Development’” JSC 2018; “Tula Region Development Corporation” JSC 2015; “Samara Region Development Corporation” OJSC 2008). The RDIs’ role in this aspect is reduced to the role of an intermediary between a private investor and public authorities. Thus, it is the coordination of private and public interests that underlies the activities of such organizations. At the same time, in the constituent documents, along with the listed types of activities, there may be specified types of activities that are purely commercial (investment, production activities, renting out real estate objects, providing consulting services (support of transactions for the acquisition of land plots, legal advice, and business plan preparation)) (“Kaluga Region Development Corporation” JSC 2015; “Tula Region Development Corporation” JSC 2015). This fact lays the foundation for the status of an independent, active participant in economic turnover. This makes it possible to ensure RDIs’ financing activities at their own expense without funding from the state budget. However, the commercial activities of RDIs are limited by the goals for which the RDIs were created. In this regard, a situation may arise from insufficient funds necessary to solve the tasks assigned to the RDI. It is believed that development institutions should receive support from the state budget since the commercialization of development institutions entails their refusal to perform social functions (Morozkina 2019).

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One constituent entity of Russia can have several RDIs of different organizational and legal forms. For example, in one region, RDIs can be created to support industry investment projects in the following forms: . development corporation in the form of a JSC (functions: legal services, development, marketing, and financial services); . state autonomous institution (functions: the provision of grants, subsidies, services for organizing exhibitions, and information and consulting support); . state fund for entrepreneurship support (functions: financing of events, programs, and projects aimed at supporting and developing entrepreneurship); . state guarantee fund (functions: attracting off-budget sources of financing, consulting services, and providing sureties and guarantees). Some regional development institutions have the status of management companies in the advanced special economic zone. Their legal status is regulated by the Federal Law “On the territories of advanced socio-economic development in the Russian Federation” (December 29, 2014 No. 473-FZ) (Russian Federation 2014). To ensure the placement of infrastructure facilities in the advanced special economic zone, the management company performs several functions that usually belong to state authorities or local governments (e.g., it organizes the construction and operation of highways). Similar functions are performed by the management companies of special economic zones, the legal status of which is regulated by the Federal Law of “On special economic zones in the Russian Federation” (July 22, 2005 No. 116FZ) (Russian Federation 2005). The financing of the activities of the management company is carried out at the expense of the company, state, and municipal budgets. The question of the RDIs’ role in the implementation of public–private partnerships is still debatable. There is an opinion that RDIs cannot play an active role in organizing a public–private partnership since the parties to the relevant agreement (the state and the investor) have enough own resources to conclude and execute it (Non-profit Organization “National Association of Investment and Development Agencies” 2016). State authorities perform the functions of preparing documents, analyzing their content, and conducting the procedure for agreeing on conditions. The role of RDIs in agreements concluded within the framework of a public– private partnership can only consist of finding an investor and ensuring information support for the project. At the same time, the literature indicates the positive value of an intermediary in public–private partnerships. An important role is played by a subject who has no motive for making a profit, who can initiate and develop relations between public and private partners and act as an intermediary in contract formation (Fife and Hosman 2014).

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5 Conclusion RDIs are a special tool that allows coordinating the interests of individuals (as a rule, private investors) and the public (subjects of the Russian Federation) in the most active form. It focuses on the implementation of investment projects to achieve a balance between private and public interests that should determine the peculiarity of the RDI’s legal status. We should agree with researchers’ proposals on the need to develop a unified normative act that will regulate the RDI’s legal status, taking into account their public role. The choice of the organizational and legal form of the RDIs should be carried out by the founder, taking into account the RDIs’ functions in the relevant territory. The organizational and legal form will create boundaries for determining the financing sources for RDIs’ activities, the limits of their property liability, the system of governing bodies, and the possibility of carrying out entrepreneurial activities. RDIs’ activity is more effective if it has a specialization, i.e., it focuses on solving narrow problems. In this regard, it is advisable to create several RDIs’ in one region, correlating their organizational and legal forms with the performed functions. In the case of the creation of several RDIs, it is essential to delimit their functions and avoid duplication.

References Corporation ‘Development’ JSC (2018) The charter of the “Corporation ‘Development’” JSC. Retrieved from https://belgorodinvest.com/ru/about_corporation/documents/ “Corporation for the Development of the Far East” PJSC (2014) The charter of the “Corporation for the Development of the Far East” PJSC. Retrieved http://www.tigrup.ru/o-nac/akcionepami-ivectopam/yctav-i-vnytpennie-dokymenty “Corporation for the Development of the Samara Region” OJSC (2008) The charter of the “Tula Region Development Corporation” OJSC. Retrieved from https://razvitie63.ru/about/inf ormation/ “Kaluga Region Development Corporation” JSC (2015) The charter of the “Kaluga Region Development Corporation” JSC. Retrieved from http://invest.kaluga.ru/about/investors/ “Murmansk Region Development Corporation” JSC (2019) The charter of the “Murmansk Region Development Corporation” JSC. Retrieved from https://invest-murman.ru/vnutrennie-dokume nty-korporacii “Orel Region Development Corporation” JSC (2016) The charter of the “Orel Region Development Corporation” JSC. Retrieved from http://invest-orel.ru/articles/development_corporation “Tula Region Development Corporation” JSC (2015) The charter of the “Tula Region Development Corporation” JSC. Retrieved from https://invest-tula.com/about/regulations/ Bogdanova EE, Pyankova AF (2019) Balance of interests as a method of civil research. Methodol Probl Civ Res 1:135–146 Fife E, Hosman L (2014) Public-private partnerships and the prospects for sustainable ICT projects in the developing world. J Bus Syst Gov Ethics 2:57–70 Government of the Arkhangelsk Region (2019) State program of the Arkhangelsk region “Economic development and investment activities in the Arkhangelsk region.” Retrieved from https://base. garant.ru/72883268/

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Government of the Kurgan Region (2013) State program of the Kurgan region aimed at creating favorable conditions for attracting investment in the Kurgan region’s economy for 2014–2019. Retrieved from https://base.garant.ru/18371180/ Government of the Orel Region (2017) The investment strategy of the Orel region “Open Eagle” for the period up to 2020. Retrieved from https://base.garant.ru/45057782/ Ministry of Economic Development of the Russian Federation (n.d.) Activities of development institutions. Retrieved from http://old.economy.gov.ru/minec/activity/sections/instdev/institute Morozkina AK (2019) National development institutions and budgetary risks: international and Russian practice. Public Adm Issues 3:175–192 Non-profit Organization “National Association of Investment and Development Agencies” (2016) The research of regional development institutions: From feats to systemic work. Retrieved from http://naair.ru/articles/category/id/2 Russian Federation (2005) Federal law “On special economic zones in the Russian Federation” (July 22, 2005 No. 116-FZ). Retrieved from https://www.consultant.ru/document/cons_doc_LAW_ 54599/ Russian Federation (2014) Federal law “On the territories of advanced social and economic development in the Russian Federation” (December 29, 2014 No. 473-FZ). Retrieved from https:// www.consultant.ru/document/cons_doc_LAW_172962/ Sachs J (2003) Institutions matter, but not for everything. The role of geography and resource endowments in development should not be underestimated. Financ Dev 40:38–41 Vasilieva ON (2017) On the issue of systematization of regulatory legal acts regulating the activities of regional development institutions. Bull Moscow Region State Univ Ser Jurisprud 4:82 Vilensky AV, Bakhtizin AR, Valentik ON, Bukhvald EM, Gligich-Zolotareva MV, Domnina IN, Odintsova OV (2015) Scientific report: Development institutions as an instrument of regional policy. Retrieved from https://inecon.org/docs/Vilensky_paper_20151222.pdf

Challenges to Social Structures Monitoring in the Arctic Regions Oleg V. Tolstoguzov

and Maria A. Pitukhina

Abstract The paper claims that effective public monitoring is necessary to achieve a “digital maturity” within the social sphere and effective civil society. While society’s digitalization and social networks role are increasing, a monitoring observation system should be formed as an information and expert system, implemented based on experts’ knowledge and models, using up-to-date communication technologies. The research aims to propose an appropriate communication model within social systems to assess and forecast social capital. Functions of the latter include information circulation and social capital regulation of ensuring the stability of social relations. The paper presents a structured research program that aims to conceptualize a social system communication model. The authors present the results of migrants’ and host populations’ pilot research in four Arctic regions. They use both traditional sociological measurements and Internet service. Based on chaos theory (synergetics) methods, the authors propose a structural model that assesses social climate. The model is implemented as an index method for assessing the likelihood of interethnic conflict between migrants and the host population. The social climate in the two pilot regions turned out to be more sensitive and less tolerant. Methodological requirements for conducting IT surveys are also presented to achieve sociological data performance. Keywords Social system · Socio-cultural space · Social capital · Social climate · Migration · Communication model · Communication index · Internet survey

1 Introduction To evaluate both national projects and state programs’ target indicators and get an objective knowledge of shifts in social relations structure in today’s digital economy O. V. Tolstoguzov (B) · M. A. Pitukhina Institute of Economics of the Karelian Research Centre of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Petrozavodsk, Russia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 S. G. Maximova et al. (eds.), Advances in Natural, Human-Made, and Coupled Human-Natural Systems Research, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 250, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-78083-8_32

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and information society, it is necessary to organize effective social systems monitoring. Public monitoring is not just an interest manifestation of public relations. It also promotes digital maturity. Another important monitoring system aspect is dealing with methodological and cognitive regulators. In this context, it is necessary to perceive social communications connecting socio-cultural space by which we imply norms and values and intercultural interactions. As a result, institutions, communicants, and recipients pursue particular goals, including stimulating and encouraging social groups to take specific actions and establish norms. Currently, we are witnessing a new reality formation. The key moments in social development are current technologies aimed at knowledge application. At the same time, it is not only about the social system’s large-scale technological modernization. It is also about the network development of the digital economy, the establishment of the information society, new threats, and challenges reflected in structural shifts of public relations. In particular, “anthropogenic mobiles” (movement of people, cultures, and knowledge) are increasingly revealing geopolitical tools and, in this regard, becoming an important factor influencing both the economic and social sphere. Therefore, a large-scale digital transformation of national goals results in national security contexts of socio-cultural sustainability. Monitoring is one of the channels for obtaining information necessary for analyzing community problems in conflict situations and public readiness for joint activities and interaction with authorities in a new geopolitical and socio-economic situation (Tolstoguzov et al. 2017). Structural changes in society under the influence of internal and external factors (including migration) (Pitukhina et al. 2019; Tolstoguzov and Pitukhina 2017; 2020) show that it is necessary to monitor social relations structure sustainability together with its cultural profile. This phenomenon exacerbates interethnic and interreligious contradictions between various ethnocultural groups within many security contexts, increases social tension, and defragments the local community through ethnic enclaves’ development. There are several factors influencing migration, namely: • • • • • • •

Geopolitical (Bauman 1998); Social (Adedeji 2019); Demographic (Lee 1966); Cultural (Levitt 1998); Geographic (Waite 2009); Globalization; New communication technologies (Iqbal et al. 2019; Solimano 2010).

At the same time Internet, social networks, and communities are developing everywhere. New forms of civil society organizations constitute serious competition between them. Therefore, considering the need for an effective and prompt response to global challenges, it is necessary to develop social networks and communication technologies. The latter envisages not only the more active participation of the population in posing problems, putting forward, and discussing options for

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solving social problems but also provides (through the right incentives) support for stakeholders’ partnership to curb confrontational actions in social development. The methodology for such participation is developed within several areas in the socio-cultural space structure, such as (1) communicative planning, (2) deliberative democracy, (3) computerized group work, and (4) an approach to human–machine development (Healey 1992; Hollan 2000; Przygodski and Kina 2015). Today, in terms of migration challenges, it is evident that social systems research should include social transformation, as its central categories are “migration” and “social transformation” (Castles 2010). The latter affects social connections, which form social capital with its regulator—the communication model. In an information society, the Internet and social media create a new interactive environment that can connect stakeholders. To organize monitoring and predict structural changes in society, it is advisable to use various analytical tools that describe crosscommunication in a socio-cultural space. In particular, communication models represent a communicative process and promote various semantic and visual constructions. The main problem is capturing and integrating various opinions that arise on social media (Leon et al. 2017; Noothigattu et al. 2018). Thus, in the context of migration challenges and society, the digitalization monitoring system should be formed as information and expert systems are implemented based on experts’ knowledge, strategic planning models, and communication technologies. The research aims to propose an appropriate communication model to monitor social systems to assess and forecast social capital. The latter should reflect information circulation and reflect possibilities of social capital in social relations stability structure ensuring.

2 Materials and Methods The Arctic is traditionally an interesting and relevant research object because of its development, especially in sustainable development. Despite the high importance of the region, the Arctic migration challenge is not sufficiently studied, especially its ethnic and social communities’ sustainability. When studying such a complex phenomenon as migration, it is necessary to consider the characteristics of recipient territories. The Arctic regions are characterized by low population density and geographical isolation of settlements. Therefore, it is necessary to consider current migration challenges (Heleniak 2014), geographical and communications peculiarities in which social network role grows. The authors proposed a structured research program using data obtained from sociological surveys. Empirical data processing is based on both traditional and new tools of sociological evaluations. The pilot research was conducted in 2018 in several Arctic regions using traditional technologies and IT services. Surveys of the host population and migrants were carried out within two municipalities in each of the four pilots’ Arctic regions (Republic of Sakha (Yakutia), Murmansk Region, Chukotka Autonomous Okrug,

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Republic of Karelia). In total, the authors identified the following eight municipalities—Yakutsk, Verkhnevilyuysky District, Murmansk, Severomorsk, Petrozavodsk, Kondopozhsky District, Anadyr, Anadyrsky District. The authors developed two survey types—for migrants (400 questionnaires in a paper form) and the host community via Google Service. Some of the responses were coded using the Likert and Thurstone sociological scales. Considering the close relationship between citizens’ digital activities and their offline practices, the authors used current information technologies. The Information Technology [IT] survey data was verified according to system archetypes and mathematical models of society’s behavior, developed based on sociological surveys that the authors conducted before. The e-interviews were structured with closed-end questions. This questionnaire was programmed in a Google Form. The potential of social networks was also applied. Relevant notifications were posted in VKontakte groups (Anadyr (Chukotka), Anadyr Announcements, ProMurmansk—the capital of the Arctic!, yakutsk_news, Neryungri). The number of respondents (both foreign labor migrants and host community members) in four Russian Arctic regions amounted to 800 people (200 respondents from four Arctic regions). In addition to methodological support, the research task was based on current knowledge engineering, logical chain development using sign systems analysis (providing full-fledged communication processes), and other current analytical methods of information processing. Particularly, the authors included analytical methods of exact and social sciences. They also developed a structural mathematical model to (1) assess the local instability degree of society structure and (2) diagnose social communications within statistical mechanics.

3 Results The paper presents the results of pilot research conducted in 2018 in four Arctic regions. The obtained results of foreign labor migrant surveys allowed developing the Arctic migrant profile and highlighting factors that affect their cultural adaptation and integration into the local community. Notably, the circular migration defined in the “World Migration. Managing Labour Mobility in the Evolving Global Economy” (International Organization for Migration (IOM) 2008) is now becoming irreversible. It is stimulated by technological progress in communications, transport, and further labor market liberalization (Graeme 2013). Socio-economic factors (unemployment rate, wages, etc.) and some other characteristics representing foreign labor migration in the regional labor market were measured as indicators characterizing migrants’ profile. The results showed that the largest number of foreign labor migrants are coming to the Murmansk Region since the government implemented several investment projects. Currently, this region is considered the Arctic driver. Ukraine citizens usually come to Chukotka Autonomous District, Kyrgyzstan—to the Republic of

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Fig. 1 Top 5 donor-states of foreign labor migration in the Arctic. Source Compiled by the authors

Sakha (Yakutia), migrants from Central Asia (Tajikistan and Uzbekistan)—to the Republic of Karelia and Murmansk Region (Fig. 1). The unemployment rate (data of 2018) in the countries mentioned above is higher than in Russia (5.2%): Uzbekistan—7.2%, Kyrgyzstan—7.3, Ukraine—9.5, Tajikistan—10.3. This reason, as well as a higher salary, are two stimulating factors to migrate. Migrants who come to the mentioned Arctic regions are satisfied with the quality of life, living and work conditions, and wages. It confirms the importance of general socio-economic factors but does not exclude the influence of other regulators, including communication. To evaluate cross-cultural communication, the authors used the respondents’ (migrants) answers to the following questions: • • • • • •

Do you speak your native language in Russia? How often do you communicate in your native language with compatriots? Where do you communicate with compatriots? Where do you communicate with the host community? Why did you choose this region for work? Who helped you to get employed?

Figures 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7 reveal differences in communication between migrants in piloted regions. Figures are constructed following respondents’ answers. Foreign labor migrants who come to the Arctic communicate with compatriots, mainly, at workplaces and home, including social networks. These data support Granovetters’ theory of social media importance (Chantarat and Barrett 2012; Galster 2012). Social connections (social networks) as a form of social capital are considered as a factor that increases competitiveness in the labor market. Therefore, migrants’ interaction can also be explained by social networks (Figs. 6 and 7).

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Fig. 2 Cross-cultural communication of foreign labor migrants in the Arctic (“Where do you communicate with the host population more often?”). Source Compiled by the authors

Fig. 3 Cross-cultural communication of foreign labor migrants in the Arctic (“Where do you communicate with your compatriots when you are in the Arctic region?”). Source Compiled by the authors

4 Discussion In the context of the “digital” challenge, it is vital to understand how an ethnos (sub-ethnic group and local community) can maintain homeostasis in social relation structures. Its recognizable ethnocultural profile is known as “gestalt,” meaning both “structure” and “image,” “form,” and “integrity.” Thus, there is not just a certain number of social relations, but stable semantic, visual constructions that include local community identity or a separate ethnic enclave. It addresses the controversial

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Fig. 4 Cross-cultural communication of foreign labor migrants in the Arctic (“How often do you communicate in your native language with compatriots?”). Source Compiled by the authors

Fig. 5 Cross-cultural communication of foreign labor migrants in the Arctic (“Do you speak your native language in Russia?”). Source Compiled by the authors

question of how stable these semantic constructions are and how a sub-ethnos is subjected to both external and internal factors to maintain its “gestalt.” On the one hand, social communication is a conscious, appropriate informational impact on people, which can be both individual and group-oriented. On the other hand, it is a complex, multifaceted process of establishing and developing contacts between people, connecting them with information transfer and practical actions, elements of mutual understanding, feelings, and emotions. An important element of

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Fig. 6 Factors of social networks for labor migrants in the Arctic (“Who helped you to get employed?”). Source Compiled by the authors

Fig. 7 Factors of social networks for labor migrants in the Arctic (“Why did you choose this region for work?”). Source Compiled by the authors

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communications is their target orientation, such as the impact on public opinion and public consciousness. The vector of communication development depends on intercultural communications, which is a zone of the conjugation of institutional matrices, cultural codes, etc. Therefore, it is advisable to harmonize regulatory institutions to use communication models effectively, promote cultural code, and organize effective intercultural communication. As it follows from previous communication analysis, the transmission of gestalt requires careful development of elements of the communication model, namely: • • • • •

Generator of messages, cultural codes; The communicant (including the translator of messages and cultural codes); Channels of information transmission; Recipient (including mechanisms for decoding and building institutions); Monitoring (feedback).

The generator encodes a semantic or visual construction within the identity context. Identity factors, together with a collaboration culture, are critical. The paper (Tolstoguzov and Pitukhina 2017), using the example of Karelia, presents several reasons that lead to a violation of social relations structure in other ethno-cultural groups religions united by a single cultural code. By its genesis, this core has not only a solid fundamental (invariant) part but also a variable part evolving under the influence of various factors. Invariants (empirically measured identification features that remain relatively unchanged in time and space dimensions) and socio-cultural space inversions are revealed (Tolstoguzov and Pitukhina 2017). In particular, Protestant, Catholic, and Muslim inversions were identified in the socio-cultural landscape of Karelia, where the Orthodox Christian faith predominates. Both semantic and visual coding consider, if necessary, migrants’ attraction and adaptation. According to a well-known theory of “pull” and “push” factors by Stouffer (1940), Lee (1966), the decision to migrate is influenced by limiting factors (distance, cost of transportation and housing, etc.) and stimulating factors (high wages, employment, etc.). The communicant as a message translator promotes coded information through certain institutions (formal and informal). At the same time, they actively use new forms of organization (Internet communications, social networks, and communities). Due to traditional life worlds disintegration and increase in post-modern societies life concepts, society is becoming more fragmented. As a result, the heterogeneity of life values and lifestyle has a strong impact on society, its structure, and social systems quality assessment. People are more or less (or even not) interested in social life depending on what interests and values are significant in terms of the ponding life world. At the same time, with changes in social consciousness, there appears and actively introduced a new system of connections between social consciousness elements. On the Internet, a public space invades personal space, the individual—expands to the volume of the universe, the boundaries between external and internal space are erased (Abraham 1996; Abraham et al. 2000). Therefore, the Internet either “breaks”

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(conflict between private and public) civil society (as an institutional form of sociocultural space) or becomes a platform for interactions between knowledge (experts) and power, civil society, and power. With a growing audience, the Internet is becoming a means of not just mass but global communication, crossing national borders and uniting world information resources into a single system. Society is transformed under the pressure of communication or culture; culture and language themselves change under the pressure of public consciousness (Abraham et al. 2000). Present society (with a traditional organization) was challenged by the so-called “Network society.” To cause a conflict in society today, a formal organization is not needed; it is enough to launch a provocative “fake” into a social network. Information and communication networks (the Internet) increase their impact on migration as a systemic problem (Iqbal et al. 2020). Social networks (family ties, friendship, common descent, and other communications) transfer knowledge and other resources. The wider the network structure, the wider the range of available resources (Cattell 2012; Iqbal et al. 2019). Networks disseminate job opportunities information, facilitate contacts between the job seeker and the employer, and influence positive feedback on the job seeker. It is not just the interaction of people but the space formation of interpersonal economic relations. Transnational ties allow people to connect through ideas and identity (Pan 2015; Waite and Smith 2017), reduce risks and costs of the migration movement. Local communities use mass media, social groups (relatives, acquaintances), and Internet connections as channels for transmitting the information. Figure 8 shows the rating of information sources on the events within the local community (data for the Republic of Karelia).

Fig. 8 Information sources of the events within the local Arctic community (“How do you usually know what is happening in your area (city, village)?”). Source Compiled by the authors

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A recipient is a person who decodes information in a certain way. At the same time, some changes occur in the language as a communication base, which, in turn, gives rise to global transformations in society institutions and individual social groups. The authors note the following important aspects: • Encoding and decoding information. The most important factor in local community development is reliable information delivery. The complexity lies in the fact that it is necessary to achieve general cultural integration within the society (including migrants’ integration) of global geopolitical changes and networking development. We are talking about both society structure and the quality of global communications. Today when we are experiencing a cultural tradition breakdown. The problem of trust appears in the information verification form. All this imposes special requirements on the trust and new social order development adequate to new geopolitical challenges; • The second aspect concerns the institutional design, built, and aimed at possible conflicts extinguishing. Particularly, it is necessary to consider the risks and factors of instability, which can be explained using the theory of social comparison by Festinger and the theory of psychological climate (Arevalo et al. 2015; Li et al. 2016; Norris et al. 2011). In this case, we assume migrants’ influence on psychological climate in addition to cultural factors, migrant diaspora influence (Arevalo 2015), as well as other psychological factors (Li et al. 2016; Norris et al. 2011) that are drawing attention to post-migration stressors (movement across the border) (Bygnes 2019). Bygnes (2019) not only drew attention to the factors which can lead to a decrease in psychological well-being and economic integration of an individual but also linked them with labor market conditions and local institutions. He described them as negative aspects of various social and cultural resources. However, this detail and regulatory organizational and legal mechanisms themselves remained outside the research scope. In any case, it is necessary to create a specific institutional environment that determines the economic and social order as well as a particular form of a social contract and other institutions of civil society; • The third aspect is expressed in a statement: we believe that the conceptual basis of migration research should include social transformation. The authors jointly consider categories of “migration” and “social capital.” Scientific literature uses different definitions of “social capital.” Social capital is a concept in sociology, economics, and political science that denotes social networks and the interaction between them in society, considered as resources used to achieve various social goals, in the current case—local community sustainable development. Social capital prerequisites are sufficient cross-communication, which allows establishing both friendly and trusting relationships among people. The process of migrants’ integration is mostly determined by social relations structures that affect social capital both in the long-term and in a situational sense. With survey data, it became clear that social capital is a complex phenomenon associated with the social climate. As a more dynamic phenomenon, the social climate is the most important mechanism that causes or smooths out conflict and regulates the current situation.

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At the same time, the social climate is subject to regulation, the result of systematic work of institutions and organizations and state policy, carried out based on existing institutional and social roots (the new geography term). These organizational and legal mechanisms in the communication model orientate how, with the help of social institutions, the ways of resolving conflicts and mechanisms of soft power and other social technologies of civil society cooperation are consolidated for socio-cultural space sustainable development and conflict resolution. The authors consider civil society as a form of peoples’ self-organization, legitimate, and perceived from the “social capital” point. Changes in civil society structure and institutions transformation are carried out through a wide range of actors in the civil process. New forms are emerging: (1) informal communities (unregistered) and (2) online communities (through the Internet). A significant society restructuring in a new way “builds” social mechanisms. Therefore, constant monitoring of society’s state and the use of adequate analytical tools are necessary. Feedback and monitoring Based on empirical materials from the Arctic case, the authors established how migrants’ integration occurs in the Arctic and what kind of social climate should be there. We built two functions. The first equation reflects the positive modality of answers (sum “yes” and “rather yes” answers), second—negative modality (the sum “no” and “rather no” answers). According to the second function, the authors performed a one-way analysis of variance. At a given significance level α = 0.05 and a significant Fisher criterion, the calculated P-value turned out to be less than the α value. Consequently, negative modality functions differ by region, and the likelihood of a conflict situation depends on regional factors. Methods within the chaos theory (synergetics) that proved themselves well in natural sciences also found application in social sciences when required to analyze many objects’ behavior. However, on the one hand, they behave chaotically; on the other—they form a single community (Abraham 1996; Abraham et al. 2000). A structural model was built in the framework of synergetic to evaluate the local instability degree within the society structure (based on the social relations stability structure concept (Tolstoguzov and Pitukhina 2017). We applied communication index δ according to conflict potential (δ− ) and tolerance (δ+ ) vectors to understand and predict how many changes there are within social relations structure in selected objects. The authors used trend characteristics (average values) of empirical indicators since measurable parameters (answers to questions) generally do not lend themselves to logical conjunction and disjunction operations and constitute fuzzy sets. Therefore, we applied the fuzzy analysis method. Considering the linearity of the processes, it was accepted that the approximation of fuzzy numbers is determined as follows (1): ±

δ =

(

δ + = F[α [ i x˜i ln x˜i ]] − δ = F βi y˜i ln y˜i

(1)

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where: F—normalization operator—brings all values δ + i δ − into the range [ε, 1], where 0 < ε ≤ 1; x˜i —is a trend characteristic of answers’ positive modality to questions in the i-region; y˜i —is a trend characteristic of answers’ negative modality to questions in the i-region; αi and βi —are the normalizing probability constants of the state of the i-region. The proposed method has a correct application. Therefore, it is necessary to limit the sequence of fuzzy numbers (number of questions in questionnaires) from the accuracy of calculations considering the choice of the membership function, which is not decisive (Germashev et al. 2018). Based on host community survey results, the authors determined how much the communication index change values according to the vectors of conflict and tolerance. The calculations showed that in two of the four regions (Republic of Sakha (Yakutia) and the Republic of Karelia), conflict potential indications are relatively high. A calmer situation is in the Chukotka Autonomous Okrug and Murmansk Region, as evidenced by the Tolerance Index (Fig. 9). This way, we determined situational traits within local Arctic communities based on the communication model values. As a result, these territories have a certain potential of trust for the newcomers and reactivity to significant events (mass phenomena and “black swans”). The combination of these circumstances should not be underestimated. Karelia and Yakutia already demonstrated their conflict potential via migrants’ crashes, causing great public resonance.

Fig. 9 Communicative model values for Conflict Index and Tolerance Index. Source: (Compiled by the authors)

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5 Conclusion Structured research results aimed to conceptualize the communication model. Based on chaos theory (synergetics methods), the authors proposed a structural model to assess social climate. The model was implemented as an index tool aimed at interethnic conflict potential assessment between migrants and the host population. As a result, we assessed social relations homeostasis. In two pilot regions, it turned out to be more and less tolerant. Important reasons for conflict are migrants’ numbers and the local population, low-skilled human resources, different cultural traditions, and identities. Therefore, considering the Arctic region specifics, one cannot ignore the conflict potential due to different identities and social roots, social structure peculiarities, and host population complexity. As the research shows, both migration and social capital categories are in difficult proportions. In particular, social capital and social networks have a positive influence on migration decision-making. It is crucial to clarify the communication model in the future to identify factors and indicators measuring the level of conflict of interest between the local population and migrants. To increase the decision efficiency, it is necessary to apply innovative methods, including information and communication technologies as well as Internet polls. While determining the methods of collecting information, it is necessary to achieve a quality of sociological information due to efficiency and economic factors, research objectivity, and reliability, and reliability through strict adherence to empirical research and model verification rules and procedures. Therefore, the following methodological requirements arose for the existing system of IT polls. Considering studied social institutions and processes, the methodology should include both the basic (every few years) survey and an operational survey (every six months) Internet survey (using IT technologies). The IT survey data was verified according to systematic archetypes, and mathematical models of social behavior were developed based on a sociological survey (Tolstoguzov et al. 2017). The widespread use of information and telecommunication networks and information technologies for population surveys will increase importance. Communications should be built to maximize local community consolidation and expand its cultural codes in a changing geopolitical condition to protect national interests. Acknowledgements The research was carried out with financial support and within the framework of the state assignment No. AAAA-A19-119071690035-6 and the Russian Foundation for Basic Research (RFFI) project “Live, Work or Leave! Youth—wellbeing and the viability of (post) extractive Arctic industrial cities in Finland and Russia”, No. 18-59-11001.

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The Impact of the Pandemic on Educational Migration: Case Studies from India and China Liliya Y. Zainiyeva

and Aigul A. Abzhapparova

Abstract The paper explores the impact of the coronavirus pandemic on educational migration. It emphasizes that the crisis has mostly affected education as well as all areas of the world community. The paper focuses on the situation of young people wishing to get an education abroad with the prospect of staying in the chosen country for permanent residence. Therefore, it is no coincidence that we have chosen such countries as China and India for the primary analysis, in which there are many young people in general and those who strive to get an education and gain permanent residence abroad in particular. The research issues are solved using dialectical, systemic, comparative, and statistical methods. In addition, we use the results of sociological research. This paper contributes to the development of a new urgent issue of the impact of the coronavirus pandemic on the world community, primarily on its educational area in young people migration. The paper is conceived within the scientific project framework by the Ministry of Education and Science of the Republic of Kazakhstan, “Educational Migration from Kazakhstan: Factors, Trends, and Social-Political Consequences.” Keywords Youth · Education · Pandemic · Migration · China · India

1 Introduction The coronavirus pandemic has dramatically changed people’s everyday life. The consequences of this event will be dealt with for a long time. It is important to stress that there are practically no areas that have not been affected by the virus, including education. A public health emergency of international concern is the highest level of danger specified in the International Health Regulations. Such status was assigned to the COVID-19 outbreak at the end of January 2020 by the World Health Organization. The primary research goal is to examine the impact of the pandemic on education by disclosing the educational migration of Indian and Chinese youth in the current L. Y. Zainiyeva · A. A. Abzhapparova (B) Al-Farabi Kazakh National University, Almaty, Kazakhstan e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 S. G. Maximova et al. (eds.), Advances in Natural, Human-Made, and Coupled Human-Natural Systems Research, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 250, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-78083-8_33

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conditions. The paper aims to analyze (1) young people’s desire to study abroad, (2) changes in international student flows, and (3) the impact of these processes on educational institution activities. The coronavirus outbreak has fundamentally changed the tendencies of global educational migration of higher education in 2020. Over several months, it has had a significant impact on international student flows, forced universities to rethink the possibilities of online learning platforms, and influenced several other elements in the sector. According to the research “The Impact of the Coronavirus on Global Higher Education” by the British University Ranking Agency “Quacquarelli Symonds,” the proportion of potential international students who changed their plans and postponed their admission until 2021 increased several times during the 2020 spring season. In addition, most successful students expect universities to do the same by switching their lectures to an online forum when appropriate. Many universities recognize the need to transition to online courses and primarily take action. While travel restrictions and social distancing measures are likely to remain in place for the foreseeable future, international student recruitment strategies for the largest global universities must build on these dynamics (Quacquarelli Symonds [QS] 2020a). These processes have affected young people in many countries. China and India stand out in particular, with the largest number of people under the age of 25 globally. The decision of young men and women on where to get or continue their education impacts the universities globally, which rely on the student flows from these countries. According to UNESCO data, in the period of 2013–2017, the number of young people who leave to get an education in foreign universities has been growing steadily (Table 1). The primary reasons for the desire of Chinese and Indian youth to study abroad are as follows. 1. Chinese and Indian students are confident that studying abroad will provide them with a quality education that increases their employment chances in the future. 2. Young people believe that studying abroad will make it easier for them to move to another country for permanent residence. Therefore, migration to the country in which one studies is a fundamental reason for choosing education abroad. 3. In India and China, parents mostly support their children’s desire to study at foreign universities. In both countries, parents have a significant influence on this desire. Table 1 Data on young people who left for education at foreign universities Year

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

China

719,357

770,665

819,695

868,113

928,090

India

190,636

215,953

257,004

304,013

332,033

Source UNESCO Institute for Statistics [UIS] (2020a)

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4. Many students believe that they will have a richer experience getting to know a new cultural environment and studying in a different educational system than getting an education in their home country. Young people are forced to migrate because of the challenges of entering national universities. In China, the Gaokao entrance examination serves as an example of such a challenge. It is one of the most stressful times for high school graduates and their parents. There are issues with access to higher education in India—people from the wealthiest class, which is 20% of the population, are more likely to get it. Admission to elite institutions, 15 Indian Institutes of Technology, which occupy a particular position in the system of technical universities and where the emphasis is on information technology, is limited. More than that, 300 thousand people try to enroll there every year, but only 2% of them successfully enter (for comparison, 7% of applicants enter Harvard University). About 500 thousand young engineers graduate in India annually. It should also be noted that the rate of youth enrollment in higher education in the country is growing. The government sets a goal to bring it up to 30% by 2025. The quality of higher education in India is higher than in the PRC. For example, the surveys of the largest TNCs show that they agree to hire one in four graduates of Indian engineering universities and only one in ten Chinese ones (Lunev 2014). Young people in China and India mostly prefer to enter universities of economically developed countries, such as the USA, Australia, Canada, and the UK (Fig. 1). 350000

321625

300000 250000 200000 150000

142618

128498 96543

100000 51976

66161 32616

50000

16421

0 US

Australia China

Canada

UK

India

Fig. 1 The number of young people in China and India entering the USA, Australia, Canada, and the UK universities. Source UIS (2020b)

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2 Materials and Methods The paper is dedicated to a topical issue. Its historiography is still not rich. Therefore, the works of Amelan (2020), Banchariya (2020), Choudhury (2020), Coughlan (2020), Kelly (2020), Lunev (2014), Milen’kaya (2020), Niazi (2020), Shvarc (2020), Smalley (2020), Sonwalkar (2020), Voris and Lorin (2020) were used in the process of writing. The study on the impact of coronavirus on educational migration of young people is based on the social surveys “How is the Spread of the Coronavirus Impacting Prospective International Students?” and “The Impact of the Coronavirus on Global Higher Education” of the British University Ranking Agency Quacquarelli Symonds, and the research “Positive Sentiments” in the form of the poll of international students from Pakistan and India by the British International Organization for Cultural Relations and Educational Opportunities—British Council. Half of them are “not likely” ready to cancel overseas study plans. The research is also based on data by UNESCO online data map on international student mobility by host region of UNESCO Institute of Statistics, “2019 Fact sheet: India,” and “Leading Places of Origin Fact Sheets for Open Doors” of information resource on international students and scholars studying or teaching at higher education institutions in the United States Open Doors (Open Doors 2019; 2020; QS 2020a, b; UIS, 2020a, b). To study the impact of coronavirus on the higher education sector and student mobility dynamics especially, the British University Ranking Agency QS, for example, interviewed potential international students to find out if the coronavirus threat had affected their plans to study at foreign universities. According to the latest QS survey, 57% of respondents said their curricula were affected by the global COVID-19 pandemic, and 53% of them currently intend to postpone their enrollment until next year. The only positive news for higher education institutions is that 12% of respondents are looking for information on how to postpone their entrance applications, proving that students are very committed to their original plans despite the need to put them on hold. Many respondents are more interested in learning about changes in application deadlines (48%), application procedures (47%), and curriculum structure such as online tuition cost (43%). This data correlates with other survey results, which show that 73% of students are open to start their online studies this year, 46% of students will start their online studies this year, another 27% are not sure at this stage, and only 26% of students turn down this idea (Fig. 2). India and China are the largest sources of international students globally. However, the coronavirus outbreak has affected many Indian and Chinese students’ plans to enter or continue their education at foreign universities. According to research by the British Agency, QS University Ranking, the majority of young people in India (57%) and China (66%) have reconsidered their plans to enter foreign universities (Fig. 3).

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open to starting their studies this year online

Fig. 2 QS study results. Source QS (2020a)

start their studies this year online opposed to the idea of online education unsure about online education 0 27 73 26

46

No

Undecided

CHINA

13%

19%

15%

30%

57%

66%

Yes

INDIA

Fig. 3 Impact of coronavirus on students’ plans to study abroad. Source QS (2020b)

However, the majority of young people do not intend to give up their plans to study at foreign universities—48% of Chinese and 54% of Indian youth intend to postpone their enrollment in overseas universities until 2021 when only 6% of Chinese and 7% of Indians are ready to enter foreign universities in 2020. Only 4% of Chinese and 7% of Indians have abandoned the idea of getting higher education at a foreign university (Fig. 4). Another educational agency, the British Council, also researched whether the pandemic affected the decision of Chinese and Indian students to study in the UK. China is the largest source of international students in the UK, and young people from India are currently the third in the number of international students in that country (Fig. 5).

