About Tell Tweini (Syria): Artefacts, Ecofacts and Landscape: Research Results of the Belgian Mission (Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta) 9042936789, 9789042936782

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O R I E N TA L I A L OVA N I E N S I A A N A L E C TA About Tell Tweini (Syria): Artefacts, Ecofacts and Landscape Research Results of the Belgian Mission

edited by JOACHIM BRETSCHNEIDER and GRETA JANS

P E E T ERS

ABOUT TELL TWEINI (SYRIA): ARTEFACTS, ECOFACTS AND LANDSCAPE

ORIENTALIA LOVANIENSIA ANALECTA ————— 281 —————

ABOUT TELL TWEINI (SYRIA): ARTEFACTS, ECOFACTS AND LANDSCAPE Research Results of the Belgian Mission

edited by

JOACHIM BRETSCHNEIDER and GRETA JANS

PEETERS LEUVEN – PARIS – BRISTOL, CT 2019

A catalogue record for this book is available from the Library of Congress. © 2019, Peeters Publishers, Bondgenotenlaan 153, B-3000 Leuven/Louvain (Belgium) All rights reserved, including the rights to translate or to reproduce this book or parts thereof in any form. ISBN 978-90-429-3678-2 eISBN 978-90-429-3880-9 D/2019/0602/83

TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS .

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VII

PREFACE .

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JOACHIM BRETSCHNEIDER, GRETA JANS, ANNE-SOPHIE VAN VYVE, HENDRIK HAMEEUW AND KLAAS VANSTEENHUYSE Tell Tweini: A Long Story Short . . . . . . . . . . .

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CAROLINE SAUVAGE AND GRETA JANS Clay Loom Weights of the Iron Age Period at Tell Tweini Field A

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NICOLLE HIRSCHFELD, GRETA JANS AND JOACHIM BRETSCHNEIDER (WITH BART STEUTELINGS) Potmarks from Tell Tweini Field A . . . . . . . . . . .

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THE CONTRIBUTION OF

TZVETA MANOLOVA AND JOACHIM BRETSCHNEIDER An Unprecedented Depiction of a Syro-Canaanite Oared Galley on a Jar Sealing from Tell Tweini . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 JOACHIM BRETSCHNEIDER AND GRETA JANS The Glyptic of Tell Tweini Field A . .

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VANESSA BOSCHLOOS Tell Tweini on the Syrian Coast from a Beetle’s Point of View: Bronze and Iron Age Scarabs from the Belgian Excavations . . . 181 GRETA JANS AND JOACHIM BRETSCHNEIDER (WITH THE CONTRIBUTION OF IPHIGENIA MOEDER AND HENDRIK HAMEEUW) A Collective Middle Bronze Age II Tomb at Tell Tweini Field A 201 JAN BAETEN Lipid Biomarker Analysis of Middle Bronze Age Grave Vases from Tell Tweini Field A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 KLAAS VANSTEENHUYSE The Ceramic Material from the Middle Bronze Age Communal Grave at Tell Tweini Field A . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255 SARAH VILAIN (WITH THE CONTRIBUTION OF KLAAS VANSTEENHUYSE) The Bronze Age Cypriot Pottery from Tell Tweini Field A . .

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KARIN NYS The Iron Age Cypriot Pottery from Tell Tweini Field A .

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VI

TABLE OF CONTENTS

VEERLE LINSEELE, ELENA MARINOVA, BEA DE CUPERE, JAN VAN DER VALK, PATRICIA VANDORPE AND WIM VAN NEER Bronze and Iron Age Palaeo-Economy in a Changing Environment. The Bioarchaeology of Tell Tweini, on the Northern Levantine Coast . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417 CECILE BAETEMAN AND FRIEDA BOGEMANS In Search of a Harbour in the Past Landscapes of Tell Tweini. Identification of Sedimentary Environments in Support of an Archaeological Issue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 619 PATRICK DEGRYSE AND KLAAS VANSTEENHUYSE Annex: Petrographic Characterisation of the Ceramic Fabric Groups at Tell Tweini . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 639

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Between 1999 and 2010, Tell Tweini and its surroundings have been the focus of an extensive archaeological research project, directed by the Syrian Directorate-General of Antiquities and Museums and the KU Leuven, Belgium. First and foremost, it is to our many Syrian colleagues that we would like to express our gratitude. We especially thank the successive Directors-General, Bassam Jamous and Maamoun Abdulkarim, for the permission and encouragement to excavate at Tell Tweini, and for their vision and their belief in the significance of the project. The steadfast support and help of our Syrian partners and friends – our co-director Michel al-Maqdissi and our co-field director Massaoud Badawi – made this endeavour in Syria a most pleasant one. In addition, we would like to thank our Syrian friends in Jebleh and at ‘AlFouar’: Abu Said and his family and neighbours, and our devoted workmen. We also hope to meet with our other neighbour Dr. Assam and his family soon as well as with Abdallah, who continuously came up with creative solutions for diverse challenges. We sincerely hope that days of peace, safety and understanding will not only be in our hopes but will become reality very soon … Our gratitude is extended to the consecutive rectors of the KU Leuven – André Oosterlinck, Marc Vervenne and Mark Waer – for their support of this project in the Near East. We are indebted to our colleagues Paul De Boeck, former head of the Research Council and to Ludo Melis, Luk Draye and Jo Tollebeek, former Deans and present Dean of the Faculty of Arts, for their generosity and their invaluable help. And of course, we want to thank Karel Van Lerberghe, who initiated the Tweini Project. We also acknowledge the University of Ghent, where Joachim Bretschneider found a new base in 2014 from where he was able to continue the Tweini research and to initiate a new venture at the site of Pyla-Kokkinokremos in Cyprus, which is directly correlated to the transitional Late Bronze - Early Iron Age period of Tell Tweini. We are grateful to the following institutions for their financial support for the field research at Tell Tweini and the associated study: the Onderzoeksfonds KU Leuven, the Fonds voor Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek and the Belgian Science Policy Office – BELSPO in the framework of the Interuniversity Attraction Poles (IAP). The research and compilation of the manuscript for this final publication were made possible through a generous grant from The Shelby White and Leon

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Levy Program for Archaeological Publications. We hope it may prove worthy of their generosity and trust. Bert Verrept of Peeters Publishers has guided us through the process of preparing the manuscript for publication with laudable patience. By extension, we would like to show our sincere gratitude to all the team members of the 1999-2010 campaigns at Tweini (see the list below). We have thoroughly enjoyed all co-operations and conversations with colleagues – historians, archaeologists, geologists, physical anthropologists, archaeozoologists, paleobotanists and many others too numerous to name individually. Furthermore, we are grateful to the committed group of students who spent many hours on the field as well as behind the desk to register and document all finds. All these people on and beside the field dedicated a lot of their time, energy and expertise to the Tweini Project. It is a pleasure to thank them all. Nonetheless, a few hard-core team members earn a special word of thank you. Hendrik Hameeuw (2004-2009) realized most of the Tweini Field A plans and was our Delphi oracle for any digital related (and other) issues. Klaas Vansteenhuyse (2001-2006, 2010) performed his function as Tweini ceramologist in an excellent manner. Without the logistics and food preparations of our friend Wim Verhulst (2004-2010) the excavation campaigns would have been only half as enjoyable as they have been. And last but certainly not least, our colleague and dear friend Anne-Sophie Van Vyve (2007-2010) who was kind enough to spend her limited time proofreading the English in our articles as well as correct inconsistencies and offer constructive feedback and unwavering support at any time. Thank you, Danku, Danke!!! Joachim Bretschneider and Greta Jans Leuven, spring 2019.

MEMBERS OF THE TELL TWEINI EXCAVATION CAMPAIGNS

1999 Director: Karel Van Lerberghe; Field Director: Joachim Bretschneider; Team: Tim Cunningham, Bea De Cupere, Harald Röhsa, Patricia Vandorpe; Students: Bart Bouve, Heidi Trappeniers, Anne Verbrugge 2000 Director: Karel Van Lerberghe; Field Director: Joachim Bretschneider; Team: Karl-Heinz Bäumler, Tim Cunningham, Greta Jans, Harald Röhsa 2001 Director: Karel Van Lerberghe; Field Director: Joachim Bretschneider; Team: Karl-Heinz Bäumler, Nic Cairns, Tim Cunningham, Frank Duchene, Greta Jans, Harald Röhsa, Patricia Vandorpe, Nele Vangompel, Klaas Vansteenhuyse, Benedikt Verstraete; Students: Céline Simonet, Joke Vansweevelt 2002 Director: Karel Van Lerberghe; Team: Karl-Heinz Bäumler, Frans Depuydt, Annemie Goyens, Greta Jans, Griet Janssens, Kim Nuyts, Patricia Vandorpe, Klaas Vansteenhuyse, Benedikt Verstraete, Gabriella Voet; Students: Karolien Hellemans, Joke Vansweevelt, Isabel Van Winkel 2004 Director: Karel Van Lerberghe; Field Director: Joachim Bretschneider; Team: Patrick Degryse, Hendrik Hameeuw, Ludo Hameeuw, Greta Jans, Etienne Paulissen, Rita Van de Ginste, Bruno Vandermeulen, Patricia Vandorpe, Klaas Vansteenhuyse, Joke Vansweevelt, Wim Verhulst, Gabriella Voet; Students: Tom Breugelmans, Karolien Hellemans, Gudrun Labiau, Kris Lemmens, Hendrik Uleners, Pascale Zintzen; Geophysical prospection: Stefan Giese, Birthe Hemeier, Wolf-Christian Hübner 2005 Director: Karel Van Lerberghe; Field Director: Joachim Bretschneider; Team: Frans Depuydt, Anna Goyens, Hendrik Hameeuw, Greta Jans, Kim

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MEMBERS OF THE TELL TWEINI EXCAVATION CAMPAIGNS

Nuyts, Saraa Saleh, Bruno Vandermeulen, Klaas Vansteenhuyse, Joke Vansweevelt, Wim Verhulst, Benedikt Verstraete, Gabriella Voet; Students: Evy Cuypers, Liesje De Haes, Jasmien Hunaerts, Marijke Marsoul, Jan-Willem Ravyst, Katrien Van De Vijver 2006 Director: Karel Van Lerberghe; Field Director: Joachim Bretschneider; Team: Evy Cuypers, Hendrik Hameeuw, Greta Jans, Veerle Linseele, Saraa Saleh, François-Xavier Ricaut, Klaas Vansteenhuyse, Wim Verhulst, Gabriella Voet; Students: Liesje De Haes, Elise Duflou, Hendrik Uleners, Bart Vandeweerdt 2007 Director: Karel Van Lerberghe; Field Director: Joachim Bretschneider; Team: Bram Bortolin, Evy Cuypers, Hendrik Hameeuw, Greta Jans, Veerle Linseele, Bart Muës, François-Xavier Ricaut, Hendrik Uleners, Bruno Vandermeulen, Gabriella Voet; Students: Tom Brughmans, Elise Duflou, Sarah Hertoghs, Saskia Hornickx, Karolien Senica, Anne-Sophie Van Vyve 2008 Director: Joachim Bretschneider; Team: Cecile Baeteman, Evy Cuypers, Hendrik Hameeuw, Vanessa Heyvaert, Stijn Hüwels, Greta Jans, David Kaniewski, Elena Marinova, Georg Neumann, Etienne Paulissen, Karolien Senica, Pierre Vanhecke, Anne-Sophie Van Vyve, Wim Verhulst, Jan Walstra; Students: Elynn Goris, Loes Nijsmans, Hendrik Uleners 2009 Director: Joachim Bretschneider; Team: Cecile Baeteman, Evy Cuypers, Maarten Gernaey, Hendrik Hameeuw, Vanessa Heyvaert, Stijn Hüwels, Greta Jans, Veerle Linseele, Rudolf Meyer-Bremen, Karmen Middernacht, Karin Nys, Margaret Thomas, Kathleen Vandenbrande, Anne-Sophie Van Vyve, Wim Verhulst, Jan Walstra, Olivier Wambacq; Students: Elynn Goris, Ellen Van Belle 2010 Director: Joachim Bretschneider; Team: Tom Boiy, Peter Cosyns, Bea De Cupere, Maarten Gerneay, Greta Jans, Reinhard Jung, David Kaniewski, Karin Nys, Els Van Brussel, Jan van der Valk, Klaas Vansteenhuyse, Anne-Sophie Van Vyve, Wim Verhulst; Students: Sam Donvil, Elynn Goris, Wim Knaepen, Loes Nijsmans, Hendrik Uleners, Ellen Van Belle

PREFACE Since the Syrian war erupted in 2011, the yearly missions at Tell Tweini conducted by the University of Leuven in collaboration with the Syrian Department of Antiquities have halted. Our continuous research of the prodigious amount of data available however, has not. Over the past years the research team has focused on the study of particular groups of artefacts, ecofacts and landscape, resulting in new and exciting insights on various aspects of the settlement of Tell Tweini presented in this book. A comprehensive stratigraphic and ceramological analysis had to be adjourned since the ongoing war conditions in Syria. The expected continuation of instability in the region withhold the team from accessing architectural remains on site as well as the ceramic depots. Two possible options were considered: 1) Rescheduling this publication project until accessibility to the site and depots would be granted – in consequence delaying the publication to an unpredictable time in the future. 2) Adapt the focus of the publication to more ‘restricted’ topics concerning the material culture and environmental research for which most of the data is available in our documentation in Belgium and for which on site reassessment is not as crucial to gain adequate conclusions. After careful consideration, we opted for the second approach. An outline of Tell Tweini in general and of the architectural, stratigraphical, ceramological and chronological data in particular can be found in a number of former publications.1 Concerning this publication, we are aware of the preliminary and/or fractional character of some of the research domains discussed here but we nevertheless want to disclose the data hoping that these contributions – in anticipation of more profound studies in the future – will add to the growing knowledge concerning the archaeology of the Jebleh plain and the Northern Levant.

1 For more information concerning the excavations at Field A, see: Bretschneider et al. 2014; 2012, 2011; Bretschneider and Van Lerberghe 2008; Vansteenhuyse 2010a. A concise overview of the archaeological features from different levels excavated at Field A is presented in the first article.

TELL TWEINI: A LONG STORY SHORT Joachim BRETSCHNEIDER1, Greta JANS2, Anne-Sophie VAN VYVE1,2, Hendrik HAMEEUW2,1 and Klaas VANSTEENHUYSE3 1

Ghent University - Department of Archaeology 2 KU Leuven - Near Eastern Studies 3 UC Leuven-Limburg

INTRODUCTION1 The fertile Syrian coastal plain of Jebleh is situated south of the modern port of Lattakia. The commercial routes traversing the Jebel Ansariyeh connected this region with the Orontes valley and the Syrian heartland, forming a junction between the Mediterranean and Mesopotamia (Fig. 1). During the Late Bronze Age the centre of the region was the city of Ras Shamra/Ugarit, 40 km to the north of Tell Tweini and capital of the Kingdom of Ugarit. Its location has led scholars such as von Soldt to believe that Tell Tweini should be identified as ancient Gibala, the southernmost harbour of the Ugaritic Kingdom, close to the border of Sianu. Gibala was first mentioned in tablets from Ugarit from the 13th century BCE.2 Tweini is located just outside the limits of the modern town of Jebleh, 1.5 km from the sea, at the junction of two rivers, the Rumeilah and the Al-Fouar. The first and largest flows directly from the tell towards a sandy cove at the northern end of Jebleh.3 As the mouth of the Rumeilah seems to have been quite narrow, Cécile Baeteman and Frieda Bogemans infer that this area accommodated an inner harbour where seagoing ships anchored at the shoreline and 1 Over the past years the research team has focused on the study of particular groups of artefacts, ecofacts and landscape, resulting in new and exciting insights on various aspects of the settlement of Tell Tweini presented in this book. This introductory article offers a concise overview of the archaeological features from different levels excavated at Field A. We wish to express our gratitude to several colleagues. The plans were drawn by Hendrik Hameeuw, Benedikt Verstraete, Ludo Hameeuw, Bram Bortolin, Saraa Saleh and Maarten Gernaey, the geophysical map (Fig. 2) was made by Giese, Grubert and Hübner GbR, the field photos were taken by Joachim Bretschneider, Bruno Vandermeulen and Greta Jans, the ceramics were registered and studied by Klaas Vansteenhuyse, Reinhard Jung, Karin Nys and Sarah Vilain, the practical organisation of each excavation campaign was executed by Greta Jans, the supervision and organisation of documenting the finds was managed by Greta Jans and Anne-Sophie Van Vyve. Last but not least, we thank all the team members of the 1999-2010 excavation campaigns at Tell Tweini, who meticulously dug up and registered each stone, wall, room and building as well as the ceramics and objects. 2 van Soldt 2005. 3 The former hypothesis of a sea incursion in the Bronze Age (see Bretschneider and Van Lerberghe, 16, Ill. 8) has to be abandoned.

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reshipped their load on flat draft boats that were equipped to navigate the shallow waters.4 Several springs in the proximity of the tell, provided the population with necessary freshwater. Tell Tweini (35°22′17.93″N, 35°56′12.60″E), with a surface area of about 11.6 hectares, is one of the largest mounds within the Jebleh plain. The tell is pear-shaped with the narrow tip pointing west, and rises about 15 to 20 meters above the surrounding fields (Fig. 2). The tell’s top surface varies between 19 and 27 meters above sea level. The absence of archaeological material within the neighbouring fields suggests that the full extent of the settlement had been limited to the area of the tell throughout the different periods. The site has been excavated between 1999 and 2010 by a Syrian-Belgian team, under the direction of Michel Al-Maqdissi of the Syrian Directorate-General of Antiquities and Museums (DGAM), and Karel Van Lerberghe and Joachim Bretschneider on behalf of the Department of Near Eastern Studies from the University of Leuven (KU Leuven). Work was concentrated on three areas of the tell: Field A (KU Leuven), Field B (DGAM) and Field C (KU Leuven). These fields yielded a stratigraphy comprised of eleven strata; with research on Field A producing a full and uninterrupted archaeological sequence from the Early Bronze Age IV (ca. 2400 BCE) until the Iron Age III period (ca. 500 BCE), making Tell Tweini a key site for the Northern Levant concerning ceramic sequences and architectural stratification in the Bronze and Iron Age. Field B at the western plateau generated an Iron Age temple amongst other buildings.5 Field C, at the eastern edge of the tell, yielded parts of a massive city wall. Lacking sufficient historical records from Tell Tweini, we solely rely on stratigraphic information of the excavation in combination with ceramics to assist in the reconstruction of the town’s history. The stratigraphy of the tell consists of a number of phases valid for the entire tell. These correspond with one or more levels in the various fields. As previously stated, eleven levels have been discerned in Field A, most of which coincide with a cultural period, starting with the end of the Early Bronze Age. The authors would like to specify that the description of the stratigraphical levels at Tell Tweini provides a relative chronology for the site first and foremost. Several of the absolute dates presented here are supported by 14C dates from the site. Most dates stem from analogies with ceramic assemblages from other sites (of which some have obtained absolute dates for their stratigraphic levels).

4

Baeteman and Bogemans in this volume. During the two first campaigns (1999-2000) the area of Field B was excavated by a joined Belgian-Syrian team. The preliminary results of these campaigns are published in Bretschneider et al. 2000. See also Al-Maqdissi et al. 2010. 5

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TELL TWEINI: A LONG STORY SHORT

Table 1: Phases of Tell Tweini. In counting our stratigraphic levels from the top down – with the modern surface as Level 1 – ‘B’ denotes the initial construction phase of an architectural level and ‘A’ marks the actual use/occupation of this level (or D and C etc.).

1918 –

Modern Ottoman

Phases of Tweini

Field A

Tweini I B Tweini I A (19e c. AD)

Level 1

1516 –

Level 2

Islamic 636 – Byzantine

Tweini II

Roman

Tweini III

Hellenistic

Tweini IV

AD 395 – BCE 64 – 333 –

Iron Age III

400 –

(Persian Achaemenid

500 –

Period)

600 –

Level 3

Level 4AB Tweini V A-B

Iron Age III

Level 5AB

700 – 800 –

Iron Age II

Tweini VI A-B

Level 6AB Level 6CD

900 – 1000 –

Tweini VII B

Level 6EF

Tweini VII A

Level 6GH

Tweini VIII B

Level 7ABC

Iron Age I 1100 – 1200 – Late Bronze Age II B 1300 – 1400 –

Late Bronze Age II A

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1500 –

Phases of Tweini

Field A

Late Bronze Age I

Tweini VIII A

Level 7DE

Middle Bronze Age II

Tweini IX B

Level 8AB

Middle Bronze Age I

Tweini IX A

Level 8CD

Early Bronze Age IVB

Tweini X B

Level 9AB

Early Bronze Age IVA

Tweini X A

Level 10

Early Bronze Age III

Tweini XI

Level 11?

1600 – 1700 – 1800 – 1900 – 2000 – 2100 – 2200 – 2300 – 2400 – 2500 – 2600 –

The Early Bronze Age IV Period – Level 10-9 (ca. 2400-2000 BCE) During the later Early Bronze Age, the littoral area of Syria experienced the transition from agriculturally based to complex urban societies. So far, no evidence of the earliest periods of the Early Bronze Age have been unearthed at Tweini. The site seems to have been settled during the Early Bronze Age IV period when structures were built on top of the limestone plateau. A sequence of two main architectural levels (Level 10 and 9) includes mudbrick constructions. Since these occupation levels are only observed in limited soundings (Fig. 3), urban structures and other archaeological information from this era remains scarce.6 The Middle Bronze Age Period – Level 8 (ca. 2000-1600 BCE) (Figs. 3-5) As with the Early Bronze Age, the Middle Bronze Period has only been excavated to a limited extent (Fig. 3). Nevertheless, two occupation phases (Level 8CD and Level 8AB) can be assigned to the first half of the second millennium BCE (Fig. 4). The exposed structures demonstrate stone floors, 6

For the Early Bronze Age ceramics: see Vansteenhuyse 2008, 103-105.

TELL TWEINI: A LONG STORY SHORT

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beneath which tombs were installed, ranging from simple earth graves, to jar burials and chamber tombs.7 All burials were implemented within the confines of domestic structures, traditional for this period. A monumental collective tomb is considered as one of the most exceptional finds from this period. It contained the skeletons of 58 individuals, dated to the Middle Bronze Age IIB/C (ca. 1700 BCE), based on numerous grave goods such as well-preserved ceramic vessels, bronze pins, a cylinder seal and a figurine.8 A number of Cypriot ceramics9 – which were not only found in the tomb, but also in its fill layers – underline the mercantile relations between Cyprus and the Levant during this period. Syrian harbour towns like Tweini were favoured by merchants from the Mediterranean and the heartland to exchange their goods. At the eastern edge of the tell, the imposing and monumental remnants of the city wall (Field C) were uncovered over a length of 40 m and reached a maximum preserved height of over 5 m. Today the wall still rises high above the adjoining fields (Fig. 5). Even though there currently is no conclusive evidence, there are indications that this wall was erected in the first half of the 2nd millennium BCE.10 The Late Bronze Age – Level 7 (ca. 1600-1200 BCE) (Figs. 6-8) The Late Bronze Age represents a dynamic period of international trade and great prosperity in the Eastern Mediterranean. The Levant operated as a vigorous crucible in which concepts, technologies, materials, wares and ideologies converged. Egyptian, Mediterranean, Hittite and Syro-Mesopotamian influences were integrated within the local societies and resulted in the formation of new cultural identities.11 The regional settlements were able to sustain this growing, commercial network in relative peace, undeterred by existing political difficulties or the diplomatic and economic shifts within the empires to the north and south.12 The north-western Levant was initially under Egyptian influence and included the territory of Ugarit and consequently the Gibala region.13 As of the second half of the 14th century BCE, however, Ugarit and several other small kingdoms became vassals of the Hittite Kingdom as a result of the Hittite expansion.

7

Hameeuw et al. 2009, Hameeuw and Jans 2008. See Jans and Bretschneider, and Vansteenhuyse in this volume. 9 See Vilain in this volume; Nys and Middernacht 2011. 10 The investigation of the city wall was limited to a short timespan so far; future research within this area was scheduled, but could not be conducted due to the political situation in Syria. 11 Akkermans and Schwartz 2003, 329. 12 Akkermans and Schwartz 2003, 327; Klengel 1992, 84. 13 Singer 1999, 603-733. 8

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During the Late Bronze Age II period (14th and 13th century BCE), Tell Tweini was integrated in the Ugaritic Kingdom as its southernmost harbour and is mentioned as Gibala for the first time in the treaty between Niqmepa, king of Ugarit and the Hittite king Muršili II.14 Several soundings in Field A illustrate a stratigraphy of two occupation levels for the Late Bronze Age: Level 7DE and Level 7BC and one destruction level; Level 7A. The oldest phase, Level 7DE (Late Bronze Age I), was only recognized within the deep sounding in Field A (in squares E3, F3 and F4) (Fig. 6). Cypriote Base-Ring Ware I, White Slip I and Red Lustrous Wheelmade Ware were associated with partially excavated stone constructions within this level.15 The vast occupation of Level 7BC is exemplified by large sized buildings with stone pavements, occasionally constructed on different terraces (Fig. 7-8). Similar features occurred at the end of the Late Bronze Age II at Ugarit. The walls of the buildings in Level 7BC are partly new and of substantial dimensions. Besides local ware, this level produced a wide range of Cypriote and Late Helladic ceramics.16 Noteworthy objects are a number of cylinder seals, a bronze ring with Hieroglyphic-Luwian inscription and a bifacial seal with an inscription in Hieroglyphic-Luwian.17 The numerous imports found in the Late Bronze Age levels at Tell Tweini confirm the existence of an elaborate network of international relations and commercial activities. The material culture of the latest phase of the Late Bronze Age at Tweini (Level 7BC) equivalents that of Ugarit. Around 1200 BCE, presumably shortly before the destruction of Ugarit, some parts of the site of Tweini seem to have been damaged by fire. Stratigraphic evidence at Field A shows hints of unrest with a layer of ashes (ca. 5 to 25 cm) superimposing the ruins of various Late Bronze Age buildings (Level 7A).18 This may have been valid for other areas of the tell as well but heavy construction activities during Iron Age II have generated fill layers often resembling destruction layers and often obliterating older evidence. Additionally, the Late Bronze Age buildings were frequently laid out on terraces flattened during the Iron Age. Comparable destruction layers have been unearthed at Ugarit and the capital of this great kingdom vanished forever.19 14

van Soldt 1997, 696; Singer 1999, 662-666. See Vilain in this volume and Vansteenhuyse 2008, 107-108. 16 For the Cypriot ceramic, see Vilain in this volume. For the Late Helladic pottery see Jung forthcoming; Jung 2011; Jung 2010; Jung 2018a, 50-51, Pl. XLVIII; Jung 2018b. Reinhard Jung is currently investigating the imported as well as locally produced Mycenaean pottery from Tweini. 17 See Lebrun and Tavernier 2012; Bretschneider and Jans in this volume. 18 For a general comparison of the material culture of the transitional period Late Bronze/Iron Age in the Northern Levant, see: Núnez 2017, 263-283. 19 For a recent discussion on the so-called Sea Peoples, see Jung 2017, 23-42. 15

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TELL TWEINI: A LONG STORY SHORT

The ceramic repertoire of this destruction layer comprises a great quantity of Mycenaean sherds dating to the Late Helladic IIIA:2 and Late Helladic IIIB periods20, as well as a small number of locally produced Mycenaean pottery of the Late Helladic IIIC Early 1 style.21 This Late Helladic IIIC Early pottery provides a synchronism with Tell Kazel where this type of ceramic was obtained from the Late Bronze destruction level. R. Jung points out that the evidence of the destruction levels at Tweini and Tell Kazel and their positions within the two stratigraphic sequences as well as the related pottery repertoires allow to synchronize the Mycenaean phase of Late Helladic IIIC Early 1 with the first regnal years of Ramses III.22 Like in Tell Kazel the local production of Mycenaean pottery continued after the destruction event. Locally made Late Helladic IIIC Early deep bowls with deep interior bands and a variety of motifs including antithetic spirals were also found in a rubble fill level that overlies the latest Late Bronze Age II floor and is superimposed by the earliest Iron Age I floor level 6GH.23 Tab. 2: Comparative stratigraphy, absolute chronology and Aegean synchronisms.

Historical 1195: throne accession Ramesses III 1190: year 5 1187: year 8

Amurru: Tell Kazel II: 6 upper / IV: 5 upper

Ugarit: Tell Tweini Level 7A

Palestine: Ashkelon (Grid 38) Phase 21

Palestine: Ashdod (Area G)

Level XIV LH IIIB LH IIIB – Abandonment Partial LH IIIB Final LH IIIC Early conflagration – LH IIIC 1 Phase 20b ? ? Early 1 Conflagration LH IIIC Conflagration Early 1  ? II: 5 / IV: 4 Level 6GH Phase 20a Level XIIIb LH IIIC Early LH IIIC Early LH IIIC Early (L 4106) – LH IIIC Mid2 – LH IIIC LH IIIC Early dle Middle 2 Levels XIIIa, XII LH IIIC Early 2 – LH IIIC Middle

Cyprus Enkomi IIB LH IIIB Developed – LH IIIC Early 1 Conflagration Enkomi IIIA LH IIIC Early 2 – LH IIIC Developed Enkomi IIIB Early LH IIIC Developed – LH IIIC Advanced

Italics = date of Aegean-type pottery (both imported and locally made) present in different contexts – Aegean pottery dates for Ashdod and Ashkelon according to Mountjoy 2015 and 2017; dates for Enkomi according to Mountjoy 2005 and 2007; Jung 2011 (after Jung 2018b, Tab. 1). 20

For synchronisms with Ugarit, see: Yon et al. 2000; Al-Maqdissi and Matoïan 2008, 143, 154; Monchambert 2004, 3 22. 21 Jung 2018b, also fig. 12.4. 22 Jung 2018b; Jung 2010, 172, tab. 13.1, 177-178. 23 Jung 2018b.

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The Iron Age I – Level 6GH and 6EF (ca. 1200-930 BCE) (Figs. 9-14) In contrast to Ugarit, Tell Tweini was promptly resettled by ‘newcomers’ after its partial destruction (Level 7A). Within this destruction layer a significant new ceramological feature emerges, namely handmade and burnished cooking pots. This ware also appears in the superimposing Early Iron Age levels 6GH and 6EF.24 As previously mentioned, Tweini was partially destroyed at the beginning of the Iron Age I (12th century BCE), resembling the fate of many other coastal cities in the northern Levant. Throughout the period of this assumed collapse architectural features and ceramic evidence illustrate a transition and continuity at the site of Tell Tweini. A resettlement during the earliest Iron Age I phase (Level 6GH), after the Late Bronze destruction (Level 7A), was observed. During the transition between the 12th and the 11th century, a second and seemingly more widely spread architectural phase of Iron Age I (Level 6EF) was recognized across different areas of Field A, especially underneath the remains of the massive Iron Age II architecture (Buildings A, B and C). Level 6GH (Fig. 9) The creation of new buildings, erected on the destruction debris (Level 7A) of the Late Bronze Age settlement, evidences the earliest remnants of Iron Age I urbanisation at Tell Tweini, datable to the 12th century BCE (ca. 1190-1150/25 BCE). At several locations, Late Bronze Age floors and walls were partially reused. These structures represent the so-called squatter occupations. So far, the architectural material from the 12th century levels is fairly limited in Field A; no key loci with considerable 6GH material in situ have been excavated. The traces of architecture that survived may very well be the ones that were recycled during the following phase, 6EF. The precise extension as well as the date of the end of occupation level 6GH at Tweini remain unresolved. The ceramological material displays a continuation of the local material into the Iron Age I without the common imported Late Bronze Age wares from Cyprus or the Aegean world.25 The handmade and burnished cooking ware remains in use.26 Characteristic for Level 6GH is a red fabric covered in white slip and red paint.27 It relates to decorated pots from Iron I at Ras Ibn Hani,

24

Vansteenhuyse and Bretschneider 2011; Bretschneider et al. 2014; Bretschneider et al.

2011. 25 26 27

paint.

Vansteenhuyse 2008, 112. Vansteenhuyse 2008, 114-115. The decoration includes triple bands in zigzag, checkerboards and grooved handles with red

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Ras el-Bassit and Tell Kazel.28 The white-slipped vessels, all amphoroid craters, at Ras Ibn Hani are restricted to “Fer 1 phase 1”. It is noteworthy that some vessels at Ras Ibn Hani carry bichrome decoration, as opposed to vessels from Tell Tweini on which red paint is used exclusively.29 Level 6EF (Fig. 10) The second architectural phase attested for the Early Iron Age at Tell Tweini and labelled Level 6EF can be found in clusters on Field A. The clear in situ contexts with similar material evidence point to a revival of the site before catapulting into the more monumental Iron Age II period during the 9th century BCE. A number of rooms and structures were probably reused from the underlying 6GH level, complemented with newly constructed buildings with an extension similar to the Late Bronze Age settlement. The foundation of a larger rectangular edifice, with several room annexes to the south, was exposed in Field A. This building is interpreted as the initial construction phase of the later monumental Building A (Fig. 11). A conflagration caused the final occupation phase of level 6EF to be well preserved with several in situ inventories. A sizable room in the south of Field A includes a great quantity of artefacts positioned within a conspicuous yellowochre layer typified by its loam chunks and occasional black, burnt inclusions. A black layer underneath the ochre layer and the ochre layer itself seem to be part of the same 6EF level, thus at least a partial burning of the rooms is implied. The yellow colour is explained by the presence of loam and pieces of clay holding marks of braided hay, indicating the appearance of the room’s masonry and suggesting that a higher story or roof collapsed during the building’s destruction (Fig. 12). In the middle of the room there is a pit-shaped depression, possibly connected to a shattered installation, most probably remnants of an oven (Fig. 13). A large quantity of Iron Age I vessels were found broken on the floor in primary context within the ochre layer. The storage function of the southern wing of the edifice is illustrated by a row of eight pithoi, leaning against the southern wall of the room. Owing to seeds preserved in several vessels 14C dating put the time of destruction of level 6EF between 1050 and 1000 BCE.30 Aside from 14C samples, a well-datable Cypriot bowl of the type White Painted I on a conic foot confirms the Iron Age I date of this context31. In addition to the ceramological evidence, the ochre layer sprouted an inventory containing 100 objects from different categories, such as loom

28 29 30 31

Courbin 1986, fig. 14; Du Pied 2008, 169, fig. 6b-c; Badre 2006, fig. 13:3. Vansteenhuyse 2010b. Kaniewski et al. 2010; 2011. Nys and Middernacht 2010, 125, 129.

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weights, jar stoppers, bronze and stone objects. The sum of all the finds supports the conclusion that certain loom and storage activities took place inside this room.32 A contemporaneous room context was excavated in the north of Field A underneath a large house (Fig. 15-16 – House 3) from the Iron Age II in the northwest of Field A. A cognate destruction layer as the one mentioned above with a complete storage jar and a deposit of drinking vessels was uncovered (Fig. 14). This room deposit also produced loom weights and a fired wall bracket. The wall bracket bears the impression of a cylinder seal perhaps in wood or clay.33 At the end of Iron Age I and the beginning of Iron Age II, the urbanization of the Near East was marked by the creation and reorganization of new cities and villages. It is a period during which the transformation of society is indicated by important political and social changes34, possibly stimulated by climate changes. The outcome of palynological, sedimentary and paleo-ecological studies at Tell Tweini have convincingly advocated increasing aridity in the region between 1200 and 850 BCE, and in particular during the Early Iron Age levels.35 Under the Aramaean kingdoms of Syria, the littoral region was bound by new political and economic influences. The Phoenician cities connected the Near East and the Eastern Mediterranean and controlled the international maritime trade.36 This domination over the marine exchange as well as the wealth of the Phoenician cities stimulated the Assyrians to lead a series of military campaigns against the western states, resulting in an inclusion of these states into the Neo-Assyrian empire.37 Iron Age II – Level 6CD-6AB (ca. 930-750 BCE) (Figs. 15-22) Occupation increases once again at the beginning of Iron Age II. In certain areas of Field A, Iron Age I layers were ruined by a vast reorganization of the city. Rooms were levelled with debris containing material dating back to the Late Bronze Age, and consequently created the impression that the new Iron Age II settlement was built on the foundations of the Late Bronze Age town. In other areas terraces were structured, completely erasing potential Iron Age I layers.

32 33 34 35 36 37

See Sauvage and Jans in this volume; Bretschneider et al. 2012. See Bretschneider and Jans in this volume. Akkermans and Schwartz 2003, 360. Kaniewski et al. 2015; Kaniewski et al. 2011. Niemeyer 2002, 177-195; Röllig 2003-2005, 537; Lipinski 2004, 37. Lipinski 2000; Klengel 1992, 222.

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By the beginning of the 9th century BCE Tell Tweini had been completely redeveloped. Excavations and a geomagnetic survey revealed a well-preserved plan of the city during the Iron II/III period (ca. 900-500 BCE) (Fig. 2), showing a new orientation of the city structure (Fig. 20), with an elaborate street system (Fig. 21) connecting several monumental buildings (Field A) (Figs. 15-16), including a Phoenician temple district (Field B), with domestic and industrial areas.38 Two buildings, Building A and Building B, with impressive thresholds were made up of one long room (Langraum) with open courts in front of both entrances (Figs. 17-19).39 The precise function of these buildings remains undefined for now. The most remarkable object found within Building A is a small 12 cm tall, bronze statuette, representing a naked goddess (Fig. 22).40 During the second half of the 9th century BCE (Level 6AB) the urban lay-out of Tell Tweini slightly altered. Official buildings were reused and extended and new residential houses were erected. Numerous imports of Cypriot pottery at Tweini reflect the expanding economic and commercial network between Cyprus, Phoenicia and inner Syria. Iron Age III – Level 5 and 4 (750-333 BCE) (Figs. 23-24) By the end of the 8th century BCE, an architectural reorganization occurred at the centre of Tell Tweini (Fig. 23). Production of olive oil and wine became the major economic activity of the town; many buildings were equipped with oil presses and refining installations (Fig. 24). The public buildings in Field A lost their initial (sacred?) function and were divided into small chambers used as workshops. From the Hellenistic Period onward the settlement moves towards the coast and the tell is abandoned. Only scattered sherds, remains of tombs and some installations found in Field A and B, albeit on a very limited scale, refer to the Hellenistic, Roman and Byzantine periods. BIBLIOGRAPHY Akkermans M. M. G. and G. M. Schwartz 2003: The Archaeology of Syria, From Complex Hunter-Gatherers to Early Societies (ca. 16,000-300 BC) (Cambridge World Archaeology), Cambridge.

38 39 40

Al-Maqdissi et al. 2010; Al-Maqdissi 2007. The initial construction phase of Building A is already attested in the Iron Age I (Level 6EF). Bretschneider and Van Lerberghe 2008, 59, Ill. 65.

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Al-Maqdissi M. 2007: L’architecture réligieuse dans la plaine de Jablé. Recherches archéologiques récentes en Phénicie du Nord, in: E. Fontan and H. Le Meaux (eds.), La Méditerranée des Phéniciens de Tyr à Carthage, Paris, 62-63. Al-Maqdissi M. and V. Matoïan 2008: La céramique découverte par C. Schaeffer dans le Palais royal d’Ougarit: Remarques générales, in: V. Matoïan (dir.), Le mobilier du palais royal d’Ougarit (Ras Shamra - Ougarit XVII), 127-155. Al-Maqdissi M., K. Van Lerberghe, J. Bretschneider and M. Badawi 2010: Tell Tweini: The Syro-Belgian excavations / Tell Tweini. Les fouilles Syro-Belges Tell Tweini (Documents d’Archéologie Syrienne 10), Damascus. Badre L. 2006: Tell Kazel-Simyra: A contribution to a relative chronological history in the Eastern Mediterranean during the Late Bronze Age, BASOR 343, 65-95. Baeteman C. and F. Bogemans 2019: In Search of a Harbour in the Past Landscapes of Tell Tweini. Identification of Sedimentary Environments in Support of an Archaeological Issue, in: J. Bretschneider and G. Jans (eds.), About Tell Tweini (Syria): Artefacts, Ecofacts and Landscape. Research Results of the Belgian Mission (Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta 281), Leuven, 619-637. Bretschneider J., T. Cunningham and K. Van Lerberghe 2000: Gibala. The First Two Excavations - 1999-2000, Ugarit-Forschungen. Internationales Jahrbuch für die Altertumskunde Syriens-Palästinas 31, 75-131. Bretschneider J. and K. Van Lerberghe (eds.) 2008: In Search of Gibala: An Archaeological and Historical Study Based on Eight Seasons of Excavations at Tell Tweini (Syria) in the A and C Fields (1999-2007) (Aula Orientalis Supplementa 24), Barcelona. Bretschneider J., A.-S. Van Vyve and G. Jans 2011: Tell Tweini: A Multi-Period Harbour Town at the Syrian Coast, in: J. Mynárová (ed.), Egypt and the Near East the Crossroads. Proceedings of the International Conference on the Relations between Egypt and the Near East in the Bronze Age, September 1-3, 2010, Charles University Prague, 73-87. Bretschneider J., G. Jans, A.-S. Van Vyve and M. Debruyne 2012: The ‘Ochre’ Room: Shedding Some Light on a ‘Dark’ Period of Transition. Tell Tweini in the Early Iron Age, in: T. Boiy et al. (eds.), The Ancient Near East, A Life! Festschrift Karel Van Lerberghe (Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta 220), Leuven, 59-74. Bretschneider J., G. Jans and A.-S. Van Vyve 2014: The Early Iron Age at Tell Tweini: Results from the 2008, 2009 and 2010 Excavations, in: F. Baffi et al. (eds.), Tell Tuqan Excavations and Regional Perspectives. Proceedings of the International Conference May 15th-17th 2013 - Lecce, Galatina, 325-342. Bretschneider J. and G. Jans 2019: The Glyptic of Tell Tweini Field A, in: J. Bretschneider and G. Jans (eds.), About Tell Tweini (Syria): Artefacts, Ecofacts and Landscape. Research Results of the Belgian Mission (Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta 281), Leuven, 149-179. Calvet Y. and G. Galliano (eds.) 2004: Le royaume d’Ougarit: Aux origines de l’alphabet, Paris - Lyon. Courbin P. 1986: Bassit, Syria 63, 1986, 187-203. du Piêd L. 2008: The Early Iron Age in the Northern Levant: Continuity and Change in the Pottery Assemblages from Ras el-Bassit and Ras Ibn Hani, Scripta Mediterranea XXVII–XXVIII, 161-185. Hameeuw H. and G. Jans 2008: Burial Customs at Tell Tweini – Field A, in: J. Bretschneider and K. Van Lerberghe (eds.), In Search of Gibala: An Archaeological and Historical Study Based on Eight Seasons of Excavations at Tell Tweini (Syria) in the A and C Fields (1999-2007) (Aula Orientalis Supplementa 24), Barcelona, 75-86.

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Hameeuw H., K. Vansteenhuyse, G. Jans, J. Bretschneider and K. Van Lerberghe 2009: Living with the Dead. Tell Tweini: Middle Bronze Age Tombs in an Urban Context, in: Proceedings of the 5th International Congress on the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East - Madrid April 3-8 2006, Wiesbaden, 140-144. Jans G. and J. Bretschneider 2019: A Collective Middle Bronze Age II Tomb at Tell Tweini Field A, in: J. Bretschneider and G. Jans (eds.), About Tell Tweini (Syria): Artefacts, Ecofacts and Landscape. Research Results of the Belgian Mission (Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta 281), Leuven, 201-241. Jung R. 2010: La Céramique de Typologie Mycénienne, in: M. Al-Maqdissi et al. (eds.), Tell Tweini. Onze Campagnes de Fouilles Syro-Belges (1999-2010) (Documents d’Archéologie Syrienne), Damascus, 115-122. — 2011: Innovative Cooks and New Dishes: Cypriote Pottery in the 13th and 12th Centuries BC and its Historical Interpretation, in: V. Karageorghis and O. Kouka (eds.), On Cooking Pots, Drinking Cups, Loomweights and Ethnicity in Bronze Age Cyprus and Neighbouring Regions, Nicosia, 57-85. — 2017: The Sea Peoples after Three Millennia: Possibilities and Limitations of Historical Reconstruction, in: P. Fischer and T. Bürge (eds.), “Sea Peoples” Upto-Date. New Research on Transformations in the Eastern Mediterranean in the 13th-11th Centuries BCE (Contributions to the Chronology of the Eastern Mediterranean 35), Vienna, 23-42. — 2018a: Mycenaen Pottery in Coastal Syria, in: L. Badre et al. (eds.), Tell Kazel au Bronze Récent. Études Céramiques, Beyrouth, 47-51. — 2018b: Push and Pull Factors of the Sea Peoples between Italy and the Levant, in: J. Driessen (ed.), The Archaeology of Forced Migration. Crisis-induced mobility and the Collapse of the 13th c. BCE Eastern Mediterranean (Aegis 15), Louvain, 279-312. Kaniewski D., E. Paulissen, E. Van Campo, H. Weiss, T. Otto, J. Bretschneider and K. Van Lerberghe 2010: Late Second-Early First Millennium BC Abrupt Climate Changes in Coastal Syria and their Possible Significance for the History of the Eastern Mediterranean, Quaternary Research 74, 207-215. Kaniewski D., E. Van Campo, K. Van Lerberghe, T. Boiy, K. Vaansteenhuyse, G. Jans, K. Nys, H. Weiss, C. Morhange, T. Otto and J. Bretschneider 2011: The Sea Peoples, from Cuneiform Tablets to Carbon Dating, PLoS ONE 6(6): 20232. Kaniewski D., E. Van Campo, K. Van Lerberghe, T. Boiy, G. Jans and J. Bretschneider 2015: The Late Bronze Age Collapse and the Early Iron Age in the Levant: The Role of Climate in Cultural Disruption, in: S. Kerner et al. (eds.), Climate and Ancient Societies, Kopenhagen, 157-176. Klengel H. 1992: Syria 3000 to 300 B.C., A Handbook of Political History, Berlin. Lebrun R. and J. Tavernier 2012: Deux Objets inscrits de Tell Tweini, in: T. Boiy et al. (eds.), The Ancient Near East, A Life! Festschrift Karel Van Lerberghe (Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta 220), Leuven, 319-334. Lipiński E. 2000: The Aramaeans. Their Ancient History, Culture, Religion (Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta 100), Leuven. — 2004: Itineraria Phoenicia (Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta 127), Leuven. Monchambert J.-Y. 2004: La céramique d’Ougarit. Campagne de fouilles 1975 et 1976 (Ras Shamra - Ougarit XV), Paris. Mountjoy P. A. 2005: The End of the Bronze Age at Enkomi, Cyprus: The Problem of Level IIIB, BSA 100, 125-214. — 2007: The Dating of the Early LC IIIA Phase at Enkomi, in: M. Bietak and E. Czerny (eds.), The Synchronisation of Civilisations in the Eastern Mediterranean in the

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Second Millennium B.C. III. Proceedings of the SCIEM 2000 - 2nd EuroConference, Vienna, 28th of May - 1st of June 2003 (Contributions to the Chronology of the Eastern Mediterranean 9), Vienna, 583-594. — 2015: The Sea Peoples: A View from the Pottery, in: A.-L. Schallin and I. Tournavitou (eds.), Mycenaeans up to Date: The Archaeology of the Northeastern Peloponnese – Current Concepts and New Directions, Stockholm, 533-554. — 2017: The Sea Peoples: A View from the Pottery, in: P. Fischer and T. Bürge (eds.), “Sea Peoples” Up-to-Date. New Research on Transformations in the Eastern Mediterranean in the 13th-11th Centuries BCE (Contributions to the Chronology of the Eastern Mediterranean 35), Vienna, 355-378. Niemeyer H.-G. 2002: Die Phönizier am Mittelmeer. Neue Forschungen zur frühen Expansion, in: E. A. Braun-Holzinger and H. Matthäus (eds.), Die nahöstlichen Kulturen und Griechenland an der Wende vom 2. zum 1. Jahrtausend v. Chr. Kontinuität und Wandel von Strukturen und Mechanismen kultureller Interaktion. Kolloquium des Sonderforschungsbereiches 295 ‘Kulturelle und sprachliche Kontakte’ der Johannes Gutenberg-Universität Mainz, 11.-12. Dezember 1998, Paderborn, 177-195. Nys K. and K. Middernacht 2010: The Cypriot Pottery from Field A, in: M. AlMaqdissi et al. (eds.), Tell Tweini. Onze Campagnes de Fouilles Syro-Belges (1999-2010) (Documents d’Archéologie Syrienne), Damascus, 123-130. Núnez F. J. 2017: The Impact of the Sea Peoples in the Central and Northern Levant in Perspective, in: P. M. Fischer and T. Bürge (eds.), “Sea Peoples” Up-to-Date. New Research on Transformations in the Eastern Mediterranean in the 13th11th Centuries BCE (Contributions to the Chronology of the Eastern Mediterranean 35), Vienna, 263-283. Röllig R. 2003-2005: Phönizien, Phönizier, in: RlA, vol. 10, 537. Sauvage C. and G. Jans 2019: Clay Loom Weights of the Iron Age Period at Tell Tweini Field A, in: J. Bretschneider and G. Jans (eds.), About Tell Tweini (Syria): Artefacts, Ecofacts and Landscape. Research Results of the Belgian Mission (Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta 281), Leuven, 31-80. Singer I. 1999: A Political History of Ugarit, in: W. G. E. Watson and N. Wyatt (eds.), Handbook of Ugaritic Studies (HdO I/39), Leiden, 603-733. van Soldt W. 1997: Studies in the Topography of Ugarit (2), The Borders of Ugarit, Ugarit-Forschungen 29, 703-744. — 2005: The Topography of the City-State of Ugarit (Alter Orient und Altes Testament 324), Münster. Vansteenhuyse K. 2008: The ceramic material from Tell Tweini – Field A, in: J. Bretschneider and K. Van Lerberghe (eds.), In Search of Gibala: An Archaeological and Historical Study Based on Eight Seasons of Excavations at Tell Tweini (Syria) in the A and C Fields (1999-2007) (Aula Orientalis Supplementa 24), Barcelona, 103-140. — 2010a: The Bronze to Iron Age Transition at Tell Tweini (Syria), in: F. Venturi (ed.), Societies in Transition. Evolutionary Processes in the Northern Levant Between Late Bronze Age II and Early Iron Age, Bologna, 39-52. — 2010b: La céramique du Chantier A, in: M. Al-Maqdissi et al. (eds.), Tell Tweini. Onze Campagnes de Fouilles Syro-Belges (1999-2010) (Documents d’Archéologie Syrienne), Damascus, 95-114. — 2019: The Ceramic Material from the Middle Bronze Age Communal Grave at Tell Tweini Field A, in: J. Bretschneider and G. Jans (eds.), About Tell Tweini (Syria):

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Artefacts, Ecofacts and Landscape. Research Results of the Belgian Mission (Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta 281), Leuven, 255-312. Vansteenhuyse K. and J. Bretschneider 2011: Handmade cooking pots from the Early Iron Age in Tell Tweini (Syria), in: V. Karageorghis and O. Kouka (eds.), On Cooking Pots, Drinking Cups, Loom Weights and Ethnicity in Bronze Age Cyprus and Neighbouring Regions, Nicosia, 187-194. Vilain S. 2019: The Bronze Age Cypriot Pottery from Tell Tweini Field A, in: J. Bretschneider and G. Jans (eds.), About Tell Tweini (Syria): Artefacts, Ecofacts and Landscape. Research Results of the Belgian Mission (Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta 281), Leuven, 313-393. Yon M., V. Karageorghis and N. Hirschfeld (eds.) 2000: Céramiques mycéniennes d’Ougarit (Ras Shamra - Ougarit XIII), Paris-Nicosia.

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Fig. 1: The Northern Levant (based on Le Royaume d’Ougarit, Calvet and Galliano 2004).

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Fig. 2: Geophysical map of Tweini.

Fig. 3: Sounding in Field A (view from the north-west).

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Fig. 4: The sounding in Field A – Level 8AB (Middle Bronze Age II).

Fig. 5: Field C: The city wall (view from the south-east).

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Fig. 6: Level 7 (Late Bronze Age) General view Field A.

19

Fig. 7: Corner of a Late Bronze Age building superimposed by Iron Age II walls (view from the west).

Fig. 8: Monumental entrance of Iron Age II Building A (on the right) overlying Iron Age I and Late Bronze Age constructions, with Late Bronze Age pottery in situ (view from the south).

20 J. BRETSCHNEIDER ET AL.

Fig. 9: Level 6GH (Iron Age I) - Southern part of Field A.

Fig. 10: Level 6EF (Iron Age I) - Southern part of Field A.

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Fig. 11: Iron Age I and II walls overlying Late Bronze Age structures in the area of Iron Age II Building A (view from the south).

Fig. 12: Iron Age II walls on top of an Iron Age I room (view from the south-west).

22 J. BRETSCHNEIDER ET AL.

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Fig. 13: An Iron Age I (Level 6EF) room in the south of Field A, with a pit-shaped depression and in-situ loom weights (on the left) visible in the profile underneath an Iron Age II wall (view from the south).

Fig. 14: Iron Age I (Level 6EF) floor context in the north part of Field A, with a complete storage jar, drinking vessels and part of a wall bracket (above left).

Fig. 15: Level 6CD - General view Field A.

Fig. 16: Level 6AB - General view Field A.

24 J. BRETSCHNEIDER ET AL.

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Fig. 17: Iron Age II Building A (Level 6CD).

25

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Fig. 18: Iron Age II Building A, west of the modern water channel (view from the north-east).

Fig. 19: Iron Age II Building A with adjacent rooms (view from the south).

Fig. 20: Iron Age II rooms superimposing Iron Age I walls (view from the south-west).

Fig. 21: Iron Age II/III street in the northern part of Field A (view from the south).

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Fig. 22: Bronze statuette, representing a naked goddess (Drawing by E. Cuypers; Photo by B. Vandermeulen).

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Fig. 23: Level 5AB - General view Field A.

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Fig. 24: Iron Age III and II rooms in the northern part of Field A (view from the north-east).

CLAY LOOM WEIGHTS OF THE IRON AGE PERIOD AT TELL TWEINI FIELD A Caroline SAUVAGE1 and Greta JANS2 1

Loyola Marymount University, Los Angeles 2 KU Leuven - Near Eastern Studies

A. INTRODUCTION Textile tools such as loom weights provide evidence for textile production in archaeological contexts where textile remains are not preserved. Textile tools, made of unbaked clay, terracotta, bone, ivory and stone are the remains of an intangible, but once flourishing, textile industry. The tool wear patterns, shapes and measurements (height, diameter, diameter of perforation and weight) allow to reconstruct the thickness of the spun yarns as well as the types of fabrics produced,1 while their context provide information on domestic production, workshops and possible mass production. To weave, and thus create fabric, tension must be applied to one set of parallel threads, the warp, so that a set of perpendicular threads, the weft, can be interlaced. Looms are the frames used to provide tension to the warp and many different forms exist.2 One large type of loom, the warp-weighted loom uses sets of weights to provide tension to the vertical set of threads (warp). These loom weights are usually the only surviving elements of wooden warp-weighted looms, and can be made of stone, terracotta or unbacked clay. As noted by many authors, weights are often problematic because they could have been used for many purposes and one has to demonstrate that the objects were used in textile production.3 To do so, one uses contextual evidence: rows of weights demonstrate the presence of a loom destroyed by fire or decay, the association of weights with other textile tools (beaters, distaffs, spindles, spindle-whorls) and/or objects which could have been used for dying/washing fibres and textiles (pestles, grinders, vats, cooking pots, jars, etc.) tends to indicate textile production, while comparison with well-attested shapes of loom-weights can provide clues about the weights’ function. Warp-weighted looms were probably dismantled when not in use and it is therefore rare to find rows of loom-weights in archaeological contexts. When not in use, the wooden parts of the loom

1 2 3

Andersson Strand 2012; Mårtensson, Nosch and Andersson Strand 2009. See Barber 1991, 79-125. Barber 1991, 93.

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along with its weights would have been stored,4 while when set, the looms would have been placed in well-lit areas such as courtyards or roofs.5 Many shapes of loom weights are attested in the Near East and Eastern Mediterranean, and although individual shapes (triangular, discoid, spools, crescentic, etc.)6 had probably little impact on the produced fabric, the thickness and weight of the loom weights are determining factors in the weaving process.7 Loom weights were tied to bunches of warp, generally through an intermediary secured in their perforation,8 or attached around them in the case of unperforated spools (Fig. 1). Experimental archaeology has demonstrated that the ideal number of thread per loom weight can vary but a number between 5 and 30 warp threads per weight is considered ideal.9 The type of thread used on a loom determines the tension required and therefore the weight of the loom weight and/or the number of threads tied to each loom weight: a thicker yarn, spun with more fibres, requires more tension (i.e. weight) than a thinner yarn.10 The diameter of the spun yarn depends on the weight of the spindle whorls used while spinning, and has been reconstructed with experimental archaeology (Tab. 1). Table 1: Relationship between spindle whorl weight, diameter of spun fibres and required tension (after Mårtensson, Nosch and Andersson Strand 2009, 378). Weight of spindle whorl

Diameter of spun thread

Tension of warp thread required on a loom

4g 8g 18 g 44 g

≤ 0.3 mm 0.3-0.4 mm 0.4-0.6 mm 0.8-1.0 mm

10 g per thread 15-20 g per thread 25-30 g per thread 40 g per thread

The thickness of the loom weights along with the diameter of the yarn and the number of warp-thread attached to them determine how open or closed the fabric will be in the case of a balanced tabby (i.e. a similar number of threads in both weft and warp, see Figs. 3 and 17a), but one has to keep in mind that weft-faced fabrics (i.e. the weft is covering the warp because the weft threads 4 Barber 1991, 101-102; Hoffmann 1974, 31. Spools stored together when not in use were for instance found in the Iron Age levels at Tell Mishrifeh/Qatna (Morandi Bonacossi forthcoming) and at Tell Afis (Cecchini 2011, 201, fig. 4). 5 See Breniquet 2008. 6 See for instance Mårtensson, Nosch and Andersson Strand 2009, fig. 2. 7 Mårtensson, Nosch and Andersson Strand 2009, 374; Andersson Strand 2010. 8 Barber 1991, 104. 9 Mårtensson, Nosch and Andersson Strand 2009, 389-390, 392. 10 Mårtensson, Nosch and Andersson Strand 2009, 378.