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L. Y. Zainiyeva and A. A. Abzhapparova 60% 50%

54% 48%

40% 30% 20% 6%

10%

7%

4%

7%

0% China

India

intend to defer/delay the entry until next year intend to study in a different country no longer want to study overseas

Fig. 4 Coronavirus has changed students’ plans to study abroad. Source QS (2020b)

29%

12%

22%

27%

undecided 43%

not at all likely to cancel

39%

cancel their study plans

CHINA

INDIA

Fig. 5 Plans to study in the UK. Source British Council (2020)

Future international students are looking for specific information and resources during the crisis, and institutions should be ready to answer any questions or queries they receive. According to the British Council study, future international students need several support materials throughout the whole decision-making process (Fig. 6). Educational institutions should invest in such information materials and communicate the availability of such resources to prospective international students. While students who have already applied to British universities are highly unlikely to cancel, this tendency poses a problem for institutions that may want to accept late applications. When students were asked about their apprehensions when applying

The Impact of the Pandemic on Educational Migration: Case Studies … Choosing a study destination Funding and scholarships

CHINA

21%

27%

30%

36%

30%

30%

26%

31%

43%

54%

Researching which program to study Application and essay writing Alternative forms of study

351

INDIA

Fig. 6 Students search for specific information and resources during a crisis. Source British Council (2020)

to the institutions of the UK, they expressed their concerns about health and wellbeing, personal safety, funding for tuition and living, and difficulties in applying for admission to universities (Fig. 7). concerned about health and well-being concerned about personal safety

40%

57%

63% 87%

CHINA

79%

INDIA

67%

concerned about finances

Fig. 7 Research by the British Council’s International Education Service. Source British Council (2020)

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3 Results This section gives an overview of the response of the universities to the pandemic— what changes have been made in teaching, and what actions have been taken. The reaction of students to the emerging learning conditions in the crisis is of great interest. Most importantly, all innovations are reflected in the educational migration of young people. The coronavirus outbreak is a significant shock to colleges and universities around the world. Most educational institutions have canceled classroom activities and have switched to online mode. However, international students are not satisfied with these changes. Young people note that distance education does not give the scope of knowledge they have in intra-mural classes. To get the idea of what prospective international students expect from educational institutions, QS has learned what initiatives they believe should be taken by educational institutions to limit the impact of coronavirus. The respondents were allowed to choose several options from transferring more lectures online, giving students access to specialized healthcare professionals (such as nurses), providing with sufficient volume of hand sanitizer on campus, and conducting classes in spacious rooms to minimize human contact (Fig. 8). The pandemic also threatens to significantly change almost all aspects of university life, from admission and enrollment to sports activities. These threats extend to the financial future of higher education institutions in a time of significant financial instability, both in the form of unforeseen expenditures and potential reductions in revenues. The coronavirus outbreak is also affecting Chinese youth eager to get overseas education. First of all, applicants cannot take tests such as TOEFL, IELTS, and GRE in China. As a result, they lose the opportunity to apply to foreign universities. Due

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Moving more of their lectures online Ensuring access to dedicated health professionals (e.g. nurses) for students Establishing a 24-hour helpline for students Ensuring that hand gel is widely available on campus Holding lectures and seminars in larger rooms to minimize contact

Fig. 8 What universities should do to reduce the risk of COVID-19 infection. Source QS (2020b)

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to the policies of a significant number of universities, many young people do not get a chance to take these tests. Currently, Chinese youth are concerned about whether they can get visas on time and start their studies on campus. Most notably, Chinese students studying in the United States are concerned about whether they are eligible to seek internships in the country. According to the existing rules, only after staying in the United States for at least nine months are they entitled to undergo training— part-time work and internship. The restriction can deprive international students of this opportunity if they start programs with online courses. The large commercially oriented universities in the US, UK, Australia, and Canada, which increasingly depend on often exorbitant tuition fees of Chinese and Indian students, are considered particularly vulnerable compared to universities in Continental Europe. British universities are concerned about financial problems that will arise in case Chinese students cancel their studies in the 2020 fall season. Based on the fact that the Chinese make up the largest quota of international students in the UK, their tuition and other expenditures (such as living expenses) are around £4 billion a year. Therefore, the universities of this country are afraid of large financial losses if the pandemic significantly reduces the number of students from China—from 12 to 61% of 120 thousand young people currently studying in Great Britain are predicted to stop their education. However, the Manchester University research shows that learning obstacles are not dictated by political tension, pay level, or whether courses are taught online. The main concern is whether it is safe to travel to the UK (Coughlan 2020). Security is also an issue for Indian students (Niazi 2020). The problem with American educational institutions is the same. Like in the UK, China is the largest source of international students in the USA. According to government data, Chinese students contributed $14.9 billion to the U.S. economy in 2018 and $22 billion in 2019, despite a two-year trade war (Open Doors 2019). More than 200,000 Indian students study in the United States, occupying second place after students from China (Open Doors 2020). The UK continues to be a popular destination for Indians looking to pursue higher education, and the number of students coming to the country has been growing since 2016—37,500 Tier IV (study) visas were issued to Indian students in 2019 by 93% more than in 2018, when only 20,000 visas were issued (Banchariya 2020).

4 Discussion The complexity of the situation in the educational sphere in connection with the pandemic is evidenced by the situation in the UK and the USA and the experience of other countries. Education is one of the leading sectors in Australia, which, according to experts and the Central Bank of Australia, will suffer from the coronavirus outbreak. Chinese students comprise the largest proportion of international students in Australia. In 2018, they accounted for more than 38% of all international students. In 2019, more than 261,000 Chinese citizens studied at local educational institutions of various

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levels. In the higher education sector, 37.3% of foreign applicants were from mainland China. In 2017, 23.3% of the total university income of the country came from international students. In the fiscal period of 2018–2019, AUS $37.6 billion or US $25 billion were contributed by international education to the economy (Ministers’ Media Centre 2020). The number of Indian students in Australia has increased by 71% since 2014. According to the Australian Council for International Education report, 107,673 Indian students enrolled in 2018–2019. That being said, the number of Indian student enrollments increased by 39% in 2019, compared to 2018 (“Indian students in Australia have increased by 71% since 2014,” 2019). The financial consequences of the healthcare crisis hit universities in Australia earlier than in other parts of the world. The country universities forecast a loss of AUS $4 billion (or e2.5 billion) in 2020, or more than 10% of their revenue (Kelly 2020). Therefore, the financial issue is quite severe for the educational institution functioning. International students, primarily Indian and Chinese, pay for their studies more than students from other countries. Indian and other international students generally pay at least three times more than British and EU students and contribute to the British economy in terms of accommodation, maintenance, and travel costs. Thus, according to the US Institute for International Education, Indian students invested about $8 billion in the US economy in 2019 (Open Doors 2020). Tuition fees for international students in 2019 were almost £7 billion in the UK. Universities UK, the umbrella organization representing British universities, reports that the educational sector will face losses of £790 million in the current fiscal period (2019–2020) for accommodation, meals, conference income, and additional student support costs of students studying online. “The potential impact will be enormous in the next fiscal period (2020–2021), as universities forecast a significant drop in the number of international students and potential increase in deferred home transfers,” is written in the document sent to the government of the country (Sonwalkar 2020). COVID-19 disrupted current academic studies worldwide, and students were forced to leave college campuses and attend classes online. As a result, more than 50 colleges in the United States faced class-action lawsuits. Students are claiming tuition fees refund because universities offer limited online experiences provided by Zoom without the in-person presence of faculty members (Voris and Lorin 2020). As students come to terms with limited experience, universities do their part by refraining from annual tuition increases, reimbursing remaining housing fees, paying doctoral students who have worked on campus, etc. Nevertheless, despite a reluctant acceptance of online learning, the issues remain. One of the primary problems is the difference in time zones. Besides, as all classes have switched to online mode, Chinese and Indian students feel they miss out on the “campus experience” of communicating with their group and participating in extracurricular activities. Another critical problem (especially for STEM sciences) is the decline in education quality since students are deprived of the opportunity to conduct laboratory work or research. In the case of quarantine restrictions, closed borders are a particularly severe issue. The UN Emergency Committee on COVID-19 recommends that countries

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implement restrictive measures on international travel on a proportionate and riskbased basis and conduct regular analysis of their appropriateness. Such restrictions alone will not deter the spread of the virus. They can be useful when combined with other measures. However, the countries cannot be blamed for closing borders. The governments of each country do not want to face repeated outbreaks by opening the borders to the territories where the virus is active. On the other hand, no country can prosper in a permanent lockdown. It seems that it is quite possible to calculate and minimize the risks associated with international travel. However, it is for countries to decide, they must be able to negotiate reasonably. The issues of migration associated with obtaining education should be of particular concern to all international relations subjects.

5 Conclusion In conclusion, the pandemic has had a significant impact on the entire world community, including education. Educational turns out to be the most vulnerable sector and has multiple issues regarding the quality of training and funding. The issues have also affected communication between people of different countries and international cooperation of countries in general, given that education is often associated with traveling. There is another aspect—acquiring education in a foreign country with subsequent employment in it. Young people in China and India believe that studying at globally prestigious universities will open up employment opportunities or immigration to the chosen country for permanent residence. The research shows that most young Chinese and Indian people do not intend to cancel their plans to enter foreign universities. The paper also indicates that educational migration is economically beneficial for host countries. Tuition fees make up a significant part of their budget. However, it should be noted that the cost of studying is higher for international students than locals. Food, accommodation, and other expenses should also be added. The coronavirus outbreak has entailed negative economic consequences and multimilliondollar losses for host countries and specific universities since most international students are not satisfied with either the quality of distance education or its high costs. Therefore, the study highlights the importance of educational migration of Chinese and Indian students to host countries, since large flows of international students from China and India bring significant incomes to the economies of host countries, especially the United States, England, and Australia. Nevertheless, the study reveals the unwillingness of universities to adapt to the conditions of the pandemic quickly. On the other hand, educational institutions are taking measures to improve the situation and overcome the crisis. Regarding the predicament of international students, many educational institutions have issued aid rules. They allow young people to postpone their studies, so they have more time to apply for a visa. For example, Case

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Western Reserve University (Cleveland, Ohio, United States) offers two options for incoming students who cannot arrive at the university on time. The students can postpone their studies until the spring of 2021. Another option is to take online courses that include a 25% tuition discount in the fall of 2020. The students can attend classes on campus in the spring of 2021 (Smalley 2020). The Australian National University (Canberra, Australia) announced that affected Chinese students would be able to receive up to $5000 of reimbursement for the costs incurred due to the travel ban if they remained enrolled after June 3, 2020. The university also provides financial assistance to students who participate remotely in the first semester of 2020. The University of Sydney reported that it provided access to online supported learning for 800 courses and postponed the 2020–2021 semester start for a small number of business school courses (Choudhury 2020). The issues of economic and financial nature identified in some states on the admission of international students, especially in the organization of their education and ways to overcome the negative consequences, will be advantageous for other countries. The paper notes that similar situations are observed in other parts of the world, for example, Central Asia, where the percentage of youth among the population is also high. For example, in Kazakhstan, people under 25 years old comprise 39% of the population. The World Bank held an online briefing, at which its leading experts presented their vision of the state and prospects for the development of education in the countries of this region during the coronavirus spread. It was stated that the effects of the Spanish flu pandemic had been dealt with for about 70 years. Contemporary research shows that the consequences of COVID-19 will also last for about 60– 65 years and affect state healthcare and the economy, and social development. At the pandemic peak, the studying process of 1.5 billion students worldwide was disrupted, resulting in a 0.6-year loss of schooling, a 25% increase in under-reading students, rising inequalities, and dropping out of about 7 million students. The recommendations of maintaining and increasing funding for the education system for Central Asian countries were made at the briefing (Milen’kay 2020). On August 4, 2020, a presentation of the concept “Education in the era of the COVID-19 pandemic and beyond” prepared by UNESCO took place. The UN Secretary-General António Guterres emphasized during the concept introduction, “We have already had a crisis in the field of education even before the pandemic. We are now facing a generational catastrophe that could squander untold human potential, undermine decades of progress, and exacerbate entrenched inequalities” (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization [UNESCO], 2020). UNESCO figures showed that nearly 1.6 billion students (94% of the global student population) in more than 190 countries were affected by school closures during the crisis. According to UNESCO forecasts, 24 million students, from schoolchildren to university students, are at risk of not returning to their educational institutions in 2020 following their closure due to COVID-19. About 5.9 million people of this risk group live in South and West Asia, and another 5.3 million—in Sub-Saharan Africa. There have been severe issues in the field of education in these regions even before the epidemic, and the current situation is likely to lead to a significant deterioration

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of the situation. Higher education enrollment is forecasted to decline by 3.5% (7.9 million) (Amelan 2020). Considering the interconnection of quality education and ensuring economic progress, sustainable development, and lasting peace, the new UNESCO report calls on the countries of the world to make the prevention of “catastrophe of generations” in the field of education one of the primary priorities. To remedy the situation, the UN, together with international partners, launched the Save Our Future campaign— #SaveOurFuture. Its goal is to raise awareness of the global education emergency and call for more investment to build better, more inclusive, and sustainable education systems in the future (Shvarc 2020). The implementation of this campaign will require joint efforts of countries and the world community to develop all educational sector levels. This approach is the basis and serves as a condition for promoting higher education, satisfying young people’s desire to receive it in any country. Therefore, countries should take care of methods of working with international students that are relative to current conditions and developing high-quality education systems. This approach is the basis and serves as a condition for promoting higher education, satisfying young people’s desire to receive it in any country.

References Amelan R (2020) UN Secretary-General warns of education catastrophe, pointing to UNESCO estimate of 24 million learners at risk of dropping out. Retrieved from https://en.unesco.org/news/ secretary-general-warns-education-catastrophe-pointing-unesco-estimate-24-million-learners-0 Banchariya S (2020) Indian students in the UK increased by 93% in 2019. Retrieved from https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/education/times-study-abroad/europe/indian-stu dents-in-uk-increased-by-93-in-2019/articleshowprint/74440793.cms British Council (2020) “Positive sentiments” in survey of international students from Pakistan and India: half “not likely” to cancel overseas study plans. Retrieved from https://www.britishcouncil. org/contact/press/survey-international-students-pakistan-and-india Choudhury SR (2020) Australian universities let Chinese students get around a travel ban. Critics warn it could spread the coronavirus. Retrieved from https://www.cnbc.com/2020/03/05/corona virus-australia-let-chinese-students-circumvent-travel-ban.html Coughlan S (2020) COVID fears putting off Chinese students from the UK. Retrieved from https:// www.bbc.com/news/education-53416337 Indian students in Australia have increased by 71% since 2014 (2019). Retrieved from https://www. y-axis.com/news/indian-students-in-australia-have-increased Kelly É (2020) Universities prepare for the new post-pandemic world. Retrieved from https://sci encebusiness.net/covid-19/news/universities-prepare-new-post-pandemic-world Lunev SI (2014) BRICS states in the process of globalization. Sravnitel’naya Politika 5(3(17)):81– 108 Milen’kaya Yu (2020) Silent storm of education. Kazahstanskaya Pravda 7(149):2 Ministers Media Centre (2020) Department of education, skills and employment. International education makes significant economic contribution. Retrieved from https://ministers.dese.gov. au/tehan/international-education-makes-significant-economic-contribution?utm_source=mir agenews&utm_medium=miragenews&utm_campaign=news Niazi S (2020) Indian students rethink study abroad plans due to COVID-19. Retrieved from https:// www.universityworldnews.com/post.php?story=20200527171144783

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Open Doors (2019) Leading places of origin fact sheets for open doors. Retrieved from https://ope ndoorsdata.org/data/international-students/leading-places-of-origin Open Doors (2020) 2019 Fact sheet: India. Retrieved from http://opendoorsiie.wpengine.com/wpcontent/uploads/2020/05/India.pdf Quacquarelli Symonds [QS] (2020a) The impact of the coronavirus on global higher education. Retrieved from http://info.qs.com/rs/335-VIN-535/images/The-Impact-of-the-Coronavirus-onGlobal-Higher-Education.pdf Quacquarelli Symonds [QS] (2020b) The impact of the coronavirus on prospective international students. Retrieved from http://info.qs.com/rs/335-VIN-535/images/How-COVID-19-is-Impact ing-Prospective-International-Student-%20Across-the-Globe-white-paper.pdf Shvarc A (2020) Emergency situation of international importance. Kazahstanskaya Pravda 8(150):3 Smalley A (2020) Higher education responses to coronavirus (COVID-19). Retrieved from https:// www.ncsl.org/research/education/higher-education-responses-to-coronavirus-covid-19.aspx Sonwalkar P (2020) Covid-19 versus the UK: £7 billion at risk if Indian, other students stay away. Retrieved from https://www.hindustantimes.com/world-news/covid-19-vs-uk-7-billion-atrisk-if-indian-other-students-stay-away/story-dBCUSnFrSFoPOWVAtUJIPJ.html UNESCO Institute of Statistics [UIS] (2020a) Global flow of tertiary-level students. Retrieved from http://uis.unesco.org/en/uis-student-flow UNESCO Institute of Statistics [UIS] (2020b) Outbound internationally mobile students by host region. Retrieved from http://data.uis.unesco.org/index.aspx?queryid=3807 United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization [UNESCO] (2020) UNESCO press release No. 2020-73. Retrieved from https://en.unesco.org/news/secretary-general-warnseducation-catastrophe-pointing-unesco-estimate-24-million-learners-risk Voris BV, Lorin J (2020) Angry undergrads are suing colleges for billions in refunds. Retrieved from https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-05-01/angry-undergrads-studying-onlinesue-for-billions-in-refunds

Fundamentals of Developing Legal Mechanisms for the Protection of Society in the Context of Scientific and Technological Progress Elena V. Provodina , Oksana Yu. Krasovskaya , and Natalya A. Greshnova Abstract The development of scientific and technological progress is fraught with danger for a person as a biosocial being. Therefore, the need to protect the person and society is continuously growing by developing protection mechanisms at various levels: from social to strict and imperative. In this regard, the research aims to develop the basics of legal mechanisms to protect society. The integration of responsibility for the achievements of scientific and technological progress is based on the assessment of the inevitable risks associated with them. We substantiate the social and legal grounds for the inclusion and centralization of this aspect in creating criminal law mechanisms to increase their preventive potential in the abuse of science. We use the methods of comparative-legal, structural, and social analysis and generalization. As a result, we justified the need to recognize the supreme value of the person, their rights, and freedoms as the basis for creating mechanisms for protecting the person and society in terms of rapidly developing scientific and technological progress. Such a prioritization against the background of innovative discoveries contributes to the adequate creation of new criminal law objects of protection and their development in the person’s interests. The combination of scientific-social and criminal law aspects in forming the considered protective mechanisms of society allows for increasing their preventive potential and filling in the gaps that arise due to the delay in legislation, which is the novelty of the study. Keywords Scientific and technological progress · Legal protection · Criminal law mechanism · New objects of criminal law protection

1 Introduction The analysis of secondary literature shows that scientific and technological progress [STP] in any form represents a social danger underlying the integration of responsibility within the mechanisms provided for at different levels. E. V. Provodina (B) · O. Yu. Krasovskaya · N. A. Greshnova Saratov State Law Academy, Saratov, Russia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 S. G. Maximova et al. (eds.), Advances in Natural, Human-Made, and Coupled Human-Natural Systems Research, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 250, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-78083-8_34

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In the long run, using the benefits of modern civilization can lead to mental and health problems (psychosomatic disorders and exhaustion) due to the fast pace of life and lack of time, as side effects of progressive modernity. The paradox of our time is that “people are suffering from an accelerated pace of life and frequent time scarcity despite their abundant gains of time due to technological innovations (in work and private life)” (Schoneck 2018). Schoneck (2018) emphasizes this idea when analyzing the theory of Rosa (2013), assessing the pace of modernization, the scholar comes to the following conclusion, “modernity comes up with shady sides.” The Universal Declaration on Bioethics and Human Rights also draws attention to the fact that the STP “has an increasing impact on our understanding of life and life itself” (The General Conference of the UNESCO 2005). “Digital media can no longer be seen as information or technology. Computers are much more than just tools for processing knowledge. < … > Such technologies can no longer be interpreted if we simply choose to treat them as a matter of devices and methods, or as hardware and software” (Rad et al. 2020). On the one hand, the new level of technical capabilities that modern society experiences significantly simplifies a person’s existence; on the other hand, it requires more serious protection from the danger they pose. Thus, the preamble to the Convention on Cyber Crime refers to “the profound changes brought about by the introduction of digital technologies, the integration, and the continuing globalization of computer networks” and expresses concern about “the threat that computer networks and electronic information may also be used to commit crimes” (Council of Europe 2001). Scientific community shares similar concerns. For example, Aznar (2019) is alarmed by the fact that new technologies (in particular, the internet) not only provide citizens with easy access to information but can also be used as a simplified way to spread disinformation, which is an urgent problem for Europe. This problem is particularly acute in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic, when “misinformation or mixed messages can cost lives. < … > The stakes are higher in a digitized world, where misinformation and mixed messages overwhelm individuals and communities. This is not just a communication problem, but it requires a full rethinking of evidencebased approaches to infodemic management, putting people and communities at the center” (World Health Organization, n.d.). The ease of harm and the unprecedented importance of the objects at risk (human life and health), the fight against online misinformation about the pandemic are put on a par with the ways to overcome it medically, for example, developing new vaccines and medicines (Tzachor et al. 2020). Besides, the mechanisms for the launch of innovations for medical resistance to the COVID-19 pandemic also need some improvement. Discussing new technologies accompanied by risks, scholars claim that it is necessary “to introduce them in gradual, iterative ways, allowing time for issues to be identified and addressed” (Tzachor et al. 2020). The urgency with which they must be implemented during a pandemic, the immaturity of modern ethics and risk assessment processes “are needed to ensure AI is used responsibly in response to COVID-19” (Tzachor et al. 2020); the lack of time and personnel during a crisis and many other factors pose a potential threat to the

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priority objects of criminal law protection (human life and health) and require the active formation of mechanisms for the protection of the person and society. However, the status of human rights mechanisms due to the delay in legislation also requires a specific approach during their development, as H. Aznar states: the variability, multiplicity, and continual innovation of social communication always make it difficult for legislation to address the specific aspects of its praxis; when it comes close to doing so or even achieves its aim, that legislation soon becomes obsolete owing to the advent of new communication uses or technological advances (Aznar 2019).

The existing problem, complicated by the delay in legislation from the progressive reality, is being solved in science at various levels (from the development of innovations to the abuse of science, “Doing ethics with urgency” (Tzachor et al. 2020); “in complex and advanced societies it is increasingly more necessary—and urgent— to devise self-regulatory mechanisms, initiatives and formulas that supplement the fundamental work of law” (Aznar 2019). Researchers expect more significant results from ethical mechanisms of self-control and control (rather than from the legislator) because they are “acting more swiftly and adapting more efficiently to changes and innovations in social communication” (Aznar 2019). “Mastering the scientific and technological revolution, that is, the ability to guide its development so that it could allow one to achieve the expected results and manage it as a historically developing process, is a priority task” (Dudenko 1984); in this regard, it acquires its independent meaning, namely, “inherently ethical self-regulation aimed at enforcing the values and rules with which a particular social subsystem should comply” (Aznar 2019). However, currently, social protection measures alone are not enough. The intensive STP development requires improving the imperative protective mechanisms and adapting them to the rapid changes in society. The research purpose is to develop the fundamental principles of forming a universal mechanism for the protection of society in STP conditions, which can be adapted to both national and international protective legislation. The moral traditions of social protection, preserved in criminal law mechanisms, aimed at ensuring universally recognized values, contribute to achieving this goal. The research aims to study the issues caused by the STP achievements and develop a universal approach to forming legal constructions (mechanisms) that can respond more quickly to new means and methods of committing crimes in terms of new, rapidly growing social benefits. Two aspects determine the increase in the number of protective mechanisms due to the STP achievements: the emergence of new social benefits and the risks that accompany them, which require state control in the form of risk assessment and prioritization in determining the object of criminal law protection. In Greek, risk means danger; “the probability of a dangerous factor getting out of control and the severity of the consequences, expressed by the degree of manifestation” (“Risk,” n.d.), where severe consequences should be understood as harm to protected goods. Consequently, regarding the STP achievements, the risks that determine the need for criminal law control are the probability of creating a danger

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(threat of harm) for the objects of criminal law protection due to the relevant factors accompanying STP getting out of control. Danger accompanies the STP achievements regardless of their manifestations: (1) long-term prospects for implementing the side effects of using its benefits, smoothing and neutralizing of which is possible through education, social protection mechanisms, and implementation of special programs; or (2) poor knowledge in the production of the good in operation. As an example, we can take the development of substandard vaccines in conditions requiring a quick response or abuses in pharmacology in the form of the illegal manufacture or production of counterfeit drugs. The Council of Europe Convention “On the Counterfeiting of Medical Products and Similar Crimes Involving Threats to Public Health” [MEDICRIME] (Council of Europe 2011) recognizes this issue as a global issue of the modern world, which requires international cooperation. Moreover, “At a time when the COVID-19 epidemic is posing unprecedented challenges to the health sector, the Council of Europe calls on governments to be extremely vigilant against counterfeit or falsified medicines and medical products” (Council of Europe, n.d.). Therefore, the risk of harm as the essence of risks (their assessment) should be included in the legal structure of protective mechanisms in the form of the definition of creating danger, with which it is proposed to link criminal liability to a particular category of acts related to the STP achievements. The official recognition of risk assessment as one of the conditions for the integration of liability (including criminal liability) would correspond to the preventive principle proposed by international scholars, “the ability to think ahead rather than dealing with problems reactively” (Tzachor et al. 2020), whose application in criminal legislation can bring positive results. For an adequate risk assessment within the criminal law protection mechanisms, we should refer to the international experience in the risk assessment, who recommend contacting risk assessment specialists to develop relevant innovations to solve the related problems of innovation (Tzachor et al. 2020). The adoption of such measures in the creation of criminal law mechanisms would increase the preventive potential of criminal law in crimes caused by the STP achievements, which is the current priority. Furthermore, this approach can help avoid excessive repression and promote STP development. It is necessary to pay attention to the validity of the new criminal law prohibitions determined by the priority of the protection objects in terms of the STP development. Ignoring the issue of the priority of the value of protected objects guides the research of national and international scientists in different directions, which in general does not contribute to improving the effectiveness of international legal struggle in specific areas. International scientists assess abuses in pharmacology (a critical problem of our time) as crimes in the field of business activity (Hellmann and Beckemper 2018). The production of counterfeit medical products and their unauthorized manufacture (for which the above-mentioned MEDICRIME Convention explicitly provides for liability) poses a danger, primarily because it threatens human health (the health

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of the population) and only secondary—economic and other relations. When developing protective mechanisms, one should recognize the good that is mainly and mostly harmed as a priority object. Additionally, in the Russian criminal law science, there is an opinion that the concept of criminal harm is determined by “what exactly in a crime acts as its object: public relations, interests, or legal benefits.” (Novoselov and Fedoseeva 2019). Such an approach can help correctly prioritize determining the object of crime in the case of abuse of science, “Harm, as a sign of public danger, is significant only because it manifests itself in the field of material order. < … > Its central element is the person, and other elements of the order ensure its well-being” (Razgildiev 2013). Consequently, as a result of an out-of-control dangerous factor accompanying STP will always be caused to the central element of the rule of law—the person, regardless of the form: whether it is the side effects of the modernization of society or the criminal abuse of its achievements. All protective mechanisms associated with this factor should ensure the wellbeing of a person as a biosocial being, based on the supreme value of their rights and freedoms. Since the determinant factor of developing a protective mechanism associated with the STP achievements and their abuse is the danger that inevitably accompanies them, safety must be the critical category of this process. In this regard, the proposals of Russian researchers on improving the legislation are no less useful. According to Kozaev (2016), “security in relation to the acts related to implementing the STP achievements < … > should be the basis for the definition of an inter-generic object.” Therefore, “the idea of a universal object of criminal law relations—the safety of its participants” (Kozaev 2016) in the context of the STP corresponds to the current situation; its legislative continuity, considering the dangerous manifestations of science and technology, could contribute to the unification of legal norms in terms of establishing responsibility for this category of socially dangerous acts. Such an understanding of the inter-generic object would allow one to correctly prioritize the formation of new criminal law prohibitions, ensuring greater consistency of the legislative views of different countries on criminal behavior in specific areas. The formation of new criminal law prohibitions should promote the development of STP in the interests of the person as a biosocial being, based on the assessment of the risks accompanying progress. The recommendations proposed in this paper on the development of legal structures will allow for unifying and making criminal law protective mechanisms more flexible. Thus, the relevance of the study is predetermined by the following factors: . Acute social problems of the well-being of a person as a biosocial being who needs social and legal protection in the conditions of rapid STP; . Serious delay in the legislation from the new products that change the society and unfold brand-new opportunities for criminal activity;

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. Aggravation of global problems due to the emergence of modern technologies, such as the widespread use of information technologies to simplify the commission of crimes, including those in illegal pharmacological trafficking, driven by the COVID-19 pandemic, which requires strict legal control.

2 Materials and Methods As already noted, the STP development simplifies the implementation of the professional aspect of human life and contributes to the most effective provision of other social needs; for example, it helps maintain health and develop. In essence, STP aims to improve the conditions of human existence. However, low legal awareness often becomes the cause of criminal abuse of its products, designed to serve for good, which theoretically substantiates the goal of this study: developing legal mechanisms for the protection of society in the context of STP. In this regard, we used the materials for an in-depth analysis of the topic from the international regulations exposing the current global problems caused by the development of innovative technologies (Council of Europe 2001, 2011; The General Conference of the UNESCO 2005). Furthermore, we analyzed the works related to (1) the negative manifestations of STP in specific areas that influenced the research conclusions (e.g., in terms of the risks accompanying the development of innovative technologies in combating the COVID-19 pandemic) (Tzachor et al. 2020); (2) selfregulation mechanisms regarding the innovations in social communication (Aznar 2019); and long-term problematic prospects of the progressive modernity (Schoneck 2018). These sources indicate the widespread use of innovative technologies in crime, which globalizes many problems. Nonetheless, neither national nor international criminal legislation offers universal mechanisms ensuring the prompt and effective protection of a person as a biosocial being in the context of intensive development of STP. Given the purpose of the work, its objectives were to identify and study the independent elements of the legal mechanism for protecting society from abuse of science, including increasing the preventive potential of criminal law in this area. When developing these provisions, we used well-known scientific methods: comparative-legal method, the method of structural analysis, generalization, and social analysis.

3 Results The abuse of science is not a problem of one country; it requires joint, large-scale, and reasonable efforts to fight against the phenomenon bringing crime to the international level. The success of the international criminal law struggle, the necessity of which is

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indicated in the conventions mentioned above, depends on its consistency. Amendments made to the criminal legislation regarding new technological inventions should not be chaotic; they should ensure the functioning of a single criminal law mechanism to counteract this negative phenomenon so that the formation of legal structures could meet the specifics of this category of acts. Therefore, the development of new criminal law mechanisms must meet the following requirements: . Criminal law mechanisms must ensure the priority of the person, their rights and freedoms in the conditions of the scientific and technological race; . New objects of criminal law protection must ensure the supreme value of human rights and freedoms; . Criminal law protective mechanisms, whose formation is determined by the STP development, must include an assessment of the risks accompanying STP achievements; . The new criminal law prohibitions must promote the STP development in the person’s interests as a biosocial being. These prohibitions must be based on the assessment of the risks that accompany STP achievements, which together presupposes the security of the supreme value—the person, which must be fixed as the object of this specific group of encroachments; . New criminal law prohibitions, in terms of a specific category of public relations, must provide for the safety of their participants. To improve the preventive potential of the criminal industry in the prevention of crime (related to the STP development), the risk assessment should be presented within the criminal law prohibitions in the form of the definition of creating danger, with which it is proposed to link criminal liability to a particular category of acts related to the STP achievements. The study showed that the widespread use of innovative technologies in crime has led to the globalization of many problems. However, neither national nor international criminal legislation offers universal mechanisms providing prompt and effective protection of a person as a biosocial being in the context of intensive STP development.

4 Discussion Criminal law influence in preventing arbitrariness and abuse of science has various functions. The legal status, characterized by rights and corresponding obligations, fixed by the relevant branches of law, finds support as an object of criminal law protection, which is especially crucial in STP conditions. However, the inconsistency of views on the development of new objects of criminal law protection, the criteria for their formation, does not allow for a timely response to the violation of specific legal relations. The generalization of protective mechanisms, including the specific qualities of the object, is especially relevant in the case of intensive STP, which is not limited

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to one state, since its achievements become a criminal tool and shift to the field of transnational crime. In the current situation, even the reserve forces of all countries are focused on fighting a common enemy: the COVID-19 pandemic. This situation exacerbates the need for innovative development and actualizes state control over the launch of innovations, which can be sufficiently ensured by the involvement of appropriate experts in forming the protective mechanisms of the person as a biosocial being and society. Attracting additional resources for implementing this proposal, due to the problem that has arisen, meets significant difficulties, including material ones. To eliminate the difficulties, one can implement this proposal in stages. Due to the ongoing pandemic, it is necessary to take the turnover in the pharmacology and technologies that ensure the fight against COVID-19 under particular state control.

5 Conclusion Summing up the research results, we recommend creating a new mechanism for social protection of society in current conditions, including the fight against criminal abuse of science within mandatory mechanisms and the implementation of programs of social protection mechanisms aimed at overcoming the side effects of using innovative technologies. Besides, we propose to develop a unified approach to the formation of protective legal mechanisms that can unify their application, considering innovative trends in the development of society, for the prompt control and prevention of harm to public relations. Instead of responding to problems, the ability to prevent them should become the basis for building all mechanisms to overcome the negative consequences of STP. The development of criminal law protection mechanisms aimed at preventing abuse of science should be carried out with experts’ involvement to assess the risks accompanying these acts. The fight against the abuse of science should also include mechanisms for ethical control and self-regulation. Regarding the proposed recommendations, criminal law mechanisms can provide the priority of the person, protection of rights and freedoms as the supreme value of the STP, guiding and dominating the STP in the interests of the person.

References Aznar H (2019) Information disorder and self-regulation in Europe: a broader non-economistic conception of self-regulation. Soc Sci 8(10):280. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci8100280 Council of Europe (2011) Council of Europe Convention on the counterfeiting of medical products and similar crimes involving threats to public health (28 Oct 2011). Russia, Moscow

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Council of Europe (2001) Convention of the Council of Europe “Convention on Cybercrime” (23 Nov 2001 ETS No. 185). Budapest, Hungary Council of Europe (n.d.) COVID-19. Retrieved from https://www.coe.int/en/web/medicrime/COV ID-19 Dudenko IG (1984) Economic problems of organic combination of the achievements of the scientific and technological revolution with the advantages of socialism (Dissertation of Candidate of Economic Sciences). Kharkov, USSR: Kharkiv University of the Order of Labor Red Flag and the Order of Friendship of Peoples named after A. N. Gorky Hellmann U, Beckemper K (2018) Wirtschaftsstrafrecht, 5th edn. Kohlhammer Verlag, Stuttgart Kozaev NS (2016) Current problems of criminal law caused by scientific and technological progress (Dissertation of Doctor of Law). Krasnodar University of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of the Russian Federation, Krasnodar, Russia Novoselo GP, Fedoseeva LY (2019) An object of criminal legal protection and object of a crime: an interrelation and criminal-law significance. Russ Law Educ Pract Sci 4(112):60–70 Rad D, Balas V, Lile R, Demeter E, Dughi T, Rad G (2020) Statistical properties of a new social media context-awareness scale (SMCA)—A preliminary investigation. Sustainability 12(12):5201. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.3390/su12125201 Razgildeev BT (2013) The public danger of crimes and other offences. Biblioteka Kriminalista 2(7):214–224 Rosa H (2013) Social acceleration: a new theory of modernity (J. Trejo-Mathys Trans). Columbia University Press, New York Schoneck NM (2018) Europeans’ work and life—Out of balance? An empirical test of assumptions from the “acceleration debate.” Time Soc 27(1):3–39. https://doi.org/10.1177/0961463X1557 7286 The General Conference of the UNESCO (2005) declaration of the general conference of the UNESCO “Universal declaration on bioethics and human rights” (19 Oct 2005). UNESCO Publishing, Paris, France Tzachor A, Whittlestone J, Sundaram L, Ó hÉigeartaigh S (2020) Artificial intelligence in a crisis needs ethics with urgency. Nat Mach Intell 2:365–366. https://doi.org/10.1038/s42256020-0195-0 World Health Organization (n.d.) Infodemic management. Retrieved from https://www.who.int/ teams/risk-communication/infodemic-management

Experience of Sociological Analysis of Proneness to Conflict in Regional Communities Victor V. Nagaytsev , Anatoliy N. Domashev , and Elena V. Pustovalova

Abstract The paper studies the phenomenon of proneness to conflict in the regional society of the Russian Federation, particularly in Altai Krai. In addition, the paper presents a theoretical and empirical sociological analysis of proneness to conflict in local society as a complicated social phenomenon. The authors emphasize the relevance of the sociological study of such social phenomena and processes. The paper gives the authors’ definition of the concept of proneness to conflict in society. It also reveals the forms of proneness to conflict manifestation in current conditions. More than that, the authors establish the destructive and constructive functions of proneness to conflict in the regional society. “Constructive” proneness to conflict in work is understood as the possibility of realizing the positive potential of interaction between conflicting subjects. In addition, the authors reveal the forms and levels of proneness to conflict manifestation in the regional society. The reasons for the emergence of proneness to conflict in the regional society are empirically established. The paper examines the features of conflict in the framework of various social actors’ joint activities in society. The experience gained in studying conflict as a social phenomenon has allowed one to expand the range of its manifestations, the consideration of which is essential for its adequate assessment and management. The authors present the data of a sociological study on this topic conducted by them in 2018–2020. The following components of proneness to conflict in the region are analyzed—the assessment of the current social situation in society, people’s satisfaction with their living conditions, the frequency of social conflicts in citizens’ lives, the spheres of life in which such conflicts most often occur. As it turned out in the course of the study, proneness to conflict in the regional society is one-time and situational in nature and is entirely preventable and regulated. The authors conclude that the lack of management of conflict processes in society can lead to the most unfavorable social consequences. The study allows one to gain the necessary experience in studying the problem of proneness to conflict in society.

V. V. Nagaytsev · A. N. Domashev · E. V. Pustovalova (B) Altai State University, Barnaul, Russia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 S. G. Maximova et al. (eds.), Advances in Natural, Human-Made, and Coupled Human-Natural Systems Research, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 250, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-78083-8_35

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Keywords Sociological research · Region · Proneness to conflict in society · Local society · Social conflicts

1 Introduction By the end of 2020, most Russian constituent entities have had a rather tricky sociopolitical and socio-economic situation. The regions of the country fully felt all the negative social consequences of the COVID-19 coronavirus pandemic. As a result, there is a progressive increase in social tension and conflict almost everywhere, which deserves a thorough and careful sociological analysis by researchers. In Russian sociological science, the study of proneness to conflict in society at various times has been carried out by A. V. Dmitriev, E. I. Stepanov, Yu. E. Rastov, V. I. Kurbatov, A. I. Strebkov, V. A. Semenov, V. A. Svetlov, L. N. Tsoy et al. However, in the process of analyzing proneness to conflict, the authors practically do not pay due attention to the primary conceptual and methodological issues. Currently, the sociological analysis of conflict in Russian society is a collection of virtually completely disparate methodological approaches, research methods, and empirical data. Proneness to conflict affects all spheres of modern society. However, despite its obvious relevance as a subject of independent research, at the moment in sociological science, there is no categorical apparatus for describing the phenomenon of proneness to conflict, no specific empirical methods that can isolate the elements and indicators of this phenomenon, no theoretical and methodological framework for its study in different local societies. In this regard, developing a modern theoreticalmethodological approach to the sociological analysis of conflict in society as an independent social phenomenon is of fundamental scientific importance. The term “proneness to conflict” is currently used by many sciences—sociology, conflictology, social psychology, political science, making it, in fact, an interdisciplinary concept. It is necessary to recognize that it is a phenomenon that is still poorly studied in modern social science. It has its own specific features, forms of manifestation, and specific causes of occurrence in each specific case. Proneness to conflict in society is a form of social interaction of subjects, in which there are their explicit or implicit confrontation and opposition, which is caused by the presence of contradictions in their interests (Esteban et al. 2012). Proneness to conflict in a society is a complicated social phenomenon that can be traced by the frequency of entry into social conflicts of society members, the dominance of the negative vector in the development of communication of the main social actors in the framework of their informal communication or joint professional activities, etc. In the process of the emergence of conflict in the conditions of a specific society, there is an interweaving of various social conflicts, their mutual influence, and interdependence, which, as a result, forms this social phenomenon. Thus, the authors define the proneness to conflict as the spontaneous formation of a fixed space of negative interaction of social subjects in society, the appearance of

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several actually opposing parties to the general conflict as a result of the entry into their composition of different types of social subjects that have common reasons for their conflict actions. At the same time, proneness to conflict becomes “crosscutting” in the social structure of society. In other words, it affects almost all social communities.

2 Materials and Methods Proneness to conflict in regional society is analyzed in the framework of a large-scale research project with the participation of the authors, which is called “Development and promotion of a set of social measures to reduce the level of social tension and conflict among the population in Altai Krai in 2018–2020.” The authors use the method of standardized interviewing to interview 1.220 respondents who are residents of cities and districts of Altai Krai.