CLAY LOOM WEIGHTS OF THE IRON AGE PERIOD

33

are more numerous than the warp threads, see Fig. 17b) could also have been produced when setting up a loom with only a few warp threads per centimetre. To weave a tabby, warp threads are separated into a front and a back row to create two sheds in between which the weft is interlaced. Loom weights of each row are attached to every two warp threads, and are positioned side by side (Fig. 2). Therefore, the number of loom weights and the total width of one row of loom weights determine the width of the woven fabric and would allow one to reconstruct the dimension of woven fabric within an archaeological context. Spool-shaped objects, such as the ones from Tell Tweini, have long been a subject of discussion within textile studies. Their use as loom weights on a warp-weighted loom has been questioned,11 and tested,12 while alternative uses as weights in textile production have been proposed: they could have been used in the manufacture of cords and bands in a technique similar to the Japanese kumihimo13 or as small weights for borders woven with tablets.14 In the Levant, archaeological contexts of terracotta and unbacked spool-shaped weights with dimensions of 7 to 12 cm in length and a weight varying between 100 and 500 g15 tend to demonstrate that they were used on a warp-weighted loom, as they are often found in sets of similar weights and shapes16 and rows of spools, fallen from looms, were found in situ at Ashkelon.17 In Cyprus, a representation of a warp-weighted loom with what appear to be spools is depicted on the bottom of a Cypro-Geometric bichrome shallow bowl preserved at the Akademischen Kunstmuseum at the University of Bonn (Fig. 4).18 According to the depiction, it was used to produce a colourful textile with a complex pattern. Moreover, experimental weaving conducted at CTR in Copenhagen has demonstrated that both small spools (weight of about 100 g) and larger spools (about 300 g) could have been used as loom weights on warp-weighted looms (Fig. 2).19

11 For a discussion on their possible function see Rahmstorf 2003, 402-403; 2005, 156; Gleba 2009, 140-150. 12 Olofsson, Andersson Strand and Nosch 2015, 92-95. 13 Barber 1999, 60; Gleba 2008, 141. It has to be noted that impressions of such cords appear on low-fired spools and disc-weights at Kition, see Smith 2002, 294-295, fig. 6 (for disc-shaped weights); Smith 2012, 247. 14 This is the case for the Verucchio textiles woven with small spools weighing between 8 and 55 g; see Ræder Knudsen 2002, 228-229 and Gleba 2008, 140-141. See Gleba 2008, fig. 98 for such a use. 15 Cecchini 2000, 217-219; Boertien 2013, 106-107. 16 Rahmstorf 2003, 402. 17 Spools were forming rows along walls, indicating the presence of looms, and were found together with linen fibres: Stager 1991, 36-37. 18 Aspiris 1996. 19 Olofsson, Andersson Strand and Nosch 2015, 92-94.

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C. SAUVAGE AND G. JANS

In the Near East, spool-shaped loom weights have been found in the Late Bronze Age levels of Troy,20 Alishar Hüyük, Tarsus and Tille Hüyük,21 and appear in the Iron Age levels of Tell Afis, Tell Mastuma, Hama, Tell Masin, Tel Nebi Mend, Tell Ahmar, Taba el Akrad, Malatya, Mishrife/Qatna, Tell Ta‘yinat, Chatal Hüyük and Tille Hüyük.22 In the southern Levant, they are present in the 13th c. BC levels of Beth Shean,23 and in the Iron Age levels of Megiddo, Tell Qasile, Tel Miqne/Ekron, Ashdod, Ashkelon and Horbat Shim‘on.24 In the Mediterranean, they appear for the first time in 13th c. BC contexts at Kasteli/Khania and Sissi in Crete25 and are present around the Mediterranean in 12th and 11th c. BC contexts.26 They are also attested in Italy and central Europe.27 B. THE TWEINI LOOM WEIGHTS: A GENERAL DESCRIPTION The A Field at the centre of Tell Tweini produced 72 spool-shaped clay loom weights so far (Figs. 5 and 6).28 All of them can be attributed to an Iron Age context, with the overall majority of the weights connected to the Iron Age I phase. The 72 unbaked or poorly fired29 loom weights all have a fairly similar shape: they are either cylindrical or more spool shaped (i.e. hourglass-shaped). Both shapes appear together throughout the Iron Age. All weights are imperforated, although two exemplars (05875-M-009 [Fig. 6l] and 06022-M-001) hold a circular depression in the centre of both short sides.30 The Tweini loom weights measure between 8.7 and 13.2 cm in height, 4.4 and 7.1 cm in diameter with an average of respectively 10.8 cm and 5.9 cm (see catalogue). Concerning their weight, we could only assess six complete or almost complete

20

Rahmstorf 2005, 147. Cecchini 2000, 217-219. Although it seems that the level in which the spools were found at Tille Hüyük would correspond to the Iron Age I of Syria, see Cecchini 2010, 197. 22 For further reference, see Cecchini 2000, 217-220; Cecchini 2010, 196-197; for Ta‘yinat, see Janeway 2006-2007, 138-138; Harrison 2009, 183; for Mishrifeh/Qatna, see Morandi Bonacossi forthcoming. 23 Ramhstorf 2005, 154. 24 Rahmstorf 2003, 404; for Horbat Shim‘on see Dagan and Cassuto 2016. 25 Rahmstorf 2005, 149; Gaignerot-Driessen 2013, 72-74. 26 See Rahmstorf 2005, 147-149 and fig. 1 for a distribution map. 27 Rahmstorf 2005, 147; Gleba 2008. 28 A dozen loom weights were found in clusters in Early Iron Age contexts in Field B (Syrian team) as well. 29 Yasur-Landau (2010, 132) also refers to the fact that this type of loom weights can be unbaked or poorly fired. 30 Similar depressions are attested at Tell Ta‘yinat on one side of some spools, Lumb 2014, 144 and fig. 2c. 21

CLAY LOOM WEIGHTS OF THE IRON AGE PERIOD

35

exemplars from locus 05875 and two from locus 05887 in Room 05873: they weigh between 280 and 580 grams, with an average of 417 grams. Various loom weights of a particular context display similar features. Most well preserved loom weights exhibit a smooth and finished surface, which would have prevented damaging the threads warped around them. Several weights of locus 05875 in Room 05873 have one flatter side, probably the flank on which the weights were lying while drying. Fourteen weights of locus 05867 in Room 05873 (Fig. 10) are partly or completely covered with a hard granular whitish-beige (calcareous?) layer. Since this ‘treatment’ was not exclusively reserved for the loom weights in this area – also sherds are covered with this texture –, and since this crust would have been impractical when trying to tie threads to the loom weights, the presence of the coating was most probably not deliberate but was caused by a kind of corrosion/encrustation process. Concerning the colour of the loom weights, we only have well-defined information for the weights excavated in Room 05873. There, the colour is predominantly described as ‘beige’ and ‘beige-pinkish’, but certain examples are also defined as orange-brown.31 Several weights from Room 05873 are partly greyish-black, most likely because they had been resting inside or on top of an ashy deposit. The weights unbaked/baked ratio is hard to assess without study season, because the excavators recorded the information with a question mark for almost all objects. But it seems that all – if not most – of the weights were unbaked or poorly fired weights. Usewear due to the attachment of warp threads onto the loom weight and resulting in small grooves or depressions are visible on a few objects, such as 05867-M-003 (see Figs. 1 and 5d). Some pieces exhibit notable features. On weight 05875-M-008 (Fig. 5p) fingerprints are clearly visible and on the flank of weight 05875-M-0010 a bronze artefact (05875-M-019) (Fig. 12) – a flat rectangular strip (3.5 cm long) with one of the small sides ending in a triangle – was stuck, probably by corrosion.

31 We were unable to re-examine the weights for which the colour was not identified by the excavators.

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C. SAUVAGE AND G. JANS

C. THE TWEINI LOOM WEIGHTS: CONTEXTS32 1. Iron Age I – Level 6GH-EF33 The architectural phases attested for the transitional period at Tell Tweini can be sectioned in three levels: Level 7A, 6GH and 6EF.34 In the period of assumed collapse at the end of the Late Bronze Age, labelled as destruction level 7A, architectural features and ceramic evidence demonstrate transition as well as continuity at the site. The construction of new buildings on the destruction debris of level 7A identifies the earliest Iron Age urbanisation of the 12th century BC, or level 6GH. The subsequent occupation during the 11th century, level 6EF, is represented by the appearance of imported pottery and luxury articles and by increased building activity. A certain number of rooms and structures were reused from the underlying 6GH level. The foundations of a larger rectangular edifice with several room annexes to the south – designated as the initial construction phase of the later monumental Building A – were exposed in Field A. The end of this phase is marked by a second obliteration detectable through a deposit of debris sealing off key loci including integral inventories in situ. a. Room 05873 (Loci 06404, 05863, 05866, 05867, 05874, 05875 and 05877) – 57 spool-shaped loom weights One of the contexts linked to the occupation of the 6EF level at the A Field comprises a room – located in the south of Field A in squares B11, B12, C11 and C12 – containing a large quantity of loom weights and ceramics.35 This Early Iron Age room 05873 is an annex room of the larger edifice underneath the later Building A (Figs. 7 and 8). It has a long, rectangular shape of circa 7.5 m by 2.9 m and was probably entered through a door in the northern part of the western wall.

32 It is our pleasure to thank the following people for assembling and analysing specific parts of information: our square supervisors of the specific areas discussed in this article – Elynn Gorris, Karolien Hellemans, Stijn Hüwels, Greta Jans, Georg Neumann, Ellen Van Belle and Joke Van Sweevelt – , our architects – Maarten Gernaey, Hendrik Hameeuw, Saraa Saleh and Benedikt Verstraete – , the ceramic specialists – Reinhard Jung, Karin Nys, Klaas Vansteenhuyse and Sarah Vilain. 33 Bretschneider, Jans and Van Vyve 2014, 325-342; Bretschneider, Jans and Van Vyve 2011, 131-146; Bretschneider, Van Vyve and Jans 2011, 78-84; Vansteenhuyse and Bretschneider 2011, 189-191. 34 For plans of the phases, see Bretschneider et al., Tell Tweini: A Long Story Short, in this volume, Fig. 6, 9 and 10. 35 This room was discussed earlier in the article Bretschneider et al. 2012. The information given here is a short version of that particular article.

CLAY LOOM WEIGHTS OF THE IRON AGE PERIOD

37

Level 6EF is well represented by a large quantity of material located in a prominent yellow-ochre layer.36 The yellow colour is explainable through the presence of loam and pieces of clay holding marks of braided hay, demonstrating the appearance of the room’s masonry. The collapse of the walls of a higher floor or roof terrace cannot be excluded. In several areas of the room, a thin black layer underneath the ochre layer seems to be part of the same 6EF level37, hence at least a partial burning of the room can be implied. The ochre layer covers the floor of the entire room and has a fluctuating thickness ranging from 25 cm to 50 cm in a pit-shaped depression in the centre of the room. This depression might be connected to the shattered installation 06409, which possibly could be interpreted as remnants of an oven. The bottom of this pit-shaped structure was covered with an ash layer (05872). The ochre layer enclosed numerous in situ ceramics38 – at least 15 storage jars, a collection of cups and a well datable Cypriote White Painted I bowl39 – scattered around the room.40 Evidently the ceramics found at the same echelon were resting on what is perceived as a floor level, in this case one of beaten earth. The majority of the storage jars was positioned in the southern half of the room. A number of 14C samples of seeds were taken from inside the vessels placed against the southern wall, giving us a destruction date between 1050 to ca. 1000 BC for level 6EF.41 The inventory of the ochre layer inside Room 05873 comprises 92 objects, of which a substantial part can be designated as clay loom weights (57)42 and jar stoppers (18), but also bronze (9) and stone (8) artefacts. The jar stoppers, either conical or rounded, covered the jar openings and splayed over the rims, effectively sealing the content of the jars.43 The nine bronze objects were recorded as three leaf-shaped arrowheads – deposited together in the north western corner of the room –, one spear or javelin head, two simple pins (05863-M-001: preserved length 6.5 cm, ø 0.6 cm; 05875-M-004: preserved length 8.5 cm, ø 0.4 cm), one rather large ‘pair of tweezers/tong’ (33 cm long) 36 This layer is made up of different locus numbers: 05863, 05866, 05867, 05868, 05872, 05874, 05875, 05877, 05881, 05884, 05885, 5887, 06404, 06405, 06452 and 06454. 37 The black layer may indicate the debris of a higher floor or roof terrace. 38 We thank Dr. Klaas Vansteenhuyse for the ceramological information in this article. 39 A two-handled deep bowl on a conical foot, see Nys and Middernacht 2011, 125; Nys in this volume. According to this article ‘the presence of White Painted I vessels indicates that Tell Tweini was still a partner in the broader economic network during the timespan of c. 1050-950 BCE’. 40 Only the number of definite (nearly) complete ceramics and jar stoppers is mentioned here at variance with the numbers cited in the article Bretschneider et al. 2012. Unfortunately, the material could not be reassessed first hand due to the impossibility of a study campaign in Syria. 41 Kaniewski et al. 2010, 207-215. 42 These loom weights were labelled as: 05863-M002-003, 05875-M001, 005-015, 018, 022, 027, 05866-M001, 05867-M001-034, 05874-M001, 05887-M001-002 and 06404-M001-002. 43 Bretschneider et al. 2012, 63.

38

C. SAUVAGE AND G. JANS

found along with a pestle in between two jars, and two fragments of bronze. Eight stone objects complete the archaeological record in this area. Four of them can be categorized as basalt pestles, one as a fragment of a basalt grinding stone, one small vessel in greyish stone (with a diameter of 8.9 cm) and two probably as basalt mortar bowls on three short feet. All of the loom weights but three were found in the northern half and central part of the room, in loci 05863, 05867, 05874, 05875 and 05887. A concentration of 34 mostly unbaked(?) loom weights was found in locus 05867, in between wall 06360 and the depression of installation 06409 (Figs. 9-10). Although it is clear that these loom weights were not on the floor level since they were above a layer of in situ jars, a sloping row of eight to ten44 wellaligned loom weights can be seen on Figure 10. Such a configuration could be associated with the destruction of a loom (see Fig. 2), possibly located on the roof.45 If this was the case, we have to imagine that this loom would have been set with at least 20 loom weights (two rows of 10), and possibly with all 34 loom weights. Fifteen unbaked loom weights were found in locus 05875 (north of 05867), two in locus 05887 and two come from the adjacent locus 05863. Most of these weights were found near the large basalt recipient 05875-M-001 in locus 05875 (Fig. 11). The weights were located just above or on the floor level, in between storage jars and the basalt vat. It is therefore possible that they belonged to a loom as they are more or less forming a line of eight to nine loom weights (but no row is visible). However, one cannot exclude that they were stored there. Six weights have one flattened side, demonstrating that they were possibly manufactured as a set and made to function together. If all of the unbaked loom weights were used on the same loom, then they would have been set in two rows of seven-eight loom weights. It is hard to assess whether the three weights from locus 05863 belonged to the same set as no precise spatial information regarding their find spot has been recorded. If they were set on the same loom, an even number of 18 loom weights would have been set in two rows of nine loom weights. Unbaked loom weight 05875-M-010 was found with a bronze tool encrusted on its surface (Fig. 12). It is slightly trapezoidal with one pointy extremity, and one straight one, which could have been inserted into a handle. The contextual association of this object with a textile tool as well as the parallel in shape with bone beaters (Figs. 13a and b) (if we imagine that it was used with a handle) makes it likely that it was also used as a textile tool, possibly as a bronze beater(?). Bone beaters are made of bovine ribs and have one pointy

44

According to the section drawn by the excavator of the locus. The loom weights might also have been stored there, possibly on a pile or a shelf against the northern part of the western wall, but we think that this hypothesis is less likely given the clear row visible on figure 9. 45

CLAY LOOM WEIGHTS OF THE IRON AGE PERIOD

39

end to beat in the weft to create weft-faced fabrics and possibly tapestries.46 They are well attested in the eastern Mediterranean and the Levant where they are often associated with other textiles tools.47 The artefact record – with loom weights, tools related to grinding, numerous storage jars and jar stoppers – show that domestic and storage activities took place inside this room. Given the high number of loom weights (57) and the presence of one and maybe two loom(s), it is highly possible that this room and/or its roof were also used for textile production. In this case, circumstantial evidence would allow us to propose that all or some of the grinding tools, storage jars and bronze objects (pins, long tweezers/tong, and a possible beater) were used in association with this craft. The two bronze pins could have been spindles, but their fragmentary state of preservation as well as the lack of data on spindle whorls doesn’t allow us to pursue this hypothesis further.48 Pestles and grinding stones could have been used to prepare dyes for the yarns, while storage jars could have contained pigments or detergents and could also have been used as containers for dye baths or for mixing dyes. Most, if not all of the jars seem to have been sealed with thick stoppers, which needed to be broken to access the content of the jar.49 These stoppers can therefore point to long term storage, and/or storage of liquids. In the case of liquids, they would have prevented the content from evaporation, and might also have prevented smells, if the jars were used for washing/dying threads. The long pair of tweezers/tong found in between two jars could have been used to retrieve the content of some of the jars, and in the case of textile-related activities, it would have been used to immerge and fish out yarns from dye baths. These baths could have used hot/warm ingredients, if we imagine that the cooking pot fragments found in loci 05875, 06404 and 06454 were used in relation with this industry. It is of course difficult to identify textile workshops as their organization would depend on the type of textile production.50 When textile paraphernalia appear in conjunction with markers of domestic activities, as seen here, a household industry or putting-out mode is highly probable, as for instance dying and washing could have taken place in the cooking area.51

46

Smith 2001. For instance at Enkomi and Kition in Cyprus (Smith 2001; Sauvage and Smith 2016); at Mishrifeh/Qatna (Morandi Bonacossi forthcoming), Tell Mardikh (Peyronel 2004, 375), and Umm el-Biyara (Bennet 1966, 383). 48 Metal spindles are rare in the archaeological record because, unless well-preserved with a whorl attached to them, they could be interpreted as different types of objects, mostly pins. One 29 cm long bronze or copper spindle dating to the early or middle Cypriot Bronze Age is preserved in the Zintilis collection (Webb 2002), and two metal spindles are known from Deve Hüyük in Turkey (see Barber 1991, 64, fig. 2.31). 49 See Bretschneider et al. 2012, 63, figs. 8-9. 50 Anderson Strand and Nosch 2015, 373-374. 51 Anderson Strand and Nosch 2015, 373. 47

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b. Loci 05950 and 06450 – Two spool-shaped loom weights Two loom weights, 05950-M-004 (Fig. 5v) and 06450-M-002 (Fig. 5y), were retrieved from topsoil layers in the south part of Field A, in squares C11C12-D11. The ceramic material of these deposits was attributed to the Iron Age I to III Age, thus presenting a rather disturbed context. Both weights, although found in topsoil, were captured in the area of Room 05873 including the assemblage of 57 loom weights. Locus 05950 yielded a basalt grinding stone and a basalt pestle as well and locus 6450 part of a stone pipe, an anthropomorphic jar spout, a fragmentary iron nail and a basalt pestle. c. Locus 00042 – Seven spool-shaped loom weights Since the discovery during the 2009-2010 campaigns that the site was continuously occupied from the Early Bronze Age onwards, with remains dating to the transitional period between the Bronze and Iron Ages (without a hiatus), the architecture and phasing of excavated remains from the last eleven years have been partly cross-examined. One of these reassessed areas dug up in the first years of excavation, is located in the very north-western point of the A field. Locus 00042 belongs to a remarkable floor ‘package’ uncovered in the sounding in square A2. This floor can be associated with a room or building, for the moment only limited by a wall in the south and in the east. The other limits of the room are unexcavated so far. Together with loci 00027, 00029, 00031, 00032 and 00041, locus 00042 materializes as a ca. 25 cm thick destruction package akin to the one in Room 05873 in the south of the A Field. The layer consists of black ashy soil, ochre-coloured earth, fragments of mudbrick and concentrations of charcoal. In the western part of the room rests an installation built of stones in a curved line. The black soil with fragments of charcoal within the curve suggests usage as a hearth. The ceramic inventory of this context involves a large amount of restorable vessels with several types of drinking cups (14 exemplars)52, three storage jars, two craters, a bowl and a barrel jug. From the pottery forms excavated in Room 05873 it could be established that the earlier excavated locus 00027 included analogous material and may thus belong to the same level, namely 6EF. The deposit also produced seven unbaked loom weights (00042-M-002a-g) and a wall bracket, bearing the impression of a cylinder seal perhaps made of wood or clay.53 The average dimensions of the loom weights are 5 cm in diameter and 10 cm in length. Although no weight information has been recorded, 52 53

Similar to the ones of Tell Kazel, Afis and Kamid el Loz, see: Mazzoni 2012, 23-40. Bretschneider and Jans in this volume.

CLAY LOOM WEIGHTS OF THE IRON AGE PERIOD

41

as they fell apart while being removed, their dimensions and thus possible weights were similar to the loom weights found in Room 05873. Given the number of loom weights found in situ, either fallen from a loom or stored together,54 and the fact that this room has not yet been completely excavated, it is likely that this room has to be associated with textile activities taking place in a domestic setting. d. Locus 01315 – Three spool-shaped loom weights Layer 01315 situated in a restricted triangular-shaped small wedge (in square C3) – lodged between an Iron Age III and a Late Bronze Age wall reused until the Iron Age II – generated three loom weights (01315-M-002-004). This narrow section is actually part of the fill layer of a room to the north of the Iron II-Late Bronze Age wall, but the rest of the space remained unexcavated so far, due to the presence of an Iron Age III room with a stone floor and several installations. Thus, the exact context within a room or building remains unstipulated for the moment. The ceramic material of this locus indicates a classification in the Iron Age I period. The record of this locus contains a fragment of iron and two fragments of silex as well. e. Locus 06022 – One spool-shaped loom weight Three monumental official buildings are situated in the southern part of the A Field. Buildings A, B and C were developed during different construction phases ranging from the beginning of the Iron Age I to the Iron Age II (ca. 1190-750 BC). The B Building is positioned to the north and parallel to the A Building. Both structures are fronted by open courts and the entrances have monumental door-sockets. The initial construction phase of Building A can be recognized in an underlying larger rectangular building with several room annexes to the south which can be dated to level 6EF. But Building A as well as Building B got their final form in the 6CD phase.55 Loom weight 06022-M-001 originates from a filling layer in the corner between Buildings A and B, just to the east of Building B in square B8. Although the ceramic inventory of this stratum also demonstrates characteristics of the Late Bronze Age – most probably as a result of the massive building activity, especially for the foundation and walls of both structures – the weight can most probably be attributed to the Iron Age I or II period.

54 No spatial information concerning the exact location of the loom weights within the layer has been recorded by the excavators. 55 Bretschneider, Jans and Van Vyve 2011, 78-80.

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2. Iron Age II-III – Level 6CD/5AB Excavations as well as geomagnetic survey revealed a well-preserved plan of the city during the Iron II/III Age (ca. 900-500 BC).56 By the end of the 8th century BC, a significant architectural renewal occurred at the centre of Tell Tweini; the public buildings in Field A lost their original function and were divided into small chambers where specific economic and commercial activities took place, such as the production of olive oil and wine, witnessed by oil presses and re-fining installations found in many houses. a. Locus 01509 – Three spool-shaped loom weights Three loom weights (01509-M-002a-b) (Figs. 5a and b) can be categorized to the Iron Age II phase (Level 6CD). They were unearthed on the floor – partly composed of stones, partly of beaten earth – in an elongated room of 5 m by 1.9 m surrounded by several rooms abutting the street on its southern side in square C3-C4. The further floor inventory entailed a terracotta figurine of a pig and several semi-complete vessels like two kraters, a storage jar and a jug. b. Locus 01114 – Two spool-shaped and one discoid loom weight The Iron Age III level yielded two spool shaped loom weights (01114-M001-002) in the north-eastern corner of Field A, more particular in quadrant F1-G1. Both objects belong to the fill layer – composed of loci 01110, 01111, 01114 and 01116 – of a partially excavated Iron Age III (5AB) room. Although its northeast wall has not yet been exposed, this room measured at least 5.8 m by 3.3 m. The circa 35 cm thick fill layer covers floor 01115, partly consisting of large flat stone slabs. The deposit also includes a discoid loom weight with one perforation on the top (7 cm in diameter, 2 cm thick – 01110-M-002, Fig. 14), three fragments of in relief decorated stone (the largest measuring 17 × 11 × 13 cm - 01110-M-001a-c), a partially burnt and melted biconical spindle whorl(?) (01116-M-001, Figs. 16a and b), a cubic in greenish stone of 5 by 5 cm (01116-M-005) and a disk-shaped ceramic object (a loom weight or a spindle whorl) with a diameter of 3.2 cm, a thickness of 1 cm and a perforation of 0.6 cm57 (01116-M-006, Fig. 15).

56

Bretschneider, Jans and Van Vyve 2014, 355-356. Similar objects come from Enkomi (Cyprus) and are currently under study by C. Sauvage. Their use is for the moment uncertain. According to their weight, they could have been used as spindle whorls, but their shape and weight parallel some light-weight loom weights. 57

43

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D. TECHNICAL ANALYSIS OF THE LOOM WEIGHTS TEXTILE PRODUCTION IN IRON AGE TWEINI

AND OF THE

As mentioned earlier, the weight and diameter or thickness of loom weights are determining factors to understand the objects. The weight determines how many warp threads of a certain diameter can be attached to it, while the thickness/diameter controls the density of the warp threads.58 Therefore, a systematic analysis of these two factors allow us to reconstruct the type(s) of textiles that were woven with them. The calculations, derived from experiments conducted at CTR, are based on a tabby weave and propose possible or optimal thread count per cm according to specific warp tension (see Tab. 2). Table 2: Optimal, possible and unlikely number of threads per cm on a loom according to the type of thread and the tension it requires; according to Mårtensson, Nosch and Andersson Strand 2009, 393 (with modifications/extrapolation for 40 g warp/tension). Tension of the warp threads 10-20 g 20-30 g 30-40 g 40 g

Unlikely

Possible

> 40 threads/cm < 4 threads/cm > 30 threads/cm < 4 threads/cm > 20 threads/cm < 3 threads/cm > 15 threads/cm < 3 threads/cm

30-40 threads/cm 4 threads/cm 20-30 threads/cm 4 threads/cm 10-20 threads/cm 3 threads/cm 8-15 threads/cm 3 threads/cm

Optimal 5-30 threads/cm 5-20 threads/cm 4-10 threads/cm 4-8 threads/cm

a. Room 05873 All of the loom weights from locus 05875 could have been used together, since eight or nine of the 15 spools were found in an elongated cluster between a basalt vat and jars. We already mentioned two possible settings for their use on a loom, either in two rows of seven-eight loom weights, and possibly creating a 40 to 46 cm wide fabric as the average thickness of the loom weights is 5.76 cm; or in two rows of nine loom weights creating a 52 cm wide fabric, (average thickness of 5.8 cm). Precise calculations were possible for nine complete or almost complete objects from the Iron Age I context in Room 05873 (loci 05875 and 05887). According to our calculations detailed in Annex 1, and summarized in Table 3, these nine loom weights from locus 5875 in Room 58

Mårtensson, Nosch and Andersson Strand 2009.

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Table 3: Possible numbers of warp threads per cm and likeliness of the setting used with the loom weights from locus 05875 in Room 05873. For detailed tables see Annex 1. In bold are optimal set ups, in italic are unlikely set ups. Warp Thread Tension LW number 10 g

15 g

20 g

30 g

40 g

05875-M-001 (complete) 05875-M-005 (broken) 05875-M-006 (broken) 05875-M-007 (slightly broken) 05875-M-008 (complete) 05875-M-009 (complete) 05875-M-010 (slightly broken)

unlikely 11 possible 14 unlikely 13 or 14 possible unlikely unlikely unlikely

12 unlikely 7 optimal 10 optimal 9 optimal 11 optimal 11 optimal 9 optimal

9 optimal 5 optimal 7 optimal 7 optimal 8 optimal 8 optimal 7 optimal

6 optimal 4 optimal 5 optimal 4 optimal 5 optimal 6 optimal 5 optimal

05875-M-011 (complete) 05875-M-012 (complete) 05875-M-013 (broken) 05875-M-014 (slightly broken) 05875-M-015 (slightly broken)

13 possible unlikely unlikely unlikely 11 possible

9 optimal 11 optimal 10 or 11 optimal 10 optimal 7 optimal

6 optimal 9 optimal 8 optimal 7 or 8 optimal 5 or 6 optimal

4 optimal 6 optimal 5 optimal 5 optimal 3 or 4 possible/ optimal

4 optimal unlikely unlikely unlikely 4 optimal 4 optimal 3 or 4 possible/ optimal unlikely 4 optimal 4 optimal 4 optimal unlikely

05873 could have all functioned together and would have allowed to weave a variety of textiles with threads requiring a tension between 15 and 30 g (i.e. spun with spindle whorls of 8 to 18 g). Some could also have been used with threads requiring a tension of 40 g. With threads requiring 15 g of tension, the warp thread would likely have been between 7 and 11 threads per cm (average value of 9.5, median value of 10), therefore creating a fine and slightly transparent fabric. A balanced fabric, slightly denser (less open) than that of figure 3 could have been created while using threads requiring a tension of 20 g. In this case, the warp thread count per centimetre would likely have been between 5 and 9 threads/cm (average

45

CLAY LOOM WEIGHTS OF THE IRON AGE PERIOD

value of 7.25, median value of 7.25). Finally, a thicker fabric could have been weaved using threads requiring a tension of 30 g. The produced fabric would have been balanced and slightly open, with 3 to 6 threads per cm (average 4.9, median 5). If the bronze object found attached to loom weight 05875-M-010 (Fig. 12) is a beater, we should also imagine that weft-faced fabrics (Fig. 17b), tapestries, were woven on this loom. Although slightly damaged, both spools from locus 05887 in the northern part of Room 5873 functioned together and would have allowed to weave a variety of fine textiles with threads requiring a tension between 10 and 20 g (i.e. spun with spindle whorls of 4 to 8 g), while slightly heavier and denser textiles weaved with threads requiring a tension of 30 g (made with 18 g whorls) could also have been produced (see Tab. 4). The characteristics of these two loom weights compare with those of 05875-M-015 found in a different locus but within the same location within the room. Table 4: Possible numbers of warp threads per cm and likeliness of the setting used with the loom weights from Room 05873. For detailed tables see Annex 1. Thread tension LW number 05887-M-001 (slightly broken) 05887-M-002 (broken)

10 g

15 g

20 g

30 g

40 g

13 optimal 12 optimal

9 optimal 8 optimal

6 optimal 6 optimal

4 optimal 4 optimal

unlikely unlikely

Although it is technically possible to use these spools with the ones from locus 05875 to weave fabrics made with threads requiring 15 to 30 g of tension, it is easier (but not required) to set a loom with nearly identical loom weights and to attach an equal (or similar) number of threads to each weight. We proposed earlier that at least two looms were set in the room (one in locus 05875 with 15-18 loom weights and one in locus 05867 or in this area on the roof with 20 or 34 loom weights) and it is also possible that another set, allowing the production of finer fabrics (made with 10 g tension threads) was also stored or used in Room 05873. Locus 05867 has yielded 34 loom weights, but no weight information was recorded. As previously mentioned, it is likely that a loom with 2 rows of 10 loom weights was set up on the roof of the room. The average thickness of the 34 loom weights from locus 05867 is 6 cm, and therefore, if the loom from this context was set with two rows of 10 loom weights, the width of the created fabric would have been 60 cm. If 17 loom weights were used in each row (which is unlikely based on our study of their characteristics), then the fabric width would have been 102 cm wide.

46

C. SAUVAGE AND G. JANS

In an attempt to better understand the weights from this context, we propose to reconstruct the approximate weights of the spools from locus 05867 based on the known mass of complete loom weights from the same room.59 The assumption is that all of the objects had a similar density due to their similar material, date and context (therefore, it is likely that they were manufactured with a similar type of clay). The density of an object equals its mass divided by its volume (ρ=m/V). The volume of these spools is roughly that of a cylinder (V=πr2h, where r is the radius and h is the height), and the average density of the five complete spools from locus 05875 is 1,6562 g/cm3. We only reconstructed the volume, and thus the weight, of the cylindrical spools from locus 05867 and we left out the hourglass shaped spools (see Tab. 5 for the weights and reconstructed weights of the loom weights). Based on the reconstructed weights, we carried out a technical analysis of the spools (see Tab. 5 as well as Annex 2 for the complete calculations). Our reconstructions show that most, but not all, of the 34 spools could have functioned together. Only a few spools could have been used with lightweight threads requiring a tension of 10 g to produce a fine, lightweight and slightly transparent fabric with an average of 13 threads per cm. Most spools could have been used with threads requiring a tension of 15 g to produce a fabric with an average of 10 threads per cm (median value = 10). All of the spools could have been used to produce fabrics weaved with threads requiring a tension of 20 g and 30 g to produce balanced fabrics with respectively an average of 8 threads per cm (median value = 8) and an average of 5 threads per cm (median value = 5). Finally, the spools could have been used to produce a heavier fabric with thicker threads requiring a tension of 40 g (spun with 44 g whorls). The produced fabric would have had an average of 4 threads per cm (median value = 4). Table 5: Possible numbers of warp threads per cm and likeliness of the setting used with the unbaked spool-shaped loom weights from locus 05867 in Room 05873. Thread tension LW number 05867-M-01 05867-M-002 05867-M-003

59

10 g

15 g

20 g

30 g

40 g

15 unlikely 16 or 17 unlikely 13 optimal

10 optimal 11 optimal 8 or 9 optimal

7 optimal 8 optimal 6 or 7 optimal

5 optimal 5 or 6 optimal 4 or 5 optimal

4 optimal 4 optimal 3 possible

Loom weights 05875-M001, 05875-M008, 05875-M009, 05875-M011 and 05875-M012.

47

CLAY LOOM WEIGHTS OF THE IRON AGE PERIOD

Thread tension LW number 05867-M-008 05867-M-009 05867-M-010 05867-M-011 05867-M-012 05867-M-013 05867-M-014 05867-M-016 05867-M-017 05867-M-018 05867-M-019 05867-M-020 05867-M-024 05867-M-025 05867-M-026 05867-M-031 05867-M-032

10 g

15 g

20 g

30 g

40 g

19 unlikely 19 unlikely 17 unlikely 21 unlikely 21 unlikely 14 possible 20 unlikely 15 unlikely 15 or 16 unlikely 16 unlikely 18 unlikely 17 unlikely 16 unlikely 14 unlikely 17 unlikely 9 or 10 optimal 15 unlikely

13 unlikely 12 unlikely 11 or 12 possible 14 unlikely 14 unlikely 10 optimal 13 unlikely 10 or 11 optimal 10 optimal 11 optimal 11 or 12 possible 12 possible 10 optimal 9 optimal 11 optimal 6 or 7 optimal 10 optimal

9 or 10 optimal 9 or 10 optimal 8 optimal 10 optimal 10 optimal 7 optimal 10 optimal 8 optimal 7 or 8 optimal 8 optimal 9 optimal 9 optimal 8 optimal 7 optimal 8 optimal 5 optimal 8 optimal

6 optimal 6 optimal 6 optimal 7 optimal 7 optimal 5 optimal 6 or 7 optimal 5 optimal 5 optimal 5 optimal 6 optimal 6 optimal 5 optimal 4 or 5 optimal 6 optimal 3 possible 5 optimal

5 optimal 5 optimal 4 optimal 5 optimal 5 optimal 4 optimal 5 optimal 4 optimal 4 optimal 4 optimal 4 optimal 4 optimal 4 optimal 3 possible 4 optimal 2 unlikely 4 optimal

All of the spools from Room 05873 could have been used to produce balanced textiles weaved with threads requiring a tension of 15 to 30 g. However, different sets of loom weights, especially those from loci 05875 and 05867 exhibit different trends. The textiles produced with the loom weights from locus 05867 could have been slightly denser and heavier than the ones produced with the loom set in the northern part of the room (locus 05875). Finer

48

C. SAUVAGE AND G. JANS

fabrics could also have been produced with the loom weights found in locus 05887. Therefore, a wide range of fabrics could have been produced in the Early Iron Age Room 05873, from fine, lightweight and slightly transparent textile to heavier and coarser fabrics. All of the production would have been well-balanced, but the weavers could also have designed weft-faced fabrics (tapestries). E. COMPARISON WITH THE IRON AGE TEXTILE PRODUCTION OF NORTHERN SYRIA The textile production attested at Tell Tweini spans from the Iron I to the Iron III period, and although we are lacking some crucial weight data to fully reconstruct the industry in the Iron II and III periods, the current data shows that the type and dimension of the spools did not evolve during the period (thus the weight of the spool is not likely to have changed in a dramatic manner). Spools were the only type of loom weights used during the Iron I period, while in later layers, dated to the Iron II-III, a new type of discoid terracotta loom weight appears (01110-M-002 (see locus 01114)). This new thin loom weight (2 cm thick) would have allowed the production of a different type of fabric (compared to fabrics weaved with spools). While spools produce well-balanced, slightly transparent or opened fabrics, thinner loom weights create a denser fabric with many threads per cm (in this case possibly using fine yarn).60 Similar trends have been noticed at other Iron Age sites in northern Syria. At Tell Ta‘yinat and Tell Afis, spools were the only type of loom weight used in the Iron I period, then holed loom weights were introduced, and eventually became dominantly used during the Iron III period.61 Although data for the early part of the Iron Age I is lacking at Qatna, by the end of the Iron I, spools and pierced conical weights are found in the same contexts, and by the end of the Iron II, spools are ousted by doughnut-shaped loom weights.62 Published Iron Age I spools from Tell Afis demonstrate that light-weight fabrics were weaved with threads requiring a tension of 10, 15 and 20 g, and with a thread count of 10-13, 6-9 and 5-7 threads per cm (see Tab. 6). Another type of textile, slightly heavier and denser could also have been produced with threads varying between 30 and 40 g of tension, resulting in a density of 5 to 3 threads per cm. These textiles would therefore have been really similar to those produced in Room 05873 at Tell Tweini.

60 61 62

Mårtensson, Nosch and Andersson Strand 2009, 396. Cecchini 2010, 219; Lumb 2014, 146. Morandi Bonacossi forthcoming.

49

CLAY LOOM WEIGHTS OF THE IRON AGE PERIOD

Table 6: Possible numbers of warp threads per cm and likeliness of the setting used with the Iron Age I unbaked spools from Tell Afis, after Cecchini 2000, 231. Loom Weight

DiaWeight meter (g) (cm)

Warp thread tension 10 g

15 g

20 g

30 g

40 g

9 optimal 7 optimal

7 optimal 5 or 6 optimal

4 optimal 4 optimal 3 or 4 possible/ optimal 5 optimal 3 or 4 possible/ optimal 3 or 4 possible/ optimal

3 possible 3 possible

TA. 97.E.215

5.4

361

TA.97.E.227

4.8

260

13 optimal 11 optimal

TA.97.G.315

4.7

232

10 optimal

6 optimal

5 optimal

TA.92.G.429

6.1

508

17 possible

11 optimal

8 optimal

TA.94.G.342

4.5

249

11 optimal

8 optimal

5 optimal

TA.94.G.369d

5.4

285

10 or 11 optimal

7 optimal

5 optimal

2 or 3 possible 4 optimal 3 possible 3 possible

Although the textile tools from Tell Ta‘yinat are still under study, the preliminary results and graphs published by D. Lumb allow us to propose a reconstruction for the type of production in the Iron Age I.63 To do so, we extrapolated approximate diameters and weights published in a graph showing the weight and diameter of the Ta‘yinat spools during each phase of the Iron Age I (see Tab. 7). For our brief comparison, we only looked at the extreme value of each group: the lighter and skinner spools and the heaviest and thickest spools. As pointed out by Lumb, weight and diameter variation of the spools are visible during the Iron Age I, and they correspond to different types of fabrics being produced. During phase 6, slightly opened/transparent mediumweight to coarse fabrics were weaved with threads requiring 20 to 40 g of tension. During phase 5, light-weight to medium weight fabrics were manufactured, while a wide range of fabrics (from extremely fine gauze-like fabrics to medium weight or even coarser) were produced during phase 4. The range of the textile production decreased during phase 3, and only relatively light-weight fabrics were weaved. The really small and light-weight spools (< 100 g) found in phase 3 and 4 may have been used as supplementary weight or for band

63

Lumb 2014, fig. 1.

50

C. SAUVAGE AND G. JANS

weaving with tablets,64 or could have been used with really thin threads requiring a tension smaller than 10 g, and therefore produced with spindle whorls weighing less than 4 g. Table 7: Possible numbers of warp threads per cm and likeliness of the setting used with selected loom weights at both extremities of the size/weight range from Tell Ta‘yinat for each phase of the Iron Age. Data on the loom weights was published by Lumb 2014, Fig. 1. Loom Weight lighter & Field smaller Phase heavier & 6 thicker lighter & Field smaller Phase heavier & 5 thicker lighter & Field smaller Phase heavier & 4 thicker lighter & Field smaller Phase heavier & 3 thicker

DiaWeight meter (g) (cm) 6.3

510

7.8

735

5.4

225

7.3

500

2.6

40

8.6

740

3.1

60

8.5

360

Warp thread tension 10 g

15 g

20 g

30 g

40 g

unlikely unlikely 8 optimal unlikely unlikely unlikely 4 possible 8 possible

11 possible unlikely 5 or 6 optimal 9 optimal unlikely unlikely unlikely 6 optimal

8 optimal 9 possible 4 possible 7 optimal unlikely 9 possible unlikely 4 possible

5 optimal 6 optimal 3 possible 5 optimal unlikely 6 optimal unlikely unlikely

4 optimal 5 optimal unlikely 3 possible unlikely 4 optimal unlikely unlikely

F. CONCLUSION The textile production at Tell Tweini was well-diversified from the early phases of the Iron Age. The introduction of warp-weighted looms set up with spool-shaped loom weights would have allowed the inhabitants of Tell Tweini to produce well-balanced or weft-faced fabrics weaved with a variety of threads, from really fine to thicker. The resulting fabrics would have been slightly open and transparent in the case of tabbies and would have varied from fine to coarser. Textile production seems to have been conducted in domestic settings 64 Light-weight spools have also been found in Khania. For the use of small spools on borders see Ræder Knudsen 2002, 228-229 and Gleba 2008, 140-141.

CLAY LOOM WEIGHTS OF THE IRON AGE PERIOD

51

where weaving and possibly washing/dying took place along with storage and cooking activities. The production during the Iron Age I was more diversified at Tell Tweini than what we observed at other sites such as tell Ta‘yinat and Tell Afis. However, a generic trend can be confirmed for the region, where spool-shaped loom weights were exclusively used at the beginning of the Iron Age, while other types of loom weights started to be introduced during the Iron Age II/III periods. Experimental archaeology conducted by CTR has demonstrated that spoolshaped loom weights were efficient and easy to use when warping and regulating the length of warp on the loom. “In this sense, setting up the warp on the loom was easier with the spools than if using, for example, discoid loom weights, which need to be tied to the warp.”65 Also, since the spools can literally function as bobbins for the warp, they allow the weaver to keep several meters of warp well organized while weaving (see Fig. 1).66 Therefore, Olofsson, Andersson Strand and Nosch argue that spool shaped loom weights might correspond to a well-planned and efficient textile production,67 allowing weavers to produce really long textiles. At Tell Tweini, this new efficient textile production appears in the Early Iron Age, and corresponds to the adoption of a new type of loom, the warp-weighted loom, which was introduced from the west (the Aegean and/or Cyprus) or from Anatolia.68 While other types of looms, such as ground looms or vertical looms were certainly used at Late Bronze Age Tell Tweini, the introduction of this new technology could correspond to either the arrival of new western populations69 and/or the will to produce different type of textiles. Since warp-weighted looms were easier to set-up with spools, the wide-spread adoption of these weights in the northern Levant, where other types of looms were previously (and probably contemporaneously?) used might correspond to a technological choice: to adopt a new technology (warp-weighted looms) with the easiest setting possible (spools). Once the set up and use of these looms was mastered, other types of loom weights, as attested in the archaeological record at Tell Tweini, Qatna, and Tell Ta‘yinat, would have been introduced to continue to diversify the production.

65

Olofsson, Anderson Strand and Nosch 2015, 94-95. Olofsson, Anderson Strand and Nosch 2015, 95. 67 Olofsson, Anderson Strand and Nosch 2015, 95. 68 Barber 1991, 124. 69 They are generally found in LH IIIC layers in the Aegean, and in Early Iron Age levels in the Levant. They tend to be associated with Philistine settlement or populations, see Stager 1991; Yasur-Landau 2010, 841; Rahmstorf 2003; 2005 and 2011. 66

52

C. SAUVAGE AND G. JANS

BIBLIOGRAPHY Andersson E., E. Felucca, M.-L. Nosch and L. Peyronel 2010: New Perspectives on the Bronze Age Textile Production in the Eastern Mediterranean. The First Results with Ebla as a Pilot Study, in: P. Matthiae et al. (eds.), Proceedings of the 6th International Congress on the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East, Rome 5-10 May 2008, Wiesbaden, 159-176. Aspiris M. 1996: Ein zyprischer Teller mit der Darstellung eines Webstuhls, Sonderdruck aus Bonner Jahrbücher 196, 1-10. Barber E. J. W. 1991: Prehistoric Textiles: The Development of Cloth in the Neolithic and Bronze Age, with Special Reference to the Aegean, Princeton. — 1999: The Mummies of Ürümchi, New York. Bennett C. M. 1966: Fouilles d’Umm el-Biyara. Rapport préliminaire, Revue Biblique 73.3, 372-403. Breniquet C. 2008: Essai sur le tissage en Mésopotamie, des premières communautés sédentaires au milieu du IIIe millénaire avant J.-C. (Travaux de la Maison RenéGinouvès), Paris. Bretschneider J. and K. Van Lerberghe (eds.) 2008a: In Search of Gibala. An Archaeological and Historical Study Based on Eight Seasons of Excavations at Tell Tweini (Syria) in the A and C Fields (1999-2007) (Aula Orientalis Supplementa 24), Barcelona. Bretschneider J., A.-S. Van Vyve and G. Jans 2011: Tell Tweini: A Multi-Period Harbour Town at the Syrian Coast, in: J. Mynárová (ed.), Egypt and the Near East The Crossroads. Proceedings of the International Conference on the Relations between Egypt and the Near East in the Bronze Age, September 1-3, 2010, Charles University Prague, 73-87. Bretschneider J., G. Jans and A.-S. Vyve 2011: Les fouilles du Chantier A en 2009 et 2010. Une analyse préliminaire de la transition du Bronze Récent et l’Age du Fer I, in: M. Al-Maqdissi et al. (eds.), Tell Tweini. Onze Campagnes de Fouilles Syro-Belges (1999-2010), Damascus (https://www.academia.edu/645412/TELL_ T W E I N I _ O N Z E _ C A M PA G N E S _ D E _ F O U I L L E S _ S Y R O - B E L GES_1999-2010_), 131-146. — 2014: The Early Iron Age at Tell Tweini: Results from the 2008, 2009 and 2010 Excavations, in: F. Baffi et al. (eds.), Tell Tuqan Excavations and Regional Perspectives. Proceedings of the International Conference May 15th-17th 2013 – Lecce, Galatina, 325-342. Bretschneider J., G. Jans, A.-S. Van Vyve and M. Debruyne 2012: The ‘Ochre’ Room: Shedding Some Light on a ‘Dark’ Period of Transition. Tell Tweini in the Early Iron Age, in: T. Boiy et al. (eds.), The Ancient Near East, A Life! Festschrift Karel Van Lerberghe (Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta 220), Leuven, 59-74. Bretschneider J. and G. Jans 2019: The Glyptic of Tell Tweini Field A, in: J. Bretschneider and G. Jans (eds.), About Tell Tweini (Syria): Artefacts, Ecofacts and Landscape. Research Results of the Belgian Mission (Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta 281), Leuven, 149-179. Cecchini S. M. 2000: The Textile Industry in Northern Syria during the Iron Age According to the evidence of the Tell Afis Excavations, in: G. Bunnens (ed.), Essays on Syria in the Iron Age (Ancient Near Eastern Studies Supplement 7), Leuven, 211-233. — 2011: Loomweights and the Textile Industry in North Syria in the Early Iron Age, in V. Karageorghis and O. Kouka (eds.), On Cooking Pots, Drinking Cups,

CLAY LOOM WEIGHTS OF THE IRON AGE PERIOD

53

Loomweights and Ethnicity in Bronze Age Cyprus and Neighboring Regions. International Archaeological Symposium, Nicosia 6-7 November 2010, Nicosia, 195-202. Dagan A. and D. R. Cassuto 2016: Horbat Shim‘on: An Eight-Century BCE Textile Workshop in the Southern Coastal Plain, IEJ 66, 34-54. Gaignerot-Driessen F. 2013: The Excavation of Zone 3, in: J. Driessen et al. (eds.), Excavation at Sissi. Preliminary Report on the 2011 Campaign (Aegis VI), Louvain, 69-79. Gleba M. 2008: Textile production in pre-Roman Italy, Oxford. — 2009: Textile Tools and Specialisation in Early Iron Age Female Burials, in: E. Herring and K. Lomas (eds.), Gender Identities in Italy in the first Millennium BC, Oxford, 69-78. Harrison T. P. 2009: Neo-Hittites in the “Land of Palistin”. Renewed Investigations at Tell Ta‘yinat on the Plain of Antioch, Near Eastern Archaeology 72:4, 174-189. Kaniewski D., E. Paulissen, E. Van Campo, H. Weiss, T. Otto, J. Bretschneider and K. Van Lerberghe 2010: Late Second - Early First Millennium BC Abrupt Climate Changes in Coastal Syria and their Possible Significance for the History of the Eastern Mediterranean, Quaternary Research 74, 207-215. Lumb D. R. A. 2014: Textile Traditions of Northwest Syria during the Early Iron Age, in: K. Droß-Krüpe (ed.), Textile Trade and Distribution in Antiquity - Textilhandel und -distribution in der Antike, Wiesbaden, 141-150. Mårtensson L., M.-L. Nosch and E. Andersson Strand 2009: Shape of Things: Understanding a Loom Weight, Oxford Journal of Archaeology 28, 373-398. Mazzoni S. 2012: Temples at Tell Āfīs in Iron Age I-III, in: J. Kamlah (ed.), Temple Building and Temple Cult. Architecture and Cultic Paraphernalia of Temples in the Levant (2.-1 Mill. B.C.E.) (Abhandlungen des Deutschen Palästina-Vereins 41), Wiesbaden, 23-40. Morandi Bonacossi D. forthcoming: Iron Age Mishrifeh. An Aramean Specialised Productive Centre in the Hamath Kingdom?, in: A.M. Maeir and A. Berlejung (eds.), Dependency and Autonomy in Intercultural Relations: Israel and Aram as a Case Study, Wiesbaden. Nys K. and K. Middernacht 2011: The Cypriot Pottery from Field A, in: M. Al-Maqdissi et al. (eds.), Tell Tweini. Onze Campagnes de Fouilles Syro-Belges (1999-2010), Damascus, 123-30 (https://www.academia.edu/645412/TELL_TWEINI_ONZE_ CAMPAGNES_DE_FOUILLES_SYRO-BELGES_1999-2010_). Nys K. 2019: The Iron Age Cypriot Pottery from Tell Tweini Field A, in: J. Bretschneider and G. Jans (eds.), About Tell Tweini (Syria): Artefacts, Ecofacts and Landscape. Research Results of the Belgian Mission (Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta 281), Leuven, 395-415. Olofsson L., E. Andersson Strand and M.-L. Nosch 2015: Experimental testing of Bronze Age textile tools, in: E. Andersson Strand and M.-L. Nosch (eds.), Tools, Textiles and Contexts. Investigating Textile Production in the Aegean and Eastern Mediterranean Bronze Age, Oxford, 75-100. Peyronel L. 2004: Gli strumenti di tessitura dall’età del Bronzo all’epoca persiana (Ebla/Università degli Studi di Roma «La Sapienza»), Roma. Ræder Knudsen L. 2002: La tessitura con le tavolette nella tomba 89, in: P. von Eles (ed.), Guerriero e sacerdote. Autorità e communità nell’età del ferro a Verrucchio. La Tomba del Trono, Firenze, 220-234. Rahmstorf L. 2003: Clay Spools from Tiryns and Other Contemporary Sites: An Indication of Foreign Influence in LHIIIC?, in: N. Kyparissi-Apostolika and

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M. Papakonstantinou (eds.), Proceedings of the 2nd International Interdisciplinary Colloquium: The Periphery of the Mycenaean World, September 26-30, Lamia, Athens, 143-170. — 2005: Ethnicity and Changes in Weaving Technology in Cyprus and the Eastern Mediterranean in the 12th Century B.C., in: V. Karageorghis et al. (eds.), Cyprus: Religion and Society: From the Late Bronze Age to the End of the Archaic Period: Proceedings of an International Symposium on Cypriote Archaeology, Erlangen, 23-24 July 2004, Münster, 143-169. — 2011: Handmade Pots and Crumbling Loomweights: ‘Barbarian’ Elements in the Eastern Mediterranean in the last Quarter of the 2nd Millennium, in: V. Karageorghis and O. Kouka (eds.), On Cooking Pots, Drinking Cups, Loomweights and Ethnicity in Bronze Age Cyprus and Neighboring Regions. International Archaeological Symposium, Nicosia 6-7 November 2010, Nicosia, 315-330. Smith J. S. 2001: Bone weaving tools of the Late Bronze Age, in: P. M. Fischer (ed.), Contributions to the Archaeology and History of the Bronze and Iron Ages in the Eastern Mediterranean: Studies in Honour of Paul Åström, Vienna, 83-90. — 2002: Changes in the Workplace: Women and Textile Production on Late Bronze Age Cyprus, in: D. Bolger and N. Serwint (eds.), Engendering Aphrodite: Women and Society in Ancient Cyprus (American Schools of Oriental Research Archaeological Reports 7, Cyprus American Archaeological Research Institute Monograph 3), Boston, 281-311. — 2012: Tapestries in the Mediterranean Late Bronze Age, in: M.-L. Nosch and R. Laffineur (eds.), KOSMOS: Jewellery, Adornment and Textiles in the Aegean Bronze Age (Aegaeum 33), Leuven - Liège, 241-250. Stager L. 1991: When the Canaanites and Philistines Ruled Ashkelon, Biblical Archaeology Review 17.2, 24-43. Vansteenhuyse K. and J. Bretschneider 2011: Handmade Cooking pots from the Early Iron Age in Tell Tweini (Syria), in: V. Karageorghis and O. Kouka (eds.), On Cooking Pots, Drinking Cups, Loom Weights and Ethnicity in Bronze Age Cyprus and Neighbouring Regions, International Archaeological Symposium, Nicosia 6-7 November 2010, Nicosia, 187-194. Webb J. M. 2002: New Evidence for the Origins of Textile Production in Bronze Age Cyprus, Antiquity 76, 364-371. Yasur-Landau A. 2010: Levant, in: E. H. Cline (ed.), The Oxford handbook of the Bronze Age Aegean, Oxford.

Table 8: Catalogue of the Iron Age loom weights from Tell Tweini (Field A). N° 00042-M-002a 00042-M-002b 00042-M-002c 00042-M-002d 00042-M-002e 00042-M-002f

Find spot A2 A2 A2 A2 A2 A2

– – – – – –

Floor Floor Floor Floor Floor Floor

package package package package package package

Very Very Very Very Very Very

Preservation

Dimensions Weight (height × diameter)

bad bad bad bad bad bad

Ca. 10 × 5 cm ? ? ? ? ?