3 Results First of all, the authors determine the regional residents’ assessment of the general social situation that has developed in society in the current period. As can be seen from Table 1, the majority of respondents (41%) assess the current social situation as more negative than positive, 23%—definitely negative, 24%— more positive than negative, only 5%—definitely positive, and 7% of respondents found it difficult to assess the situation (undecided). The regional population majority treats the assessment of the social situation in the region with a certain degree of negativity. The attitude of citizens to the situation in the region is determined, primarily, by their own life assessments. Most often, negative assessments of the current situation in the region are given by men, respondents aged 18–25 and 45–65 years (youth and older age groups), the unemployed, workers and trade workers, and respondents with low income. The Table 1 Distribution of responses to the question: “How do you generally assess the current social situation in Altai Krai?”

Response alternatives Definitely positive

% 5

More positive than negative

24

More negative than positive

41

Definitely negative

23

Undecided Total Source Compiled by the authors

7 100

372 Table 2 Distribution of responses to the question: “Are you generally satisfied or not satisfied with your standards of living?”

V. V. Nagaytsev et al. Response alternatives

% 7

Completely satisfied

38

More satisfied than not satisfied More dissatisfied than satisfied

41

Completely dissatisfied

11 3

Undecided

100

Total Source Compiled by the authors

situation is characterized as more restrained (although also often unfavorable) by respondents over 65 years old, pensioners, and public sector employees. Region residents with a high level of prosperity positively assess the current situation in the region. It is important to note that the worse the respondents assess the situation, the more conflicts they have in their lives. As shown in Table 2, only 7% of respondents are fully satisfied with their living conditions. Another 38% of respondents admit that they are more satisfied with their standards of living, while 41% of respondents are more likely to be dissatisfied. According to the survey results, 11% of respondents are completely dissatisfied with their standards of living. In addition, 3% of respondents find it challenging to assess their standards of living. As can be seen from Table 3, the majority—66% of respondents—state that they sometimes face conflicts in their lives. Quite often, there are conflicts in the lives of 20% of respondents. Moreover, 6% of respondents constantly have conflict situations. Another 5% of respondents claim that they almost never have conflicts in their lives. Three percent of respondents find it difficult to answer this question. Most often, Altai Krai residents have conflicts in the following areas of life— labor and industrial relations (29%), trade and services (26%), business and business relations (18%), friendly relations (12%), children’s education (9%), family relations (6%), neighborhood and household sphere (5%), etc. Table 3 Distribution of responses to the question: “How often do conflicts occur in your life?” (as a percentage to the number of respondents)

Response alternatives

%

Constantly

6

Quite often

20

Sometimes

66

Almost never Undecided Total Source Compiled by the authors

5 3 100

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4 Discussion Sociologists understand proneness to conflict as an inevitable phenomenon in any society (Brown 1993; Gilley 2004; Wolff 2006). Numerous studies show that there is always a certain background level of tension and conflict in a society (Cordell and Wolff 2009; Esman 2004). The modern conflict theory, presented by foreign scholars (Ackerman 2003; Boulding 1962; Coser 1956; Galtung 1969; Horowitz 2001; Rapoport, Chammah and Orwant 1965; Schelling 1960), focuses on alternative technologies for resolving conflict situations that constantly arise in society. The main body of researchers’ modern national developments is also addressed to the psychological component of this phenomenon and focused on considering it at the individual level. It includes the motives of the participants’ behavior in the conflict, their role in its emergence, settlement, and resolution, etc. The authors determine proneness to conflict through the negative mood and conflict behavior that an individual demonstrates. Proneness to conflict is a phenomenon that manifests itself both at the level of an individual, communities of individuals, and at the level of the entire society, characterized by an increase in the dissatisfaction of subjects with the existing social, political, and economic conditions. As a result, it leads to mass conflict confrontations in local society. In recent years, the issue of proneness to conflict in the Russian society has been reflected in the works of A. V. Dmitriev, V. G. Bondarev, A. I. Strebkov, V. V. Nagaytsev, G. V. Baranova et al. (Bondarev et al. 2015; Dmitriev 2004; Nagaytsev 2019). Proneness to conflict as a specific integrated indicator of the current social situation in the region has several primary forms of manifestation (dissatisfaction of the population with their standards of living, the dominance of negative moods in society, distrust of people around them, critical assessments of the current socio-economic situation in the region, loss of citizens’ interest in politics, distrust to local and federal authorities, etc.). The growth of proneness to conflict in society happens due to the emergence of sharp contradictions in the subjects’ interests. It is impossible to build a final combination of specific factors and causes of proneness to conflicts in all Russian regions. In each specific situation, there will be a unique combination. In different territories of the regional society, the elements of conflict have their own specific weight. For some people, the main form of proneness to conflict implies social stress and the growth of fear and distrust. In rural areas, one of the reasons that determine the origin and development of proneness to conflict is the insecurity and destitution of the population in the material and social aspects. For residents of cities in the region, the increase in citizens’ negative moods, feelings of uncertainty, and mass anxiety is of great importance. The primary cause of proneness to conflict in all territories of the region is the decline in living standards, associated with an increasing lag in wages from rising prices and tariffs, especially in the housing and utilities sector. There is a widespread increase in unemployment associated with a drop in production and business activity during the COVID-19 pandemic. At the same time, the lack of jobs leads to an increase

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in proneness to conflict and the lack of jobs with a decent wage and appropriate conditions for the employee. This group also includes the unsatisfactory state of areas that are vital to society. It includes health care and education. Locally, there has been an increase in the share of paid services in these areas against in the context of a drop in their quality and the conditions of the pandemic.

5 Conclusion The paper details the experience of sociological analysis of proneness to conflict in regional society as a unique social phenomenon. The following components of conflict in the region are analyzed—the assessment of the current social situation in society by the population, people’s satisfaction with their standards of living, the frequency of social conflicts in the citizens’ lives, the spheres of life in which such conflicts most often occur, etc. The Altai Krai population rather negatively assesses the current social situation, which indicates the prevalence of pessimistic moods. Various social conflicts periodically arise in the lives of most members of the regional society. Nevertheless, the conflict is local, one-time, and situational in nature and is entirely preventable and regulated. Most often, among the region residents, conflicts occur in such areas of the life of subjects as labor and industrial relations, trade and services, business and business relations, children’s education, in the neighborhood and household sphere, etc. Proneness to conflict in society as an independent social phenomenon requires careful theoretical and empirical analysis. Especially essential aspects of proneness to conflict for researchers are almost impossible to obtain singlehandedly from statistical data. They can be obtained only with the help of specially organized sociological research. Empirical studies of proneness to conflict over the past 30 years have been carried out based on survey methods of collecting information only. For the analysis of conflict in local society, the authors suggest using a set of sociological methods of information collection—observation, mass questionnaire surveys of the population, in-depth expert interviews, focus groups with representatives of various social groups, case-study, content analysis of regional media materials on this issue, detailed analysis of available statistical information, and secondary analysis of data from previous sociological studies on the topic. Particular attention should be paid to the analysis of the role of proneness to conflict in developing other social processes in the regional society. If the level of conflict is not measured and regulated promptly, then serious social problems inevitably arise in this local society. Simultaneously, the forms of conflict manifestation are transformed—its sharp and violent forms appear. Thus, the management of proneness to conflict in society, especially destructive, becomes the responsibility of the relevant professionals in the field of management. The analysis of the primary forms of manifestation of proneness to conflict in modern

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Russian society, both in general and in its regional societies, as well as the development of measures aimed at reducing the level of destructive conflict and stimulating the constructive, creative potential of conflict, comprise one of the most critical and urgent issues of Russian sociology. The stimulation of constructive proneness to conflict in society allows one to purposefully direct the development of social subjects’ relationship systems in the right direction. The constructiveness of proneness to conflict is achieved by transforming the conflicting parties’ hostile confrontation into integrating their interests and cooperating with their actions. The consequence of these reasons is the growth of protest moods and speeches. These include an increase in critical statements in all forms, an increase in the number of complaints and appeals to various authorities, and the refusal to participate in elections. In all regional territories, an increase in aggressiveness in social actors’ interaction is noted as one of the manifestations of proneness to conflict. This aggression provokes the growth of conflicts at various levels—it includes domestic, labor, and interethnic conflicts. It is found that latent proneness to conflict and protest moods are characteristic of the majority of social groups in the region, and their level is relatively high. There is also a risk of increasing proneness to conflict in many territories of the region, where there is a problematic situation on the labor market and an actual competition between local residents and labor migrants. The current research allows one to gain meaningful experience in studying the proneness to conflict issues. Many Russian regions have long been considered as territories of socio-political stability, where there is no particular tension and proneness to conflict. Therefore large-scale sociological research related to the analysis of such processes and conditions for the emergence of conflict in society has not been conducted here. Nonetheless, socio-political stability is not the primary criterion for assessing the level of proneness to conflict in local communities and often indicates the presence of latent potential for proneness to conflict of subjects. The study of conflict processes is an essential condition for improving both regional and federal social policy. It allows one to understand better the nature of political, socio-economic, intercultural, and interethnic processes in the Russian Federation regions. Regional social policy models need to be adjusted, and it is crucial that they correspond to the goals of harmonizing social relations. Conflict management can help solve other very diverse social issues that currently arise in the Russian Federation regions. Unfortunately, the issues associated with the scientific substantiation of conflict management are primarily theoretical in nature.

References Ackerman A (2003) The idea and practice of conflict prevention. J Peace Res 40(3):339–347 Bondarev VG, Gazimagomedov GG, Strebkov AI (2015) From social policy to conflict. Conflictology 2:76–89 Boulding KE (1962) Conflict and defense: A general theory. Harper & Brothers, New York

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Brown ME (1993) Ethnic conflict and international security. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ Cordell K, Wolff S (2009) Ethnic conflict: causes, consequences, and responses. Polity Press, Cambridge, UK Coser LA (1956) The functions of social conflict. The Free Press, Glencoe, IL Dmitriev AV (2004) Conflictogenity of migration: global aspect. Sociol Res 10:4–13 Esman MJ (2004) An introduction to ethnic conflict. Wiley, Hoboken, NJ Esteban J, Mayoral L, Ray D (2012) Ethnicity and conflict: theory and facts. Science 336(6083):858– 865 Galtung J (1969) Violence, peace, and peace research. J Peace Res 6(3):167–191 Gilley B (2004) Against the concept of ethnic conflict. Third World Q 25(6):1155–1166 Horowitz DL (2001) Ethnic groups in conflict. University of California Press, Oakland, CA Nagaytsev VV (2019) Conflictness in society: definition and causes. In: 21 century: fundamental science and technology XXI: materials of the conference. LuluPress, Inc., Morrisville, NC, pp 129–132 Rapoport A, Chammah AM, Orwant CJ (1965) Prisoner’s dilemma: a study in conflict and cooperation. University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, MI Schelling TC (1960) The strategy of conflict. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA Wolff S (2006) Ethnic conflict: a global perspective. Oxford University Press, New York, NY

Psychological Features of Formation of an Active Life Position Among Older Adults Ion Gotynzhan

and Marina Al. Rushina

Abstract The paper reveals the problem of the formation of an active life position among older men and women. Each of us faced a lack of an active life position, which brings a mostly negative result. When a person is young and full of energy, they easily cope with attempts to create an active life position. However, when they grow old and have health issues, it becomes more challenging to create an active life position. Older adults form a kind of barrier that does not allow them to live with a more active life position. The research aims to study the psychological characteristics of forming an active life position in older age. The research novelty lies in the fact that the sample included older adults included in the Moscow government program—“Moscow Longevity.” This project is in demand among older citizens. It opens different opportunities in the activities of older people. The research used the following methods to determine the psychological characteristics of the formation of an active life position: comparative analysis, observation, conversation, questioning, and testing. Qualitative results were obtained using mathematical methods. Depending on gender, the authors identified common and different features. The research results are introduced into work with older people in the Moscow Longevity project. They aim to develop a positive attitude in life among the older population and resolve conflicts that these people face. Keywords Older age · Active life position · Psychological well-being · Activity · Behavior · Longevity

I. Gotynzhan · M. Al. Rushina (B) Peoples Friendship University of Russia (RUDN University), Moscow, Russian Federation e-mail: [email protected] I. Gotynzhan e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 S. G. Maximova et al. (eds.), Advances in Natural, Human-Made, and Coupled Human-Natural Systems Research, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 250, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-78083-8_36

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1 Introduction The considered problem recently became of particular interest since it is not easy for an older adult to form an active life position. In every country, the number of older adults increases every year. This process is incomparable to any other age-related process. From the point of healthcare, one can be proud of a process that sets new records every year, consider it a great success, and be glad that the older age is increasing, reaching longevity. This suggests that medicine is developing in tune with the times. However, such a process poses an important task of adapting the “older person” to the so-called “new world” and an active lifestyle. The new technologies provide many opportunities, but keeping track of everyone is impossible, especially if the person is older. Everyone can change, adapt to the new. However, it is more difficult for the older population, which is an important transitional moment in this age period. Social security must be provided for people of older age. Building the existing skills of older people, it is necessary to form, develop, and consolidate their new skills. They will function and adapt the older adults to the “new world.” Only after that, if the older person feels safe, they will trust the world around them and lead an active, they will be able to adapt to the surrounding innovation more easily. We often see “grumpy old people.” Their behavior can be explained by the fact that it is difficult to adapt to evolving technologies. Very often, we do not understand such people; they lack attention and simple human care. Considering the fact that an older person may be ill, then creating an active life position becomes twice difficult even with the help. Thanks to the state and other sources, various projects are created to solve this problem. This research was carried out based on the “Moscow Longevity” program by Moscow Mayor. This project allows the older population to memorize or develop their skills, express themselves, to do what they wanted to try but did not have the opportunity before. The Moscow Longevity Project opens different types of activities for older adults. According to the survey results, the most popular classes are the following: (1) general physical fitness, (2) different types of dancing, (3) fitness, (4) Scandinavian walking, (5) gymnastics, (6) English and even (7) computer courses. The research was carried out in the 2020 winter-spring period and was forced to end due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Further work continued remotely. A theoretical base is a number of works that concern the issue of the active life position of people of different age groups (Kornilova 2014; Fedoryak 2014; Makarenko and Solomatin 2015; Nesterova and Zhuchkova 2018; Rushina and Gotynzhan 2019, etc.). An active life position is most often formed in older age due to loneliness since an older adult is most often left alone. This is an internal state when (1) a person needs a person; (2) internal resources are already running out; (3) it is necessary to recharge energy; (4) one needs communication.

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According to A. E. Kornysheva, an active life position is an indifferent attitude towards the surrounding world, which manifests itself in the actions and thoughts of the person (Kornysheva 2011). An old age pensioner can be a mature, young old, middle old, and very old adult. According to the World Health Organization (WHO) classification, the population aged 60 to 74 years old belongs to the young old, from 75 to 89—to middle old, and from 90 and older—to long-livers. This classification considers the needs, requirements, and social opportunities of people over 60, whose share in economically developed countries is 12–20% (Rudneva 2009). The first inclinations of an active life position in a person are formed in childhood. They are associated with the first steps that we take with the parents’ help, and then on our own; with the first tears of pain, which we quickly forget if parents feel sorry for us. It is not only a physical but also a spiritual activity when the body and the human soul are in motion (when a person wants to know everything that surrounds them when they are active and interested not only in their life but in what surrounds them). D. N. Poryadin notes that an active life position affects whether a person will overcome certain difficulties. Sometimes it is the cause of success or failure. Besides, it is the position in life that determines a person, their political preferences, worldviews, and principles. Many people with a high-life position are leaders (Poryadin 2015). However, we can also say the opposite—sometimes activity prevents people from living and has to be translated into a more peaceful channel. Kuba (2013) gives an idea of the quality of life of an aging adult and their active life position at this point of life. Considering the issues of an active life position of a person, N. S. Zalenskaya emphasizes that such a position is not just an activity but also the activity that the person recognizes themselves (Zalenskaya 2012). It turns out that any activity for an older adult is simply necessary to live. Every person, despite age, wants to be socially well-off, socially protected, and happy. This is the nature of a human, and even in the animal world, there are such laws and desires. Social relationships also play an important role in our life—everyone wants to have good and loyal friends, partners, and colleagues at work. In current studies, happiness and well-being are considered as an independent factor, which is not only the result of favorable development of a life scenario but also a prerequisite for a more intense and positive development of social relations between people (Studenova and Kholostova 2018). Often an older adult is considered an “old” person. Old age is a period of life when people need help and support. They have to give up their independence and accept help from the outside because the extension of life is a sufficient reward for such a refusal (Rudneva 2009). The personality of an older adult does not change, even after the transition from one social role to another, retaining its individual traits. At this age, the persons’ qualities are not deformed since they were formed over the years; they are stable.

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It is important to note that in the formation of an active life position in a person, their positivity, mood, goodwill towards other people, etc., play an important role (Petrova 2015). According to the theoretical basis of the study, the issue of the active life position of people belonging to different age groups is relevant. The authors enjoyed working with older adults who, during the research, gave a part of themselves; they were open and communicative, it was important for them to be an object of interest.

2 Materials and Methods During the study, the authors used a set of complementary methods suitable for the subject: analysis of psychological literature, empirical methods, testing, observation, questioning, etc. Data collection occurred through direct contact with subjects—participants in the Moscow Longevity program. The prefecture of the Moscow southwestern district provided an opportunity to conduct a study with older adults. Older men and women worked with the proposed methods under constant supervision. In total, 70 people participated in the research: 35 men and 35 women, aged 60 to 85. The relatively small sample is because not all older adults wanted to make contact, and at the time of data collection, the Moscow Longevity groups were not fully completed. However, this did not stop the study from getting complete. The results were processed using statistical methods, namely: correlation analysis and Mann–Whitney U test. The data revealed the life satisfaction of men and women, their self-attitude towards life, etc. To carry out the research, each respondent was provided with survey sheets of three methods. The questionnaire allowed to determine the psychological characteristics of the active life position formation of older adults. The authors used the following techniques (Rogov 2008): . “Life Satisfaction Index” Methodology, which was translated and adapted by N. V. Panina. The methodology consists of 20 statements, divided into five areas of satisfaction with life: (1) interest in life; (2) consistency in achieving goals; (3) consistency between goals set and achievement; (4) a positive assessment of oneself and ones own actions; (5) general mood background. . “Self-attitude research” by S. R. Panteleeva. This technique is composed of 110 judgments, which are divided into nine scales: “Isolation”; “Self-confidence”; “Self-guidance”; “Reflected Self-Attitude”; “Self-worth”; “Self-acceptance”; “Self-attachment”; “Internal conflict”; “Self-blame.” It is aimed at personality characteristics that will interpret persons’ attitudes to their behavior, to themselves, and their actions. It contains important judgments that can be personal and affect the intimate sides of the person. . “Test of differential self-assessment of the functional state,” developed by a team of I. M. Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University. The test contains

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30 paired assessments that reflect the characteristics of the psycho-emotional state (health, mood, and activity). When developing the methodology, the authors proceeded from the fact that polar assessments can characterize the three main components of the functional psycho-emotional state.

3 Results The authors present the psychological characteristics of the formation of an active life position among older men and women. The obtained results are based on the three methods presented above. Table 1 presents an index of life satisfaction in older men and women. As seen from Table 1, life satisfaction prevails among women—50% of the research participants indicated a high level of satisfaction. Among men, the average level of life satisfaction prevails (40%). The same number of men and women indicated their satisfaction with life as low—25%. The next are the results calculated for the spheres of life satisfaction. It turned out that among older men, the leading sphere is “consistency in achieving goals.” Among women, the leading spheres of life satisfaction are (1) “zest for life”; (2) “consistency between goals set and achieved”; (3) “a positive assessment of oneself and one’s own actions”; (4) “general mood background.” Women have a more developed interest in life than men, but men are more consistent in achieving their goals than women. Women are more successful in alignment between goals set and achieved. They are more likely to positively evaluate themselves and their actions, while men often do not know how to do this; they are more critical. The general mood of women is more satisfied and positive than that of men—they often lack it. The authors believe that retirement affects men more strongly—they experience this process more acutely than women. Table 2 presents the results of comparing the levels of “Self-attitude towards life” variables among older men and women using the Mann–Whitney U criterion. According to the results, there are two statistically significant differences in selfattitude among men and women: “internal conflict” and “self-blame.” For women, these rates are slightly higher than for men. Internal conflict can be characterized as doubt or disagreement with oneself. A person with an increased internal conflict Table 1 Life satisfaction index for men and women

Levels

Men, life satisfaction, %

Women, life satisfaction, %

High

35

50

Middle

40

25

Low

25

25

Source (Compiled by the authors)

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Table 2 “Self-attitude to life” among men and women according to the Mann–Whitney U criterion Variables

Average man rate Average woman rate Mann–Whitney U Probability

Isolation

21.90

19.10

172.00

0.44

Self-confidence

23.68

17.33

136.50

0.08

Self-guidance

22.18

18.83

166.50

0.35

Reflected Self-Attitude

23.98

17.03

130.50

0.06

Self-worth

23.28

17.73

144.50

0.13

Self-acceptance

21.90

19.10

172.00

0.44

Self-attachment

20.13

20.88

192.50

0.84

Internal conflict

12.90

28.10

48.00

0.00

Self-blame

13.00

28.00

50.00

0.00

Zest for life

18.08

22.93

151.50

0.18

Consistency between goals set and achieved

22.28

18.73

164.50

0.32

Alignment between goals set and achieved

18.70

22.30

164.00

0.32

Positive 19.78 self-evaluation and ones’ own actions

21.23

185.50

0.69

General mood

20.63

20.38

197.50

0.94

Wellbeing

17.38

23.63

137.50

0.09

Activity

19.15

21.85

173.00

0.46

Mood

18.45

22.55

159.00

0.27

- Significant indicators are highlighted gray Source (Compiled by the authors)

rate often has internal conflicts and excessive reflection. They are capable of selfreflection, pondering their actions or past failures; they often contradict themselves. The female participants are more prone to self-blame, even if these were minor mistakes or the slightest flaws. Such variables as “isolation”, “self-confidence”, “self-leadership”, “reflected selfattitude”, “self-worth” and “self-acceptance” are more significant among men than women. Older men are more withdrawn than women. Despite this, they can accept themselves as they are, while women find “self-acceptance” harder. Older men are more self-confident because men do not notice their minuses and negative character traits, which is why they have high self-confidence. Women are more attentive and self-aware. They are less confident and always attuned to their disadvantages and focus on their character, thinking about it more often. Men are confident that their character and activities evoke sympathy, encouragement, and respect for others. Women are less likely to think so. Men have a higher sense of self-worth than women.

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On the scales of “well-being,” “activity,” and “mood,” the average rank is slightly higher among women. It is important to note that the above-presented characteristics in insignificant values distinguish the samples from each other. Self-attitude towards life among women and men is mostly expressed in “internal conflict” and “self-blame.” Older women are more susceptible to doubts and negative emotions in their address. They are more likely than men to blame themselves for their problems. The correlation analysis results (Tables 3 and 4) revealed the relationship between the indicators of the presented variables. The authors note that the tables include only scales where the correlation is significant at the levels of 0.05 and 0.01 (two-sided). Based on the obtained data, among older men (Table 3), the higher (I.1*) internal honesty and openness with oneself, the older adult (S.3*) accepts and approves their own actions, behavior, reactions, and agreement with oneself. The higher (S.2*) the feeling of one’s own worth and the possible value of oneself for others, the higher (P.7*) the positive assessment of oneself and one’s actions. If an older adult increased (S.4*) their unwillingness to change their state or themselves, if there is a complete acceptance, then their general mood also rises (G.8*). If men have an increased zest for life (Z.5*), then the consistency between goals set and achieved (S.6*) will be positive and reach this stage. If (S.6*) is achieved, then the general mood (G.8*) will be positive. The higher it is among older men, the higher is activity (A.10*). The higher the zest for life (Z.5*), the better the mood (M.11*). Accordingly, if older men have good well-being (C.9*), then the higher is the activity (A.10*), well-being (W.9 *), and the more positive the mood (M.11*). If there is a high activity (A.10*), therefore, there is a good mood (M.11*). The marked scales of variables interact with each other and are interdependent. As for the female data (Table 4), the authors noted that self-worth (S.1*), high selfattitude, and the strength of one’s inner self, develops and increases activity (A.10*) among women. Developed reflected self-attitude (R.2*) says that a women activity arouses respect, sympathy, and approval of others, which increases self-acceptance (S.3*) and approval of their own actions, the behavior itself, and agreement with oneself. The higher the self-attitude (R.2*), the higher is the activity (A.10*). If an older woman has complete self-acceptance (S.3*), approves their own actions, behavior, and agrees with oneself, then positive self-evaluation and own actions (P.7*) is at a high level, and the mood is also increased (M.11*). Having a zest for life (Z.4*), a woman also has a consistency between goals set and achieved (C.6*). If an alignment between goals set and achieved (A.5*) is developed, then consistency (C.6*) will be developed as well. Developed consistency with already achieved and only set goals positively affects self-evaluation and one’s actions (P.7*) and the general mood (G.8*) among women. If the mood is increased, then women feel better. Comparing the revealed features between older men and women, one can find both common and different features that help or hinder the formation of the correct active life position.

−0.119

−0.011

−0.175

−0.038

−0.040

−0.169

−0.447a

−0.375

0.037

−0.169

0.128

−0.021

0.000

−0.147

0.080

−0.258

−0.329

−0.206

−0.118

S.4a

Z.5a

C.6a

P.7a

G.8a

W.9a

A.10a

M.11a

0.147

−0.083

0.007

−0.368

1.000

−0.021

0.204

0.051

0.491a

−0.115

0.258

−0.005

b

0.536a

0.419

0.351

0.340

0.427

0.538a

1.000

0.333

0.417

0.259

0.518a

0.240

1.000

0.538a

−0.005 0.258

−0.119 −0.011

1.000

−0.258

−0.147

−0.040 −0.169

0.000

0.137

0.218

0.246

0.115

1.000

0.240

0.427

−0.115

−0.175

−0.447a

0.080

0.347

0.560a

0.194

1.000

0.115

0.518a

0.340

0.491a

0.653b

0.609b

1.000

0.194

0.246

0.259

0.351

0.051

−0.368 0.007

−0.375 0.037

−0.258 −0.329

0.778b

1.000

0.609b

0.560a

0.218

0.417

0.419

0.204

1.000

0.778b

0.653b

0.347

0.137

0.333

0.536a

−0.021

−0.083 0.147

−0.169 0.128

−0.206 −0.118

Consistency Positive General Well−being Activity Mood of goals self−evaluation/actions mood set/achieved

−0.038

−0.021

Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (two-sided) Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (two-sided) Source (Compiled by the authors)

a

−0.258

0.161

0.500a

S.3a

0.161

1.000

−0.064

S.2a

0.500a

−0.064

1.000

I.1a

Variables Isolation Self−worth Reflected Self−acceptance Zest self−Attitude for life

Table 3 Indicators of correlation analysis among older men

384 I. Gotynzhan and M. Al. Rushina

−0.124

0.765b

−0.373

−0.296

−0.127

−0.130

0.233

0.088

0.450a

−0.089

Z.4a

A.5a

C.6a

P.7a

G.8a

W.9a

A.10a

M.11a

Source (Compiled by the authors)

−0.213

−0.282

0.086

0.606b

0.181

0.337

0.199

0.484a

1.000

0.407

−0.028 −0.224

0.195

0.343

0.136

0.528a

0.407

1.000

−0.098 −0.245

0.215

−0.373 −0.296

0.183

−0.074

0.418

0.020

−0.199

0.210

0.567b 0.236

1.000

0.625b

0.625b

0.199

1.000

0.136

0.484a

0.460a

0.227

−0.130

0.528a

0.353

0.029

−0.127

0.120

−0.111

0.178

1.000

0.473a 0.360

0.473a

−0.199

0.236

0.181

0.195

−0.021

−0.124

0.088

1.000

0.210

0.567b

0.337

0.343

0.364

0.358

0.233

0.245

1.000

0.178

0.360

0.020

−0.074

−0.224

−028

0.403

0.765b

0.450a

1.000

0.245

−0.111

0.120

0.418

0.183

−0.282

0.086

0.606b

0.336

−0.089

Alignment Consistency Positive General Well−being Activity Mood of goals of goals self−evaluation/actions mood set/achieved set/achieved

0.403

−0.021

0.364

0.460a

0.353

−0.245

−0.098

a Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (two-sided) b Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (two-sided)

0.336

0.358

0.227

0.029

−0.213

0.215

1.000

0.528a

0.267

1.000

0.331

S.3a

0.267

0.528a

R.2a

0.331

1.000

S.1a

Variables Self−worth Reflected Self−acceptance Zest Self−Attitude for life

Table 4 Indicators of correlation analysis among older women

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4 Discussion Considering the psychological characteristics of the formation of active life position among older adults, the authors claim that the higher their consistency between goals set and achieved, the higher is the interest in life and the general mood. When the mood is high, it promotes self-attachment and activity in this age group. The peculiarities of the life position activity are manifested in the generality and divergence of men and women views. To noticeably change older adults’ state, the younger generation should more often show initiative and make contact. In turn, older adults should (1) not be afraid of new changes and trust people, (2) be more friendly and interested in their own success, (3) not live for the moment, but think about the future, (4) be more decisive. This is what the participants of the Moscow Longevity project are trying to achieve. Comparing physically active and passive older adults, we can say that active older adults are more emotional and look better than passive ones. By physical activity, older adult strengthens their health. A negative attitude towards the outside world does not lead to any good. It is important to accept loved ones as they are, not criticize them, treat them with understanding and love. Taking care of oneself is also an essential factor. By taking care of themselves, people will have the strength to help others in the future. The authors enjoyed working with the selected participants, i.e., people who try to lead an active life no matter what. The Moscow Longevity project helps them with this. As a rule, women are more satisfied with their lives than men. Women give birth, raise children, run the household—this is how they realize themselves as women. Besides, they still have time to study, work, sports, etc. Men do not always have the strength to accomplish that. An active life position of a person makes it possible to overcome certain life difficulties or vice versa—it makes it more difficult (Poryadin 2015). The authors agree with this statement and add that gender also plays its role: the stronger (men) or weaker sex (women). The authors identified differences and similarities in active life position among men and women. Women more than men experience internal conflict; they often doubt and disagree with themselves (Table 2). Women are subjects to greater reflection, and men sometimes do not know what it is. The research results provide an opportunity for further study of the issue of the active life position of the population. The authors are concerned in considering the age-related aspects of a person’s life position to study an active life position among people who participate in the Moscow Longevity project after completing quarantine measures. The authors suggest that many experienced COVID-19 themselves or people around them. The authors want to determine the changed position of the participants.

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5 Conclusion The research aimed to study the psychological characteristics of forming an active life position among older adults. Using the “Life Satisfaction Index methodology” N. V. Panina; “Self-attitude research” S. R. Panteleeva, and ‘Test of differential self-assessment of the functional state” and describing the obtained results, the authors discuss the differences and similarities in the manifestation of an active life position among the research groups. These conclusions were obtained using the Mann–Whitney U criterion and correlation analysis. The authors note that although a person “develops in tune with the times,” not all older adults can find their calling in old age and change their outlook on life. An older person needs support and psychological help in the same way a small child needs parental support when doing their first baby steps. It has been well said that old and small are the same. Both need love, protection, and communication. Only then there will be a positive response to everything that happens around. People should take care of older adults, provide them with the opportunity to live their years with dignity. Most often, society forces older adults out of everyday life. Even if the state tries to adapt them to new changes, organizing projects like “Moscow Longevity,” not everyone can participate. Project participants begin to think about themselves, their capabilities in the most positive way. An active life position and activities of older adults help them to cope with age and not think about it. The authors hope that the obtained results will contribute to the state structures that work with the older population. In the future, the authors plan to expand the empirical base of the research in a number of involved subjects and methods. Acknowledgements The authors thank the Peoples Friendship University of Russia (RUDN University), Department of Social and Differential Psychology for the opportunity to obtain the necessary and correct competencies of a psychologist and conduct research. The authors also express their gratitude to the Mayor of Moscow for implementing the Moscow Longevity project in work with the older population.

References Fedoryak LM (ed) (2014) Formation of an active life position of a future specialist: diagnostic aspect. In: Naydenova LI, Seyidov SG, Krivchik GG, Evseeva GP, Osipova NV, Vostroknutov EV (eds) Collection of papers of the international scientific and practical conference problems and prospects for the development of modern science and education. Autonomous non-profit scientific and educational organization “Privolzhskiy Dom znaniy.”, Penza, Russia, pp 171–174 Kornilova VV (2014) Formation of a socially active life position among students. Pers Fam Soc Questions Pedagogy Psychol 39–1:103–109 Kornysheva AE (2011) Active life position of older adults: determinants of formation. Vestn Saint Petersburg Univ Psychol Sociol Pedagogy 4:413–420

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Kuba EA (2013) An active life position and quality of life of an aging person. Vestn Integrative Psychol 11:169–170 Makarenko VS, Solomatin EV (2015) The active position of defender of the fatherland, its essence, and content. Eur Soc Sci J 2:132–138 Nesterova AA, Zhuchkova SM (2018) Factor structure of life satisfaction in the middle old, and very old: socio-psychological approach. Bull MSRU Ser Psychol 1:60–72 Petrova AV (2015) Formation of an active life position by means of positive psychology. In: Ivanova IP, Gorbunova TV, Korochkova NN (eds) Psychology and social pedagogy: current state and development prospects. I. Yakovlev Chuvash State Pedagogical University, Cheboksary, pp 94–98 Poryadin DN (2015) Active life position. Molodoy Ucheny 12-2(92):54–55 Rogov EI (2008) Handbook of practical psychology. VLADOS-Press, Moscow Rudneva MY (2009) Social work technologies with various population groups. INFRA-M, Moscow Rushina MA, Gotynzhan I (2019) Psychological features of the positive attitude of older adults. In: Kudinov SI, Mikhailova OB, Kudinov SS (eds) Materials of the international conference of young scientists innovations in psychological science and practice. RUDN, Moscow, Russia, pp 232–235 Studenova EG, Kholostova EI (2018) Social work theory. Publishing and Trade Corporation “Dashkov & K.”, Moscow, Russia Zalenskaya NS (2012) On the concept of an active life position. Vestn Ishim State Pedagogical Inst Named After P. P. Yershov 3(3):105–108

Psychosocial Competencies of Bank Workers: Development Through Volunteering Irina V. Fedosova , Alena V. Kibalnik , and Tatyana F. Usheva

Abstract The paper focuses on the problem of studying and developing the psychosocial competencies of bank workers. Defining the structure and content of psychosocial competence of bank workers and choosing volunteering as the most optimal way of developing all components of this kind of competence condition the originality and novelty of the research. The authors present the detailed results of surveying knowledge (psychological characteristics of bank clients, rules of effective communication, etc.), skills (swift conflict solving, interaction with partners, developing business relations, etc.), general activities (performing various social roles in a group and team, leadership and coordination of actions with a partner, etc.), and personal qualities of bank workers (level of responsibility, emotional stability, behavioral regulation, discipline, etc.), which allow determining the level of their psychosocial competencies. Two groups of respondents, based on their involvement or noninvolvement in volunteering, participated in the research. The empirical data prove the necessity of designing and implementing a special model of developing psychosocial competencies of bank workers through their involvement in all kinds of volunteering and participating in a banking program of social contribution activities. Keywords Bank workers · Psychosocial competencies · Volunteering

1 Introduction Professional success always results from developing the necessary competencies (Lans et al. 2016). Notably, the concept of competence varies in different spheres depending on the professional requirements. For instance, Baydenko (2004) combined professional competencies into a separate group. Mastering this group of competencies forms the ability and readiness to act according to the professional requirements, solve corresponding tasks and problems, and aim at results and self-assessment. I. V. Fedosova (B) · A. V. Kibalnik · T. F. Usheva Irkutsk State University, Irkutsk, Russia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 S. G. Maximova et al. (eds.), Advances in Natural, Human-Made, and Coupled Human-Natural Systems Research, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 250, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-78083-8_37

389

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Particular attention should be paid to the approaches of certain foreign (Avkiran and Turner 1996; Nangle et al. 2020) and Russian (Zimnyaya 2003; Mitina 2002; Khutorskoy 2003) researchers who consider professional competence as a system of knowledge, skills, general activities, and professionally important qualities. Developing professional competencies includes studying and forming special motivation and creating specific personality traits necessary for a certain professional sphere. Improving professional competence implies mastering and implementing a complex of up-to-date professional knowledge and practical skills and increasing the level of professional culture of workers, which includes the capability for lifelong education and self-learning important for effective work. Thy authors of the study examined psychosocial competence, which is a part of the general structure of professional competence for many kinds of specialists, such as healthcare workers, law enforcement officials, teachers, bank workers, etc. (Krasnenkova 2015). The current research deals with studying and improving the psychosocial competencies of bank workers. The development of this kind of competencies promotes healthy competition among banks fighting for clients and gaining their trust by creating comfort conditions and increasing service quality. The competition among the leaders creates a demand for highly qualified, competitive, and competent employees who can work effectively in constantly changing conditions. Finding qualified specialists is not enough as it also takes the constant improvement of workers by creating conditions for their development and sustaining their interest in work. All necessary knowledge and skills should be sufficiently developed, constantly renewed, and improved (Maslov 2005). In the context of the scientific search for the most optimal ways of developing psychosocial competencies of bank workers, the authors consider psychosocial competence as a complex component of personality, which allows effectively interacting with internal and external customers due to the skill of constructive dialogue, developing business relations, solving conflicts, and achieving targets. The authors have chosen volunteering as the most efficient means of improving psychosocial competencies since volunteering means the activity performed voluntarily, free of charge, and aimed at social contribution and solvation of community problems (Fedosova and Kibalnik 2012). Some researchers (Breitsohl and Ehrig 2017; Caligiuri et al. 2013; Schofield and Butterworth 2018) observe that corporate volunteering projects help unite the team since participating in volunteer events is memorable for the participants. The workers connect their positive emotions and enjoyable pastime with their coworkers and company. An informal network of working relations, where new employees and experienced workers from different departments communicate, is formed as a result. Remarkably, this kind of project performed with a team of volunteers is much more efficient than monotonous teambuilding training. Besides, the involvement in various kinds of volunteering promotes the improvement of psychosocial climate, which is a crucial factor for creating psychological comfort in professional activities. The relations between coworkers get better, and work tasks are solved much quicker than internal processes require.

Psychosocial Competencies of Bank Workers: Development Through …

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Unleashing the potential of the workers of a company and allowing them to show their leadership qualities are also one of the goals of developing corporate volunteer activities. For example, working on social projects is quite useful for developing the research activities of employees. Due to the participation in such events, workers— future company managers—can estimate their leadership qualities, personality traits, company loyalty, and skills in decision making and coordinating group actions. Given the above, participating in volunteering helps develop the psychosocial competencies of the workers that allow them to achieve the highest results in business or service industries. In this study, the authors conclude that corporate volunteering in any sphere and developing psychosocial competencies are interrelated directly. However, there is a stereotype that this connection is mainly about education. Thereby, a contradiction between the necessity of developing psychosocial competencies of bank workers and the lack of conceptual and technological basis for this process appears under the current conditions. One more contradiction is between the need for volunteering in banking and the lack of a clear model of organizing this kind of volunteer activity. The contradictions mentioned above indicate the research direction and allow the authors to state the problem, namely, the development of psychosocial competencies of bank workers through volunteering.