(fell (fell (fell (fell (fell (fell

apart) apart) apart) apart) apart) apart)

NA NA NA NA NA NA

CLAY LOOM WEIGHTS OF THE IRON AGE PERIOD

N° 00042-M-002g 01114-M-001 01114-M-002 01315-M-002 01315-M-003 01315-M-004 01509-M-002a 01509-M-002b 05863-M-003a 05863-M-003b 05866-M-001 05867-M-001 05867-M-002 05867-M-003 05867-M-004 05867-M-005 05867-M-006 05867-M-007 05867-M-008 05867-M-009 05867-M-010 05867-M-011 05867-M-012 05867-M-013

Find spot A2 – Floor package F1-G1 – Debris layer F1-G1 – Debris layer C3 – Debris layer C3 – Debris layer C3 – Debris layer C3-C4 – Floor C3-C4 – Floor B11 – Floor package Room 05873 B11 – Floor package Room 05873 C11-C12 – Floor package Room 05873 B11-B12 – Floor package Room 05873 B11-B12 – Floor package Room 05873 B11-B12 – Floor package Room 05873 B11-B12 – Floor package Room 05873 B11-B12 – Floor package Room 05873 B11-B12 – Floor package Room 05873 B11-B12 – Floor package Room 05873 B11-B12 – Floor package Room 05873 B11-B12 – Floor package Room 05873 B11-B12 – Floor package Room 05873 B11-B12 – Floor package Room 05873 B11-B12 – Floor package Room 05873 B11-B12 – Floor package Room 05873

Preservation

55

Dimensions Weight (height × diameter)

Very bad (fell apart) Partly preserved (1/2) Partly preserved (1/2) Partly preserved (1/2) Partly preserved (3/4) Partly preserved (3/4) Complete Complete Complete

? 5.5 × 6 cm 7.5 × 7 cm 7.9 × 5.3 cm 10 × 6.5 cm 9.5 × 5.4 cm 9.6 × 5.3 cm 9 × 5 cm 9.9 × 6 cm

NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA

Complete

9.2 × 5 cm

NA

Complete

9.8 × 5.4 cm

NA

Complete

10.9 × 5.4 cm

NA

Complete

10.9 × 5.8 cm

NA

Nearly complete

9.9 × 5.2 (4.7) cm

NA

Complete

11.2 × 6.5 (5.7) cm

NA

Complete

12.2 × 5.7 (5.1) cm

NA

Complete

8.8 × 6.0 (4.8) cm

NA

Complete

12.2 × 6.4 (6.3) cm

NA

Complete

11.4 × 6.5 cm

NA

Complete

11.9 × 6.1 cm

NA

Complete

11.1 × 5.9 cm

NA

Complete

13.2 × 6 cm

NA

Complete

12.9 × 6.2 cm

NA

Complete

10.9 × 5 cm

NA

56

N° 05867-M-014 05867-M-015 05867-M-016 05867-M-017 05867-M-018 05867-M-019 05867-M-020 05867-M-021 05867-M-022 05867-M-023 05867-M-024 05867-M-025 05867-M-026 05867-M-027 05867-M-028 05867-M-029 05867-M-030 05867-M-031 05867-M-032 05867-M-033 05867-M-034 05874-M-001

C. SAUVAGE AND G. JANS

Find spot B11-B12 – Floor package Room 05873 B11-B12 – Floor package Room 05873 B11-B12 – Floor package Room 05873 B11-B12 – Floor package Room 05873 B11-B12 – Floor package Room 05873 B11-B12 – Floor package Room 05873 B11-B12 – Floor package Room 05873 B11-B12 – Floor package Room 05873 B11-B12 – Floor package Room 05873 B11-B12 – Floor package Room 05873 B11-B12 – Floor package Room 05873 B11-B12 – Floor package Room 05873 B11-B12 – Floor package Room 05873 B11-B12 – Floor package Room 05873 B11-B12 – Floor package Room 05873 B11-B12 – Floor package Room 05873 B11-B12 – Floor package Room 05873 B11-B12 – Floor package Room 05873 B11-B12 – Floor package Room 05873 B11-B12 – Floor package Room 05873 B11-B12 – Floor package Room 05873 B11-B12 – Floor package Room 05873

Preservation

Dimensions Weight (height × diameter)

Complete

12.3 × 6.2 cm

NA

Complete

12.4 × 6.5 cm

NA

Complete

10.5 × 5.7 cm

NA

Nearly complete

9.6 × 6.1 cm

NA

Complete

10.3 × 6 cm

NA

Complete

11.4 × 5.9 cm

NA

Complete

11.2 × 6 cm

NA

Complete

10.6 × 5.9 cm

NA

Complete

9.7 × 6 (5.1) cm

NA

Complete

11.5 × 6.5 cm

NA

Nearly complete

10.8 × 5.6 cm

NA

Nearly complete

9.1 × 5.8 cm

NA

Nearly complete

11.3 × 5.7 cm

NA

Nearly complete

9.4 × 7.1 (5.7) cm

NA

Partly preserved (1/2)

6.9 × 6.1 cm

NA

Partly preserved (1/2)

5.9 × 6.4 cm

NA

Complete

10.1 × 6.4 cm

NA

Nearly complete

11.1 × 6.1 cm

NA

Nearly complete

10.2 × 5.7 cm

NA

Partly preserved (3/4)

7.8 × 5 cm

NA

Badly preserved (fell ? apart) Partly preserved (3/4?) 10 × 6.4 cm

NA NA

CLAY LOOM WEIGHTS OF THE IRON AGE PERIOD

N° 05875-M-001 05875-M-005 05875-M-006 05875-M-007 05875-M-008 05875-M-009 05875-M-010 05875-M-011 05875-M-012 05875-M-013 05875-M-014 05875-M-015 05875-M-018 05875-M-022 05875-M-027 05887-M-001 05887-M-002 05950-M-004 06022-M-001 06404-M-001 06404-M-002 06450-M-002

Find spot B11 – Floor package Room 05873 B11 – Floor package Room 05873 B11 – Floor package Room 05873 B11 – Floor package Room 05873 B11 – Floor package Room 05873 B11 – Floor package Room 05873 B11 – Floor package Room 05873 B11 – Floor package Room 05873 B11 – Floor package Room 05873 B11 – Floor package Room 05873 B11 – Floor package Room 05873 B11 – Floor package Room 05873 B11 – Floor package Room 05873 B11 – Floor package Room 05873 B11 – Floor package Room 05873 B11 – Floor package Room 05873 B11 – Floor package Room 05873 C11-D11 – Topsoil area Room 05873 B8 – Debris layer B11-B12 – Floor package Room 05873 B11-B12 – Floor package Room 05873 C11-C12 – Topsoil area Room 05873

Preservation

57

Dimensions Weight (height × diameter)

Complete

10.5 × 6.7 cm

580 g

Partly preserved (3/4)

10.2 × 6.2 cm

325 g

Nearly complete

11.4 × 5.6 cm

400 g

Nearly complete

11.3 × 5.1 cm

345 g

Complete

10.5 × 5.9 cm

475 g

Complete

11.3 × 5.7 cm

480 g

Nearly complete

11 × 6 cm

420 g

Complete

10.4 × 5.3 cm

340 g

Complete

10.5 × 5.8 cm

500 g

Partly preserved (3/4)

11.7 × 5.7 cm

450 g

Partly preserved (3/4)

11.3 × 5.3 cm

400 g

Nearly complete

11.2 × 6.3 cm

340 g

Very bad (fell apart)

?

NA

Partly preserved (3/4)

11 × 5.9 cm

NA

Nearly complete

9.2 × 5.2 cm

NA

Nearly complete

8.1 × 4.4 cm

280 g

Partly preserved (1/2)

7.5 × 4.5 cm

280 g

Partly preserved (3/4?) 9.5 × 6.5 (6) cm

NA

Complete Complete

10.6 × 5.1 cm 11.5 × 6.4 (5.6) cm

NA NA

Nearly complete

10.1 × 5.5 cm

NA

Partly preserved (3/4)

10.5 × 6.8 cm

NA

58

C. SAUVAGE AND G. JANS

Fig. 1: Attachment of warp on a spool, after Olofsson, Anderson Strand and Nosch 2015, fig. 4.1.29; © CTR.

Fig. 2: Loom setting with spools used as loom weight, after Olofsson, Anderson Strand and Nosch 2015, fig. 4.1.31; © CTR.

Fig. 3: Sample made at CTR using large spools (thickness of 5.5 cm, weight 280 g) and a yarn requiring a tension of 18-20 g per thread (i.e. spun with an 8 g whorl), after Olofsson, Anderson Strand and Nosch 2015, fig. 4.1.25; © CTR.

CLAY LOOM WEIGHTS OF THE IRON AGE PERIOD

Fig. 4: Representation of a warp-weighted loom with spool on a Cypro-geometric Bichrome shallow bowl. Akademisches Kunstmuseum, Bonn University, after Aspiris 1996, 3, Fig. 1.

59

60

C. SAUVAGE AND G. JANS

Fig. 5a: 01509-M002a.

Fig. 5c: 05866-M-001.

Fig. 5e: 05867-M-005.

Fig. 5b: 01509-M002b.

Fig. 5d: 05867-M-002 & 003.

Fig. 5f: 05867-M-006.

CLAY LOOM WEIGHTS OF THE IRON AGE PERIOD

Fig. 5g: 05867-M-009.

Fig. 5h: 05867-M-010.

Fig. 5i: 05867-M-013.

Fig. 5j: 05867-M-014.

Fig. 5k: 05867-M-020.

Fig. 5l: 05867-M-024.

61

62

C. SAUVAGE AND G. JANS

Fig. 5m: 05867-M-031.

Fig. 5n: 05867-M-031.

Fig. 5o: 05875-M-001.

Fig. 5p: 05875-M-008.

Fig. 5q: 05875-M-009.

Fig. 5r: 05875-M-011.

CLAY LOOM WEIGHTS OF THE IRON AGE PERIOD

Fig. 5s: 05875-M-012.

Fig. 5t: 05878-M-009.

Fig. 5u: 05887-M-001.

Fig. 5v: 05950-M-004.

Fig. 5w: 06404-M-001.

Fig. 5x: 06404-M-002.

63

64

C. SAUVAGE AND G. JANS

Fig. 5y: 06450-M-002. Fig. 5: A selection of photographs of A Field loom weights.67

Fig. 6a: 05863-M-003a.

Fig. 6b: 05863-M-003b.

Fig. 6c: 05867-M-001.

Fig. 6d: 05867-M-004.

67 All photos of loom weights by G. Jans, H. Hameeuw and J. Bretschneider, except for 01509M002a and b: by B. Vandermeulen.

65

CLAY LOOM WEIGHTS OF THE IRON AGE PERIOD

Fig. 6e: 05867-M-008.

Fig. 6i: 05867-M-019.

Fig. 6f: 05867-M-011.

Fig. 6j: 05867-M-022.

Fig. 6g: 05867-M-012.

Fig. 6k: 05875-M-009.

Fig. 6h: 05867-M-016.

Fig. 6l: Lower side of spool loom weight 05875-M-009.

Fig. 6: A selection of drawings of A Field loom weights (Drawings by G. Jans, 05863-M-003 by J. Vansweevelt).

66

C. SAUVAGE AND G. JANS

Fig. 7: Room 05873 (excavated by E. Gorris, G. Jans, G. Neumann and E. Van Belle; plan by M. Gernaey and H. Hameeuw, locus information by G. Jans).

CLAY LOOM WEIGHTS OF THE IRON AGE PERIOD

Fig. 8: Room 05873 – View from the south (Photo by J. Bretschneider).

67

Fig. 9: Row of spool shaped loom weights in the ochre layer, above in situ-jars (locus 05867 in Room 05873). View from the south (Photo by G. Jans).

Fig. 10: Spool shaped loom weights from locus 05867 found above and in the layer of in-situ jars (Photo by G. Jans).

68

C. SAUVAGE AND G. JANS

Fig. 11: Room 05873, locus 05875: view of the basalt recipient 05875-M-01 with 10 spool shaped looms weights and jar fragments (Photo by J. Bretschneider).

Fig. 12: Spool shaped loom weight 05875-M-010 with a bronze object attached to its side (Photo by G. Jans).

Fig. 13: Examples of bones beaters from Enkomi, Cyprus (Dikaios excavations, ENK2050 and ENK1021/1) (Photo by C. Sauvage).

CLAY LOOM WEIGHTS OF THE IRON AGE PERIOD

Fig. 14: 01110-M-002 (Diam.: 7.7 cm, Th.: 2 cm) (Drawing by K. Hellemans).

69

Fig. 15: 01116-M-006 (Diam.: 3.2 cm, Th.: 1 cm) (Drawing by K. Hellemans).

Fig. 16: 01116-M-001 (Photo by B. Vandermeulen).

Fig. 17a-b: Balanced tabby (left) and weft-faced fabric (right) weaved using small spools during an experiment at CTR. A thin thread was used to create the balanced tabby, while a thicker weft thread was used on the right; after Olofsson, Anderson Strand and Nosch 2015, fig. 4.1.26; © CTR.

70

C. SAUVAGE AND G. JANS

ANNEX 1. LOOM WEIGHTS FROM ROOM 05873. Locus 05875 70 71 72 73 Loom weight 05875-M-001. Weight 580 g. Thickness 6.7 cm. Spool shaped, complete. Warp threads requiring a tension of

15 g

20 g

30 g

40 g

Number of warp threads per loom weight68 Number of warp threads per two loom weights (one in front layer – one in back layer)69 Warp threads/cm70 Suitability

39

29

19

14 or 15

78

58

38

28 or 30

12 unlikely

9 optimal

6 optimal

4 optimal

Loom weight 05875-M-005. Weight 325 g. Thickness 6.2 cm. Spool shaped, broken. Warp threads requiring a tension of

10 g

Number of warp threads per loom weight 32 or 33 Number of warp threads per two loom 64 or 66 weights (one in front layer – one in back layer) Warp threads/cm 11 Suitability possible

15 g

20 g

30 g

22 44

16 32

11 22

7 optimal

5 optimal

4 optimal

Loom weight 05875-M-006. Weight 400 g. Thickness 5.6 cm. Spool shaped, broken. Warp threads requiring a tension of

10 g

Number of warp threads per loom weight 40 Number of warp threads per two loom 80 weights (one in front layer – one in back layer) Warp threads/cm 14 Suitability unlikely

15 g

20 g

30 g

27 54

20 40

13 26

10 optimal

7 optimal

5 optimal

70 71 72 73

Loom weight weight divided by warp tension. Result above multiplied by number of rows of loom weights (2 in a tabby). Result above divided by loom weight thickness in cm.

71

CLAY LOOM WEIGHTS OF THE IRON AGE PERIOD

Loom weight 05875-M-007. Weight 345 g. Thickness 5.1 cm. Spool shaped, slightly broken. Warp threads requiring a tension of

10 g

15 g

20 g

30 g

Number of warp threads per loom weight Number of warp threads per two loom weights (one in front layer – one in back layer) Warp threads/cm Suitability

34 or 35 68 or 70

23 46

17 34

11 or 12 22 or 24

13 or 14 possible

9 optimal

7 4 or 5 optimal optimal

Loom weight 05875-M-008. Weight 475 g. Thickness 5.9 cm. Spool shaped, complete. Warp threads requiring a tension of

15 g

Number of warp threads per loom weight 32 Number of warp threads per two loom 64 weights (one in front layer – one in back layer) Warp threads/cm 11 Suitability optimal

20 g

30 g

40 g

24 48

16 32

12 24

8 optimal

5 optimal

4 optimal

Loom weight 05875-M-009. Weight 480 g. Thickness 5.7 cm. Spool shaped, complete. Warp threads requiring a tension of

15 g

Number of warp threads per loom weight 32 Number of warp threads per two loom 64 weights (one in front layer – one in back layer) Warp threads/cm 11 Suitability optimal

20 g

30 g

40 g

24 48

16 32

12 24

8 optimal

6 optimal

4 optimal

Loom weight 05875-M-010. Weight 420 g. Thickness 6 cm. Spool shaped, slightly broken. Warp threads requiring a tension of

15 g

Number of warp threads per loom weight 28 Number of warp threads per two loom 56 weights (one in front layer – one in back layer) Warp threads/cm 9 Suitability optimal

20 g

30 g

40 g

21 42

14 28

10 or 11 20 or 22

7 optimal

5 3 or 4 optimal possible/ optimal

72

C. SAUVAGE AND G. JANS

Loom weight 05875-M-011. Weight 340 g. Thickness 5.3 cm. Spool shaped, complete. Warp threads requiring a tension of

10 g

Number of warp threads per loom weight 34 Number of warp threads per two loom 68 weights (one in front layer – one in back layer) Warp threads/cm 13 Suitability possible

15 g

20 g

30 g

23 46

17 34

11 22

9 optimal

6 optimal

4 optimal

Loom weight 05875-M-012. Weight 500 g. Thickness 5.8 cm. Spool shaped, complete. Warp threads requiring a tension of

15 g

Number of warp threads per loom weight 33 Number of warp threads per two loom 66 weights (one in front layer – one in back layer) Warp threads/cm 11 Suitability optimal

20 g

30 g

40 g

25 50

17 34

12 or 13 24 or 26

9 optimal

6 optimal

4 optimal

Loom weight 05875-M-013. Weight 450 g. Thickness 5.7 cm. Spool shaped, broken. Warp threads requiring a tension of

15 g

20 g

Number of warp threads per loom weight 30 22 or 23 Number of warp threads per two loom 60 44 or 46 weights (one in front layer – one in back layer) Warp threads/cm 10 or 11 8 Suitability optimal optimal

30 g

40 g

15 30

11 22

5 optimal

4 optimal

Loom weight 05875-M-014. Weight 400 g. Thickness 5.3 cm. Spool shaped, slightly broken. Warp threads requiring a tension of

15 g

Number of warp threads per loom weight 27 Number of warp threads per two loom 54 weights (one in front layer – one in back layer) Warp threads/cm 10 Suitability optimal

20 g

30 g

40 g

20 40

13 26

10 20

7 or 8 optimal

5 optimal

4 optimal

73

CLAY LOOM WEIGHTS OF THE IRON AGE PERIOD

Loom weight 05875-M-015. Weight 340 g. Thickness 6.3 cm. Spool shaped, slightly broken. Warp threads requiring a tension of

10 g

Number of warp threads per loom weight 34 Number of warp threads per two loom 68 weights (one in front layer – one in back layer) Warp threads/cm 11 Suitability possible

15 g

20 g

30 g

23 46

17 34

11 22

7 optimal

5 or 6 3 or 4 optimal possible/ optimal

Locus 05887 Loom weight 05887-M-001. Weight 280 g. Thickness 4.4 cm, Spool shaped, slightly broken. Warp threads requiring a tension of

10 g

Number of warp threads per loom weight 28 Number of warp threads per two loom 56 weights (one in front layer – one in back layer) Warp threads/cm 13 Suitability optimal

15 g

20 g

30 g

19 38

14 28

9 18

9 optimal

6 optimal

4 optimal

Loom weight 05887-M-002. Weight 280 g. Thickness 4.5 cm, Spool shaped, broken. Warp threads requiring a tension of

10 g

Number of warp threads per loom weight 28 Number of warp threads per two loom 56 weights (one in front layer – one in back layer) Warp threads/cm 12 Suitability optimal

15 g

20 g

30 g

19 38

14 28

9 18

8 optimal

6 optimal

4 optimal

74

C. SAUVAGE AND G. JANS

ANNEX 2. RECONSTRUCTED WEIGHT AND CHARACTERISTICS LOOM WEIGHTS FROM LOCUS 05867 IN ROOM 05873

OF THE

LW number 05867-M-001 05867-M-002 05867-M-003 05867-M-008 05867-M-009 05867-M-010 05867-M-011 05867-M-012 05867-M-013 05867-M-014 05867-M-016 05867-M-017 05867-M-018 05867-M-019 05867-M-020 05867-M-024 05867-M-025 05867-M-026 05867-M-031 05867-M-032

Radius (r) in cm

Height (h) in cm

2,7 2,9 2,5 3,25 3,05 2,95 3 3,1 2,5 3,1 2,85 3,05 3 2,95 3 2,8 2,9 2,85 3,05 2,85

10,9 10,9 9,9 11,4 11,9 11,1 13,2 12,9 10,9 12,3 10,5 9,6 10,3 11,4 11,2 10,8 9,1 11,3 6,1 10,2

Weight (1,6561884xπr2h) in g 413 477 322 626,5 576 503 618 645 354 615 444 465 482 516 524 440,5 398 477,5 295 431

Reconstructed weight of cylindrical loom weights from locus 05867 at Tell Tweini based on average density of complete loom weights from locus 05875.

75

CLAY LOOM WEIGHTS OF THE IRON AGE PERIOD

Loom weight 05867-M-001 Weight 413 g. Thickness 5.4 cm. Warp threads requiring a tension of

10 g

15 g

20 g

30 g

40 g

Number of warp threads per loom weight71 Number of warp threads per two loom weights (one in front layer – one in back layer)72 Warp threads/cm73 Suitability

41

27 or 28

20

14

10

82

54 or 56

40

28

20

15 unlikely

10 optimal

7 optimal

5 optimal

4 optimal

15 g

20 g

30 g

40 g

32 64

24 48

16 32

12 24

11 optimal

8 optimal

5 or 6 optimal

4 optimal

Loom weight 05867-M-002 Weight 477 g. Thickness 5.8 cm. Warp threads requiring a tension of

10 g

Number of warp threads per loom weight 48 Number of warp threads per two loom 96 weights (one in front layer – one in back layer) Warp threads/cm 16 or 17 Suitability unlikely

Loom weight 05867-M-003 Weight 322 g. Thickness 4.95 cm. Warp threads requiring a tension of

10 g

Number of warp threads per loom weight 32 Number of warp threads per two loom 64 weights (one in front layer – one in back layer) Warp threads/cm 13 Suitability optimal

15 g

20 g

30 g

40 g

21 42

16 32

11 22

8 16

8 or 9 optimal

6 or 7 optimal

4 or 5 optimal

3 possible

74 75 76

74 75 76

Loom weight weight divided by warp tension. Result above multiplied by number of rows of loom weights (2 in a tabby). Result above divided by loom weight thickness in cm.

76

C. SAUVAGE AND G. JANS

Loom weight 05867-M-008 Weight 626.5 g. Thickness 6.5 cm. Warp threads requiring a tension of

10 g

Number of warp threads per loom weight 63 Number of warp threads per two loom 126 weights (one in front layer – one in back layer) Warp threads/cm 19 Suitability unlikely

15 g

20 g

30 g

40 g

42 84

31 62

21 42

16 32

13 unlikely

9 or 10 optimal

6 optimal

5 optimal

15 g

20 g

30 g

40 g

38 76

29 58

19 38

14 28

Loom weight 05867-M-009 Weight 576 g. Thickness 6.1 cm. Warp threads requiring a tension of

10 g

Number of warp threads per loom weight 58 Number of warp threads per two loom 116 weights (one in front layer – one in back layer) Warp threads/cm 19 Suitability unlikely

12 unlikely

9 or 10 6 optimal optimal

5 optimal

Loom weight 05867-M-010 Weight 503g. Thickness 5.9 cm. Warp threads requiring a tension of

10 g

Number of warp threads per loom weight 50 Number of warp threads per two loom 100 weights (one in front layer – one in back layer) Warp threads/cm 17 Suitability unlikely

15 g

20 g

30 g

40 g

33 or 34 66 or 68

25 50

17 32

13 26

11 or 12 possible

8 optimal

6 optimal

4 optimal

15 g

20 g

30 g

40 g

41 82

31 62

21 42

15 30

14 unlikely

10 optimal

7 optimal

5 optimal

Loom weight 05867-M-011 Weight 618 g. Thickness 6 cm. Warp threads requiring a tension of

10 g

Number of warp threads per loom weight 62 Number of warp threads per two loom 124 weights (one in front layer – one in back layer) Warp threads/cm 21 Suitability unlikely

77

CLAY LOOM WEIGHTS OF THE IRON AGE PERIOD

Loom weight 05867-M-012 Weight 645 g. Thickness 6.2 cm. Warp threads requiring a tension of

10 g

Number of warp threads per loom weight 64 or 65 Number of warp threads per two loom 128 or weights (one in front layer – one in back 130 layer) Warp threads/cm 21 Suitability unlikely

15 g

20 g

30 g

40 g

43 86

32 64

21 or 22 42 or 44

16 32

14 unlikely

10 optimal

7 optimal

5 optimal

15 g

20 g

30 g

40 g

24 48

18 36

12 24

9 18

10 optimal

7 optimal

5 optimal

4 optimal

15 g

20 g

30 g

40 g

41 82

31 62

20 or 21 40 or 42

15 30

13 unlikely

10 optimal

6 or 7 optimal

5 optimal

15 g

20 g

30 g

40 g

30 60

22 44

15 30

11 22

10 or 11 optimal

8 optimal

5 optimal

4 optimal

Loom weight 05867-M-013 Weight 354 g. Thickness 5 cm. Warp threads requiring a tension of

10 g

Number of warp threads per loom weight 35 Number of warp threads per two loom 70 weights (one in front layer – one in back layer) Warp threads/cm 14 Suitability possible

Loom weight 05867-M-014 Weight 615 g. Thickness 6.2 cm. Warp threads requiring a tension of

10 g

Number of warp threads per loom weight 61 or 62 Number of warp threads per two loom 122 or weights (one in front layer – one in back 124 layer) Warp threads/cm 20 Suitability unlikely

Loom weight 05867-M-016 Weight 444 g. Thickness 5.7 cm. Warp threads requiring a tension of

10 g

Number of warp threads per loom weight 44 Number of warp threads per two loom 88 weights (one in front layer – one in back layer) Warp threads/cm 15 Suitability unlikely

78

C. SAUVAGE AND G. JANS

Loom weight 05867-M-017 Weight 465 g. Thickness 6.1 cm. Warp threads requiring a tension of

10 g

15 g

20 g

30 g

40 g

Number of warp threads per loom weight Number of warp threads per two loom weights (one in front layer – one in back layer) Warp threads/cm Suitability

46 or 47 92 or 94

31 62

23 46

15 or 16 30 or 32

12 24

15 or 16 unlikely

10 optimal

7 or 8 optimal

5 optimal

4 optimal

15 g

20 g

30 g

40 g

32 64

24 48

16 32

12 24

11 optimal

8 optimal

5 optimal

4 optimal

15 g

20 g

30 g

40 g

34 68

26 52

17 34

13 26

11 or 12 possible

9 optimal

6 optimal

4 optimal

15 g

20 g

30 g

40 g

35 70

26 52

17 34

13 26

12 possible

9 optimal

6 optimal

4 optimal

Loom weight 05867-M-018 Weight 482 g. Thickness 6 cm. Warp threads requiring a tension of

10 g

Number of warp threads per loom weight 48 Number of warp threads per two loom 96 weights (one in front layer – one in back layer) Warp threads/cm 16 Suitability unlikely

Loom weight 05867-M-019 Weight 516 g. Thickness 5.9 cm. Warp threads requiring a tension of

10 g

Number of warp threads per loom weight 52 Number of warp threads per two loom 104 weights (one in front layer – one in back layer) Warp threads/cm 18 Suitability unlikely

Loom weight 05867-M-020 Weight 524 g. Thickness 6 cm. Warp threads requiring a tension of

10 g

Number of warp threads per loom weight 52 Number of warp threads per two loom 104 weights (one in front layer – one in back layer) Warp threads/cm 17 Suitability unlikely

79

CLAY LOOM WEIGHTS OF THE IRON AGE PERIOD

Loom weight 05867-M-024 Weight 440,5 g. Thickness 5.6 cm. Warp threads requiring a tension of

10 g

Number of warp threads per loom weight 44 Number of warp threads per two loom 88 weights (one in front layer – one in back layer) Warp threads/cm 16 Suitability unlikely

15 g

20 g

30 g

40 g

29 58

22 44

15 30

11 22

10 optimal

8 optimal

5 optimal

4 optimal

15 g

20 g

30 g

40 g

26 or 27 52 or 54

20 40

13 26

10 20

9 optimal

7 optimal

4 or 5 optimal

3 possible

Loom weight 05867-M-025 Weight 398g. Thickness 5.8 cm. Warp threads requiring a tension of

10 g

Number of warp threads per loom weight 40 Number of warp threads per two loom 80 weights (one in front layer – one in back layer) Warp threads/cm 14 Suitability unlikely

Loom weight 05867-M-026 Weight 477.5 g. Thickness 5.7 cm. Warp threads requiring a tension of

10 g

Number of warp threads per loom weight 48 Number of warp threads per two loom 96 weights (one in front layer – one in back layer) Warp threads/cm 17 Suitability unlikely

15 g

20 g

30 g

40 g

32 64

24 48

16 32

12 24

11 optimal

8 optimal

6 optimal

4 optimal

15 g

20 g

30 g

40 g

20 40

15 30

10 20

7 14

6 or 7 optimal

5 optimal

3 possible

2 unlikely

Loom weight 05867-M-031 Weight 295 g. Thickness 6.1 cm. Warp threads requiring a tension of

10 g

Number of warp threads per loom weight 29 or 30 Number of warp threads per two loom 58 or 60 weights (one in front layer – one in back layer) Warp threads/cm 9 or 10 Suitability optimal

80

C. SAUVAGE AND G. JANS

Loom weight 05867-M-032 Weight 431 g. Thickness 5.7 cm. Warp threads requiring a tension of

10 g

Number of warp threads per loom weight 43 Number of warp threads per two loom 86 weights (one in front layer – one in back layer) Warp threads/cm 15 Suitability unlikely

15 g

20 g

30 g

40 g

29 58

21 or 22 42 or 44

14 28

11 22

10 optimal

7 or 8 optimal

5 optimal

4 optimal

POTMARKS FROM TELL TWEINI FIELD A Nicolle HIRSCHFELD1, Greta JANS2 and Joachim BRETSCHNEIDER3 with the contribution of Bart STEUTELINGS2 1

Trinity University - Department of Classical Studies 2 KU Leuven - Near Eastern Studies 2 Ghent University - Department of Archaeology

Archaeological and ethnographic sources provide evidence for the practice of marking objects of all sorts by a variety of means in many different cultures around the world. In the Eastern Mediterranean of the Late Bronze and Early Iron Ages, the preponderance of extant evidence is in the form of marks impressed, incised, or painted on ceramic vessels.1 The great majority of Late Bronze Age potmarks have been recovered from Cyprus and neighbouring Ras Shamra/Minet el Beidha, with smaller quantities found along the Eastern Mediterranean and Aegean littoral. Scholarly attention at first focused on incised and painted potmarks as signs of Aegean or Cypriot writing2 but recent work has more broadly considered the contexts and ductus (manner of application) of the marks with the aim of identifying their functions.3 Geographical focus has also broadened as increasing numbers of potmarks have been noted in archaeological assemblages from the Levant and, to a more limited degree, Anatolia.4 In the Iron Age, the prevalence of evidence shifts to the Levant. Here we present seventy-seven potmarks from Field A in the centre of Tell Tweini (see catalogue, Table 3 and Figs. 2-61). This assemblage represents a significant addition to the hitherto published corpora of potmarks from the Late Bronze/Early Iron Age Levant. A more elaborate study was originally planned but the unstable situation in Syria has made further documentation and investigation impossible. We are aware of the preliminary character of this presentation but we nevertheless want to disclose these data now in the hope that this contribution – in anticipation of a more profound study in the future – will to some extent enhance the increasing evidence for marked vessels in general and their connotation for the circulation of goods in the Late Bronze/ Early Iron Age Eastern Mediterranean in particular.

1 Marks occur on other media as well; for example, metal ingots are regularly marked in the Late Bronze Age Eastern Mediterranean (Glatz 2012, 33-34). 2 Hirschfeld 2008, 120-1. 3 Yasur Landau and Goren 2004. 4 For example, Yasur Landau and Goren 2004; Hirschfeld 2007; Matoïan 2012; Glatz 2012.

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The catalogue is organized by inventory number and includes the stratigraphic level and the location within Field A of each marked vessel, the functional attribution of its find spot, the shape and fabric of the marked vase where known, the position of the sign on the vessel, the ductus (incised, impressed or painted), and a drawing or photograph whenever available. We have not been able to assess the material first-hand, and thus this account is based exclusively on visual inspection of photographs, drawings, and very brief annotations in the ceramic lists.5 Significant data are unfortunately missing. For example, shapes and wares are often elusively or not at all recorded in the pottery notes, and one-fourth of the marks lack a drawing or picture. Also, it has for the most part been impossible to assess whether the potmarks were made before or after firing. Table 1. Amount of marked vases per level/period (in darker grey the number of marked vases ascribed to just one period). MBA – Level 8 Number of marked 4 vases ascribed to 2 contexts for which 1 the ceramological attributed date covers one or multiple levels

LBA – Level 7

IA I – Level IA II – Level 6GH-6EF 6CD-6AB

IA III – Level 5-4

18 2 15 3 4 6 6 11 3 3

Most of the marked vases found at Tweini come from Late Bronze or earlier Iron Age contexts (Table 1).6 The fact that only four were certainly found in 5 We thank Dr. Klaas Vansteenhuyse – the Tweini ceramologist – for noting the potmarks in the Tweini ceramic description list. His comments consist of short descriptions like ‘incised sign (cross) in handle’, ‘impressed handle’, ‘body fragment with incised cross’ etc. And it is our pleasure to thank the following persons: the ceramic team under the supervision of Dr. Klaas Vansteenhuyse: Evy Cuypers, Liesje De Haes, Elise Duflou, Elynn Gorris, Karolien Hellemans and Karolien Senica; for the drawings: Evy Cuypers (in the pointed drawing style), for inking a number of drawings: Greta Jans; for the pictures: Bruno Vandermeulen, Klaas Vansteenhuyse, Hendrik Hameeuw and Joachim Bretschneider. 6 Concerning the different periods found at Tweini, see: Bretschneider et al. in this volume, Bretschneider, Jans and Van Vyve 2015 and 2014; Bretschneider, Van Vyve and Jans 2011.

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the Middle Bronze Age strata (Level 8) is probably due to the limited exposure of this level. Two are broadly ascribed to the Middle/Late Bronze Age (Level 8-7), eighteen are from Late Bronze Age contexts (Level 7), two come from contexts that span the Late Bronze Age/Iron Age I (Levels 7-6GH-EF), and eighteen come from contexts that span the Late Bronze/Iron Age more broadly (Levels 7-6 or 7-4). Four marked vases come from the Iron Age I phase (Levels 6GH-EF), eleven from the Iron Age II period (Levels 6CD-AB), and three from Iron Age III (Levels 5-4). Fifteen fall within various Iron Age spans. Except for one marked container which belonged to the funerary inventory of a communal Middle Bronze Age grave (00177-C-008), the marked vases in Field A were found in fill (69) or floor (7) contexts within domestic or official buildings. The marked vessels attributed to the Late Bronze Age are scattered throughout Field A,7 characterized in that period by large domestic buildings constructed from fieldstones and with stone pavements. The marks of the Iron Age II period are concentrated in the northern part of Field A, which continued to function as a domestic area (Fig. 1).8 Far fewer were found in the large official buildings (Buildings A, B and C) in the central and southern sectors. The number of potmarks found in Middle Bronze, Iron Age I and III levels is too small to yield any meaningful patterns of functional distribution. The floor contexts do not assist in elucidating how these marks may have functioned at Tell Tweini. Only one 05868-C-002 comes from a context (Locus 05868) whose activities can be discerned from associated finds.9 Table 2: Position of potmarks on different types of vessels. Amphora/ Storage jar

Jar

Open shape

handle

36

2

body

2

1 krater 1 Base-ring bowl 1 shallow bowl 1 shallow bowl? plate? 1 cup? 1 Cypriot bowl

base ? 38

2

6

Unidentified shape 25

65

5

10

1

1 1

31

77

7 The smaller number in the southern part of Field A can probably be ascribed to the limited exposure of the Late Bronze Age levels there. 8 Fig. 1 shows the plan of Level 6CD with the location of the potmarks through the different periods. Displaying all levels within one plan would make it unreadable. This figure only aims to present the diachronic distribution of the potmarks. 9 See Sauvage and Jans, this volume and Bretschneider et al. 2012. Locus 05868 belongs to the ‘floor package’ of an Early Iron Age room equipped with an oven, and containing 57 loom weights, 18 jar stoppers, 9 bronze and 8 stone artefacts and at least 15 storage jars and a collection of cups.

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There is insufficient documentation to identify the shapes or wares of almost half (31) of the marked vases found in Field A. Amphoras and storage jars10 predominate among the identifiable vases (38 out of 46, i.e. 83%) (Table 2). This is typical of ceramic marking practices in the Late Bronze/Early Iron Age Eastern Mediterranean generally, where potmarks are associated especially with vessels designed for transport and/or storage. Open shapes are rarely marked, at Tweini as elsewhere. At present there exists “full” documentation only for shallow bowl 00177-C-008 (which happens also to be the only completely preserved marked vessel and the only one from a grave) and an image of plate 00538-C. When access to the storerooms is again possible it will be particularly interesting to examine the other open marked vessels: cup(?) 01909-C, krater 05705-C, and especially the two vessels designated as Cypriot, bowl 02107-C and Base-ring handle (likely from a bowl) 06050-C.11 The Cypriot connection is interesting in light of Hirschfeld’s observation (after Hankey) that during the Late Bronze Age marking vases was a particularly (but not exclusively) Cypriot practice.12 At least sixty-nine of the Tweini marks are incised or impressed into handles. All except two of the amphora handles are marked on the upper third or upper half, where they would have been highly visible to the observer looking down or straight at the vessels.13 The large mark painted onto the shoulder of amphora(?) 00020-C-071 would also have been immediately visible as would the marks incised just below the rim of plate 00538-C. Evidently the person marking this plate wanted to be very sure that the mark was not overlooked, for (s)he incised the same relatively large cross on both the exterior and interior of the vessel, just below the rim. There is not enough information available to ascertain whether the mark incised into the base of Cypriot bowl 02107-C is cut into the interior or into the underside (this has import for the circumstances in which this mark would be visible) nor is there enough information to assess the visibility of the seven marks incised into body sherds. In Late Bronze and Iron Age Eastern Mediterranean archaeological contexts, extant marks on ceramic vessels are usually incised. This is also the case at Tweini, where incised marks are found on both closed and open shapes, on handles, bodies, and bases. It seems that only fingerprints and seals were impressed, always into the top of handles.14 Painted marks are relatively rare

10 Where no image is available, the shape designations recorded in the field catalogue are retained here. It may be that the description “storage jar” in the field notes might also refer to amphoras. 11 For the Cypriot pottery from Tell Tweini, see: Vilain 2018; Nys 2018. 12 Hankey 1967, 1970; Hirschfeld 1992, 1993, 1996. 13 Hirschfeld 2007, 188. 14 Jar handle 00114-C-036 and handle 00532-C need to be examined again when possible, to ascertain their ductus, in order to determine whether these are exceptions to the generalization stated above.

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in the Late Bronze Age/Early Iron Age Eastern Mediterranean; whether this is an accurate reflection of their use in antiquity or rather a function of preservation is unclear. In either case, it is no surprise that only one painted mark (00020-C-071) was recovered from Field A. It should be noted that this painted X may be an element of painted decoration rather than a mark. Whereas all the fingerprints and seal impressions had to have been impressed into wet clay, it is difficult to ascertain whether the incised marks were cut into clay before or after firing. Incisions made into wet clay are easily detectable but incisions cut into leather-hardened or fired clay are not easily differentiated.15 This challenge is exacerbated when working only from grainy photographs and in the case of the Tweini potmarks it has proved mostly impossible to categorize the incised marks as pre- or post-firing. Only the cross on sherd 03211-C-006 and the verticals on handle 07108-C-001 can certainly be identified as having been engraved before firing, as evidenced by curvilinear lines of the outer cross in the first example, and the observable ridge of clay pushed aside when the marking implement was dragged through wet clay on both objects. Ridges of clay seem to be visible, too, where incised grooves cross on the bodies of shallow bowl 00177-C-008 and unidentified 01308-C-006 and thus indicate that these marks were cut before firing. First-hand examination of all these marks may make this easier to ascertain. Finally, it is impossible, on the basis of photograph alone, to determine when the painted mark was applied. The corpus of recorded Tweini potmarks consists of thirty different mostly simple linear marks16 and impressed fingerprints and seal impressions (Table 3); the forms of nine potmarks were not documented. Although seals are commonly impressed into amphora handles in the Greek and Roman eras, such impressions are rare in the Bronze and Early Iron Ages and the discovery of five at Tweini is noteworthy.17 Unfortunately, for two of these we are lacking information other than their existence. It will be interesting eventually to be able to examine the eight-petaled rosettes of 05713-C and 06217-C-001 first-hand, to discover whether the fabrics of the handles on which they appear are identical.18 With respect to the iconography of the boat sealing (00325-C-032), see Manolova and Bretschneider in this volume. 15

Hirschfeld 1993, 318. The signs are described as oriented in alignment with the vertical axis of the handle – thus with the top of the mark in the direction of the vessel’s opening (Hirschfeld 2007, 185) – and for the body sherds in the direction in which the sherds were drawn or in accordance with the wheelmade traces visible on pictures. 17 A sixth sealing, a Greek amphora stamp (11001-C-001), was found in Field C. 18 A stamp seal (-bead) with an eight-petaled rosette on either side was found in an Iron Age I-Late Bronze Age context. It measures 1.5 cm in diameter (the same as 06217-C-001) but the stamp seal has two sides which seem to be straighter then the impression 06217-C-001, indicating the impression on this handle was not made by stamp seal 00830-M-003. The impression on 05713-C008 has different measurements than the stamp seal. See: Bretschneider and Jans, this volume. 16

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Impressed fingerprints are often overlooked and therefore under-represented in the published record generally. Tweini is one of the few sites where these simple marks seem to have been looked for and recorded and therefore it provides a valuable benchmark for the frequency of this kind of mark. Twelve finger-impressed marks were found at Tweini, i.e. about 16% of the total assemblage of potmarks.19 Made before firing and visible only if looked for (in antiquity as also now), their function was likely associated with some aspect of tracking workshop production. At Tweini, as apparently elsewhere, they are associated primarily with amphora handles, impressed into the top of the handle when the clay was wet. Most common is a single fingerprint, though multiples of two or three are occasionally found. It is perhaps significant that all but one of the finger impressions found at Tweini come from Bronze Age levels (one from Level 8, one from Levels 8-7, and six from Level 7) or contexts that include the Bronze Age (three from Levels 7-6). Whatever its purpose, this marking system seems to have fallen out of use at this site in the Iron Age. It will be interesting, then, to examine first-hand the two outliers, amphora 01301-C-005 (because of its Iron Age III context) and krater 05705-C (because it is not an amphora) to see if their fabrics are chronologically indicative, and so whether they might be Bronze Age detritus or whether they are in fact isolated indicators of fingerprint-marking in the Iron Age. Also, the appearance of a fingerprint mark on a krater, no matter its date, is unusual and this vessel identification needs to be checked, especially as there is no extant drawing or photograph of this piece. Of the linear marks, nine appear on more than one vessel. Crosses and X’s are by far the most common potmark at Tweini,20 as is often the case in any Late Bronze or Early Iron Age potmark assemblage. Another common potmark is a line or a group of parallel lines, usually inscribed horizontally across the handle, and these are found also at Tweini. Variations of the star motif are unusual in their relatively high frequency at Tweini: five occurrences of the three-lined star (No. 23) and two of the five-pointed variety (No. 24). It will be interesting to look more closely at the three amphora handles marked with 19 A note of caution: these marks have been identified as ‘finger-impressed’ on the basis of analogy with similar marks found at other sites. There are in fact very few instances at any site where actual fingerprint-impressions are visible and therefore certainly marks made by fingers or thumbs. Otherwise it is usually the case that these characteristically shallow round impressions at the tops of handles conform to fingertip sizes and easily fit modern fingers. But it should be acknowledged that this designation for many of the Tweini potmarks is a working hypothesis, especially for those marks for which there are no images. 00542 and 00938 may not be fingerprints but rather impressions made by some other implement; nevertheless, they fit into the general category of simple round cavities made before firing and thus in all likelihood had the same function as the cavities impressed by fingers. All of this material will benefit from closer firsthand observation when it is again available. 20 00947-C, 02107-C, 05605-C, and 05700-C are described as ‘cross’ in the Tweini ceramic list; since an illustration of these signs is lacking, they can be interpreted as a ‘+’ or a ‘X’.

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87

the three-lined star, to see if there is any consistency in their fabrics or in the manner in which they were incised,21 and the two five-pointed stars, to identify the vessel types on which they appear. The other repeated signs at Tweini are the single horizontal (No. 5), the triple parallel lines (Nos. 6 and 9), the long vertical line with four short horizontals (No. 15) and the trident (No. 16). The two amphora handles with No. 15 were both found in quadrant Z10, though in different Iron Age levels (6EF and 6AB?). One wonders if they might be two handles from the same amphora, randomly separated. First-hand inspection is needed, to compare both fabrics and the incisions and specific forms of the marks. For reasons that have more to do with the history of scholarship22 or our desire to understand what the marks mean than with any inherent features of marks themselves, it is a commonplace of potmark studies to ask whether marks may be signs of writing. For example, Hirschfeld is one of several scholars who have considered whether the marks incised or painted on Late Bronze Age pottery found on Cyprus and the places with which Cypriots traded might reflect familiarity with Cypro-Minoan, the script used on the island at that time.23 But the implications of claiming that any potmark is evidence of the inscriber’s literacy or familiarity with writing are potentially so significant that such identifications should be made only when there are good reasons for doing so.24 In the case of the Tweini potmarks, lacking indications that these marks are being made in a context of script-use, it is problematic to identify any of the simple marks with signs of any script. After all, potters and traders and owners have marked their ceramics with crosses, X’s, V’s, combinations of horizontals and verticals, and stars in many different cultures, in many different regions, at many different times.25 Just because Tweini form No. 21 has the form of a sign used in Cypro-Minoan26 does not mean that this mark is evidence of Cypriot writing at this site. With more complex marks such as Nos. 15-16 and 25-30 there is perhaps more reason for considering whether similarity with a script-sign is indicative of equivalence. It is significant that none of these can be identified in the Cypro-Minoan script nor, to the authors’ knowledge, with any signs of earliest Canaanite scripts. No. 27 is perhaps vaguely reminiscent of cuneiform. But none of these marks are so complex that the identifications are compelling; the similarities could be fortuitous. 21 All come from the northwest quarter of Field A, but from different levels; 00114-C-036 and 01308-C-006 from Level 6AB (Iron Age II), 01939-C-019 from Level 7AB-6 (thus Late Bronze to Iron Age II mixed/disturbed), and 02522-C-009 from Level 7AB (Late Bronze). Locus 06454 is situated in the southern part of Field A and is an Iron Age I context (Level 6EF). 22 Supra no. 2. 23 Supra no. 8. Also Cross and Stager 2006; Davis 2011. 24 Hirschfeld 2007, 188; 2014, 266-268; Davis 2011; Ben-Shlomo 2014, 28. 25 Ben-Shlomo 2014, 28. 26 CM no. 028 (per Ferrara 2012, Table 5.10).

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Three amphora handles carry multiple marks.27 The marks on 01509-C-001 consist of one or two unaligned horizontals at relatively wide intervals beneath a more complex mark (an elaborated V? two short vertical lines and an oblique?) at the top of the handle. One is tempted to interpret these as some sort of enumeration: a designation and a count. But the wide spacing generally and the irregular placement of the horizontals with respect to each other raises the question of whether these three marks are intended as a single message, or even whether the middle horizontal is deliberate. 00821-C-001 and 01939-C019 are important because they raise the possibility of writing at Tweini. Here better documentation and first-hand examination are needed to establish whether their two marks each are in fact consistent in size, alignment, and ductus, or whether there are any indications that the marks were applied at different stages in the vessel’s lifespan for different purposes. If the former is true then these marks can be presumed to have been incised and intended to be ‘read’ in conjunction, i.e. they can be classified as inscriptions.28 It still remains to be determined what script or language these inscriptions may represent, for neither the individual signs nor the combinations can be convincingly identified with the signs or vocabulary of writing systems known to these authors. The analysis of these limited data presented above is, of course, preliminary. Much might be changed when it is possible to reassess the excavated pottery or when more marked vessels are discovered in newly excavated areas. But since none of this will be feasible in the near future, the authors deemed it best to share the available data as it is known at present, despite shortcomings in the record. BIBLIOGRAPHY Ben-Shlomo D. 2014: Marked Jar Handles from Tel Miqne-Ekron, in: J. R. Spencer et al. (eds.), Material Culture Matters. Essays on the Archaeology of the Southern Levant in Honor of Seymour Gitin, Winona Lake Indiana, 17-29. Bretschneider J., A.-S. Van Vyve and G. Jans 2011: Tell Tweini: A Multi-Period Harbour Town at the Syrian Coast, in: J. Mynárová (ed.), Egypt and the Near East The Crossroads. Proceedings of the International Conference on the Relations between Egypt and the Near East in the Bronze Age, September 1-3, 2010, Charles University Prague, 73-87. Bretschneider J., G. Jans, A.-S. Van Vyve and M. Debruyne 2012: The ‘Ochre’ Room: Shedding Some Light on a ‘Dark’ Period of Transition. Tell Tweini in the Early Iron Age, in: T. Boiy et al. (eds.), The Ancient Near East, A Life! Festschrift Karel Van Lerberghe (Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta 220), Leuven, 59-74. 27 Because of its proximity, the ‘extra’ vertical above the cross of 00814-C-085 seems likely to be a ‘false start’ rather than a deliberate, second mark. 28 Olivier and Godart 1978, 34.

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Bretschneider J., G. Jans and A.-S. Van Vyve 2014: The Early Iron Age at Tell Tweini: Results from the 2008, 2009 and 2010 Excavations, in: F. Baffi et al. (eds.), Tell Tuqan Excavations and Regional Perspectives. Proceedings of the International Conference May 15th-17th 2013 - Lecce, Galatina, 325-342. — 2015: Once upon a Tell in the East: Tell Tweini through the Ages, in: M. Dietrich and H. Neumann (eds.), Ugarit und Kanaan. Kulturelle, sprachliche und wirtschaftliche Beziehungen zwischen der nördlichen Levante und PhönizienPalästina. Oswald Loretz in memoriam (Ugarit-Forschungen. Internationales Jahrbuch für die Altertumskunde Syriens-Palästinas 45) (2014), 347-371. Bretschneider J. and G. Jans 2019: The Glyptic of Tell Tweini Field A, in: J. Bretschneider and G. Jans (eds.), About Tell Tweini (Syria). Artefacts, Ecofacts and Landscape. Research Results of the Belgian Mission (Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta 281), Leuven, 149-179. Cross F. M. and L. E. Stager 2006: Cypro-Minoan Inscriptions found in Ashkelon, Israel Exploration Journal 56 n° 2, 129-159. Davis B. 2011: Cypro-Minoan in Philistia?, Kubaba 2, 40-74. Ferrara S. 2012: Cypro-Minoan Inscriptions, Volume I: Analysis, Oxford. Glatz C. 2012: Bearing the Marks of Control? Reassessing Pot Marks in Late Bronze Age Anatolia, American Journal of Archaeology 116 n° 1, 5-38. Hankey V. 1967: Mycenaean Pottery in the Middle East: Notes on Finds since 1951, Annual of the British School of Archaeology 62, 107-148. — 1970: Mycenaean Trade with the Southeastern Mediterranean, Mélanges de l’Université Saint-Joseph 46, 11-30. Hirschfeld N. 1992: Cypriot Marks on Mycenaean Pottery, in: J.-P. Olivier (ed.), Mykenaika. Actes du IXe colloque international sur les textes mycéniens et égéens organisé par le Centre de l’Antiquité Grecque et Romaine de la Fondation Hellénique des Recherches Scientifiques et l’École Française d’Athénes 2-6 octobre 1990 (Bulletin de Correspondence Hellenique: Suppl. 25), 315-319. — 1993: Incised Marks (Post-Firing) on Aegean Wares, in: C. Zerner (ed.), Wace and Blegen: Pottery as evidence for trade in the Aegean Bronze Age, Amsterdam, 311-318. — 1996: Cypriots in the Mycenaean Aegean, in: E. De Miro et al. (eds.), Atti e Memorie del Secondo Congresso Internazionale di Micenologia, Roma, 289-297. — 2007: Potmarks, in: T. J. Barako (ed.), Tel Mor: The Moshe Dothan excavations 1959-1960 (IAA Reports 32), Israel Antiquities Authority Jerusalem, 183-189. — 2008: How and Why Potmarks Matter, Near Eastern Archaeology 71 n° 1-2, 120-129. — 2011: Potter’s marks and potmarks, in: V. Karageorghis (ed.), Enkomi, The Excavations of Porphyrios Dikaios 1948-1958. Supplementary Catalogue of Finds, Nicosia, 42-125. — 2014: Signs of Writing? Red Lustrous Wheelmade Vases and Ashkelon Amphorae, in: D. Nakassis et al. (eds.), KE-RA-ME-JA, Studies Presented to Cynthia W. Shelmerdine, Philadelphia Pennsylvania, 261-269. Manolova T. and J. Bretschneider 2019: An Unprecedented Depiction of a SyroCanaanite Oared Galley on a Jar Sealing from Tell Tweini, in: J. Bretschneider and G. Jans (eds.), About Tell Tweini (Syria): Artefacts, Ecofacts and Landscape. Research Results of the Belgian Mission (Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta 281), Leuven, 117-148. Matoïan V. 2012: Données Récentes sur les Céramiques avec “Marques” d’Ougarit, in: V. Matoïan et al. (eds.), Études ougaritiques II (Ras Shamra-Ougarit XX), Leuven, 123-157.

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Nys K. 2019: The Iron Age Cypriot Pottery from Tell Tweini Field A, in: J. Bretschneider and G. Jans (eds.), About Tell Tweini (Syria): Artefacts, Ecofacts and Landscape. Research Results of the Belgian Mission (Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta 281), Leuven, 395-415. Olivier L. and J.-P. Godart 1978: Fouilles exécutées à Mallia: Le Quartier Mu: Introduction générale, écriture hiéroglyphique crétoise (EtCret XXIII), Paris. Vilain S. 2019: The Bronze Age Cypriot Pottery from Tell Tweini Field A, in: J. Bretschneider and G. Jans (eds.), About Tell Tweini (Syria): Artefacts, Ecofacts and Landscape. Research Results of the Belgian Mission (Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta 281), Leuven, 313-393. Yasur Landau A. and Y. Goren 2004: A Cypro-Minoan Mark from Aphek, Tel Aviv 31 n° 1, 22-31.

00020-C-071

00114-C-036

00177-C-008

00197-C-008

00317-C 00406-C-009

00422-C-001

2

3

4

5

6 7

8

E2

C2-D2 E2

B2

A2

B2

A2

A2

Floor

Grave

Fill layer

Fill layer

Fill layer

Context

6

Fill layer

7BC-6AB Fill layer 6-5 Fill layer

8AB

8AB

6AB

(7-)6AB

(7-)6AB

Level

 Shading denotes no photograph or drawing available.

00020-C-016

1

Ceramic n° Cat. Field A (the first numeral n° Quadrant is the locus n°)

Body (below shoulder) Handle

Body

Location on vase

Amphora

Amphora Amphora

Handle

Handle Handle

Handle

Shallow bowl Body

Jar

Amphora?

Vase type

CATALOGUE

Incised

Incised Incised

Incised

Incised? Impressed? Incised (before firing?)

Painted

Incised

Ductus (method of application) Potmark

POTMARKS FROM TELL TWEINI FIELD A

91

00502-C-014

00517-C-005

00529-C 00532-C 00538-C-004

00542-C-30

00544-C 00814-C-085

00816-C-045

00821-C-001

9

10

11 12 13

14

15 16

17

18

7BC

5-4

Level

F3

F3

F2-G2 F3

E2-F2

6CD

6CD-AB

7BC 6CD-AB

7BC

E2-F2-G2 7BC E2-F2-G2 7BC F2 7BC

E2-F2

F2

Ceramic n° Field A Cat. (the first numeral Quadrant n° is the locus n°)

Floor?

Fill layer

Fill layer Fill layer

Fill layer Fill layer Fill layer (possibly disturbed by pit) Fill layer

Fill layer

Fill layer

Context

Handle

Body

Location on vase

Incised

Incised

Ductus (method of application)

Amphora

Amphora

Amphora

Amphora

Handle

Handle

Handle Handle

Handle

Impressed (seal) Incised

Impressed (fingerprint) Incised Incised

Handle Incised Handle Impressed Iron Age Plate Body (below Incised or Shallow rim, interior and bowl exterior)

Jar

Vase type

Potmark

92 N. HIRSCHFELD ET AL.

00906-C-024

00938-C-038

00947-C

01042-C-011

01301-C-005

01308-C-006

01504-C-001

01509-C-001

01515-C

01702-C

01909-C

19

20

21

22

23

24

25

26

27

28

29

6

Level

A3

B3

C4

B3

C4

C3-D3

D3

E4-F4

6

6-5

7BC

6CD

6CD

6AB

5

8AB

E3-4, F3-4 8-7

E3-4, F3-4 8CD

F4-G4

Ceramic n° Cat. Field A (the first numeral n° Quadrant is the locus n°)

Fill layer

Fill layer

Fill layer

Floor

Fill layer

Fill layer

Fill layer

Fill layer (pit) Floor

Fill layer

Fill layer

Context Handle (at base) Handle

Location on vase

Cup?

Amphora

Amphora?

Amphora

Amphora?

Incised

Impressed (fingerprint) Incised

Incised

Ductus (method of application)

Body?