2 Materials and Methods The Baikalsky Head Office of Sberbank provided the experimental base for the study. The research involved the employees of different bank departments. Particularly, there were 35 people who were the members of Nashe Pokoleniye youth movement of the bank. Fifteen workers contributing to the youth movement but not yet involved in social contribution activities of the bank formed the control group. The experimental work implied the accomplishment of three interconnected stages: (1) surveying and motivating, (2) activities, and (3) analysis and assessment. First of all, the authors describe the stage of surveying and motivating. During this stage, the authors studied the level of psychosocial competencies among bank workers and motivated them to participate in volunteering and social projects of the bank to increase their professional competence. A formed group of volunteers, elaboration of the program of social contribution activities, and determination of goals, tasks, forms, content, and a set of themes for meetings with the bank volunteers became the result of this stage. The authors performed studying the level of psychosocial competencies among bank workers according to the criteria listed in Table 1. For the research, the authors chose the ways and methods most suitable for the criteria of the development of psychosocial competencies. These methods allowed achieving significant results and making complex conclusions. The study involved 35 bank workers. After surveying, the authors divided them into two categories: (1) volunteers (20 people), who formed the experimental group,

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Table 1 Criteria and methods of studying the development of psychosocial competencies of bank workers Psychosocial competencies

Research method

Instruments

Knowledge Knowledge of psychological characteristics of customers

Analysis of documentation Analysis of the reports of the bank training center

Knowledge of the rules of effective communication, the establishment of relations of cooperation and mutual understanding, and constructive conflict resolution Skills Ability to delve into details and Testing solve conflicts quickly

Psycho-geometric personality test by Susan Dellinger

Ability to interact with partners Ability to dialogue constructively and develop business relations Ability to choose an optimal negotiation strategy for the goal achievement General activities Performance of various social roles in a group and a team

Polling

Self-monitoring scale (SMS) by Mark Snyder

Leadership and coordination of actions with partners

Testing

Test for communicative and managerial qualities by B. A. Fedorishin

Level of empathy

Testing

Method of studying the level of empathy by V. V. Boyko

Behavioral regulation

Polling

Method of assessing the level of adaptive abilities by A. G. Maklakov and S. V. Chermyanin

Polling

Self-monitoring scale (SMS) by Mark Snyder

Testing

Test for communicative and managerial qualities by B. A. Fedorishin

Personal qualities

Communicative potential Level of discipline Level of responsibility Self-control Emotional stability Ability to cooperate

Source Compiled by the authors

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and (2) workers not yet involved in the bank volunteering (15 people) and included in the control group. The authors examined the indices of every component to estimate the level of psychosocial competencies.

3 Results Knowledge. The method of analyzing documentation allowed us to assess the cognitive component. Analyzing the reports of the bank training center helped identify knowledge of psychological characteristics of bank clients and knowledge of the rules of effective communication, the establishment of relations of cooperation and mutual understanding, and constructive conflict resolution. The results of the internal bank testing formed the core of the report. According to these results, we concluded that the criteria mentioned above were relatively high in the experimental group. Figure 1 shows that 18 volunteers (90%) from the experimental group and 12 people (80%) from the control group had a high level of knowledge of the psychological characteristics of bank clients. More than that, 10% (two people) of the experimental group and 20% (three people) of the control group had an average level of this kind of knowledge. A low level of knowledge was not detected. We also studied the level of knowledge of the rules of effective communication, the establishment of relations of cooperation and mutual understanding, and constructive conflict resolution. The survey shows that 19 people (95%) from the experimental Fig. 1 The results of the survey on the knowledge of the psychological characteristics of the bank clients. Source Compiled by the authors

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group and 14 people (93%) from the control group had a high level of this kind of knowledge. Besides, 5% (one person) of the experimental group and 7% (one person) of the control group had an average level, while there were no workers with a low level of knowledge detected. In particular, 19 people (95%) from the experimental group and 13 people (87%) from the control group demonstrated a high level of knowledge of the rules of constructive conflict solving. Only one person (5%) from the experimental group and two people (13%) from the control group had an average level of this kind of knowledge. A low level of this criterion was not detected. Skills. When following the psycho-geometric personality test by Susan Dellinger, we selected the abilities to delve into details and solve conflicts quickly, interact with partners, dialogue constructively and develop business relations, and choose an optimal negotiation strategy for goal achievement. Figure 2 demonstrates the results. Almost half of the people in the experimental group (nine people or 45%) belong to the triangle type, which represents leadership according to the personality test. Simultaneously, only three people (20%) from the control group belong to this type. The representatives of this type are active and indomitable people who set exact goals and usually achieve them. People of this type are resolute, competitive, confident, and ready to take responsibility. Triangles do not like to be wrong or change their decisions. Moreover, they admit their mistakes quite reluctantly and do not tolerate objections. As a rule, they act as they think fit. The control group included six people (40%) of the square type representing order, neatness, and practicality. The experimental group had two people (10%) of this type.

Fig. 2 The results of studying the level of skill development. Source Compiled by the authors

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Squares are remarkable for their self-discipline, diligence, rationality, and persistence. They are guided by the principles of carefulness, punctuality, and conservatism. The representatives of this figure are excellent performers and administrators. However, they are often found among top managers and company leaders. Their emotional detachment and coldness impede their connection with other people. Usually, squares do not tolerate risk situations, excessive turmoil, and violation of the established routine and order. In these situations, they display new forms of behavior not typical for this category of people: disorientation (lack of cheerfulness), disorderliness (in work or look), sudden changes in thinking and way of life, forgetfulness, and nervousness. A quarter of the respondents (25%) from the experimental group preferred circles to other figures. We should also note that the control group had no representatives of the circle type at this stage of the experiment. For such people, good interpersonal relations are most important. They are attentive listeners capable of empathy, sensitiveness, and responsiveness to the feelings of other people. Circles are great judges of character and can discern cheaters quickly. They worry about their colleagues, and coworkers respect them. However, they are irresolute and weak managers and executives since they focus on people rather than businesses. Being involved in a conflict is extremely hard for such people, but they are firm and do not tolerate injustice in moral issues. In the control group, four people (27%) attributed themselves to the rectangle type, while only one person (5%) from the experimental group chose this figure. Rectangles are people in the process of changing their value system and way of life. People of this type are usually not satisfied with the current situation in their lives. As a rule, they have unstable and low self-esteem. Rectangles try to do something new, become better at some matters, and find other ways of working or other lifestyles. They can learn quickly. During self-discovery, they are open to new values, ideas, and ways of thinking and living. Thus, the abilities to delve into details and solve conflicts quickly, interact with partners, dialogue constructively and develop business relations, and choose an optimal negotiation strategy for goal achievement were typical for the group of volunteers as they mostly belonged to the triangle type. The control group had the potential for developing the necessary skills as they were mostly representatives of the square and rectangle types. General activities. We assessed the performance of various social roles in a group and team, leadership, and coordination of actions with partners according to the Self-Monitoring Scale (SMS) by Mark Snyder and the test for communicative and managerial qualities by B. A. Fedorishin. Figures 3 and 4 demonstrate the results. The above-presented data indicate that most people of the experimental group perform various social roles in a group and a team on a high level. This fact means that these people get into any role easily, react to any change of situation flexibly, sense the impression they give quite well, and can even predict it. At the same time, almost half of the workers (seven people or 47%) from the control group had average communicative control since they are sincere but unrestrained in their emotional manifestations. People with low communicative control are more ingenious and open-minded, and

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Fig. 3 The results of studying the level of performing various social roles in a group and a team. Source Compiled by the authors

Fig. 4 The results of studying the level of leadership and coordination of actions with partners. Source Compiled by the authors

they have a stable self-concept hardly inclined to change in different situations. At this stage of the research, there are two people (10%) with low communicative control detected among volunteers and three people (20%) detected in the control group.

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Seven volunteers (35%) and only one person (7%) among the workers not involved in volunteering demonstrated a high level of leadership and coordination of actions with partners. These data indicate that the workers from the experimental group are more initiative in communication, enjoy taking part in organizing public events, and can make an independent decision in a difficult situation. They do it voluntarily, according to their inner aspirations. However, we should note that many respondents (40% of the volunteers and 60% of the control group) had an average level of leadership and coordination of actions with partners. They uphold their opinion and plan their work, but their potential is not stable and needs development. The representatives with a low level of this criterion (five people (33%) from the experimental group and five people (33%) from the control group) do not seek communication, feel constrained in a new group or a team, prefer to spend their time alone, and limit the number of acquaintances. Difficulties in establishing contacts with people and giving a public speech are typical for them. Such people hardly deal with unfamiliar situations, do not stand for their beliefs, and have a hard time coping with offenses. They hardly demonstrate initiative in public activity and avoid making independent decisions. Personal qualities. This group of psychosocial competencies contains the most significant number of criteria, including the level of empathy, behavioral regulation, communicative potential, level of discipline, level of responsibility, and some other qualities. The method of studying the level of empathy by V. V. Boyko helped examine the empathy of the respondents. Figure 5 presents the results. On the scale of empathy, 13 people (65%) from the experimental group and 12 people (80%) from the control group had an average level typical for most people. In interpersonal relations, they are inclined to judge people by their deeds rather than trust their impressions. Emotional manifestations are not alien to them, but most of the time, they control themselves. In communication, they are attentive, try to understand more than it is said in words, but lose patience in the case of extreme manifestations of feelings. Such people tactfully restrain from expressing their opinion until they are not sure that it will be accepted. While reading books or watching movies, they usually follow the plot rather than the feelings of the characters. They find it difficult to predict the development of relations between people, and sometimes, their own actions are unexpected to them. Since they are not relaxed emotionally, they cannot fully perceive people. Five people (25%) from the experimental group had a high level of empathy. Such people are sensitive to the needs and problems of people around them, generous, and inclined to forgiving. They are emotionally responsive, sociable, able to relate and establish contacts quickly as they have a sincere interest in other people. They deal with criticism quite well, try to prevent conflicts, and find compromises. Constant social approval of their actions is essential for them. People of this category are not always neat at accurate and laborious tasks. In the control group, there were no people with a high level of empathy. It is noticeable that two people (10%) from the volunteer group and three people (20%) from the control group had a low empathy level. The representatives of this

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Fig. 5 The results of studying the level of empathy. Source Compiled by the authors

level feel uncomfortable in a big company and find it difficult to establish contact with people. They prefer doing an exact task alone to working with people. Due to the multilevel personality test for assessing the level of adaptive abilities by A. G. Maklakov and S. V. Chermyanin, we studied the level of the following personal qualities: behavioral regulation, communicative potential, level of discipline, and level of responsibility. At this research stage, 15 people (75%) from the experimental group and two people (13%) from the control group demonstrated a high level of behavioral regulation. Figure 6 illustrates this fact. Five people (25%) from the experimental group had an average level of this criterion, while in the control group, this level is typical for most workers (13 people or 87%). A low level of behavioral regulation was not detected. Sixteen people (80%) from the experimental group and only one person (7%) from the control group demonstrated a high level of communicative potential. Fourteen people (93%) from the control group and four people (20%) from the experimental group showed an average level. A low level of communicative potential was not detected. Thirteen representatives (65%) of the experimental group and six people (40%) from the control group had a high level of discipline and responsibility. Such people have a high level of mental stability and behavioral regulation, adequate self-esteem and reality perception, and well-developed communicative skills. They can easily establish contact with coworkers and other people around them, do not cause conflicts, and take a realistic view of their role in a team. Such people adapt to new conditions quite easily, become a part of a group quickly, deal with different

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Fig. 6 The results of studying the level of behavioral regulation. Source Compiled by the authors

situations efficiently and adequately, and develop a behavior strategy swiftly. As a rule, they also have a high level of emotional stability (Fig. 7). Seven people (35%) from the experimental group and nine people (60%) from the control group had an average level of discipline and responsibility. A low level of these criteria was not detected among the respondents.

Fig. 7 The results of studying the level of communicative potential. Source Compiled by the authors

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We also measured social self-control and emotional stability using the SelfMonitoring Scale (SMS) by Mark Snyder. Fourteen people (70%) from the control group and only six people (40%) from the experimental group demonstrated a high level of this criterion. Such people are inclined to sensitively perceive the emotional and behavioral manifestations of others and focus on them in situations when they are not sure how to act. The behavior of these people varies depending on the situation. In general, people with a high level of self-control worry about the social aptitude of their behavior. Moreover, they are sensitive to the expressive behavior of others and use it as a guide to managing their own expression. They control their behavior effectively and can easily design a necessary impression of them among other people. An average level of this criterion was not detected among the respondents. A low level of social self-control and emotional stability was characteristic for six people (30%) from the experimental group and nine people (60%) from the control group. The representatives with a low level hardly worry about the adequacy of their behavior and emotional expression and do not pay attention to the nuances of the behavior of other people. Their behavior and feelings depend mostly on their inner conditions and guidelines rather than the demands and peculiarities of the situation. For analyzing the ability to cooperate, we used the results of the test for communicative and managerial qualities by B. A. Fedorishin. Eight people (40%) from the experimental group and three people (20%) from the control group demonstrated a high level of cooperation. An average level was equally characteristic for both groups, with eight people (40%) in the experimental group and six people (40%) in the control group. At the same time, the experimental group had six people (40%) with a low index on this criterion, while the control group had only four such people (20%). People with a low level of cooperation do not seek communication and feel uncomfortable in a new company or a group. They prefer to spend time alone and limit the number of acquaintances. Difficulties in establishing contact with people and giving a public speech are typical for them. Such people hardly deal with unfamiliar situations, do not stand for their beliefs, and have a hard time coping with offenses. They hardly demonstrate initiative in public activities and avoid making independent decisions. Based on the received data, we concluded that a high level of disposition to communication was characteristic of the group of volunteers. People not involved in volunteering demonstrated a lower level of this index.

4 Discussion Thus, when summarizing the data received from studying the criteria of psychosocial competencies of the workers of this commercial bank, we concluded that most respondents had these criteria at the level above the average. Simultaneously, the volunteer group had higher indices on these criteria.

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We designed a particular model for developing the psychosocial competencies of bank workers through volunteering. The model represented an integral system, which included three interrelated parts: goal setting, organization, and assessment. Accomplishing the first part implied defining the goal of the model, namely, developing the psychosocial competencies of bank workers through volunteering. The structure of psychosocial competencies was considered as a complex of knowledge, skills, general actions, and personal qualities. The organization part included three stages: . Surveying and motivating (this stage aimed to study the level of psychosocial competencies and motivate the workers to participate in volunteering and social projects of the bank as a way to develop their professional competence); . Activities (events aimed to develop volunteering among bank workers); . Analysis and assessment (bank workers estimated the effectiveness of the conducted events and the implementation of the program of social contribution activities). Forming a group of volunteers, developing the program of social contribution activity, implementing this program in social institutions of Irkutsk, and increasing the level of psychosocial competencies of bank workers resulted from the step-bystep implementation of the organization part of the model. The assessment part allowed estimating the efficiency of the model functioning by presenting the monitoring component according to the above criteria of developing psychosocial competencies. Developing the psychosocial competencies of bank workers and assessing the resources of volunteering usable for this goal should be the result of introducing the model.

5 Conclusion The theoretical analysis of the scientific literature and the empiric research results allowed making a set of conclusions. The research proved the contradictions between (1) the necessity of developing psychosocial competencies of bank workers and the lack of conceptual and technological basis for this process and (2) the need for volunteering in banking and the lack of a clear model of organizing this kind of volunteer activity. More than that, we defined the theoretical foundations for developing psychosocial competencies of bank workers through volunteering. In addition, we elaborated the criteria and indices of developing psychosocial competencies of bank workers. Furthermore, we defined the psychosocial, personal, and professional peculiarities of bank workers, as well as the specificity and the level of developing their psychosocial competencies. Finally, the study allowed us to do the following: (1) determine the key directions of activity; (2) create a model for developing psychosocial competencies of

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bank workers; and (3) develop the program of social contribution activity of bank volunteers at social organizations and establishments. We believe that the conducted research, which considers the developmental potential of volunteering and implies purposeful, systematic, and deliberate involvement of bank workers in different kinds of volunteering, will help develop psychosocial competencies of bank workers as a part of their professional competence.

References Avkiran NK, Turner L (1996) Upward evaluation of bank branch manager’s competence: how to develop a measure in-house. Asia Pac J Hum Resour 34(3):37–47 Baydenko VI (2004) Competencies in professional education. High Educ Russ 11:3–12 Breitsohl H, Ehrig N (2017) Commitment through employee volunteering: accounting for the motives of inter-organizational volunteers. Appl Psychol 66(2):260–289 Caligiuri P, Mencin A, Jiang K (2013) Win–Win–Win: the influence of company-sponsored volunteerism programs on employees, NGOs, and business units. Pers Psychol 66(4):825–860 Fedosova IV, Kibalnik AV (2012) Volunteering among youth people: learning to cope with problems. LAP LAMBERT Academic Publishing GmbH & Co, Saarbrücken Khutorskoy AV (2003) Key competencies as a component of personality-oriented education. People’s Educ 2:58–64 Krasnenkova NS (2015) Development of psychosocial competence of bank workers (dissertation of candidate of psychological sciences). Saratov State University, Samara Lans T, Verhees F, Verstegen J (2016) Social competence in small firms: fostering workplace learning and performance. Hum Resour Dev Q 27(3):321–348 Maslov EV (2005) Psychological aspects of selecting and adaptation of novice bank managers (dissertation of candidate of psychological sciences). Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow Mitina LM (2002) Development psychology of competitive personality. Moscow Psychology and Social Science University, Moscow Nangle D, Erdley C, Schwartz-Mette R (2020) Social skills across the life span. Academic Press, London, San Diego Schofield TP, Butterworth P (2018) Community attitudes toward people receiving unemployment benefits: does volunteering change perceptions? Basic Appl Soc Psychol 40(5):279–292 Zimnyaya IA (2003) Key competencies: a new paradigm of education results. Learn Psychol 5:34–44

Advances in Cultural Traditions and Innovation, Development Barriers, and Social Stability

Innovative Approaches and Management Mechanisms in Regional Service Sectors Irina A. Pryadko, Nataliia N. Muraveva, Aleksandra I. Novitskay, Tatiana M. Rogova, and Elena A. Repina

Abstract Transformation of the global economy began to be fully implemented after the financial crisis of 2008, and by 2017 it transformed into a new type of economy with a new composition of main players. Besides, the strengthening protectionist model of a fight between these players. They set new goals for the countries’ economic security and also their regional components. The service sector allows us to consider the economic equipment of the region and the ability of each organization to compete in the provision of quality services regardless of its target orientation. Innovative approach and management mechanisms are two primary components for the successful development of small and medium-sized businesses in the regional service sector. Therefore, the financial stability of the service sector also involves the calculation of financial and economic activity indicators. On their basis, positive changes are revealed over a certain period, contributing to the proper consideration of economic security indicators. The following scientific methods made it possible to conduct the current research: observation, grouping, systematic and factor analysis, synthesis, generalization, and comparison. Keywords Services · Region · Security · Development · Economy

I. A. Pryadko (B) · N. N. Muraveva · A. I. Novitskay · T. M. Rogova · E. A. Repina Southern Federal University, Rostov-on-Don, Russia e-mail: [email protected] N. N. Muraveva e-mail: [email protected] T. M. Rogova e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 S. G. Maximova et al. (eds.), Advances in Natural, Human-Made, and Coupled Human-Natural Systems Research, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 250, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-78083-8_38

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1 Introduction In management, the service is considered as a combination of cooperation, labor organization, and managerial activity, where a certain number of people jointly participate. As a social phenomenon, service characterizes a person’s ability to cooperate, mutual help, and maintenance of equal rights in different spheres of society. On the one hand, the introduction of the cooperative management principle into the organization’s policy is primarily due to the need to improve professional and cooperative management. On the other, it encourages employees’ participation in developing the organization’s economic activities and also uses democracy as a key aspect of cooperative policy. The absolute control carried by the cooperation participants can be effective only when the organization’s cooperative policy contains the criteria that show the effectiveness of cooperative management in the organization’s economic and managerial activities. Self-managing provides the functions and interests of the service sector in competitiveness as an autonomous socio-economic system. The service sector accommodates the interests of its participants with the interests of the country and society as a whole. A standalone organization provides various services characterized as a toplevel subsystem of different types of organizations and as an external environment. The impact managing of the service sector depends on the type of state economy. Consequently, the administrative command economy system is characterized by the country influence, which is based on directive management over the organization, and this type of system design tasks that should be done under the production schedule related to the organization, goods turnover, public purchase and use of centralized and decentralized funds.

2 Materials and Methods The subject of the study is identified as the system of economic relations arising in the service sector and while managing the organizational financial stability and its competitiveness. If the organization works for profit, then the bankruptcy risks are reduced. There are external and internal factors of financial stability. The main internal factor of ensuring financial stability is to provide high-qualified services. Rational resource consumption and profit are the signs of sustainable development (Skrynnikova 2012). Summarizing the experts’ attitude (Gordin and Sushchinskaya 2017), the authors conclude that the financial stability of the service sector is a state when services are provided without interruption, resources are consumed rationally, the economic effect from the sale is achieved, and there are no risks of bankruptcy. Crisis phenomena can disrupt the financial stability of organizations. According to the regional development goals, criteria (development characteristics) and indicator systems are built to measure these goals. Despite some differences

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between value hierarchy and development purposes in countries and regions, international organizations measure countries’ and regions’ development degree according to the universal integral indicators. One of these indicators is the Human Development Index [HDI], developed within the United Nations Development Programme [UNDP]. The indicator ranks countries in ascending order from 0 to 1. Three features of economic development are used for the calculation: life expectancy at birth, intellectual potential (adult literacy and average duration of schooling), per capita income (considering the purchasing power of the currency, and the decrease of the marginal utility of income) (Smith 2005). Along with the integral indicators, like HDI is, it is possible to use particular individual indicators for the development of regions. Among them: (1) national income per capita; (2) the consumption level of certain material goods; (3) the degree of income differentiation; (4) life expectancy; (5) the level of physical health.

3 Results The conducted research let the authors draw the following conclusions: (1) Application of innovative approaches to the calculation of competitiveness indicators in the service sector and the ability to generate updated information about the producing costs of a specific service type;—The profitability ratio will objectively reflect the real state of the production process and diagnose the presence of crisis phenomena; (2) Based on these models, the following indicators can be calculated: profitability of sales at fair value and the ratio of fair value and sales revenue. These indicators are calculated for each specific transaction and determine the risks of sustainable development. It should be mentioned that due to the specific influence of the market relations’ on the consumer cooperation in the sphere of managing and operating, in this case, there is not only social and economic but also state regulation of consumer cooperation (Taranova et al. 2018). Next, the authors highlight the key areas of service sector management development, namely: (1) Development and maintenance of social aspects of consumer cooperation management; (2) Structural changes due to social, economic, cooperative, production, and technical changes in the external environment of the service sector; (3) Absence of relations between other organizations in the service sector based on horizontal links;

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4 Discussion Among the wide range of opinions on solving such economic problems, two perspectives can be distinguished. On the one side, the maximization of neoclassical ideas by weakening restrictive state barriers can increase investment from outside, both technological and financial. On the other, the maximization of Keynesian ideas, strengthening positive government support, including investment—all that can also increase the foreign technological and financial investments, but with a more substantial national economy basis. Eventually, investments (external and internal), financing, and technology continue to be the leading managing tools to solve these problems. At the same time, each of the country’s regions chooses its own depending on the competitive advantages. The service sector being in an ongoing interaction process on the global market to provide the highest quality services remains one of the most complex and time-consuming sectors that entails economic consequences (Taranova et al. 2016). There are problems in the service sector development that appear quite often, namely: (1) The bankruptcy risks reducing and managing the financial stability of organizations; in order to determine the bankruptcy risks, modern economic literature proposes an evaluation of the resource availability, efficiency, and effectiveness of organizations. (2) The toughening of tax control measures. Fees and tax avoidance are a willful and illegal act. This taxation circumstance is gaining popularity and compels the necessity to improve and implement tax controls (Smith 2005). Tax control also brings the problem of the functioning of a small business. Small business is a field of entrepreneurship in which tax control is very rarely carried out. The reason is that large businesses are large taxpayers; their financial receipts are frequently and timely monitored. Such measures help to prevent violations of tax laws. The authors justified bankruptcy risk indicators that, under the influence of crisis, may grow over a certain period of time, determining the correctness of management decisions. Later on, the authors set a new goal of the research—the justification and development of a methodology of presenting accounting information for agricultural organizations’ financial stability management.

5 Conclusion There is no doubt that the service sector is essential. It impacts not only the state’s economy, but also socio-economic issues and the community’s status strengthens the organization’s cooperation. The outcome of this cooperation depends on the specifics and quality of cooperative management, as well as the professionalism of the employees (Gordin and Sushchinskaya 2017).

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Thus, the following are ways to improve relations within the organization: (1) Improving the cooperative management and cooperative policies. (2) Recruiting high-qualified managers that will help employees to open career opportunities. (3) Creating a professional manager exchange program to improve the development of economic activities and the relationship between organizations.

References Gordin VE, Sushchinskaya MD (2017) Service sector management. Business Press, Moscow, Russia Skrynnikova IA (2012) Service sector marketing. SINTEG, Moscow, Russia Smith J (2005) Leadership in professional services (trans: Baisar L). Balance Business Books, Moscow, Russia (Original work published 1814) Taranova IV, Golovanova NB, Basyuk AS, Kramarenko ER, Goloshchapova LV (2016) The study of economic activity of Russian corporations in the modern economy. Int J Econ Financ Issues 6(S1):220–226 Taranova IV, Podkolzina IM, Prokhorova VV, Kolomyts ON, Kobozeva EM (2018) Global financial and economic crisis in Russia: rends and prospects. Res J Pharm, Biol Chem Sci 9(6):769–775

Methodological and Organizational Peculiarities of Studying Practices in Forensic Examinations: A Comparative Analysis of Australia, Vietnam, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, and Russia Yury P. Garmaev

and Farit G. Aminev

Abstract The research goal is (1) to increase the efficiency of collecting and studying the materials of forensic expert practice created by law school students, scientists, and law enforcement officers, and (2) to ensure the information reliability and exhaustiveness. We propose several algorithms for searching relevant documents, but there are limitations in obtaining their electronic versions. These algorithms have digital (online) and traditional, analog components (offline search). We conducted a comparative analysis of forensic examinations in different countries—Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Vietnam, and Russia. It showed that the development of this direction is impossible without a fundamental change in scientific, methodological, organizational, and legal approaches to the study of production and the improvement of forensic expertise. We consider that it is necessary to activate scientific research and didactic technologies to properly study the primary source of science and the academic discipline “forensic expertise.” Besides, we detail potential capabilities and algorithms to study forensic examinations conducted in state and non-state forensic expert organizations. In order to improve the technical efficiency and effectiveness of scientific research in forensic expertise, we make proposals to digitalize expert opinions and automate the recording of their study results. We suggest ways to improve the legal regulation of maintaining a unified reporting form for state and non-state forensic organizations.

Y. P. Garmaev (B) East-Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Justice, Irkutsk, Russia e-mail: [email protected] Dorji Banzarov Buryat State University, Ulan-Ude, Russia F. G. Aminev Bashkir State University, Ufa, Russia Ufa State Aviation Technical University, Ufa, Russia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 S. G. Maximova et al. (eds.), Advances in Natural, Human-Made, and Coupled Human-Natural Systems Research, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 250, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-78083-8_39

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Y. P. Garmaev and F. G. Aminev

Keywords Expert opinion · Forensic examination · Legal didactics · Search for expert practice materials · Digitalization · Main information-analytical center · Crime registration · Quality · Forensic expertise

1 Introduction For many years, law companies, large businesses, courts, prosecutor’s offices, Ministry of Internal Affairs (MVD), etc., regularly declare that the average graduate of any law university has only superficial ideas about law enforcement practice (Garmaev et al. 2018). Young lawyers (university students or graduates) often have never seen a complete (concerning the list of documents) criminal, civil, commercial court case, and materials for forensic examinations. They are usually incompetent in the most common knowledge, skills, and competencies for practicing lawyers, such as making a written request or order for a specific type of forensic examination. It requires expertise and studying expert practice. One reason for the existing situation is the lack of uniform standards, algorithms, and technologies for searching and studying law enforcement and expert practice in higher education institutions. In other words, most universities and scientific law schools do not have the appropriate traditions. Most academics themselves do not consider it necessary to search and study practice continually. It is easier to use legislation, scientific and educational literature, legal statistics, etc. Search and study materials of the real criminal, civil, and other cases require more effort and time. However, any experienced practicing lawyer and a professional scientist will undoubtedly indicate the need to check law enforcement practice after analyzing the applicable legislation when asked about almost any applied legal problem. Legal scholars note that the established legal services system for organizations and the population, a variety of private law firms primarily provide legal support and notarial practice. The quality of training of future lawyers and scientific knowledge of forensic expertise lacks due to the mentioned fact. At the same time, various forensic examinations remain “terra incognita,” often even for professional lawyers (Rossinskaya 2018). Due to the lack of research in the scientific literature concerning the development of scientific recommendations for expert opinions in real cases, there is an urgent need for such a study. This research considers the study of forensic practice in Russia and globally. Based on the analysis of expert practices of foreign Eurasian colleagues, supplemented by national long—term expert practice, a set of scientific and practical recommendations for the qualitative objective, comprehensive research of forensic examinations by experts of state and non-state forensic organizations, private experts and persons who are not employees of forensic organizations to whom examinations are appointed was proposed. The publication of the above recommendations will help study the legal, epistemological, and operational aspects of the forensic examination process in—depth to further improve forensic expertise and judicial proceedings in general.

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2 Materials and Methods The study of expert practice by lawyers should base itself on the means and methods available to every student. Attempts by a student, scientist, or practicing lawyer to obtain a selection of real printed documents related to the appointment and production of forensic examinations run into almost insurmountable organizational difficulties. Hence the applied task—it is necessary to offer an algorithm for searching and studying this practice both in print (in the original or copy) and in electronic form. Forensic science and forensic expertise proceed from the absolute position that law, practice, and science form an exhaustive list of sources for these sciences (Belkin 2001), however, as probably all other legal sciences. In order to solve the problem of studying expert practice, we propose to take as a basis the study of relevant phenomena and processes in their interrelation and mutual conditionality, using general scientific and private scientific methods of empirical and theoretical knowledge: (1) comparative—legal, (2) system—structural, (3) formal— logical, (4) sociological, etc. Simultaneously, it should be noted that using such methods as sociological (questionnaires, surveys, etc.) has its limitations related to departmental interests. These interests do not allow the experts of some agencies (MVD [MIA], IC, FSB [FSS], etc.) to participate in their implementation. Using the entire set of methods listed above allowed us to develop a set of proposed scientific and practical recommendations. These applied recommendations are designed to help novice lawyers and those who are educated: students, candidates for a Master’s Degree, postgraduates, novice and more experienced scientists in the shortest possible time, with the optimal amount of effort, to find and effectively use the materials of expert practice. It can be done using the proposed organizational approaches, algorithms, and several open Internet resources. However, one should bear in mind that algorithms and methods for forensic practice search are significantly limited. As far as we know, unlike judicial acts, the vast majority of which are published on the Internet in accordance with the law (Russian Federation 2008), mass “transformation” from printed to electronic form and publication on the Internet of conclusions and other materials of forensic examinations is not performed anywhere in the country. The most accessible and seemingly reliable, and straightforward method is to search (by keywords, etc.) using online search engines (such as Yandex) for electronic copies of forensic reports. These reports are often posted by mostly nongovernmental expert institutions and attorneys and other lawyers on their websites. However, professionals do not recommend to use such electronic copies extensively in scientific or practical implementation. They are posted on the Internet primarily for advertising purposes. Such documents do not always meet the appropriate quality and reliability standards (Aminev 2019). A more correct and reliable search for forensic reports can be performed using the following short algorithm “from the verdict to the examination”:

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. Stage 1. First, one searches for verdicts on specific categories of criminal cases (see the methodology below) with commonly conducted various types of forensic examinations. For example, a forensic portrait examination is usually carried out in criminal cases of ATM funds theft (based on video images of the appearance of criminals recorded on ATM video cameras); . Stage 2. After receiving the relevant verdicts in electronic form, one can find brief descriptions of the operative part of the necessary expert research and details of the expert opinion: time, place, etc.; . Stage 3. The expert opinions, only in printed form (with subsequent copying), can be requested (1) in the archive of the relevant court, (2) in the expert institution where the expert study itself was conducted (if the five—year document retention period has not expired after the entry into force of the judicial act). This paper discusses only several possibilities for forensic practice search on specific categories of cases. However, there are other resources, such as the computer—assisted legal research systems “Consultant Plus” (“Specific Search for Judicial Practice,” n.d.), “Garant” (“Working with Judicial Practice in the Garant System,” n.d.), and many others.

3 Results The researcher’s actions at Stage 1 require additional explanation using the algorithm “from the verdict to the examination.” The texts of almost any verdict or other final judicial act or even their selection can be found using several online resources (from this point onward, in terms of using listed online resources, we used the work of one of the authors of this paper with reductions and refinements (Garmaev 2019): the website of the relevant court, the State Automated System “Pravosudie” (www. sudrf.ru), the database of judicial acts, court decisions and regulatory documents “SudAkt” (http://sudact.ru/). We will detail the capabilities of the latter resource (“SudAkt”). The website presents the judicial practice of the Presidium and Plenum of the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation, commercial courts of all instances, regional and district courts (and equivalents) of general jurisdiction, and magistrates’ courts. The section “Legislation” contains legal acts in the current versions. As an option, one can examine judicial practice in criminal cases on evidence tampering to find, for example, materials of handwriting examinations and technicalforensic examination of documents (TFED). One can choose the corresponding article of the Russian Criminal Code devoted to evidence tampering. Besides, one should fill in the required fields on the main page: sections “Courts of General jurisdiction,” “text of the document in civil and criminal proceedings,” and mark “first instance.” The remaining fields can be blank. Figure 1 depicts the search results—1085 judicial acts as of the current date (the request was formed and executed on 03.31.2020).

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Fig. 1 Example of finding court decisions using the “SudAkt” database. Source Compiled by the authors

Studying the texts of court verdicts will allow one to find a brief description of the operative part of the relevant examinations. Furthermore—acting in accordance with the algorithm above. The advantages of using “SudAkt” are: (1) it is the largest database in the Russianspeaking segment of the Internet, (2) it can search for specified words, which is not available, for example, on the websites of particular courts. Step 1 of the algorithm can be implemented through personal contact with (1) managers and staff of the information centers in the bodies of internal Affairs (the Main Information-Analytical center of the Russian Federation Ministry of Internal Affairs), (2) regional information centers in law enforcement agencies of the Russian constituent entities, and (3) managers and employees of large expert agencies. The second algorithm is “from the report of the Expert and Forensic Center of the Russian Federation Ministry of Internal Affairs to statistical cards, and then to the court files.” Stage 1. The search for expert opinions and related materials, for example, on new or rarely conducted types of forensic examinations, may begin with the analysis of the “Consolidated Report on Russia on the Work of Expert and Forensic Centers for the year…” (report code 1-NTP) annual report of the Expert Consulting Center (ECC) of the MVD. One can find this report in the following ways: (1) through an official request to the MVD or the regional government, (2) through a search of the ECC of the MVD employees’ reports on the boards, meetings, and conferences; and (3) through personal acquaintance with the managers, employees of the ECCs of Russian regions. In this report, Section Five (forensic examinations) and Section Six (special examinations) show the types, number of examinations, and regions in which these examinations were performed. Further search should be performed in such regions.

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Knowing what categories of crimes are mainly assigned and performed by certain types and deliveries of forensic examinations, one can apply to the Information Centers of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of the Republics, Administration (central departments) of the Ministry of Internal Affairs in the territories and regions in which, according to the interdepartmental order “On Unified Registration of Crimes” of December 29, 2005 (Ministry of Justice of the Russian Federation 2005) fill in various statistical cards for identified and registered crimes. Information on the conducted forensic examinations is contained in statistical cards (or primary accounting document) with the title “On the results of the investigation of the crime” (Form No. 1.1). In this card, in the section “Forces, Means and Methods Used in the Establishment of a Person,” by the relevant employees, requisite No. 31 is filled in if the results of the use of forensic means and methods are reflected in the criminal case file when the person who committed the crime is identified. The overlapping of codes performs coding of information. For example, the inspection of the place of the incident (code 10), the expert and forensic unit of the internal affairs bodies (code 01) were used in the presentation of the charge—the final code 11 is entered in the card. In the same way, data on the use by divisions of expert institutions of other ministries and departments are filled in (03); results: inspections of places of accidents (10), examinations (40); use of forensic examinations (30). Considering the human factor (non-filling by authorized employees of specific cells in the statistical card, incorrect coding, etc.), we recommend considering the filling in of details 32 in the same section. It is filled out if, when sending requests to the Main Information—Analytical Center of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of Russia or the Information Center of the internal affairs bodies of the regions, there was an identification of persons, events, and objects related to this crime with similar objects consisting of search and forensic (code 3) accounts (DNA fingerprinting, bullet and shell casing repository, etc.). Due to this information, it is possible to conclude the forensic examinations that correspond to these records. Having thus identified criminal cases for which the preliminary investigation has been completed, and the cases have been submitted to the court, official letters should be addressed to the chairmen of the relevant regional, district, and city courts with a request to be allowed to familiarize themselves with the criminal cases in the archive. The process of familiarization with forensic examinations conducted by non-state forensic organizations in criminal and civil cases may often be more accessible. The fact is that the normative legal acts regulating the production, storage, and destruction of forensic examinations in state expert institutions do not apply to the activities of non-state (although some expert organizations have their own “internal” orders) (Aminev 2016). Thus, in cases when sentences and other court decisions come into force, the possibility of bringing experts to criminal responsibility under Article 310 of the Russian Criminal Code “Disclosure of Preliminary Investigation data” is excluded. Therefore, after some time from the date of entry into force of the court decision, it is possible to apply to the head of the non-state forensic expert organization to provide access to the examinations carried out in these cases.

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4 Discussion In most Russian forensic expertise journals (“Forensic Science,” “Theory and Practice of Forensic Science,” etc.), there is a section “Forensic Expertise Abroad,” which often publishes articles by foreign experts and heads of forensic organizations on the state of forensic expertise in different countries. However, they inform only about the history, methods, and new technologies for conducting expert research of certain types and describe the process of conducting a forensic examination in a specific criminal case. For example, a group of scholars described the entire soil science examination course in small detail in a specific 2008 criminal case (Fitzpatrick et al. 2013). Experts share their experience about how, due to expert examination of dust on two shirts, to capture a serial rapist and convict him (Palenik 2013). Within the framework of international conferences held abroad, it would seem that an analysis of the practice of production of such forensic examinations should be presented (Asemgalieva 2016). However, the speeches of the conferences also contain only a narrative about a single fact of the relevant forensic examination in a specific criminal case. In scientific works of foreign experts, there is no review of the practice of the producing of judicial examinations, a detailed statistical analysis of various characteristics carried out by the experts of forensic examinations (not set correlation of the types of conclusions the applied methods and tools, quantitative and qualitative characteristics of objects, the scientific validity, and reliability of the findings analyzed expert opinions, etc.), there is no in—depth analysis of the shortcomings of forensic examinations by region, country and other features of the expert opinions. We note that the interest of the judicial and expert community, the issue of quality of work of forensic institutions, involving the analysis of the results of these activities, which are submitted to the courts in the form of legal expertise abroad, is not solved by the study of a large number of expert opinions and somewhat differently. For example, the 25th Annual Conference of the European Network of Forensic Institutes (ENFSI) was held in Belgrade (Serbia) from 22 to May 27, 2013, based on the National Forensic Technical Center (NFTC), which was attended by 60 leading forensic institutions of Europe. It discussed the report of Ms. Lourdes Puigbarrak Sol, a member of the Bureau, in which she spoke about the work of the Quality and Competence Committee (Report on QCC SC Action Plan 2012–2013) (Usov 2013). However, as the analysis of conference materials shows, in such reports, experts from abroad talk about quality checks of expert’s work by performing tests, recommendations for their improvement, and individual cases from practice. For example, hair research experts are sent fragments of fingerprint films with ten hair/hair fragments or fibers and are asked to “establish the nature of the hair (determine whether it belongs to human or animal or has a different nature, for example, are fragments of artificial fibers) and, if possible, identify the part of the body from which the hair was extracted, or name the animal to which it belonged” (Perfilova and Nesterina 2013). Naturally, there is no need to analyze a large number of expert opinions for such quality checks. We believe that the activities of foreign forensic

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institutions are dominated by work on checking the quality and level of competence of the experts themselves by testing them, to the detriment of extensive analytical work on the study of a large number of forensic examinations and identifying their features, patterns of errors and falsifications. At the same time, it should be noted that several countries have legislated requirements for strict registration and reporting on all forensic examinations conducted, including by non-state forensic organizations. For example, the Law of the Republic of Kazakhstan “On Forensic Expert Activity in the Republic of Kazakhstan” (February 10, 2017, No. 44-VI ZRK), Chap. 4 “Chamber of Forensic Experts of the Republic of Kazakhstan” sets out provisions for monitoring and providing organizational and methodological assistance to private experts (up to submitting a report on the conducted forensic research to the Ministry of Justice of the Republic of Kazakhstan) (Aminev and Satenov 2018). Such reporting regulation allows to obtain objective data on the effectiveness of applying specific methods, for example, DNA analysis, based on statistical processing of a large number of studied expert opinions (Erkesheva et al. 2016). Due to the unification of forensic organizations of all departments into the Expert Forensic Institute of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam, the study of expert practice, including the analysis of expert opinions on objects, methods, types of forensic examinations, is greatly simplified, which was demonstrated by the analysis of numerous statistical data in the text of the thesis of Nguyen Van Kau for the degree of Candidate of Legal Sciences and appendices to it (Nguyen 2020). Since 2010, the Center of Forensic Examinations of the Republic of Azerbaijan has been operating the Automated Registration Program (ARP), which registers the results of forensic examinations, and “promptly responds and timely eliminates shortcomings in forensic expert activities, solves issues reflecting the timely state and situation in this area” (Abbasov 2016). Unfortunately, it is necessary to state that in the conditions of departmental disunity of forensic and expert organizations in the Russian Federation (forensic and expert organizations operate in eight departments), it is currently not possible to carry out a uniform analysis of the results of their activities.