Handle

Handle

Handle

Incised

Impressed (fingerprint) Incised

Incised

Impressed (fingerprint) Body Incised (before firing?) Handle (at base) Incised

Handle

Handle

Storage jar (?) Body

Amphora

Vase type

Potmark

POTMARKS FROM TELL TWEINI FIELD A

93

01939-C-019

02008-C 02107-C

02108-C

02522-C-009

02554-C-012

02558-C-002

02603-C-006

03103-C-004b

03211-C-006

03309-C-004

03325-C-032

03331-C-032

30

31 32

33

34

35

36

37

38

39

40

41

42

7BC

7BC

7BC 6CD

7BC-6

Level

C7

C6

C6

B6

A6

C5

B5-C5

7BC

7BC-6EF

6

7-6

5

7BC-6

7BC

B4-5, C4-5 8AB-7

B2

Z2

A4 Z2

A3

Ceramic n° Field A Cat. (the first numeral Quadrant n° is the locus n°)

Fill layer

Fill layer

Fill layer

Fill layer

Fill layer

Fill layer

Fill layer

Fill layer

Fill layer

Fill layer

Fill layer Fill layer

Fill layer

Context

Amphora

Amphora

Amphora

Amphora

Amphora?

Amphora

Cypriot bowl

Amphora

Vase type

Handle

Handle

Handle

Body

Handle

Handle

Handle

Handle

Handle

?

Handle Base

Handle

Location on vase

Impressed (fingerprint)

Impressed (seal)

Incised (before firing) Incised

Incised

Impressed (fingerprint) Incised

Impressed (fingerprints)

Incised

Impressed

Incised ?

Incised

Ductus (method of application) Potmark

94 N. HIRSCHFELD ET AL.

03337-C-029

03339-C-020

03402-C-008

04003-C-008

04006-C-003

04014-C-060

04210-C-004

05558-C-031

05587-C-006

05588-C-002

05588-C-019

05605-C-010

43

44

45

46

47

48

49

50

51

52

53

54

C8

A10

A10

A10-11

C9-C10

D7

A7-B7

B7

B7

D6

C6-7

B7

Ceramic n° Cat. Field A (the first numeral n° Quadrant is the locus n°)

7-4

7-6

7-6

7-6?

6AB

7BC(6AB) 6CD-5

6-5

6AB?

6-5

7BC

7BC

Level

Fill layer

Fill layer

Fill layer

Fill layer

Fill layer

Fill layer - topsoil

Fill layer

Fill layer

Fill layer

Fill layer

Fill layer

Fill layer

Context

Storage jar

Amphora

Amphora

Amphora

Amphora

Amphora

Amphora

Vase type

Handle

Handle

Handle

Handle

Handle

Handle

Handle

Handle

Handle

Handle

Handle

Handle

Location on vase

Incised

Impressed

Incised

Impressed (seal) Incised

Incised

Incised

Incised

Incised

Incised

Incised

Incised

Ductus (method of application) Potmark

POTMARKS FROM TELL TWEINI FIELD A

95

05700-C-004

05700-C-029

05705-C

05713-C-008

05868-C-002

06005-C-003 06042-C 06050-C

06106-C 06205-C-001

06210-C

06212-C-003

55

56

57

58

59

60 61 62

63 64

65

66

6EF

6EF-CD

7BC-6?

7BC-4

7BC-4

Level

Z10

Z10

Z9-10 Z10

Fill layer

Fill layer Fill layer

Fill layer Floor Fill layer

Floor

Fill layer

Fill layer - topsoil Fill layer - topsoil Fill layer

Context

7BC-6AB Fill layer

7BC

6AB-5 6AB?

Z8-9-A8 6-5 A8-9, Z8-9 7BC Z9-10 7?-6

B11

D9-10

D9-10, E10 D9-10, E10 D10

Ceramic n° Field A Cat. (the first numeral Quadrant n° is the locus n°)

Amphora?

Amphora

Base-ring ware

Amphora

Krater?

Vase type

Handle

Handle

Handle Handle

Handle Handle Handle

Handle

Handle

Handle

Body

Handle

Location on vase

Impressed (fingerprints) Incised

Incised

Incised

Incised

Incised

Incised (before firing) Impressed (fingerprint) Impressed (seal)

Incised

Ductus (method of application) Potmark

96 N. HIRSCHFELD ET AL.

06217-C-001

06217-C-002

06351-C 06404-C-006

06454-C-031

06457-C-010

06508-C-009

07000-C

07003-C

07108-C-001

07184-C-003

67

68

69 70

71

72

73

74

75

76

77

B8-9

A10

D8

D8-9

D12

C12-D12

C11-12

A12 B11-12

Z10

Z10

Ceramic n° Cat. Field A (the first numeral n° Quadrant is the locus n°)

7BC

7

7-6?

8-5

(6GH-) 6EF-6CD 7-6

6EF

6-5 7-6GH?

6EF

6EF

Level

Fill layer

Floor

Fill layer - topsoil Fill layer

Fill layer

Fill layer

Fill layer

Fill layer Fill layer

Fill layer

Fill layer

Context

Amphora

Small ring base?

Amphora

Amphora

Amphora

Storage jar

Amphora

Amphora

Vase type

Handle

Handle

Handle

Handle

Handle

Handle

Handle

Handle Handle

Handle

Handle

Location on vase

Incised (before firing) Incised

Impressed (fingerprints)

Incised

Incised

Incised

Incised

Impressed (seal)

Ductus (method of application) Potmark

POTMARKS FROM TELL TWEINI FIELD A

97

98

N. HIRSCHFELD ET AL.

Table 3: List of potmarks occurring at Tweini Field A or / or ). (*: 2 marks on one vessel; °: Potmark

Ceramic n°

Level

Vase type

1a

00542-C-030 00938-C-038 01301-C-005 01515-C 02558-C 03331-C-032 05588-C-019 05705-C 02108-C

7BC 8CD 5 7BC 7BC 7BC 7-6 7BC-6 7BC

2

06210-C

7BC

3

07003-C

7-6?

4

02554-C-012

8AB-7BC

Amphora?

5

6CD 6-5 6 6 8-5 7-6?

Amphora

7

1509-C-001* 06005-C-003 00422-C-001 01909-C° 07000-C° 05587-C-006

8

07108-C-001

7

9

01702-C 01909-C° 07000-C° 00538-C-004

6-5 6 8-5 7BC

00947-C° 01042-C-011 02107-C° 03103-C-004b 03211-C-006 03339-C-020 04006-C-003 05605-C° 05700-C-004 06457-C-010 06508-C-009

8-7 8AB 6CD 5AB 7-6 7AB 6-5 7-4 7BC-4 (6GH-)6EFCD 7-6

1

6

10

Amphora Amphora Amphora Amphora Krater?

Amphora Cup? Small ring base?

Cup? Small ring base? Iron Age plate or shallow bowl Storage jar? Amphora? Cypriot bowl Amphora

Storage jar Amphora Amphora

99

POTMARKS FROM TELL TWEINI FIELD A

Potmark

Ceramic n°

Level

Vase type

10a

00814-C-085

6CD-AB

Amphora

11

(7-)6 6 8-7 6CD 7BC-6CD 6CD 6 7-6 7BC-4 7BC

Amphora?

12

00020-C-071 00906-C-024 00947-C° 01504-C-001 01939-C-019* 02107-C° 03309-C-004 05588-C-002 05700-C-029 07184-C-003

13

00406-C-009

6-5

Amphora

14

04003-C-008

6A?

15

06205-C-001 06217-C-002

6AB? 6EF

Amphora Amphora

16

03337-C-029 05868-C-002

7BC 6EF

Amphora Amphora

17

06404-C-006

7-6GH?

Storage jar

18

00517-C-005

7BC

Jar

19

03402-C-008

6-5

Amphora

20

1509-C-001*

6CD

Amphora

21

06212-C-003

7BC-6AB

Amphora?

22

00177-C-008

8AB

Shallow bowl

23

00114-C-036 01308-C-006 01939-C-019* 02522-C-009 06454-C-031

6AB 6AB 7BC-6AB 7BC 6EF

Jar

Storage jar? Amphora? Amphora Cypriot bowl Amphora Amphora Amphora

Amphora Amphora Amphora

100

N. HIRSCHFELD ET AL.

Potmark

Ceramic n°

Level

Vase type

24

00020-C-016 00502-C-014

(7-)6AB 5-4

25

00197-C-008

8AB

26

00821-C-001*

6CD

Amphora

27

04014-C-060

7BC(-6AB)

Amphora

28

02603-C-006

7BC-6

29

05605-C-010

7-4

Storage jar

30

00821-C-001*

6CD

Amphora

31

04210-C-004

6CD-5

Amphora

00816-C-045 03325-C-032 05558-C-031 05713-C-008 06217-C-001

6CD-6AB 7BC-6EF 6AB 6EF-CD 6EF

Amphora Amphora Amphora

Seal

Amphora

POTMARKS FROM TELL TWEINI FIELD A

101

Fig. 1. Plan of Field A with potmark locations (I = Iron Age context, L = Late Bronze Age context, M = Middle Bronze Age, ° = Iron Age/Late Bronze Age, x = Late Bronze/Middle Bronze Age).

102

N. HIRSCHFELD ET AL.

Fig. 2a: 00020-C-016

Fig. 3a: 00020-C-071

Fig. 4a: 00114-C-036

Fig. 2b: 00020-C-016

Fig. 3b: 00020-C-071

Fig. 4b: 00114-C-036

POTMARKS FROM TELL TWEINI FIELD A

Fig. 5a: 00177-C-008

Fig. 5b: 00177-C-008

Fig. 6: 00197-C-008

Fig. 7: 00406-C-009

Fig. 8a: 00422-C-001

Fig. 8b: 00422-C-001

103

104

N. HIRSCHFELD ET AL.

Fig. 9a: 00502-C-014

Fig. 9b: 00502-C-014

Fig. 10a: 00517-C-005

Fig. 10b: 00517-C-005

Fig. 11a: 00538-C-004

Fig. 11b: 00538-C-004

POTMARKS FROM TELL TWEINI FIELD A

Fig. 12: 00542-C-030

Fig. 13: 00814-C-085

Fig. 14: 00816-C-045

Fig. 15a: 00821-C-001

Fig. 15b: 00821-C-001

Fig. 15c: 00821-C-001

105

106

N. HIRSCHFELD ET AL.

Fig. 16: 00906-C-024

Fig. 17: 00938-C-038

Fig. 18: 01042-C-011

Fig. 19: 01301-C005

Fig. 20a: 01308-C-006

Fig. 20b: 01308-C-006

POTMARKS FROM TELL TWEINI FIELD A

Fig. 21: 01504-C-001

Fig. 22: 01509-C-001

Fig. 23a: 01939-C-019

Fig. 23b: 01939-C-019

Fig. 24a: 02522-C-009

Fig. 24b: 02522-C-009

107

108

N. HIRSCHFELD ET AL.

Fig. 25: 02554-C-012

Fig. 26: 02558-C-002

Fig. 27: 02603-C-006

Fig. 28: 03103-C-004

Fig. 29a: 03211-C-006

Fig. 29b: 03211-C-006

POTMARKS FROM TELL TWEINI FIELD A

Fig. 30: 03309-C-004

Fig. 31a: 03325-C-032

Fig. 31b: 03325-C-032

Fig. 32: 03331-C-032

Fig. 33a: 03337-C-029

Fig. 33b: 03337-C-029

109

110

N. HIRSCHFELD ET AL.

Fig. 34: 03339-C-020

Fig. 35a: 03402-C-008

Fig. 35b: 03402-C-008

Fig. 36: 04003-C-008

Fig. 37: 04006-C-003

Fig. 38: 04014-C-060

POTMARKS FROM TELL TWEINI FIELD A

Fig. 39a: 04210-C-004

Fig. 39b: 04210-C-004

Fig. 40a: 05558-C-031

Fig. 40b: 05558-C-031

Fig. 41: 05587-C-006

Fig. 42a: 05588-C-002

111

112

N. HIRSCHFELD ET AL.

Fig. 42b: 05588-C-002

Fig. 43: 05588-C-019

Fig. 44: 05605-C-010

Fig. 45: 05700-C-004

Fig. 46: 05700-C-029

Fig. 47: 05713-C-008

POTMARKS FROM TELL TWEINI FIELD A

Fig. 48a: 05868-C-002

Fig. 48b: 05868-C-002

Fig. 49: 06005-C-003

Fig. 50: 06205-C-001

Fig. 51: 06205-C-001

Fig. 52a: 06212-C-003

113

114

N. HIRSCHFELD ET AL.

Fig. 52b: 06212-C-003

Fig. 53b: 06217-C-001

Fig. 54b: 06217-C-002

Fig. 53a: 06217-C001

Fig. 54a: 06217-C002

Fig. 55a: 06404-C-006

POTMARKS FROM TELL TWEINI FIELD A

Fig. 55b: 06404-C-006

Fig. 56b: 06454-C-031

Fig. 57b: 06457-C-010

Fig. 56a: 06454-C-031

Fig. 57a: 06457-C-010

Fig. 58: 06508-C-009

115

116

N. HIRSCHFELD ET AL.

Fig. 59: 7003-C

Fig. 60a: 07108-C-001

Fig. 60b: 07108-C-001

Fig. 61: 07184-C-003

AN UNPRECEDENTED DEPICTION OF A SYRO-CANAANITE OARED GALLEY ON A JAR SEALING FROM TELL TWEINI Tzveta MANOLOVA1 and Joachim BRETSCHNEIDER2 1 2

University of Oxford - Institute of Archaeology Ghent University - Department of Archaeology

Compared to Cyprus and the Aegean, the Levant suffers from a noticeable dearth of ship imagery for the Late Bronze Age (LBA) and Early Iron Age (EIA) periods alike. To make matters worse, a disproportionate number of the representations come from outside the Levant itself – chiefly from Egyptian, Assyrian, and Cypriote sources. Thus of the forty three known individual contexts, less than half are from the Levant itself.1 The corpus furthermore skews heavily towards merchant vessels, in particular for the LBA. This means that prior to the representations on Phoenician coins (5th century onwards), there are only a handful of certain depictions of Levantine oared galleys, and virtually none before the mid to late-8th century Assyrian sources. Finally in terms of mediums, ship imagery on Levantine seals is particularly rare, counting a mere eight examples spanning a huge timespan from the 18th to the mid-6th century BC, to which two more can be added from Cyprus. The new sealing from Tell Tweini is therefore a highly significant addition to the corpus on both contextual and technical grounds, as it is not only unusual for its use on a jar handle, but currently represents the earliest secure indigenous depiction of a Levantine galley. SEAL CONTEXT The Tweini boat sealing was unearthed from locus 03325, located at Field A at the centre of the tell. Covering a surface of ca. 1.6 m by 4.8 m within quadrants C6, D6, C7 and D72, this locus primarily presents a ca. 15 cm thick layer of debris (absolute heights3: bottom 25.44 m; top 25.55-25.59 m) within 1

The following remarks are a condensed version of some of the conclusions reached in a forthcoming doctoral dissertation (Manolova forthcoming). Special thanks to Michael Wedde, Tatiana Pedrazzi and Claudia Wagner for their very helpful comments regarding various aspects relating to the Tell Tweini sealing. 2 In a sounding within the confines of IA II/III walls. 3 Heights are above sea level.

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T. MANOLOVA AND J. BRETSCHNEIDER

a large, shattered LBA building of which the northern (W03322), western (W04019) and southern walls (W07006) are only partly excavated.4 The eastern limit of the edifice is undetermined at present. Consequently, the overall extension of the building remains inconclusive, as does its function. Evidence stipulates that the building was reoccupied during the EIA (Level 6GH-EF) after the LBA destruction (Level 7A).5 Locus 03325 contained a large amount of fragmentized ceramics dating to the LB and EIA (Level 7BC-6EF). Aside from local ceramic types the material culture excavated from this locus included Late Helladic IIIB imports and local imitations of Aegean style (Late Helladic IIIC?) ceramics. Several fragments of a new type of cooking pot made from steatite or talc fabric and classified as ‘Fabric 3B ware’ are also attested in locus 03325. This ware is significant for the latest LB and EIA occupation levels at Tell Tweini6 and other sites in the vicinity, such as Ras Ibn Hani, Tell Sukas, and south-eastern Cyprus (Kition)7. An 11th century skyphos (Level 6EF) is currently the latest ceramic find from locus 03325. The Tweini boat sealing provides evidence of a well-organized administrative and distribution system where vessels were marked during the production process itself. The only other example of a jar handle sealing with a ship depiction comes from Sidon, dating to c. 1800-1750 BC (Fig. 4).8 A similar use of maritime themed markings in a commercial context is also observable on some of the copper oxhide ingots from Uluburun, where a ship, several forms of fishhooks, tridents, a fish, and possibly quarter rudders are all attested in the form of secondary incisions. Based on this choice of symbols, Çemal Pulak has hypothesized that the signs were made at a central collecting area for transhipment, more specifically a harbour town.9 The Tell Tweini sealing points in a similar vein, but suggests oversight at the primary production stage, whereas the Uluburun secondary marks could have been added at any stage after the cooling of the metal, prior to their final shipment. The choice to depict an oared galley rather than a merchant vessel, while seemingly counterintuitive, could be an allusion to the possession of a fleet by the issuing authority and its ability to provide protection and oversight over commercial operations. This fits well with the LBA textual evidence which indicates that commercial ships often 4 Locus 03325 was covered by loci of similar consistency – locus 03320 (absolute heights between 25.55-25.67 m) and 03315 (absolute heights between 25.55-25.69 m) – providing further ceramic evidence to be dated from Level 7BC to 6GH-6EF. The subjacent debris layers 03328 and 03336 can be associated with the LB to EIA transitional phase (Level 7BC-6GH) as well. 5 For the LB and IA at Tell Tweini, see: Bretschneider, Jans and Van Vyve 2015 and 2014; Bretschneider et al. 2012. 6 Vansteenhuyse 2010, 42, footnote 27; Vansteenhuyse and Bretschneider 2010, 190. 7 du Pied 2010, 220-221. 8 Doumet-Serhal 2015, 14-17. 9 Pulak 1998, 194-96.

A SYRO-CANAANITE OARED GALLEY ON A JAR SEALING

119

travelled in groups rather than singly in an environment where piracy as well as interceptions and blockades by hostile state actors were a recurrent problem.10 TECHNICAL FEATURES The seal shows a single ship facing to the left with a low, slightly rockered keel line and high posts (Figs. 1-2). The bow is massive and square, with a vertical stempost (90o angle) ending in a long incurving horn device with a rounded extremity. The keel extends forward of the stem to form a bow projection that is integrated to the stempost, ending in a pointed tip. This gives the stempost a concave silhouette although in reality it was still vertical, with an additional timber connecting it to the bow projection.11 The solid, rectangleshaped forecastle is likewise integrated. The high incurving sternpost terminates in a similar horn device, except that it is marginally shorter and ends in a slightly flaring rounded extremity. The aftercastle is solid but smaller, with a curving, concave inner side in contrast to the straight edge of the forecastle. The mast is amidships, with a forestay and backstay attached to the castles. The mast step is indicated by two downward facing L-shaped carvings on either side of the mast, forming a low rectangular tabernacle. Five oars appear below the keel line. These flare out towards the oar blades, giving them a roughly triangular appearance. A single quarter rudder aligned with the backstay extends below the hull. It has a rectangular form in contrast to the oars and was rendered with a deeper incision in the seal. A crescentic baseline frames the oars at the bottom of the composition. Perhaps the most difficult question to answer regarding the Tell Tweini vessel is whether its bow projection can be considered a functional offensive weapon, i.e. a ram. While it is generally agreed that the bow projections observable on the LBA imagery are neither sufficiently long nor robust to be considered rams, the timing of this critical innovation sometime during the EIA continues to be a hotly discussed issue. In the current state of the scholarly debate, the upper and lower limits of the ram’s emergence range between c. 900 BC and as late as the 6th century BC following the textual evidence.12 Michael

10 On commercial ventures requiring multiple ships: EA 85, EA 110, EA 143; RS.18.101A, RS.18.031, RS 18.147, RS 26.158. On hostile state actors: EA 98, EA 101, EA 104, EA 105, EA 113, EA 114; RS. 20.18. 11 This timber is termed “chock” by Steffy in his discussion of the Athlit ram (Steffy 1991, 18, 28, figs. 2-13). 12 For proponents of an early invention, see Paine 2000, xiv; George 1998, 13; Casson and Linder 1991, 67; van Doorninck 1982; DeVries and Katzev 1972, 40; Casson 1971, 49. For proponents of a late invention, see Mark 2008; 2005, 104-114, 185-186.

120

T. MANOLOVA AND J. BRETSCHNEIDER

Wedde on the other hand adopts a more middling view by considering that the ram’s development must have been a long, on-going process, allowing for the inception of a rudimentary form by c. 850 BC, while its ascendance as a salient feature of Aegean naval warfare did not occur until much later, possibly during the 6th century BC.13 A recent experimental study has further complicated this issue by confirming that the bow projection functioned well as a cutwater by increasing vessel speed through more efficient hull dynamics.14 While these findings do not disprove an early introduction of the ram, they do strengthen the hypothesis that the bow projection’s initial development was motivated by the specific aim of increasing hull speed rather than the development of an offensive weapon. In light of the fact that the Tell Tweini ship has a bow projection that is morphologically very similar to the metal sheathed ones seen on the 8th century Assyrian representations of Phoenician single and multi-levelled galleys (Fig. 13: 1-2), a tentative conclusion is that it may be seen as an early prototype in a long process of improvements in design – with some capacity for ramming without it being the vessel’s primary function. PARALLELS AND DISCUSSION It is unfortunate that the sealing comes from a mixed context, since a number of other criteria (seal shape, style and subject) which could be typically used for dating purposes are of little help in this particular case. In terms of the Canaanite jar itself, the partial preservation of the handle makes a precise identification of the jar type rather difficult. Pedrazzi has suggested that it could belong to her type 4-1 which is found along the Syrian coast and Cyprus starting in the final part of LB II but occurs primarily during IA I.15 She cautions however that without further analysis of the fabric, the sealing type remains a preferable chronological marker. Sadly, the shape of the sealing itself is irregular and without good parallels. Its outline is narrow at the top (28 mm wide) and progressively flares out towards the bottom (38 mm wide), giving it a roughly bell-shaped form which possibly suggests a zoomorphic stamp seal.16 The total height of the impression is 29 mm. As such, the overall dimension of the impression is rather large and unusual for conoids, disks and scaraboids of the LB and IA found in the Levantine region.17 13

Wedde 2000, 144-172. Murray et al. 2017. 15 Pedrazzi 2017, personal communication. For type, see Pedrazzi 2016, 68-69, fig. 7; 2007, 65-66. 16 Wagner 2017, personal communication. 17 For the use of conoids in LB and EIA context in Ugarit and Cyprus see: Matoïan 2007, 201-218; Reyes 2001, 10; Reyes 2002, 215-217. 14

A SYRO-CANAANITE OARED GALLEY ON A JAR SEALING

121

The sealing is located on the upper part of the handle and is well centred, with the image in the upright position (Fig. 3). Besides this impression, Tell Tweini has provided a great variety of sealing devices including several cylinder seals and scarabs, an inscribed bronze signet ring, and a biconvex seal with a hieroglyphic Luwian inscription.18 The centre thus clearly made use of a wide range of sealing traditions, in the LBA as well as in the IA. The site has also provided a zoomorphic weight in the shape of a lion, of a type commonly encountered in the Levant and Cyprus during the LBA.19 Stamped jar handles are attested in small quantities at a handful of sites in the southern Levant during the IA I,20 but their sealings are very different in virtually every respect: morphologically, stylistically, and thematically. Tweini itself has yielded six seal impressions on jar handles; a noteworthy amount since such impressions are rare in the Bronze and EIA.21 As for the small group of seals bearing ship imagery, all but two date to the Bronze Age and come principally from the southern Levant and Cyprus (Fig. 5, table 1). The recently discovered MBA sealing from Sidon is currently the only other known example on a jar handle, but is much too early to represent a meaningful parallel despite being geographically close to Tell Tweini. It was made by rolling the cylinder seal lengthwise on the upper part of the handle, and shows a round-hulled seagoing vessel with a leonine dragon next to it (Figs. 4, 5:2). Most of the other seals show merchant vessels, with the Beth Shemesh example possibly depicting a very abstract version of a galley (Fig. 5:5). The closest parallel in terms of geographical and chronological proximity is a bifacial scaraboid dated c. 1200 BC from the house of Yabninu, an Ugaritan merchant who is associated with extensive maritime commercial operations (Fig. 5:4a-b).22 Like the Tell Tweini seal, it features a ship as the sole element of the composition and similarly shows five oars. The morphology of the vessel is somewhat problematic because of how stylized it is, showing a flat rectangular hull, with a bulwark screen running the length of the sheer and a down-curving yard which is typical for LBA representations of Canaanite ships.23 The emphasis of the oars and the flatness of the hull do favour a galley interpretation, but the representation is of no help with regards to the morphology of the stempost. Besides the seal from Ugarit, there is one more galley depiction from the region that is somewhat chronologically close, namely the

18

Lebrun and Tavernier 2012. Also see Bretschneider and Jans in this volume. Bretschneider and Van Lerberghe 2008, 40. For zoomorphic weights of a couchant lion, see Pulak 2008, 370, n. 12 with further references. 20 Münger 2009, 124 with further references and fig. 5 for distribution map of sealed handles of IA I date in the southern Levant. 21 See Hirschfeld, Jans and Bretschneider in this volume. 22 On Yabninu, see Monroe 2009, 134-135, 181-184; Courtois 1990. 23 Wachsmann 1998, 51. 19

122

T. MANOLOVA AND J. BRETSCHNEIDER

pictorial representation on the lid of a cremation urn from Hama (Fig. 12:5).24 Both the form of burial and material culture of this cemetery however are considered as intrusive, a suggestion which is reinforced by the ship representation itself which is on an atypical medium for the Levant and shows a clear relationship to the Aegean LH IIIC artistic tradition. This includes the depiction of the rower’s gallery, the zoomorphic figurehead with upturned beak, and the modest bow projection. The amount of comparative evidence from north Syria itself is thus extremely limited. Table 1: Known seals bearing ship imagery from the Levant and Cyprus of the BA and EIA. Date th

Findspot

Early 13 Dynasty c. 18th c. BC

Tell el-Dab’a northern part of palace

c. 1800-1750 BC LBA c. 1550-1200 BC 14th c. BC c. 1200 BC

Sidon Beth Shemesh

c. 650 BC

Israel (n/a)

c. 650 BC

Jordan (n/a)

End of 13th c. BC

Cyprus (n/a)

c. 1200-1050 BC

Enkomi, T. 6

Tell Miqne Ekron, tell Ugarit, House of Yabninu

Reference Bietak 1996, 28, fig. 25; Porada 1948, pl. 65:1; Wachsmann 1998, 42, fig. 3.1 Doumet-Serhal 2015, fig. 33 Keel 1994, 34, fig. 20; Wachsmann 2012, 64, fig. 2.35 Gittlen 2007, 25-28, fig. 1 Basch 1987, 70, fig. 131; Morrison and Gardiner 1995, 23-24; Schaeffer 1962, 134, 147, fig. 114; Wachsmann 1981, 212, fig. 28b; 1998, 49 Basch 1987, 304-305, no. 641; Culican 1970, 32-33; Stieglitz 2000, 12, fig. 2; Vincent 1909, 121 Tushingham 1971; Wachsmann 1998, 181, fig. 8.34a Basch 1987, 73-74, no. 147-48; Kenna 1967, 573, fig. 31; Wachsmann 1998, 66-67, fig. 4.10; Westerberg 1983, 18, no. 16, fig. 16 Schaeffer 1952, 71, fig. 22; Wachsmann 1998, 175-176, fig. 8.21

Morphologically, the Tell Tweini vessel is remarkably similar to Geometric ship representations of MG (Middle Geometric) II and transitional MGII-LG (Late Geometric) I date, when a certain uniformity is already discernible in the predominantly Attic repertoire (Fig. 6). These parallels extend to all essential 24

Wachsmann 2013, 63, fig. 2.33; 1998, 174-176, fig. 9.19a-b; Ingholt 1940, 69-84, pls. 21-26.

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aspects, including the shape of the bow and stern, the transition of the bow projection to the stempost, and the stem and stern terminals.25 According to Wedde’s classification of bow morphologies, the Tell Tweini ship thus belongs to his Group 6, which is considered a very advanced form that comprises a prominent bow projection integrated to the stempost and a massive square bow.26 While the connection between the Tell Tweini ship and the Geometric representations is undeniable, the urge to downdate the sealing on the basis of the negative evidence from the Levant prior to the 8th century is inadvisable. It is worth noting in this regard that the prolificacy of Attic Geometric art in depicting ships is highly unusual, creating a false impression of uniformity as most other regions are severely underrepresented. As such, the preponderance of this form in the Greek assemblage from MG II onwards should be contextualized in terms of differences in cultural practice which do not presuppose that the nautical tradition itself is either uniquely Aegean or that it provides incontrovertible evidence for the direction of the transfer. Aside from the purely technical aspects of the Tell Tweini representation, it should be stressed that both the medium and its use to stamp transport containers is completely unknown in the Aegean repertoire of ship imagery during the LB and EIA periods. Furthermore, the choices made by the artist in terms of selecting certain technical features for emphasis while omitting others is equally foreign to the Greek tradition. While the Tell Tweini ship is quite minimalist in terms of detail, the representation stands out for showing the mast-step system – a detail that is absent from the majority of Eastern Mediterranean representations of either period, with ship depictions on fibulae of the AtticBoeotian type being the only notable exception. In total, there are only five cases from Cyprus where the mast step is shown and eleven more from the Aegean. In the Cypriot corpus, this element is attested across multiple mediums (graffito, pictorial pottery, terracotta model) and occurs earliest, although all cases save one show a distinctive triangular tabernacle which is so far unattested outside the island.27 The Greek examples on the other hand include only three cases on pictorial pottery of the LG II period and eight more on fibulae.28 These show a rectangular tabernacle which is significantly higher than the one of the Tell Tweini vessel (Fig. 7).29 In terms of artistic omissions, the most glaring difference with both Helladic and Geometric galley depictions is the

25

Wedde 2017, personal communication. Wedde 2006, 258-259. 27 Westerberg 1983, figs. 13, 32, 53-55. 28 For fibulae, see Basch 1987, 190-196; Manolova (forthcoming). 29 It is interesting to note that none of the pictorial representations are Attic, despite the fact that the corpus in general is predominantly from this region. The choice to represent the mast step was thus clearly not part of the repertoire of Attic pictorial artists. In the case of the fibulae however, half of the entire corpus of ship depictions includes a tabernacle, including two Attic examples. 26

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absence of the rower’s gallery from the Tell Tweini vessel, an artistic choice which is also observable on some of the Cypriot galley representations. It may thus be concluded that although the vessel type itself indicates that there was a clear transmission of nautical technology and shipbuilding traditions, these transfers did not extend to either regional artistic conventions or the choice of medium. While the Tell Tweini sealing is at present an isolated example and thus warrants some degree of caution, it is argued here that it provides a vital missing link showing that this particular galley design was first developed in the northern Levant and was subsequently transferred to the Aegean, most likely via Euboea.30 This hypothesis not only fits well with the currently available evidence, but is moreover able to address some outstanding questions in both the Levantine and Aegean sequences while also accounting for the generally slow pace of change of nautical technology. It is usually argued that Greek geometric ships are direct descendants of the Mycenaean galley.31 There is however one immediately noticeable divergence between the two, namely their starkly different post terminals. In the fairly sizable corpus of LH IIIC representations, the stempost of Helladic galleys is consistently decorated with an outward facing zoomorphic device that is usually identified as a bird-head, although more recently both Petrakis and Yasur-Landau have convincingly argued that it should instead be interpreted as a sea dragon (Fig. 8).32 In contrast, after a long hiatus of over a century and a half, the earliest Late Protogeometric (LPG) ship representations and all subsequent Geometric examples have replaced this decorative element with a slender inward curving horn. This new feature is also reflected in the Homeric adjective κορωνίϛ which is applied exclusively to ships and indicates a curved crowning element, as well as the epithet νεων ὀρθοκραιράων (“straight horned”) which in addition to ships is used to describe cattle.33 Since the figurehead constitutes a highly culturally charged element of a vessel that typically carries apotropaic functions, the wholesale disappearance of the outward facing device so characteristic of LH IIIC galleys represents a sharp break in tradition that requires an explanation. Ironically, this figurehead survives on Cyprus into the EIA after being introduced there during the 12th century, whereas the Aegean itself had seemingly abandoned it for good by the Proto-Geometric (PG) period. Admittedly, the corpus prior to the MG period is so small that it may very well not be a representative sample, and indeed it is highly unlikely that the change in prow devices occurred swiftly or in a wholesale manner across the

30 31 32 33

A study of the handle’s fabric would be a valuable contribution to this issue. Wedde 2006, 1999; Kramer-Hajos 2016, 171-174. Petrakis 2004; Yasur-Landau 2010. Lenz 1998, 199-200.

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Aegean. The process itself is thus unfortunately obscured by the prolonged gap in the evidence, yet it nevertheless remains true that the Helladic figurehead is never to be seen again. Surprisingly, the implications of this significant change have been largely overlooked. Wachsmann has attempted to explain it as a cyclic progression from naturalism to stylization and finally abstraction, where the Geometric galleys represent the final stage of a totally abstracted birddevice that has become no more than a compound curve.34 Whereas such a development could be more plausibly argued for the Cypriot corpus, he readily admits that the middle stylizing stage is entirely missing in the Aegean representations. Even more problematic however is the supposed reversal in the figurehead’s direction, since this change cannot be explained away as purely cosmetic and would clearly have semantic implications. If its terminus ante quem 11th century contextual date is correct, the Tell Tweini ship offers a much simpler solution, where the LH IIIC galley figurehead simply went out of use sometime after the transition period, with EIA representations instead showing the adoption of an entirely new form from the northern Levant. The seal’s chronology not only fits neatly within the long Aegean gap in representations between LH IIIC and LPG, but also allows for sufficient time for this development to occur. Although the evidence is rather sparse, it is possible furthermore to trace the basic outlines of this process and the likeliest protagonists involved in the transmission by contextualising the ship imagery with what we know of the earliest significant contacts between the Aegean and the Levant during the EIA. It is perhaps no coincidence that after a long pictureless phase, the earliest ship imagery of the Geometric period is connected to Knossos and Lefkandi – the two centres that enjoyed unusually early access to imports from the Levant and Cyprus.35 In the case of Euboea, this maritime connection is also traceable in the other direction, with the first Euboean imported wares appearing in Tyre in the mid-10th century.36 The small group of EIA pictorial ship representations from the Aegean predating the 8th century includes one image from Knossos, two from Lefkandi, and two more from Dirmil and Athens respectively which are both suspected to be Euboean imports (Table 2, Fig. 9).37 As noted above, by LPG the zoomorphic figurehead has already been replaced with an incurving horn, but the bow projection is still small and flimsy in the tradition of the LH galleys. It is only with the Lefkandi Skoubris ship that the distinctive bow morphology of the Tell Tweini vessel begins to be recognizable, including the enclosed forecastle and a more developed bow projection (Fig. 9:5). What is most interesting 34

Wachsmann 1998, 183-190; 1981, 206-221. Kourou 2012; 2009; 2008. 36 Descoeudres 2006; Lemos 2005. 37 Dirmil krater: Wedde 2006, 261; Lemos 2002, 51; Calligas 1990, 78; Popham 1987, 359, n. 7; Kerameikos fibula: Wedde 2006, 261, n. 48-49; Coldstream 1977, 64. 35

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is that the contemporaneous Toumba ship (Fig. 9:4), while also sporting the incurving horns, shows a markedly different and older type of bow attested in the LH IIIC corpus, comprised of a vertical non-integrated stempost with latticed work and a rudimentary bow projection. Wedde’s remarks on these curious differences are particularly revealing: “The most economical explanation for this more or less contemporary depiction of two forms of the early oared galley, the one rather retarded for its time, the other comparatively advanced, is to posit a simultaneous use of differing designs, a parallel existence of several galley-building traditions”.38 In light of the Tell Tweini sealing, it is now possible to suggest that the new improved design was in fact introduced through contacts with the northern Levant. By the mid-9th century, Lefkandi had already enjoyed a steady influx of Levantine imports for a few generations, giving ample time for the transmission to occur. It is also relevant in this regard that in addition to Tyre, some of the early Euboean imports (more specifically amphorae) have been found even further north, at Ras el Bassit.39 As for the survival of the earlier Helladic bow type, the slow replacement of an older form is not altogether surprising. This is due first to the fact that ships are costly and thus – absent of an unfortunate accident – tend to have particularly long lives, and second, to the inherently cautious and conservative tendencies of shipwrights. A good example of the latter is observable in the critical shift in Greek shipbuilding tradition from lashed frames to mortise-and-tenon joinery, with Archaic wrecks showing that builders continued to shape frames in the old fashion despite its purpose having become obsolete.40 The survival of older designs is furthermore even more probable in the case of more heavily built merchant/cargo galleys, since there would have been an inherent economic interest in prolonging their use for as long as possible through numerous repairs.41 The two Lefkandi representations may thus capture a rare moment in time when an older Aegean type of bow construction was still in use while a more advanced form was being introduced from the northern Levant. Once Euboean shipwrights became familiar with the tradition, its transmission to Attica is far less surprising considering the well attested contacts between these neighbouring regions. Aside from the Kerameikos fibula which was likely imported, the Toumba ship already anticipates features of later Attic representations, including the three parallel horizontal lines which are a precursor of the way in which the deck is represented on Dipylon ships, as well as the thematic placement of

38 39 40 41

Wedde 2006, 261. Courbin 1993; Descoeudres 2006, 11, Table 1. Polzer 2011, 368. Many thanks to Michael Wedde for pointing this out.

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Table 2: EIA pictorial ship depictions from the Aegean of pre-MG II date. Date LPG (c. 950-900 BC)

LPG (950-900 BC) Trans. EG II- MG I (c. 850 BC)

MG I (c. 850-825 BC) Early SPG III (c. 850-825 BC)

Findspot

Reference

Knossos, Fortetsa tomb VI

Basch 1987, 159, fig. 320; Doorninck 1982, 281-283; Morrison and Williams 1968, 12, geom. 1; Wedde 2000, 168-169; 2006, 261 Dirmil, chamber Basch 1987, 189, fig. 400; Bass 1963, tomb Halicarnassus 357-359 (tomb); Doorninck 1982; Peninsula Wedde 2006, 261, fig. 10 Athens, Kerameikos Basch 1987, 191, no. 402; Mark 2005, T. 41 110-111, fig. 49; Tzahou-Alexandri 1990, 353, fig. 3; van Doorninck 1982, 283, fig. 7 Lefkandi, Toumba Calligas 1990, 77-79, fig. 1; Popham cemetery, fill of T. 1987; Wedde 1999, 510-511; 2006, 260, no. 61 fig. 5 Lefkandi, Skoubris Calligas 1990, 78, fig. 2; Popham et al. cemetery gully fill 1980, 267, pl. 274.918 and 284.11; Wedde 2006, 260, fig. 4 (left)

spears at the bow or stern.42 When the earliest Attic pictorial representations emerge during MG II, they already show a uniform tradition in the full-fledged version of the Tell Tweini ship. In addition to the Skoubris vessel, later Euboean ship representations continue to provide links with the Levant in terms of nautical technology. These include the rectangular mast-step as mentioned above (Fig. 7:1), the downcurving yard which is atypical for the Aegean,43 and the earliest attestation of a three-levelled galley on a late 8th century krater from Eretria.44 The latter representation has been surprisingly overlooked considering how disruptive it is to the current established Aegean sequence, and is suspiciously contemporaneous with the Phoenician ships from the palace of Sennacherib which are at least two-levelled, and possibly three-levelled with the uppermost level of rowers resting to accommodate the transport of passengers.45 As an in-depth 42 For examples of spears placed at the bow or stern in Attic compositions, see: Basch 1987, nos. 336, 349, 352, 373-374; Kirk 1949, no. 11. 43 As seen on an Euboean import dated c. 750 BC from Knossos (Verdan 2006, 101, fig. 5). 44 The Eretria ship was published as a dieres (Verdan 2006) but Wedde agrees that it is three levelled in view of the stagger (Wedde 2017, personal communication). 45 Morrison 1995, 146. There is of course no way to prove this suggestion, although the later Erment model of a Phoenician trieres does provide some support for it, with Basch noting that the arrangement of the lower two levels are identical to those of the Sennacherib ships (Basch 1987, 328-329, figs. 703-711).

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examination of the Euboean EIA shipbuilding tradition is beyond the scope of this paper, it suffices to say that the imagery certainly offers good evidence that the island acted as a critical interface for the transmission of nautical innovations from the Levant, while Euboea’s precocious maritime connections with the region from the mid-10th century onwards provided ample opportunities for this transfer to take place. This does not mean, of course, that there weren’t multiple points of transmission. Another likely channel was through the Ionian centres via Cilicia, as suggested by the late 8th century ship from Karatepe which shows a very similar bow morphology to the Tell Tweini ship (Fig. 10). Despite the excavators identifying this vessel as Aegean,46 it is worth reminding that the monumental reliefs to which the ship scene belongs were accompanied by a bilingual text in Phoenician and hieroglyphic Luwian. Yet a third channel may be identified via Cyprus, as attested by the three pairs of iron firedogs of Cypro-Archaic (CA) I date which show the exact same bow morphology (Fig. 11).47 These too were previously identified as depictions of Aegean galleys since near identical firedogs have been found on Crete and Argos.48 This interpretation is however problematic considering that the practice of meat roasting using metal obeloi or spits (and accompanying firedogs) first appears in Cyprus during the LBAEIA transition and only much later in the Aegean, beginning initially with Crete during the EPG and spreading to the Greek mainland only in the 8th century.49 It is quite telling that the only exception to this late introduction in the Aegean beyond Crete is once again from Lefkandi, where iron spits were discovered in a Sub-Protogeometric (SPG) II (c. 875-850) context.50 The ship-shaped firedogs are hence another prime example where an Aegean origin of transmission is assumed despite the archaeological pattern pointing in the opposite direction. Although the nature of the evidence is highly fragmentary, it is thus possible to identify at least three possible channels of transmission from the northern Levant to the Aegean, with the earliest discernible one via Lefkandi, and later examples via Anatolia and Cyprus.

46

Çambel and Özyar 2003, 84-89. Salamis, tomb 79: Karageorghis 1973, 19, nos. 127-128, pls. LVIII, CCXXXVII: 127-128; Palaepaphos, tomb KA-T1/1962: Karageorghis 1963, 265-300, figs. 17-18; Patriki, tomb 1: Karageorghis 1972, 170-172, fig. 12, pl. XXXI.2. 48 Kavousi: Boardman 1971, 6-8, no. 12; Eleutherna, T. A1K1: Vonhoff 2011, 146, 148, fig. 11; Argos, tomb 45: Courbin 1957, 370-379, figs. 54-57. 49 Haarer 2000, 30-31. 50 Popham et al. 1982, 229, nos. 6-7. 47

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POSTSCRIPT The oared galley is currently considered an Aegean invention on the basis of the representational evidence.51 Since galley depictions in Cyprus and the Levant are scarce for the LBA and are more or less contemporaneous with the much larger corpus of LH IIIC imagery, they have been invariably interpreted as Aegean ships (Fig. 12). While this interpretation is convincing in certain cases, other depictions are far less straightforward, as they show an amalgamation of elements drawing from multiple traditions. The Enkomi graffito represents one such example as it omits the open rower’s gallery typical of the Aegean imagery, while at the same time displaying the down-curving yard characteristic of Levantine ships as well as a triangular mast step which is otherwise solely attested in later CA I Cypriot depictions (Fig. 12:1). A similar assumption is noticeable when it comes to the treatment of ships with outwardfacing zoomorphic figureheads, which on the basis of the Medinet Habu reliefs tend to be identified with the Sea People and by extension with the Aegean. The re-interpretation of the Helladic prow devices as sea-dragons brings into focus the strong possibility that the scholarship could in fact be conflating two distinct decorative elements which were current in the Eastern Mediterranean at the end of the LBA – one bird-headed, the other representing a hybrid creature.52 This could explain the curious fact that realistic bird-headed devices only appear during the EIA on Cypriot and Phoenician ships, including on both posts as in the case of the Medinet Habu Sea People vessels (Fig. 12:6).53 In addition to the decorative outward-facing bird heads on both posts, the Medinet Habu ships also display the down-curving yard and top-mounted crow’s nest which are typical features of Canaanite ships yet completely unknown in the Aegean LBA corpus. As far as the Egyptian artists can be trusted, these two elements suggest that the Sea People ships are much more closely connected to a Levantine, rather than an Aegean nautical tradition. The problem with ruling out the Levant in the early stages of the development of the oared galley is that most of the precious few known representations in the region are associated either with contexts characterised by an intrusive material culture, or with high traffic maritime nodes which enjoyed wide-ranging connections.54 The one exception to this state of affairs is the ship from Ugarit, although the stylized rendering of its hull creates room for interpretative disagreements. 51

Wedde 2006; 1999. See Manolova (forthcoming). 53 For a recent discussion on the Sea People ships, see also: Jung 2017, 31-32, figs. 1-5. 54 Notably the Hama urn and the graffiti from the Carmel Ridge, which are difficult to attribute because the nearby site of Tel Nami was an international entrepôt showing an amalgamation of religious and funerary practices including Canaanite, Syrian, Cypriot and Aegean elements (Artzy 1995). 52

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Despite the great lacunae in the Levantine corpus of ship representations, the few images available do indicate that the region was a major source of nautical innovation during the LBA and EIA periods alike. For the LBA, this includes the crow’s nest and most importantly, the brailed rig and loose footed sail, which are first attested in an Egyptian depiction of Canaanite ships of the late 14th century.55 This hugely important innovation was quickly adopted across the Eastern Mediterranean, with later Helladic galleys all sporting it. Were it not for the Egyptian interest in depicting Canaanite commercial vessels, this element might have easily been misattributed as another Aegean invention, since the evidence from the Levant itself is once again scant and roughly contemporaneous with the Helladic material. After the LBA-EIA transition period, Levantine galley representations disappear until the 8th century, when the Assyrian imagery shows a gigantic leap in development, including a robust bow projection covered in metal sheathing, the earliest attestation of oarports, and a much more advanced version of a dieres (if not an actual trieres) compared to contemporary representations from the Aegean (Fig. 13:12). The main problem prior to the Tell Tweini sealing was thus in tracing this gradual development, from the single levelled galley with a modest cutwater unsuitable for ramming, to a multi-levelled vessel with a continuous deck (Fig. 13:4), oarports, and an early version of a ram. Whether or not the initial invention of the galley should continue to be located in the Aegean, there is no question that the Levant was significantly ahead innovation-wise during the EIA. This should not be seen as altogether surprising considering not only that the northern Levant had a very strong, continuous maritime orientation since the Bronze Age, but also because the Phoenician city-states suffered no substantial scaling back in terms of their socio-political organisation during the LB-EIA transition and therefore maintained their ability to upkeep large fleets. This is particularly relevant considering the fact that the exorbitant costs of maintaining specialized warships and trained crews are often pointed out as prohibitive structural reasons for placing the invention of the ram in the Geometric period for the Aegean. Mark’s argument for the need of Greek ships to transition to pegged mortise-and-tenon joinery, which is much more suitable to withstand the repeated shocks of ramming, is also not in play for the Levant where the technique was already well-established by the 14th century BC.56 Despite the much smaller representational corpus, all indications at present thus point to the northern Levant and the Phoenician city-states more specifically for the early development of the multi-levelled galley and the ram.57 The

55

Emanuel 2014; Vinson 1993. Mark 2008, 266. 57 Cf. Gray 1974, 74-75 highlighting the primacy of the Phoenicians in developing multilevelled ships. 56

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Tell Tweini seal thus adds a vital missing link and a first step towards a better understanding of the EIA Levantine galley and its impact on the Aegean shipbuilding tradition.

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the 13th-11th Centuries BCE (Österreische Akademie der Wissenschaften. Denkschriften det Gesamtakademie Band LXXXI), Wien, 23-42. Kahane P. 1940: Die Entwicklungsphasen der Attisch-Geometrischen Keramik, AJA 44.4, 464-482. Karageorghis V. 1963: Une tombe de guerrier à Palaepaphos, BCH 87, 265-300. — 1972: Two built tombs at Patriki, Cyprus, RDAC, 161-180. — 1973-74: Excavations in the Necropolis of Salamis 3, Nicosia, Cyprus. — 1996: The Coroplastic Art of ancient Cyprus. VI. Monsters, Animals and Miscellanea, Nicosia. Keel O. 1994: Philistine ‘Anchor’ Seals, Israel Exploration Journal 44.1/2, 21-35. Kenna V. E. G. 1967: The Seal Use of Cyprus in the Bronze Age II, BCH 91, 552-577. Kirk G. S. 1949: Ships on Geometric Vases, ABSA 44, 93-183, pls. 38-40. Kourou N. 2008: Markers in Phoenician chronology: The evidence from the Aegean, in: C. Sagona (ed.), Beyond the Homeland: Markers in Phoenician Chronology (Ancient Near Eastern Studies Suppl. 28), Leuven, 305-364. — 2009: The Aegean and the Levant in the Early Iron Age. Recent developments, in: Interconnections in the Eastern Mediterranean. Lebanon in the Bronze and Iron Ages, Proceedings of the International Symposium Beirut (BAAL VI), Beirut, 361-374. — 2012: Phoenicia, Cyprus and the Aegean in the Early Iron Age: J. N. Coldstream’s contribution and the current state of research, in: M. Iacovou (ed.), Cyprus and the Aegean in the Early Iron Age. The Legacy of Nicolas Coldstream, Nicosia, 33-52. Kramer-Hajos M. 2016: Mycenaean Greece and the Aegean World: Palace and Province in the Late Bronze Age, Cambridge. Lebrun R. and J. Tavernier 2012: Deux objets inscrits de Tell Tweini, in: T. Boiy et al. (eds.), The Ancient Near East, A Life! Festschrift Karel Van Lerberghe (Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta 220), Leuven, 319-334. Lemos I. S. 2002: The Protogeometric Aegean: The Archaeology of the Late Eleventh and Tenth Centuries B.C., Oxford. — 2005: The Changing Relationship of the Euboeans and the East, in: A. Villing (ed.), The Greeks in the East, London, 53-60. Lenz J. R. 1998: Homer’s νηυσὶ κορωνίσιν, in: S. Wachsmann (ed.), Seagoing Ships & Seamanship in the Bronze Age Levant, College Station Texas, 1999-2000. Manolova T. forthcoming: Maritime Infrastructure in the Eastern Mediterranean: A Context based Approach to Continuity and Innovation in Nautical Technology (c.1400-700 BC), DPhil, Oxford University. Mark S. 2005: Homeric Seafaring, College Station Texas. — 2008: The Earliest Naval Ram, IJNA 37.2, 253-272. Matoïan V. 2005: Un cachet conoïde en ‘faïence’: Témoin inédit des derniers temps de l’histoire d’Ougarit ou artefact postérieur à la destruction de la cité?, in: J.-M. Michaud (ed.), Le Royaume d’Ougarit, de la Crète à l’Euphrate. Nouveaux axes de recherche, Actes du Congrès International de Sherbrooke 2005, Faculté de théologie, d’éthique et de philosophie, Université de Sherbrooke, 5-8 juillet 2005 (Coll. POLO–Proche-Orient et Littérature Ougaritique 2), Sherbrook Quebec, 201-218. Mazarakis A. A. 2002: Recent Excavations at Oropos (Northern Attica), in: M. Stamatopoulou and M. Yeroulanou (eds.), Excavating Classical Culture: Recent Archaeological Discoveries in Greece, Oxford, 149-78.

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Monloup Th. 1984: Salamine de Chypre XII, Les figurines de terre cuite de tradition archaïque, Paris. Monroe C. M. 2009: Scales of Fate: Trade, Tradition and Transformation in the Eastern Mediterranean ca. 1350-1175 BCE, Münster. Morrison J. S. 1995: Ships and Boats of the Mediterranean from 3000 to 500 BC, in: B. Greenhill with J. S. Morrison (eds.), The Archaeology of Boats and Ships, London. Morrison J. S. and R. T. Williams 1968: Greek Oared Ships: 900-322 B.C., Cambridge. Morrison J. S. and R. Gardiner 1995: The Age of the Galley: Mediterranean Oared Vessels since Pre-Classical Times, London. Mountjoy P. A. 2005: Mycenaean Connections with the Near East in LH IIIC: Ships and Sea Peoples, in: R. Laffineur and E. Greco (eds.), Emporia: Aegeans in the Central and Eastern Mediterranean: Proceedings of the 10th International Aegean Conference. Athens, Italian School of Archaeology, 14-18 April 2004 (Aegaeum 25), Liège, 423-427. — 2011: A Bronze Age Ship from Ashkelon with Particular Reference to the Bronze Age Ship from Bademgediği Tepe, AJA 115.3, 483-488. Münger S. 2009: “Handle with Care”: Notes on Stamp-Seal Impressions on Jar Handles and a Bulla from Early Iron Age Tell el-ʿOrēme/Tel Kinrōt, ZDPV 125, 116-138. Murray W. M., L. D. Ferreiro, J. Vardalas and J. G. Royal 2017: Cutwaters before Rams: an experimental Investigation into the Origins and Development of the Waterline Ram, The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 46.1, 72-82. Paine L. P. 2000: Warships of the World to 1900, New York. Steffy J. R. 1991: The ram and bow timbers: A structural interpretation, in: L. Casson and J. R. Steffy (eds.), The Athlit ram, College Station Texas, 6-39. Pappi E. 2006: Argive Geometric Figured Style: The Rule and the Exception, in: E. Rystedt and B. Wells (eds.), Pictorial Pursuits: Figurative Painting on Mycenaean and Geometric Pottery. Paper from Two International Round-Table Conferences on Mycenaean and Geometric Pottery at the Swedish Institute at Athens in 1999 and 2001, Stockholm, 229-299. Pedrazzi T. 2007: Le giare da conservazione e trasporto del Levante. Uno studio archeologico dell’economia fra Bronzo Tardo II e Ferro I (ca. 1400-900 a.C.), Pisa. Petrakis V. 2004: Ship Representations on Late Helladic IIIC Pictorial Pottery: Some Notes, Inferno: The St. Andrews Journal of Art History 9, 23-29. Polzer M. E. 2011: Early Shipbuilding in the Eastern Mediterranean, in: A. Catsambis et al. (eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Maritime Archaeology, Oxford, 349-378. — 2016: Canaanite jars and the maritime trade network in the northern Levant during the transition from the Late Bronze to the Early Iron Age, in: S. Demesticha and A. B. Knapp (eds.), Maritime Transport Containers in the Bronze-Iron Age Aegean and Eastern Mediterranean, Uppsala, 57-77. Popham M. 1987: An Early Euboean Ship, AJA 6.3, 353-359. Popham M. R., L. H. Sackett and P. G. Themelis 1979-1980: Lefkandi I, the Iron Age Settlement and Cemeteries, London. Popham M. R., E. Touloupa and L. H. Sackett 1982: Further Excavation of the Toumba Cemetery at Lefkandi 1981, BSA 77, 213-248. Porada E. 1948: Corpus of Ancient Near Eastern Seals in North American Collections I. The Collection of the Pierpont Morgan Library (The Bollingen Series 14), Washington.

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Pulak C. 1998: The Uluburun shipwreck: An overview, IJNA 27.3, 188-224. — 2008: The Uluburun Shipwreck and Late Bronze Age Trade, in: J. Aruz et al. (eds.), Beyond Babylon: Art, Trade, and Diplomacy in the Second Millennium B.C., New York, 288-305. Reyes A. T. 2001: The Stamp-Seals of Ancient Cyprus (Oxford University School of Archaeology Monograph, vol. 52), Oxford. — 2002: The Stamp Seals of Cyprus in the Late Bronze Age and the Iron Age, in: J. S. Smith (ed.), Script and seal use on Cyprus in the Bronze and Iron Ages (Colloquia and Conference Papers 9), Boston Mass., 213-226. Schaeffer C. F. A. 1952: Enkomi – Alashia, Paris. — 1962: Fouilles et découvertes des XVIIIe et XIXe campagnes, 1954-1955 (Ugaritica 4), 1-150. Stieglitz R. R. 2000: Hebrew Seafaring in the Biblical Period, Mediterranean Historical Review 15.1, 5-15. Tomabechi Y. 1983/1984: Wall Paintings from Til Barsip, Archiv für Orientforschung 29/30, 63-74. Tushingham A. D. 1971: God in a Boat, AJBA 1.4, 23-28. Tzahou-Alexandri O. 1990: Contribution to the knowledge of 8th century B.C. Ship Representations, in: H. E. Tzalas (ed.), Tropis II: 2nd International Symposium on Ship Construction in Antiquity Delphi 1987 (Hellenic Institute for the Preservation of Nautical Tradition), Athens, 333-361. Van Doorninck F. H. 1982: Protogeometric longships and the introduction of the ram, IJNA 11.4, 277-286. Verdan S. 2006: Un nouveau navire géométrique à Erétrie, AntK 49, 97-106. Vansteenhuyse K. 2010: The Bronze to Iron Age Transition at Tell Tweini (Syria), in: F. Venturi (ed.), Societies in Transition. Evolutionary Processes in the Northern Levant between Late Bronze Age II and Early Iron Age, Bologna, 39-52. Vansteenhuyse K. and J. Bretschneider 2011: Handmade Cooking Pots from the Early Iron Age in Tell Tweini (Syria), in: V. Karageorghis and O. Kouka (eds.), Proceedings of the International Archaeological Symposium: On Cooking Pots, Drinking Cups, Loom Weights and Ethnicity in Bronze Age Cyprus and Neighbouring Regions, Nicosia 6-7 November 2010, Nicosia, 187-194. Vincent H. 1909: Pseudo-figure de Iahvé récemment mise en circulation, Revue biblique 6, 121-127. Vinson S. 1993: The Earliest Representations of Brailed Sails, Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt 30, 133-150. Vonhoff C. 2011: The Phenomenon of Feasting in Early Iron Age Cyprus. Bronze and Iron Obeloi from Cypriot Tombs as Evidence for Elite Self-Conception, Social Networks and Trans-Mediterranean Cultural Exchange Chypre (Cahiers du Centre d’Etudes Chypriotes 41), 133-152. Wachsmann S. 1981: The Ships of the Sea People, IJNA 10, 187-220. — 1998: Seagoing Ships & Seamanship in the Bronze Age Levant, College Station Texas. — 2012: The Gurob Ship-cart Model and its Mediterranean Context, College Station Texas. Wedde M. 1999: War at Sea: The Mycenaean and Early Iron Age Oared Galley, in: R. Laffineur (ed.), Polemos: Le context guerrier en Égée à l’âge du bronze. Actes de la 7e Rencontre égéenne internationale, Université de Liège, 14-17 Avril 1998 (Aegaeum 19), Liège, 465-427.