5 Conclusion We conclude that legal didactics and the science of “forensic expertise” have not yet developed a methodology for studying its primary source—law enforcement and expert practice. Undoubtedly, relevant scientific and didactic developments, especially with digitalization, need to be activated, including setting tasks for students of law schools to search for these materials using both the proposed and other methods. The use of the organizational approaches, algorithms, and recommendations proposed in this article, including the use of many open Internet resources, will allow researchers to ensure the reliability and completeness of information about the practice of forensic examinations.

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A more detailed study of the experience of information support, legal regulation of forensic activities in the countries of the Eurasian continent (Vietnam, the Republic of Kazakhstan, etc.) allows scientists and practitioners to identify the most effective and rational ways to study the practice of conducting forensic examinations, which makes it possible to develop methodological recommendations for their use in the investigation of crimes. It seems that in order to improve the manufacturability and efficiency of scientific research in the field of forensic activities should be provided for uniform regulation of activities and automation of reporting forensic organizations in the project of the Federal law “On Forensic Expertise in the Russian Federation” in a separate article. Such legislative consolidation will increase the transparency of the functioning of these organizations, as well as facilitate the study and analysis of the practice of forensic expertise and improvement of judicial proceedings in general. Acknowledgements This research was carried out with the financial support of the Russian Foundation for Basic Research (RFBR) as part of the No. 18-29-14076 grant on the topic “Legal and Ethical Aspects of the Universal DNA Certification of the Population of the Russian Federation for the Purposes of DNA Identification of the Personality”.

References Abbasov N (2016) Features of automated registration of forensic expertise. In: Abbasov N (ed) Proceedings from ISPC 2016: East and West: a partnership in forensic expertise. Topical issues of the theory and practice of forensic examinations. Almaty; Karaganda, Kazakhstan: Litera, LLP. Aminev FG (2016) On particular problems of forensic expertise in the Russian Federation. Russ Judge 6:18–19. Retrieved from http://lawinfo.ru/catalog/contents-2016/rossijskij-sudja/6/ Aminev FG (2019) Current problems of forensic expertise in the Russian Federation and ways to resolve them. Yurlitinform, Moscow, Russia Aminev FG, Satenov KK (2018) On some issues of organizational support of forensic expertise in the Republic of Kazakhstan and the Russian Federation. In: Aminev FG, Seytenov KK (eds) Proceedings from ISPC 2018: prospects for partnership between the SCO Member States in the field of forensic expertise. Almaty, Kazakhstan. Asemgalieva GE (2016) The practice of performing a comprehensive examination by one expert in two different specialties. In Asemgalieva GE (ed) Proceedings from ISPC 2016: East and West: a partnership in forensic expertise. Topical issues of the theory and practice of forensic examinations. Almaty; Karaganda, Kazakhstan: Litera, LLP. Belkin RS (2001) Course in criminology, 4th edn. Russia, Moscow Erkesheva ASh, Tagaybekova UZh, Alzhanova BS (2016) The possibility of multiplex fragment analysis of DNA (up to six colors) during the molecular genetic examination. In Erkesheva ASh, Tagaybekova UZh, Alzhanova BS (eds) Proceedings from ISPC 2016: East and West: a partnership in forensic expertise. Topical issues of the theory and practice of forensic examinations. Almaty, Kazakhstan: Karaganda: Litera, LLP. Fitzpatrick R, Raven M, Self P (2013) Reference soil from the road-verge at victim’s home as significant evidence in a sexual assault case. Theory Pract Forensic Sci 4(32):158–160. Retrieved from http://www.sudexpert.ru/files/tipse/2013/sudex_mag_4(32)13.pdf

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Garmaev YuP (2019) Guidelines for the search, processing, and use of materials of investigative and judicial practice (criminal proceedings). Baikal Meridian, Ulan-Ude, Russia GarmaevYuP, Popova EI, Sharaldaeva IA (2018) Projects of “employment of law students:” concept and first steps of implementation. Bull Voronezh State Univ. Ser: Prob High Educ 1(32):268–276 Nguyen VK (2020) Legal and informational support of forensic expertise in the Socialist Republic of Vietnam (Dissertation of Candidate of Legal Sciences). Moscow, Russia: Vladimir Kikot Moscow University of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of Russia. Palenik S (2013) Microscopical technique for the analysis and comparison of soil traces in forensic investigations. Theory Pract Forensic Sci 4(32):166. Retrieved from http://www.sudexpert.ru/ files/tipse/2013/sudex_mag_4(32)13.pdf Perfilova TV, Nesterina EM (2013) On the meeting of the ENFSI WG on examination of hair and fibers. Theory Pract Forensic Sci 3(31):143. Retrieved from http://www.sudexpert.ru/files/tipse/ 2013/sudex_mag_3(31)13.pdf Rossinskaya ER (2018) Forensic expertise in civil, commercial court, administrative and criminal proceedings, 4th edn. INFRA-M, Moscow, Russia: Norma Russian Federation. (2008) Federal Law “On ensuring access to information about the activities of courts in the Russian Federation” (December 22, 2008, No. 262-FZ). Moscow, Russia. Specific Search for Judicial Practice (n.d.) Retrieved from http://www.consultant.ru/about/software/ cons/specpoisk_sudpraktiki/ Usov AI (2013) On the 25th annual conference of the European Network of Forensic Science Institutes (ENFSI). Theory Pract Forensic Sci 3(31):134–137. Retrieved from http://www.sud expert.ru/files/tipse/2013/sudex_mag_3(31)13.pdf Working with Judicial Practice in the Garant System (n.d.) Retrieved from http://garant.crimea. com/Article_01.php

Legal Challenges to Biological Security in the Arctic Zone Natalia G. Zhavoronkova , Vyacheslav B. Agafonov , and Natalia P. Voronina

Abstract Under present—day conditions of climate change, the northern territories are becoming an object of increased anthropogenic pressure. The main types of economic activity in the Arctic Zone are hydrocarbon production, shipping industry, and agriculture (fishing and reindeer husbandry). Climatic changes cause a number of environmental threats to the Arctic ecosystem and northern biocenosis. Besides, it disrupts the traditional lifestyle and management of the indigenous population. Also, the Russian Arctic is characterized by economic and social problems of the 90s state policy. Among them are: (1) low level of self—sufficiency of local agricultural products, (2) food security threat, (3) massive immigration, (4) unemployment, and (5) health deterioration of indigenous minority. The foreign experience of the Arctic states (Norway, Finland, etc.) indicates that the solution to economic problems, in particular, the food security problem, is in breeding a new variety of reindeer and biological resources that are resistant to the effects of climate change and have increased nutritional value. At the same time, the use of genomic technologies has environmental risks and may lead to an adverse change in the biological entity of organisms in the Arctic ecosystem. Therefore, ensuring biological safety becomes relevant, but the current legislation does not contain either a definition of biosafety or a measure set to ensure it. The novelty of this paper lies in identifying the legal problems of ensuring biosafety in the Arctic Zone. The research purpose is to analyze the legal problems of ensuring biosafety in the Arctic Zone. The research is aimed to formulate the legal problems of ensuring biosafety of the Arctic Zone of the Russian Federation and the author’s proposals for improving biosafety’s legal support as an integral part of environmental safety. Keywords Arctic zone · Biological safety · Genomic technologies · Environmental protection · Legal problems N. G. Zhavoronkova · V. B. Agafonov (B) · N. P. Voronina Kutafin Moscow State Law University (MSAL), Moscow, Russia e-mail: [email protected] V. B. Agafonov National University of Oil and Gas “Gubkin University” (Gubkin University), Moscow, Russia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 S. G. Maximova et al. (eds.), Advances in Natural, Human-Made, and Coupled Human-Natural Systems Research, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 250, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-78083-8_40

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1 Introduction The Arctic region has great strategic importance for Russia, including: (1) the country’s defense and security assurance, (2) expansion of the scale of the Northern Sea Route usage for trade development and shipping industry, (3) meeting the needs of the economy in strategic and scarce types of minerals, energy, aquatic biological and other resources, (4) implementing other types of nature management, including the promising use of genomic technologies in the implementation of various types of economic and other activities. Taking into account the potential danger of genomic technology use for the environment and human health, the below-mentioned goals are now of particular importance: goals related to ensuring biosafety, environmental safety, conservation of habitats and traditional use of resources of indigenous minorities, ecosystem protection, and biodiversity conservation (Doronina et al. 2005). The need to address these issues was repeatedly marked as the highest priority area of environmental policy in state strategic planning documents to develop the Arctic Zone of the Russian Federation. The main problem preventing the goal sets’ achievement is that all possible risks of the Arctic Zone’s genomic technology usage in its systematic interaction have not been fully identified. They can pose a threat of harming human life and health, as well as negatively affect the favorable (natural) state of the environment, and ensure environmental and biological safety. Due to the global climate changes and expansion of economic and other activities in the northern territories (including using genomic technologies) (Gladun 2015), one cannot fully assess the possible level of negative impact of economic activity on the human genome and the Arctic Zone environment. It allows us to say that the research of legal problems of ensuring biosafety in the Arctic Zone is relevant and essential.

2 Materials and Methods The study was conducted using (1) general scientific methods (dialectical, logical, empirical, prognostic), (2) interdisciplinary (private) methods (system analysis, comparative analysis), and (3) specific research methods (comparative–legal, formal– legal). General scientific methods allowed us to examine the main legal categories in the field of environmental and biological safety; to reveal the essence and specifics of the considered phenomena and processes of the Russian Arctic Zone; to obtain objective information about the current state of the research object, and to formulate scientifically justified forecasts of development prospects. The interdisciplinary (private) methods made it possible to comprehensively analyze the legal regulation of environmental and biological safety in the Russian

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Arctic Zone, to identify structural relationships and interdependencies between the considered legal relations elements. Finally, the specific research methods let us assess the legal regulation effectiveness of relations in biological safety, identify existing legal problems, and formulate scientifically justified solution proposals.

3 Results The main areas of the potential and real impact of objects that harm the Arctic Zone environment are: . . . . . . . .

soil and coastal areas pollution; river, lake, and seawater pollution; pollution of flora and fauna; water bottom pollution; disposal of radioactive waste; military waste; mining waste; scrap metal, fuels, and lubricants, oil tanks.

Currently, there are no systemic and long—term studies that show the specifics of the impact of various economic activities on the Arctic region ecosystem in general, human health, and its genome, but the following can be reliably stated: . The temperature regime changes will radically affect the ingress of contamination of all types of pollution into the soil, coastal waters, along the food chain to plants, animals, and humans; . Particularly hazardous pollutants that accumulated over the decades (radioactive waste, oil, medical waste, mine waste, etc.) can interact with each other and form pathogenic substances; . Inevitable mutations in the animal, plant, and marine environment due to the pollution absorption in the environment and human genome can create a real threat of biological and genetic disaster. The solution of minimizing the negative impact of environmental damage facilities problems in the Arctic Zone should directly depend on the legislative consolidation of measures set to ensure biosafety, which should be considered as a complex and integral part of the environmental safety of the entire Arctic region. But, even though there is a legitimate (conservative) understanding of “environmental safety,” currently, there is no legal and clear content of the “safety” concept itself (including genetic, biological, biosphere, evolutionary, and other current types of safety). Attempts to define safety (along with protection) through the “threat,” “damage,” “stability,” and “loss” concepts have a right to exist but do not give a proper and informative meaning (Zhavoronkova and Shpakovsky 2015).

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While considering the existing legitimate concepts of “security” and “environmental safety” foremost, the authors noticed that in a massive array of information on environmental safety, various scientific approaches and author’s definitions (Navasardova and Kolesnikova 2016), such fundamental concepts as “biology” and “genetics” combined with the term “safety” are practically not affected or investigated. In our opinion, it is extremely important for the development and implementation of genetic technologies to assess from the point of various types of safety, not just from the point of ensuring medical safety. However, there are no mandatory requirements for the comprehensive assessment (examination) of Russia’s genetic technologies safety yet; therefore, there are no special governmental bodies, persons, procedures, and regulations of such activities (Mokhov 2017). Currently, the legal basis for ensuring biological safety is GOST R 22.0.0495 “Biological safety (biosafety).” However, this is a by-law document and does not form a comprehensive legal mechanism for ensuring biological safety (Yunusov and Lyalina 2016). Besides, it does not take into account regional specifics. At the same time, the federal level bill “On Biological Safety of the Russian Federation” was never adopted. The bill defined biological safety as “a set of measures aimed to protect the population and environment from the effects of dangerous biological factors; to prevent biological threats (hazards) create and develop a system for monitoring biological risks.” Meanwhile, the authors consider that the territory, climatic, natural, cultural, and economic features do not allow formulating consistent types of “dangers” for all. Biological hazards should be ranked by zone, category, form, and type; then, there is a chance of rapid response and recognition of hazards. Despite the absence of biological safety definition in the current legislation, biological safety is, first of all, the preservation by living organisms of their biological entities, qualities, system-forming connections and characteristics, and prevention of large-scale loss of biological value. It means that biological safety is ensured only when human evolutionary characteristics remain the main features of humans (homo sapiens), part of the biosphere, animals, and plants when all living things evolve and form the Earth’s biosphere. These factors should be taken into account then defining the biological safety in the basic Federal Law “On Biological Safety of the Russian Federation,” because the fulfillment of these factors will have a significant role in ensuring biological and environmental safety in the Arctic Zone.

4 Discussion The main priorities for the socio-economic development of the Russian Arctic Zone: (1) to ensure economic security by expanding the resource base, (2) to create competitive advantages, (3) import substitution, (4) maximum resource efficiency while maintaining and ensuring the environment protection, (5) elimination of the environmental consequences of economic activity in the context of growing economic

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activity and global climate changes (Bogolyubov and Krasnova 2018), and (6) to save the unique ecological systems. But the increase of the economic efficiency of the natural resources use is determined in current competitive conditions by using genomic technologies. The use of genomic technologies in reindeer husbandry and aquaculture makes it possible to ensure Russia’s food security and import substitution of agricultural products (Vedysheva 2019). The development of reindeer husbandry and transgenic aquaculture also creates opportunities for traditional living and environmental management of indigenous minorities (Voronina 2019). At the same time, as it was noted before, there are several environmental threats: climate change, depletion of aquatic biological resources, damage from possible emergencies, and past environmental damage. Therefore, the current goal is to create a significant, competitive, and environmentally oriented economic development model that provides the greatest effect while preserving the natural environment and its rational use and minimizes the negative impact on the environment. Such a goal requires preparing and updating regulatory legal acts to provide environmental and biological safety when using genomic technologies in the Arctic Zone. Generally, the following risks and threats to economic and other activities (including using genomic technologies in the Arctic Zone) can be identified: . Many scientific studies proved and confirmed the global warming threat for the Arctic Zone—a massive outbreak of invasive (alien) plants and animals species following climate change. It is even difficult to imagine what the biocenosis of the Arctic will be after the 5 °C temperature rise. It is already documented that the average temperature increased by 2 °C over 50 years. A biological entity is a product of evolution; gene experiments change or can change this entity. This is the first threat. . Another aspect of the biological threat, which is currently neglected, is the opening of numerous cattle burial grounds, cemeteries, and burials due to the permafrost thaw. Viruses and most pathogens can retain their properties for tens of thousands and millions of years, and under favorable conditions, they are quite capable of causing a pandemic. It should also be added that there are already many cases of lifting and destroying cemeteries and burials with traces of smallpox, anthrax, and bubonic plague. Birds, animals, and insects easily may be carriers of the most dangerous viruses and pathogens. The exactly Arctic and exactly now that is a dangerous area for the emergence and spread of dangerous diseases. The risk of failure to protect critical biological and chemical facilities that produce, store, or dispose of hazardous biological agents and chemicals is the second threat. . Another important issue requiring urgent solutions is ensuring biological safety in the prevention and elimination of oil and petroleum product spills in the Arctic Zone. An example of a potential biohazard is the use of the bacterium Cynthia to eliminate an emergency oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico. Artificially bred as a result of laboratory tests, the use of this bacterium in 2011, on the one hand, made it possible to significantly reduce the environmental damage caused by an emergency oil spill. On the other hand, after a certain time, the data about the

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death of fish, birds, and marine mammals in the area of its distribution began to appear. The biological hazard caused by using genetically modified organisms, the impact of which on the environment and human health has not yet been thoroughly studied, is the third threat. . To this list of threats can be added the underexplored but dangerous phenomenon of using biological weapons—bioterrorism. Since almost all developments in this area are classified information, it can only be noted that any modern achievements are or may be a threat, an environmental hazard. Ensuring biological safety includes: (1) improvement of the access system of environmental experts to research and development projects, (2) researches and results of biological and chemical profile, (3) researches of precaution, diagnosis, and treatment of diseases caused by hazardous biological agents and chemicals. This is why the issues of legal support of biological safety these days are considered along with genomic, biosphere, and other new types of protection as an integral part of environmental safety and become particularly important in relation to the Russian Arctic Zone. As a result, the area of legal support of biological safety is not clearly defined and not regulated by law. The Arctic Zone requires a separate law or normative act on biosafety, which would consider the specifics of the potential and real impact of biological threats—The Federal Law “On Biological Safety of the Russian Federation.”

5 Conclusion The results of the conducted research of legal problems of ensuring the biological safety of the Russian Arctic Zone allow us to formulate the following conclusions: . Biological hazard is becoming a global threat, and there is reason to expect an increase in the occurrence and magnitude of such threats in the future; . A complex system of detection, warning, monitoring, and elimination of biological hazards operates at the national and international levels. Most often, however, biological safety and threat control are based on previous experience and national legislation, which is clearly insufficient to ensure the biological and environmental safety of the Arctic region; . Russia has numerous regulations, rules, standards, and procedures governing the application of biological safety measures. But they are built on principles eliminating already known cases and biological agents, which does not apply to the Arctic region; . The documents of strategic planning and bill on the biological safety of the Arctic Zone should consider the potential challenges of new biotechnologies, terrorist threats, environmental problems, and climate change;

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. The threat identification articles, their classification, attribution, response procedure, and application activities in the biosafety law should be expanded and specified; . The law also should introduce sections of the mandatory information, measures, and decisions on each specific case. Not only the actions algorithm on various levels, but also the possible costs, limits of responsibility, and options for solutions should be detailed; . Besides the Federal Law “On Biological Safety of the Russian Federation,” special laws on the biological and environmental safety of certain territories and water areas are required, taking into account the specifics of a fragile ecosystems. Acknowledgements The reported study was funded by RFBR according to the research project No. 18-29-14034.

References Bogolyubov SA, Krasnova IO (2018) Law and the salvation of the nature of the Russian Arctic. Actual Probl Russ Law 6:178–190 Doronina OD, Levitskaya AB, Nikityuk DB (2005) Modern approaches to biological security: domestic and foreign experience. Bull New Med Technol XII(3–4):14–16 Gladun EF (2015) Environmental protection of the Arctic region: effective mechanisms of legal regulation. Russ Law J 3(1):92–109 Mokhov AA (2017) A precautionary principle in biomedicine. Med Law 1:5–10 Navasardova ES, Kolesnikova KV (2016) On the flaws in environmental legislation that feed corruption. Criminol J Baikal Natl Univ Econ Law 10(1):185–193 Vedysheva NO (2019) Ecological and legal risks of agricultural activity using genomic technologies in the Arctic region. In Mokhov AA, Sushkova OV (eds) Law and modern technologies in medicine. Prospect., Moscow. pp 240–244 Voronina NP (2019) Legal regulation of environmental safety in the Arctic region. IOP Conf Ser Earth Environ Sci 263:012065. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/263/1/012065 Yunusov KB, Lyalina IY (2016) Proceedings from CSCL’16: actual problems of biological and chemical ecology. Moscow State Regional University, Moscow Zhavoronkova NG, Shpakovsky YuG (2015) Legal aspects of ensuring environmental safety of the fuel and energy complex of modern Russia. Oil Econ 8:122–124

Corruption as a Threat to State Security: “Confiscation in Rem” as a Problem Solution Ildar R. Akhmadullin

and Olga V. Kashtanova

Abstract Security and international cooperation in the Eurasian legal space involve similar tools and rules against corruption. However, there are significant problems in modern Russia with the implementation of such norms, especially those of the UN Convention against Corruption. The relevance of this topic is due to the fact that since the collapse of the USSR, the issue of corruption in our country has become even more urgent. This poses a threat to national security, the functioning of social mechanisms, and the state in general. The purpose of the study is to find adequate and effective measures to change the current situation and return it to a civilized legal field. All this determined the choice of formal-logical, comparative-legal, and sociological research methods. This paper is devoted to the consideration of a painful topic for Russian society. We analyzed the current situation and suggested possible ways to resolve it. First of all, the real prosecution of corrupt officials in the framework of “confiscation in rem” is of particular interest. It shows high efficiency worldwide. The scientific novelty of the study lies in the proposal to introduce criminal prosecution in the domestic legislation for illicit enrichment, which threatens to confiscate property. This initiative would contribute to the budget and reduce the scale of corruption. This practice can spread to the entire Eurasian space. Keywords Corruption · Officials · National security · Illicit enrichment · Property confiscation

1 Introduction Corruption is considered a significant factor of social disorganization and disharmony. Sometimes we can find its causes in international relations. At its peak, it can pose a threat to national security. Corruption in all areas of social life begins to perform a protective function (Inshakov 2018). I. R. Akhmadullin (B) · O. V. Kashtanova Kazan National Research Technological University, Kazan, Russia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 S. G. Maximova et al. (eds.), Advances in Natural, Human-Made, and Coupled Human-Natural Systems Research, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 250, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-78083-8_41

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The issue of corruption is relevant to many Eurasian countries. However, it has become especially threatening for the countries formed due to the collapse of the USSR. The Russian Federation is not an exception. Its relative well-being has created a social environment contributing to the spread of this phenomenon. In the rating compiled by the TRACE International Business Association, designed to assess corruption risks, the Russian Federation “neighbors” with third world countries, sharing with them the “honorable” 120–150 places. The surveys conducted by sociological services confirm these grim statistics. For example, according to the Public Opinion Foundation, 83% of the respondents believe that the level of corruption in the country is extremely high; 46% believe that it tends to increase; and 84% of respondents approve of the idea of confiscating property from corrupt officials (Zakharov 2018). Perhaps, in the modern world, the primary weapon against corruption is the severe punishment for such offenses (Luna-Pla and Nicolás-Carlock 2020). However, anticorruption policy of our country is in decline. It is worth noting that in the state, with a stable increase in the number of people convicted of giving a bribe, the share of people convicted of receiving a bribe tends to decrease. Sometimes the State Duma of the Russian Federation introduces projects on the criminal liability for illicit enrichment. Such initiatives are made by the Head of the Investigative Committee, or even the Head of the state. However, everything remains the same (Burkina and Ustinov 2015). Apparently, officials are interested in the opaque schemes of enrichment, and this lobby suits the bureaucracy. As of today, public authorities must check declarations and conflicts of interest themselves. However, quite often, they are not interested in it at all. These measures are not capable of providing full punishment for illicit enrichment.

2 Materials and Methods The system analysis method helped us to identify internal contradictions in the existing practice of countering corruption. It allowed us to identify inconsistencies in the declared form as a practical scheme for solving the problem under consideration. In addition, the study is based on sociological data. Statistical reports (Judicial Department at the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation, n.d.) of law enforcement agencies, used for calculations, played an essential role. The Russian Federation has ratified the UN Convention against Corruption and the Convention on Criminal Liability for Corruption but has not implemented their most essential norms. First of all, those providing for the confiscation of property in cases of corruption. This year marks the 12th anniversary of the federal law “On Combating Corruption” (December 25, 2008 No. 273-FZ) (Russian Federation 2008); in this case, the goals were not achieved. We can only observe an increase in the detection of domestic corruption in Russian society. By a court decision, the provision on the confiscation of property by the state, in respect of which, in accordance with the legislation of the Russian Federation on anti-corruption, there is no evidence of its

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acquisition with legitimate income (Subitem 8 of Item 2 of Article 235 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation) shall enter into force in isolated instances. Moreover, there is a downward trend in the type of punishment in judicial proceedings, such as high fines applicable to corrupt criminals.

3 Results In the Russian Federation, the implementation of this punishment is too ambiguous (property confiscation). In fact, Federal Law No. 162-FZ amending Criminal Code (December 16, 2003) (Russian Federation 2003), which prescribes relatively humane and effective criminal procedures without isolation from family and society, excludes confiscation of property from the system of punishment. However, on July 27, 2006, property confiscation norms were returned to the legislation in an abridged and slightly distorted form as different measures under criminal law. However, nowadays, they are rarely used in jurisprudence. The analysis of jurisprudence confirms the ineffectiveness of the Russian legislation on property confiscation. According to the statistics of the Judicial Department at the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation, the number of people convicted of corruption is almost at the same level as the number of people who were subjected to property confiscation (about 2%) (see Table 1). There are even fewer people convicted for aggravated bribery in a large or especially large size by the courts of the Russian Federation. Sometimes suspects in corruption offenses cannot reasonably substantiate the sources of their income. Some scientists and experts in criminal law believe that such a situation cannot be viewed as unique in the legislation. In this regard, professionals Table 1 Dynamics in the application of Article 104.1 of the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation No

Year

1

2012

Number of people convicted of corruption offenses 6014

Number of people subjected to property confiscation (Article 104.1 of the Criminal Code) 7

Percentage (%)

0.12

2

2013

8607

128

1.49

3

2014

10,784

395

3.37

4

2015

11,499

600

5.22

5

2016

19,905

543

2.73

6

2017

17,334

349

2.01

7

2018

16,607

296

1.8

8

2019

15,562

305

1.96

Source Compiled by the authors based on (Statistics of Judicial Department at Supreme Court of Russian Federation, n.d.)

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emphasize that the burden of proving the legal origin of a property is shifted to a particular official, the defendant. For example, A. I. Dolgova, the Head of the Department of the Research Institute of Law and Order Management at the Prosecutor General’s Office of the Russian Federation, referring to the experts of the Council of Europe, refutes the unconstitutional nature of this mechanism. At first, it seems to contradict the principle of the presumption of innocence. However, the existence of this institution logically follows from the taxpayer’s obligation to inform the state not only about their income but also about its sources (Agrba 2018). Moreover, even in Roman law, there was a claim not against a person (in personal), but a thing (in rem). Today, many acts of international law are devoted to various aspects of confiscation in rem. Many experts believe that the extraordinary subinstitute of “confiscation in rem” is the most effective mechanism and tool in countering any mercenary (including corruption) crimes. Its key idea is to make senseless (too risky) any attempt of illicit enrichment. Claims are often made against the property, not a person. Consequently, attempts by corrupt officials to register ill-gotten wealth on figureheads (relatives or friends) are reduced to nothing. According to Russian researchers (Aryamov and Rueva 2018), the analysis of the domestic legislation (its retrospective and current state) leads to the conclusion that technically the Russian legislation can adopt the idea of confiscation in rem.

4 Discussion Based on the jurisprudence, it is evident that despite the ratification of the UN Convention against Corruption and the Convention on Criminal Liability for Corruption, these provisions are not applied properly. Apparently, there are a lot of officials who are interested in this. Nowadays, neither the Civil Code of the Russian Federation nor the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation is properly implemented. The current situation in the fight against corruption requires: 1. Reviving the institution of confiscation as a punishment for serious and particularly serious crimes; 2. In accordance with the provisions of the UN Convention Against Corruption, criminalization of illicit enrichment is necessary; 3. The Criminal Code of the Russian Federation requires the introduction of provisions according to which people voluntarily transferring to the state various valuable items acquired as a result of a crime are exempt from confiscation of property; 4. Introduction to the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation of the norm authorizing shifting the burden of proving the legal origin of property to the person guilty of committing a crime (Ovchinsky 2018). Without the implementation of these recommendations, there is no hope that the Gordian knot of corruption will be cut. At the same time, we must be aware that the

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fight against corruption can be effective only with the corresponding reforms. First of all, political ones: reforms concerning an independent court and Parliament, freedom of election and access to the media, separation of powers, etc. Only the system of checks and balances can provide the necessary transparency. According to it, each component of the state mechanism controls the other. According to experts, the application of the measures mentioned above will significantly enhance the revenues. According to Alexey Mukhin, General Director of the Center for Political Information, “Confiscation of property from corrupt officials in terms of profitability can be compared with income from the sales of oil and gas, if the state does this systematically and really returns the funds of corrupt officials to the budget, punishing them with fines” (Mukhin 2017). For example, in the United States or Italy, this mechanism is a significant revenue source for the state budget. According to an independent expert of the Ministry of Justice of the Russian Federation, Aryamov (2018), property confiscation accounts for up to 10% of budget revenues in Italy. Russian taxpayers give about 50% of their earnings to the treasury (Akhmadullin and Safina 2019). Therefore, this step would allow reducing the fiscal burden on the population in the future. Today, in Russia, according to various estimates, the corruption that is more or less included in the statistics accounts for several hundred billion RUB. However, according to experts, this is just the tip of the corruption iceberg, which covers no more than 2–3% of total corruption offenses (Kabanov 2015). Further research in this area should clarify and specify the criteria for calculating real volumes. Nowadays, effective anti-corruption mechanisms with property confiscation demonstrate relatively high efficiency throughout the civilized world. Meanwhile, it is almost not used in Russia. The United States and Norway have extensive experience in using confiscation as a punishment. Illegal income in Belgium, Poland, France, Switzerland, the Netherlands, the People’s Republic of China, and some other countries is confiscated in favor of the state. Effective action against corruption with the help of the considered mechanism could enhance the revenues with direct (through effective use of budget funds) and indirect funds (through property confiscation for corruption offenses).

5 Conclusion According to the scholarship, corruption in the Eurasian space is an urgent issue. Especially challenging situation arose after the collapse of the Soviet Union. The “successor” of the USSR, Russia, faces an unprecedented level of corruption. Today, it directly threatens well-being of its citizens. Indeed, corruption poses a threat to the national security of the state. Experts and representatives of governmental authorities have repeatedly tried to convey this idea to the general public. Unfortunately, at present, this phenomenon has affected almost all law enforcement agencies. Their inefficiency is directly related to corruption. Consequently, the risks of any other threats are growing too.

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According to the survey, most people consider corruption to be the most severe problem and indicate illicit enrichment of officials. At the same time, although the Russian Federation has ratified several international provisions on corruption, it is still far from a real fight against this phenomenon. In fact, illegal enrichment means nothing in the legislation of our state. The state can solve this problem by introducing “confiscation in rem” as the most effective anti-corruption tool. In the short term, it can bring additional funds and reduce corruption to a minimum due to the great resonance.

References Agrba T (2018) You cannot think of anything better than confiscation in the fight against corruption. Retrieved from https://agrba-timyr.livejournal.com/109168.html Akhmadullin IR, Safina AV (2019) Problems of efficiency of flat income tax schedule as an instrument of social justice. Smart Innov Syst Technol 139:106–111. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3030-18553-4_14 Aryamov AA, Rueva EO (2018) Problems of property confiscation as a means of countering corruption. Retrieved from http://xn----7sbbaj7auwnffhk.xn--p1ai/article/26197 Burkina OA, Ustinov AA (2015) Confiscation of property as a measure to counteract corruption. Bull Perm Univ 2(28):119–124 Inshakov SM (2018) Corruption through the prism of national security theory. Actual Probl Econ Law 12(4):720–729 Judicial Department at the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation (n.d.) Judicial statistics. Retrieved from http://www.cdep.ru/index.php?id=79&item=4894 Kabanov K (2015) Corruption is business. Argumenty i Fakty 5:6 Luna-Pla I, Nicolás-Carlock JR (2020) Corruption and complexity: a scientific framework for the analysis of corruption networks. Appl Netw Sci 5(1):13. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41109-020-002 58-2 Mirzabalaeva FI, Zabelina OV, Alieva PR, Shichkin IA (2017) Priority areas of development of the labor potential of rural territories in Russia. Acad Strateg Manage J 16(S1):131–148. https://doi. org/10.21603/2074-9414-2018-1-172-183 Mukhin A (2017) The new US National Security Strategy. Retrieved from https://ru.valdaiclub. com/a/highlights/strategiya-natsbezopasnosti-ssha/ Ovchinsky V (2018) Without confiscation, there is no fight against corruption! Retrieved from http:// old.mospravda.ru/issue/2011/06/23/article27958/ Russian Federation (2003) Federal Law “on amendments to the criminal code of the Russian Federation” (December 16, 2003 No. 162-FZ). Moscow, Russia Russian Federation (2008) Federal Law “on combating corruption” (December 25, 2008 No. 273FZ). Moscow, Russia Teichmann F, Falker M-C, Sergi BS (2020) Gaming environmental governance? Bribery, abuse of subsidies, and corruption in European Union programs. Ener Res Soc Sci 66:101481. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.erss.2020.101481 Zakharov S (2018) 84% of Russians are convinced: property should be confiscated from corrupt officials for bribes. Retrieved from http://www.bashinform.ru/news/336282-84-rossiyan-uvereny-ukorruptsionerov-za-vzyatki-sleduet-konfiskovyvat-imushchestvo/

Legal Regulation of Budgetary Relations in the EAEU and the EU: Economic Security in the Context of Digital Economy Olga Yu. Bakaeva , Evgeny O. Pazyna , and Elena V. Pokachalova

Abstract In this study, we aim to examine the budget laws of two international integration institutions. We mainly focused on the changes brought by digital transformations and the issues of economic security. The methodological basis of this study is formed by analytical, legal-comparative, formal-logical, and statistical methods. We analyzed the revenue formation principles of the Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU) and the EU, identified the main expenditures of the joint budgets, and pointed at the importance of using budgetary and legal tools in solving the issues of economic security. We concluded that the experience of the EU in forming budget laws may positively impact similar laws in the EAEU. In the context of digital transformations, budgetary funds can be spent on the development of information technologies, digital transformation of economic sectors, and digitalization of supranational management processes. The novelty of this research lies in the application of the legal-comparative method to assessing the introduction of digital technologies in the budgetary relations of the EAEU and the EU. Keywords Budgetary relations · EAEU · EU · Economic security · Digital economy

1 Introduction Budgetary relations are a special kind of societal relations. They are vital to the financial activities of the federal and regional governments. Along with taxation, budgets accumulate, distribute, and use monetary funds and revenues. Budgetary relations are intrinsic to financial systems of nations and supranational unions. In

O. Yu. Bakaeva · E. O. Pazyna (B) · E. V. Pokachalova Saratov State Law Academy, Saratov, Russia e-mail: [email protected] E. V. Pokachalova e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 S. G. Maximova et al. (eds.), Advances in Natural, Human-Made, and Coupled Human-Natural Systems Research, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 250, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-78083-8_42

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the Russian Federation, budgetary relations are regulated by the Budget Code of the Russian Federation (1998). Legal mechanisms are intrinsic to all types of supranational unions. They allow creating a material basis for solving the union goals and ensuring economic security. The joint budget deficit serves as an index of economic security. It reflects the distribution of finances in different environments and periods (e.g., during financial crises, pandemics, etc.). Budgetary relations in supranational unions are understudied. We are the first to conduct a legal-comparative analysis of budget laws in the EAEU and the EU. However, researching budgetary relations is necessary to forecast the risks to the economic security of nations, caused by flaws in the legal functioning of supranational unions. This study ultimately aims to find the ways of improving legal regulations of supranational budgetary relations.

2 Materials and Methods We used modern methodology (i.e., analytical, legal-comparative, formal-logical, statistical methods, etc.) to examine the legal bases for the budgetary relations inside the EAEU and the EU. This allowed us to compare the principles of budget creation and distribution in the EAEU and EU and propose recommendations on using the experience of the EU budget laws in the EAEU. We paid close attention to the economic security of these supranational unions, which is formed, in part, by the budgetary legal tools.

3 Results The EAEU has its own revenue sources and expenditure directions. The EAEU budget financially supports the functions and goals of the union. The EAEU member states have their own budgetary systems and form the joint budget of the union. Article 20, Section IV of the “Treaty on the Eurasian Economic Union” (Treaty on the Eurasian Economic 2014) defines the joint budget. According to the of the Treaty, the main features of the budget are: . The Supreme Eurasian Economic Council approves the budget and changes it; . The budget is approved annually; the fiscal year begins on the 1st of January and ends on the 31st of December; . The budget for the next year is formed in RUB; . The revenue is provided by means of member states contributions. The size of contributions is established by the Supreme Council; . The budget provides the financing of the activity of the EAEU bodies. The regulation on the budget was adopted by the Supreme Eurasian Economic Council (Decision “On the Regulation on a Budget of the Eurasian Economic Union”

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2014a). Item 16 of the Regulation established the fundamental principles on which the joint budget is based. Their content is described in detail in the “Regulations on the Composition and Structure of the Budget Classification of the Eurasian Economic Union” (Decision “On Approval of the Regulation on the Composition and Structure of the Budget Classification of the Eurasian Economic Union” 2015). These principles are: . The principle of full disclosure and balancing the revenue and expenditures. This principle is contained in the classification of the budget revenues and expenditures, and the classification of budgetary economic processes. These two elements represent the budget classification of the EAEU. The budget includes the structure of revenue and expenditures (Item 10 of the Regulation), which should be balanced (Article 20, Item 1 of the Treaty) (Decision “On the Regulation on a Budget of the Eurasian Economic Union” 2014a; Decision “On Approval of the Regulation on the Composition and Structure of the Budget Classification of the Eurasian Economic Union” 2015). . The principle of authenticity and transparency. The Board and the Departments of the Eurasian Economic Commission (EEC) should form the budget plan of the EAEU and report on its implementation (Protocol on the Eurasian Economic Commission 2014). The Council of the Commission approves the budget plan. The principle of transparency is implemented through budget accounting and budget reporting. . The principle of targeted focus. This principle mainly concerns the expenditures of the EAEU budget. The budget only finances supranational bodies, such as the Supreme Eurasian Economic Council, the Eurasian Intergovernmental Council, and the Council of the Eurasian Economic Commission (Item 9 of the Regulation) (Decision “On the Regulation on a Budget of the Eurasian Economic Union” 2014a). However, secondary literature says that spending budgetary funds on joint projects is expedient too. Such projects may include integration measures, promoting the Union among the potential member states, innovative modernization of economics (Belostotsky 2018, p. 250). . The principle of the efficient budget use. Article 22 of the Treaty on the Eurasian Economic Union allows external auditing of the EEC and the Court of the EAEU. This audit can only be conducted by the supreme audit institutions of the member states (e.g., Accounts Chamber of the Russian Federation). Auditing improves the efficiency of forming and using the joint budget. The results of an audit are then reviewed by the Supreme Eurasian Economic Council. An audit can be preliminary, current, or subsequent. Inspections, analyses, surveys, and monitoring are used in auditing (Decision “On approval of the Regulation on external audit (control) in bodies of the Eurasian Economic Union” 2015). The execution of the EAEU budget is controlled via an audit of financial and economic activity. An audit must be conducted at least once in two years. A member state of the EAEU can at any time initiate an audit of a Union body.