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— 2000: Towards a Hermneutics of Aegean Bronze Age Ship Imagery (Peleus Studien zur Archäologie und Geschichte Griechenlands und Zyperns, vol. 6), Mannheim and Möhnsee. — 2006: Pictorial Evidence for Partial System Survival in the Greek Bronze Age to Iron Age Transition, in: E. Rystedt and B. Wells (eds.), Pictorial Pursuits: Figurative Painting on Mycenaean and Geometric Pottery. Paper from Two International Round-Table Conferences on Mycenaean and Geometric Pottery at the Swedish Institute at Athens in 1999 and 2001, Stockholm, 255-269. Westerberg K. 1983: Cypriote Ships from the Bronze Age to c. 500 B.C. (SIMA, Pocket-books 22), Göteborg. Yasur-Landau A. 2010: On Birds and Dragons: A Note on the Sea Peoples and Mycenaean Ships, in: Y. Cohen et al. (eds.), Pax Hethitica: Studies on the Hittites and Their Neighbours in Honor of Itamar Singer, Wiesbaden, 399-410.

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Fig. 1: Jar handle sealing with an oared galley to the left, Tell Tweini (after Bretschneider and Van Lerberghe 2008, 38, ill. 39).

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Fig. 2: Close-up of the oared galley (drawing by T. Manolova).

Fig. 3: Profile view of the jar handle fragment with the placement of the sealing (drawing K. Vansteenhuyse).

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Fig. 4: MBA jar handle fragment with a cylinder seal impression from Sidon (courtesy of C. Doumet-Serhal).

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Fig. 5: Seals bearing ship imagery from the Levant and Cyprus. 1. Tell el-Dab’a (after Porada 1984, pl. 65:1); 2. Sidon; 3. Tell Miqne Ekron (after Gittlen 2007, 25-28, fig. 1); 4. House of Yabninu, Ugarit (after Schaeffer 1962, 147, fig. 114); 5. Beth Shemesh; 6. Israel; 7. Jordan; 8. Cyprus (unknown); 9. Enkomi, T.6 (after Schaeffer 1952, 71, fig. 22). Figs. 2, 5-8 drawn by T. Manolova.

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Fig. 6: Morphological parallels for the Tell Tweini ship of MG II date from Attica and Argos. 1. Attic, MG II, c. 800-775 BC (after Basch 1987, no. 374); 2. Eleusis, late MG II (after Basch 1987, no. 372); 3. Moulki, Attic import, MG II, c. 775-760 BC (after Tzahou-Alexandri 1990, 352, fig. 2); 4. Anavysos, transitional MG II-LG I, c. 760 BC (after Kahane 1940, pl. XXI: 6); 5. Athens, c. 775-750 BC (BM GR 1960.1101.45); 6. Argos, transitional MG II-LG I, c. 760 BC (after Pappi 2006, 232-33, figs. 2-5); Figs. 2-6 drawn by T. Manolova.

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Fig. 7: Rectangular mast steps from the Aegean and Cyprus. 1. Oropos, LG (after Mazarakis 2002, 172, fig. 11b); 2. Elean Pylos, LG II (after Daux 1968, 833, fig. 2); 3. Argos, LG II (after Tzahou-Alexandri 1990, 361, fig. 24); 4. Amathus, CA (BM 1894.1101.182); 5. Chaeronea, c. 700 BC (after Hampe 1936, no. 150, pl. 6); 6. Unknown, Ashmolean Museum 1893.266. Figs. 1-3, 5-6 drawn by T. Manolova.

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Fig. 8: Outward-facing zoomorphic figureheads on LH ships. 1. Ashkelon, LH IIIB (after Mountjoy 2011, 484, fig. 1); 2. Bademgediği Tepe, LH IIIC early (after Mountjoy 2005, fig. XCVI); 3. Kynos, LH IIIC middle (after Dakoronia 1993, 128, fig. 1); 4. Gazi, LM IIIB (after Wedde 2000, no. 608); 5. Kynos, LH IIIC middle (after Dakoronia 2006, 28, fig. 8); 6. Skyros, LH IIIC (after Wedde 2000, no. 655); 7. Tragana, LH IIIC late (after Wedde 2000, no. 643); 8. Enkomi, LH IIIC middle (after Mountjoy 2005, pl. XCVIId); 9. Tiryns, LH IIIB2 (after Wedde 2000, no. 315); 10. Kynos, LH IIIC (after Wedde 2000, no. 334). Drawings by T. Manolova.

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Fig. 9: EIA pictorial ship depictions from the Aegean of pre-MG II date. 1. Knossos, Fortetsa tomb VI; 2. Dirmil, Halicarnassus Peninsula (after Wedde 2006, 261, fig. 10); 3. Athens, Kerameikos T. 41 (after Basch 1987, 191, no. 402); 4. Lefkandi, Toumba T. 61 (after Popham 1987, 357, fig. 4); 5. Lefkandi, Skoubris. Figs. 1 and 5 drawn by T. Manolova.

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Fig. 10: Orthostat with carved relief of a galley from Karatepe. Late 8th century (after Çambel and Özyar 2003, Tafel 96).

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Fig. 11: Ship-shaped iron obeloi from Salamis tomb 79 (after Karageorghis 1973, CCXXXVII: 127-128), drawn by T. Manolova.

Fig. 12: Galley representations related to the Levantine tradition of LBA date. 1. Enkomi, c. 1200 BC (after Basch 1987, 147-148, no. 312); 2. Naḥal ha-Me‘arot, c. 13th c. BC (after Artzy 2003, 241, fig. 13); 3. Naḥal Oren, c. 13th c. BC (after Artzy 2003, 242, fig. 14); 4. Naḥal ha-Me‘arot, c. 13th c. BC (after Artzy 2003, 236, fig. 6); 5. Hama, c. 1200-1075 BC (after Wachsmann 1998, 174, fig. 9.19b); 6. Medinet Habu, c. 1176 BC (after Emanuel 2014, 23, fig. 2b). Figs. 1-4, 6 drawn by T. Manolova.

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Fig. 12

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Fig. 13: Galley representations related to the Levantine tradition of EIA date. 1. Til Barsip, c. 745-727 BC (after Tomabechi 1983/1984, 76, fig. 1); 2. Sennacherib, c. 705-681 BC (BM 1851, 0902.30) Photograph by T. Manolova; 3. Amathus tomb 429, CA (after Karageorghis 1996, pl. XLII: 4); 4. Salamis, CA (after Monloup 1984, 159, no. 601). Figs. 1, 4 drawn by T. Manolova.

THE GLYPTIC OF TELL TWEINI FIELD A Joachim BRETSCHNEIDER1 and Greta JANS2 1

Ghent University - Department of Archaeology 2 KU Leuven - Near Eastern Studies

Eleven years of excavation on Field A yielded a small but noteworthy assemblage of glyptic material. Thirty objects – cylinder seals, stamp seals as well as rollings and impressions of seals – produced 22 distinct designs, stemming from contexts encompassing th$ Middle Bronze Age II until the Iron Age III.1 One seal impression was unearthed from Field C – the area of the city wall – namely Design 23. Field A is located at the central part of the tell and generated a full, continuous archaeological sequence, spanning from the Early Bronze Age IV (ca. 2400 BCE) up to the Iron Age III period (ca. 500 BCE), with architectural remains of dwellings, graves and – from the Early Iron Age on – an official building complex. All glyptic material emanates from fill layers, except for six items found as part of a floor inventory (Design 11: 00027-M-1-3, Design 12: 05851M-001, Design 13: 05851-M-003, Design 21: 05851-M-002 and Design 22: 06217-C-001 and 00830-M-003) and one unearthed from a grave (Design 1: 00177-M-007). The Syrian team under the direction of M. Badawi already published two scarabs, one scaraboid and one stamp seal from Field B in the exhibition catalogue La Méditerranée des Phéniciens de Tyr à Carthage.2 The outcomes of

1 It is our pleasure to thank the square supervisors who excavated and registered the objects discussed in this article – Tom Brughmans, Evy Cuypers, Greta Jans, Sara Hertoghs, Wim Knaepen, Kris Lemmens, Georg Neumann, Harald Röhsa, Hendrik Ueleners, Katrien Van de Vijver, Bart Vandeweerdt, Joke Van Sweevelt and Isabel Van Winkel –, the drawers of seal depictions – Evy Cuypers (Fig. 3c, 9c, 10b, 11b, 15d and 22c), Tzveta Manolova (Fig. 10c) and Greta Jans (Fig. 11b) – and our ceramic specialist – Dr. Klaas Vansteenhuyse. The authors would like to express their gratitude to Bruno Vandermeulen for most photographs of the Tweini glyptic (some photos were done by the authors) and Hendrik Hameeuw for providing us with sharp-edged pictures digitally recorded by the Portable Light Dome (KU Leuven) of several designs (Fig. 1b, 2b, 5b, 12c, 16c, 17c, 18c and 20b). Since the modern impressions of the cylinder and stamp seals were in a deficient condition, selecting and applying this technique is a successful example of ‘digital restauration’ (see Hameeuw and Willems 2011). We also thank Anne-Sophie Van Vyve for kindly reviewing the English of this article. 2 Al-Maqdissi 2007, 62-63, 318.

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the study by Vanessa Boschloos on the scarabs from Field A are published in this volume.3 The 2nd and 1st millennium glyptic from Tell Tweini provides an important glimpse at the iconography and use of stamp and cylinder seals in a northern Levantine coastal site. Apart from a regional and probably local production, a wider range of imports from Egypt, Cyprus, Mesopotamia and Anatolia are attested. The Middle and Late Bronze Age glyptic repertoire from Tell Tweini finds close equivalents in form and style at Ras Shamra-Ugarit. The Iron Age glyptic at the site of Tell Tweini is predominantly presented by stamp seals, scarabs4 and scaraboids with close parallels in the northern and southern Levant. Unique for the glyptic repertoire of Tell Tweini are impressions of very large cylinder seals (up to 9 cm) probably made of bone, wood or clay and used as decoration for the front of the arm of Late Bronze and Early Iron Age wall brackets. This article presents a catalogue of all the glyptic material excavated from the A and C Fields at Tell Tweini. Table 1: Amount of cylinder and stamp seals per period. Cylinder seals

Middle Bronze Age Late Bronze Age

Stamp seals

Actual seal

Rollings

Actual seal

1 (Design 1) 5 (Designs 2-6)

1 (Design 7)

2 (Designs 8-9)

Late Bronze/Iron Age Iron Age

3 4

3 (Designs 12-14)

See Boschloos in this volume. See Boschloos in this volume.

7 (Designs 11 (× 5), 15)

7 (Designs 16-22)

Impressions

1 (Design 10) 3 (Designs 22 (× 2), 23)

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1. The Middle Bronze Age Period – Tweini Level 8 Design 1

Fig. 1: Design 1 - 00177-M-007.

– Object no.: 00177-M-007 – Object description: Cylinder seal in hematite, perforated lengthwise with a 3 mm wide puncture. – Measurements of the seal: H.: 1.5 cm, Diam.: 0.8 cm – Find context: Collective tomb 001705 – Date of the find context: Level 8AB – Middle Bronze Age II – Design description: A row of three standing persons is facing right. In between the first and second figure from the left is a scorpion with its tail downward, in between the second and third figure there are three dots above a smaller figure in a long dress with raised arms. Top and bottom of the seal are bordered by a horizontal line. The depiction is engraved in a linear schematic style. – Comparisons: A great variety of hematite and other stone seals in linear schematic style depicting a row of persons and filling motifs (persons with upraised arms, scorpions, dots etc.) is attested in Ras Shamra-Ugarit and Ebla, both for the Middle and Late Bronze Age period.6

5 For a detailed study of this collective Middle Bronze Age tomb, see: Jans and Bretschneider in this volume. 6 Amiet 1992, 14, 111-120; Hammade 1994, 78, no. 389; 145, no. 499; 176-177, nos. 557 and 560.

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2. The Late Bronze Age period – Tweini Level 7BC Design 2

Fig. 2: Design 2 - 02605-M-001.

– Object no.: 02605-M-001 – Object description: Cylinder seal in black stone (steatite?) perforated with a 4 mm wide puncture. – Measurements of the seal: H. 1.9 cm, Diam.: 1 cm – Find context: Fill layer – Date of the find context: Level 7BC – Late Bronze Age II – Date of the seal based on iconography and style: Old Babylonian – Design description: Main scene: The god Šamaš, facing left, is holding the saw-toothed knife in his outstretched right hand and has his right foot up on a mountain hill. A king/worshipper in a long ceremonial fringed robe faces de god and presents him with a goat.7 Additional figures behind the worshipper are a suppliant goddess with both hands raised and the king/worshipper once again, this time wearing a short skirt and holding a sword in his left hand. Both figures are facing right. In the field are a moon-crescent and sun, the so-called ball staff and vessel8, a star, a frontal human head and a fish. The style can be classified as classical Old Babylonian.9 – Comparisons: There is a well-known group of Old Babylonian seals showing the sun god Šamaš, the most represented deity during this period. Aforementioned seal can be categorised within this group. This theme of the sun god can be 7

See Collon 1990, 47, fig. 35; Collon 1987/1993, 45. See e.g. Porada 1948, ‘vessel above ball staff’: 50 and pl. LVIII, fig. 406. Or the ‘Kamm und Wage’, according to Moortgat 1988, nos. 370, 382, 38. For more information on the ‘ball staff motif, see: Porter 2001, 25-34. 9 Al-Gailani Werr 1988, 35-46 and cf. Sippar workshop: Collon 1987, 45-53. 8

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executed in numerous variations, showing a male worshiper holding a child or lamb, behind whom stands a suppliant goddess.10 The Tweini design is a more elaborate variation of this theme with the figure of the king shown twice, once in his warrior and once in his ceremonial outfit. A seal from Charchemish also depicts the king/worshipper in both dress codes.11 On a recut Old Babylonian seal from Ugarit a similar scene with the king in his warrior outfit is depicted.12 Design 3

Fig. 3: Design 3 - 01201-M-001.

– Object no.: 01201-M-001 – Object description: Cylinder seal in light blue sintered quartz, perforated lengthwise. – Measurements of the seal: H.: 2.7 cm, Diam.: 1.3 cm – Find context: Fill layer – topsoil – Date of the find context: Indeterminate – mixed material 10 11 12

Porada 1948, 49, no. 394-426; Moortgat 1988, no. 370-386. Collon 1987/1993, 46, fig. 169. Amiet 1992, 21-24, no. 22.

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– Date of the design according to parallel designs: Late Bronze period – Design description: Two groups in combat: two standing figures (heroes) in wide-brimmed hats are fighting a rampant horned animal in the middle, possibly a bull. The person on the right of both groups is wearing a long robe hanging open in the front, revealing one leg between the fringed edges. He holds a sickleshaped object in the left hand and grasps one of the animal’s foreleg. The person on the left wears a belt, indicated by a double line. He grabs the animal’s tail and one of its horns. – Comparisons: Six seals portraying this type of design were recorded in Ugarit. The sites of Beth Shan, Hala Sultan Tekke and Tell Mohammed ‘Arab each reported the presence of a single seal with this design in their seal repertoire.13 As stated by Collon, these seals clearly come from the same workshop within the Mitannian kingdom, most probably located in Ugarit.14 The sites from which these seals were excavated – Israel, Cyprus and Iraq – confirm their export to distant places. Design 4

Fig. 4: Design 4 - 00951-M-001.

– – – – –

Object no.: 00951-M-001 Object description: Cylinder seal in faïence, perforated lengthwise. Measurements of the seal: H.: 3.1 cm, Diam.: 1 cm Find context: Fill layer Date of the find context: Level 7BC – Late Bronze Age II

13 14

Collon 1987/1993, 62 no. 262. Collon 1987/1993, 62 and 65.

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– Design Description: This seal depicts a symmetric composition of two kneeling figures facing each other on either side of a stylized tree or plant and with a rampant horned animal (ibex?) behind each of them. The ‘ibex’ on the left is followed by a standing figure in a long dress with both hands at breast height. The thin line running down from shoulders to feet might be part of the dress as some sort of cape. All three figures wear a high conical headdress. The top and bottom of the seal are bordered by a horizontal line. – Comparisons: Several Late Bronze (Syro-Mitannian) glazed faïence cylinder seals from Ugarit depict kneeling, sitting or standing worshippers by a stylized tree, each followed by a rampant or couchant horned animal.15 Design 5

Fig. 5: Design 5 - 00528-M-001.

– Object no.: 00528-M-001 – Object description: Cylinder seal in black stone (steatite?) with a 3 mm perforation lengthwise. – Measurements of the seal: H.: 2.2 cm, Diam.: 0.9 cm – Find context: Fill layer – Date of the find context: 7BC – Late Bronze Age II

15 Ugarit, R.S. 25.379: Two sitting worshippers at a stylized tree, behind them a cervine/deer standing on its hind legs eating a leaf – Ugarit Récent 1/1550-1450 BCE; Ugarit, R.S. 26227: Two sitting worshippers beside a stylized tree with a couchant deer behind each of them – Ugarit Récent 2/1450-1350 BCE; Ugarit, R.S. 9.213: Kneeling worshipper and two gazelles standing on their hind legs beside a stylized tree – Ugarit Recént 1/1550-1450; Ugarit, R.S. 25.251: Standing worshipper at a stylized tree. Behind him a standing ibex – Ugarit Récent 1/1550-1450 or beginning Récent 2/1450-1350. See: Schaeffer-Forrer 1983, 103, 149, 156.

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– Design description: The seal is composed in two registers. The upper register shows one smaller and two larger stylized linear figures. The figure on the left seems to carry a bow in the right hand, the figure in the middle holds a stick-like object (perhaps a knife?) in the left hand. The figure on the right carries what appears to be a spear in the left hand and an undefined object in the right hand. Between two vertical lines are two unrecognizable items. The lower register depicts two hybrid creatures (perhaps a winged griffin or sphinx) that are facing each other.16 The top and the bottom of the seal are bordered by a horizontal line. – Comparisons: Winged composite creatures rendered in a linear and schematic style are frequently attested on Late Bronze Age steatite seals from Ugarit.17 For the spear and bow carrying figures, parallels can be found in Ugarit as well.18 Design 6

Fig. 6: Design 6 - 00180-M-001.

– Object no.: 00180-M-001 – Object description: Cylinder seal in white-soft green stone (faience?), damaged on the upper side and perforated with a 3 mm wide puncture. – Measurements of the seal: H.: 3 cm, Diam.: 1.1 cm – Find context: Fill layer – Date of the find context: 7BC – Late Bronze Age II

16 Perhaps the ‘wings’ on the Tweini seal show some comparison with the stylization of the wings of four griffins (three sitting and one standing) in Kühne 1980, 73, no. 30. 17 E.g. Amiet 1992, no. 68, no. 79, no. 350. 18 Ugarit RS 9.007: Steatite, Ugarit Récent 2/1450-1300 BCE, see: Hammade 1994, 130, no. 473.

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– Design description: This seal shows a floral motif consisting of three fan-palm shaped leaves on separate branches, and what seems to be a jumping fish. – Comparisons: Space filling floral motifs are attested for Late Bronze Age seals from Ugarit.19 Design 7

Fig. 7: Design 7 - 02503-C-001.

– Object no.: 02503-C-001 – Object description: This fragmentarily preserved plaque – probably the arm of a terracotta wall bracket – depicts a seal rolling. The seal was rolled in vertical direction. The sides of the wall bracket arm are incised with diagonal lines. – Measurements of the design: H.: 9.3 cm, diam.: at least 3.8 cm (uncomplete scene) – Measurements of the wall bracket fragment: H.: 11.4 cm, W.: 10.9 cm – Find context: Fill layer – Date of the find context: 7BC – Late Bronze Age II – Design description: The design probably consists of two intermingled levels. Parts of the rolling are distorted due to the fact that the clay seems to be have been smeared in those areas. A schematic plant/tree is visible on the left side of the upper register, to the right an undeterminable feature (a scorpion with its head lifted?)20. Next to this motif are two large standing figures (with conical

19 Amiet 1992, 177, no. 427 (Ugarit Récent 2/1450-1350 BCE) and no. 428 (Ugarit Récent 3/1350-1200 BCE). For fish motif and plants see e.g. Amiet 1992, no. 351 and 426; SchaefferForrer 1983, 95-96, R.S. 8.022, R.S. 8.022 A, 129, R.S. 23.11. 20 The scorpion and plant/tree are central motifs on wall bracket 00027-M-001-003 as well (see infra).

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hats?) wearing short skirts and possibly with arms reaching out. Above the heads of the persons are eight dots in a circular constellation. In the lower left part, the legs and feet of a human figure walking to the left can be discerned. – Comparisons: If the identification of the two large figures as interacting standing persons is correct, they resemble both bull hunting bearded figures with conical hats on the Late Bronze Age faïence rython from Kition.21 Design 822

Fig. 8: Design 8 - 00838-M-003.

– Object no.: 00838-M-003 – Object description: Bifacial ellipsoid-shaped stamp seal in brownish-black stone, perforated lengthwise. – Measurements of the seal: Diam.: 2.5 cm, Th.: 1.4 cm – Find context: Fill layer 21

Buchholz and Karageorghis 1971, fig. 1671a-b. Bretschneider and Van Lerberghe 2008, 33, 37, Fig. 37; Lebrun and Tavernier 2012, 319326, 331, Fig. 2. 22

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– Date of the find context: 7BC – Late Bronze Age II – Design description: This stamp seal bears an inscription in Hieroglyphic-Luwian containing the personal name of a high functionary named ‘Schauschkapiya’.23 – Comparisons: Stamp seals of high officials with Hieroglyphic-Luwian inscriptions are known from other sites, e.g. from Méskéne-Emar.24 Design 9

Fig. 9: Design 9 - 00638-M-001.

– – – – – – –

Object no.: 00638-M-001 Object description: Bronze ring with inscription. Measurements of the ring: H.: 3.4 cm, W.: 2.9 cm Measurements of the ‘design’/ring surface: H.: 1.1 cm, W.: 1.9 cm Find context: Fill layer Date of the find context: Level 7BC – Late Bronze Age II Design description: The ring is incised with an inscription in Hieroglyphic-Luwian containing the personal name of a high functionary: ‘Tu-ra/i-zi’.25 – Comparison: Finger rings of high officials with Hieroglyphic-Luwian inscriptions were excavated e.g. in Méskéne-Emar.26

23 24 25 26

Lebrun and Tavernier 2012, 319-326. Beyer 2001, 19-164; Jablonka 2006, 511-529. Lebrun and Tavernier 2012, 327. Beyer 2001, 19-164.

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The Late Bronze / Iron Age I Period – Tweini Level 7-6EF Design 1027

Fig. 10: Design 10 - 03325-C-001.

– – – – – – –

Object no.: 03325-C-001 Object description: Impression of a stamp seal on a terracotta handle. Measurements of the handle: H.: 10 cm, W.: 8,4 cm Measurements of the design: H.: 3.1 cm, W.: 3.8 cm Find context: Fill layer Date of the find context: 7BC-6EF – Late Bronze Age II-Iron Age I Design description : This sealing representing a boat on the handle of a Canaanite storage jar is a unique feature for the northern Levant. As indicated by the impression, the seal surface was not circular but rather followed the shape of the boat; with two protrusions at the bow and the stern of the boat. The seal impression is published in depth in this volume.28

Iron Age Period – Level 6 Design 11 – Object no.: 00027-M-001-003, 05953-M-001 and 01925-C-002 – Object Description: Five fragments of terracotta wall brackets with a rolling of Design 11. During the first excavation campaigns, several flat strips of terracotta were retrieved and interpreted as ‘plaques’ with an unidentified function.29 With 27

Bretschneider and Van Lerberghe 2008, 33, 39, Fig. 38. For more information concerning this seal impression (context, iconography and comparisons), see: Manolova and Bretschneider in this volume. 29 Bretschneider, Cunningham and Van Lerberghe 2000, 110, fig. 19-20. 28

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a

b

c

d

Fig. 11: Design 11 – a-b: 00027-M-001, c: 00027-M-002, d: 00027-M-003.

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e

f

g

Fig. 11: Design 11 – e-f: 05953-M-001, g: 01925-C-002.

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– – –

– –

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the discovery of object 01925-C-002, which still preserved a bowl-shaped protrusion, we were finally able to categorize all the ‘plaques’ with Design 11 as fragments of wall brackets, although none of them displayed the suspension hole with which the bracket was attached to the wall. All fragments bear the seal rolling on the front of the arm, with the seal rolled in vertical direction in order to obtain a long continuous impression.30 Measurements of the wall bracket fragments: 00027-M-001: H.: 19.7 cm, W.: 8.6 cm, Th.: 2 cm; 00027-M-002: H.: 6.7 cm, W.: 7.4 cm; 00027-M003: H.: 6 cm, W.: 2.8 cm; 05953-M-001: H.: 10.1 cm, W.: 8.7 cm, Th.: 2.4 cm, 01925-C-002: H.: 21.2 cm, W.: 14 cm, Th.: 10.5 cm Measurements of the design: H.: 16.13, W.: 7.4 cm Find contexts: 00027 = floor, 05953 = fill layer, 01925 = fill layer Remarks on find context Locus 00027: This locus defines the ‘in situ’ material found on an Early Iron Age floor of level 6EF.31 The large fragments of the wall bracket (00027-M-001-003) were associated with a deposit of chalices and goblets, which are common in Iron I assemblages and mainly originating in cultic contexts.32 14C samples of seeds taken from inside several pithoi determined the destruction date of level 6EF between 1050 to ca. 1000 BCE.33 The ceramic inventory of Level 6EF comprises Cypriote White Painted I ware, e.g. a two-handled deep bowl on a conical foot, which typologically dates to 1050-950 BCE.34 Date of the find contexts: 00027: Level 6EF – Iron Age I; 05953: Level 6CD – Iron Age II, 01925: level 6CD – Iron Age II Design description: The large sized seal with the reconstructed measurement of 7.4 cm in height and a diameter of 5.1 cm was rolled vertically on the arm of the wall bracket. The scene was engraved sideways on the seal surface (thus not with the figure’s feet on the base line), so that when unrolling the cylinder, the figures appear upright on the wall bracket arm. Because of this and the fact that the width of the wall bracket arm matches the height of the seal exactly, one can presume that the seal was cut specifically to decorate wall brackets.

30 Except perhaps for object 00027-M-003. Because we were not able to reassess the pieces first hand, we can only rely on the photographic documentation. The pictures may suggest that the sherd was not broken at the bottom (underneath the feet of the depicted figure), thus meaning that the seal in this case would have been rolled horizontally instead of vertically. 31 For more information concerning the Iron Age I level at Tell Tweini, see Bretschneider et al. in this volume. 32 Mazar 2015, 11, pl. 1.1.5. For more information concerning the Iron Age I level at Tell Tweini, see Bretschneider et al. in this volume. 33 Kaniewski et al. 2010. 34 See Nys in this volume.

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Two naked human stick figures with upraised arms, spread fingers35 and rather long necks stand on either side of a stylized tree. Above both figures are four four-legged animals facing right set up in two rows of two animal. One animal is characterized by a long curving tail – possibly a lion –, one by large antlers, one by long straight horns and one by a long straight tail. A wheel-shaped object with four spokes is arrayed between the tail and the antlers of both animals on top. Slightly to the right and on top of the wheel a miniature version of a naked human figure is facing left, and is followed by an animal which is only partly preserved. One large and one small scorpion are identifiable above the miniature person; both with their tail to the right. – Comparisons: The different motifs and the iconography bear superficial resemblance to Syro-Palestinian Late Bronze and Early Iron Age glyptic and pottery decoration. For example human figures beside a stylized tree are reminiscent of a scaraboid group36 and several Late Bronze Age seals from Ugarit executed in cursory, schematic and linear style.37 Perhaps the wheel-shaped object is relatable to the Anatolian round solar symbol with the incised cross as attested on the chest of a Late Bronze Age statue of a deity from Hazor38 or the winged sun-disc with the cross39 in the Late Bronze Age glyptic from Ugarit.40 A pictorial Philistine bichrome krater from Ashkelon illustrates a round symbol with four spokes between a human figure and a fish41 The lion ‘chasing’ a horned animal, as well as the motif of the scorpion42 are multi-period motifs in the Ancient Near East and frequently attested for the Late Bronze and Early Iron Age in the Levant and surrounding countries. No close parallels for the combination of these different motifs, including the round symbol, have been found so far. Roswitha Schlipphak addressed a cultic function to the Late Bronze and Early Iron Age wall brackets from Cyprus and the Levant, which predominately show applications and decoration in form of bull-protomes, female figurines43 and wavy lines/snakes.44 The terracotta wall brackets and the 35

For comparison: see Late Bronze Age seals from Ugarit: Amiet 1992, nos. 359, 365 and 366. Keel and Uehlinger 2010, 170. 37 Amiet 1992, nos. 116, 122, 124-129, 396. 38 Keel and Uehlinger 2010, 57, fig. 44. 39 Lauber 2013. Further similarities are attested to Late Bronze Age solar motifs from the Aegean and Ugarit see: Bouzek 2011, 188-193. 40 Amiet 1992, no. 164. 41 Stager, Schloen and Master 2008, fig. 15-40; Ben-Shlomo 2010, 52-53, fig. 3.12 side B. 42 Keel and Uehlinger 2010, 168. 43 The naked female figurines in the gesture of ‘Breast holding’ were associated with the Levantine Astarte plaques from the Late Bronze and Early Iron Age; Schlipphak 2001, 45; Buchholz 1999, 623-639. 44 For a similar function: see Buchholz 1999, 623-639. 36

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rare examples in bronze were commonly associated with wall hanging due to the circular hole near the top of the vertical arm.45 Design 1246

Fig. 12: Design 12: 05851-M-001.

– Object no.: 05851-M-001 – Object description: Cylinder seal in light grey stone (quartzite?), perforated with a 2.5 mm wide puncture and with some minor damage on the upper and lower edges and two small indentations on the seal surface. – Measurements of the seal: H.: 3.5 cm, Diam.: 1.5 cm – Find context: Floor – The floor deposit comprised a remarkable assemblage of artefacts: two cylinder seals (05851-M-001 and 05851-M-003), one stamp seal (05851-M002) and five beads – probably once all part of the same necklace. – Date of the find context: Level 6AB – Iron Age II – Date of the seal: Middle Assyrian ((13th) 11th-10th century BCE) – Iron Age I47 – Based on parallels in motive and style and according to the comparative chronological categorization of Porada, Opificius and Boehmer48, the Tweini seal can be dated to the Middle Assyrian period ((13th) 11th-10th century BCE), a period well attested in the rich archaeological record of Level 6EF 45 Smith 2009, 86; Schlipphak 2001, 44. More information concerning wall brackets, see also: Penitz-Cohen 2006, 613-636; Rahmstorf 2014, 187-195. 46 This seal will be published in detail in Bretschneider and Jans (forthcoming) and was already briefly published in Bretschneider, Jans and Van Vyve 2015, 371, fig. 11. 47 See Bretschneider and Jans, forthcoming for an extensive discussion. 48 Porada 1948, no. 607; Opificius 1968, no. 89; Boehmer 1975, 353-354, no. 272c. The Tweini seal has parallels with a seal in the Yale University, Babylonian Collection (Von der Osten 1934, no. 685; Moortgat 1942, 9ff., Fig. 10; Boehmer 1975, 351, no. 271f), one in the British Museum (Carnegie 1908, no. Qc 35; Boehmer 1975, 351, no. 271g) and one in the Pierpont Morgan Library (Porada 1948, no. 606; Opificius 1968, no. 90; Boehmer 1975, 354, no. 272d).

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(Iron Age I) at Tweini. Since the floor deposit comprising this cylinder seal was dated to Level 6AB (Iron Age II), the seal consequently appears to have been kept over a longer period of time. – Design description: A standing bearded figure holding up a sword in his left hand faces a prancing winged horse. His right hand seems to grab the horse’s left front leg. The man wears a decorated tunic with two long tassels at the front, a diadem encircles the head. Between both characters, underneath the front legs of the winged creature, a small horse lays facing away from the hero towards a crescent shape. Behind the man an undersized palm tree completes the scene. – Comparisons: The closest parallel combining the hero and a winged horse is observed in a seal kept in the Pierpont Morgan Library New York dating to the 11th-10th century BCE. It depicts a hero with a diadem handling a sword and holding a winged lion griffon at one foreleg. Under the creature lays a bull calf facing the griffon.49 Design 13

Fig. 13: Design 13: 05851-M-003.

– Object no.: 05851-M-00350 – Object description: Cylinder seal in greyish black stone (steatite?), perforated with a narrow 1.5 mm wide puncture. – Measurements of the seal: H.: 2.5 cm, Diam.: 1 cm – Find context: Floor – Date of the find context: Level 6AB – Iron Age II – Date of the seal based on iconography and style: Late Bronze or Iron Age 49 50

For other parallels see footnote 46. For the same locus, see Designs 12 and 21.

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– Design description: The seal is incised with a vague depiction of two standing schematic figures facing right(?). To the right there is a rampant animal with its head turned backward. – Comparison: The popular motif ‘contest between man and animal’ in a simplified style is also known from the Ugarit seal corpus.51 Design 14

Fig. 14: Design 14: 07349-M-001.

– Object no.: 07349-M-001 – Object description: Cylinder seal in faïence, no mention of perforation. The seal surface is rather eroded. – Measurements of the seal: H.: 2.2 cm, Diam.: 1.1 cm – Find context: Fill layer – Date of the find context: Level 6GH-EF – Iron Age I – Design description: Several straight and curved lines and irregularly placed dots are visible. Design 15 – Object no.: 05503-C-025a-c – Object description: This is the rim of a large pithos or basin with the rolling of a cylinder seal. The wide rim protrudes to the inside as well as the outside of the recipient’s body. According to our ceramologist Klaas Van Steenhuyse, the fragments are local since the fabric can be identified as the typical F2, a thick fabric with vegetal inclusions.52 – Measurements of the flat rim surface: 05503-C-025a: H.: 4.1 cm, W.: 28.6 cm; b: H.: 6.9 cm, W.: 30 cm; c: H.: 6.5 cm, W.: 19.1 cm 51 52

E.g. Amiet 1992, no. 377 and 362; Hammade 1994, no. 443. See Degryse and Vansteenhuyse in this volume.

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a

b

c

d

e

Fig. 15: Design 15: a: 05503-C-025a, b-c: 05503-C-025b, d: 05503-C-025c, e: drawing of the reconstructed Design 15.

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– Measurements of the reconstructed design: H.: ca. 16,7 cm, W: 5.4 cm. Thus the seal had a diameter of ca. 5.3 cm. – Find context: Fill layer – Date of the find context: Level 5 – Iron Age III53 – Design description: A lion with one paw raised confronts a standing figure. Above them are a larger and two smaller horned animals. The figures were arranged in a vertical not horizontal composition, similar to the seal depiction on the wallbracket fragments (Design 11). – Comparison: A similar scene, engraved perpendicularly to the seal’s axis as well, originates from Ugarit. This seal portrays a comparable design with a standing person and three four-legged animals.54 Design 16 (9)

Fig. 16: Design 16: 01302-M-001.

– Object no.: 01302-M-0010 – Object description: Stamp seal in black stone with a hemispherical shape. The stone is decorated with two horizontally incised parallel lines around the sides near the rim of the engraved surface. – Measurements of the seal: Diam.: 1.5 cm (= seal surface), H.: 2.1 cm – Find context: Fill layer – Date of the find context: Level 6CD-6AB – Iron Age II – Design description: A standing figure with raised arms, wearing a high conical hat (with horns?) and facing right is flanked by a bird of prey with spread wings on either side. 53 54

Probably end 7th century BCE, according to our ceramologist K. Vansteenhuyse. Amiet 1992, 160, 165, no. 386.

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– Comparisons: This design is a variation of the ‘Master of the birds’ motif of a standing human figure holding large birds (ostriches) by their heads. The ‘master of the ostrich’ is a well-known motif in Syro-Palestine in the Iron Age II period.55 Design 17 (12)

Fig. 17: Design 17: 02101-M-001.

– Object no.: 02101-M-001 – Object description: Hemispherical stamp seal in black stone and perforated from side to side. The stone is decorated with three horizontally incised parallel lines around the sides near the rim of the engraved surface. – Measurements of the seal: Diam.: 1.9-2.2 cm (= seal surface), Th.: 1.7 cm – Find context: Fill layer – topsoil – Date of the find context: Indeterminate – mixed material – Date of the design according to parallel designs: Iron Age – Level 6 – Design description: A schematic tree is flanked by two rampant horned animals (goats or ibexes), with their heads turned backward. Possibly a scorpion (or a floral motif) is engraved above the left animal. The depiction is encircled by a line. – Comparisons: Goats or ibexes flanking a stylized tree is a well attested motif in glyptic and pottery decoration for the 2nd and 1st millennium BCE, e.g. in the Iron Age II-III glyptic from Tell Gemme, Tell el-Far’a and Jericho.56 On ceram-

55

Keel and Uehlinger 2010, 158, fig. 162. Keel and Uehlinger 2010, 243-244, fig. 222a-c. Examples of depictions with symmetrically positioned (rampant) animals like ibex, goats, antelopes or other caprides were discussed by 56

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ics the design of the goat and the sacral tree is one of the most important motifs of the Late Bronze Age.57 Design 18

Fig. 18: Design 18: 00222-M-002.

– Object no.: 00222-M-002 – Object description: Stamp seal in black-greenish stone (serpentine?) in a slightly elongated hemispherical shape, perforated from side to side. The stone is decorated with three horizontal parallel incised lines around the sides near the rim of the engraved surface. – Measurements of the seal: Diam.: 1.5 cm, Th.: 1.4 cm – Find context: Fill layer – Date of the find context: Indeterminate – mixed material Level 7-6/ Late Bronze II-Iron Age – Date of design according to parallel designs: Iron Age – Design description: A horse with elaborately executed manes stands over a bird-like animal (lying foal?); both creatures are facing left. The horse has an upraised tail. Floral motifs (a plant/tree and a small palm tree?) complete the design above and in front of the large animal. – Comparisons: This design probably belongs to the galloping ‘Horse-Group’ categorized by Buchanan and Moorey for the Levant in the Early Iron Age.58 A further example is known from a ca. 800 BCE context from Ayia Irini in Cyprus.59

Buchanan and Moorey 1988, 37, no. 26 and 20 no. 111; Reyes 2001, 103 no. 200, fig. 220 (from Amanthus); Keel 2013, 42, no. 96 (Tell Gemme) with further comparisons from Tell el- Far’a. 57 Schroer 2011, 296, nos. 849-854. 58 Buchanan and Moorey 1988, 23-25. 59 Reyes 2001, 67, fig. 94.

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Design 19

Fig. 19: Design 19: 01500-M-001.

– – – – – – –

Object no.: 01500-M-001 Object description: Oval hemispherical stamp seal in black stone (steatite?). Measurement of the seal: H.: 1 cm, W.: 1.6 cm (= seal surface), Th.: 1.2 cm Find context: Fill layer – top soil Date of the find context: Indeterminate – mixed material Date of the design according to parallel designs: Iron Age Design description: A four-legged animal with long curved horns runs to the right. Behind the animal a large leaf-shaped floral motif completes the scene. The depiction is encircled by a cut rim. – Comparisons: Similar depictions of horned animals on stamp seals were found in Bet-El and Beth Shan. The one from Bet-El is an engraved disk with a four-footed animal and a floral motif from the Iron Age IIA/beginning of the Iron Age IIB (ca. 980-800 BCE)60. Beth Shan produced two similar representations: a round-oval impression of a stamp seal with a capride, a tree and branches 60

Keel 2010, 30 no. 22.

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from the Iron Age IIA (ca. 980-840/30 BCE)61 and a scarab with a capride facing right from the Iron Age IIB (ca. 830-600 BCE), which stylistically is very similar to the one from Tweini.62 Design 20

Fig. 20: Design 20: 01610-M-002.

– Object no.: 01610-M-002 – Object description: Oval hemispherical stamp seal in black stone (steatite?). – Measurement of the seal: H.: 1.3 cm, W.: 1.55 cm (= seal surface), Th.: 0.85 cm – Find context: Fill layer – Date of the find context: Level 6-5 – Iron Age – Design description: A four-footed animal is facing left. It remains unclear whether the motif above the animal’s back are wings attached to its body or if the wings belong to a bird. In front of the animal a long-necked (water)bird seems to be turned 90° to the left (thus with its beak upwards). – Comparisons: A human headed scaraboid made of black calcite and dated to the Iron Age I-IIA (ca. 1150-900 BCE) is known from Anafa. The scaraboid is incised with a four-footed animal – probably a horse –, a water bird above the back of the ‘horse’, and a floral motif.63

61

Keel 2010, 114, no. 39. Buchanan and Moorey 1988, 25, no. 159. 63 Keel 1997, 640, no. 4. For other probable parallels from Syro-Palestinian origin and dated to the Iron Age see: Buchanan and Moorey 1988, 24, no. 154. 62

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Design 21

Fig. 21: Design 21: 05851-M-002.

– Object no.: 05851-M-002 – Object description: A human face scaraboid64 in grey stone with a perforation from side to side. – Measurements of the seal: H.: 1 cm, W.: 1 cm (= seal surface), Th.: 1 cm – Find context: Floor – Date of the find context: Level 6AB – Iron Age II – Design description: A vague depiction of a scorpion(?), a horse(?) and a bird(?).65 Design 22 – Object nos.: 05713-C-008, 06217-C-001, 00830-M-003 – Object description: 05713-C-008 and 06217-C-001: These are terracotta handles with an impression of a stamp seal; 00830-M-003: Stamp seal/bead with a rosette depiction on both sides. – Measurements of the design: 05713-C-008: Diam.: 2.2 cm; 06217-C-001: Diam.: 1.5 cm – Measurements of the object: 00830-M-003: Diam.: 1.4-1.6 cm – Find context: 05713 = Fill layer; 06217 = Floor; 00830 = Floor – Date of the find context: 05713 and 06217: Level 7-6EF – Late Bronze Age-Iron Age I; 00830: Indeterminate – Date of the seal based on comparisons (and context): Iron Age I

64 We thank Vanessa Boschloos for identifying the human face. This object was incorporated here instead of in the article on the scarabs as it has been found as an assemblage along with two cylinder seals. See also: Buchanan and Moorey 1988, pl. V, no. 149-150. 65 The description of the design is mentioned by the excavator on the object sheet, but unfortunately a picture or drawing is unavailable.

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b

a

d

c

e

Fig. 22: Design 22: a: 05713-C-008, b-c: 06217-C-001, d-e: 00830-M-003 (front and back side).

– Design description: All three objects depict a distinct eight-petalled rosette. The stamp seal(-bead) with a rosette on either side measures 1.5 cm in diameter – the same size as 06217-C-001. However, the stamp seal is not perfectly circular in shape due to two flattened sides. The impression on 06217-C-001 appears to have a precise circular shape, indicating the impression on this handle was not made by stamp seal 00830-M-003. The impression on 05713-C-008 has different measurements than the stamp seal. – Comparisons: Stamp seal impressions of rosettes on jar handles are a frequent practice especially in the Iron Age.66 66

E.g. see: Keel 1997, 737-739; Koch 2016, 371-388.

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Design 23 (Field C)

Fig. 23: Design 23: 11001-C-001.

– – – – – – –

Object no.: 11001-C-001 Object description: Terracotta handle with the impression of a stamp seal Measurements of the impression: H.: 1.5 cm, W.: 3.6 cm Find context: Fill layer Date of the find context: Indeterminate Date according to the inscription: Iron Age Design description: This inscription mentions the name ‘Sokrateus’ (with possibly a phi behind).67 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Al-Gailani Werr L. 1988: Studies in the Chronology and Regional Style of Old Babylonian Cylinder Seals (Bibliotheca Mesopotamica, Vol. 23), Malibu. Al-Maqdissi M. 2007: L’architecture religieuse phénicienne dans la plaine de Jablé. Recherches archéologiques récent en Phénicie du Nord, in: E. Fontan and H. Le Meaux (eds.), La Méditerranée des Phéniciens de Tyr à Carthage, Institut du Monde Arabe 6 novembre 2007 - 20 avril 2008, Paris, 62-63. Amiet P. 1992: Sceaux-cylindres en hématite et pierres diverses (Corpus des cylindres de Ras Shamra-Ougarit II. Ras Shamra-Ougarit IX), Paris. Ben-Shlomo D. 2010, Philistine Iconography. A Wealth of Style and Symbolism (Orbis Biblicus et Orientalis 241), Fribourg - Göttingen. Beyer D. 2001: Emar IV: Les sceaux: Mission archéologique de Meskéné‐Emar, recherches au pays d’Aštata (Orbis Biblicus et Orientalis, Series Archaeologica 20), Fribourg - Göttingen. Boehmer R. M. 1975 (1985): Glyptik von der Alt- bis zur Spaetbabylonischen Zeit, in: W. Orthmann (ed.), Der Alte Orient (Propylaen Kunstgeschichte), 336-363. Boschloos V. 2019: Tell Tweini on the Syrian Coast from a Beetle’s Point of View: Bronze and Iron Age Scarabs from the Belgian Excavations, in: J. Bretschneider 67

We thank Tom Boiy and Jan Tavernier for checking this inscription on a photograph.

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and G. Jans (eds.), About Tell Tweini (Syria): Artefacts, Ecofacts and Landscape. Research Results of the Belgian Mission (Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta 281), Leuven, 181-200. Bouzek J. 2011: Bird-shaped Prows of Boats, Sea People and the Pelasgians, in: A. Vianello (ed.), Exotica in the Prehistoric Mediterranean, Oxford, 188-193. Bretschneider J., T. Cunningham and K. Van Lerberghe 2000: Gibala. The first two excavations - 1999-2000, Ugarit-Forschungen. Internationales Jahrbuch für die Altertumskunde Syriens-Palästinas 31, 75-131. Bretschneider J. and K. Van Lerberghe 2008: Tell Tweini, Ancient Gibala, between 2600 B.C.E. and 333 B.C.E., in: J. Bretschneider and K. Van Lerberghe (eds.), In Search of Gibala. An Archaeological and Historical Study Based on Eight Seasons of Excavations at Tell Tweini (Syria) in the A and C Fields (1999-2007) (Aula Orientalis Supplementa 24), Barcelona, 11-68. Bretschneider J., G. Jans and A.-S. Van Vyve 2015: Once upon a Tell in the East: Tell Tweini through the Ages, in: M. Dietrich & H. Neumann (eds.), Ugarit und Kanaan. Kulturelle, sprachliche und wirtschaftliche Beziehungen zwischen der nördlichen Levante und Phönizien-Palästina. Oswald Loretz in memoriam (Ugarit-Forschungen. Internationales Jahrbuch für die Altertumskunde SyriensPalästinas 45) (2014), 347-371. Bretschneider J., G. Jans, A.-S. Van Vyve, H. Hameeuw and K. Vansteenhuyse 2019: Tell Tweini: A Long Story Short, in: J. Bretschneider and G. Jans (eds.), About Tell Tweini (Syria): Artefacts, Ecofacts and Landscape. Research Results of the Belgian Mission (Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta 281), Leuven, 1-30. Bretschneider J. and G. Jans forthcoming: A Winged Horse at Tell Tweini. An Exceptional Middle Assyrian Cylinder Seal, Akkadica. Buchanan B. and P. R. Moorey 1988: Catalogue of Ancient Near Eastern Seals in the Ashmolean Museum: Volume III: The Iron Age Stamp Seals (c. 1200-350 BC), Oxford. Buchholz H.-G. 1999: Ugarit, Zypern und Ägäis. Kulturbeziehungen im zweiten Jahrtausend v.Chr. (AOAT 261), Münster. Buchholz H.-G. and V. Karageorghis 1971: Altägäis und Altkypros, Tübingen. Collon D. 1987/1993: First Impressions. Cylinder Seals in the Ancient Near East, London. — 1990: Near Eastern Seals (Interpreting the Past), Oakland. Degryse P. and K. Vansteenhuyse 2019: Annex: Petrographic Characterisation of the Ceramic Fabric Groups at Tell Tweini, in: J. Bretschneider and G. Jans (eds.), About Tell Tweini (Syria): Artefacts, Ecofacts and Landscape. Research Results of the Belgian Mission (Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta 281), Leuven, 639-651. Hammade H. 1994: Cylinder Seals from the Collections of the Aleppo Museum, Syrian Arab Republic 2. Seals of known provenance (BAR International Series 597), Oxford. Hameeuw H. and G. Willems 2011: New Visualization Techniques for Cuneiform Texts and Sealings, Akkadica 132/2, 163-178. Jablonka P. 2006: Emar und Troia: Zur Verbreitung hethitischer Hieroglyphensiegel, Baghdader Mitteilungen 37, 511-529. Jans G. and J. Bretschneider 2019: A Collective Middle Bronze Age II Tomb at Tell Tweini Field A, in: J. Bretschneider and G. Jans (eds.), About Tell Tweini (Syria): Artefacts, Ecofacts and Landscape. Research Results of the Belgian Mission (Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta 281), Leuven, 201-241.

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Kaniewski D., E. Paulissen, E. Van Campo, H. Weiss, T. Otto, J. Bretschneider and K. Van Lerberghe 2010: Late Second-Early First Millennium BC Abrupt Climate Changes in Coastal Syria and their Possible Significance for the History of the Eastern Mediterranean, Quaternary Research 74, 207-215. Keel O. 1997: Corpus der Stempelsiegel-Amulette aus Palastina/Israel: Von den Anfangen bis zur Perserzeit. Katalog Band I: Von Tell Abu Farag bis ‚Atlit (Orbis Biblicus et Orientalis - Series Archaeologica 13), Fribourg - Göttingen. — 2010: Corpus Stempelsiegel-Amulette aus Palestina/Israel: Von den Anfängen bis zur Perserzeit. Katalog Band II: Von Bahan bis Tel Eton (Orbis Biblicus et Orientalis - Series Archaeologica 29), Fribourg - Göttingen. — 2013: Corpus der Stempelsiegel-Amulette aus Palästina/Israel. Von den Anfängen bis zur Perserzeit. Katalog Band IV: Von Tel Gamma bis Chirbet Husche (Orbis Biblicus et Orientalis - Series Archaeologica 33), Fribourg - Göttingen. Keel O. and C. Uehlinger 2010: Göttinnen, Götter und Gottessymbole. Neue Erkenntnisse zur Religionsgeschichte Kanaans und Israels aufgrund bislang unerschlossener ikonographischer Quellen, Fribourg. Koch I. 2016: Rosette stamp impressions, in: O. Lipschits et al. (eds.), Ramat Rahel III. Final Publication of Yohanan Aharoni’s Excavations (1954, 1959–1962), Vol. II (Tel Aviv University Sonia and Marco Nadler Institute of Archaeology Monograph Series Number 35), Winona Lake Indiana, 371-388. Kühne H. 1980: Das Rollsiegel in Syrien. Zur Steinschneidekunst in Syrien zwischen 3300 und 330 vor Christus, Tübingen. Lauber S. 2013: Fluegelsonne, Das Bibellexikon, http://www.bibelwissenschaft.de/ stichwort/78862/. Lebrun R. and J. Tavernier 2012: Deux objets inscrits de Tell Tweini, in: T. Boiy et al. (eds.), The Ancient Near East, A Life! Festschrift Karel Van Lerberghe (Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta 220), Leuven, 319-334. Manolova T. and J. Bretschneider 2018: An Unprecedented Depiction of a SyroCanaanite Oared Galley on a Jar Sealing from Tell Tweini, in: J. Bretschneider and G. Jans (eds.), About Tell Tweini (Syria): Artefacts, Ecofacts and Landscape. Research Results of the Belgian Mission (Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta 281), Leuven, 117-148. Mazar A. 2015: Iron Age I: Northern Coastal Plain, Galilee, Samaria, Jezreel Valley, Judah, and Negev, in: S. Gitin (ed.), The Ancient Pottery of Israel and its Neighbors from the Iron Age through the Hellenistic Period, Jerusalem. Moortgat A. 1942: Assyrische Glyptik des 13. Jahrhunderts, ZA 47, 50-88. — 1988: Vorderasiatische Rollsiegel. Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte der Steinschneidekunst, Berlin. Nys K. 2018: The Iron Age Cypriot Pottery of Field A, in: J. Bretschneider and G. Jans (eds.), About Tell Tweini (Syria): Artefacts, Ecofacts and Landscape. Research Results of the Belgian Mission (Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta 281), Leuven, 395-415. Opificius R. 1968: Die assyrische Glyptik des 14.-8. Jahrhunderts v. Chr. unter Berücksichtigung der gleichzeitigen babylonischen und syrischen Steinschneidekunst (unpublizierte Habilitationsschrift), Münster. Penitz-Cohen N. 2006: “Of the wall”: Wall Brackets and Cypriots in Iron Age I Israel, in: A. Maeir and P. Miroschedji (eds.), I Will Speak the Riddles of Ancient Times. Archaeological and Historical Studies in Honor of Amihai Mazar on the Occasion of His Sixtieth Birthday, Winona Lake Indiana, 613-636.

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Porada E. 1948: Corpus of Ancient Near Eastern Seals in North American Collections I: The Collection of the Pierpont Morgan Library, Washington D.C. Porada E. and D. Collon 2016: Catalogue of the Western Asiatic Seals in the British Museum. Cylinder Seals IV. The Second Millennium BC, London. Porter B. 2001: The Ball Staff Revisited: Insights from Old Syrian Popular Style Cylinder Seals, Archaeology and History in Lebanon 13, 25-34. Reyes A. T. 2001: The Stamp-Seals of Ancient Cyprus, Oxford. Schaeffer-Forrer C. F.-A. 1983: Corpus des Cylindres-Sceaux de Ras Shamra-Ugarit et d’Enkomia-Alasia, Tome I, Paris. Rahmstorf L. 2014: A ‘wall bracket’ from Kandia in the Argolid: Notes on the local character and function of an ‘east Mediterranean’ artefact of the Late Bronze Age/ Early Iron Age, in: Y. Galanakis et al. (eds.), ΑΘΥΡΜΑΤΑ. Critical essays on the archaeology of the Eastern Mediterranean in honour of E. Susan Sherratt, Oxford, 187-195. Schlipphak R. 2001: Wandappliken der Spätbronze- und Eisenzeit im östlichen Mittelmeerraum (Abhandlungen des Deutschen Palästina-Vereins Band 28), Wiesbaden. Smith J. S. 2009: Art and Society in Cyprus from the Bronze Age into the Iron Age, Cambridge. Schroer S. 2011: Die Spätbronzezeit. Die Ikonographie Palästinas/Israels und der Alte Orient 3, Fribourg. Stager L. E. et al. (eds.) 2008: Ashkelon 1: Introduction and Overview (1985-2006) (Final Reports of the Leon Levy Expedition to Ashekelon 1), Winona Lake Indiana. Von der Osten H. H. 1934: Ancient Oriental Seals in the Collection of Mr. Edward T. Newell (Oriental Intitute Publications 22), Chicago.

TELL TWEINI ON THE SYRIAN COAST FROM A BEETLE’S POINT OF VIEW: BRONZE AND IRON AGE SCARABS FROM THE BELGIAN EXCAVATIONS Vanessa BOSCHLOOS

Ghent University - Department of Archaeology Royal Museums of Art and History Brussels - Department of Antiquity

INTRODUCTION This contribution presents a particular category of finds made by the Belgian component of the Syrian-Belgian mission at Tell Tweini, namely the imported Egyptian and the egyptianising scarab-shaped stamp seals.1 The diverse nature of the scarabs from Field A2, both in terms of origin and style, may offer some insights into the circumstances under which they arrived at the site during its different settlement phases. This paper therefore not only gathers the available evidence of Egyptian(ising) glyptic in Field A, but seeks to confront the objects with the known cultural and political background. In this regard, similar finds at nearby sites will also be included in the discussion to further substantiate Gibala’s role in regional and interregional exchanges in coastal Syria in the 2nd and early 1st millennium BCE. SCARABS FROM BRONZE AGE CONTEXTS: TELL TWEINI IN THE CONTACT ZONE BETWEEN ANATOLIA, THE LEVANT AND EGYPT Several burials are the most prominent Middle Bronze Age remains uncovered at Tell Tweini.3 During this period, the harbours on the northern Levantine 1 This paper draws on the author’s PhD dissertation (Vrije Universiteit Brussel 2012, ‘The geo-chronological distribution of Egyptian scarab-shaped seals in the northern Levant from the late 3rd millennium to the late Iron Age’), funded by the Belgian Science Policy Office BELSPO, the Royal Museums of Art and History and the Association Égyptologique Reine Élisabeth, Brussels. I am also thankful to Joachim Bretschneider and Karel Van Lerberghe for having entrusted me with the study of the scarabs excavated by the Belgian component of the Syrian-Belgian mission at Tell Tweini, and to Hendrik Hameeuw and Greta Jans for their assistance with the database and context sheets. 2 The number of scarabs is small, but more have been found on the tell (Field B) by the Syrian team. Those published (e.g. in Al-Maqdissi 2007; Al-Maqdissi et al. 2007) will be taken into account in the present discussion. The identification of the objects is based on the examination of photographs, drawings and of sketches on context sheets. 3 Jans and Bretschneider in this volume; Bretschneider and Van Lerberghe 2008, 20-30; Hameeuw and Jans 2008, 75-81.