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Control over budget execution is an important tool in providing the economic security of the EAEU. According to some scholars, it lowers corruption, misuse, and misappropriation of budgetary funds (Sattarova and Shokhin 2018, p. 173). The EAEU budget revenue is formed by the member states contributions. The size of contribtutions is established by the Supreme Council and depends on the distribution of import tariffs. The 2020 contribution ratios are: 1.22% for Armenia; 4.56% for Belarus; 7.055% for Kazkahstan; 1.9% for Kyrgyzstan; and 85.265% for Russia (Decision “On the size (scale) of the share contributions of the Eurasian Economic Union member states to its budget” 2014b). If a member state fails to pay their contributions on the January the 1st of the current fiscal year, it accrues debt that must be repaid in accordance with the established procedure (Decision “On approval of the Procedure for Repayment of the Debt of the Eurasian Economic Union Member States for the payment of shared contributions to the budget of the Eurasian Economic Union” 2019). All mutual claims and discrepancies on unpaid contributions are solved via negotiations between the indebted nation and the EEC. Recently, contribution sizes became a topic of heated debates among the member states of the EAEU. Member states do not unanimously agree on the method of calculating contribution ratios. Therefore, some scholars suggest developing “such a method of calculating the member state contributions to the EAEU budget that would please all of them, would not be controversial, and would not call into question the usefulness of the union” (Povod 2018, p. 308). Other scholars state that the joint budget of the EAEU is not fully realized, since its model lacks some essential elements like the monitoring of macroeconomic indexes (annual budget deficit, inflation rate, etc.) (Masalimova 2018, p. 7). The processes of budget formation and execution must become more transparent (e.g., via publishing the project and reporting on its implementation). In contrast with the EAEU, the EU has a richer and broader experience of regulating budgetary relations. Despite the high index of international integration, the member states of the EU retained their own budgets. The EU budget is a supranational financial tool that provides additional funding to the most vital areas of integration. Since the foundation of the EU, its budgetary laws became extensive, featuring both primary and secondary legal provisions. Due to the intensification of the European integration, EU member states delegated budget planning and execution to the supranational bodies: the European Commission, the European Parliament, and the European Court of Auditors. Among the primary budgetary legislation, we can note the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU) (Consolidated version of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union 2016b). Title II of Part Six “Financial Provisions” contains most of the legal budgetary regulations. Articles 310–325 dwell on: forming the EU budgetary revenue using the Union’s own resources; implementation of the budget; the principles of the budget; the algorithm of the budget process, including the requirements for the proper budget execution and combating fraud.

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The expenditures on enhanced cooperation are regulated by the Article 332 of the TFEU. Article 41 of the Treaty on European Union regulates the financing of joint foreign and security policies. The secondary legal provisions of the EU build on the primary ones. The main provision that regulates supranational budget revenue is the decision on using the Union’s own resources. The current decision of the EU Council on using Union’s resources came into force on October 1, 2016 (European Atomic Energy Community 2014a, b, c). EU Council also approves a regulation on using the system of the Union’s own resources. Its current version was adopted on May 26, 2014 (European Atomic Energy Community 2014a, b, c). The system of Union’s own resources is also regulated by other supplementary provisions, approved by the EU Council (European Atomic Energy Community 1989; European Atomic Energy Community 2010; European Atomic Energy Community 2014a, b, c). The most recent provision was approved jointly by the EU Council and the European Parliament (European Union 2019). Lisbon Treaty of 2009 significantly expanded the powers of the EU supranational bodies (Treaty of Lisbon amending the Treaty on European Union and the Treaty establishing the European Community 2007). It amended some of the budgetary laws provided in TFEU and defined the process of grant subsidies. The most recent amendment to TFEU was approved on July 18, 2018 (European Atomic Energy Community 2018). Medium-term financial planning, which was previously used only in interinstitutional agreements (European Union 1988), became normatively fixed by the Lisbon Treaty. According to Article 312 of TFEU, the multiannual financial framework is unanimously adopted by the EU Council using a special legislative procedure. However, it is only adopted if approved by the European Parliament and a two-thirds majority of member states’ parliaments (Consolidated versions of the Treaty on European Union and the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union—Protocols (No 1, 2) 2008). Because of the high economic disparity between the EU member states, financial planning plays an important role in budget discipline and economic security. The medium-term planning allows forecasting the development of supranational projects and industries. The regulation of the EU Council that contains the financial framework for 2014 to 2020 was approved on December 2, 2013 and amended on June 20, 2017 (European Atomic Energy Community 2013; European Atomic Energy Community 2017). This provision regulates the inter-institutional cooperation in budgeting and forming funds and reserves for emergencies. The indexes of financial framework are pre-approved at the meeting of European Council. The current framework was approved on February 7 and 8, 2013 (European Council 2013). The interinstitutional agreements between the European Parliament, European Council, and the Commission on budgetary discipline, on cooperation in budgetary matters and on sound financial management still remains an effective tool for the

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cooperation of the EU budgetary bodies. The current version of this provision was approved on December 2, 2013 (European Union 2013). The Court of Justice of the European Union also contributed to the formation and strengthening of supranational budgetary relations. It repeatedly solved the budgetary conflicts of interests between the European Parliament and the EU Council in the 1980s (Office for Official Publications of the European Communities 1989) and after the Lisbon Treaty (Judgment of the Court “Grand Chamber” 2013). It also enforced the budget execution (Judgment of the Court “Grand Chamber” 2005). The budgetary relations of EU bodies and their methods of dividing responsibility can be used in the development of the EAEU and other supranational unions. The principles of planning and executing the EU budget were established in the TFEU (Articles 310, 313, 316, and 320) and the Financial Regulation of July 18, 2018 (Articles 6 to 38). According to these provisions, the budget is: (1) full and uniform, (2) balanced, (3) presented by one currency, (4) universal, (5) specialized by branches, (6) fair, and (7) transparent. Some of these principles are different from the conventional principles of national budgets. For example, the principle of transparency requires posting the full text of the budget and all amendments on the official website of the EU, while most national budgets have classified sections. Such transparency raises the reputation of the EU. Similar principles could also be applied to the budgetary relations of the EAEU. Budget execution is overseen by the European Commission that send annual reports to the European Parliament and the EU Council. Since member states of the EU receive more than 80% of the budget funds, they are obliged to cooperate with the European Commission on the budget execution. Member states conduct audit, replenish the revenue, and execute the expenditures of the supranational budget. Consolidated version of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union, arts. 310 (5), 317–318. To oversee the execution of the budget, the EU created several control mechanisms. The most important of them is the European Court of Auditors (ECA). The activities of this organization is regulated by TFEU (Articles 285–287), Financial Regulation 2018/1046 (Articles 254–259), and the Rules of Procedure of the Court of Auditors of the European Union (2010). The Court of Auditors is completely independent from the member states. It conducts an external audit of the EU budget and sends results to the European Parliament and the Council of the European Union. According to the Article 319 (1) of the TFEU, the European Parliament conducts the final confirmation of the joint budget and relieves the European Commission from its duties. Such a system of political budget control raises the public trust in the integrative processes. Raising the efficiency of revenue collection is essential for the economic security and effective European integration. In 1971, the system of the Union’s own resources was introduced (European Atomic Energy Community 1970). It replaced the system of member contribution and thus reduced the dependence of the EU on its constituents.

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Currently, this system is the main source of the EU budget revenue. In 2020, it provided over 151,637 bln. EUR (98.74% of all revenue) (European Atomic Energy Community 2020). The own resources system currently includes three sources of revenue: 1. Trade relations with non-EU-members (14.6% of revenue in 2020) 2. Value added tax (VAT) (around 12.5%) 3. Contributions made from the gross national income (GNI) of each member state. These contributions cover the rest of the EU expenditures (around 72.9%). Some scholars note that the high ratio of GNI contributions creates a series of problems. It allows an imbalance of contributions—more economically developed countries pay more to the budget but receive less from it (Groot and Zonneveld 2013). According to the 2018 financial statement, 11 member states out of 28 total contributed more to the EU budget than they received. Germany had the highest contribution-to-gain disparity—more than 13,405 bln. EUR (European Commission 2019, p. 75). In the EAEU, the system of own resource can be based on the contribution of the Common Customs Tariff. The legal-comparative analysis of the budgetary relations in the EU and the EAEU allowed us to draw several conclusions. 1. The budget of the EU and the EAEU are formed differently. The EAEU budget revenue is comprised of the member contributions. The EU budget is formed by the Union’s own resources, the bulk of which consists of the GNI contributions of the members. 2. The range of budget expenditures in the EU is much broader. The budget pays for the joint projects and economic growth programs, provides the efficient use of natural resources, ensures the supranational security, and covers the administrative expenses. It also serves as the basis of the joint foreign policy of the Union. In EAEU, the budget only covers the activities of the supranational institutions. 3. Both the EU and the EAEU legally regulate the budget principles. The principles are somewhat consistent between the two unions (e.g. the principles of fullness and the balance of revenue and expenditures). However, the budget principles of the EU are more “branching” since they include the principles of universality, fairness, and transparency. The EAEU budgetary system could be improved by introducing these principles.

4 Discussion Previously, legal theorists rarely studied the regulations of budgetary relations in the EAEU and the EU. However, the sizes and regulations of contributions to the EAEU budget are a subject of heated scholarly debates. Most scholars believe that the contribution sizes should not contradict the economic interests of the member states, even though the contributions help maintain the economic security of the union.

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In analyzing the budgetary laws of the EAEU, we concluded that the budget lacks the principle of transparency. This could be ameliorated by using digital technologies and publishing the budget project and the budget execution reports online. Contrary to the EAEU, the legal regulation of budgetary relations in the EU also includes the primary and secondary legal provisions. The EU system of Union’s own resources positively affects the economic security and the success of European integration.

5 Conclusion Since the EAEU is a young supranational union, it could adopt the experience of budgetary regulations of the EU. The budgetary relations can be improved in the framework of the overall digitalization. Digitalization promotes open cooperation between the Member States, improves the economy of each Member State, and provides for the economic, technological, and social development (Supreme Eurasian Economic Council 2017). Allocating budget funds on digital transformations in the economy and supranational administrations will further the integration goals and ensure the competitiveness of national economies. Acknowledgements The study was funded by RFBR, project number 18-29-16102, project name “Transformation of legal personality of participants of tax, budgetary and public banking legal relationships in the context of development of digital economy”.

References Belostotsky AA (2018) Budget strategy of the Eurasian Economic Cooperation Countries: priorities of financial and economic development. In: Gerasimov VI (ed) Bolshaya Evraziya: Razvitie, bezopasnost, sotrudnichestvo. Institute of Scientific Information for Social Sciences of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia, vol 1, Part 2, pp 249–253 Council of the Eurasian Economic Commission (2015) Decision “on approval of the regulation on the composition and structure of the budget classification of the Eurasian Economic Union” (July 15, 2015 No. 42, amended on April 18, 2018). Eurasian Economic Commission, Brussels, Belgium Eurasian Economic Commission (2014) Regulation No. 1 to the treaty on the Eurasian Economic Union (May 29, 2014, amended on March 15, 2018). Astana, Republic of Kazakhstan European Atomic Energy Community (2010, March 7) Council decision of 16 March 2010 on the allocation of financial intermediation services indirectly measured (FISIM) for the establishment of the gross national income (GNI) used for the purposes of the European Union’s budget and its own resources (2010/196/EU, Euratom). Official Journal L087:31–32 European Atomic Energy Community (2014a, June 7) Council decision of 26 May 2014 on the system of own resources of the European Union (2014/335/EU, Euratom). Official Journal L168:105–111

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and repealing Council Directive 89/130/EEC, Euratom and Council Regulation (EC, Euratom) No 1287/2003 (GNI Regulation) (Text with EEA relevance). Official Journal L91:19–24 Groot LFM, Zonneveld E (2013) European Union budget contributions and expenditures: a Lorenz curve approach. J Common Mark Stud 51(4):649–666 Judgment of the Court (Grand Chamber) (2005, November 15) Commission of the European Communities v Kingdom of Denmark. Failure of a member state to fulfill obligations—communities’ own resources—customs duties legally owing not subsequently recovered following an error by the national customs authorities—financial liability of member states. Case C-392/02. European Court Reports, I-09811 Judgment of the Court (Grand Chamber) (2013, September 17) Council of the European Union v European Parliament. Action for annulment—Definitive adoption of the European Union’s general budget for the financial year 2011—Act of the President of the Parliament declaring that the budget has been definitively adopted—Article 314(9) TFEU—Establishment by the Parliament and the Council of the European Union’s annual budget—Article 314, introductory paragraph, TFEU—Principle of institutional balance—Principle that the institutions must act within the limits of their powers—Duty to cooperate in good faith—Compliance with essential procedural requirements. Case C-77/11. Retrieved from http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/ EN/TXT/HTML/?uri=CELEX:62011CJ0077&rid=2 Masalimova AM (2018) Problems of forming a single budget in the Eurasian Economic Union (dissertation of candidate of economics). Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia Povod IN (2018) Use of monopoly rent as a basis for the EAEU budget formation. Ekonomicheskaya Nauka Segodnya 8:307–314 Russian Federation (1998) Budget code of the Russian Federation (July 31, 1998 No. 145-FZ, amended on April 22, 2020). Moscow, Russia Russian Federation (2014) Treaty on the Eurasian Economic Union (May 29, 2014, amended on March 15, 2018). Astana, Republic of Belarus, Republic of Kazakhstan Sattarova NA, Shokhin SO (2018) Some issues of public administration in the sphere of financial security. Perm Univ Herald Jurid Sci 2:167–185 Supreme Eurasian Economic Council (2014a) Decision “On the regulation on a budget of the Eurasian Economic Union” (October 10, 2014 No. 78). Supreme Eurasian Economic Council, Minsk, Republic of Belarus Supreme Eurasian Economic Council (2014b) Decision “On the size (scale) of the share contributions of the Eurasian Economic Union member states to its budget” (October 10, 2014 No. 79, amended on October 1, 2019). Supreme Eurasian Economic Council, Minsk, Republic of Belarus Supreme Eurasian Economic Council (2015) Decision “On approval of the regulation on external audit (control) in bodies of the Eurasian Economic Union” (October 16, 2015 No. 33). Supreme Eurasian Economic Council, Borovoe, Republic of Kazakhstan Supreme Eurasian Economic Council (2017) Decision “Main directions for the Implementation of the EAEU digital agenda until 2025” (October 11, 2017 No. 12). Supreme Eurasian Economic Council, Sochi, Russia Supreme Eurasian Economic Council (2019) Decision “On approval of the procedure for repayment of the debt of the Eurasian Economic Union member states for the payment of shared contributions to the budget of the Eurasian Economic Union” (October 1, 2019 No. 21). Supreme Eurasian Economic Council, Yerevan, Republic of Armenia

The Impact of Digital Technologies on Arbitration Courts Ekaterina P. Rusakova

and Edgar Young

Abstract This paper focuses on the impact of digital technologies and data protection on international arbitration proceedings. It discusses already familiar technologies (e.g., online communication between parties and arbitrators; videoconference hearings; electronic signatures; digital filing of documents, briefs, materials, and awards) and more recent advancements (e.g., speech recognition software, drafting tools for arbitral awards, virtual reality, augmented reality, and artificial intelligence). The first part of this study focuses on technologies applied to arbitration proceedings—performance of arbitration hearings, legal research capabilities, and review of legal documents. The second part analyzes (1) the regulation of electronic arbitration awards and drafting tools applied to arbitration awards, (2) the distinction between electronic and digital signatures, (3) the recognition and enforcement of arbitral awards pronounced in electronic form, and (4) the data protection mechanisms. Moreover, the article handles the issue of data protection and privacy, as well as their demonstration in modern arbitration procedures. The theoretical basis of the study was formed by doctrinal positions, found in studies on phenomena of digital (electronic, virtual, network) development that became a part of everyday life and were reflected in legal consolidation—the works of M. N. Dudin, E. P. Rusakova, E. E. Frolova, A. I. Gorbacheva, E. V. Kupchina. The main method of this study is the comparative-legal method. The influence of the digital tools on legal documents is reflected in such international conventions and acts as: (1) Convention on the Recognition and Enforcement of Foreign Arbitral Awards; (2) General Data Protection Regulation 2016/769; (3) Arbitration Act of 1996 of England and Wales; (4) Code of Civil Procedure of the Netherlands. Keywords Arbitral award · Artificial intelligence · Drafting tools · Digital awards · Digital signature · Digital technology · Electronic signature · International arbitration · Recognition and enforcement of awards · Speech Recognition · Videoconference · Data protection E. P. Rusakova (B) · E. Young Department of Architecture and Civil Engineering, Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia (RUDN University), Moscow, Russia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 S. G. Maximova et al. (eds.), Advances in Natural, Human-Made, and Coupled Human-Natural Systems Research, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 250, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-78083-8_43

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1 Introduction Technology is evolving faster than ever. With the increasing development of remarkable innovations, digital technologies have impacted people’s lives in unimaginable ways. From the way companies do business to the way people interact with each other, disruptive technologies have changed how products and services are offered worldwide. International arbitration is no exception to this increasing merger between the law and technology. A significant number of attorneys, from a variety of expertise, have analyzed the use and application of emerging digital technologies and the impact that they might have on the legal service industry, including international commercial arbitration. Such technologies are likely to affect the cost and time of arbitration proceedings and even substitute human resources in some fields. Arbitration and other methods of alternative dispute resolutions increasingly incorporate modern technologies into their proceedings. Therefore, lawyers must follow the latest legal and technological developments (Rusakova et al. 2019a).

2 Materials and Methods The main regulatory framework referring to international conventions in this study is the Convention on the Recognition and Enforcement of Foreign Arbitral Awards (known as the New York Convention), dated June 10, 1958 (United Nations Commission on International Trade Law (UNCITRAL) 1958). To find the European Union approach to relations between digital arbitration, data protection, and cybersecurity, we used the General Data Protection Regulation 2016/769 (European Union 2016). Additionally, for comparative-legal research, we took: . . . .

Arbitration Act of 1996 of England and Wales (United Kingdom 1996); Code of Civil Procedure of the Netherlands (Netherlands 1837); Swiss Code on Private International Law (Swiss Confederation 1987); French Law on Modernization of the 21st Century Justice (French Law N° 20161547) (French Republic 2016).

Moreover, we analyzed the following arbitration rules: . Arbitration Rules of the United Nations Commission on International Trade Law (UNCITRAL 2013); . Arbitration Rules of the London Court of International Arbitration (LCIA 2014); . Rules for International Disputes of the International Centre for Dispute Resolution (ICDR) (International Centre for Dispute Resolution 2014); . Arbitration Rules of the Arbitration Institute of the Stockholm Chamber of Commerce (SCC 2017); . Online Arbitration Rules of the China International Economic and Trade Arbitration Commission (CIETAC 2009);

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. Rules of the International Commercial Arbitration Court of the Chamber of Commerce and Industry of the Russian Federation (ICAC 2017). Furthermore, the model laws taken in this study are the UNCITRAL Model Law on International Commercial Arbitration (1985) and the UNCITRAL Model Law on Electronic Commerce (1996). In this paper, we applied the normative-legal method to study the regulation and implementation of innovative digital technologies in arbitration proceedings and the draft of arbitral awards. The comparative-legal analysis method allowed us to understand the regulation of new legal concepts—the similarities and differences in national arbitration laws and arbitration rules for international commercial arbitration. We discuss challenges, benefits, legal practices, and experiences of applying digital technologies in international commercial arbitration proceedings. Using the formal-legal method, we analyzed the true legal nature of innovative legal concepts and the particularities, characteristics, and distinctions of their definitions in different regulations.

3 Results 3.1 Use of Digital Technologies in Arbitration Proceedings 3.1.1

Videoconference in Arbitration Hearings

The seat of the arbitration does not necessarily have to correspond with the place of the hearings. This allows organizing the hearings in different locations or even hold hearings via online videoconferences. This practicality was stipulated in Article 28 of the UNCITRAL Arbitration Rules 2013 (UNCITRAL 2013) and has been adopted by several national arbitration laws and arbitration rules. Article 14.1 (Conduct of proceedings) of the 2014 LCIA Arbitration Rules states, “The parties and the Arbitral Tribunal are encouraged to make contact (whether by a hearing in person, telephone conference call, video conference or exchange of correspondence) …” Furthermore, Article 19.2. sets forth, “…As to form, a hearing may take place by video or telephone conference or in-person, or a combination of all three…” (London Court of International Arbitration 2014). Article E-9 of the 2014 ICDR Rules for International Disputes states, “…Hearings may take place in person or via video conference or other suitable means, at the discretion of the arbitrator…” (International Centre for Dispute Resolution 2014). The ICAC 2017 Rules in Article 30(6) provide, “A party may request the arbitral tribunal in advance to participate in the hearing through videoconferencing. Such a request is considered by the arbitral tribunal bearing in mind the circumstances of the case, the opinion of the other party, and technical feasibility” (International Commercial Arbitration Court at the Chamber of Commerce and Industry of the Russian Federation 2017).

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Speech Recognition Tools and Other Technologies Applied to Arbitration Proceedings

Speech recognition or dictation software identifies spoken language and converts it into text. This technology has already been implemented in Chinese national courts and by the Chinese government (which has put into place internet courts powered not only by speech recognition but facial recognition technology). The courts use facial recognition and speech recognition technology during the online proceedings that draw on a national ID system curated by the public security bureaus to verify the identities of participants. Electronic signatures are used to sign any documents. The internet courts also can automatically generate legal documents, use machine translation, and allow voice interactions with its knowledge system. Chinese courts are pioneering the implementation of an e-justice system, filing a significant part of the legal tech patents globally, second only to the US. However, voice and facial recognition are only a part of the technologies implemented in Chinese courts. They developed many systems, such as an intelligent trial support system, trial speech recognition system, similar case pushing system, digital case handling platform for commutation and parole, and “online data integration” processing platform for road traffic disputes. The value of this technology is apparent—processing a large amount of linguistic information almost instantaneously allows the arbitration centers to hasten the proceedings and decrease costs (Dudin et al. 2016). However, these technologies are not yet implemented in international arbitration due to their complexity and difficulty, and the dissimilarities in legal concepts. Such technologies could be applied for some tasks of international arbitration, most notably the transcription of hearings. Currently, parties and their attorneys rely on transcription service specialists, which takes additional time, costs money, and introduces potential errors. Recognition algorithms could produce transcripts of arbitration hearings instantaneously with high quality and accuracy, distinguishing not only from different languages and accents but the voice of specific individuals (Dudin et al. 2019). This technology could also be used for translation purposes since they allow to convert enormous amounts of documents from the source language to the target language accurately and efficiently. Moreover, it could be applied for oral communication in different languages, replacing the need for interpreters.

3.1.3

Digital Technologies for Legal Research and Document Review

A significant amount of legal research and document review has now shifted from libraries and client basement archives onto online platforms. However, in the hunt for exhaustive research/review, counsel and arbitrators still read through many pages that frequently contain irrelevant text. The ability to search the text is beneficial, but it is regularly hindered by false-positive results and, in any case, requires constant

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human supervision. The use of AI for legal research and document review will cut the necessary time to mere seconds (Snider et al. 2018).

3.2 Digital Technologies Applied to Arbitral Awards 3.2.1

Digital or Electronic Arbitration Awards

Electronic arbitration awards (e-arbitration awards) or digital awards are already recognized in some jurisdictions. Other national laws do not necessarily require an award to be in a specific form. Therefore, an award in electronic form could be recognized and legally binding. Article 4-2 of the French Law No 2016-1547 states, “Natural or legal persons offering, in a digitized manner or not, and online arbitration service are subject to the obligations relative to the protection of personal data and, except agreed by the parties, confidentiality obligations. The online service provides detailed information on how the arbitration is performed. The arbitral award can be rendered in electronic form, unless one of the parties objects” (French Republic 2016). In the Netherlands, the Arbitration Act contained in the Code of Civil Procedure provides in Article 1072(b)(3) that the arbitral award may also be made in the electronic form, providing it with an electronic signature (Netherlands 1837). In the United Kingdom, the Arbitration Act of 1996 states in Section 52 (1) (Form of the Award), “The parties are free to agree on the form of an award” (United Kingdom 1996). Similarly, Article 189(1) of the Swiss Code on Private International Law (Arbitral Award) establishes, “The arbitral award shall be rendered according to the procedure and in the form agreed upon by the parties” (Swiss Confederation 1987). However, most national arbitration laws and arbitration rules still require that the arbitral award shall be made in writing, shall be signed by the arbitrator or arbitrators, and shall state the date of the award and the place of arbitration. This is the case of the: . The UNCITRAL Model Law on International Commercial Arbitration (Article 31) (1985); . The UNCITRAL Arbitration Rules (Article 34) (2013); . The SCC Rules (Article 42) (2017); . The LCIA Rules (Article 26) (2014); . The ICDR Rules (Article 30) (2014); . The Russian Federation law On International Commercial Arbitration No 5338-1 (Article 31) (Russian Federation 1985). Nonetheless, the requirement that an arbitral award must be in writing form does not necessarily prevent e-arbitration, in the sense that it does prohibit an arbitral tribunal from issuing a digital award. For example, the CIETAC already provides online arbitration services with arbitral awards that are final and binding upon the

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parties. Article 39 (Online Arbitration Rules) states, “The award shall be made in written form, shall state the date on which the award is made as well as the place where the award is made, and shall be signed by the arbitrators, with the official seal of CIETAC affixed to it” (China International Economic and Trade Arbitration Commission 2009).

3.2.2

Drafting Tools Applied to Arbitral Awards

Legal departments already use contract drafting tools and template applications to save time and avoid mistakes in the formation and reviewing of contracts. The same digital technologies are used when drafting arbitration clauses and are becoming more popular to draft arbitral awards and mediate settlement agreements. Arbitration practitioners usually provide a substantial amount of information in their briefs and documents, which are in the computerized or electronic format. The arbitration centers reuse this information in the notice of registration, terms of reference, procedural orders, and throughout the whole arbitration proceeding. Arbitrators frequently repeat some information and wordings in drafting the arbitral award— (1) dates; (2) places; (3) facts; (4) claims of the parties; (5) arbitration clause; (6) governing law; (7) identification of arbitrators, parties, and their attorneys. Drafting tools and applications can assist arbitrators with the development of clear and valid arbitral awards. Artificial intelligence (AI) could also be used for this task in the future to save time and reduce the expenses of arbitration proceedings (Rusakova et al. 2019b).

3.2.3

Electronic and Digital Signatures

Electronic signatures and digital signatures are slightly different. An electronic signature is an electronic symbol attached to a contract or other record used by a person with an intent to sign. In contrast, digital signatures guarantee that an electronic document is authentic. Some jurisdictions often use these terms interchangeably or may use the two different concepts as a single term (e.g., “electronic digital signature”). According to the American Federal Law on Electronic Signatures (Federal Esign Act) (United States of America 2000b) the term electronic signature refers to “an electronic sound, symbol, or process, attached to or logically associated with a contract or other record and executed or adopted by a person with the intent to sign the record.” It is the equivalent of a digitized handwritten signature. Thomas Clay considers the main challenge of digital signatures to be the verification of (1) the document signatory’s identity, (2) the validity of the signature, (3) and that the document itself was not changed. A digital signature is the “online” equivalent of a notarized signature, and (unlike the electronic signature) the signatory’s identity is verified by a trusted third party [such as the Certification Authority (CA)] (Clay 2019).

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Individuals and legal entities use electronic signatures to give an electronic document a legal force equal to the legal force of a paper document signed by the handwritten signature of the authorized person and sealed. An electronic document is any document created and stored on a computer. They are frequently associated with a contract where the signatory had the intention to do so. Digital signatures are embedded in a document, like a digital fingerprint. The signatory is required to have a digital certificate so that they can be linked to the document. The digital signature is often authorized by certification authorities that are responsible for providing digital certificates that can be compared to licenses or passports. They are primarily used to secure documents. Signatures can be customized to include an image (a physical signature or an official seal) and a variety of information regarding the signature (place, date, and the reason thereof). Signatures can also be invisible and contained in documents that then display a blue ribbon in the taskbar. When it comes to signing arbitral awards, online arbitration services must assure the reliability of the means for the digital signing of the award. Indeed, the most notable challenge in international arbitration is identifying the person behind the digital signature, especially if one considers the difference in concepts, regulation, and acceptance of legal documents with digital signatures. When considering the use of digital signature in arbitral awards, one must analyze the law applicable to the arbitration procedure and the national arbitration law, following which the award should be recognized and enforced. As practitioners, we must verify the identity of the arbitrators by a certified authority as well as their signature, ensuring that there was no fraud, alteration, or falsification (Frolova et al. 2018). In the United States, the Revised Uniform Arbitration Act (United States of America 2000a), provides for the use of electronic signature by the arbitrators. Its Article 33 is accepted by various states within the USA.

3.2.4

Recognition and Enforcement of Arbitral Award Pronounced in Electronic Form

According to Article 4 of the New York Convention, a party seeking to obtain the recognition and enforcement of an arbitral award must submit the “original” of the arbitral award and the arbitration agreement or “duly certified” copies of these documents (UNCITRAL 1958). In most jurisdictions, the exequatur proceeding for the recognition and enforcement of arbitral awards requires submitting the same documents. Subsequently, national legislations and international conventions must adapt their language and definition of legal concepts to adequately consider and implement the recognition and enforcement of digital arbitral awards. From a strictly formal perspective, if the original is not submitted, then the party involved in the arbitration cannot invoke the New York Convention and enforce the arbitral award (UNCITRAL 1958). From a technological point of view, there is

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no such thing as a copy or an original of digital files—they are infinitely reproducible. Therefore, the condition to present an “original” cannot be met by presenting a computer file. However, this frequently raised objection can be overcome by analyzing the function of the original. According to Lucas et al. (2001), “the role of the original is to be a point of reference and a means of measuring the fidelity of the copies.” In these circumstances, any electronic document, the integrity of which is guaranteed by third parties and by technology, can be considered an original. In practice, it is sufficient for the arbitrators to apply their electronic signature to the document, with a certification authority guaranteeing that the pair of keys belongs to the arbitrator. It would be paradoxical not to accept as an original the electronic award guaranteed this way, while in other states, electronic acts are recognized as authentic. One could predict the increasing flexibility of the interpretation of Article 4 of the New York Convention (UNCITRAL 1958) and the exequatur proceedings for digital arbitration awards. This argument has legitimacy, considering the “functional equivalent” approach promoted by the Model Law on Electronic Commerce (UNCITRAL 1996). Its Article 8 establishes that a data message satisfies the requirements of an original if its integrity can be reliably confirmed and the corresponding person can view it. The essence of Article 4 is to confirm the integrity of an award and the identity of arbitrators. It is difficult to imagine that this convention could have foreseen the digitalization of arbitration proceedings. Another solution would be to just the exequatur, for example—via smart contracts that provide for automated execution of an order (an award, for example) as soon as the predetermined conditions are met (an absence of a recourse, for example). All the more so, since the use (even partial) of digital technologies in the preparation of the arbitral award raises doubts about the usefulness of a recourse. Indeed, for a given question or a given dispute, artificial intelligence can only indefinitely provide the same response, given its algorithms and databases. Dudin et al. (2016) suggest that, unless the data or processing methods thereof are changed, the machine will always perform the same calculations and arrive at the same result since exact science dispels uncertainties.

3.2.5

Data Protection in Digital Arbitration

Cybersecurity and data protection are interesting topics for arbitration and its features. Most countries intend to formalize their arbitration laws on the basis of unilaterally adopted model laws, including the chapter on data protection because it is a rather important topic not only from a commercial point of view but also from the point of view of state security. The European Union made a revolutionary “U-Turn” with the adoption of the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) (European Union 2016) that also applies to most arbitrations in the EU. As an effective model regulation, the GDPR can be a good example not only of the governmental protection of data and privacy but also for regulative measures that might improve the procedural part of

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arbitrations. The scope of this regulation aims to ensure transparency and traceability of data collection procedures within the European Union. Moreover, some strong measures of the GDPR make it a perfect regulation. GDPR includes fines up to 4% of the annual turnover of private parties. As it is clear from the general arbitration practice, the arbitration procedure is conducted by the arbitrators. But what measures can arbitrators take to control the data collection and protection procedure, and which requirements should be met by them? The GDPR regulates this question by appointing arbitrators as data collectors. The mandatory duties and requirements for arbitrators or data collectors during the procedure are as follows (European Union 2016): . Making the parties aware of the data collection and documents (Articles 12–14 of the GDPR); . Having the capacity to solve the requests by parties concerning the usage of data (Articles 15–22 of GDPR); . Keeping control of the use of extra devices such as cloud services, translators, online problem-solving devices (Article 28 of the GDPR); . Taking into account the importance of recording the procedure of arbitration proceeding, moreover recording of whole procedure (Article 30 of the GDPR); . Taking exact measures to ensure a fair proceeding from the perspective of data protection and privacy. There are many principles that distinguish arbitration for parties and allow them to turn to arbitration to resolve their disputes, both digitally and in-person.

4 Discussion Arbitration and the term of arbitrability involve a much more complex meaning than it may seem. This chapter focuses on the readiness of arbitral institutions on data protection issues, including the recognition and enforcement of foreign arbitral awards. From all perspectives, data protection seems like a technical matter during the arbitration proceedings since it does not affect the procedure directly, but only the decision or even gives a chance to appeal. Another question is the possibility of an appeal to the final award over a breach of data and information security of one party. The paper analyses and discusses the model of data protection laws and regulations (such as the GDPR of EU) and the relation of them to the arbitration procedure. The risk of data theft from arbitral institutions is still at the highest level since most of the parties in arbitrations are well-known companies and corporations. For that reason, the data flow might be interesting for third parties, that could breach the confidentiality of arbitral proceeding. Here emerges the discussion on whether arbitration institutions can be targeted and what measures can the arbitration institutions take to prevent cyberattacks and ensure the safety of parties.

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The International Council for Commercial Arbitration jointly with the New York City Bar Association and the International Institute for Conflict Prevention & Resolution released a new protocol for prevention of cyberattacks against arbitral institutions under the name of “ICCA–NYC Bar–CPR Protocol on Cybersecurity in International Arbitration” (Frolova et al. 2019). The protocol was made under the supervision of the Permanent Court of Arbitration. The eye-catching factors of this protocol are related to the chapters “Determination of Reasonable Cybersecurity Measures” and “Process to Establish Reasonable Cybersecurity Measures.” The protocol obliges arbitration institutions to create a “safe arena” for parties fighting against cyberattacks. But what is the reason for including the wording “determination of reasonable…”? We believe that the measures should be mandatory but not necessarily reasonable.

5 Conclusion Taking the UNCITRAL Arbitration Rules 2013 (UNCITRAL 2013) as a blueprint, some institutions such as the LCIA, ICDR, and ICAC and have regulated the use of videoconferences in international commercial arbitration hearings. The implementation of this technology has had a positive result, reducing the costs of mobilizing the participants of arbitration proceedings and reducing the time to produce an award. Speech recognition software is currently being tested in some national courts, and it is likely to be implemented in the foreseeable future in international arbitration. It allows processing an incredible amount of linguistic information almost instantaneously. This technology could be applied for transcription, translation, and interpretation purposes. However, arbitration institutions have yet to implement it due to the complexity, difficulty, dissimilarities in legal concepts, and possible issues with confidentiality. Other technologies that would likely be implemented soon are virtual reality (VR) and augmented reality (AR). They could help with hearing presentation strategies, and designing and demonstrating evidence to arbitral tribunals. This could allow attorneys to present evidence, such as blueprints, models, designs, or images in a more understandable and precise way and evaluate. Moreover, these technologies could help the arbitral tribunal with physical scenarios—construction, mining, industrial sites, environmental contaminations, or accident scenes, etc. Electronic arbitration awards are already recognized in some jurisdictions, such as France and the Netherlands. Other national regulations, like the United Kingdom and Switzerland, do not necessarily require an award to be in a specific form. Therefore, an award in electronic form could be recognized and legally binding (Badiei 2010). Drafting tools and template applications, similar to the ones used by legal departments for contract formation, could be implemented for the drafting of arbitral awards to save time and avoid mistakes by automatically filing frequently repeated wordings (e.g., dates; places; facts; claims of the parties; arbitration clause; governing

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law; identification of arbitrators, parties, and their attorneys) (Miroshnichenko et al. 2018). This could facilitate arbitrators in the rendering of more transparent and more effective awards. The most challenging feature of digital signatures in international arbitration is identifying the parties—especially if one considers the difference in concepts, regulations, and acceptance of legal documents that digital signatures have in different countries (Shakhov et al. 2019). When considering the use of digital signature in an arbitral award, one must analyze the law applicable to the arbitration procedure and the arbitration law of the nation where the award should be recognized and enforced. The implementation of Artificial Intelligence (AI) for legal reasoning in international arbitration is uncertain. This technology cannot yet replicate inherent human traits, such as empathy, emotional intelligence, equity, fairness, which are the cornerstone elements behind the reasoning and decision-making in arbitration awards. National legislation and international conventions must adapt their language and definition of legal concepts to adequately consider and implement the recognition and enforcement of arbitral awards in electronic form. One could predict the increasing flexibility of interpretations of Article 4 of the New York Convention as well as the exequatur proceedings for awards produced in electronic form since Article 4 confirms the integrity of the award and the identity of the arbitrators. Considering the elements of data and data protection, one should take into account the measures to better correlate the courts and data protection issues. From another approach, arbitral institutions also should work to change the approach and control the relations with the stipulated matters on data protection and privacy—these are the basic rights of parties and can be demanded. All participants of international arbitration share the same safety measures against cyberattacks. Moreover, they are obliged to comply with the procedure rules on data protection of both in-person or digital arbitration. The first measure that arbitral institutions should take is promoting the explanation of data protection from the perspective of arbitral institutions and parties. The second obligatory measure should be safeguarding the parties from cyberattacks. Cyberattacks will change their cover based on disputes as well, which means that the amount of risk is still high. The arbitration community should observe the ongoing practices on cyberattacks to be ready for future challenges. Acknowledgements This work was financially supported by the Grant of the President of the Russian Federation No. NSh-2668-2020.6 “National-Cultural and Digital Trends in the SocioEconomic, Political and Legal Development of the Russian Federation in the 21st Century”.