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Fig. 1: White ‘faience’ scarab TWE-05-A-E4-01058-M002 (base photographed upside down!) (Photo by B. Vandermeulen).

coast flourished because of their position on important east-west trade routes between Mesopotamia, Anatolia and the Mediterranean. Especially the commerce in cedar wood, copper and tin stimulated the economic growth and urban development of what would become prosperous Amorite city-states.4 According to written sources, Ras Shamra/Ugarit and Tell Sianu/Siyannu were the most important centres in this particular region, but also nearby Tell Sukas/ Šuksu, Qalaꜥat ar-Rus and Tell Iris have Middle Bronze Age remains.5 So what story do the scarabs tell? Tell Tweini’s Early and Middle Bronze Age levels have not yielded contemporary Egyptian or Canaanite scarabs, contrary to Ras Shamra and Qalacat arRus, where several have surfaced in Middle Bronze Age contexts.6 One Middle Bronze Age scarab was discovered in Field A (Fig. 1). It comes from a ‘pit’ (locus 01058) near rooms 2/3 and 2/4 of House 2, containing mixed Middle and Late Bronze Age material, and consequently interpreted as a Late Bronze Age (Level 7) feature that cuts through Middle Bronze Age levels. Since Middle Bronze Age sherds in the ‘pit’ joined with sherds of the nearby Middle Bronze Age floor 01066 (Level 8), it is possible that the scarab had originally 4

Grandet 2008, 28-47; Van Koppen 2007; Riis et al. 2004, 27. Bretschneider and Van Lerberghe 2008, 21; Riis et al. 2004; Singer 1999, 608-613. 6 For example in Ugarit: Bordreuil and Pardee 1989, nos. RS 9.710, RS 9.871; Kuschke 1962, 256, taf. XVII, 1-2; Schaeffer 1936, 142, fig. 17; Schaeffer 1932, pl. XI, fig. 2 (excluded are scarabs from mixed Middle and Late Bronze Age contexts). In Qalaꜥat ar-Rus: Forrer 1939, 210. 5

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been deposited in a Middle Bronze Age context. Unfortunately, it cannot be determined whether the context in which the scarab was found at Tell Tweini was its primary or secondary context; it may already have arrived at the site during the Middle Bronze Age II and ended up mixed with younger material when the ‘pit’ was dug at that location in the Late Bronze Age. It is made of white composite material (‘faience’), measures 16 × 13.8 × 10 mm, and is pierced longitudinally. The sides are grooved without further rendering of the scarab’s legs, but the back shows features of the beetle, with single lines separating wing cases and pronotum and small oblique notches decorating the lower wing cases. A small bronze fragment, possibly part of a bracelet and found near the scarab, may indicate it was originally mounted. The scarab belongs to the so-called Omega Group, small seals that surfaced in early Middle Bronze Age IIB northern Syria, Anatolia and Palestine.7 The seals display designs in raised relief on their bases – which is exceptional in the history of scarab production –, generally representing an Ω-like sign, a rosette, a crescent and star, or occasionally a nude female/goddess, which find their parallels in the iconography of Syrian-Anatolian glyptic. Even though early scholarship interpreted the Ω-motif as a stylised rendering of the face of the Egyptian goddess Hathor or of the uterus as symbol of the Mesopotamian goddess Ninhursag, it is now generally accepted that the general symbolism must be linked to protection, fertility and birth.8 The fact that some have been discovered in children’s tombs, is one of the arguments put forward to associate these small seal-amulets more specifically with pregnancy and childbirth.9 The scarab from Tell Tweini shows an Ω on top of an anchor-shaped motif. The same design also decorates the base of a conical seal from Karahöyük in Turkey and a scarab from Jericho, both from early Middle Bronze Age IIB contexts.10 Depending on the orientation of the composition, this combination of motifs has tentatively been interpreted as representing either the vulva and womb, or a stylised female head and breasts.11 The Omega Group scarabs are considered to be the Canaanite adaptation of a more northern, Syrian or South-Anatolian model. Scarab-shaped seals were introduced in the local glyptic traditions of the southern Levant at the end of the Middle Bronze Age IIA while the cylinder seal and other types of stamp seals were preferred in Syria and Anatolia. The Omega Group is represented 7 For an overview see Keel 1989a. Depending on whether one follows a high or low chronology, their production is either dated to the 18th (Collon 2008, 95; Keel 1989a) or to the early 17th century BCE (Ben-Tor 2007a). 8 Keel 1989a, 56-70. 9 Keel 2004, 79-81. 10 Alp 1968, fig. 164; Garstang 1933, pl. XXVI, tomb 19, 11. 11 Keel 1995b, 99-100; Keel 1989a, 75-78. The former especially as regard to the Omega Group as an example of the deviation of the head-to-top principle of designs in early scarab production.

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by conical stamp seals in northern Syria and Anatolia while the seal-amulets are shaped as scarabs in the southern Levant. Based on their distribution pattern, it has been suggested that the so-called Omega stamp seals had their origins in Syria and were spread along the much-frequented trade routes passing between Central Anatolia and North Syria, after which they were copied further south, in Palestine where they adopted the scarab shape.12 The southernmost examples of the Syrian-Anatolian type are attested at Ras Shamra13, Tell Atchana/Alalakh14 and Hammam at-Turkman.15 Whereas Omega Group scarabs and scaraboids are almost exclusively limited to the southern Levant16, some have found their way north to Syria where they have surfaced, for example, in Middle Bronze Age Shagar Bazar17, and in Tell Tweini. If contemporary with their contexts, they attest to the bidirectional exchange of ideas and objects along north-south commercial routes of the Levantine littoral. As reflected by the presence of the northernmost example of the scarab type and the southernmost examples of the conical seal type, North Syria is the contact zone between the two types of Omega Group seals. In this regard, it is also interesting to note that relations between the Jebleh region and Amorite centres further south, in Lebanon, may additionally be suggested by the presence of a remarkable Egyptian late Middle Kingdom scarab in Qalaꜥat ar-Rus. This scarab bears the inscription ḥꜢty-ꜥ n Kpny Jntn ‘mayor/ governor of Byblos, Intn/Yantin’18 and was either cut at a scarab workshop in the Egyptian capital near al-Lisht, or at a workshop in Tell al-Dabꜥa/Avaris.19 Unfortunately, it has no archaeological context, but this has not withheld scholars to postulate historical connections between the Jebleh plain and the city of Byblos, which may thus have served as an intermediary port for goods, products and objects coming from the southern Levant and Egypt.20 The fact that Egyptian imports and Canaanite scarabs are attested in Middle Bronze Age Ras Shamra and Qalaꜥat ar-Rus while they are thus far practically absent in Tell Tweini, Tell Sukas21 and Tell Sianu, is either to be attributed to chance and the excavation history of the sites, or may indicate that a site like Gibala was not 12 Collon 2008, 94-95; Keel 2004, 79. See Keel 1989a for the scarabs found in the southern Levant, with additional examples in Ben-Tor 2007a, 135-136. 13 Matoïan 2000. 14 Collon 2010, 92; Buchanan and Moorey 1988, pl. 1, no. 5. 15 Van Loon 1983, 6, fig. 9A. 16 Keel 1989a, fig. 1A. 17 Mallowan 1937, 97, 153, no. 1 (A908), fig. 14, no. 18, pl. XVII C, no. 1. 18 Martin 1971, 26, no. 263; Forrer 1939, 119-121. 19 See Ben-Tor 2007b on scarabs naming rulers of Byblos, and Mlinar 2004 for the Avaris workshops. 20 Albright 1945, 12; Dussaud 1940, 178; Forrer 1939, 121. 21 One scarab surfaced in the Bronze Age levels at Tell Sukas: a fragmentary scarab, found in a Middle Bronze Age context but possibly an intrusion from a Late Bronze Age level (Lund 1986, 21).

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Fig. 2: Steatite scarab TWE-05-A-C4/D4-01054-M001 (Photo by B. Vandermeulen).

a recipient of this type of ‘exotic’ objects because it was not a major player in the same trade networks. The Late Bronze Age levels at Tell Tweini yielded cylinder and stamp seals22 and one scarab. The scarab (Fig. 2) is made of steatite and bears traces of white glaze. It measures 20.3 × 15.7 × [7] mm; the back of the scarab, showing the wings and the pronotum has chipped off. The base is bears linear and carvedout engravings. Traces of the beetle’s head indicate that the head plates and the clypeus were represented and that the extremities of the latter were grooved. The sides are chip-carved and front, mid- and hind legs were decorated with notching as well. The object is pierced longitudinally to allow it to be strung or mounted on a ring, bracelet, necklace or other type of mounting. The scarab comes from a layer with mixed Late Bronze Age and Iron Age material, namely earth layer 01054 located underneath wall 01601 between rooms 3/7 and 3/8. The wall dates to the Iron Age II (Levels 6CD-AB), with a reuse in the Iron Age III (Level 5). A Late Bronze Age II (Level 7B) stone floor 01052 is located just beneath the mixed layer. The context that yielded the scarab can therefore be attributed either to the Late Bronze Age II, or to the Iron Age I (or II). 22 Bretschneider and Jans in this volume; Bretschneider and Van Lerberghe 2008, 33, ill. 36-38.

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Its base is decorated with a vertically composed scene showing two standing figures and several objects, motifs and signs. The entire scene is surrounded by a single engraved line. The central figure can be identified as the Egyptian deity Ptah of Memphis, god of crafts and building. He is represented in his canonical form, namely with a mummified body leaving only the hands uncovered to hold a long wꜢs sceptre. He wears a skull cap on his head and has a royal beard. Behind him stands a lion-headed figure wearing a long, tightly fitting robe, to be identified as the Egyptian goddess Sakhmet. She raises her left hand and a sun disk with rearing cobra is placed above her head. Sakhmet is part of the traditional Memphite triad, alongside Ptah and the young sun god Nefertum. In this scene, she lays a hand on Ptah’s shoulder, in support. They are both standing inside a naos or chapel, as indicated by the corner-like motif above their heads. At the top of the design, a winged sun disk with a pair of rearing cobras can be discerned, and hieroglyphs forming the name Ptah: p (Q3) on top of the sign t (X1) and accompanied by the sign ḥ (V28).23 A tall narrow sign added right to the latter may either represent the ostrich feather of Maat (H6) or, more likely, the hieroglyph nfr (F35), as an abbreviated form of one of Ptah’s more popular epithets, respectively nb mꜢꜥt ‘lord of truth’ or nfr ḥr ‘beautiful of face’.24 Combined with the large hieroglyph mr (N36), meaning ‘beloved, loved’, placed at the bottom of the scene, these hieroglyphs together form the inscription mr(y) (n) Ptḥ nfr (ḥr), ‘(may he be) beloved of Ptah, beautiful (of face)’. In front of the couple are two large djed pillars, symbols of stability, durability and eternity and closely related to Osiris and Ptah.25 Moreover, each pillar is surmounted by a bird with a sun disk above its head. Due to their association with Ptah, this pair of birds may represent the twin gods Shu and Tefnut, respectively gods of the air and the rain according to the creation myth of Heliopolis: Shu and his twin sister Tefnut can take the shape of the Egyptian Ba bird, the human-headed bird that represents one of the components of the human soul according to ancient Egyptian beliefs. Even though on this scarab the human heads cannot be discerned with certainty, the association of Ptah with Shu and Tefnut as Ba birds is not uncommon and is attested in Egyptian art from the late New Kingdom (19th dynasty, ca. 1292-1191 BCE) to the Ptolemaic Period, referring to a section in Chapter 17 of the Book of the Dead.26 According to the Memphite tradition, Shu and Tefnut were not created from Atum (Heliopolitan cosmogony), but were born from Ptah’s mouth. Their association reciprocally underscores their function as primordial creation gods and, 23

The hieroglyphic codes refer to the Sign List of sir Alan Gardiner (19271). The sign has a rounded base arguing for an identification as nfr. For the alternative, see for example Keel and Page Gasser 2003, 37, no. 33. 25 For Ptah with the pillar as ptḥ dd šps, ‘Ptah, de venerated pillar (of Memphis), see Leitz (ed.) 2002, 679. 26 Kákosy 1997, 219; Berlandini 1988; Kákosy 1980, 50-52. 24

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with addition of Sakhmet, the owner of the seal-amulet thus obtained protection by the entire divine family of Memphis. Similar designs occur on scarabs attributed to the Egyptian production of the Ramesside Period, more precisely of the 19th dynasty, when Ptah’s cult gained importance.27 The representation of Ptah in his chapel seems to have appeared on seal amulets before it was transferred to monumental art.28 Given the high quality of the execution of the engravings, it is probable that this and similar scarabs were produced in Memphis, perhaps in a workshop connected to the temple dedicated to Ptah.29 In addition to unprovenanced examples now in public collections, which will not be considered here, several parallels have surfaced during excavations in Egypt and Nubia30 or had been distributed outside Egypt, to the Levant.31 Unfortunately, none come from secure Late Bronze Age IIB contexts, contemporary with their production period in Egypt. Their typological features, especially the hatched legs surrounding the back of the scarab like a feathered frame when looked at from above, are considered to be characteristic for the Ramesside scarab production, based on scarabs associated with the names of Ramesside rulers or scarabs found in contemporary contexts.32 Even though the scarab from Tell Tweini is badly damaged, the remaining details of its morphology suggest that it displayed such typical Ramesside features on its back and sides. Consequently, if the archaeological context in which it was deposited belonged to Late Bronze Age II Level 7DE, the context could be contemporary with the production period of the scarab, but if the locus is to be linked to the Iron Age II wall above it, this Egyptian import was deposited centuries later. While it remains impossible to determine during which period the scarab arrived at the site, the latter case is more plausible because of the mixed nature of the layer. The absence of more Egyptian or egyptianising finds in the Late Bronze Age contexts at Tell Tweini contrasts with the known historical background of the 27 Jaeger (1982, §1314) mentions that about fifty variants of the design are known to him and that they can be dated to the Ramesside Period. The popularity of Ptah under the 19th Dynasty is in correlation with Memphis’ regained importance after the Amarna Age (Zivie 1982, 28-29). 28 Keel 1989b, 296. 29 Keel and Page Gasser 2003, 14-15. The idea of a scarab workshop connected to the temple of Ptah in Memphis is based on the find of unfinished scarabs in one of the temple’s courtyards (Petrie 1909, 11). Keel (1989b, 298-299) does not exclude that some could have been produced in the southern Levant, possibly in Ashkelon where a temple dedicated to Ptah may have stood. 30 For example, in a New Kingdom tomb with Kushite period intrusions in Semna (Dunham and Janssen 1960, 98, pl. 123 no. 20) and in the temple of Merneptah in Memphis (Petrie 1909, 13, pl. XXXIV, no. 27). 31 In addition to the scarab from Tell Tweini, similar designs are attested on scarabs from Dotan (Keel 2010a, 500-501, no. 23), from a Late Bronze Age IIB-Iron Age I context in Beth Shean (Keel 2010a, 118-119, no. 48), from an Iron Age I context at the same site (Keel 2010a, 134-135, no. 83), from a Persian Period pit in Lachish (Tufnell et al. 1953, 153, 368, pl. 43, no. 28), from Jabne (Keel 1989b, no. 54), and from Deir al-Balah (Keel 2010a, 402-403, no. 1). 32 Keel 1995a, §100.

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region in that period. According to the archives of Ugarit, Gibala was part of the Ugaritic state33 that, from the reign of Amenhotep III until the expansion of the kingdom of Amurru, was generally located in the Egyptian sphere of influence.34 Contrary to Ugarit, where a large number of Egyptian imports from the 18th dynasty have been discovered, including scarab-shaped seal-amulets and several large scarabs of Amenhotep III35, Egyptian New Kingdom imports are quite rare in Tell Tweini36 and, so far, 18th dynasty scarabs have not surfaced at the site. On the other hand, even though the scarab with Ptah is probably older than its archaeological context, it is also very likely it already circulated in the kingdom of Ugarit at the end of the Bronze Age. Among the aegyptiaca from Ugarit, several objects bear the names of Seti I and Ramesses II, including at least a dozen scarabs dated to their dynasty.37 Other geo-political dynamics are in place in the kingdom of Ugarit in that period: after the campaign of Supiluliuma I, the city states along the Syrian coast (Ugarit, Amurru, Qadesh …) became vassals of the Hittite king.38 Yet, that did not reduce the direct access to Egyptian imports. Throughout the Late Bronze Age, northwest Syria was the periphery of major empires. Important routes crossed the region and diplomatic relations needed to be strengthened on both sides. Economic factors also played an important role when after the peace treaty concluded between Ramesses II and the Hittites, Ugarit’s lucrative direct ties with Egypt seem to have been re-established.39 These factors partly explain the culturally diverse origins of imports found in the region of Ugarit. The absence of major ports or rivalling cities in its immediate vicinity moreover provided Ugarit with a larger hinterland compared to the central and southern Levantine coasts where ports were located in close proximity to each other. This made her one of the most important commercial centres on the trade routes between the Aegean, Anatolia, the Levant, inner Syria and Mesopotamia.40 It would 33 As mentioned in a tablet from the royal archives in Ugarit (PRU 4, 71-78): Van Soldt 1997, 696-699. 34 Altman 2008; Singer 1999, 622-627. 35 For a general overview of aegyptiaca in Late Bronze Age Ugarit, see: Lagarce-Othman 2008; Caubet and Yon 2006. Scarabs known from publications are: Lagarce-Othman 2017, 3-8; Nunn 1999, 102-103, no. 254; Tallon (ed.) 1995, 54, no. 5B; Cluzan, Moulierac and Bounni (eds.) 1993, 238, no. 200. Mention should here also be made of a scarab produced at the Egyptian faience workshop of Beth Shean: Bordreuil and Pardee 1989, no. RS 9.442. 36 Bretschneider and Van Lerberghe 2008, ill. 40-41. A scarab in faience found by the Syrian team in an Iron Age II-III context in Field B (Al-Maqdissi et al. 2007 [no page numbers]) displaying a standing male figure holding a staff may date back to the Late Bronze Age. Whether it is imported or local can only be determined by its typological features which are unfortunately not shown in the publication. 37 Only published scarabs are enumerated here: Bordreuil and Pardee 1989, nos. RS 6.071, RS 7.151, RS 8.015; Nunn 1999, 100-105, nos. 250-251, 253, 259-260. 38 Van Soldt 2012; Courtois et al. 1979, 1298-1310. 39 Singer 1999, 673-674. 40 Courtois et al. 1979, 1329.

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therefore not be surprising to find Egyptian 19th dynasty imports in cities located in the kingdom of Ugarit, or in its vicinity. However, outside the metropolitan area – Ugarit including the royal residences at Ras Ibn Hani and the harbour Minat al-Bayda41 – Egyptian New Kingdom imports in general are scarce in the wider Ugarit region: despite excavations and surveys at Ras alBassit42, Tell Sukas43, Qalaꜥat ar-Rus44, Tell Sianu45 and several other sites in the Jebleh plain46, few aegyptiaca have been reported and Late Bronze Age levels are insufficiently known.47 Given the small amount of Egyptian finds in the Late Bronze Age Jebleh plain, they must have arrived there through the intermediary of the capital or its harbour. These observations are in line with the idea of the plain being a border region throughout the Late Bronze Age.48 SCARABS FROM IRON AGE LEVELS: TELL TWEINI SYRIA, CYPRUS, AND THE SOUTHERN LEVANT

AND INNER

The early Iron Age I in the Jebleh plain is poorly known; many settlements in the former Ugaritic kingdom were reduced or abandoned and many of its inhabitants may have migrated to the Amuq plain.49 At Tell Tweini only in the later Iron Age I (Level 6EF) and Iron Age II (Levels 6CD and 6AB) large scale building activities, including monumental structures, reflect a new prosperous period in the history of the harbour town, marked by Cypriote, Aramaean, Phoenician and Assyrian influences.50 Whereas Iron Age I architectural remains have been uncovered in limited areas during the excavation campaigns, early Iron Age scarabs are attested at the site. A steatite scarab displaying two lions marching to the right towards a 41 For New Kingdom aegyptiaca in Ras Ibn Hani cf. Lagarce and Du Puytison-Lagarce 2008. On the identification of imports and local imitations thereof at Minat al-Bayda and Ugarit, see Matoïan and Bouquillon 2003. 42 Scandone 1984, 136-137. At least one scarab comes from Late Bronze Age levels, but as it is nor described nor published this scarab could also be older. 43 Lund 1986, 11-23; Scandone 1984, 137-138; Buhl 1983, 86-87, 121-122. 44 Apart from the Middle Kingdom imports mentioned above, no aegyptiaca have been reported (Al-Maqdissi 2008). 45 Lagarce and Du Puytison-Lagarce 2000, 142. 46 Riis et al. 2004. The survey reports several small sites but few with Late Bronze Age occupation. Mention should for example be made of a scarab found on the banks of the Nahr el-Arab near the village of Burj Islam by Claude Schaeffer (1933, 126-127), but of which the date is not known. 47 I warmly thank Alexander Ahrens for confirming this, based on his PhD research on aegyptiaca such as stone vessels and statues found in the northern Levant (A. Ahrens in press). 48 On this southwestern border region see Van Soldt 1998, 719, 744. 49 Pruss 1998. 50 Bretschenider et al. in this volume; Bretschneider and Van Lerberghe 2008, 43-44; Bretschneider et al. 2004, 38-39.

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Fig. 3. Steatite scarab TWE-06-A-B8/B9-05556-M001 (Photo by B. Vandermeulen).

recumbent Nubian ibex (Fig. 3) was found in an Iron Age structure (the A Building) during the excavation of a baulk (L05556) with Iron Age II-III (Levels 6AB and 5) pottery. It measures 16.9 × 10.7 × 8 mm and part of the base has chipped off. The design is deeply carved-out and surrounded by a single line, but the back of the scarab is crudely engraved: one line separates the elytra but is not straight nor nicely positioned in the centre of the back, and this is also the case for the rectangular head and clypeus. The carved-out sides show undecorated fore, mid and hind legs. Several seals with similar style and composition can be cited, mostly from southern Levantine sites51; an exact parallel cannot be cited.52 They show the lions chasing an ostrich, a vertical motif (a cobra or the ostrich feather of Maꜥat?), or a human figure (sometimes an archer or on horseback). Is has been suggested that the pair of animals represent a lion and lioness53, but the stylised outlines of the motifs do not allow to ascertain this. The aforementioned scarabs are part of a group that in the scholarly literature has been labelled ‘Early Iron Age Mass-produced Series’ or ‘Post-Ramesside Mass-Produced seals’, because they are somewhat reminiscent of Ramesside 51 E.g. Keel 2010a, 222-223, no. 11 (Beth Shemesh, 10th-8th century BCE tomb); Keel 1997, 562-563, no. 89-91, 574-575, no. 126 (Akko, surface finds) and parallels cited there. 52 One of the unstratified finds from Montet’s campaigns in Tanis and now kept in the Musée du Louvre (E.15925, unpublished) displays this design (Münger 2011, 144 xl). 53 No doubt based on the rounded muzzle and the downward pointing tail of one of the lions.

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imagery while introducing new elements. Stratified finds argue for a date between the late 12th/early 11th and the 10th century BCE. Various types of seals are assigned to this group and the scarabs display varying and irregular typological features, indicating that this is probably not a single, homogenous group. Also, as long as the examples in Egypt are not properly catalogued, the discussion on their chronology and provenance continues.54 The typological heterogeneity undoubtedly reflects chronological and/or geographical realities. At present, the majority of these mass-produced seals are known from Palestine, while they are also found in Lower Egypt and in smaller numbers in Cyprus and spread over the ancient Near East and the Aegean.55 Only about 20 of them surfaced in the northern Levant, unfortunately in undated or younger contexts.56 Actually, this scarab is not the only one of its kind at Tell Tweini. The Syrian team discovered a similar scarab in Field B, probably in an Iron Age III context.57 Its base displays a lion (treading) over a human figure and both the style of engraving and the imagery assign it to the same group. Unfortunately, both examples are much older than the contexts in which they were deposited and thus do not allow to reconstruct the circumstances in which they were dispatched to Syria or, more importantly, when. The last object to be discussed here is a white steatite scarab (Fig. 4) from room 4/1 of House 4, more precisely from layer L03301 that is dated generally to Iron Age Level 6. This context is located above layers that belong to Levels 6AB and 5 (Iron Age II) based on the pottery finds. The scarab’s context can therefore tentatively be dated to the Iron Age II, despite its position directly underneath topsoil. The scarab measures 17 × 11 × 7 mm and is finely engraved, with hatching and cross-hatching decorating details of the design on the base. One line divides the elytra, one line separates pronotum and elytra, and the pronotum is rather large. An open head is combined with a small semi-lunate head with curved (‘depressed’) base line. A large stroke at the top of the head indicates the horn

54 Ben-Tor 2016; Keel and Mazar 2009, *64-*65; Münger 2005. With references to earlier scholarship. 55 A catalogue is included in Münger 2011. 56 Early Iron Age mass-produced seals have been reported in Byblos (Dunand 1950, pl. CXCIX, no. 6903, pl. CC, nos. 6908, 7254, 7656, 8474, 8681, 9978, 11635, and possibly also pl. CXCIX, nos. 7128 and 8147 and pl. CC, no. 7400; Dunand 1937, pl. CXXIX, nos. 1290, 1292), in Sidon (Loffet 2011-2012, 124-125, no. C24), in Al-Mina (Nunn 2004, 42, taf. 7, nos. 104, 106), in Kamid al-Loz (Kühne and Salje 1996, 137-138, no. 80), in Hama (Riis 1948, fig. 198B), and in Khalda (Saidah 1966, 58-59, no. 3). 57 The scarab was published (Al-Maqdissi 2007, 62 cat. 84 third from the top) without specification of its archaeological context. The caption “Sceau de Tell Toueni, âge du Fer III, musée de Jébla” could indicate that these seals were dated based on the context in which they were found because the scaraboids do not date to that period. For the design see Keel 2010a, 6-7, no. 4 and more parallels cited there.

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Fig. 4. Steatite scarab TWE-04-A-C6-03301-M002 (Photo by B. Vandermeulen).

while the head plates and the clypeus are represented but remain undecorated. The legs are rendered by carving, but they also seem to be undecorated. On its base, a scarab beetle is placed between two stylised falcons with outspread wings, protecting the central motif. Between its front legs, the beetle holds a sun disk. Below is a narrow nb basket (V30) and the entire composition is surrounded by a rope border with barred strand. The elements are not to be read as hieroglyphs, but have a more general meaning: according to ancient Egyptian beliefs, the beetle roling a dung ball symbolises the sacred scarab (Khepri/Atum) pushing the sun disk (Ra) over the sky, ensuring the continuity of the daily cycle of the sun. Through their gesture, the divine falcons – as representatives of the falcon god Horus and of the divine monarchy – secure the protection of the solar creation.58 The nb, meaning ‘all’, ‘every’, makes the blessing all-inclusive and the surrounding rope59 encloses and protects the 58

On the mythology of Khepri, Atum, Ra and Horus/Ra-Harachte, see: Minas-Nerpel 2006, 465-477. 59 The rope border was particularly popular on early 2nd millennium BCE scarabs, after it was introduced on Egyptian Late Middle Kingdom scarabs (Ben-Tor 2007a, 30-31). It has a revival in the Ramesside period (e.g. Keel 2010a, 138-139, no. 93, 198-199, no. 227; Keel 2010b, 100101, no. 169, 138-139, no. 254, 140-141, no. 261, 230-231, no. 476, 290-291, no. 610, 298-299,

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whole. Pairs of protective falcons appear on scarab bases already in the early 2nd millennium BCE60, but the composition of two falcons with spread wings flanking a central motif makes its entry in the 18th dynasty.61 The theme continues into the early 1st millennium BCE.62 Most interestingly, a scarab displaying an almost identical design and with the same typological features surfaced in bothros 1 of the great Phoenician temple dedicated to Astarte (Temple 1) in Kition-Kathari.63 This deposit correlates with Kition level/floor 2, dated to the Persian Period in Cyprus.64 The production period of the scarab is, however, much older. Based on the typological features of the back, more specifically the shape of the pronotum and the head, the scarab from Tell Tweini and its counterpart in Kition can be assigned to a Phoenician seal workshop that was active in the Iron Age II (9th-8th centuries BCE). The distribution pattern of this type of scarab and the archaeological contexts suggest they originated on the Phoenician coast and were most likely manufactured in the region of Tyre.65 Although in Kition most scarabs of this type were found in Persian Period contexts, they already circulated there in the late 9th or early 8th century BCE.66 From Tyre or Akhziv these scarabs travelled to Cyprus and further west, while some isolated cases are known in the Levant. The scarab from Tell Tweini is thus far the northernmost example on the Levantine coast. The apparent absence of such scarabs elsewhere in Iron Age II-III coastal Syria and northern Lebanon67 is quite remarkable because the Phoenician trade network was blooming in this period. Given the amounts attested in Cyprus and the increased number of Cypriot imports in Tell Tweini Levels 6AB68, it is also possible that the scarab arrived together with the pottery. It may even have had a stopover in Cyprus instead of arriving in Gibala directly from a port on the Phoenician coast. no. 635, 320-321, nos. 685-686) and then survives in the Levantine production of the 1st millennium (e.g. Boschloos 2016, fig. 2h, fig. 3a; Keel 2013, 4-5, no. 8; Keel 2010a, 26-27, no. 17, 182-183, no. 192, and possibly 242-243, no. 57; Keel 2010b, 138-139, no. 257). 60 Keel 1995a, §557. 61 On royal name scarabs more specifically: Jaeger 1982, §315, §1544, n. 1050. 62 E.g. Boschloos 2016, fig. 2b-c; Keel 1997, 44-45, no. 69; Keel 1982, 448-449; Hölbl 1979, taf. 66, no. 1. On the meaning of winged beings, more specifically falcons, on 1st millennium glyptic in the Levant, see: Keel and Uehlinger 1992, 284. 63 Clerc et al. 1976, 64, no. Kit. 774. 64 For absolute dates proposed for level/floor 2, see: Karageorghis 2005, 107; Clerc et al. 1976, 6-11. 65 Boschloos 2014; Boschloos 2018. 66 Bothros 16 at Kition, filled with material of Temple 4, contained the earliest attestation on the island (Clerc et al. 1976, 111-112, no. Kit. 3365). The deposit belongs to Kition level/floor 3, which was previously dated to the 9th (Clerc et al. 1976, 7, 11) but more recently to the 8th century BCE (Karageorghis 2005, 107). 67 Boschloos 2014, 12, fig. 2, table 1 and 2. 68 Al-Maqdissi et al. 2008, 345; Bretschneider and Van Lerberghe 2008, 44; Nys in this volume.

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As a final observation it must be emphasised that the imported seals represent but a fraction of the entire corpus of glyptic finds at Tell Tweini. The great majority is of Syrian origin. Indeed, more scarab-shaped seals have been found in Iron Age levels in Field A, but display non-Egyptian, Syrian imagery; they will be discussed in detail elsewhere with the other local types.69 In this regard mention should also be made of a scaraboid of the so-called Lyre Player Group of seals (8th century BCE) discovered in Field B.70 Recently, the generally accepted North Syrian/Cilician origin of this group was challenged and a Phoenician-Cypriot source was proposed.71 Whether or not it is additional evidence for connections with Cyprus, the material presented in this paper reflects Gibala’s economic relations, be it on a local scale or long-distance. CONCLUSIONS The observations made above underscore the regional position of ancient Gibala in the Jebleh plain. In the Middle Bronze Age, the urban development of the autonomous Amorite centres in the region was fuelled by trade networks running between Syro-Mesopotamia, Anatolia and the Aegean, but also between North Syria and the Central Levant. This relative cultural unity and evidence of long-distance trade is reflected in the ceramics and in the metal and glyptic finds at Tell Tweini. The harbour town may not have been a primary site in the area, but as Ugarit flourished, so did Gibala. This is the reason why not the types of seals but their small numbers and the seemingly complete absence of certain ubiquitous categories diverge from what we may expect in the archaeological record of a site located in an economically prosperous region. Following a period of decline after the collapse of the large Late Bronze Age networks, the picture changes around the mid-9th century BCE: the architectural remains and the objects found in Iron Age II levels attest to the city’s expansion as it takes part in commercial networks between the Phoenician coast, Cyprus and inner Syria. The fact that Tell Tweini provides the northernmost examples of certain types of scarabs further demonstrates that, despite or perhaps thanks to the proximity of other important communities (at Ugarit, Sukas, Sianu), the glyptic assemblage of a ‘second level’ settlement may not be large but can nevertheless offer surprises.

69 70 71

Bretschneider and Jans in this volume. Al-Maqdissi 2007, 62, cat. 84 (first). Mikrakis 2011, also providing an overview of previous scholarship on the subject.

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— 1950: Fouilles de Byblos, 1923-1938. Tome II. Atlas, Paris. Dunham D. and J. M. A. Janssen 1960: Semna-Kumma. 2nd Cataract Forts. Volume I, Boston. Dussaud R. 1940: Nouveaux textes égyptiens d’exécration contre les peuples syriens, Syria 21, 170-182. Forrer E. O. 1939: Appendix II Qalcat er-Rus, in: A. M. H. Ehrig (ed.), Early Pottery of the Jebleh Region (MAPS XIII), Philadelphia, 113-125. Gardiner A. 1957: Egyptian Grammar (3rd edition, 1927), Oxford. Garstang J. 1933: Jericho: City and Necropolis. Third Report, Annals of Archaeology and Anthropology 20, 3-42. Grandet P. 2008: Les Pharaons du Nouvel Empire (1550-1069 av. J.-C.). Une pensée stratégique, Lonrai. Hameeuw H. and G. Jans 2008: Burial Customs at Tell Tweini – Field A, in: J. Bretschneider and K. Van Lerberghe (eds.), In Search of Gibala. An Archaeological and Historical Study Based on Eight Seasons of Excavation at Tell Tweini (Syria) in the A and C Field (1999-2007) (Aula Orientalis - Supplementa 24), Barcelona, 73-82. Hölbl G. 1979: Beziehungen der Ägyptischen Kultur zu Altitalien (2 vols.) (Études préliminaires aux religions orientales dans l’Empire Romain 62), Leiden. Jaeger B. 1982: Essai de classification et datation des scarabées Menkhéperrê (Orbis Biblicus et Orientalis-Series Archaeologica 2), Fribourg. Kákosy L. 1980: A Memphite Triad, Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 66, 48-53. — 1997: The Ptah-Shu-Tefnut Triad and the Gods of Winds on a Ptolemaic Sarcophagus, in: J. van Dijk (ed.), Essays on Ancient Egypt in Honor of Herman te Velde, Groningen, 219-230. Karageorghis V. 2005: Excavations at Kition VI. The Phoenician and later levels. Part I, Nicosia. Keel O. 1982: Der Pharao als “Volkommene Sonne”: Ein neuer ägypto-palästinischer Skarabäentyp, in: S. Israelit-Groll (ed.), Egyptological Studies (Scripta Hierosolymitana 28), Jerusalem, 406-529. — 1989a: Die Ω-Gruppe. Ein mittelbronzezeitlicher Stempelsiegel-Typ mit erhobenen Relief aus Anatolien-Nordsyrien und Palästina, in: O. Keel et al., Studien zu den Stempelsiegeln aus Palästina/Israel. Band II (Orbis Biblicus et Orientalis 88), Fribourg - Göttingen, 40-87. — 1989b: Der ägyptische Gott Ptah auf Siegelamuletten aus Palästina/Israel, in: O. Keel, H. Keel-Leu and S. Schroer, Studien zu den Stempelsiegeln aus Palästina/ Israel. Band II (Orbis Biblicus et Orientalis 88), Fribourg - Göttingen, 281-323. — 1995a: Corpus der Stempelsiegel-Amulette aus Palästina-Israel. Von den Anfang bis zur Perserzeit. Band I: Einleitung (Orbis Biblicus et Orientalis-Series Archaeologica 10), Fribourg - Göttingen. — 1995b: Stamp Seals – The Problem of Palestinian Workshops in the Second Millennium and Some Remarks on the Preceding and Succeeding Periods, in: J. Goodnick Westenholz (ed.), Seals and Sealing in the Ancient Near East. Proceedings of the Symposium Held on September 2, 1993. Jerusalem, Israel, Jerusalem, 93-142. — 1997: Corpus der Stempelsiegel-Amulette aus Palästina/Israel. Von den Anfängen bis zur Perserzeit. Katalog Band I: Von Tell Abu Farağ bis cAtlit (Orbis Biblicus et Orientalis-Series Archaeologica 13), Fribourg - Göttingen. — 2004: Some of the Earliest Groups of Locally Produced Scarabs from Palestine, in: M. Bietak and E. Czerny (eds.), Scarabs of the Second Millennium BC from

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Egypt, Nubia, Crete and the Levant: Chronological and Historical Implications. Papers of a Symposium, Vienna, 10th-13th of January 2002, Wien, 73-102. — 2010a: Corpus der Stempelsiegel-Amulette aus Palästina/Israel. Von den Anfängen bis zur Perserzeit. Katalog Band II: Von Bahan bis Tel Eton (Orbis Biblicus et Orientalis-Series Archaeologica 29), Fribourg - Göttingen. — 2010b: Corpus der Stempelsiegel-Amulette aus Palästina/Israel. Von den Anfängen bis zur Perserzeit. Katalog Band III: Von Tell el-Farca Nord bis Tell el-Fir (Orbis Biblicus et Orientalis-Series Archaeologica 31), Fribourg - Göttingen. — 2013: Corpus der Stempelsiegel-Amulette aus Palästina/Israel. Von den Anfängen bis zur Perserzeit. Katalog. Band IV: Von Tel Gamma bis Chirbet Husche (Orbis Biblicus et Orientalis-Series Archaeologica 33), Fribourg - Göttingen. Keel O. and A. Mazar 2009: Iron Age Seals and Seal Impressions from Tel Reḥov, Eretz Israel 29, *57-*69. Keel O. and M. Page Gasser 2003: Ptah von Memphis und seine Präsenz auf Skarabäen, in: T. Staubli (ed.), Werbung für die Götter. Heilsbringer aus 4000 Jahren, Bern, 13-63. Keel O. and C. Uehlinger 1992: Göttinnen, Götter und Gottessymbole. Neue Erkentnisse zur Religionsgeschichte Kanaans und Israels ausgrund bislang unerschlossener ikonographischer Quellen, Freiburg - Basel - Wien. Kühne H. and B. Salje 1996: Kāmid el-Lōz 15. Die Glyptik (Saarbrücker Beitrage zur Altertumskunde 56), Bonn. Kuschke A. 1962: Bericht über eine Sondage im Palastgarten von Ugarit-Ras Shamra, in: C. Schaeffer (ed.), Ugaritica IV. Mission de Ras Shamra XV (Bibliothèque Archéologique et Historique de l’IFPO 74), Paris, 251-299. Lagarce-Othman B. 2008: Réexamen des monuments du Palais Royal d’Ougarit inscrits en hiéroglyphes égyptiens conservés au Musée National de Damas, Ras Shamra-Ougarit XVII, 1261-280. — 2017: Les scarabées d’Amenhotep III et de Tiy à Ougarit, Ras Shamra-Ougarit XXV, 165-186. Lagarce J. and E. Du Puytison-Lagarce 2000: Coastal Syria and Lebanon, in: M. Bietak (ed.), The Synchronisation of Civilisations in the Eastern Mediterranean in the Second Millennium B.C. Proceedings of an International Symposium at Schloβ Haindorf, 15th-17th of November 1996, and at the Austrian Academy, Vienna 11th12th of May 1998, Vienna, 140-146. — 2008: Remarques sur le matériel égyptien et égyptisant de Ras Shamra (« Maison au Albâtres ») et de Ras Ibn Hani à la lumière de données récentes sur la chronologie de la fin d’Ugarit, in: M. Bietak and E. Czerny (eds.), The Bronze Age in the Lebanon. Studies on the Archaeology and Chronology of Lebanon, Syria and Egypt, Wien, 153-164. Leitz C. (ed.) 2002: Lexikon der ägyptischen Götter und Götterbezeichnungen. Band 7: Š – ḏ (Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta 116), Leuven. Loffet H.-C. 2011-2012: The Sidon Scarabs, in: C. Doumet-Serhal et al. (eds.), And Canaan Begat Sidon his Firstborn… A Tribute to Dr. John Curtis on his 65th Birthday (Archaeology and History in Lebanon 34-35), Beirut, 104-138. Lund J. 1986: Sūkās VIII. The Habitation Quarters, Copenhagen. Mallowan M. 1937: The Excavations at Tall Chagar Bazar and an Archaeological Survey of the Ḫabur Region. Second Campaign, 1936, Iraq 4, 91-154. Martin G. T. 1971: Egyptian Administrative and Private-Name Seals. Principally of the Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period, Oxford.

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Matoïan V. 2000: Un cachet en “faïence” décoré du signe omega à Ougarit, OrientExpress 2000/3, 61-63. Matoïan V. and A. Bouquillon 2003: Vitreous materials in Ugarit: New Data, in: T. Potts et al. (eds.), Culture Through Objects. Ancient Near Eastern Studies in Honour of P. R. S. Moorey, Oxford, 333-346. Mikrakis M. 2011: Cross-Cultural Interaction in the Eastern Mediterranean during the Early Iron Age: A View from Seal Engraving, with Special Reference to the Lyre-Player Group, in: N. C. Stampolidis et al. (eds.), Nostoi. Indigenous Culture, Migration + Integration in the Aegean Islands + Western Anatolia during the Late Bronze + Early Iron Ages, Istanbul, 849-870. Minas-Nerpel M. 2006: Der Gott Chepri (Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta 154), Leuven. Mlinar C. 2004: The Scarab Workshops at Tell el-Dabca, in: M. Bietak and E. Czerny (eds.), Scarabs of the Second Millennium BC from Egypt, Nubia, Crete and the Levant: Chronological and Historical Implications. Papers of a Symposium, Vienna, 10th-13th of January 2002, Wien, 107-140. Münger S. 2005: Stamp-Seal Amulets and Early Iron Age Chronology. An Update, in: T. E. Levy and T. Higham (eds.), The Bible and Radiocarbon Dating. Archaeology, Text and Science, London - Oakville, 381-404. — 2011: Studien zur Frühen Eisenzeit in Israel: Palestina (unpublished PhD diss., University of Bern), Bern. Nunn A. 1999: Stamp Seals from the Collections of the Aleppo Museum, Syrian Arab Republic (British Archaeological Reports-International Series 804), Oxford. — 2004: Die Skarabäen und Skaraboide aus Westvorderasien und Mesopotamien, in: A. Nunn and R. Schulz (eds.), Skarabäen ausserhalb Ägyptens: lokale Produktion oder Import? (British Archaeological Reports-International Series 1205), Oxford, 13-53. Petrie W. M. F. 1909: Memphis I (British School of Archaeology in Egypt/Egyptian Research Account 15), London. Pruss A. 2002: Ein Licht in der Nacht? Die Amuq-Ebene während der Dark Ages, in: E. Braun-Holzinger and H. Matthäus (eds.), Die nahöstlichen Kulturen und Griechenland an der Wende vom 2. zum 1. Jahrtausend v.Chr. Kontinuität und Wandel von Strukturen und Mechanismen kultureller Interaktion. Kolloquium des Sonderforschungsbereiches 295 ‘Kulturelle und sprachliche Kontakte’ der Johannes-Gutenberg-Universität Mainz, 11.-12. Dezember 1998, Paderborn, 161-176. Riis P. J. 1948: Hama. Fouilles et recherches 1931-1938. II, 3. Les cimetières à crémation, Copenhagen. Riis P. J., I. Thuesen, J. Lund and T. Riis 2004: Topographical Studies in the Ğabla Plain (Publications of the Carlsberg Expedition to Phoenicia 13), Copenhagen. Saidah R. 196: Fouilles de Khaldé. Rapport préliminaire sur la première et deuxième campagnes (1961-1962), Bulletin du Musée de Beyrouth XIX, 51-90. Scandone G. 1984: Testimonianza egiziane in Fenicia dal XII al IV sec. A. C., Rivista di Studi Fenici 12/2, 133-163. Schaeffer C. 1932: Les fouilles de Minet-el-Beida et de Ras Shamra. Troisième campagne (printemps 1931). Rapport sommaire, Syria 13, 1-27. — 1933: Les fouilles de Minet-el-Beida et de Ras Shamra. Quatrième campagne (printemps 1932). Rapport sommaire, Syria 14, 93-127. — 1936: Les fouilles de Ras Shamra-Ugarit. Septième campagne (printemps 1935). Rapport sommaire, Syria 17, 105-149.

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Singer I. 1999: A Political History of Ugarit, in: W. G. E. Watson and N. Wyatt (eds.), Handbook of Ugaritic Studies (Handbuch der Orientalistik: Abteilung 1, Der Nahe und Mittlere Osten 39), Leiden - Boston - Köln, 601-733. Tallon F. (ed.) 1995: Les pierres précieuses de l’Orient ancien. Des Sumériens aux Sassanides (exhibition catalogue Paris, Musée du Louvre), Paris. Tufnell O., M. A. Murray and D. Diringer 1953: Lachish III (Tell ed-Duweir). The Iron Age (2 vols.), London. Van Koppen F. 2007: Syrian Trade Routes of the Mari Age and MB II Hazor, in: M. Bietak and E. Czerny (eds.), The Synchronisation of Civilisations in the Eastern Mediterranean in the Second Millennium B.C. Volume III, Wien, 367-374. Van Loon M. 1983: Hammâm et-Turkmân on the Balikh: First Results of the University of Amsterdam’s 1982 Excavation (12 Figures), Akkadica 35, 1-23. Van Soldt W. H. 1997: Studies in the Topography of Ugarit (2): The Borders of Ugarit, Ugarit-Forschungen 29, 683-703. — 1998: Studies in the topography of Ugarit (3): Groups of Towns and their Location, Ugarit-Forschungen 30, 703-744. — 2012: Ugarit as a Hittite Vassal State, Altorientalische Forschungen 37, 198-207. Zivie C. M. 1982: Memphis, in: W. Helck and A. Otto (eds.), Lexikon der Ägyptologie. Band IV. Megiddo-Pyramiden, Wiesbaden, 24-41.

A COLLECTIVE MIDDLE BRONZE AGE II TOMB AT TELL TWEINI FIELD A Greta JANS1 and Joachim BRETSCHNEIDER2 with the contribution of Iphigenia MOEDER1 and Hendrik HAMEEUW1,2 2

1 KU Leuven - Near Eastern Studies Ghent University - Department of Archaeology

INTRODUCTION1 Excavation of the A Field at Tell Tweini revealed various types of Middle Bronze Age graves, ranging from simple earth interments to jar burials and chamber tombs with single as well as collective graves. All burials were implemented within the confines of domestic structures and all appear to be undisturbed for millennia.2 The most substantial and elaborate entombment at Tweini is a communal grave, which is a typical burial type for the Middle Bronze Age. This large constructed tomb was revealed in squares A2-B2, in the northwest corner of Field A. The excavation of the tomb complex was undertaken during the 20042005 campaigns.3 THE MIDDLE BRONZE AGE PERIOD AT FIELD A The Middle Bronze Age levels at Field A have only been reached to a limited extent, within the deeper soundings, in the northwest part of the field (in 1 We wish to express our gratitude to several colleagues: the grave was excavated by Joke Van Sweevelt, Katrien Van de Vijver and Greta Jans, the original plans of the grave (Figs. 11 and 25) were drawn by Hendrik and Ludo Hameeuw, and reworked, labelled and inked by Greta Jans, Figs. 26, 27 and 48 were made by Greta Jans, the field photos were taken by Joachim Bretschneider, Hendrik Hameeuw and Greta Jans, the objects were registered by Greta Jans and drawn by Evy Cuypers, the objects and ceramics were photographed by Bruno Vandermeulen, the ceramics were registered and studied by Klaas Vansteenhuyse, the section drawing was made by Saraa Saleh, the archaeobotanical study was performed by Patricia Van Dorpe, Elena Marinova and Jan van der Valk, the archaeozoological research by Veerle Linseele and Bea Decupere, the anthropological study by François-Xavier Ricaut, and the stable isotope analysis were conducted by Benjamin Fuller. Iphigenia Moeder presented an MA thesis with the topic ‘Middle Bronze Age Tombs of Tell Tweini’ under the supervision of Joachim Bretschneider (Moeder 2012). The authors also wish to thank Anne-Sophie Van Vyve for kindly reviewing the English of this manuscript. 2 Previous publications related to the communal grave at Tell Tweini are: Hameeuw and Jans 2010, Hameeuw et al. 2009, Hameeuw and Jans 2008 and Ricaut 2008. Additional information can be found in: Baeten in this volume, Vansteenhuyse in this volume, and Marinova et al. 2012. 3 The burial chamber was discovered in 2004 after the removal of some of the large slabs covering the tomb. The actual entrance shaft was excavated during the succeeding campaign.

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squares Z2-A2-B2) and in the northeast area (in squares F3-E3-E4). Consequently, the architectural remains are rather scarce, consisting of several partly excavated walls – probably part of a residential quarter – as well as several installations and seven burials4 located underneath floor surfaces. Two Middle Bronze Age occupation phases from the first half of the second millennium have been identified: Middle Bronze I (Level 8CD) and Middle Bronze II (Level 8AB).5 Fig.1: Phases of Tell Tweini

1500 –

Phases of Tweini

Field A

Late Bronze Age I

Tweini VIII A

Level 7 DE

Middle Bronze Age II

Tweini IX B

Level 8 AB

Middle Bronze Age I

Tweini IX A

Level 8 CD

Early Bronze Age IVB

Tweini X B

Level 9 AB

Early Bronze Age IVA

Tweini X A

Level 10

1600 – 1700 – 1800 – 1900 – 2000 – 2100 – 2200 – 2300 – 2400 –

THE COMMUNAL TOMB The Tomb Construction The complex is of the well-known ‘shaft-dromos-burial chamber tomb type’ (Figs. 1-3).6 The tomb is built of irregular natural stones measuring 5 to 60 cm 4

See: Hameeuw and Jans 2010, Hameeuw et al. 2009, Hameeuw and Jans 2008. Bretschneider and Van Lerberghe 2008, 20-30. 6 Contemporaneous analogies can be found in the corbelled-vaulted tombs of Megiddo (Kempinski 1989, 191, fig. 48/1 and Schumacher 1908, tables IV and VI) and Ugarit where the burial chambers are just partly vaulted (for the Middle Bronze Ugarit tombs see: e.g. Schaeffer 5

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wide. A chimney-shaped shaft7 leads to the underground burial chamber by way of a narrow entrance-passage (Fig. 4). This half-circular8 shaft (locus 00237) 1.40 m high and with a 0.90 m diameter, consists of smaller stones in the east and larger ones in the west where the preservation of the wall is much better and consequently higher. The northern side accommodates the opening to the passageway to the tomb chamber. It is blocked by one flat, rounded – slightly obliquely placed – closing stone measuring 0.75 m by 0.40 m. The floor of the shaft (locus 00238), consists of packed earth with inclusions of charcoal, chalk and loam and slopes down slightly towards the blocked entrance-passage to the burial chamber. This passage measures 0.72 m in height, 0.75 m in length and 0.58 m in width at the bottom and 0.45 m at the top and is closed off by a single stone slab (Fig. 5). The chamber itself (along with the entrance = locus 00170)9 has an elliptical ground plan – with a length of 2.65 m, a width of 2.30 m and a height of ca. 1.60 m – and is built as a corbelled vault, created by the superposition of successively smaller circles of stones (Fig. 3). One large and several smaller stone slabs are placed over the opening at the top in order to seal the tomb (Fig. 6).10 Five holes of ca. 3 to 4 cm are drilled near the edges of the two largest cover slabs. The tomb’s orientation – shaft-south, chamber-north – runs parallel with the remaining foundation of a late Middle Bronze Age wall.11 Floors and Installations Connected to the Tomb The first traces of the tomb were noticed in layer 00162 – dated to Level 8AB –, in which the topmost covering slab to the tomb appeared. This layer seems to have been built as the preparation layer for the Middle Bronze Age II

1962, 1949, 1939; Keswani 2012, 184-187). The Ugarit tombs did not contain as many skeletons as the Tweini grave (e.g. Tombe LIV and Tombe III, each containing eight skulls: respectively Schaeffer 1938, 221, fig. 18 and personal communication with V. Matoïan). We thank Valérie Matoïan for providing us with a concise update of the Middle Bronze Age tombs at Ugarit. It should be noted that an exhaustive presentation of possible comparisons with communal tombs form other sites was not the aim of this paper. 7 The top height of the shaft is 23.79 m (at the highest point above sea level) (23.44 m in the east) and the floor of the shaft is situated at 22.40 m. 8 The northern side of the shaft proceeds into the profile underneath a more recent wall (00136). 9 The tomb’s inventory – both the skeletal remains and the objects – was labelled locus 00177. 10 For the shaft heights: see footnote 5; entrance passage bottom level: 22.16 m, top level: 22.88 m; burial chamber bottom level: ca. 22.24 m, top level: 23.96 m (on top of the upmost closing stone). 11 Wall 00191-00199. According to Ilan (1995, 127) tombs of all types are generally orientated respecting the architecture, so positioned parallel to or alongside walls.

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floor covering the tomb (locus 00159), and displayed whitish grey, red and yellowish spots. After removing the topmost covering slab, a small gap (between other covering slabs), showed a glimpse of the tomb’s inventory within a hollow structure as a confusing mass of bones and ceramics ca. 1.3 m deep. In order to reveal the exterior of the tomb’s upper structure, the soil (locus 00169) surrounding the unearthed closing slabs was removed. Additional stones on a lower level divulged the domed-shaped construction. Several ash concentrations emerged: a rather thick layer to the southwest of the tomb, in the corner between walls 00038-00040 and 00018 (where some fragments of a tannour were found) and a smaller spot in the corner between wall 0003800040 and the northern limit of the excavation field. The tomb’s shaft entrance (locus 00237) was positioned directly underneath a Middle Bronze Age II floor level (locus 00197). Part of this floor was clearly visible east and southeast of the shaft, where stone slabs appeared (Fig. 4). It remains indeterminate whether the stone floor was only partially preserved or consisted of a combination of stone slabs and beaten earth. Furthermore, it is unclear whether the floor covered and hence sealed the shaft, which consequently filled up with earth once the grave was closed, or if the shaft was kept open and unfilled, making the closing stone to the passageway the only demarcation between the deceased and the living. The ceramic material within the excavated shaft filling (locus 00235) was labelled Level 8AB as well. As the beaten earth floor (locus 00159) above the burial chamber and the (stone) floor (locus 00197) near the shaft entrance (separated in the field by the younger wall 00136 – Figs. 2-4) were roughly at a similar height (ca. 10 cm height difference) and both held Middle Bronze Age II material, they presumably belong to the same floor level.12 As such, floor 00159 sealed the tomb chamber – perhaps offering the possibility to reach the drilled holes in the highest closing stones. Above the burial chamber, slightly north of the top closing slab, lies a round basin (locus 00167) (Figs. 6-8). The installation is preserved at ca. 13 cm high (above the base) and measures 90 cm in diameter.13 It is made of a large stone base14, white plastered sides – partly overlapping the base –, and surrounded by a circular structure of smaller stones and clay. The clay has a red colour, most probably after being exposed to high temperature.15 If installation 00167 played a part in the burial activity in this area, it would have been used from floor surface 00159. Although that floor is positioned at 12

Height of stone floor locus 00197 (‘above’ the shaft): ca. 23.86 m. Level of beaten earth floor locus 00159/00162 (above the burial chamber): ca. 23.98 m. 13 Top level: 23.88 m and bottom level: 23.77 m. 14 The base stone slopes slightly downward to the south. 15 According to Prof. Patrick Degryse the earth/clay was fired between 500 to 700 °C (personal communication).

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a height of 23.99 m and the uppermost level of installation 00167 was measured at a height of 23.89 m, the first signs of the red-coloured clay(?) substance were noticed within floor 00159, indicating that perhaps the circular border was originally slightly higher. The installation was incorporated within the floor, with the stone base lower than the floor level and the rim at the same level as the floor or slightly higher (Fig. 7). Between the highest point of the burial vault and installation 00167 lies a small rectangular shaped basin-like structure measuring 20 by 15 cm (locus 00172). The bottom and one of the sides are made of stones, the other sides are composed of sherds.16 Since floor 00159 covered this installation, it was probably once used during the time when the tomb was built, before the construction of the superimposing floor. A spot of ashes lies directly south of this installation. Finds within the Tomb Chamber At first glance, the remains within the tomb appear as a chaotic assemblage of ceramic material as well as disarticulated bones, devoid of any order or arrangement of the separate bones and without a single (semi)complete articulated corps (Figs. 9, 11).17 In order to describe the content of the grave, the surface within was divided in four quadrants, with Quadrant I being the quarter starting west of the dromos. The other quadrants follow in clockwise direction (Fig. 10). Specifically regarding ceramics, different artificial ‘layers’ were appointed, although not in all four quadrants. Quadrants IV and I held the largest quantity of ceramic material in intermingled layers – measuring ca. 45 cm in thickness18 – with respectively 97 and 25 vessels, while quadrant II yielded only five vessels and quadrant III lacked any ceramic recipients (Fig. 11). Concerning the skeletal material, quadrant I produced the largest amount of bones and quadrant III the smallest quantity.19 Most noteworthy and recognisable within the skeletal remains were the many skulls. Quadrant I presented nine skulls, quadrant II ten skulls, quadrant III seven skulls and quadrant IV three skulls. The majority of the skulls were fragmentarily preserved. The bones which were not covered with earth and excavated from the upper layer, were in good condition. The ones in the lower layers were poorly preserved. 16

Top level: 23.86 m, bottom level: 23.74 m. The nearest comparable site is the Middle Bronze Age communal tomb in ‘neighbouring’ Tell Sukas. Although the shape of the tomb remains ambiguous – since it was discovered in a small sounding – the burial comprised 41 skeletons of which 12 were in a (semi)articulated order. See: Thrane 1978. 18 Between the absolute heights of 22.66 m and 22.20 m. 19 Unfortunately, the exact amount of different bones is unavailable. 17

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Area by the Entrance The top layer of the burial area near the entrance was void of any bone, ceramics or other finds, except for some small (fallen) stones and four juglets (00177-C-1, 2, 4 and 40) alongside the tomb’s structure ca. 25 cm from either side of the entrance, in quadrants I and IV. In the lower layers this area in front of the entrance was kept free from bones, ceramics and objects as well. Quadrant I This zone yielded the largest amount of skeletal remains including nine skulls, particularly placed on the verge with quadrant II. Three bronze objects – 1 bronze pin with ring (00177-M-006) and two fragmentary pins (00177-M022 and 00179-M-001) –, ca. 100 beads (00177-M-001 and M-020) and 25 vessels made up part of the tomb’s grave gifts. Within the highest layer of the quadrant, three piled plates attracted attention; the uppermost plate contained two long bones and a juglet. Two beakers and a jug were placed behind the plates alongside the wall (Figs. 12-13). The second layer yielded two additional plates – one underneath the pile of plates in layer 1 – eight more juglets and one lamp (Figs. 14-15). The ceramics are more scattered and distributed over a larger surface within this layer, except for the two juglets and the lamp, which are placed at the periphery of the tomb. Quadrant II Ten skulls were found in this area along with a large amount of other bone material, however less than in quadrant I (Fig. 16). A bowl is positioned along the northern edge of the tomb and a jug lays at the edge with quadrant I (Fig. 17). Three more juglets are revealed in the lowest layer. Ten bronze pins (00177-M-003, 004, 005, 011, 0013, 023, 024, 025, 026 and 027) (Fig. 18), one bronze ring (00177-M-019) and one bead (00177-M-029) complete the inventory of this quadrant. Two larger stones – with skeletal remains underneath – may have fallen from the tomb’s construction. Quadrant III Not one vessel was placed within this quadrant, although the zone contained bone material20, including seven skulls, and twelve objects with nine bronze pins (00177-M-008, 015, 016, 017, 018, 00179-M-002, 003, 004 and 005), one bronze ring (00177-M-28) and a fragment of bronze (00177-M-014) as well as a cylinder seal (00177-M-007).21 20 In this quadrant, the vault is sloping down more gradually, making the height between the floor and the vault shallower. This could explain the smaller amount of skeletal material and ceramics in this area. 21 See Bretschneider and Jans in this volume.

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Quadrant IV This area held a certain amount of bones consisting of three skulls. Only three bronze objects with one bronze pin (00177-M-012) and two bronze omega-shaped items (00177-M-009-010) plus a very large quantity of ceramics – 97 complete vessels in total – piled up against the edge of the tomb (Figs. 19-20). Three plates are placed in a row alongside the wall, right on top of a number of juglets, beakers and a jug in the highest layer (28 vessels in total). The most southern plate is carefully piled up with three juglets, and a beaker, the middle one holds a smaller plate (Figs. 20-21). Several long bones roughly surround the vessels while leaning on them.22 Within the second layer of ceramics – containing 24 vessels – a number of juglets has been systematically arranged around and on top of two plates, the majority of which with the mouth towards the periphery of the tomb’s structure (Fig. 22). A Cypriote jug is positioned south of the plates. Layer 3 – with 34 ceramics – presents another cluster of juglets surrounding a plate (Figs. 23-25), which seem to be intentionally assembled as well. A bowl lies west of the plate. Once again, long bones are found lying next to and on top of the plate. Nine additional juglets are arranged with an oil lamp and a few long bones in the lowest level of ceramics. The Floor (Locus 00178-00179) The bottom of the grave is uneven and has different heights: except for the centre and a small part in the northeast – where the floor lies on a slightly lower level – the absolute heights vary between 22.34 m and 22.14 m. The earth is clayish and rather hard with a lot of ashes at the periphery, with concentrations in the northwest, in the southeast and in the southwest (on either side of the entrance). The earth in the central area (locus 00179) remains softer, containing some skeletal material down to a height of ca. 22.00 m (Fig. 26). A small sounding in quadrant IV of ca. 20 cm deep (locus 00178) revealed a lot of fistsized stones (until ca. 21.96 m). The Tomb Structure (Locus 00170) Two bronze objects were collected from the tomb’s structure: a pin with a bulbous ‘melon’ head (00170-M-001) in the upper part of the structure and a bracelet (00170-M-002) east of the entrance to the grave. Upon removal of two of the large closing stones on top of the grave, an oil lamp appeared underneath a smaller oblique placed stone. The stone above the lamp did not reveal any smoke or fire traces. 22 The tomb at Tell Sukas revealed arranged long bones and skulls of pushed aside skeletons along the periphery of the tomb, see Thrane 1978, 49.

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The Skeletons – Anthropological results Based on the number of talus bones, our anthropologist, François Ricaut, was able to determine a minimum of 58 individuals, more specifically 16 juveniles and 42 adults.23 The latter can be subdivided as 80% adults (between 20 and 40 years old) and 20% mature adults (between 40 and 60 years old). Among the adults there are at least five females and five males; the gender of the 48 other individuals cannot be specified.24 Although 58 individuals were discerned, not one skeleton was complete and only approximately half of the bones of these 58 skeletons were present within the vault.25 The bones that appear most frequent are the talus and tibia. In general bones from the lower limbs are more numerous within the tomb than bones from the upper body (trunk and arms). Very few vertebrae were found in the tomb. Fragments of 29 different skulls could be identified, of which 11 of children, 8 of adults, 2 of mature adults; the others are of undetermined age (Fig. 27).26 There has been no DNA testing on the skeletons so that it cannot be concluded if the buried individuals were kin-affiliated. The anthropological research did not reveal any genetic or related pathologies. Nevertheless, studies of chamber tombs found at other sites postulate that houses and the burials beneath them belonged to the same family, identifying the burial chambers as ancestral tombs.27 The anthropological research also produced some results concerning the morbidity of the Middle Bronze Age people within the collective tomb. One skull showed evidence of skull trauma in the form of healed fractures on the frontal vault. This wound seems to have been inflicted many years before the individual deceased.28 Another person was diagnosed with Klippel-Feil syndrome, a rarely documented pathological condition which causes ‘a short neck, low posterior hairline and limited movement of the neck’.29 Several adults display the lateral squatting facet of the ankle bone, a skeletal marker caused by frequently squatting, e.g. to perform agricultural work. The high rate of diseases of the teeth and jaws reveal poor oral hygiene, which was most likely aroused by a diet rich in sugar. According to Ricaut, the Middle Bronze Age population from Tweini consumed carbohydrate-rich nutrition, probably as the outcome of an agrarian economy.30 23 Ricaut 2008, 89-90. The absence of young children might be the consequence of a different funeral practice, such as specific areas and/or other specific burial types (jar burials) for these infants. 24 Ricaut 2008, 88. 25 The disarticulated and incomplete state of the skeletons do not seem to be attributable to post-depositional processes. 26 Ricaut, personal communication. We thank François Ricaut for sharing these data. 27 Ilan 1995, 134. E.g. the intramural chamber tombs at Ugarit, see: Salles 1987. 28 Ricaut 2008, 93. 29 Ricaut 2008, 97. 30 Ricaut 2008, 95.

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The Archaeobotanical and Archaeozoological Remains The archaeobotanical inventory found within the grave (00177, 00178 and 00179) is dominated by cultivated plants, mainly fruits (figs and grapes) (with 133 plant remains), but also wheat (with 81 plant remains) and pulses (with 18 plant remains). This assemblage of cultivated plants corresponds with samples from other contemporary contexts (filling layers, installations and floors) in Tweini.31 Fig. 2: Archaeobotanical samples32 Locus 00177 Cereal crops

Pulses

Fruits

Oil annual crops Potential weeds Fresh and wet habitats Grasslands/ Open vegetation Disturbed habitats/ Open vegetation Miscellaneous

Emmer wheat Wheat Cultivated cereals Total Chickpea Grass pea/ Red pea Lentil Bitter vetch Cultivated pulses Total Common fig Grape Total Olive

12 2 21 35 1 2 5 5 1 14 58 45 103 5 82 10

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3 11 27 41

5 5

Total amount Instalwithin lation the grave 00167

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14 7 6 27

1

2 1 3 13

81 10

1 16 1 17 9 20 4

133 14 183 24

9

5

4

18

6

2

1

9

1

16

12

3

31

2

13

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4 2 6 7 9 16 9 6

The tomb inventory evidenced archaeozoological remains as well; domestic animals like sheep and goat (7) as well as fish (11). Complete animals are absent and all faunal bones were mixed with those of the human skeletons. 31 32

Marinova et al. 2012, 345-364. Distilled from the tables in Marinova et al. 2012, 358-359.

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Similar to the floral remains, the analyses of the faunal samples from Middle Bronze Age domestic levels at Tweini do not diverge significantly from that of funerary contexts. Fig. 3: Archaeozoological remains33

Sheep Sheep or goat Unidentified mammals Mullet fish Unidentified fish

Locus 00177

Locus 00178

52

2 (1 talus, 1 phalanx) 5 (1 upper molar, 1 lower molar, 2 ribs) 180 1 (1 caudal vertebra) 1032

The Ceramics35 A large quantity of complete vessels, namely 128 exemplars, was uncovered from within the burial chamber (00177). The ceramic inventory consists of juglets, dipper juglets, jugs, beakers, bowls, plates and lamps (Figs. 28-33). As previously stated, the majority of pottery was found on either side of the tomb entrance in quadrants IV and I, with respectively 97 and 25 complete exemplars. Quadrant III yielded no ceramics at all. The overall majority of vessels are red and black slipped juglets with 73 exemplars and 10 possible juglets.36 The remaining complete vessels can be categorized as follows: 11 plates, 7 beakers, 6 lamps, 3 jugs in White Painted V Composite Style37, 3 dipper jugs and 2 bowls. All this material dates to the Middle Bronze Age IIB/C.38 The plates occasionally support another plate – forming a small pile – or seem to be stacked with juglets, (dipper) jugs, beakers and bones. Through the analyses of lipids from within the juglets, Jan Baeten verified their content which consisted of vegetable seed oil containing traces of coriander and possibly also vegetable (bee)wax.39 33

Distilled from the tables in Marinova et al. 2012, 360-362. The small amount of fish remains is most probably influenced by non-systematic sieving, implying an underrepresentation of fish: Marinova et al. 2012, 349. 35 For a more detailed study of the ceramics in this grave, see the contribution of Klaas Vansteenhuyse in this volume. 36 Juglets seem to be the most conventional grave goods among Levantine Middle Bronze Age burials (De Nutte 2008, 154). The Tweini burials support this theory since they contain at least one juglet for each individual. 37 See the Cypriot ceramic of locus 00177, see Vilain in this volume (Cat. No. CYP 28-31 and 33-35). 38 Individual vessels and the entire assemblage resemble those of other communal tombs, such as the one at Tell Sukas (Thrane 1978) and Sidon (Doumet-Serhal 2004); see Klaas Vansteenhuyse in this volume. 39 See the contribution of Jan Baeten in this volume. 34

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The uppermost part of the shaft filling (locus 00235) contained a large number of sherds. According to our ceramologist Klaas Vansteenhuyse these – at least 9 different fragmented jars such as 4 closed juglets, 2 red burnished plates and a jug – can be dated to Level 8AB. Near the bottom of the shaft the quantity of sherds diminishes, nonetheless the handle of a White Painted V jar was found, implying that the final use of the shaft occurred towards the end of the Middle Bronze Age II period. The Small Finds Non-ceramological material from within the tomb mainly consisted of 53 bronze objects, some in fragmentary condition. Not all bronzes have been restored and thus details are not always identifiable due to corrosion. The most frequent bronze item in the inventory is the toggle pin with 17 (nearly) complete exemplars and ca. 16 fragments (Fig. 34). They demonstrate varied types, decorations, lengths40 and widths but all are tapered to pointed bottoms and almost all have a perforation near the middle of the shaft. Four examples (00177-M-030, 031 and 00179-M-004, 005) are simple straight pins without any decoration on the shaft and seemingly without perforation, except for one, which does have a hole (00177-M-026). Two display a slightly flaring top. Twelve can be catalogued as pins with a ring trough the perforation (00177-M-003, 004, 006, 008, 011, 012, 013, 016, 018, 023, 025 and 026) (Figs. 35-37). Decoration can consist of a conical or flared head or a beaded or raised ridged shaft. Two pins are of the bulbous ‘melon’ head type (00170-M001 and 00179-M-002) (Figs. 38-39). The head of both pins consists of seven lamellae and both shafts exhibit eight beadings above the ‘eye’. The main purpose of a toggle pin is to secure a garment on the body of both genders. Consequently, the presence of the pins within the tomb denotes that at least some bodies were (initially) dressed at the time of their interment. Since the pins cannot be associated with specific skeletons, it is impossible to discern any pattern. Two bronze items have a very thin shaft and a hole in the upper part of the shank (00177-005 and 017), categorizing them as needles (Fig. 40). One simple bracelet (00170-M-002) was part of the grave goods. It has a round section and measures 7.3 cm in diameter with one broken end (Fig. 41). A small teardrop-shaped ring (00177-M-028) with a diameter of 1.6 cm at its widest could be an earring or part of a pin with ring. A semi-circular fragment of bronze (00177-M-019) with a round cross-section might have belonged to a pin with ring as well. Three further hooked or semi-circular fragments with round cross-section (00178-M-001a-c) are heavily corroded; their function

40

Lengths between 7.8 and 12.6 cm.

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remains unclear. Two items resemble an elongated omega-shape (00177-M009-010, respectively 3.6 and 3.1 cm high) (Figs. 42-43). One of them presents lengthwise incisions at both tips. A bronze knife-like object of 7.4 cm long and 1.5 cm wide completes the bronze grave gifts (Fig. 44). Several beaded objects were uncovered, such as a beaded necklace consisting of small flat circular-shaped white faience and black beads and one red-orange cornelian spherical bead41, which most probably was the centrepiece of the collar (00177-M-001 and 020) (Fig. 45). A further greenish biconical bead, most probably in faience, measures 1.4 cm in height and 1.1 cm diameter (00177-M-029).42 A figurine of a nude woman in faience belongs to the type of figurine-plaquettes, with a flat reverse, suggesting the use of a one-sided mould (Fig. 46). The woman holds the arms underneath the breasts, the legs are joined and the feet are depicted as a block. The beige-brown surface is decorated with black paint on the coiffure, the eyes, the shoulders, the breasts, the waist and the pubic zone. The representation is rather schematic; according to Valérie Matoïan the value of the object is most probably related to the material it is made of rather than the aesthetic quality. The figurine lacks the stability to stand in upright position, implying that it was supposed to be placed in a horizontal posture or it needed additional support.43 A single cylinder seal in black stone (00177-M-007) is perforated lengthwise with a 3 mm wide puncture and measures 1.5 cm in height and 0.8 cm in diameter. The depiction shows three naked persons facing right with in between them three dots above a squatted(?) figure with raised arms, and a scorpion (Fig. 47).44 Most of the bronze objects, as well as the beads, seal and figurine were situated in the northern part of the tomb – thus in quadrants II and III and in the northern part of quadrants I and IV – and not by the entrance zone or between the large amount of ceramics in quadrants I and IV (Fig. 48). Furthermore, the small finds were found dispersed all over the aforementioned area, not only at the periphery of the tomb. Due to the disturbed condition of the multiple depositions and the accompanying grave gifts, it is impossible to relate particular gifts to individual skeletons.

41

The beads measure between 0.3 and 0.7 cm. We thank Peter Cosyns for assisting us with the identification of the material of these beads based on photographs. 43 According to Valérie Matoïan twenty-six analogous figurines were unearthed in Ugarit, although only fragmentary, contrasting this complete exemplar from Tweini. See: Matoïan 2012, 366-367, 371. 44 See Bretschneider and Jans on the glyptic of Tell Tweini in this volume. 42

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GRAVE 00051 A contemporary infant jar burial was found in the close vicinity of the communal tomb, just to the west of installation 00167. The jar was found beneath the wall of a Late Bronze Age room and had a north-south direction. The skeleton was placed in foetal position, facing east, the right arm was raised with two red slipped juglets in between the head and the arm (Fig. 49). The child was accompanied by a further three ceramic vessels: a dipper juglet at hip height, a small carinated bowl near the elbow of the left arm and a red slipped plate at the feet (Fig. 50).45 INTERPRETATION Previous analysis of written sources and ethnographical research present at least two facets of the relationship between the living and the dead: the cult of the dead – ceremonies taking place at the time of the entombment – and ancestor cult – rituals after the funeral.46 Evidence that points to ritual actions is certainly present in Tweini. The construction of a communal tomb underneath private dwellings illustrate the desire to keep the dead close to the living. This demonstrates a certain concept that according to Kopetzky can be interpreted as ‘an omnipresent awareness of those who went before, a religious belief attested for the Middle Bronze culture in the Levant’.47 Mortuary treatment For the reconstruction of the mortuary treatment of this collective tomb, several hypotheses can be suggested: 1. The chamber was used for multiple successive primary interments, with earlier skeletons unceremoniously moved aside to make room for a new body and the accompanying grave goods.48 In this case, it is curious that the chamber did not contain a single complete articulated skeleton of the 45 Hameeuw and Jans 2008, 77-78. At Ugarit and Tell Arqa analogous assemblages of grave gifts occur in the Middle Bronze II period. See: Schaeffer 1962, pl. XV, fig. 5 and Thalmann 2006, T13.38. 46 Wygnanska 2014, 40. 47 Kopetzky 2014, 139. 48 Numerous Middle Bronze Age II tombs in Jericho expose multiple successive burials in the same tomb, with ‘secondary heaps’ of bones and gifts pushed aside. However, these tombs were located at cemeteries external the settlement and thus not in a domestic area. See: Kenyon 1960, 263-264; Kletter and Levy 2015, 276. Part of the skeletons in the Sukas grave had been cleared away as well in order to make room for a next interment, see Thrane 1978, 49.

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last burial. It seems inexplicable that the last interment should have been pushed aside as well or that it had been removed afterwards.49 Since circa half the bones of the 58 individuals were missing from inside the tomb, the ‘older’ skeletons would not only have been swept aside, but a large quantity of bones must have been confiscated as well. 2. Since no marks indicating a process of corpse dismemberment could be detected, the skeletal remains would have been manipulated after excarnation. The disarticulated corpses could have been part of secondary mortuary treatment within the tomb, involving manipulation, relocation and removal of particular body parts after decomposition.50 Therefore the corpses should have been evidently primary interments, buried sequentially or simultaneously. In our opinion, such a planned form of manipulation of skeletons would possibly cause more structured arrangements of the bones than is the case in the Tweini tomb.51 3. An alternative – and perhaps more plausible – postulation is that the bodies were no longer articulated when they were deposited inside the tomb. The remains originate from earlier burials at a different location and the collective tomb was used as a secondary burial place.52 The fact that all the skeletons within the tomb were incomplete as well as disarticulated, could point to such a secondary burial, where regularly only a selection of bones were ultimately accommodated.53 In that case, the Tweini tomb would be an instance of collective reburial.54 The largest quantity of skeletal and ceramic finds was located primarily in quadrants I and IV. There appears to be a compilation of ceramics and possibly a few long bones in these two zones, which do not seem to be the result of random placement. The vessels seem to have been collected and arrayed in a specific fashion: e.g. nicely arranged lying juglets and piles of plates, the upper ones stacked with juglets, beakers and/or jugs. Similarly, the majority of the 29 partially preserved skulls – recorded by the excavators within different layers – were roughly concentrated along the periphery of the tomb.55 Eight skulls 49 Multiple disarticulated burials with no articulated last skeleton were recognized as well in Vounous B at Cyprus. See: Keswani 2004, 43 and 191. 50 Van Gennep (1999) and Todaro and Girella (2013, 129 and 139) suggest a kind of passage rite through which the individual obtained the status of deceased or ancestor for certain 4th and 3rd millennium rock-cut chamber tombs. 51 Through her research in Cyprus, Keswani (2004, 50) could verify that mortuary rituals involving secondary treatment were a common practice during the Early and Middle Bronze Age. 52 For information on secondary burials in the Early and Middle Bronze period in Syria, see: Felli 2012, 94-98. 53 Felli 2012, 97. 54 Another example of collective secondary re-interment might be Tomb 18 in Politikio Lambertis on Cyprus, see Keswani 2004, 49. 55 In the northern part of the tomb the vault slopes down more gradually – especially in quadrant III and to a lesser extent in quadrant II – creating a limited area in height along the

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were placed more towards the centre. None of the skulls were directly connected to a skeleton.56 It is unclear whether the ceramics in the different artificial intermingled layers in quadrants I and IV evidence successive – collective or secondary – burials, or if the smaller number of vessels in de lower layer support a (or several) primary interment(s) prior to later collective reburials. However, the placement of the ceramics and the skeletal material seems to suggest a discrepancy in the way they were handled; cautious where the ceramics are concerned and more careless for the skeletons. Although ceramics can be more easily collected, relocated and stacked than bones, this contradiction is rather remarkable. Funerary kit It has been suggested that the deceased individuals were interred with combinations of fixed sets of essential grave goods, which constituted a type of funeral kit.57 Aside from vessels (for food and/or liquids) the kit of the collective grave in Tweini consists of lamps and juglets58 containing scented oils and wax. The oil could have been used as an ointment on the deceased’s body or as part of food offerings, while the wax might be a means to flavour the content of the jar or more practical; the remnant of a jar stopper.59 The six lamps, found in quadrants I and IV, were not explicitly put near the entrance or in an alcove, but rather crammed in between the other arranged ceramics. The position of the lamp found in a small niche between the top covering stones of the tomb wasn’t easily accessible. The lamps were perhaps solely used as grave gifts, and not as functional elements to illuminate the tomb during the burial. Toggle pins – used to hold the dress of the deceased in place – are part of the list of essential funerary items as well. Items such as the bracelet, ring, necklace, seal, figurine and imported ceramics can be considered as personal

edge of the vault. The skeletal material, thus also the skulls, were not found in this shallow area of the tomb. Thus, the periphery mentioned in the text indicates the border of the area containing bones (see Fig. 27). 56 The practice of arranging skulls along the edges of a tomb, is also demonstrated in the Middle Bronze Age tombs of Ebla, where the skulls and funerary gifts were stacked against the corners of the tomb and the other bones were dispersed on the surface, each time the tomb was reopened to inter a new body. See: Mogliazza and Polcaro 2009, 439. 57 Baker 2012. 58 Interestingly, many of the juglets within the tomb were unable to stand upright on their own. They seem to have been intentionally destabilized by the addition of a small pellet in the base. Plausibly, these juglets were intended to be placed lying on their side (see Klaas Vansteenhuyse in this volume). 59 Felli 2012, 83; De Nutte 2008, 174.

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luxury items.60 The latter ones allude to international trade and were highly valued.61 Clearly, the majority of the bronze gifts were not grouped and arranged like the ceramics, but seem to have been gathered with the bones within the primary burial place and deposited inside tomb 00170 in case this is in fact a secondary entombment, or they fell off the bodies while relocating the skeletons within the chamber grave. Nevertheless, seven bronze pins were uncovered at the edge along the northern side of the tomb, in the zone without skeletal material (due to the shallow height of the vault); these pins probably did not fall from the corpses while replacing them but were possibly placed/thrown there. Six bronze pins were positioned in quadrant II, where eight skulls were also placed at the periphery of the zone containing skeletal material. Funerary Rituals: Food Offerings Plant remains and a small amount of animal bones within the tomb, drilled holes in the top covering stone, a plaster basin and several ash spots near as well as inside the tomb could be explained as indications for funerary practices. As mentioned earlier, the archaeozoological and archaeobotanical remains found within the tomb do not contrast greatly from those found in the settlement layers, and are more or less characteristic for the nutrition of the people living in Tweini, which is a vegetable based diet.62 In case a funeral meal would have taken place near the tomb, it most likely involved predominantly fruit and vegetables – with figs, grapes, wheat and pulses – and just a very small amount of meat – sheep and goat – and fish. The animal remains unearthed within the tomb are limited and do not display cut or burn marks.63 No complete animals were found inside the vault and the actual disarticulated bones – like vertebrae, foot bones and teeth – are not a great source of meat. Our archaeozoologist Veerle Linseele subscribes the opinion of Vila who states that incomplete animals in burial contexts might signify leftovers of sacrificed animals; pieces of 60

Baker 2012. All the infant and child burials from the Middle Bronze I and II period at Tweini consist of at least one juglet. The jar burial 00051 included five vessels comprising three juglets. One of the wealthiest graves in gifts was that of a young woman and her child, with a juglet of the Cypriot White Painted Cross Line Style, two carinated bowls and two dipper juglets, completed with a silex tool, a small figurine and the skull of a cow or ox (Hameeuw and Jans 2008, 77-78). Yet again, the juglet – generally positioned near the head or upper torso – seems to dominate the burial assemblage, like in the communal tomb. 62 Marinova et al. 2012. 63 Middle Bronze Age II communal graves at Sidon show evidence for ritual feasting, suggested by the presence of abundant faunal remains with cut and burning marks – denoting butchering and cooking –, bronze knives, tannours, mortars and pestles, see: Doumet-Serhal 2010, 117-121. 61

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an animal were deposited inside the tomb as food offerings for the deceased and the ancestors while the other parts were eaten at a different location.64 The archaeobotanical finds within the tomb can also be considered as food offerings. Ashy spots around the exterior of the tomb and throughout the tomb hint at the suggestion that certain rituals involved fire. The ashes – especially the ones surrounding the tomb structure – can point to food preparation associated with ritual offerings or a meal to commemorate the ancestors, either at the time of the entombment or post funeral. The plaster-stone basin slightly northwest of the tomb as well as the drilled holes in the two topmost covering stones of the tomb might have been used in certain rituals. The holes were possibly used to perform libations although they also could have been structural elements for putting the stones in place. If these holes were actually open and reachable from the floor covering the tomb in order to perform libations65, the smells could freely elevate from the grave into the room above, unless the holes were shut off with e.g. stones or lumps of clay. Obviously, the ‘smell issue’ would not be a problem in case the tomb functioned as a secondary burial place. Who were the people entombed here? Constructing the corbelled-vault structure of the communal tomb implies the dedication of a certain amount of time and effort. The tomb was intended to stay in use for several generations and consequently it seems reasonable to presume that it was planned as an ancestral tomb. According to the pathologies, the deceased performed actions related to agricultural work. Their diet indeed consisted primarily of cultivated crops and a small percentage of meat. The teeth and jaws of the individuals divulge bad mouth sanitation, hinting at a carbohydrate-rich diet, which also points to an agrarian economy. The ceramic component of the grave goods does not represent an extravagant quantity when divided between the fifty-eight individuals buried in the tomb – with an average of two vessels per person – particularly in comparison to other Middle Bronze Age burials in Tweini as well as in the larger region of the Levant. The greater part of the grave gifts is related to the provision and preparation of the body for the journey to the afterlife. The jewellery, bronze knife, seal and figurine were probably personal items of special value to some 64

Marinova et al. 2012, 351; Vila 2004; Felli 2012, 91-92. See also Pitard 1194, 33 concerning the holes in the ceiling of the Ugarit tomb. For comments on the practice of libations at Ugarit, see Salles 1995, 179-182, Pitard 1994, 20-37 and Lange 2012. It should be noted that in the vicinity of tomb 00170 in Tweini, no channel-shaped installations were uncovered. 65

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of the dead. The presence of Cypriot jugs signifies that the deceased had the resources to purchase internationally traded products. In sum, the group of people buried here were seemingly not nobles nor lowest class, but somewhere in between.

BIBLIOGRAPHY Baeten J. 2019: Lipid Biomarker Analysis of Middle Bronze Age Grave Vases from Tell Tweini Field A, in: J. Bretschneider and G. Jans (eds.), About Tell Tweini (Syria): Artefacts, Ecofacts and Landscape. Research Results of the Belgian Mission (Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta 281), Leuven, 243-253. Baker J. 2012: The Funeral Kit: Mortuary Practices in the Archaeological Record, Walnut Creek California. Bretschneider J. and K. Van Lerberghe 2008: Tell Tweini, Ancient Gibala, between 2600 B.C.E. and 333 B.C.E., in: J. Bretschneider and K. Van Lerberghe (eds.), In Search of Gibala: An Archaeological and Historical Study Based on Eight Seasons of Excavations at Tell Tweini (Syria) in the A and C Fields (1999-2007) (Aula Orientalis Supplementa 24), Barcelona, 11-68. Degryse P. and K. Vansteenhuyse 2019: Annex: Petrographic characterization of the ceramic fabric groups at Tell Tweini, in: J. Bretschneider and G. Jans (eds.), About Tell Tweini (Syria): Artefacts, Ecofacts and Landscape. Research Results of the Belgian Mission (Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta 281), Leuven, 639-651. De Nutte G. 2008: Black and Red Burnished Juglets of the Levantine Middle Bronze Age. A Contextual, Typological and Technological Approach supported by Residue-Analysis and Petrography, MA thesis KU Leuven. Doumet-Serhal C. 2004: Sidon (Lebanon): Twenty Middle Bronze Age Burials from the 2001 Season of Excavations, Levant 36, 89-154. — 2010: Sidon during the Bronze Age: Burials, Rituals and Feasting Grounds at the “College Site”, Near Eastern Archaeology 73, No. 2/3, 114-129. Felli C. 2012: Funerary Practices from the End of the Early to the Middle Bronze Age in Northwestern Syria: The Middle Euphrates Valley, in: P. Pfälzner et al. (eds.), (Re-)Constructing Funerary Rituals in the Ancient Near East. Proceedings of the First International Symposium of the Tübingen Post-Graduate School “Symbols of the Dead” in May 2009, Wiesbaden, 79-110. Hameeuw H. and G. Jans 2008: Burial Customs at Tell Tweini – Field A, in: J. Bretschneider and K. Van Lerberghe (eds.), In Search of Gibala: An Archaeological and Historical Study Based on Eight Seasons of Excavations at Tell Tweini (Syria) in the A and C Fields (1999-2007) (Aula Orientalis Supplementa 24), Barcelona, 143-151. — 2010: Les tombes de Tell Tweini du chantier A, in: M. Al-Maqdissi et al. (eds.), Tell Tweini. Onze Campagnes de Fouilles Syro-Belges (1999-2010) (Documents d’Archéologie Syrienne), Damascus, 81-94. Hameeuw H., K. Vansteenhuyse, G. Jans, J. Bretschneider and K. Van Lerberghe 2009: Living with the Dead. Tell Tweini: The Middle Bronze Age tombs in an urban context, in: J. Cordoba et al. (eds.), Proceedings of the 5th International Congress on the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East, Madrid, April 3-8 2006, Wiesbaden, 143-151.

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Henschel-Simon E. 1938: The Toggle-pins in the Palestine Archaeological Museum, QDAP VI, 70. Ilan D. 1995: Mortuary Practices at Tel Dan in the Middle Bronze Age: A Reflection of Canaanite Society and Ideology, in: S. Campbell and A. Green (eds.), The Archaeology of Death in the Ancient Near East, Oxford, 117-137. Jans G. and J. Bretschneider 2019: The Glyptic of Tell Tweini Field A, in: J. Bretschneider and G. Jans (eds.), About Tell Tweini (Syria): Artefacts, Ecofacts and Landscape. Research Results of the Belgian Mission (Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta 281), Leuven, 149-179. Kempinski A. 1989: Megiddo, A City-State and Royal Centre in North Israel (Materialien zur Allgemeinen und Vergleichenden Archäologie 40), München. Kenyon K. M. 1960: Excavations at Jericho, I. The Tombs Excavated in 1952-54, Jerusalem - London. — 1965: Excavations at Jericho, II. The Tombs Excavated in 1955-58, Jerusalem London. Keswani P. 2004: Mortuary Ritual and Society in Bronze Age Cyprus, London. — 2012: Urban Mortuary Practices at Enkomi and Ugarit in the Second Millennium BC, in: P. Pfälzner et al. (eds.), (Re-)Constructing Funerary Rituals in the Ancient Near East. Proceedings of the First International Symposium of the Tübingen Post-Graduate School “Symbols of the Dead” in May 2009, Wiesbaden, 183203. Kletter R. and Y. Levy 2015: And Death Shall Do Us Part: Simultaneous Burials in Middle Bronze Age Southern Levant, Egypt and The Levant. International Journal for Egyptian and Related Disciplines 25, 275-294. Kopetzky K. 2014: Burial Practices and Mortuary Rituals at Tell el-Dab’a, Egypt, in: P. Pfälzner et al. (eds.), Contextualising Grave Inventories in the Ancient Near East. Proceedings of a Workshop at the London 7th ICAANE in April 2010 and an International Symposium in Tübingen in November 2010 (Qatna Studien Supplementa 3), Wiesbaden, 123-140. Lange S. 2012: Food and Libation Offerings for the Royal Dead in Ugarit, in: P. Pfälzner et al. (eds.), (Re-) Constructing Funerary Rituals in the Ancient Near East. Proceedings of the First International Symposium of the Tübingen PostGraduate School “Symbols of the Dead” in May 2009, Wiesbaden, 161-182. Linseele V. 2008: Faunal Remains from Tell Tweini: A first Report, in: J. Bretschneider and K. Van Lerberghe (eds.), In Search of Gibala: An Archaeological and Historical Study Based on Eight Seasons of Excavations at Tell Tweini (Syria) in the A and C Fields (1999-2007) (Aula Orientalis Supplementa 24), Barcelona, 143-149. Matoïan V. 2012: Images de faïence de Tell Tueini et de Ras Shamra (Syrie), in: T. Boiy et al. (eds.), The Ancient Near East, A Life! Festschrift Karel Van Lerberghe (Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta 220), Leuven, 365-386. Marinova E., V. Linseele, P. Vandorpe and J. Van der Valk 2012: Middle Bronze Age Ritual, Subsistence and Environment at Tell Tweini Inferred from Bioarchaeological Evidence, in: T. Boiy et al. (eds.), The Ancient Near East, A Life! Festschrift Karel Van Lerberghe (Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta 220), Leuven, 345-364. Moeder I. 2012, The Middle Bronze Age Tombs of Tell Tweini: A Case Study of the Collective Grave in Field A, MA thesis KU Leuven. Mogliazza S. and A. Polcaro 2010: Death and Cult of Dead in Middle Bronze Age II Ebla: An Archaeological and Anthropological Study on Shaft Tomb P.8680, Near Southern Palace, in: P. Matthiae et al. (eds.), Proceedings of the 6th International Congress on the Ancient Near East, volume 1, Wiesbaden, 431-445.

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Pitard W. T. 1994: The “Libation Installations” of the Tombs at Ugarit, Biblical Archaeologist 57/1, 20-37. Ricaut F.-X. 2008: Human Remains from a Middle Bronze Age Population from Tell Tweini: Preliminary Results of the Anthropological Study, in: J. Bretschneider and K. Van Lerberghe (eds.), In Search of Gibala: An Archaeological and Historical Study Based on Eight Seasons of Excavations at Tell Tweini (Syria) in the A and C Fields (1999-2007) (Aula Orientalis Supplementa 24), Barcelona, 87-101. Salles J.-F. 1987: Deux nouvelles tombes de Ras Shamra, in: M. Yon (ed.), Ras Shamra-Ougarit III, Le centre de la ville, 38e-44e campagnes (1978-1984), Paris, 157-196. — 1995: Rituel Mortuaire et Rituel Social à Ras Shamra / Ougarit, in: S. Campbell and A. Green (eds.), The Archaeology of Death in the Ancient Near East, Oxford, 171-184. Schumacher G. 1908: Tell el-Mutesellim I. Band, Fundbericht: A. Text and B. Tafeln, Leipzig. Schaeffer C. F. A. 1938: Les fouilles de Ras Shamra-Ugarit. Neuvième Campagne (Printemps 1937), Syria 19, 313-334. — 1939: Les fouilles de Ras Shamra-Ugarit. Dixième et onzième Campagnes (Automne et Hiver 1938-39), Syria 20, 277-292. — 1949: Ugaritica II. Nouvelles études relatives aux découvertes de Ras Shamra (Mission de Ras Shamra 5), Paris. — 1962: Ugaritica IV. Découvertes des XVIIIe et XIXe Campagnes, 1954-1955 (Mission de Ras Shamra 15), Paris. Thalmann J.-P. 2006: Tell Arqa – I: Les niveaux de l’âge du Bronze, Volume I: Texte (Bibliothèque Archéologique et Historique 177), Beyrouth. Thrane H. 1978: Sukas IV. A Middle Bronze Age Collective Grave on Tell Sukas (Publications of the Carlsberg Expedition to Phoenicia 5), Copenhagen. Todaro S. and L. Girella 2013: Living through Destructions. Deliberate vs. Accidental Manipulation of Human Remains and Grave Goods in Western Mediterranean Rock-cut Chambers Tombs of the 4th and 3rd Millennium BC, in: J. Driessen (ed.), Destruction. Archaeological, Philological and Historical Perspectives, Louvain, 133-152. Van Gennep A. 1999: Übergangsriten (Les rites passage), Frankfurt am Main - New York. Vila E. 2004: Survey of the Remains of Mammals Recovered in the Middle Bronze Age Burials at Sidon (Lebanon) in 2001, Levant 36, 167-180. Vilain S. 2019: The Bronze Age Cypriot Pottery from Tell Tweini Field A, in: J. Bretschneider and G. Jans (eds.), About Tell Tweini (Syria): Artefacts, Ecofacts and Landscape. Research Results of the Belgian Mission (Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta 281), Leuven, 313-393. Wygnanska Z. 2014: The Ancestor Cult in the Middle Bronze Age at Tell Arbid, Syria, in: P. Pfälzner et al. (eds.), Contextualising Grave Inventories in the Ancient Near East. Proceedings of a Workshop at the London 7th ICAANE in April 2010 and an International Symposium in Tübingen in November 2010 (Qatna Studien Supplementa 3), Wiesbaden, 39-49.

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Fig. 1: Detail of Level 8AB (Middle Bronze Age II) with tomb 00170.

Fig. 2: Tomb 00170 and installation 00167.

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Fig. 3: Section drawing of Tomb 00170.

Fig. 4: Entrance shaft of Tomb 00170 (view from the south).

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Fig. 5: Entrance passage seen from within the burial chamber (view from the north).

Fig. 6: Top view of the unopened burial chamber and installation 00167.

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Fig. 7: First traces of installation 00167 and tomb 00170 (view from the west).

Fig. 8: Installation 00167.

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Fig. 9: View into the burial chamber (view from the west).

Fig. 10: The four quadrants of the burial chamber (North to the right).

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Fig. 11: Top view of the content within the top layer of the burial chamber (C = ceranic, ST = stone).

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Fig. 12: Quadrant I, Layer 1 (view from the east).

Fig. 13: Quadrant I, Layer 1 (view from the north-east).

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Fig. 14: Quadrant I: excavating Layer 2 (view from the north-east).

Fig. 15: Quadrant I, Layer 2 and Quadrant IV, Layer 3 (view from the north).

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Fig. 16: Quadrant II (view from the south-east).

Fig. 17: Border between Quadrant II with Quadrant I (view from the south).

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Fig. 18: Quadrant II.

Fig. 19: Quadrant IV, Layer 1 (view from the north-west).

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Fig. 20: Quadrant IV, Layer 1 (view from the west).

Fig. 21: Quadrant IV, Layer 1 (view from the west).

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Fig. 22: Quadrant IV, Layer 2 (North to the left).

Fig. 23: Quadrant IV, Layer 3 (view from the west).

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Fig. 24: Quadrant IV, Layer 3 (North to the left).

Fig. 25: Quadrant IV, Layer 3 (North to the left).

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Fig. 26: Floor of the burial chamber, with the location of loci 00178 and 00179.

Fig. 27: Location of (semi-)complete skulls.

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Fig. 28: Plates and lamps.

Fig. 29: Juglets and jugs.

Fig. 30: Jugs and beaker.

Fig. 31: Red and black juglets.

Fig. 32: Jugs in White Painted V Composite Style.

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Fig. 33: Selection of ceramics of Tomb 00170.

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Fig. 34: Bronze pin in situ in Quadrant II.

Fig. 35: Bronze pins with ring.

Fig. 36: Bronze pin 00177-M-012.

Fig. 37: Bronze pin 00177-M-013.

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Fig. 38: 00170-M-001.

Fig. 41: Bracelet 00170-M-002.

Fig. 39: 00179-M-002.

Fig. 42: Bronze object 00177-M-009.

Fig. 44: Bronze knife-like object 00177-M-033.

Fig. 40: 00177-M-005.

Fig. 43: Bronze object 00177-M-010.

Fig. 45: Necklace 00177-M-001/020.

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Fig. 46: Female figurine in faience 00177-M-021.

Fig. 47: Cylinder seal and its design.

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Fig. 48: Plan of the burial chamber with location of the objects (all locus 00177, except when mentioned otherwise).

Fig. 49: Jar burial 00051.

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Fig. 50: Jar burial 00051 (North to the right) and inventory.

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LIPID BIOMARKER ANALYSIS OF MIDDLE BRONZE AGE GRAVE VASES FROM TELL TWEINI FIELD A Jan BAETEN KU Leuven - Centre for Archaeological Sciences

1. INTRODUCTION The archaeological site of Tell Tweini, the ancient Gibala, is situated about 1.5 kilometre northeast of the Syrian coastal city Jebleh and about 40 kilometres south of the ancient city of Ugarit, the modern-day Ras Shamra (Fig. 1). Archaeological and historical studies have been carried out since 1999 by the Syrian Direction Générale des Antiquités et des Musées and the Katholieke Universiteit Leuven under direction of professor Joachim Bretschneider, Karel Van Lerberghe and professor Michel Maqdissi. The goal of the multidisciplinary project was to study the archaeological layers from the third millennium BCE until the Byzantine Age. Special attention is given to technological changes in material culture and the different economic strategies. An important find category in this respect are the numerous ceramic fragments which were uncovered in the course of the excavation seasons. They represent an interesting find category to study social organization, trade, economy, technological developments and many other aspects of the daily life of inhabitants of the archaeological site. This paper describes the results of organic residue analyses which have been carried out on grave vases from the site. This technique is widespread in archaeological sciences and allows to identify the biological origin of amorphous organic residues. These residues preserve particularly well in micropores of ceramic sherds and are therefore often used to reconstruct dietary habits. The molecular composition of these residues is studied with advanced chemicalanalytical techniques and can be linked to their original source by means of a concept which is known as archaeological biomarkers.1 These biomarkers are molecules or a pattern of molecules which are specific for a certain biological source or a certain chemical process such as cooking or microbiological degradation. The research has mainly focused on lipids because of their non-polar character and their potential to survive over archaeological timescales.

1

Evershed 2008.

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2. MATERIALS AND METHODS Sherds from small red and black vases with a round handle were analysed in this study. They were found in a collective grave at 1.5 m depth. The pottery was dated to the Middle Bronze Age II (ca. 1800 to 1600 BCE).2 Based on the typology of the vessels, they are assumed to have contained a scented olive oil. Sediments found inside the grave vases were also analysed as a negative control. Table 1 summarizes the analysed samples. Table 1: Summary of analysed ceramic and soil samples. Sample number TWE_A_00177_C1 TWE_A_00177_C1 TWE_A_00177_C1 TWE_A_00177_C25 TWE_A_00177_C33 TWE_A_00177_C33 TWE_A_00177_C33 TWE_A_00177_C0123 TWE_A_00177_M75 TWE_A_00177_M85 TWE_A_00177_M86 TWE_A_00177_M98 TWE_A_00177_M99 TWE_A_00177_M107 TWE_A_00177_M110

Type

Sherd part

Sherd colour

Sherd Sherd Sherd Sherd Sherd Sherd Sherd Sherd Soil Soil Soil Soil Soil Soil Soil

Neck Body Base Base Neck Body Base Base

Red Red Red Black Red Red Red Black

In order to avoid contamination from soil lipids, the outer surface (ca. 2 mm) of the potsherd fragments was removed with a hand drill. The inner surface was only superficially cleaned. The fragments were then coarsely ground with mortar and pestle and powdered with a ball mill. About 5 grams of the powdered samples were extracted by soxhlet extraction using chloroform: methanol (2:1 v/v). An amount of n-heptadecane was added as internal standard prior to extraction. A first lipid extract was transesterified using 5 % potassium hydroxide in methanol. This procedure will transform any acyl glycerides into fatty acid methyl esters (FAMEs) and hence enables to determine the fatty acid profile of the organic residues. These FAMEs were analysed on a gas chromatograph 2

See Jans and Bretschneider in this volume.

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using a polar stationary phase and a flame ionisation detector (GC-FID). A second lipid extract was derivatised using silylation and analysed with gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (GC-MS). This allows to identify free fatty acids and other lipid biomarkers such as alkanols, alkanes and sterols. A third extract was analysed using liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (LC-MS) to determine the intact triglyceride profile. More detailed information about the exact procedures and analyses can be found in previous publications.3 3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION a. Determination of the Fatty Acid Profile after Transesterification The fatty acid profile was determined by transesterification of the total lipid extract. The concentration of FAMEs was significantly different from the blank samples in only 4 of the 8 potsherds. Figure 2 depicts a representative GC-FID chromatogram. The FAME profiles of 4 potsherds are displayed in Figure 3. In total, seven different fatty acids are detected, namely one polyunsaturated fatty acid, three monounsaturated fatty acids and three saturated fatty acids. The general pattern for these 4 samples was that unsaturated fatty acids were present in relatively high abundances, especially octadecenoic acid (C18:1). Another major fatty acid in all samples is palmitic acid (C16:0), a saturated fatty acid. It should be noted, however, that the relative ratios of saturated and unsaturated fatty acids cannot be directly compared to the composition of fresh fats and oils. It is generally known that unsaturated fatty acids degrade much faster than saturated ones, and polyunsaturated fatty acids even more so than monounsaturated fatty acids. Relative oxidation rates of C18:0, C18:1, C18:2, C18:3 at 100 °C are estimated at 1:100:1500:2500.4 Therefore, the FAME profile of the archaeological samples suggests that monounsaturated fatty acids must have constituted the predominant component of the original substance which was kept in the vases. This clearly indicates that the vases must have contained a vegetal oil. Another interesting observation was that each sample contained two distinct chromatographic peaks of octadecenoic acid, namely a first larger peak at 26.7 min. and a second smaller peak at 27.4 min. The identity of these stereo isomers of octadecenoic acid was confirmed by injection of commercial standards of fatty acid methyl esters and proved to correspond to methyl petroselinate (C18:1 cis6) and methyl oleate (C18:1 cis9), respectively. 3 4

Romanus et al. 2007; Baeten 2008; Baeten et al. 2010. Eerkens 2005.

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The fact that petroselinic acid predominates over oleic acid is highly remarkable as oleic acid usually constitutes the major fatty acyl component in archaeological lipid residues.5 Petroselinic acid is a rather rare fatty acid which only occurs in minor abundances in some plant oils. However, certain species from the family of the Umbelliferae (Apiaceae) contain petroselinic acid as most abundant fatty acid. Examples of these species are coriander (Coriandrum sativum), parsley (Petroselinum crispum) and fennel (Foeniculum vulgare).6 In any case, the oil must have been extracted from seeds from these species as petroselinic acid is only a minor fatty acid in other plant parts.7 To achieve a more specific identification, fatty acid ratios were further explored and compared to modern-day plant oils. Preferably, fatty acids with the same degradation rate were used. The ratio of (C18:1 cis6) to (C18:1 cis9) was plotted against the ratio of (C18:2) to (C18:1 cis9) as illustrated in Figure 4. Fatty acid ratios were also plotted for seeds and leaves of coriander (Coriandrum sativum)8, seeds of parsley (Petroselinum crispum)9 and fruits of Amantha sp.10 The potsherds of Tell Tweini display a great spread, particularly for the ratio of petroselinate to oleate. This plot could indicate that the fatty acid ratios of sherd C1 neck and C25 base rather correspond with coriander seed oil. However, more research is needed to verify whether these fatty acid ratios can robustly be used for such specific identifications, i.e. a broader range of vegetal oils should be analysed and differential degradation pathways should be examined. Another caveat is that such ratios can probably not be used in case of mixtures of vegetal oils. b. Screening of Lipid Extracts Using GC-MS after Silylation To obtain further information, the lipid extracts of the samples were also subjected to a screening for lipid biomarkers with GC-MS after derivatisation. Figure 5 displays a representative GC-MS chromatogram. Table 2 and 3 summarize the results of this screening. Lipid molecules were identified based on known retention times and mass spectra. In case a molecule also appeared in the blank samples, the peak area was used to assess whether the molecule was present in significantly higher abundances in the sample.

5

Regert et al. 1998; Baeten et al. 2013. Weber et al. 1997; Ramadan and Mörsel 2002. 7 Ellenbracht et al. 1980; Dutta and Appelqvist 1991; Chaffai et al. 2014. 8 Crops database of IENICA, 2002; Ramadan and Mörsel 2002; Chaffai et al. 2014. 9 Ellenbracht et al. 1980; Kinoshita et al. 2005. 10 Tomic et al. 2006. 6

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Table 2: Summary of the screening of lipid extracts of the ceramic samples of Tell Tweini with GC-MS. Retention times (RT) are indicated in minutes. Legend: x = present in sample and significantly different from the blank samples. Sample Number Abbr.

Name

RT

A14 A16 A18 A28 C14:0 C16:0 C18:1 C18:0 MAG16 StgAc

Tetradecanol Hexadecanol Octadecanol Octacosanol Myristic acid Palmitic acid Octadecenoic acid Stearic acid Monopalmitin Stigmaster-3β-yl acetate Stigmastan-3,5-diene7-one

StgOn

C1 neck

C1 body

C1 base

C25 base

C33 neck

C33 body

11.65 16.11 20.46 38.41 13.54 18.05 21.75 22.33 29.38

× × ×

× ×

× ×

×

37.47

×

×

×

42.62

×

×

×

×

× ×

× × ×

×

×

× ×

× × × ×

× × ×

×

×

×

×

×

C33 C0123 base base

× × ×

×

Table 3: Summary of the screening of lipid extracts of the soil samples of Tell Tweini with GC-MS. Retention times (RT) are indicated in minutes. Sample Number Abbr.

Name

RT M75

A14 A16 A18 A28 C14:0 C16:0 C18:1 C18:0 MAG16 StgAc StgOn

Tetradecanol Hexadecanol Octadecanol Octacosanol Myristic acid Palmitic acid Octadecenoic acid Stearic acid Monopalmitin Stigmaster-3β-yl acetate Stigmastan-3,5-diene-7-one

11.65 16.11 20.46 38.41 13.54 18.05 21.75 22.33 29.38 37.47 42.62

M85

M86

M98

M99 M107 M110

× × ×

× ×

× × ×

×

×

×

× × × ×

× × × × × ×

× × ×

× × ×

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All potsherds contained free fatty acids, mainly myristic acid (C14:0), palmitic acid (C16:0), stearic acid (C18:0) and octadecenoic acid (C18:1). The latter fatty acid was present as a mixture of two not well resolved peaks at 21.75 min. Unfortunately, monounsaturated fatty acids cannot be differentiated based on their mass spectrum. However, the fact that two isomers of octadecenoic acid are present may well indicate that petroselinic acid is also present as a free fatty acid. Moreover, the general profile of free fatty acids corresponds very well to the pattern that was observed in the transesterified lipid extract. Furthermore, almost all samples exhibit long chain n-alkanols. Octacosanol (A28) was only observed in the black potsherds (C25 and C0123). These alkanols are typically hydrolysis products of wax esters and commonly occur in vegetal or animal waxes. Finally, three samples also contained derivates of phytosterols, namely stigmasteryl acetate and stigmasta-3,5-diene-7-one. The presence of these plant sterols reinforce that the vases must have contained a vegetal oil. c. Other Analyses The lipid extracts were also analysed with LC-MS to assess the presence of intact triacylglycerols and diacylglycerols. However, such compounds were not detected suggesting that extensive hydrolysis has prevented the survival of intact triacylglycerols. Nevertheless, the hydrolysis was not complete as evidenced by the presence of monopalmitin in the derivatised lipid extract and the presence of FAMEs in the transesterified lipid extract. Furthermore, it has been shown that lipid oxidation products can bind strongly to the ceramic matrix.11 Such lipid oxidation products are especially expected for unsaturated fatty acids of vegetal oils. A major oxidation product of most plant oils is azelaic acid which is formed by oxidation of oleic acid. In case of coriander seed oil, however, adipic acid would be the most abundant oxidation product. Treatment of the samples with a strong base can release these strongly bound oxidation products. Therefore, the ceramic residue that remained after lipid extracted was suspended in 0.5 M sodium hydroxide, dissolved in a mixture of methanol and water (9:1 v/v) and heated to 70 °C for 90 minutes. Lipids were then extracted in chloroform, concentrated and after silylation analysed with GC-MS. Unfortunately, no oxidation products were retrieved.

11

Regert et al. 1998.

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4. CONCLUSION The grave vases contained only minute amounts of lipids. No significant difference in lipid composition was observed between black and red coloured vases. A remarkable outcome was the presence of a rare fatty acid, namely petroselinic acid, which evidences that the vases must have contained a vegetal seed oil from the Umbelliferae family, possibly coriander. It is not clear, however, whether the oil was used in a pure form or was mixed with another plant oil. Animal fats can be excluded due to absence of animal biomarkers such as cholesterol or high stearate concentrations. Coriander was used in antiquity for many purposes. Apart from uses as a spice or perfume, many medicinal effects have been ascribed to coriander. Plinius the Elder describes in his Historia Naturalis that this herb can be used to remediate wounds, ulcers, fevers, afflictions of the ears and eyes (if mixed with breast milk), stomach disorders, intestinal parasites and – in combination with cumin and vinegar – to prevent meat spoiling (“sanat et alia vulnera … ulcera … in tertianis devorari iubent … ulcera quoque quae serpunt sanat … aures, cum lacte mulieris epiphoras oculorum … ventris et intestinorum fluctiones … pellit animalia interaneorum … et cumino acetoque carnem omnem incorruptam aestate servari putat” Liber XX. lxxxii). Moreover, coriander is also associated with funerary practices. Staples of Coriandrum sativum were discovered in the grave of Tutankhamun.12 The results of this investigation should probably be viewed in this regard as the vases have been discovered in a communal – probably family – grave. BIBLIOGRAPHY Baeten J. 2008: Chemische analyse van archeologische resten uit de stad Sagalassos, Masterthesis KU Leuven. Baeten J., K. Romanus, P. Degryse, W. De Clercq, H. Poelman, M. Walton, P. Jacobs, D. De Vos and M. Waelkens 2010: Application of a multi-analytical toolset to a 16th century: Identification as lead plaster mixed with beeswax, Microchemical Journal 95, 227-234. Baeten J., B. Jervis, D. De Vos and M. Waelkens 2013: Molecular evidence for the mixing of meat, fish and vegetables in Anglo-Saxon coarseware from Hamwic, UK, Archaeometry 55, 1150-1174. Chaffai R., Y. Hfaiedh and B. Marzouk 2014: Effect of Triple Superphosphate on Growth, Total Chlorophyll Content, Essential Oil and Fatty Acid Compositions in Shoots of Coriander (Coriandrum sativum L.), Global Journal of Botanical Science 2, 2-11.

12

Panagiotakopulu et al. 1995.