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References Arbitration Institute of the Stockholm Chamber of Commerce (2017) Arbitration rules 2017 (January 1, 2017). Stockholm, Sweden Badiei F (2010) Online arbitration definition and its distinctive features. In: Poblet M, Abrahams B, Zeleznikow J (eds) Proceedings of the 6th international workshop on online dispute resolution 2010. Institute of Law and Technology Political Sciences and Public Law Department, Liverpool, UK China International Economic and Trade Arbitration Commission (2009) Online arbitration rules (January 8, 2009). Beijing, People’s Republic of China Clay Th (2019) Online arbitration report. Le Club des Juristes, Paris, France Dudin MN, Frolova EE, Lubenets NA, Sekerin VD, Bank SV, Gorokhova AE (2016) Methodology of analysis and assessment of risks of the operation and development of industrial enterprises. Qual Access Success 17(153):53–59 Dudin MN, Shakhov OF, Shakhova MS, Rusakova EP, Sizova YS (2019) Digital technologies as a driver of intellectual stratification of human resources: socio-economic inequality. Int J Recent Technol Eng 8(2):4436–4440 European Union (2016) Regulation (EU) 2016/679 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 27 April 2016 on the protection of natural persons with regard to the processing of personal data and on the free movement of such data, and repealing Directive 95/46/EC (General Data Protection Regulation) (Text with EEA relevance). Off J Eur Union L119:89–132 French Republic (2016) Law no 2016–1547 of 18 November 2016 on the modernization of justice in the 21st century (November 18, 2016). France, Paris Frolova EE, Polyakova TA, Dudin MN, Rusakova EP, Kucherenko PA (2018) Information security of Russia in the digital economy: the economic and legal aspects. J Adv Res Law Econ 9(1):89–95 Frolova EE, Inshakova AO, Dolinskaya VV (2019) The concept and legal framework for judjing corporate conflicts on the US financial market. In: Popkova EG (ed) “Conflict-free” socioeconomic systems: perspectives and contradictions. Emerald Group Publishing Limited, Bingley, UK, pp 101–108 International Centre for Dispute Resolution (2014) Rules for international disputes (June 1, 2014). New York, NY International Commercial Arbitration Court at the Chamber of Commerce and Industry of the Russian Federation (2017) Rules of the ICAC (January 27, 2017). Russia, Moscow London Court of International Arbitration (2014) LCIA arbitration rules (October 1, 2014). London, UK Lucas A, Devèze J, Frayssinet J (2001) Droit de l’informatique et de l’Internet [Law on IT and the Internet]. Presses Universitaires de France, Paris, France Miroshnichenko OI, Samusenko TM, Gaivoronskaya YV, Frolova EE (2018) Doctrine in the modern world: legal traditions and modern potential. J Soc Sci 13(2):235–240 Netherlands (1837) Code of civil procedure (May 17, 1837). Brussels, United Kingdom of the Netherlands Rusakova EP, Frolova EE, Ocaqli U, Kupchina EV (2019a) Possibilities of enforcement procedure of foreign arbitral awards in Russian Federation and People’s Republic of China. In: Uslu F (ed) Proceedings of ADVED 2019a: 5th International Conference on Advances in Education and Social Sciences. OCERINT, Istanbul, Turkey Rusakova EP, Frolova EE, Zankovsky SS, Kupchina EV (2019b) Problems of implementation of leadership in dispute resolution of the BRICS countries (on the examples of the Russian Federation, China, India). In: Uslu F (ed) Proceeding of 6th International conference on education, social science and humanities. OCERINT, Istanbul, Turkey Russian Federation (1985) Law on international commercial arbitration No. 5338-1 (August 14, 1993). Moscow, Russia

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Shakhov OF, Shakhova MS, Rusakova EP, Sizova YuS, Ziyadullaev US (2019) Development of entrepreneurship during the nep years: innovation, forms, technologies. Int J Recent Technol Eng 8(3):7401–7405 Snider Th, Dilevka S (2018) Artificial intelligence and international arbitration: going beyond email. Retrieved from https://www.tamimi.com/law-update-articles/artificial-intelligence-and-int ernational-arbitration-going-beyond-e-mail/ Swiss Confederation (1987) Federal Code on private international law (December 18, 1987, amended January 1, 2020). Bern, Switzerland United Kingdom (1996) An act to restate and improve the law relating to arbitration pursuant to an arbitration agreement; to make other provision relating to arbitration and arbitration awards; and for connected purposes (June 17, 1996). London, UK. United Nations Commission on International Trade Law (UNICITRAL) (1958) Convention on the recognition and enforcement of foreign arbitral awards (June 10, 1958). New York, NY UNICITRAL (1985) UNCITRAL model law on international commercial arbitration (June 21, 1985). New York, NY UNICITRAL (1996) UNCITRAL model law on electronic commerce (June 12, 1996). New York, NY UNICITRAL (2013) UNCITRAL arbitration rules (December 16, 2013). New York, NY United States of America (2000a) Revised uniform arbitration act (August 4, 2000a). St. Augustine, Fl United States of America (2000b) Electronic signatures in global and national commerce Act (June 30, 2000b). Washington, D.C.

Control Over the Allocation of Foreign Capital by Resident Individuals: Global Trends in Russia’s Legislation Ekaterina A. Tsepova

Abstract This study aims to identify current global trends in financial control over the capital allocation of individuals in various jurisdictions, which are expressed in modern Russian legislation. Individuals more actively participate in cross-border transactions and settlements because of technological progress and digitalization. However, the scholarly legal analysis has not yet exhausted the nature of financial relationships of the various nations with individuals. Using the content-analysis of domestic legislation of several developed countries, I studied the global experience of reporting about different types of assets abroad (e.g., financial accounts, real estate, securities) by resident individuals. Moreover, I examined the world trends in the development of currency restrictions from 1997 to 2017 via the content-analysis of the official documents of the International Monetary Fund, the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, and available economic statistics. I paid particular attention to the similarities and differences of these processes in the Russian legislation. In addition, I analyzed the impact of international tax transparency formed during the implementation of international agreements (in particular, the Multilateral Competent Authority Agreement on Automatic Exchange of Financial Account Information). As a result, I concluded that, in Russia, the financial regulation of the obligations of abroad capital owners is mainly influenced by two competing trends: (1) liberalization of foreign exchange regulation in the context of globalization and (2) increased fiscal control over taxpayer operations abroad. Keywords Foreign capital abroad · Resident individual · Tax control · Common reporting standard · Automatic exchange of information · Currency regulation · Exchange restrictions

E. A. Tsepova (B) Peoples’ Friendship, University of Russia (RUDN University), Moscow, Russia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 S. G. Maximova et al. (eds.), Advances in Natural, Human-Made, and Coupled Human-Natural Systems Research, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 250, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-78083-8_44

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1 Introduction Development of legal relations between the government and tax residents that own assets in other jurisdictions arouses great scientific and practical interest throughout the world. The increased mobility of the population and the capital raises the risk of tax evasion by blurring the tax base and withdrawing funds in jurisdictions with a lower level of taxation. Scholars pay close attention to such problems as the possibility for a taxpayer to choose a country where their income is taxed (Hilling 2013), tax evasion through cross-border financial transactions, and transferring funds to offshore zones (Mara 2015; Morten and Zeume 2018). In such circumstances, it is important to develop mechanisms for countering the negative effects of capital mobility, and learning and adopting the successful experience of other countries in this area. The tax practices of a particular nation may be influenced by such factors as: 1. Historical patterns that are included in the structure of fiscal systems (Djankov 2017; Ghodsi and Webster 2018; Dudin et al. 2016, 2017), 2. International tax competition caused by globalization (Gerber et al. 2018; Naseif et al. 2019), 3. Breakthrough concepts of economic and financial reforms (Frolova et al. 2018). This study deals with the global trends in control over the foreign capital of resident individuals, reflected in Russian legislation. The development of Russian law is interesting primarily due to its accelerated pace. Many developed countries (such as the USA and EU members) have been trying to solve the problem of tax evasion since the mid-20st century (Avi-Yonah 2005). Meanwhile in Russia, the regulation of this public relations area began to form only in 1991–1992. Since then, the tax relations with the Russian residents who own property abroad became more complex, and the mechanisms for implementing the government rights improved. In the last few years, this trend became particularly noticeable. The Russian tax code (Government of the Russian Federation 2000) describes in detail the features of taxing most income types; the number of procedural duties of taxpayers is constantly expanding. There are new objects of personal income tax—for example, the profit of a controlled foreign company (i.e., it is recognized as the income of the controlling person). In accordance with the currency exchange regulation rules (Government of the Russian Federation 2003), Russian citizens have many obligations when they have property abroad. These responsibilities include: (1) compliance with currency restrictions, (2) informing tax authorities about opening and closing foreign bank accounts, (3) informing about the movement of funds between accounts, (4) and other procedural obligations. The legislation on currency exchange relations with individuals tended to liberalize in the Russian Federation. However, the easing of regulatory requirements remains quite low compared to the development of exchange relations with the participation of individuals; the law base in this area still requires improvement.

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To determine the special characteristics of Russian regulations, one could compare these trends with international practice. This will allow predicting the further development of regulation in this area and identify the issues requiring improvement in the legislation. The issues of control over capital flows were widely studied in the context of countering tax evasion by legal entities, primarily by international corporations (Meyer 2013; Morris 2017; Noked 2018). At the same time, the legal relations of various nations with individuals who own assets abroad have not been sufficiently studied in the work of legal scholars yet.

2 Materials and Methods Using the content-analysis and available economic statistics, I examined the main legal trends in control over the foreign capital of the residents, focusing on those that are reflected in Russian legislation. The main methodical idea of the study consists in concluding the nature and severity of their impact on Russian legislation. First of all, I analyzed global experience in reporting on abroad capital by resident individuals. Reporting should discourage taxpayers from using offshore accounts for tax evasion (Johannesen et al. 2018). I selected nine jurisdictions with a high level of economic development for the comparative analysis. All of them are members of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development [The Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)] or the Financial Action Task Force on Money Laundering (FATF). Moreover, they applied the practice of informing the government authorities about the assets in other jurisdictions, regardless of income from the use or the sale of assets. Western countries are still the main source of experience in tax policy—as a rule, scholars take the tax policies of the OECD countries as a suitable starting point. Therefore, one can often observe the adoption of methods used in Western countries by other nations (Genschel and Seelkopf 2016). I took the national ranking of GDP per capita for 2018 as an economic development indicator (International Monetary Fund 2019a). In the study, I investigated the obligations of residents to notify about the different types of assets abroad—financial accounts, real estate, and securities. Moreover, I examined the application of anti-offshore rules to individuals (e.g., the Controlled Foreign Corporation Rules). According to some scholars, these measures aim to ensure fair taxation and prevent tax evasion in countries with high tax rates (Rust 2008; Schmidt 2016). Second, in the mid-twentieth century, the control over capital movement in both developing and developed countries was considered an ordinary part of public policy (Grabel 2006). Then, the era of financial liberalization began. This broadly refers to several measures: (1) central bank autonomy, (2) freedom of capital movement, (3) free currency convertibility, (4) differentiated interest rate policies for promoting “strategic” sectors of the national economy, etc. (Chang and Grabel 2014). At the end of the twentieth century, most developed countries almost completely abolished

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currency restrictions on cross-border financial transactions of both legal entities and individuals in accordance with recommendations developed by the IMF and the World Bank (Williamson 1990). Based on the content analysis of official documents of the IMF (IMF 2012, 2016, 2019b), I studied the global trends in the development of currency restrictions from 1997 to 2017. Particular attention was paid to studying the Russian experience in the matter. The dynamics of individuals’ funds transfer from the Russian Federation were taken as an indicator showing the changes in the approach to currency restrictions. Third, the measures taken by various nations in the fight against tax evasion should also be noted. They mostly include active international cooperation in the field of tax control. There is a widespread transition from bilateral to multilateral relations (Pistone 2014). A major role in the development of tax control on a global scale is played by international tax transparency, which is formed during the implementation of international agreements, especially the Multilateral Competent Authority Agreement on Automatic Exchange of Financial Account Information (CRS MCAA) (Meyer 2013; Owens 2015). The study examines its implementation in Russian legislation and discusses the impact of this agreement on the global practice of control over the capital of individuals. The paper also provides an overall assessment of the emerging international tax transparency and the creation of a unified global field of financial control over capital movements within the framework of CRS MCAA (OECD 2019).

3 Results 3.1 Reporting About Abroad Capital World experience in regulating the financial obligations of individuals owning assets in other jurisdictions varies. Examples of nations where, in addition to the obligation to calculate and pay tax from sources outside the country, residents (and in some countries, all citizens) must notify financial control authorities that they have property in foreign jurisdictions are the USA, Canada, Spain, France, India, Brazil, Japan, etc. Table 1 shows the diversity of world practice in this matter. The most famous example of a regulatory act that enforces such obligations is the part of the US Code—Foreign Account Tax Compliance Act (FATCA) (United States Government 2010). This regulation obliges US taxpayers to annually inform the US Internal Revenue Service (IRS) about their financial accounts in foreign financial institutions if the total balance of all accounts during the fiscal year exceeds 50,000 USD. Moreover, it compels them to report on other financial assets not reflected in investment accounts (e.g., certificates of ownership of shares or bonds). In addition, US taxpayers must also report to the Financial Crimes Enforcement Network (FinCEN) on foreign financial accounts with a total balance of more than 10,000 USD during the fiscal year.

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Table 1 Experience in regulating the obligation of resident individuals to inform the government authorities about abroad assets Country

Rank GDP per capita, USD in 2018

USA

Obligation to notify of financial accounts abroad

Obligation to notify of real estate abroad

Obligation to notify of securities abroad

Minimum asset value requiring notification, USDa

Controlled foreign corporation (CFC) notification

10

62,606

✓

–

✓

10,000

✓

Denmark 18

52,279

✓

✓

✓

N/A

✓

21

49,651

✓

✓

✓

75,547

✓

Canada France

25

45,775

✓

✓

✓

55,215

✓

Japan

28

44,227

✓

✓

✓

183,960

✓

Spain

30

40,139

✓

✓

✓

55,215

✓

Russia

49

29,267

✓

–

–

9444

✓

Brazil

80

16,154

✓

✓

✓

100,000

✓

India

119

7874

✓

✓

✓

N/A

✓

a

Exchange rate on February 03, 2020 Source Compiled by the author

This shows that national legislations pay the greatest attention to the financial accounts of residents in foreign financial institutions. Several countries (e.g., Canada, France, India, and Japan) oblige the taxpayers to notify about all property in foreign jurisdictions. Even in the case of sufficiently strict regulation, the legislation establishes a minimum value of the property that must be reported to the financial control authorities. This is mainly justified by the desire for a more efficient tax administration that allows identifying individuals with the highest property values. Russian resident individuals need to notify the tax authorities of the accounts in foreign financial institutions. Until 2020, this applied only to bank accounts, but from 2020 onwards—to any other financial accounts (e.g., opened by foreign brokers, depositories, and investment companies). At the same time (following the example of most nations), Russia established a minimum limit of 600,000 RUB for the amount of receipts and the balance of funds in the foreign accounts. Accounts with a receipt amount and a balance below the minimum threshold do not need to be reported (Government of the Russian Federation 2019). Although there are many examples of the introduction of obligation notify the financial control authorities of the property abroad (regardless of the income generation), the world practice is still dominated by more lenient regulatory requirements. They are limited to the main obligation to pay tax on revenue from foreign sources and do not impose excessive procedural tax obligations on taxpayers, except for the declaration of income received. Examples of this approach are found all over the world: in many European countries (Germany, Latvia, Finland, Sweden), in China, African countries (Egypt, South Africa, Kenya, etc.), and the countries of the Middle East (Qatar, Bahrain, etc.). The issue of financial regulation of the obligations of the

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shareholders in foreign organizations deserves special mention. A controlled foreign corporation (CFC) is a legal entity operating in the jurisdiction of one nation but owned or controlled by tax residents of another nation. In some countries, residents that control foreign organizations have specific obligations due to tax laws. The first nation that introduce CFCs into its legal regulation was the United States in 1962 (United States Government 1962). American shareholders who directly or indirectly own more than 10% of the voting shares (or registered capital) of a foreign organization (and the shareholders that own more than 50% of the voting shares or registered capital) must inform the IRS about it and pay taxes on the certain types of income of such organization—dividends, interests, royalties, rent payments, annuities, and revenues from the sale of the property generating such passive incomes. Later, these regulations were modified and adopted by other nations (mainly, with some lenient amendments). In some countries (e.g., China and the UK), individuals controlling a CFC have additional responsibilities for declaring and paying taxes on the profits of a foreign organization. In 2014, along with the implementation of the anti-offshore policy, Russian tax legislation was amended and now compelled residents to pay personal income tax on the profits of a CFC. If the share of a Russian resident in the registered captain of a foreign organization registered capital exceeds 10%, they are obliged to notify the tax authorities about it, regardless of whether they receive income from participation in a foreign organization. If the share exceeds 25%, then the resident must pay taxes on the profits of a foreign organization (Government of the Russian Federation 2014).

3.2 Capital Flow Restrictions The content of legal relations, arising from currency exchange regulation, is the responsibility of residents and non-residents to comply with restrictions, or to perform certain actions related to the foreign exchange transactions, and the right to demand proper behavior of subjects by the government. Figure 1 demonstrates the global trends in currency exchange restrictions. The liberalization trend of currency restrictions from 1995 to 2010 can be easily established in the Russian legislation. In 1991, the national currency monopoly that had existed since the nationalization of foreign trade in 1918 was abolished in Russia. Since 1992 (Government of the Russian Federation 1992), residents have the right to open accounts with foreign banks in certain cases—for example, only during the stay abroad. Significant liberalization of the Russian currency legislation began in 2001 (Government of the Russian Federation 2001), when Russian citizens got the opportunity to open and use for securities investment the bank accounts in the member states of OECD or FATF. The originally permitted basis for transfer funds to foreign bank accounts was only a transfer between the resident’s own accounts opened with a Russian or a foreign bank. Later, the list was expanded. In 2004 (Government of the Russian Federation 2003), it included loans and borrowings that meet several criteria and receipts from accounts of other residents opened with Russian banks.

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Fig. 1 Dynamics of the use of currency exchange restrictions in the world from 1997 to 2017 based on IMF annual report data. Source IMF (2012, 2016, 2019b)

Since 2014, the total number of restrictive measures used in the world has increased significantly. At the same time, the composition of IMF members that applied the restrictions also changed. However, the IMF report for this period noted that changes in the rules for transactions on accounts of residents and non-residents were mainly aimed at liberalization and controlling capital flows (IMF 2016). In recent years, developed countries tended to introduce currency restrictions to maintain national or international security. For example, 37 countries notified of such measures in 2015, while 23 countries did so during the first half of 2016. The number of such countries increased continuously since 2013 (IMF 2016). At the beginning of 2018, some emerging market economies were faced with a reversal of capital flows and exchange rate pressures caused by rising geopolitical and trade tensions, a stronger position of the USD, and concerns about the economic growth of China. The response included tightening capital restrictions. As a result, the composition of countries supporting restrictive measures has changed, while the total number of countries applying restrictions has remained the same (IMF 2019b). It should be noted that this trend was not reflected in the Russian currency legislation. The reason for this might be the fact that existing regulations were already quite stringent. Dampening these regulations has a positive effect on the economic activity of individuals, facilitating their participation in international payments by removing restrictions on foreign exchange transactions, as shown in Fig. 2. In 2013, Russian residents received the right to open accounts in banks of any country, and in the period 2014–2018 the list of grounds for funds transfer to accounts in foreign banks was expanded. It now included some common operations of individuals—for example, the wages while from working abroad, income from the overseas rental of property, and certain types of income from investment activities (Government of the Russian Federation 2017b). Since 2020, non-residents can, without

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Fig. 2 The dynamics of individual funds transferred from the Russian Federation, million USD. Source The Central Bank of the Russian Federation (2020)

restrictions, transfer funds to the accounts of Russian residents opened with banks located in the territories of The Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU) members or nations participating in the automatic exchange of information with Russia.

3.3 International Cooperation Currently, 108 countries (including Russia) are members of the CRS MCAA, meaning that half of the existing jurisdictions (International Organization for Standardization 2019) joined the agreement (Fig. 3). The total nominal value of the gross domestic product of the countries (International Monetary Fund 2019a) in 2018 was 75% of the global value. In most developed countries, the lack of foreign exchange restrictions on the capital movement of natural persons is partly due to the displacement of exchange control by fiscal regulation. Joining and complying with international agreements creates new vectors for the development of financial legislation in Russia. Russian Federation exchanges information with other countries within the framework of the CRS MCAA (OECD 2014, 2019) since 2018. To ensure the implementation of a mechanism for the automatic exchange of tax information with other nations, the CRS standard (OECD 2017), the Russian government developed new and amended the existing regulatory legal acts. The Federal Law No. 340 On Amendments to Part One of the Tax Code of the Russian Federation in Connection with the Implementation of the International Automatic Exchange of Information and Documentation for International Groups of Companies (Government of the Russian Federation 2017a) provides the mechanism for the collection and exchange of information by the Russian tax authorities. Currently, Russia participates in the automatic mutual exchange of financial information with 77 nations and 12 territories. The list is publicly available and regularly updated.

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Fig. 3 The ratio of CRS MCAA participating jurisdictions and countries that have not joined the CRS MCAA. Source OECD (2019)

Moreover, the government developed several legal acts that regulate the processing and transmitting of information intended for international exchange by Russian financial institutions. The key one is the Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation N 693 On the Implementation of the International Automatic Exchange of Financial Information with the Competent Authorities of Foreign Nations (Territories) (Government of the Russian Federation 2018). This resolution is the CRS standard text, translated into Russian in a somewhat truncated form, but still taking into account its key terms.

4 Discussion In some jurisdictions (including Russia), domestic legislation may contain both the main obligation to pay taxes on income received from foreign sources and additional procedural obligations (e.g., notifying the authorities about the property in foreign jurisdictions, regardless of whether it is a source of income or not) (Frolova and Tsepova 2020). But, some scholars suggest that the volume of undeclared foreign assets of residents is still greatly underestimated, especially regarding portfolio investments (Pellegrini et al. 2016). These measures are only effective in conjunction with fairly rigid enforcement. For example, in India, the value of undeclared assets is taxed at a rate of 30% and entails a fine of 1 million INR (approximately 15,000 USD). The previously mentioned FATCA also has powerful enforcement tools widely used by the IRS (Sheppard 2018). In the USA, the authorities disclosed

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around 120 bln. USD spread across 60,000 individuals. This resulted in 700 mln–1 bln. USD in additional annual tax revenue (Johannesen et al. 2018). Until recently, US taxpayers had the opportunity to participate in the Offshore Voluntary Disclosure Program (OVDP) to eliminate errors made in previous tax periods. The program allowed taxpayers to avoid criminal prosecution by voluntarily disclosing information and paying a fine in the prescribed amount (Sardar 2018). In Russia, a similar practice was applied. Since in 2015, residents can avoid liability for some offenses in taxation, currency exchange, and customs. Federal Law No. 140 On the Voluntary Declaration by Individuals of Assets and Accounts (Deposits) in Banks and on Amendments to Certain Legislative Acts of the Russian Federation (Government of the Russian Federation 2015) provides relevant legal guarantees to the persons who voluntarily declared their assets and bank accounts. The law does not oblige residents to reimburse unpaid taxes, making it significantly more attractive to the taxpayers than the US OVDP. The amnesty was extended several times. In 2019, the Minister of Finance of the Russian Federation reported that during the declaration of company information on the assets, approximately 35 bln. EUR spread across 19,000 individuals were disclosed (Interfax 2019). At present, exchange restrictions are not applied on a long-term basis in most OECD member states; they can only be temporarily introduced to maintain macroeconomic stability. Global currency restrictions tended to become increasingly milder from 1995 to 2010. The experience of the emerging market economies (such as Russia, Azerbaijan, Bulgaria, Chile, Cyprus, Hungary, Israel, Jordan, Korea, etc.) shows that openness of capital flows causes faster economic growth, increases government revenues, lowers inflation, and decreases capital adequacy ratios (SaadiSedik and Sun 2012). But after the crisis of 2014, priorities shifted towards the reduction of net capital inflows, mainly because of the preservation of existing control over cross-border financial transactions (Pasricha 2012). Some scholars consider capital controls and capital outflow prevention to be a part of the policy for counteracting tax evasion (Fisher 1999; Loungani and Mauro 2000; Epstain 2012). It is important to note that in several countries similar to Russia in geopolitical and social characteristics (Wu and Lin 2008; White et al. 2017), the opposite trend can be observed—currency restrictions on operations are applied constantly and are even becoming stricter. This applies to currency regulation measures in some BRICS countries. India has strict controls on cross-border currency transactions, and residents are prohibited from opening or holding accounts in foreign currencies. In China, citizens are not prohibited from opening accounts abroad, but there are significant foreign exchange transactions restrictions. For example, the annual quota for the purchase of foreign currency established by the State Administration of Foreign Exchange Regulation of China is only 50,000 USD per person. Besides, many scholars actively support the idea of maintaining and strengthening capital controls (Yongding and Ming 2012). Speculative financial flows that are not related to investments in industrial infrastructure and the real economy; they are criticized for being unproductive and considered as a threat to macroeconomic stability (Mitchell 2016).

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The implementation of CRS MCAA was a breakthrough in tax control over crossborder transactions of individuals. It allows the tax authorities to receive data on the accounts of tax residents in foreign financial institutions. The amount of supplied data is sufficient to monitor compliance with the tax law (Morten and Zeume 2018). Until recently, tax information was exchanged manually upon a request based on bilateral intergovernmental agreements. It was selective, meaning that the access to this information was significantly limited. Currently, CRS MCAA member states collect, analyze, and transmit information on taxpayer financial accounts to each other in accordance with the Common Reporting Standard (CRS) (OECD 2017). This agreement is an example of successful unified financial control in international taxation. In the future, successful functioning international exchange on financial accounts information within the framework of CRS MCAA will require the following: . Improving measures to improve the quality of transmitted data, . Standardizing the technical requirements for the hardware and software used for the collection and transfer of information, . Ensuring the confidentiality of transmitted data.

5 Conclusion The study shows that the main global trends in controlling the movement of resident individuals’ foreign capital are: (1) tightening of legal tax norms, (2) strengthening fiscal control over cross-border taxpayer operations. However, foreign exchange regulation trends are conflicting—(1) liberalization and (2) restriction of the free movement of capital. The control over currency exchange is predetermined by the current economic needs of a country. In developed countries, the most important task is the fight against tax evasion. In developing countries, improving foreign exchange relations to maintain economic stability often comes first. In the past two decades, the development of Russian legislation on the topic also demonstrated two trends: (1) tax liabilities of owners of foreign capital are constantly becoming more complicated, and the list of taxable objects and procedural obligations is expanding; (2) currency exchange regulations are softening. However, one should not expect radical changes in the development of these trends. Most likely, Russia will continue to move in the chosen direction in the near future. Despite the constant liberalization of currency regulation and the experience of developed countries, the current economic and legal conditions are unfavorable. They contribute to the complete removal of currency exchange restrictions, but one can expect their further relaxation under the influence of globalization and effective international cooperation. The severity of tax control over the movement of capital will likely increase. Moreover, participation in international agreements will also increase the effectiveness of tax control.

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In this study, I did not raise such important questions as: . Methodological and practical approaches to the legal regulation of an individual status of a resident in various nations; . Assessment of the impact and the possibility of adopting the measures of other nations in the Russian Federation, designed to combat financial crimes. Such measures could be the application by one nation of sanctions against persons who have committed these offenses in other nation (e.g., the Criminal Finances Act, enacted in the UK on April 27, 2017) or expanding the scope of extradition agreements; . Ways to control the financial transactions of legal entities outside of Russia. In future studies, I intend to get further research and develop these aspects (and some other) of financial control over the capital allocation in various jurisdictions. Acknowledgements This work was financially supported by the Grant of the President of the Russian Federation No. NSh-2668-2020.6 “National-Cultural and Digital Trends in the SocioEconomic, Political and Legal Development of the Russian Federation in the 21st Century.”

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Latin Language for Historians: Traditional Approach or Necessity of Dead Language “Revival”? Irina Yu. Vascheva , Natalia Yu. Sivkina , and Maria P. Samoylova

Abstract The paper analyzes the practice of teaching Latin in current Russian humanities universities. The authors pay special attention to the methods of teaching Latin and their effectiveness. The paper shows the disadvantages of the approaches used and the difficulties associated with them. Today, when a student does not have enough classroom hours to get acquainted with all the richness and beauty of classical Latin, as well as a competence approach that is not designed for the use of traditional methods, force teachers to look for new options for the layout and presentation of grammatical and lexical material in Latin classes. The main efforts of many foreign authors aim to make students more active and interested in learning Latin. The authors surveyed history students of different courses to identify the most effective methods of mastering Latin. Based on this survey and their own teaching experience, the authors suggest a different approach to teaching the ancient language. Considering the current trends and not ignoring the traditional methodology, the authors propose to shift the focus in teaching Latin not to the game aspect, but in favor of a variety of training and exercises that allow, on the one hand, to diversify and revitalize the learning process, and on the other, provide invaluable assistance in learning the ancient language. Keywords Latin · Teaching methods · Humanities education

1 Introduction Latin is the basis for learning the richest heritage of all European cultures and an essential component of the humanitarian education system. This discipline is obligatory for students to study many humanities thoroughly. Especially important is Latin for students of history, as texts of historical sources of both ancient and medieval periods and some documents on the Russian history of the 12th–18th centuries are written in this ancient language. Not all the above sources I. Yu. Vascheva · N. Yu. Sivkina · M. P. Samoylova (B) Lobachevsky State University of Nizhni Novgorod, Nizhni Novgorod, Russia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 S. G. Maximova et al. (eds.), Advances in Natural, Human-Made, and Coupled Human-Natural Systems Research, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 250, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-78083-8_45

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even currently exist in Russian translations. Moreover, a truly professional approach to any historical study always involves studying primary sources, preferably in the original language. Thus, students who have chosen to specialize in general, ancient, or medieval history need to study in greater depth since the first year to read the original Latin texts in the following years. The research aims to identify the most effective method of learning Latin. The research purpose is to survey historian students of different courses.

2 Materials and Methods Since Latin now belongs to the category of “dead” languages, the goals, methods, and techniques of its study and teaching are substantially different from those practiced in the process of teaching other foreign languages. Thus, in the study of all current languages, the emphasis is placed on memorizing vocabulary, stable revolutions, and speech constructs. These efforts are aimed at ensuring that the learner has an active vocabulary. The first stage of instruction in current languages is the acquisition of basic oral skills. The main purpose of teaching an ancient language (such as Latin) is to open the way to understanding the structure and translate (with the dictionary) original ancient texts. This is the professional competence of the historian and part of their professional training. Thus, it is crucial to learn the grammatical system of the language and basic syntactic constructions. Currently, there is an enormous number of textbooks and teaching aids, both completely new and repeated. For example, a textbook by Popov and Shendiapina (1970, 2008), which for historians has been and remains one of the best Russian educational publications in terms of consistency of basic Latin grammar and syntax presentation. Besides, the authors emphasize the textbooks by Jarho (Yarhko and Loboda 1998), Sobolevsky (2003), Mirosenka and Fedorova (2008), including the works of recent authors: Goncharova (2010), Bikeyeva (2017), Katzman (2015), and Podoshinov (1995). However, all these publications are usually based on the traditional methods used in teaching Latin for a long time. The student should learn to understand linguistic phenomena, work with reference tables and dictionaries, and discover significant material—pronoun declension system, verb conjugation, case endings, lexical minimum, etc. There are also syntactic turns, without which it is impossible to translate sentences correctly. To understand all these constructions, one must easily navigate the grammatical foundations of a dead language. Therefore, it is believed that the old method—learning—continues to be one of the main ways of learning Latin. It is believed that it is easier to memorize the material once than spend an enormous amount of time later trying to translate each word, especially without finding the appropriate form in the dictionary. In the latter case, the whole process of learning new material becomes ineffective.

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The mechanical learning technique in Soviet times has long been considered the most laborious and the least efficient (Borodulina et al. 1975). In the student community, the textbooks that bring the ancient language closer to the current language become popular. Recently, the use of so-called “living” Latin language teaching methods (Fritch 2017; Kazakov 2016) has become increasingly popular. Such teaching methods gain popularity every year. Teachers use them as an alternative approach, treating Latin as a language of “live” communication, international communication, and current terminology. The positive effect of such methods is that they allow making students more interested in the learning process and make it much easier to learn about ancient culture and literature. The given methodology also effectively allows developing the ability to interpret texts of sources and works of antique authors correctly. Such an approach, which can be denoted as “Revived Latin,” is implemented now in several foreign educational institutions, such as the Roman Academy Vivarium Novum, in the Institute of Latin Language and Literature of the University of Kentucky, in the Belgium Schola Nova Belgium, etc. In Russia, the Historical Faculty of the Lomonosov Moscow State University (MSU) and Dmitry Pozharsky University (Moscow) successfully use this method of teaching Latin. The annual Summer School of Antiquity in the Rozhdestvo village held by antique researchers of Moscow and Saint Petersburg is an example of using this method with students and schoolchildren. P. G. Demidov Yaroslavl State University implements the method of “living Latin” and the traditional approach: a “Living Latin” course, besides conventional discipline, uses the textbook of G. Orberg “Lingua Latina per se illustrata” (Orberg 2002). This textbook is built on the “natural” method of teaching and uses only antique material. Many Russian teachers (Belousov 2020) also introduce natural methodology into the learning process. For this reason, there is a growing demand for training manuals that focus on popular conversational topics. An example of this is the famous guide “Latin for beginners” by Wilkes (1993) (Fig. 1). Each page introduces learners to a certain topic, for example, “Greeting, farewell,” “Possessive pronouns of my-your,” etc. All selected illustrative material allows the reader to remember a few words easily. The playing style of delivery does not mean that learning is unnecessary because, to repeat and reproduce this material, a student must remember some lexical minimum and standard phrases. The manual is also very much designed for mechanical learning, both of individual phrases and their combinations. In the historical context, this type of publication is not appropriate for history students: one cannot study the topic “Time” and display the current time if the principle of defining time in ancient Rome was different. Same with the theme “Hobby” with its variants “play tennis”—ludo teniludio and “watch TV”—televisorium specto, etc. The authors consider a guide by A. V. Podosinov, “Introduction to the Latin language and ancient culture” for classical gymnasiums with a selection of ancient and medieval sources, and even a fragment of C. Collodi fairy tale “Pinocchio” and

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Fig. 1 Angela Wilkes handbook page. Source Wilkes (1993)

comic book about Asterix (Podosinov 1995). But usually, there is no entertaining element in Russian textbooks. To the teachers wishing to engage and excite students in the Latin language and antique culture, the authors recommend the “Cambridge Latin Course” (Cambridge School Classics Project 1998) for schools. It contains many qualitative, illustrative, and explanatory materials on Roman culture, although its structure resembles a manual by A. Wilkes. Students are introduced to the original texts by introducing new vocabulary without translation, i.e., visualized. Such an approach “revives” passive knowledge (Abramova 2020).

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One may note that all these publications follow a structured approach consistent with the teaching of new languages. According to N. L. Katzman, it is a paradox because new methods of teaching living languages originated in time as a protest learning them by the ancient practice, and now it is applied to dead languages. However, the nature of the Latin language itself does not correspond to its learning by a structural method (Katzman 2015). Thus, the current practice of teaching the discipline “Latin language” is based on only a few following methods (Bragova 2015): . Most current Russian textbooks offer instruction in Latin based on a traditional or grammatical method; . In several textbooks, usually for language universities (Katzman et al. 2018; Pokrovskaya and Katzman 1987), the traditional method is slightly modified. The authors of these textbooks present the grammar of the Latin language is compared to the grammar of current languages so that Latin is taught as a theoretical discipline. This, in turn, shows trends in the development of the grammatical systems of European languages; for example, a tendency towards an analytical order can be traced from the Latin verbs liability. N. L. Katzman correctly calls the proposed method comparative (Katzman 2015); . This method has several names: direct, oral, and natural. This method was first introduced abroad about a hundred years ago. The natural approach is based on the fact that the mother tongue is not used in the learning process, and Latin is considered a current language, i.e., an active language. This approach means that the grammar and vocabulary of the ancient language must be given immediately in Latin (Dickey 2018). As with the teaching of current languages, direct Latin instruction is based on auditing, reading without translation, and writing. The above-mentioned structural approach, which involves a thorough training of basic sentences and aims to demonstrate a specific grammatical structure, can also be applied in this learning way. This basic offer is a model for many models (Bragova 2017). Each of these methods has its advantages and disadvantages. Among Latin language teachers, both in Russia and abroad, the direct method received a very mixed assessment and was often negative. Many people tend to believe that the oral method does not train or develop mental capacity. From the beginning of the twentieth century, American researcher C. Herbert drew the attention of those interested in Latin language teaching methods to the difficulties teachers would inevitably face. He noted that the method itself is difficult enough for the teacher to explain the material without using the native language, gestures, or pictures. The teacher must ensure that the student knows the meaning of the new words. The second difficulty is that the teacher choosing the natural method must undergo special training to learn to speak Latin fluently without mistakes. The use of a natural method also carries the risk of numerous errors in both textbooks and the teacher’s speech: the phrases in such lessons are considering not Latin rules but Roman realities. However, considering the customary of students’ native language and todays’ realities, it leads to numerous cultural curiosities, such as the open windows of a Roman house or

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the mentioning of women voting. There is another significant Russian reality of the educational process: the lack of instructional hours. Learning Latin with the natural method requires a much larger number of instructional exercises than traditional ones. There is also the problem of transferring students from one school to another that uses different learning systems (Herbert 1915). To these complexities can be added the competent approach adopted in current higher education, which is oriented towards students’ independent work and reduced hours of instructional work.

3 Results On the one hand, one cannot fail to recognize the evident fact that the “revitalization” of Latin activates the educational process changes for the better the motivation of students to study a dead language. On the other hand, the new approach to Latin teaching is essentially oriented to reconstructing its spoken form (Abramova 2020). But for a student historian, Latin is essential as a written source language, i.e., as a prerequisite for learning Latin in writing. Therefore, teachers’ desire to “revive” the language has the consequence of spending already minimal hours allocated by the curriculum on learning Latin. Therefore, recreational moments are possible only in optional and additional classes, and the core audit is not entirely justified. One cannot ignore the well-known fact that current students already in the first year face the need to master a great deal of material in various disciplines, among which Latin is one of the most difficult. Therefore, the purpose of the conducted survey among the history students of different courses was to determine the effective method of learning the Latin language in their opinion. Forty people participated in the survey: seven first-year students and the rest were students of 2–4 years who already mastered the basic Latin level. They were asked the following questions: . How much time do you spend learning the grammatical material on a topic? (Answer options: “Hour,” “Evening,” “Several days,” “I cannot answer”); . What approach to learning Latin do you find more interesting? (Answer options: traditional, popular, mixed); . Please note the means that help you to study this discipline (Answer options: learning grammar, tutoring, exercises and training, individual work, and elearning). The answers are presented in the following figures (Figs. 2 and 3). Figure 1 shows that students spend between one hour and several days learning materials. At the same time, most of the graduates chose the answer “Evening,” which cannot be considered a significant burden for the learners. Analysis of Fig. 3 shows that most students do not seek in-depth language learning in the traditional format but rather prefer a popular and entertaining format. Figure 4 shows the choice of students in favor of exercises and training: The analysis of the diagrams shows that current students find the traditional approach to language learning uninteresting and difficult.

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Fig. 2 Responses to question 1: “how much time do you spend learning grammatical material on a topic?” Source Compiled by the authors

Fig. 3 Responses to question 2: “what approach to learning Latin do you find more interesting.” Source Compiled by the authors

Fig. 4 Responses to question 3: “please note the means that help you to study this discipline”. Source Compiled by the authors

4 Discussion The lack of motivation and cognitive activity in Latin instruction is noted both by teachers and students themselves. Students with no enthusiasm or enthusiasm for

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learning Latin grammar are extremely reluctant. They find it too complicated. Many students do not understand the importance of Latin for the professional training of historians. They are reluctant to work even with adapted or artificially created texts and sentences. It is resulting in a loss of interest in the Latin course (Abramova 2020). The use of new teaching technologies linked to the digitization of the educational space is seen as an effective way to address such problems. Digital technology has long been a part of higher education. Therefore, the authors invite students to make greater use of authoritative sources of electronic resources in their education, such as: . Dictionaries, reference books, and encyclopedias (Independent Almanac “Lebed,” n.d.); . Service of thematic intelligible dictionaries (Glossary.ru, n.d.); . Electronic Library System “Znanium” (n.d.); . Latin. Grammar book (n.d.); . Zaumnik.ru (n.d.); . Latin language (n.d.); . Perseus Digital Library (n.d.); . Philologia classica (n.d.). Nowadays, the general trend towards gaming and edutainment (Abramova 2020) can also bring some vitality to the learning process, making it more entertaining. In Russian universities, teachers increasingly practice such forms of work as tournaments on knowledge of legal procedural formulas, oral competitions on knowledge of winged expressions, and various intellectual quiz games. For example, one can take the television quiz “Svoya Igra,” which develops stable mental reactions of students and activates interdisciplinary connections (Abramova 2020). On the other hand, the survey shows that while the game form of material presentation attracts many first-year students, graduates clearly express their interest in using various teaching and remembering exercises. One should also pay attention to the approach used in the textbook mentioned above, “Lingua Latina per se illustrata” (Orberg 2002). It contains, in addition to illustrative material chosen from ancient Roman culture, relevant texts, commentaries with explanations of the bare lexical minimum, questions, and answers on the text. Perhaps this is the kind of material that Russian Latin textbooks lack, and such collections would be effective after studying the relevant grammatical material and as a fixation. In the context of the small number of hours allocated by the curriculum to work with students in the classroom, a greater role in language learning is given to independent work and students’ conscious desire to learn this dead language. The authors believe that the emphasis in current Latin teaching should be shifted not to the game aspect but a variety of training and exercises. Examples of possible exercises are given below (Tables 1 and 2): Besides, it would be useful to perform tasks on finding errors in the Latin text, formulating questions and answers on the subject, combining individual words into

Latin Language for Historians: Traditional Approach or Necessity … Table 1 Exercise 1: “form a grammatical case.”

Acc.S

Abl.Pl

483 Dat.S

classis, is f

exemplar, aris n

lapis, idis m

navis, is f

regio, onis f

aper, apri m

lac, lactis n

pirata, ae m

navis, is f

exemplar, aris n

corvus, i m

regio, onis f

Lexical minimum: classis, is f—fleet; navis, is f—ship; lac, lactis n—milk; exemplar, aris n—example; lapis, idis m—stone; regionis, f—border; pirata, ae m—pirate; factum, i n—act; corvus, i m—crow; aper, apri m—boar; senator, oris m—senator; pax, pacis f—peace Source Compiled by the authors

Table 2 Exercise 2: “write down the basic perfect and then form Perfectum Ind. Act. of the person and number specified”

Verbs

Basic perfect

Perfectum Ind. Act

Laboro, 1

1 Pl

Habeo, habui, habitum 2

2 Sing

Formo, 1

3 Pl

Trado, didi, ditum 3

2 Pl

Source Compiled by the authors

a whole sentence, creating a description of the illustration, changing the narrative text into dialogue, writing text or dialogues, etc. (Belousov 2020). By practicing the same actions during the training, the learner can easily “automatically” learn to separate the bases, put nouns in the proper case, determine the word form by indirect case, phrase form, aligning the noun name with the adjective, pronoun, and communion, conjugate verbs, etc. Through in-depth study, analysis, and training of the respective tasks, students secure the material and facilitate the work related to the translation of Latin texts while avoiding mechanical learning. The authors believe that the regularity and systematization of studies is the key to the success of studying Latin.

5 Conclusion Not denying the possibility of using the “natural” method in teaching Latin and recognizing its role in increasing students’ motivation, the authors note that the traditional method was and remains more productive for students-historians. However, the lack of instructional hours and the desire to achieve a qualitative result in learning implies a change in the traditional teaching system towards a more active use of exercises and training. The current world dictates its educational requirements. The teaching of the ancient language must keep pace with time, combining traditional and other methods.

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References Abramova AM (2020) Teaching the Latin language in the Judicial Higher School from the standpoint of professional competence (from the experience of the work program). Filologia i Chelovek 1:105–116 Belousov AV (2020) From personal experience of teaching classical languages by “natural” method. Aristeas: Philologia Classica et Historia Antiqva 21:297–327 Bikeyeva NY (2017) Latinskiy yazik. Kazan University, Kazan, Russia Borodulina MK, Carlin AL, Lurieu AC, Minina NM (1975) Foreign language training as a specialty. Vyshaya Shkola, Moscow, Russia Bragova AM (2015) Review of Latin language teaching methods. In Pleskanyuk TH (ed) Fililogicheskiy Aspekt. International Journal of Professional Science, Nizhny Novgorod, Russia, pp 84–87 Bragova AM (2017) Basics of Latin studies at the Humanities University. Studia Humanitatis 1. Retrieved from http://st-hum.ru/content/bragova-am-osnovy-obucheniya-latinskomu-yazyku-vgumanitarnom-universitete Cambridge School Classics Project (1998) Cambridge Latin course. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK Dickey E (2018) Learn Latin from the Romans. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge Electronic library system “Znanium” (n.d.) Retrieved from https://new.znanium.com Fritch A (2017) Learning to speak Latin: history, challenges, opportunities. Yuriy Shichalin’s Museum Graeco-Latinum, Moscow, Russia Glossary.ru. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.glossary.ru Goncharova NA (2010) Latinskiy Yazik, 2nd edn. Vysheishaya shkola, Minsk, Belarus Herbert C (1915) Methods of teaching Latin. Class J 11(1):7–24 Independant Almanac “Lebed” (n.d.) Retrieved from http://www.lebed.com/slovo.htm Katzman NL (2015) Teaching of the Latin language. Vlados, Moscow, Russia Katzman NL, Yarho VN, Liefshitz IA (2018) Latin language. Vlados, Moscow, Russia Kazakov GA (2016) Language learning techniques: ideas, experience and course program. Vestnik Moskovskogo Univerisiteta 1:169–176 Latin. Grammar Guide (n.d.) Retrieved from www.nsu.ru/classics/syllabi/grammar.htm Latinskiy yazik (n.d.) Retrieved from www.lingualatina.ru/index-13.php Miroshenkova VI, Fedorov NA (2008) Lingua Latina. Flinta, Nauka, Moscow, Russia Orberg HH (2002) Lingua Latina per se illustrata. Museum Tusculanum Press, Copenhagen, Danmark Perseus Digital Library (n.d.) Retrieved from www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/ Philologia Classica (n.d.) Retrieved from http://graecolatini.bsu.by/index.html Podosinov AV (1995) Lingua Latina. Introduction to Latin and antique culture. Progress, Moscow, Russia Pokrovskaya ZA, Katzman NL (1987) Latinskiy yazik. Vyshaya Shkola, Moscow, Russia Popov AN, Shendyapin PM (1970) Latin language. Vyshaya shkola, Moscow, USSR Popov AN, Shendyapin PM (2008) Latin language. Elementary, textbook, grammar, syntax, dictionaries. Academic Project, Moscow, Russia Sobolevsky SI (2003) Latin grammar. Theory. Morphology and syntax. List New, Moscow, Russia Wilkes A (1993) Latin for beginners. Usborne, London, UK Yarhko VN, Loboda VI (eds) (1998) Latinskiy yazik. Vysshaya Shkola, Moscow, Russia Zaumnik (n.d.) Retrieved from www.zaumnik.ru/latinskij-jazyk/pervoe-sklonenie-latyni.html

Visual Aspects of Traditional Japanese Cuisine Olga S. Shibiko

Abstract The paper focuses on the visual aspect of traditional Japanese cuisine, which is an aspect of everyday Japanese culture. Studying from this perspective is relevant due to the ongoing and growing interest of science in everyday culture, including the culture of Asia–Pacific countries, which begins to play a significant role in developing culture as a whole. The study reveals the specifics of the visual aspect of traditional Japanese cuisine, that is, the features of the visual representation of Japanese dishes, which determines the scientific novelty of the work. The author conducts the study culturally, integrating data from various fields into a single multidimensional study of traditional cuisine as a system of interrelated elements with the main subject in the form of the visual aspect of traditional Japanese cuisine. Through description, generalization, and systematization, the author presents several fundamental Japanese cuisine principles, emphasizing the combination of aesthetic, utilitarian, visual, and flavor components, which are of equal importance for Japanese cuisine. Based on the study, the author concludes that traditional Japanese culture is characterized by a holistic perception of the world and the unity of the rational and emotional principles in the worldview, which is manifested at the level of everyday culture in the form of traditional dishes. Keywords Japanese culture · Traditional cuisine · Table setting · Food presentation · Everyday culture

1 Introduction In modern scientific discourse, it is common to consider the culture in general and the culture of a particular community as a kind of system consisting of interrelated elements. Culture appears to be an ordered set of cultural forms that have developed in the practice and consciousness of human society. This applies to local cultural phenomena and broader cultural entities. Since this system is very complex and O. S. Shibiko (B) Komsomolsk-on-Amur State University, Komsomolsk-on-Amur, Russia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 S. G. Maximova et al. (eds.), Advances in Natural, Human-Made, and Coupled Human-Natural Systems Research, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 250, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-78083-8_46

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multifaceted, there are various approaches to identifying the constituent elements of this system. Culture of everyday life, usually including the culture of behavior, culture of work, culture of recreation, culture of food, and others, is one of the important elements of the culture of any community. Food culture, which includes products and methods of their cooking, dishes, various kitchen utensils, table setting, dish decoration, and rules of behavior during a meal, is one of the essential elements of the culture of everyday life of a particular cultural community. This is the richest source of information about the material culture of the studied ethnos and an important empirical basis for studying and understanding spiritual culture, in particular customs, traditions, norms and rules of behavior, mentality, and value attitudes of a particular community. This study aims at researching the visual aspect of traditional Japanese cuisine. Traditional Japanese cuisine, or washoku, a system of food cooking and eating specific to Japanese traditional culture, is the research object. The visual aspect of traditional Japanese cuisine comprising table setting, food design, and dish decoration is the research subject. The author sets the following research tasks to achieve the goal: (1) brief description of traditional Japanese cuisine and its main principles regarding visual presentation; (2) brief generalization of the major concepts of food presentation in traditional Japanese cuisine and their relation to cultural dominants; and (3) interpretation of significant features of the visual appearance of food from the perspective of its connection to underlying properties of traditional Japanese culture. In this paper, the author considers in more detail only the features of table setting and the design of Japanese dishes as typical examples of the visual aspect of traditional Japanese cuisine in the everyday culture of Japan. In 2013, traditional Japanese cuisine, denoted by the Japanese word washoku, was included in the UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage List, which reflects its importance for world culture and makes the study of its various aspects relevant and essential for modern science and practice.

2 Materials and Methods Cang (2019), Cwiertka (2008, 2018), Ehara (2017), Endo (2020), Farina (2018), Haas (2017), Kawasaki et al. (2015), Kohsaka (2017), Milligan (2006), Takahashi (2017), Walravens and Niehaus (2017) and some other authors have developed the issues related to the definition and interpretation of various aspects of Japanese cuisine in particular studies. At the same time, despite the elaboration of the problem in the aspect of gastronomy, nutrition, or building a business model of a Japanese cuisine restaurant, the problem of visual representation of traditional Japanese cuisine has not been studied in detail enough since the appearance of traditional Japanese cuisine (in fact, its visual aspect) is mentioned in most studies only in passing. This study aims to fill this gap by demonstrating which visual features are inherent in traditional Japanese cuisine and which features of traditional Japanese culture they reflect.

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To achieve the research goal, the author uses the generalization of available theoretical and empirical data on the specifics of table setting and the design of Japanese cuisine as the main visual characteristics of cuisine in contrast to the taste, nutritional, and other characteristics. Besides, the author uses information materials related to traditional Japanese cuisine, contained in various publications on Japanese culture, to study the visual aspect of traditional Japanese cuisine (Pronnikov and Ladanov 1996; Ovchinnikov 2011; Milligan 2006; Nagashima 2009; Gilyarova 2011; Moriyama and Doyle 2005). Moreover, the author uses the following research methods: (1) description of ways of setting tables and decorating dishes; (2) summarizing the available data on this issue; (3) interpretation of the materials cited from a cultural perspective; and (4) systematization of data related to table setting and dish decorating. The author uses a systematic approach to studying cultural phenomena and artifacts considered as significant elements of the studied cultural system (the system of traditional Japanese cuisine). As for the terms traditional Japanese cuisine and washoku, the author uses them synonymously. Within the paper, the author considers the traditional part of Japanese cuisine that goes back to ancient times, exists based on the traditions of the Japanese people, and has not been created in recent decades on the basis of the Western cooking standards.

3 Results During the research, the author finds that a combination of the principles of beauty, closeness to nature, and utility characterize traditional Japanese cuisine. These principles function in indissoluble unity and interconnection, constituting the complex and unique phenomenon of washoku. The visual aspect of traditional Japanese cuisine is represented by the implementation of the following essential concepts of visual representation: (1) necessity of a space; (2) aesthetics of combinations of opposites (the contrast); (3) tendency towards asymmetry (as opposed to the European tendency to the symmetry); and (4) harmony of color combinations. In addition, the visual appeal of Japanese cuisine in terms of the elegance of decoration and table setting plays an important role in the process of its spread in other countries (outside Japan) and acts as a kind of soft power tool. The appearance of traditional Japanese cuisine expresses the value of closeness to nature reflected in the desire to preserve the original texture of food, as well as the value of simplicity, uncomplicatedness, and naturalness. In the next section of the paper, the author considers these points in more detail.

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4 Discussion The obtained research results allow the author to presume that the visual aspect of traditional Japanese cuisine is closely related to the peculiarities of the perception of the beauty of the Japanese people since this key aesthetic category determines the trends, values, and standards regarding the appearance of traditional Japanese cuisine. Thus, the hypothesis proposed at the beginning of the paper is confirmed in the course of this study. Regarding the interpretation of the results obtained, the author states that the interpretation shown in the paper is reasonable and balanced when considering the wide context of knowledge about traditional Japanese culture in general and Japanese cooking in particular. The author considers an attempt to work with such abstract and ambiguous concepts as beauty and harmony as a relatively weak point of this research like many theoretical studies in the field of culture. One can inevitably encounter differences in the understanding and meaning of these highly abstract concepts. Nevertheless, the author believes that researchers should not abandon their attempts to investigate and understand these concepts that are key to culture and determine the existence of an individual and an entire nation. The stated research results are fully consistent with the results of related studies of Japanese cuisine and Japanese culture and do not contradict them. The author gives some examples that directly or indirectly confirm the results obtained in this study to prove this fact. Many cultural professionals from different countries note that special sensitivity to beauty characterizes the Japanese people. V. Pronnikov and I. Ladanov, researchers of Japanese culture, quote R. Tagore, an Indian writer, who visited Japan and said, “When I sat down on the mat by the window early at dawn, I realized that the Japanese were not only wonderful artists but they also turned all a human life in art” (Pronnikov and Ladanov 1996). One can agree that traditional Japanese culture has developed original ideas about beauty, which are of research interest, including understanding the features of appearance and visual representation of such a phenomenon of everyday culture as cuisine. Shinto, an ancient religion of the Japanese people defining the forces of nature, has played an essential role in forming the perception of the beauty of the surrounding world. Sacred rocks, stones, springs, waterfalls, and trees have been endowed with supernatural properties. Modern researchers note that even today, the Japanese perceive nature through the prism of Shinto as something that forms an inseparable part of their natural environment. Grigoryeva (1979) notes that the influence of Shinto on the attitude of the Japanese people is still very significant. Additionally, the development of Zen Buddhism in Japan beginning from the 12th–13th centuries has contributed to the strengthening of the cult of beauty since, within this religious doctrine, truth and beauty are almost identical concepts.

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A special attitude to beauty seeking to transform even everyday life into a kind of artistic oasis of being imbues all aspects of the life of the Japanese people. In Japanese culture, there is no clear division of objects into artistic and non-artistic. Ovchinnikov (2011) notes that in the understanding of the Japanese, anything (a vase or any everyday household item like a rice paddle or a teapot stand) should be simultaneously practical and beautiful. This fact means that for the Japanese, beauty is one of the most important values in artistic culture and art, and everyday life, where utilitarianism usually prevails. The uniqueness of Japanese cuisine attracts people from other countries and representatives of other cultures. It becomes a factor in the attractiveness of Japanese culture outside the Land of the Rising Sun and acts as an instrument of the so-called soft power of cultural conquest. After UNESCO included traditional Japanese cuisine into the list of Intangible Cultural Heritage, interest in it has only increased worldwide. However, during the 1990s and 2000s, even before the official inclusion in this list, interest in traditional Japanese cuisine existed outside of Japan, particularly in Europe, and European scholars have recorded this fact in scientific studies. For example, seven years before the inclusion of washoku in the UNESCO list, Milligan (2006), a British researcher, studied Japanese cultural presence in the form of cafes and restaurants serving traditional Japanese cuisine to their visitors in several European cities. There is no doubt that the appearance of Japanese dishes in terms of the elegance of decoration and table setting plays an important role in the process of its dissemination and acceptance by another culture. Interestingly, the special sensitivity of the Japanese to beauty is manifested in such a utilitarian sphere as cooking. H. Nagashima, a Japanese chef, confirms this idea, considering the practice of cutting food as a kind of decorative art. The culinary master notes this characteristic of Japanese culture in his book, “In Japan, taste and visual appeal go hand in hand to the table. Professional chefs and ordinary housewives attach great importance to the presentation of food as they consider it an important part of the meal experience” (Nagashima 2009, p. 7). The author takes a closer look at some of the principles of visual presentation of food adopted in traditional Japanese cuisine. Space in washoku is valued no less than filled space since it creates the background and the necessary air for the existence and perception of objects and is filled with the aroma of the food served. Therefore, plates are never filled to the brim, and food is usually placed freely using one or more layout styles. The conventional names of these styles are associated with traditional everyday practices, and natural objects and phenomena. Among these names, there are references to cedar, rice bales, nests, disorderly hills, and flat or scattered arrangements (Gilyarova 2011). Each of these styles has its distinctive features of creating a visually harmonious image and is complemented by recommendations as to which products and dishes it suits best. For example, the cedar style is used mainly for round bowls with relatively high edges for serving thin slices of white fish, while it is not suitable for redfish, which usually has a softer texture. The rice bale style is suitable for arranging food items of equal size and shape stacked in the form of a pyramid. As for the pieces of different shapes, the Japanese use the pile style striving for maximum naturalness and seeming artlessness.

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The very existence, and clear delineation and differentiation of food placement styles imply special attention paid to achieving the beauty of food presentation in preparing for a meal. In addition to this, when setting the table and decorating dishes, one considers the principles of contrast and asymmetry in terms of the arrangement of various products on one dish and the compatibility of dishes of different shapes and sizes. For example, one usually places a round mukozuke bowl not next to a round osika tray but with a square bowl located with an edge to it, which creates contrast and balances the combination of lines. Since all dishes are served immediately, different foods are placed far enough apart so that one can separately distinguish their aromas. One of the Japanese food tips states, “Before beginning to eat, admire the design” (Moriyama and Doyle 2005, p. 97). Not every culture has such a statement. As the author notes, a special attitude to beauty is a peculiarity of Japanese culture compared to the cultures of other countries. In particular, such phenomena as admiring flowers, especially sakura flowers, admiring the falling snow, and admiring the full moon, which have special terms in the Japanese language (hanami, yukimi, and tsukimi, respectively) express this attitude. Verbalization (i. e., the assignment of a particular name or a special word) to these phenomena testifies to their importance for culture and society in Japan. Despite the fact that in Japanese culture, admiration for food does not exist as a separate phenomenon and does not have a particular name, contemplation of the harmony of the appearance of the dishes served is an important part of a Japanese meal. The author notes that such an aesthetic attitude to food, to a certain extent, contributes to the feeling of comfort and peace, which is necessary while eating and has a beneficial effect on digestion and health. This is one of the principles, along with small portions and organic foods, especially seafood, that make the so-called Japanese diet popular in the West. The observations of experts confirm the idea of relationship and inextricable unity of beauty and taste in traditional Japanese cuisine. Thus, N. T. Fedorenko, a Russian orientalist, describes a traditional Japanese dish in his work Japanese Records as follows: Sashimi is served on a special dish, which is itself an artistic product. The Japanese attach great importance to this when following the table aesthetics. Sashimi is supposed to be served with tsuma—particular vegetables and seasonings. Tsuma not only decorates and creates a harmonic range of colors but also gives a variety of tastes. These are usually slices of fresh carrots, asparagus, green algae, chrysanthemum flowers, fresh cucumbers, and radishes. Sashimi without tsuma is considered a bad taste and a sign of vulgarity” (Fedorenko 1966, p. 111). Pufferfish (fugu), the use of which is associated with a certain degree of risk due to the poison it contains, is another dish of national Japanese cuisine. N. T. Fedorenko notes that despite the danger, the Japanese love "snow-white fugu meat served on artistically decorated dishes with blue or red ornamentation” (Fedorenko 1966). The remark about the color of the dish is not accidental since it indicates special attention with which the Japanese treat the harmonious combination of colors of food and dishes. Such a harmonious combination is often based on contrast: white rice with a matte surface is usually served in lacquered cups of black or red (in the latter case, it symbolizes a holiday).

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The author emphasizes that the above examples of the visual representation of Japanese dishes apply to meals for special occasions in specialized catering establishments, festive dishes, where the pursuit of beauty is characteristic of the cuisine in many other cultures, and daily practice at home. The included observation of the everyday life of an ordinary Japanese family confirms the thesis of a special attitude to beauty in everyday life, particularly in the field of nutrition manifested in the appearance of dishes cooked and served at the table. Studying the connection of the visual aspect of traditional Japanese cuisine with the traditional visual arts of Japan, primarily with the visual arts, may be one of the promising directions for the research continuation. It could be interesting to undertake an in-depth study of the general tendencies and principles of the construction and perception of a visual image in art and cooking and what features of Japanese culture determine these principles.

5 Conclusion The author draws the following conclusions based on the study. The visual aspect of traditional Japanese cuisine is interesting for cultural researchers due to the insufficient study of the visual representation of such an important sphere of life as food (cuisine and food culture). It is a utilitarian aspect that prevails in studying this area, where scholars usually pay more attention to the taste, nutritional, and organizational issues (in the case of public catering). In the case of traditional Japanese cuisine, the visual aspect is inseparable from other aspects due to the special sensitivity to the beauty inherent in traditional Japanese culture. Utility and beauty in everyday Japanese food culture are closely intertwined. They constitute a semantic unity and, in the opinion of the author, indicate the integrity of the perception of the world, and the unity of the rational and emotional components in the world outlook. The culture of the Japanese people, including at the level of everyday life, reflects the attitude to beauty as to the truth, a manifestation of the innermost essence of nature and life, and a successfully cultivated external form of objects. The author considers the research goal achieved as the paper covers the issue of the visual aspect of traditional Japanese cuisine. The findings confirm the research hypothesis stating that specific national attitude towards the concept of beauty interpreted under the influence of religious traditions of Shinto and Zen Buddhism, such as truth, life, and nature, largely determines the external presentation of food in traditional Japanese cuisine. The main principles of decorating dishes discussed in the paper result from this fundamental idea and are due to it. This statement opens a wide field for further research in various directions. A comprehensive study of the relationship between external expression and the internal content of cultural elements is promising for a deeper understanding of the mechanisms and patterns of the existence of culture as a system of the worldview

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of a particular community of people. This, in turn, is important for the scientific understanding of the socio-cultural development of society.

References Cang V (2019) Policing washoku: the performance of culinary nationalism in Japan. Food Foodways 27(3):232–252 Cwiertka K (2008a) Modern Japanese cuisine: food, power, and national identity. Reaktion Books, London, UK Cwiertka K (2018b) Serving the nation: the myth of Washoku. In: Cwiertka K, Machotka E (eds) Consuming life in post-bubble Japan: a transdisciplinary perspective. Amsterdam University Press, Amsterdam, Netherlands, pp 89–106 Ehara A (2017) What is “Washoku” on UNESCO’s intangible cultural heritage list? Its characteristics and promotion. J. Integr. Stud. Dietary Habits 28(1):3–5 Endo T (2020) Current issues in research on the diffusion of the Japanese cuisine. Jpn Market J 39(3):80–88 Farina F (2018) Japan’s gastrodiplomacy as soft power: global Washoku and national food security. J Contemp East Asia 17(1):152–167 Fedorenko N (1966) Japanese notes. Soviet Writer, Moscow, USSR Gilyarova I (ed) (2011) Japanese cuisine. Exmo-Press, Moscow, Russia Grigoryeva T (1979) Japanese artistic tradition. Science, Moscow, USSR Haas S (2017) The price of harmony: the ideology of Japanese cuisine. Gastronomica 17(2):1–4 Kawasaki H, Kasamatsu C, Nonaka M (2015) Cognitive structures based on culinary success factors in the development of new dishes by Japanese chefs at fine dining restaurants. Flavour 4(1). Retrieved from https://flavourjournal.biomedcentral.com/articles; https://doi.org/10.1186/20447248-4-1 Kohsaka R (2017) The myth of Washoku: a twisted discourse on the “uniqueness” of national food heritage. J Ethnic Foods 4(2):66–71 Milligan L (2006) Japanese cuisine and the Japanisation of Europe. Kontur 13. Retrieved from https://www.google.ru/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjJ_4rf tejsAhUhmYsKHV1KA-MQFjAAegQIBRAC&url=https%3A%2F%2Fkontur.au.dk%2Ffile admin%2Fwww.kontur.au.dk%2FOLD_ISSUES%2Fpdf%2Fkontur_13%2Flee_milligan.pdf& usg=AOvVaw2Pe7N499n3jViE6BzsyFgO Moriyama N, Doyle W (2005) Japanese women don’t get old or fat: secrets of my mother’s Tokyo kitchen. Delacorte Press, New-York Nagashima H (2009) The decorative art of Japanese food carving: elegant garnishes for all occasions. Kodansha, New York Ovchinnikov V (2011) Sakura and oak. Astrel, Moscow, Russia Pronnikov VA, Ladanov ID (1996) The Japanese (ethno-psychological essays), 3rd edn. ViM, Moscow, Russia Takahashi T (2017) Harmonious beauty of Japanese cuisine. J Integr Stud Dietary Habits 27(4):231– 236 Walravens T, Niehaus A (2017) Introduction: reconsidering Japanese food. In: Niehaus A, Walravens T (eds) Feeding Japan. Palgrave Macmillan, London, pp 1–16

Digit Versus Logos Anna A. Zwezdina

and Irina V. Lantsova

Abstract The paper addresses the issues of human thinking in the information world. An attempt is made to answer the question of whether the digit can replace the logos. Digital technologies make people’s lives more comfortable, and they often overlook the negative consequences behind them. In the classical paradigm, thinking means consciousness, logos, and language. It is possible to create a picture of the world, set tasks, and seek survival in the surrounding world. There is no consciousness in the information world. The person is not the subject; they do not think but calculate. People are sacrificing the logos for the digit. The paper notes how this provision is reflected in postmodern views on the world and the subject and argues that postmodernism is a reaction to the modern information society. The alienation of the subject in modernity is replaced by fragmentation and then by the death of the subject in postmodernism. The picture of the world is changing in the consciousness of the modern person. Consciousness becomes increasingly mosaic, and this fragmented knowledge forms a rhizome. The rhizomatic design of the internet influences the thinking of the modern person and gives rise to the mosaic, pluralism, and fragmentation of knowledge. Such a situation generates a clip consciousness, a product of hypertextuality, since hypertext became an expression of modern network culture. The hypertext of the internet became a reality; it is centralized because, in infinite links, the idea of centralization and integrity is blurred. The person gets used to this reality, feels comfortable in it, depends on it. The virtualization of consciousness occurs. Real relationships become secondary and irrelevant. Digital codes replace language forms. The world of information technology has both advantages and disadvantages, offering people great opportunities; however, it does not protect them from risks. Keywords Hypertext · Information society · Logos · Clip consciousness · Postmodernism · Rhizome · Digits

A. A. Zwezdina (B) · I. V. Lantsova National Research Irkutsk State Technical University, Irkutsk, Russia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 S. G. Maximova et al. (eds.), Advances in Natural, Human-Made, and Coupled Human-Natural Systems Research, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 250, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-78083-8_47

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A. A. Zwezdina and I. V. Lantsova

1 Introduction Information technologies are an essential part of modern life; they are beginning to play a crucial role in all areas of human life. The digital society is coming. The growing role of information technologies gave rise to a single global information space; people cannot imagine their lives without them. The World Wide Web has become an integral part of society. The internet is a global information network and a means of communication through which social networks are built within society. In the information society, people’s lives became much more manageable. Computers and robots are replacing people in routine and dangerous jobs. However, the abundance of information immerses people in a liquid environment. No one knows how people are supposed to live in such an environment without drowning. The postmodernists might be right (Bart 1989; Deleuze and Guattari 2010): the death of the subject is happening. All these factors require an assessment of the worldview position, which makes the study of this issue more relevant.

2 Materials and Methods In the information world, the preservation of a person as a unique personality is increasingly attracting the attention of modern researchers (Castels 2000). It is necessary to decide (1) what place a person occupies in this world; (2) how it is changing; (3) whether the person lose their identities; (4) if the digit can replace the logos. According to the classical paradigm, all thinking is consciousness, logos, and language. Verbal description allows one to form a picture of the world, set a task, find the means of human survival in the world. In the information world, there is no consciousness; there is person who does not think but calculates, because they are not a subject. People are sacrificing logos for a digit. The entry of a person into the postmodern period is associated with informatization processes that led to the postmodern vision of the world. The influence of electronic media on people’s consciousness, virtualization of the consciousness of the modern person drew people’s attention to postmodernism (Jameson 2019). Popular culture has also played a significant role; it increasingly erodes the standard of rationality, as it is primarily based on a metaphorical view of the world. The media also provide information in the form of a clip. A person of musical thought cannot put the pieces of knowledge into a single picture of the world (Frumkin 2010). Traveling in an infinite space, people are immersed in a virtual world, connected to a virtual hyperreality. Whether they retain their freedom and creativity is debatable. The study aims to show that the digital age generates unprecedented opportunities and risks. Humanity must not lose a person because of a digit. To achieve these goals, we use methods of systematic analysis of modern and postmodern literature, comparing it with the classical philosophical tradition. Based on the analysis of informatization and mass musical culture, we focus on their influence on the postmodern picture of the world.

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3 Results We believe that the philosophy of postmodernism was the reaction to the modern information society. Classical philosophy raised the question of alienation of the subject; but now, the issues of strictness, fragmentation, and finally, the death of the subject are becoming increasingly important. The subject is no longer outside the goal, as in Cartesian philosophy, but dissolves into it. There is no independence of the subject, no consciousness. Modern human thinking is also influenced by intelligent internet design. Immersed in the internet world, a person seems to merge with virtual reality. By engaging in the endless deconstruction of textual structures, consciousness assumes imitative qualities. A person moves independently in hypertext on the ladder of hypertext connections, thereby creating their information model of the world, giving it a particular meaning. In the age of information technologies and domination of network, clip consciousness, when digits replace logos, the question of the place and role of people in the world remains debatable. Today, people are experiencing changes in consciousness, in the way they think. This problem is complicated and essential but also quite controversial, which is reflected in the paper.

4 Discussion Lyotard (1998), in The State of Postmodern, associated the entry of society into the postmodern period with comprehensive informatization, which became one of the reasons for the change in the position of knowledge and gave rise to a new postmodern worldview. Turning into an agent of networks, an element of technology, a person ceases to be a subject, hence the idea of the death of the subject in postmodernism. The alienation of the subject in modernity is replaced by fragmentation and then the death of the subject in postmodernity. A person in postmodernism is torn, devoid of integrity. The cognitive subject is no longer outside but inside the studied world; it dissolves in the sign structures and expresses itself only through them. Human consciousness is like the sum of texts, and the transformation of the subject into a text makes it impossible to treat oneself as an integral and permanent entity. In such a case, one can observe the dependence on the language and text; there is no sovereignty of the subject, no independence of individual consciousness. Therefore, we cannot talk about freedom except the freedom of the click. Communication transforms into switching, and language is no longer needed. The end of the Word, “which was in possession of God,” and Man, declared by postmodernism in the twentieth century “the death of the subject,” is implemented in practice. Structuralism has already talked about the place of humans in culture and existence in general, proclaiming that values are created by structures, not by the subject, which later led to the proclamation of the death of the subject by postmodernism. Postmodernism proclaimed the blurring of the boundaries between actual and virtual

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reality, put forward the idea of rhizomatization and textualization of cultural space, leveling subjectivity and individuality, and finally, the idea of decentralization. From the perspective of postmodernism, a person is unconsciously conditioned in their thinking by language structure; therefore, independent individual existence is impossible. Hypercontextuality as the interpenetration of different areas of life and the variability of identity are also typical of postmodernism. All these facts clarify the idea of the death of the subject. The reason for these trends was the scientific and technical evolution of modern society, the transition from the logos to the digits. Thus, the ideas of postmodernism directly reflect the informatization of modern processes; this movement seeks to understand them in its terms and represents the worldview of the digital society. In the theory of the stages of the development of civilizations, M. McLuhan noted that with the development of electronic means of communication, human thinking returns to the pre-text period of its history. The linear sequence of signs ceases to be the basis of culture. A person loses the ability to understand longterm linear sequence, establish random relationships, and have reasonable reflexes (McLuhan 2005, p. 248). Such a situation stems from the processes associated with the changes in the consciousness of the modern person, since the old picture no longer corresponded to the understanding of the ongoing processes. The adaptation to new conditions gives rise to split consciousness. Knowledge is a mosaic and fragmented; it forms rhizomes instead of structures. The term rhizome was coined by the French post-structuralists, Deleuze and Guattari (2010). This term is the opposite of the concept of structure as a principle of organization. The rhizome is a system of branches without a single root. There is no centralization, order, or symmetry. As randomly intertwined branches and shoots, the rhizome fully corresponds to the thinking of a modern person. Rhizomatic thinking is non-linear and anarchic; it has a horizontal branching that creates new elements that comprise an interconnected variety rather than divisions of the whole. The internet has an intricate and anti-hierarchical structure, which corresponds to the heterogeneity of connections in rhizomorphic structures. We can say that the internet is a rhizome (Kozlova and Kinderknekht 2018). Such a design is reasonable; it affects the thinking of modern people. Now, there is no difference between the center and the periphery; the boundaries are blurred. The concept of the cultural core is meaningless. Classical philosophy was in constant search for the one, essential being and origin. As of today, the principle of diversity, equality of all cultures and their constituent elements becomes the leading one. The concept of truth as the relation of knowledge to objective reality is usually abandoned, and theories similar to Feyerabend’s epistemological anarchism appear. Eclectic, mosaic consciousness replaces traditional consciousness, since, according to F. I. Girenok, conceptual thinking can no longer reflect modern reality (Girenok 2016). The current fragmentation and pluralism of knowledge reflect the reality of clips. The term video thinking originated at the turn of the twentieth and twenty-first centuries. It was widely presented by the American sociologist Toffler (2002), who was one of the first to draw attention to the saturation of the modern world with information flows. All the information flow in its various forms falls on people.

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With the accelerated pace of life and ever-increasing flow of information, modern people demand that new information be obtained as quickly as possible. The number of cases that it processes simultaneously is growing, provoking clip consciousness as a protective mechanism against information and psychological overload. One can read a lot, spend much time on the internet, and communicate a lot; however, they do it not to understand the events and phenomena of the surrounding world, but to stay informed. It is difficult for them to understand the world as a whole. As a result, they have only scraps of information that they can never put together. Scattered meaningless fragments set in the brain, quickly pick up new information. With the accelerated pace of life and lack of time, they become simulacra, and the number of activities that a person is engaged in simultaneously meets only their immediate needs. A person with clip consciousness can have unsystematic and superficial knowledge in various fields. The human body can adapt to any changes in the external environment, including the information flow. The person adapts to the technology created by them and copies analog systems choosing information by keywords, tags, and symbols. S. V. Savelyev noted that people adjust algorithms and become their slaves (Savelyev 2016). One might think that there is nothing wrong with such thinking; nonetheless, it can limit the person’s ability to logical thinking. As a result of the abundance of information, reflex skills are gradually lost. In the end, in a difficult situation, people cannot make decisions. The ability to think critically is gradually lost. A person begins to think not by logical connections of concepts, but by situations and emotions, one after another. People often come to hasty conclusions, since such thinking requires rapid processing of information and does not involve thoughtfulness and concentration. The ability to remember is also reduced, as the person is forced to process various unrelated and diverse fragments quickly. As a result, the brain processes outdated information, preparing to start processing new data, increasing the short-term memory and decreasing the long-term memory. The World Wide Web connects the world through the introduction of mass culture; thus, attitudes are formed that cannot consider the world as a whole. We can say that popular culture is the primary source of clip consciousness. This fact is the reason why the younger generation has a hard time adapting to systemic rational thinking, if at all. The standards of rationality are blurred. A person is increasingly inclined to an imaginative view of the world at the expense of rationality. If words dominate the left hemisphere of the human brain, then it is responsible for logic; they operate with logos. This revenge of the right hemisphere is unfolding before our eyes. The person of the digit replaces the person of the logos. The media, which provided information in the form of clips, played a significant role in the development of clip consciousness without context. There is a flow of separate facts that are difficult to reconcile. Such a lack of context is typical of clip consciousness. In holistic thinking, the individual has a context. In the process of manipulation, a person with video thinking is more vulnerable due to the lack of logic.

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A. A. Kalmykov notes that clip consciousness is not an essential feature, but only a product of a phenomenon of a more profound nature—hypertextuality (Kalmykov 2007a, b). Hypertext becomes an expression of network culture. As a result, the information tends to be redundant, subject to endless interpretations, copying, spreading, and commenting. The method of numerous references, intertextual quotations, assuming ownership of previously transmitted messages becomes the primary information functioning method. Hypertext is a text associated with links to other texts. Therefore, they can be read in different directions. Hypertext is a form of organization of the material, presented not linearly and sequentially, but as a system of transitions to other possible links and texts. Moving along these links, the material can be read in any order, forming a kind of rhizome. In the works of the French philosophers Bart, Deleuze, and Guattari (Bart 1989; Deleuze and Guattari 2010), the concept of hypertext became widespread. These authors pay great attention to electronic means of mass communication in the information attack on the mass consciousness, in the immersion of a person in virtual reality. Such an information space introduced the computer to man; it cannot be described without appealing to postmodern ideas. The use of hypertext as a modern means of communication is associated with the peculiarities of communication development. The use of a computer is associated with an increase in the volume of information, since the previous methods of storing and transmitting information no longer meet the needs of modern society. Large volumes of texts allow one to store them on a computer and transmit them over any distance. Many complementary knowledge structures are resulting in a loss of perception integrity. Such a set of knowledge elements forms a tile that does not correspond to hierarchical structures requiring flexible network structures, such as hypertext. A person is immersed in virtual reality in an infinite hypertext space, intertwined with a virtual hyperreality. Their mind, busy with the endless deconstruction of textual structures, becomes increasingly imitative. The subject is already a part of the simulacrum, and their point of view distorts and transforms the latter. The hypertext of the internet is becoming a reality. It is decentered, as the idea of centralization and wholeness is blurred in infinite connections. The subject independently moves along the hypertext connection chain in hypertext, creating its own information model of the universe and its meaning. Uncertainty and nonlinearity, as well as the gaps in the transitions, create a new quality that does not logically follow from the form and content of the text, a new type of consciousness: clip-based and fragmented. The virtual space of the World Wide Web knows no boundaries and borders; hypertext is limitless. V. V. Mironov compares this space of global communication with the modern cave of Plato, where people look at the shadows of fire, taking it for the actual world. Besides, V. V. Mironov noted, “Modern humans no longer see shadows as reflections of real objects, but rather images created by modern technology that are difficult to distinguish from reality. In fact, this is a different type of reality” (Mironov 2019, p. 13). A person gets used to this reality, feels comfortable in it, depends on it. As Mironov exactly said, this is a global digital

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cave. Virtualization of consciousness occurs. Real relationships become secondary and irrelevant. The younger generation lives on the web; they are tied to virtual reality. The term look-down generation appeared. Human nature is changing, less and less connected with responsibility or moral choice. A person becomes an extension or part of their computers. Digital codes are replacing language forms, and more and more people are communicating with them. They also determine the dynamics of the world picture and the socialization of the person. Digital technologies make people’s lives more comfortable, and the negative consequences are rarely recognized. There is no need to absolutize information technologies; it is only one of the tools, and it depends on the person how they will use them. One should monitor the development of digital technologies so that the digit would not lose the person, contributing to their growth and comprehensive development.

5 Conclusion We examined how the postmodern worldview developed in the second half of the twentieth century and how it influenced the thinking of modern people. We stressed that the digital age provides people with unlimited opportunities and many problems at the same time. The essential task is not to lose the logos and the person as the pinnacle of creation, as well as not to throw the baby out with the bathwater. There is no need to turn information technology into a universal tool and the ultimate solution to all human existence problems. Recent transhumanism ideas with its posthumanism concept only add fuel to the fire, and modern metamodernism shows us that the problem is not that simple (Van den Acker 2019). The place of humans in the global digital world and their thinking require further research.

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