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Dutta P. C. and L.-A. Appelqvist 1991: Lipids and fatty acid patterns in developing seed, leaf, root, and in tissue culture initiated from embryos of Daucus carota L, Plant Science 75, 177-183. Eerkens J. W. 2005: GC–MS analysis and fatty acid ratios of archaeological potsherds from western great basin of North America, Archaeometry 47, 83-102. Ellenbracht F., W. Barz and H. K. Mangold 1980: Unusual Fatty Acids in the Lipids from Organs and Cell Cultures of Petroselinum crispum, Planta 150, 114-119. Evershed R. P. 2008: Organic residue analysis in archaeology: the archaeological biomarker revolution, Archaeometry 50, 895-924. IENICA, Interactive European Network for Industrial Crops and their Applications 2002: Crops Database [online]. Melvyn Askew, Central Science Laboratory, Available at http://www.ienica.net/ [date of search: 4 nov 2007]. Jans G. and J. Bretschneider 2019: A Collective Middle Bronze Age II Tomb at Tell Tweini Field A, in: J. Bretschneider and G. Jans (eds.), About Tell Tweini (Syria): Artefacts, Ecofacts and Landscape. Research Results of the Belgian Mission (Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta 281), Leuven, 201-241. Kinoshita A., K. Yamamoto and A. Shibahara 2005: Quick and easy quantification of petroselinic acid in parsley seed lipids by mass chromatography using dimethyl disulfides adducts, Journal of rehabilitation and health science 3, 17-20. Panagiotakopulu E., P. C. Buckland and P. M. Day 1995: Natural insecticides and insect repellents in antiquity: A review of evidence, Journal of archaeological science 22, 705-710. Ramadan M. F. and J.-T. Mörsel 2002: Oil Composition of coriander (Coriandrum sativum L.) fruit-seeds, European Food Research and Technology 215, 204-209. Regert M., H. A. Bland, S. N. Dudd, P. F. van Bergen and R. P. Evershed 1998: Free and bound fatty acid oxidation products in archaeological ceramic vessels, Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B 265, 2027-2032. Romanus K., J. Poblome, K. Verbeke, A. Luypaerts, P. Jacobs, D. De Vos and M. Waelkens 2007: An evaluation of analytical and interpretative methodologies for the extraction and identification of lipids associated with pottery sherds from the site of Sagalassos, Turkey, Archaeometry 49, 729-747. Tomic A., S. Petrovic, M. Pucarevic, S. Sobajic, M. Ristic and M. Ciketic 2006: Fatty acid composition of two Athamanta turbith subspecies, Chemistry of natural compounds 42, 391-393. Weber C., K. Vosmann, L. Brühl and K. D. Mukherjee 1997: Metabolism of dietary petroselinic acid: A dead-end metabolite of desaturation/chain elongation reactions, Nutrition research 17, 89-97.

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Fig. 1: (a) Sketch of the archaeological excavations at Tell Tweini and (b) situation of the archaeological site in the Levant.

Fig. 2: Representative gas chromatogram of a transesterified lipid extract (sample TWE_A_00177_C1 neck). Legend: IS, C14:0, C16:0, C16:1 c9, C18:0, C18:1 c6, C18:1 c9 and C18:2 correspond to Internal Standard, methyl myristate, methyl palmitate, methyl palmitoleate, methyl stearate, methyl petroselinate, methyl oleate and methyl linoleate, respectively.

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J. BAETEN

Fig. 3: Profile of transesterified fatty acyl components (expressed in μmol/g sherd). Legend: C14:0, C16:0, C16:1 c9, C18:0, C18:1 c6, C18:1 c9 and C18:2 correspond to methyl myristate, methyl palmitate, methyl palmitoleate, methyl stearate, methyl petroselinate, methyl oleate and methyl linoleate, respectively.

Fig. 4: Plot of fatty acid ratio of petroselinate (C18:1 c6) to oleate (C18:1 c9) versus the ratio of linoleate (C18:2) to oleate (C18:1 c9) in ceramic sherds of Tell Tweini and comparison with seeds and leaves of coriander (Coriandrum sativum), fruits of Amantha sp. and parsley seeds (Petroselinum crispum).

LIPID BIOMARKER ANALYSIS OF MIDDLE BRONZE AGE GRAVE VASES

Fig. 5: Representative GC-MS chromatogram of the derivatised lipid extract of potsherd TWE_A_00177_C33 neck. The legend is explained in the first column of Table 2.

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THE CERAMIC MATERIAL FROM THE MIDDLE BRONZE AGE COMMUNAL GRAVE AT TELL TWEINI FIELD A Klaas VANSTEENHUYSE1 UC Leuven-Limburg

1. DESCRIPTION AND PARALLELS The discovery and subsequent excavation of Tomb TWE-A-00170 and its contents (TWE-A-00177) in Field A has been of utmost importance for the ceramic typology of Field A.2 For the first time, with the exception of the jar tomb TWE-A-00051, a large number of complete vessels was uncovered in Field A. All vessels can typologically be placed in Middle Bronze IIB/C.3 The tomb was clearly a communal tomb with a least 58 individuals buried in it. There may thus be up to 58 different assemblages of funeral gifts in which the ceramics form the largest remaining group. The problem of this entire assemblage is therefore to reconstruct the individual funeral assemblage. In order to do so, the vessels have been classified in various sets using different criteria in an attempt to retrieve intelligible groups or clusters. This should not necessarily lead to groups dividable by 58 since we do not know the status of each of the deceased and their respective differences in the funeral assemblage. All complete vessels from the tomb have been described and drawn. There is a large number of juglets which differ in terms of decoration (black or red burnished slip, or painted lines), form of the foot and form of the rim and those were grouped by ‘type’ (see 2.1.1). Many of those juglets cannot stand up without support. Plates, dipper jugs, jugs and little beakers were also found. All are presented and discussed below. The resemblance with individual vessels and the entire assemblage of, among other, a communal tomb at Tell Sukas, Ugarit and Sidon,4 is striking and suggests that burial rites in the MB IIB/C period involved a very specific set of

1 Greta Jans earns a special word of thank you: she was kind enough to spend her limited time to correct inconsistencies and to collect all necessary drawings and pictures as well as to produce the plates of this article. 2 For a description of the tomb, see: Jans and Bretschneider in this volume. 3 See comparisons at Tell Sukas (Thrane 1978) and Ras Shamra (e.g. Tombe LV; Marchegay 1999). 4 For Tell Sukas: Thrane 1978; for Ugarit: Schaeffer 1938, 221 and personal communication with V. Matoïan; for Sidon: Doumet-Serhal 2004.

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ceramic vessels in the Northern Levantine region. Below we present the ceramic tomb contents from Tell Tweini: TWE-A-00177 and three contemporary contexts in the immediate vicinity.5 1.1 Tell Tweini: TWE-A-00177 (Pl. 11) In the communal tomb TWE-A-00170/001776 a minimum number of 58 individuals were buried. The grave goods in TWE-A-00177 included a lead figurine, bronze pins, one metal ring and a large corpus of ceramics. We give here the minimum number of individual vessels for each category: Table 1: Division of ceramic vessels for TWE-A-00177. Red juglets Black juglets Juglets of unclear colour Plates Bowls Beakers Jugs Dipper jugs Lamps

Minimum 60 (total of all juglets: > 102) Minimum 40 (total of all juglets: > 102) Minimum 2 13 2 8 10 4 7

In TWE-A-00177 there is a minimum number of 146 vessels.7 The ratio individual/vessel is 1/2,51. The ratio individual/juglet is 1/1,75. The ratio red juglet/black juglet is 3/2. 1.2 Tell Tweini: TWE-A-00051 From the apparent contemporary jar tomb TWE-A-000518 at Tell Tweini, we know that an infant was buried with two red juglets, one carinated bowl, a 5 A much larger number of contexts could have been selected, e.g. the tombs at Tell elGhassil (Doumet-Serhal 1995-1996, 39): Tomb 1 contains min. three adults with three plates, four vases, two jugs; Tomb 2 is a jar tomb with an infant and no ceramics; Tomb 6 contains one infant and no ceramics; Tomb 7 is a jar tomb with min. two infants and no ceramics. 6 Locus 00170 is the tomb structure. The tomb’s inventory was labelled locus 00177. 7 Of those vessels there are nine black juglets, seven red juglets, two juglets of unknown colour, one dipper and one lamp which have not been drawn because only a few sherds have been found. The number of sherds was enough, however, to discern the minimum number of individual vessels. 8 Research on burial practices at Tel Dan showed that Middle Bronze Age jar tombs are usually placed in close relation to walls. Few jars were intentionally placed under walls. Where it seemed so, jar burials were inserted from the floor surface obliquely at or under the foundation of walls and not just before the wall’s construction (Ilan 1995: 126). Furthermore, it seems from

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dipper jug, and one red slipped plate. Here the ratio individual/red juglet is 1/2. This ratio is probably not universal in the region because the infants buried at Tell el-Ghassil in jars (note 5) were not provided with ceramics. No. Type Dimensions Description Parallels

TWE-A-00051-C-002 D1 h.: 19 cm Very pale brown surface, no decoration This dipper juglet has a parallel in e.g. Tell al-Ash’ari (Al-Maqdissi 1993) where the assemblage is dated to MB II.

No. Type Dimensions Description Parallels

TWE-A-00051-C-003 BL3 h.: 6,9 cm Reddish brown to yellowish red surface, no decoration This dark brown bowl with sharp carination has parallels in Tell Sukas (Thrane 1978, fig. 54) and in Ugarit (Schaeffer 1949, figs. 105, 26). Both parallels are dated to MB IIB/C or Ugarit Moyen 2/3.

No. Type Dimensions Description Parallels

TWE-A-00051-C-004 PL6 h.: 6 cm See F20, red burnished slip on the out and inside This trilob plate has parallels in Tell el-Dab’a (McGovern 2000, Pl. 9C), Tell el-Ash’ari (Al-Maqdissi 1993) and Beirut (Saidah 1993-1994, 145, no. 578). All parallels are dated to MB II.

No. Type Dimensions Description Parallels

TWE-A-00051-C-005 JT2 h.: 14,9 cm See F20, red burnished slip on the outside This juglet has parallels in Ugarit (Schaeffer 1949, figs. 102, 105, 107, 109, 129, Pls. XXXVIII, XLIV from Tombe XXXVI) (Schaeffer 1962, Pl. XV, 306, fig. 5: C). All parallels are dated to MB IIB/C or Ugarit Moyen 2/3. It resembles a juglet from Tell Sukas in form but the other juglet carries dark grey slip (Thrane 1978, fig. 72, TS 1588).

a brief survey of the architecture of Middle Bronze Age tombs that most of those ‘house tombs’ had an entrance underneath one of the foundation walls of the house. Jar tombs, mostly containing infants, were placed closely to these ‘house tombs’ and are thus found in association with walls. Schaeffer (1938, 228) did also note that at Ras Shamra most of the burials of infants were found inside or in the vicinity of the dromos leading to the tomb.

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No. Type Dimensions Description Parallels

TWE-A-00051-C-006 JT5 h.: 12,7 cm See F20, red burnished slip on the outside See: TS 1555 from Tell Sukas (Thrane 1978, fig. 57), TS 879 (Thrane 1978, fig. 61).

No. Type Dimensions Description Parallels

TWE-A-00051-C-007 Jar h.: ? (could not be reconstructed) See F20, red burnished slip on the outside There is a big jar (TS1616) from Tell Sukas which has the same profile but which is plain and red slipped (dated to MBII) (Thrane 1978, fig. 71, no. 216).

1.3 Tell Sukas: Communal Tomb The communal tomb found at Tell Sukas probably provides the best parallel for the tomb at Tell Tweini. It is mentioned that at least 41 persons were buried in the tomb. According to the excavator not every find of the tomb was published. Furthermore, the excavator concludes that “the disrupted character of the burials excludes any statistical information on the relationship of different types of grave goods to sex and age groups”.9 We can, however, establish the following number for the ceramics based on the publication: Table 2: Division of ceramic vessels for the communal tomb at Tell Sukas. Red juglets (D) Black juglets (D) Juglets of unclear colour Plates (F) Bowls (G) Beakers (B) Jugs (C) Dipper jugs Lamps (H) Jars (A) Flasks (E) 9

Thrane 1978, 49.

Minimum 27 (total: min. 45) Minimum 15 (total: min. 45) Minimum 3 2 1 5 30 ? (included within the category Jugs) 5 11 2

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There is a minimum of 91 vessels in the tomb at Tell Sukas. The ratio individual/vessel is 1/2,23 which is considerably less than in the jar tomb TWE-A-00051 where the ratio is 1/5. The ratio in TWE-A-00177 is 1/2,51, which is close to the ratio at Sukas (1/2,23), but still slightly higher. This may, however, also be due to the rigorous collection method at Tweini where an attempt was made to identify as many individual vessels as possible. At Tell Sukas, not every sherd was studied and published. The ratio individual/juglet is almost 1/1 which is much lower than in Tell Tweini. As in Tell Tweini the ratio red juglet/black juglet is 2/1. The red juglets are clearly more popular than the black ones at both sites.10 1.4 Ras Shamra: Tombe LV A third parallel comes from the site of Ras Shamra. At least 23 Middle Bronze Age tombs have been identified at Ras Shamra but we present only one here for which we have clear ceramic evidence.11 Tomb LV contains the remains of at least two individuals, possibly three.12 At least 83 ceramic vessels were found in the tomb of which the division is: Table 3: Division of ceramic vessels for Tombe LV at Ras Shamra. (Red + black) juglets Plates Bowls Beakers Jugs Dipper jugs Lamps

46 10 2 5 5 7 0

The ratio individual/vessel is 1/41,5 or 1/27,7 which is very high in comparison with Tell Tweini and Tell Sukas. The ratio individual/juglet is 1/23 or 1/15,3 which is also very high.

10 Bietak (2002, 49) did note that the contemporary jugs and juglets used in normal life were often larger than their funerary counterparts and that at Tell el Dab’a red slipped vessels also prevail in the tomb contexts. 11 Marchegay 1999. 12 Schaeffer 1938, fig. 25.

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1.5. Ruweise A fourth parallel comes from Tomb 66 at Ruweise, near Sidon.13 Two individuals were buried in a Middle Bronze Age tomb which contained a total of 27 vessels. The contents were dated to MB I/MBIIA or Ugarit Moyen 2, which would be slightly earlier than the tombs mentioned above. Table 4: Division of ceramic vessels for Tombe 66 at Ruweise. (Red + black) juglets Plates Bowls Beakers Jugs Dipper jugs Lamps

16 2 2 2 5

The ratio individual/vessel is 1/13,5. The ratio individual/juglet is 1/8. 1.6. Summary Table 5: Division of ceramic vessels for four Middle Bronze Age tombs. Ratio Ind./vessel Ind./juglet Ind./black juglet Ind./red juglet Red/black

Tell Tweini: Tell Tweini: Tell Sukas: Ras Shamra: Ruweise: TWE-A-00051 TWE-A-00177 Tomb Tombe LV Tomb 66 1/5 1/2 1/2

1/2.51 1/1,75 1/0,6 1/1.03 3/2

1/2,23 1/1 1/0,37 1/0,66 2/1

1/41,5 1/23 ? ? ?

1/13,5 1/8 ? ? ?

It can be concluded from this short and probably incomplete survey that not every individual received one of each of the represented vessel types. If the deceased were buried with a specific set of vessels, this must have changed according to unknown factors such as age, sex, time of death, type of death, … The ratio individual/vessel at Ruweise and Ras Shamra is high compared to the one at Tell Tweini and Tell Sukas. May this be due to the fact that both groups represent two separate types of burials? Ruweise – Ras Shamra are tombs with few individuals while Tell Sukas – Tell Tweini are large communal tombs. In 13

Tufnell 1975-1976.

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short, there is no apparent standard in the funeral assemblages of the Middle Bronze Age in the Northern Levant from the available archaeological evidence but a large-scale study may clarify this in the future. 2. PRESENTATION AND DISCUSSION CERAMIC VESSELS OF TWE-A-0017714

OF THE

There is a large number of small-size juglets which differ in terms of decoration (black or red burnished slip, or painted lines), form of the foot and form of the rim. Fifteen types were discerned based on the form of the base and the rim. While these minute details suggest huge variation, it is suspected that the typological differences were of no relevance to the potter and consumer. It seems that these typological differences are mostly the result of a fast-working potter who did not always take care of details such as rim form. Important to note, however, is that many those juglets cannot stand up without support. Plates, dipper jugs, jugs and little beakers were also found. 2.1. Red Juglets (Pl. 1-3, 12) 2.1.1. Red Juglets: Types The red juglets are the most common vessels in the tomb with a total of 53. From the study of the remaining sherds recovered from the tomb, however, we were able to calculate the minimum number of individual vessels. Another seven red juglets are to be added to the total number of juglets. All complete or semi-complete vessels have been drawn and described. The description mentions the colour of the fabric (which is exclusively F20 for the red juglets) and the colour of the slip (which is exclusively a variation on 2.5 YR Red). All vessels are made of an identical fabric (termed here Fabric 20).15 This fabric usually has a Reddish Yellow colour and was very well prepared, judging from the fact that less than 2% inclusions were found. The surface is always slipped in red (and variants of this colour) and burnished. This burnish is usually applied vertically on the main body and horizontally on the neck. Nigro16 mentions that such juglets were wheel made. They were certainly made very fast because their distinctive parts such as the form of the foot or the rim and upper neck are not always carefully executed. A significant number of the vessels 14 An assessment study of the material was scheduled for 2011 but due to the situation in Syria we were unable to complement some missing data. 15 For the fabrics from Tell Tweini, see Degryse and Vansteenhuyse in this volume. 16 Nigro 2002b, 353.

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cannot stand on its own. This seems to have been a deliberate decision of the potter because often a little pellet was added to the base to destabilise the vessel. There are several types of juglets. These types are defined on the different form of their rim/neck and base. Several combinations of those forms are observed. This tends to suggest that there were only three main base types (JT1 Base, JT5 Base and JT6 Base) and two main rim types (JT1 Rim and JT9 Rim). It is probably due to the rapid production of these vessels that the details were not always clearly expressed. JT1 Examples Description

JT1 Rim + JT1 Base TWE-A-00177-C-012 The rim is stepped outside and inside (JT1 Rim). From the ring base a knob protrudes in the middle (JT1 Base).

JT2 Examples Description

JT2 Rim + JT1 Base TWE-A-00177-C-044 The rim is flat on top and flares a little outwards. The neck opens up but the walls remain straight (JT2 Rim). JT1 Base.

JT3 Examples Description

JT3 Rim + JT3 Base ? The vessel has a piriform body with no pronounced shoulder as most other types do. There is a trefoil mouth with thin walls (JT3 Rim). The handle is usually more square and thinner than the rounded handle common in the other types. The base is a low pedestal base (JT3 Base).

JT4 Examples Description

? + JT4 Base TWE-A-00177-C-075 The vessel has a regular shape but the rim remains unknown. The foot ends in a rounded base, almost knob-like (JT4 Base). It is possibly a degraded form of JT6 Base.

JT5 Examples

JT1 Rim + JT5 Base TWE-A-00177-C-095 TWE-A-00177-C-122 TWE-A-00177-C-073 The vessel has a regular shape with a JT1 Rim and a flat disc base (JT5 Base).

Description

JT6 Examples

JT6 Rim + JT6 Base TWE-A-00177-C-117 TWE-A-00177-C-109

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Description

The vessel has a regular shape. The rim has a stepped profile on the outside but simply curves out on the inside (JT6 Rim). The foot has a stepped profile ending in a relatively thick and rounded disc base (JT6 Base).

JT7 Examples Description

JT1 Rim + JT7 Base TWE-A-00177-C-108 The vessel is nearly identical to JT1 (Rim and Base) but it lacks the protruding knob in the middle of the base (JT7 Base).

JT8 Examples Description

JT1 Rim + JT8 Base ? The vessel resembles JT1 in shape and rim form. The base is a disc base with carinated sides (JT8 Base).

JT9 Examples Description

JT9 Rim + JT4 Base TWE-A-00177-C-116 The vessel has a regular shape. The rim curves out and is not stepped on the inside or the outside (JT9 Rim). The vessel has a JT4 Base.

JT10 Examples Description

JT9 Rim + JT10 Base TWE-A-00177-C-022 The vessel has a regular shape. The rim curves outwards without stepped profile (JT9 Rim). The base can be described as a thick ring base or a disc base which curves towards the middle.

JT11 Examples Description

JT11 Rim + JT5 Base TWE-A-00177-C-080 The vessel has a regular shape. The rim curves on the outside but has a stepped profile on the inside which is the reverse of JT6 Rim (JT11 Rim). The base is a JT5 Base.

JT12 Examples Description

JT1 Rim + JT6 Base TWE-A-00177-C-085 The vessel has a regular shape. It has a JT1 Rim and a JT6 Base.

JT13 Examples Description

JT6 Rim + JT13 Base TWE-A-00177-C-037 The vessel has a cubic body and is relatively small compared to the other types. It has a JT6 Rim. The base is a flat ring base which is hidden under the entire body (JT13 Base), differing somewhat from the rounded ring base of JT1 Base.

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All the parallels for the vessels from tomb TWE-A-00177 confirm that the tomb dates to the Middle Bronze IIB/C. The parallels from Ras Shamra suggest a date in Ugarit Moyen 2/3 which corresponds to MB IIB/C. For example, TWE-A-00051-C-005 has parallels in Tombe XXXVI.17 The juglets from Ras Shamra from Tombe 449618 all have a JT6 rim but none of those has the sharp carination in the shoulder as some of the vessels from Tell Tweini. Parallels are also to be found at Tell Sukas. TWE-A-00051-C-006, for example, resembles TS 1555 from Tell Sukas and TS 879.19 Red polished juglets of this size and related form are a common feature in most Middle Bronze Age burials in the Levantine region, e.g. Beirut and Sidon.20 Nigro suggests that those black and red juglets are both metallic wares (Black Burnished Ware or Dark Faced Burnished Ware and Red Burnished Ware) for which he sees evidence in the inner and outer stepped rim (JT1 rim). The colour difference between both groups is attained from oxygenation during firing. This technological difference also indicates a cultural differentiation according to Nigro21 who notes that the RBW is most abundant in the coastal region while BBW is also found more inland. Both groups are especially popular during MB IIA. No. Type Dimensions Colour Description

TWE-A-00177-C-002 JT4 h.: 13,4 cm F20, red burnished surface ?

No. Type Dimensions Colour Description

TWE-A-00177-C-012 JT1 h.: 15,0 cm F20, red burnished slip covering entire vessel (one side is completely deteriorated). The rim is stepped inside and rounded outside. JT1 base.

No. Type Dimensions

TWE-A-00177-C-026 JT4 h.: 12,9 cm

17

Schaeffer 1949, figs. 102, 105, 107, 109, 129, Pls. XXXVIII, XLIV; Schaeffer 1962, Pl. XV, 306, fig. 5: C. 18 Illustrated in Courtois 1978, fig. 1. 19 Thrane 1978, figs. 57 and 61. 20 For Beirut: Saidah 1993-94; for Sidon: Doumet-Serhal 2004b. 21 Nigro 2002b, 350, fig. 1.

CERAMIC MATERIAL FROM THE MIDDLE BRONZE AGE COMMUNAL GRAVE

Colour Description

No. Type Dimensions Colour

265

F20, 10YR 8/6 Yellow (surface), 2.5YR Light Red (paint covers entire vessel). The rim is stepped inside and rounded outside. The base has a knob.

Description

TWE-A-00177-C-027 JT8 h.: 13,2 cm F20, red burnished slip covering entire vessel, not everywhere visible. JT1 rim. The vessel can stand.

No. Type Dimensions Colour Description

TWE-A-00177-C-035 JT1 h.: 15,1 cm F20, red burnished slip covering entire vessel. The vessel can stand. It has a sharp shoulder and is not complete.

No. Type Dimensions Colour Description

TWE-A-00177-C-039 JT7 h.: 17,8 cm F20, red burnished slip covering entire vessel. The handle is missing. The vessel cannot stand.

No. Type Dimensions Colour Description

TWE-A-00177-C-040 JT8 h.: 12,3 cm F20, red burnished slip covering entire vessel. The vessel is not symmetric and the neck curves. The lines on the vessel are also curved and one wonders whether this vessel has been turned on a wheel or not. The rim is stepped outside and curves inside. It has a disc base with carinated sides.

No. Type Dimensions Colour Description

TWE-A-00177-C-041 JT5 (bis) h.: 13,0 cm F20, red burnished slip covering entire vessel. JT 1 rim. The disc base has a little knob in the centre. The vessel cannot stand. It has a sharp shoulder.

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No. Type Dimensions Colour Description

TWE-A-00177-C-044 JT2 h.: 14,5 cm F20, red burnished slip covering entire vessel. The surface was smoothed (vertical) before the application of the slip. The vessel has a flat rim.

No. Type Dimensions Colour Description

TWE-A-00177-C-047 JT4 h.: 14,8 cm F20, red burnished slip covering entire vessel. JT 1 rim. The vessel has a little disc base which is nearly a knob.

No. Type Dimensions Colour Description

TWE-A-00177-C-048 JT4 h.: 12,6 cm F21, 5YR Light Reddish Brown burnished slip covering entire vessel. The vessel cannot stand and is incomplete. Type example of JT4.

No. Type Dimensions Colour Description

TWE-A-00117-C-053 JT4 h.: 13,8 cm F20, red burnished slip covering entire vessel. The vessel cannot stand.

No. Type Dimensions Colour Description

TWE-A-00177-C-055 JT8 h.: 10,6 cm F20, red burnished slip covering entire vessel. The vessel misses handle and neck.

No. Type Dimensions Colour Description

TWE-A-00177-C-056 JT1 h.: 13,3 cm F20, red burnished slip covering entire vessel. JT1 rim. The disc base has a little ring and a knob in the middle. The vessel can stand and has a sharp shoulder.

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No. Type Dimensions Colour Description

TWE-A-00177-C-057 JT2? h.: 12,6 cm (preserved) F20, red burnished slip covering entire vessel. The foot is missing. The rim is nearly flat.

No. Type Dimensions Colour

TWE-A-00177-C-058 JT8 h.: 10,5 cm F20, red burnished slip covering entire vessel.

No. Type Dimensions Colour Description

TWE-A-00177-C-060 JT15 h.: 15,1 cm F20, no surface treatment visible. The rim is stepped outside and curves inside. The little ring base has a knob inside. The vessel can stand and has a sharp shoulder.

No. Type Dimensions Colour Description

TWE-A-00177-C-061 JT5 h.: 11,0 cm F20, red burnished slip covering entire vessel. The rim is stepped inside and curving outside. There is a heavy disc base. The vessel can stand.

No. Type Dimensions Colour Description

TWE-A-00177-C-066 JT15 h.: 13,9 cm F20, very faint traces of red burnished slip are visible. The vessel can stand. The rim curves inside and is stepped outside. The base is a ring base with a very little knob inside which does not protrude.

No. Type Dimensions Colour Description

TWE-A-00177-C-073 JT5 h.: 14,0 cm F20, red burnished slip covering entire vessel. JT1 rim. The vessel can stand.

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No. Type Dimensions Colour Description

TWE-A-00177-C-075 JT4 h.: 13,5 cm F20, red burnished slip covering entire vessel. JT1 rim. The vessel has a knobbed base and can barely stand.

No. Type Dimensions Colour Description

TWE-A-00177-C-076 ? h.: 11,4 cm (preserved) F20, red burnished slip covering entire vessel. JT1 rim. The main part of the body and the foot are missing. The type is unclear.

No. Type Dimensions Colour Description

TWE-A-00177-C-077 JT8 h.: 15,5 cm F20, red burnished slip covering entire vessel. The base is a disc base which turns inwards near the bottom thus leaving a little carination on the base.

No. Type Dimensions Colour Description

TWE-A-00177-C-078 JT1? h.: 13,7 cm F20, red burnished slip covering entire vessel. The vessel cannot stand on its own. The rim is stepped inside but it is not clear how it was outside. The base ends in a little ring which is separated from the little knob in the middle of the base by a deeper groove. The knob is not as large as in the JT1 base.

No. Type Dimensions Colour Description

TWE-A-00177-C-085 JT12 h.: 15,0 cm F20, red burnished slip covering entire vessel. JT1 rim. The vessel has the base of JT 6 with a little knob in the middle. The vessel cannot stand and has a sharp shoulder.

No. Type Dimensions Colour Description

TWE-A-00177-C-086 ? Min. h.: 5,2 cm (preserved) F20, red burnished slip covering entire vessel. This fragment may belong to a different closed vessel as a juglet. The vessel has a flat ring base.

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No. Type Dimensions Colour Description

TWE-A-00177-C-087 JT5 h.: 14,0 cm F20, red burnished slip covering entire vessel. The slip is preserved over the entire vessel. The vessel has a stepped, slightly damaged rim.

No. Type Dimensions Colour Description

TWE-A-00177-C-091 JT1-2 Min. h.: 10,1 cm (preserved) F20, red burnished slip covering entire vessel. The vessel has a ring base with a knob. The neck is not preserved and the incomplete vessel cannot stand.

No. Type Dimensions Colour Description

TWE-A-00177-C-093 JT11 h.: 10,9 cm F20, red burnished slip covering entire vessel. The vessel can stand but is not complete. It has a sharp shoulder with a little impression around the neck, perhaps as a result from applying the neck to the body.

No. Type Dimensions Colour Description

TWE-A-00177-C-094 JT5 h.: 14,3 cm F20, red burnished slip covering entire vessel. JT1 rim. The base is a flat disc.

No. Type Dimensions Colour Description

TWE-A-00177-C-095 JT5 h.: 13,9 cm F20, red burnished slip covering entire vessel. The vessel is a regular example of JT 5. The vessel can stand.

No. Type Dimensions Colour Description

TWE-A-00177-C-096 ? h.: 13,4 cm (preserved) F20, red burnished slip covering entire vessel. JT1 rim. The foot of the vessel is missing.

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No. Type Dimensions Colour Description

TWE-A-00177-C-100 Undefinable ? F20, red burnished slip covering entire vessel. ?

No. Type Dimensions Colour Description

TWE-A-00177-C-101 JT6 h.: 13,4 cm F20, red burnished slip covering entire vessel. The rim is stepped outside and curving inside. The base has a stepped profile with a little shallow knob underneath. The vessel cannot stand.

No. Type Dimensions Colour Description

TWE-A-00177-C-102 JT? Min. h.: 11,8 cm (preserved) F20, red burnished slip covering entire vessel. JT4 base. The vessel is incomplete and cannot stand.

No. Type Dimensions Colour Description

TWE-A-00177-C-105 JT11 Min. h.: 12,6 cm F20, red burnished slip covering entire vessel. The vessel is incomplete and cannot stand. The rim is stepped inside and curving outside. The vessel has a disc base.

No. Type Dimensions Colour Description

TWE-A-00177-C-110 JT4 h.: 13,5 cm F20, red burnished slip covering entire vessel. The rim is stepped and the foot ends in a rounded base. The vessel cannot stand.

No. Type Dimensions Colour Description

TWE-A-00177-C-111 JT? Min. h.: 11,6 cm (preserved) F20, red burnished slip covering entire vessel. JT1 rim. The base and the lower body are missing.

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No. Type Dimensions Colour Description

TWE-A-00177-C-112 JT13 h.: 8,5 cm F20, red burnished slip covering entire vessel. ?

No. Type Dimensions Colour Description

TWE-A-00177-C-114 JT1 h.: 12,8 cm F20, red burnished slip covering entire vessel. JT1 rim. The vessel has a ring base with protruding knob. The vessel cannot stand.

No. Type Dimensions Colour Description

TWE-A-00177-C-115 JT1 h.: 11,5 cm F20, red burnished slip covering entire vessel. The vessel can stand.

No. Type Dimensions Colour Description

TWE-A-00177-C-116 JT4? h.: 13,8 cm F20, red burnished slip covering entire vessel. The vessel cannot stand. Its surface was deteriorated. The base is short like JT 4 but the rim is not stepped in or out.

No. Type Dimensions Colour Description

TWE-A-00177-C-118 JT1/2 h.: 14,6 cm F20, red burnished slip covering entire vessel. The base is as thick as the foot and slightly rounded in the middle so the vessel can rest on only one point.

No. Type Dimensions Colour Description

TWE-A-00177-C-120 JT4 h.: 14,2 cm F20, red burnished slip covering entire vessel. The vessel has a JT1 rim and a little knobbed base.

272

K. VANSTEENHUYSE

No. Type Dimensions Colour Description

TWE-A-00177-C-122 JT5 h.: 13,6 cm F20, red burnished slip covering entire vessel. The vessel has a JT1 rim and a disc base. The vessel can barely stand.

No. Type Dimensions Colour Description

TWE-A 00177-C-123 JT6 h.: 14,6 cm F20, red burnished slip covering entire vessel. The vessel is incomplete and cannot stand.

No. Type Dimensions Colour Description

TWE-A-00177-C-126 JT7 h.: 14,8 cm F20, red burnished slip covering entire vessel. The rim is stepped inside. The base is a ring base without protruding knob inside. The vessel can stand.

No. Type Dimensions Colour Description

TWE-A-00177-C-133 JT? Min. h.: 10,5 cm F20, red burnished slip covering entire vessel. The neck, part of the body, and the foot are missing.

No. Type Dimensions Colour Description

TWE-A-00177-C-134 ? h.: 15,0 cm (preserved) F20, red burnished slip covering entire vessel. The foot of the vessel is missing. The rim is stepped outside and curving inside.

2.2. Black Juglets (Pl. 4-5, 13) The black juglets are usually made of Fabric 21. This fabric is completely different from Fabric 20 which is used for the red slipped juglets. Fabric 21 has 2% voids, 5% inclusions of blue and brown stones up to 2 mm but sometimes also of white and dark brown rounded stones up to 3 mm. The colour of its core is 7.5 YR 6/1 Gray. The juglets are slipped in black, brown or grey and burnished.

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All complete or semi-complete vessels have been drawn and described to a total of 31 vessels. From the study of the remaining sherds recovered from the tomb, however, we were able to calculate the minimum number of individual vessels. Another nine black juglets are to be added bringing the total number of juglets to 40. Similar juglets have been found at Ras Shamra. One example is the squat juglet TWE-A-00177-C-037 which also seems to have been made from Fabric 21.22 The relation between the colour of the fabric and that of the slip is therefore not coincidental at Tell Tweini. It may very well be that black and red juglets were fired at different times and in different conditions. TWE-A00051-C-005 (red juglet) resembles a vessel from Tell Sukas in form but the one at Tell Sukas carries a dark grey slip.23 TWE-A-00177-C-059 resembles TS 1555 at Tell Sukas.24 No. Type Dimensions Colour Description

TWE-A-00177-C-003 JT5 Min. h.: 9,2 cm F21, black burnished slip covering entire vessel. The vessel is incomplete: the neck and body are missing. The vessel has a disc base.

No. Type Dimensions Colour Description

TWE-A-00177-C-004 JT? Max. h.: 10,3 cm (preserved) F21, black burnished slip covering entire vessel. Part of the neck and the lower body are missing. The rim is stepped outside and curving inside.

No. Type Dimensions Colour Description

TWE-A-00177-C-009 JT14 h.: 17,2 cm F21, black burnished slip covering entire vessel. The rim is stepped outside and curving inside. The disc base deforms into a little ring. The vessel can stand.

No. Type Dimensions

TWE-A-00177-C-019 ? h.: 11,5 cm

22 23 24

Courtois 1978, fig. 1:4. Thrane 1978, fig. 72, TS 1588. Thrane 1978, fig. 57.

274 Colour Description

K. VANSTEENHUYSE

F21, black burnished slip covering entire vessel (burnished vertically). The rim curves inside and has a ledge outside. There is hardly a pronounced base but it has a little knob in the middle. The vessel can barely stand.

No. Type Dimensions Colour Description

TWE-A-00177-C-030 JT? Max. h.: 6,0 cm (preserved) F21, black burnished slip covering entire vessel. Only the rim, neck and handle are preserved. The rim is stepped outside and curving inside.

No. Type Dimensions Colour Description

TWE-A-00177-C-031 JT14 h.: 15,9 cm F21, black burnished slip covering entire vessel. The rim is stepped outside and curving inside. The base varies from a disc to a knob base.

No. Type Dimensions Colour Description

TWE-A-00177-C-037 JT13 h.: 9,4 cm F21, black burnished slip covering entire vessel. The vessel has a cubic body and a ring base.

No. Type Dimensions Colour

TWE-A-00177-C-049 JT6 h.: 15,4 cm F21, no traces of slip visible but the surface was certainly burnished. The rim is stepped outside and curving inside. The foot has a curving profile.

Description

No. Type Dimensions Colour Description

TWE-A-00177-C-050 JT? Min. h.: 13,0 cm F21, black burnished slip covering entire vessel. The rim is stepped outside and curving inside. A large part of the body is missing.

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No. Type Dimensions Colour Description

TWE-A-00177-C-052 JT5 h.: 10,6 cm F21, black burnished slip covering entire vessel. The vessel can stand but it lacks a handle and neck.

No. Type Dimensions Colour Description

TWE-A-00177-C-059 JT5 h.: 15,7 cm F21, black burnished slip covering entire vessel. JT1 rim. The vessel has a knob base and can stand.

No. Type Dimensions Colour Description

TWE-A-00117-C-062 JT14 h.: 13,1 cm F21, no slip visible. The rim curves inside and is stepped outside. The disc base has no profile and the vessel can stand.

No. Type Dimensions Colour Description

TWE-A-00177-C-063 JT15 15,1 cm F21, black burnished slip covering entire vessel. The rim curves inside and is stepped outside. The vessel has a little ring base.

No. Type Dimensions Colour Description

TWE-A-00177-C-064 JT5 h.: 15,5 cm F21, black burnished slip covering entire vessel. The rim curves inside and is stepped outside. The vessel can stand and has a disc base.

No. Type Dimensions Colour Description

TWE-A-00177-C-070 JT14 15,5 cm (preserved) F21, black burnished slip covering entire vessel. The rim curves inside and is stepped outside. The vessel misses the lower body and foot.

276

K. VANSTEENHUYSE

No. Type Dimensions Colour Description

TWE-A-00177-C-079 ? h.: 7,2 cm (preserved) F21, black burnished slip covering entire vessel. The neck and the foot are missing and it is impossible to determine the type.

No. Type Dimensions Colour Description

TWE-A-00177-C-080 JT11 h.: 13,1 cm F21, no slip visible. The rim is curving outside and stepped inside. The vessel can stand.

No. Type Dimensions Colour Description

TWE-A-00177-C-081 JT5 h.: 13,9 cm F21, black burnished slip covering entire vessel. The stepped rim outside is hardly visible. The base is not stepped but ends in a flat ‘disc’.

No. Type Dimensions Colour Description

TWE-A-00177-C-082 JT? h.: 9,7 cm (preserved) F21, black burnished slip covering entire vessel. The rim is stepped inside and outside. The foot is missing.

No. Type Dimensions Colour Description

TWE-A-00177-C-084 JT7 h.: 14,0 cm F21, black burnished slip covering entire vessel. The vessel can stand. It has a little ring base with a tiny knob in the middle. The rim is stepped outside.

No. Type Dimensions Colour Description

TWE-A-00177-C-089 JT6 h.: 14,7 cm F21, black burnished slip covering entire vessel. The vessel cannot stand.

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No. Type Dimensions Colour Description

TWE-A-00177-C-092 JT10 h.: 13,8 cm F21, black burnished slip covering entire vessel. The vessel can stand. Its base curves slightly inwards but resembles a regular disc base. The handle and part of the rim are missing.

No. Type Dimensions Colour Description

TWE-A-00177-C-098 JT5 h.: 14,3 cm F21, black burnished slip covering entire vessel. The rim is stepped outside and curving inside. The vessel has a clear disc base.

No. Type Dimensions Colour Description

TWE-A-00177-C-103 JT6 h.: 14,3 cm F21, black burnished slip covering entire vessel. The rim is stepped outside and curving inside. The base is stepped.

No. Type Dimensions Colour Description

TWE-A-00177-C-106 JT5 h.: 13,3 cm F21, no slip visible. The vessel has a disc base and cannot stand. The rounded handle was made of a rolled-up piece of clay because part of it is hollow.

No. Type Dimensions Colour Description

TWE-A-00177-C-107 JT6 h.: 14,1 cm (preserved) F21, black burnished slip covering entire vessel. Part of the rim is missing. The vessel cannot stand.

No. Type Dimensions Colour Description

TWE-A-00177-C-108 JT7 h.: 14,1 cm F21, black burnished slip covering entire vessel. The vessel has a ring base and JT1 rim.

278

K. VANSTEENHUYSE

No. Type Dimensions Colour Description

TWE-A-00177-C-109 JT6 h.: 13,9 cm F21, black burnished slip covering entire vessel. This vessel is a smaller version of the JT6 type with a stepped rim outside and curving inside and a little ring on the lowest point of the body where the foot/base starts.

No. Type Dimensions Colour Description

TWE-A-00177-C-117 JT6 h.: 14,9 cm F21, black burnished slip covering entire vessel. The rim is stepped outside but curving outwards inside. The vessel has a stepped base ending in a slightly rounded bottom. The vessel cannot stand.

No. Type Dimensions Colour Description

TWE-A-00177-C-119 JT6 h.: 15,1 cm F21, black burnished slip covering entire vessel. The vessel cannot stand and is a typical example of JT6.

No. Type Dimensions Colour Description

TWE-A-00177-C-131 JT14 h.: 14,8 cm F21, black burnished slip covering entire vessel. The rim is stepped outside but curving inside. It has a disc base and cannot stand.

2.3. Other Juglets (Pl. 6, 14) These juglets are similar in size and general shape as the red and black juglets described above. They do have, however, a trefoil mouth instead of a circular opening with a stepped or rounded rim. They are decorated with red paint on a light-coloured surface. Similar juglets in form and size with variations on the decoration scheme have been found at Ras Shamra. TWE-A00177-C-121 and C-088 resemble two juglets in Tombe LXXV.25 Parallels from the island of Cyprus suggest that the vessels originate from that island. The vessels, with their distinctive eye painted below the rim, belong to the 25

Courtois 1978, 223: L and M.

CERAMIC MATERIAL FROM THE MIDDLE BRONZE AGE COMMUNAL GRAVE

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White Painted V tradition.26 One particularly interesting parallel has an ovoid body with carinated shoulder, narrow concave neck, trefoil mouth, flat handle from rim to shoulder, raised splayed foot with concave base.27 According to both Karageorghis and Frankel the White Painted Ware covers Middle Cypriot III – Late Cypriot I which would correspond to MBIIB/C in the Levant. No. Type Dimensions Colour Description

TWE-A-00177-C-083 JT3 h.: 14,3 cm F?, 7.5YR Reddish Yellow surface. The vessel has a trefoil mouth and a little ring base on foot. The decoration is executed in red. Left and right under the rim one eye is painted. On the neck are vertical lines and on the shoulder are ‘metopes’ with three eyes. On the lower part of the body the surface was smoothed in vertical direction. See Vilain in this volume, Cat no. CYP. 33.

No. Type Dimensions Colour

TWE-A-00177-C-088 JT3 15,0 cm 10YR 7/4 Very Pale Brown (surface) to 7/3 Very Pale Brown (fabric), 5YR Dark Reddish Brown to 10R Red (paint). The vessel was smoothed with a flat stick and then paint was applied. The handle is nearly square with a black line. There are five horizontal black lines on the neck, one black band marks the transition from neck to shoulder. On the shoulder within two black lines run three wavy lines. Lower on the body runs one red band and below that two red horizontal lines from which run twice two red vertical lines. The vessel has a ring base. See Vilain in this volume, Cat no. CYP. 34.

Description

No. Type Dimensions Colour Description

26

TWE-A-00177-C-121 JT3 h.: 14,3 cm 10YR 7/4 Very Pale Brown (surface) to 7/3 Very Pale Brown (fabric), 5YR Dark Reddish Brown to 10R Red (paint). On the lobbed rim are painted an eye left and right of the handle. There are seven horizontal lines on the neck. On the shoulder is a band of two horizontal lines filled with vertical traits followed by an eye. See Vilain in this volume, Cat no. CYP. 35.

See Vilain in this volume: White Painted V Eyelet Style. Karageorghis 1999, 117, inv. No. LS 521, cat. no. 85; Frankel 1983, nos. 85, 189, 190; Aström 1972a, XVI: 15-16; Morris 1985, 63, pl. 84 a-b, SCE IV.1b, fig. XVI, no. 15. 27

280

K. VANSTEENHUYSE

2.4. Beakers (Pl. 6, 14) Beakers are defined as those vessels of which the opening is smaller as the widest part of the body and which have no handles. There are three types of beakers in the tomb. B1 Examples

Description B2 Examples

Description

B3 Examples Description

TWE-A-00177-C-007 TWE-A-00177-C-038 TWE-A-00177-C-127 This beaker has a rounded ring base.

TWE-A-00177-C-020 TWE-A-00177-C-028 TWE-A-00177-C-042 TWE-A-00177-C-065 This beaker has a thin disc base which is not always clearly pronounced.

TWE-A-00177-C-005 This beaker simply has a flat base.

Parallel forms were found at Niveau X (MB IIB) at Tell el-Ghassil and at Ras Shamra.28 The beakers in the communal tomb of Tell Sukas are similar in height and form but the rims are rounded and the neck is not as high.29 General parallels can be found in Alalakh VI-V which is dated to MBII/LBI.30 The ‘jars’ illustrated from Alalakh have a ring base and a ridge on the shoulder and are similar to TWE-A-00177-C-099. However, the latter, and the examples from Alalakh may rather have been beakers than ‘jars’. No. Type Dimensions Colour Decoration Description

TWE-A-00177-C-005 B3 h.: 15,3 cm 2.5YR 6/8 Light Red No surface treatment This is a larger beaker with a flat base but similar in form as B1 and 2. The vessel is not complete and restored.

28 For Tell el-Ghassil: Doumet-Serhal 1995-1996, Pl. II, 1-4; for Ras Shamra: Schaeffer 1936, fig. 16. 29 Thrane 1978, figs. 48, 51-52. 30 Gates 1981, Ill. 2: k, l.

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No. Type Dimensions Colour Decoration Description

TWE-A-00177-C-007 B1 h.: 17,5 cm 2.5YR Light red (surface) No surface treatment This is a large beaker on a flat ring base. The vessel was broken and one piece is missing.

No. Type Dimensions Colour Decoration Description

TWE-A-00177-C-020 B2 h.: 8,0 cm 7.5YR Pinkish Gray No surface treatment The vessel has a flat base but is a little pronounced (difference with B1). A parallel form can be found in Doumet-Serhal 1995-1996, Pl. II, 1-2.

No. Type Dimensions Colour Decoration Description

TWE-A-00177-C-028 B2 h.: 8,0 cm 7.5YR Light Brown to 2.5Y Greyish Brown No surface treatment The vessel has very thin walls with a flat disc base. A parallel form can be found in Doumet-Serhal 1995-1996, Pl. II, 4.

No. Type Dimensions Colour Decoration Description

TWE-A-00177-C-038 B1 h.: 8,8 cm 5YR Reddish Yellow No surface treatment The vessel has little ring base. A parallel form can be found in Doumet-Serhal 1995-1996, Pl. II, 3.

No. Type Dimensions Colour Decoration

TWE-A-00177-C-042 B2 h.: 9,5 cm 10YR 8/4 Very Pale Brown No clear surface treatment but vertical lines of smoothing (burnish?). The vessel has thin walls and the form of B2 but the base is a flat disc base (difference with C-020).

Description

282

K. VANSTEENHUYSE

No. Type Dimensions Colour Decoration Description

TWE-A-00177-C-065 B2 h.: 8,4 cm 10YR Very pale brown to 5YR Reddish Yellow No surface treatment The vessel has a flat base but is pronounced. The neck is longer than C-020. A parallel form can be found in Doumet-Serhal 1995-1996, Pl. II,1.

No. Type Dimensions Colour Decoration Description

TWE-A-00177-C-127 B1 h.: 7,7 cm 2.5YR Light Red (surface) to Reddish Brown (decoration) 7 horizontal lines on body This vessel has seven horizontal lines painted on the body. It is the only decorated beaker from the tomb. The base was applied after throwing the main body. It is possibly reminiscent of the Levantine Painted Ware tradition (see an example from Sidon, phase 2, MB IIA in Doumet-Serhal 2004a, fig. 16a-c or in Bagh 2003, S/3025) who compares it with examples from Megiddo (Loud 1948, Pl. 19.13, 118.15). Bagh (2004) also notes that such beakers are often accompanied by dipper jugs.

2.5. Lamps (Pl. 7, 15) The number of lamps in the tomb is interesting.31 While one would expect a number of lamps identical to the number of deceased and one for each burial rite, this is not the case. Perhaps the tomb was opened only occasionally32 and several individuals were placed in the tomb at the same moment.33 This may also explain the carefully placed bones at certain spots in TWE-A-00177. There are three types of lamps. LP1 Examples

TWE-A-00177-C-068 TWE-A-00177-C-113 TWE-A-00177-C-124 TWE-A-00177-C-125 TWE-A-00177-C-Q1

31 Six complete lamps have been recovered from the tomb but fragments of at least one more lamp have been found in Quadrant IV. 32 See Jans and Bretschneider in this volume. 33 The lamps were found throughout the tomb. They were not specifically placed near the entrance or in a niche. In fact, only one tomb (Late Bronze Age!) was found in the region where (three) lamps were placed in a niche (see: Schaeffer 1936, 118, fig. 10).

CERAMIC MATERIAL FROM THE MIDDLE BRONZE AGE COMMUNAL GRAVE

Description

LP2 Examples Description

LP3 Examples Description

283

This lamp has a rounded body with no pronounced base. The lamp is relatively high.

TWE-A-00177-C-036 This lamp has a very low body with a flat, but not pronounced, base.

TWE-A-00177-C-074 This lamp has a rounded body with a flat base. The lamp is relatively high.

Parallels for the lamps can be found in the entire Levant, as south as for example Lachisch, or at nearby Tell Sukas or Ras Shamra.34 This is, of course, a result of the simple design of the lamps in which the functionality was of primary interest. All lamps have a convex base, except for LP3 which has a flat base. No. Type Dimensions Colour Description

TWE-A-00177-C-036 LP2 Max. h.: 4,4 cm, max. diam.: 11,4 cm 7.5YR 7/6 Reddish Yellow This is a low lamp with in the front part towards the beak at least two dozen grass heads are impressed in the clay. The clay was extremely soft and perhaps not even baked.

No. Type Dimensions

TWE-A-00177-C-068 LP1 Max. h.: 6,5 cm, upper view max. diam.: 12,4 cm, max. length: 14,0 cm 10YR 7/6 Yellow to 5YR 7/6 Reddish Yellow This is a used lamp which is visible from the blackened beak. There is a flat base and a rounded rim. The walls are relatively thick.

Colour Description

No. Type Dimensions Colour Description

TWE-A-00177-C-074 LP3 h.: 5,7 cm, max. diam.: 13,3 cm 10YR Very Pale Brown This lamp belongs to LP1 but has a slightly pronounced flat base.

34 Lachisch: Singer-Avitz 2004, fig. 16.22.11; Tell Sukas: Thrane 1978, fig. 49; Ras Shamra: Schaeffer 1949, figs. 114-115.

284

K. VANSTEENHUYSE

No. Type Dimensions Colour Description

TWE-A-00177-C-113 LP1 h.: 4,5 cm, max. diam.: 12,8 cm 2.5YR Light Red (surface) The lamp was built up by hand in one piece and has a pinched mouth. It was perhaps not even baked but simply hardened by use.

No. Type Dimensions Colour Description

TWE-A-00177-C-124 LP1 h.: 4,5 cm, max. diam.: 12,0 cm 10YR Very Pale Brown (surface) The lamp has a rounded rim and walls up to 5 mm thick.

No. Type Dimensions Colour Description

TWE-A-00177-C-125 LP1 h.: 5,5 cm, max. diam.: 13,3 cm 7.5YR 6/6 Reddish Yellow (surface) The lamp is relatively high and has a rounder base.

2.6 Bowls (Pl. 7, 16) There are two bowl types from tomb TWE-A-00177 but one may add a third type from tomb TWE-A-00051. The latter bowl, TWE-A-00051-C-003, has a dark brown colour with a sharp carination. Parallels can be found at Tell Sukas and in Ras Shamra.35 Both parallels are dated to MB IIB/C or Ugarit Moyen 2/3. Type BL1, with the outward rim, has a close parallel in a bowl at Ras Shamra where the bowl has a rounded base and not a ring base.36 Type BL2 also has a parallel at Ras Shamra.37 Those parallels are also dated to Ugarit Moyen 2/3. BL1 Examples Description

35 36 37

TWE-A-00177-C-014 This bowl has a sharp carination in the upper part of the body. The rim flares out and carries a little groove on the inside. There is a ring base.

For Sukas: Thrane 1978, fig. 54; for Ras Shamra: Schaeffer 1949, fig. 105:26. Courtois 1978, fig. 2.6. Courtois 1978, fig. 2.5.

CERAMIC MATERIAL FROM THE MIDDLE BRONZE AGE COMMUNAL GRAVE

BL2 Examples Description

BL3 Examples Description

285

TWE-A-00177-C-104 This bowl has a sharp carination in the upper part of the body. The rim flares out and is pointed. There is a flat ring base.

TWE-A-00051-C-003 This bowl has a sharp carination in the middle of its body. It has a shallow ring base with sharp edges. The rim is almost square and there is a little ledge below the rim.

No. Type Dimensions Colour Decoration Description

TWE-A-00177-C-014 BL 1 h.: 10,5 cm, diam.: 20 cm 7.5YR Reddish Yellow No surface treatment The vessel has a ring base, a sharp carination in the upper part of the body and a flat but flaring rim with a little groove on the inside.

No. Type Dimensions Colour Decoration Description

TWE-A-00177-C-104 BL2 h.: 8,0 cm, diam.: 16,0 cm 10YR 7/6 Yellow (F20), 10R Light Red (slip) Red burnished slip over entire vessel (outside), burnished horizontally The flat ring base has been applied after the main body was made. There is a sharp carination in the upper part of the body and the neck stands out with a pointed rim.

2.7 Jugs (Pl. 8, 16) There are five different types of jugs from the tomb. JU1 Examples Description JU2 Examples Description

TWE-A-00177-C-018 This vessel has a long piriform body and a flat base. The rim is pointed.

TWE-A-00177-C-017 TWE-A-00177-C-013 This vessel has a low and broad body which curves inwards on the shoulder. The neck is short and ends in a pointed rim. The double handle is very small and round. Opposite the handle across the neck a little loop (h.: < 1 cm) has been placed.

286 JU3 Examples Description

JU4 Examples Description

JU5 Examples

Description

K. VANSTEENHUYSE

TWE-A-00177-C-054 (TWE-A-00177-C-046) This vessel has a trefoil mouth and a piriform body with a flat disc base.

TWE-A-00177-C-006 This vessel has a trefoil mouth on a high and broad neck. The body is short and round. The base is flat.

TWE-A-00177-C-023 TWE-A-00177-C-032 TWE-A-00177-C-051 This vessel has a round, almost circular body. The handle is long from shoulder to rim and squarish. The neck is high and ends in a flaring pointed rim. The decoration consists of parallel red or black lines. Cypriot: White Painted V Composite Style.38

38

Type JU2 is often called a ‘decanter’. TWE-A-00177-C-013 was decorated with orange slip while TWE-A-00177-C-017 was left plain. This form ‘with double strand handle’ and ring base was also found in the Middle Bronze Age Kharji tombs in Beirut.39 There are also parallels in the Tomb of the Lord of the Goats at Tell Mardikh IIIB1 in the so-called ‘Orange Burnished Ware’ which dates to MB IIA. A decanter in White Slip Ware from Tell Mardikh resembles TWE-A-00177-C-017.40 These parallels carry, however, a more pronounced carination on the shoulder but they have the little double handle. Similar ‘Orange Burnished Ware’ jugs were found at Tell Nebi Mend.41 Another parallel comes from Tombe LVII at Ras Shamra.42 One orange slipped and burnished example was found in the communal tomb at Tell Sukas (TS 1575, Type Jug 7).43 Others were found at Ruweise.44

38

See Vilain in this volume, Cat. No. CYP. 28-30. Saidah 1993-1994, 161, no. 568, Pl. 15.7. 40 Nigro 2002b, fig. 27. 41 Nigro 2002b, 357, figs. 21-22. 42 Schaeffer 1956, 63, fig. 52. 43 Thrane 1978, fig. 66. 44 Guigues 1937, 63-4, fig. 23a, fig. 24; Guigues 1938, 30, figs. 47, 59-60, fig. 93, g-h; Tufnell 1975-1976. 39

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287

Schaeffer suggested that these vases are ceramic imitations of metal prototypes which have an Aegean origin.45 The idea of a metallic ware46 has also been supported by Nigro.47 He suggests that the ware originates on the Levantine coast (because most examples are found there) and spread to inner Syria in MB IB. He also notes that it seems a specialized funerary ware because it is mainly attested in tombs. Type JU3 has identical parallels from the communal tomb at Tell Sukas.48 TS 1613 is, however, decorated with a red burnished slip. Type JU5 consists of probable handmade vessels. They have a flat base and often a square handle. The decoration consists of several parallel horizontal and vertical lines covering the entire body. Parallels in the Levant were found at Lachisch49 and Ras Shamra.50 Two such jugs were found in the communal tomb at Tell Sukas (called type Jug 8).51 TS 1576 is decorated with red pending lines similar to TWE-A-00177-C-051. At least one similar jug was found in a tomb context at Tell el-Dab’a52 and at Megiddo.53 This type has very close parallels in Cyprus and belongs to the Middle Bronze Age White Painted tradition (White Painted V Composite Style).54 No. Type Dimensions Colour Description

TWE-A-00177-C-006 JU4 h.: 14,7 cm 5YR Reddish Yellow The vessel has a large trefoil mouth and a flat base. There was no surface treatment.

No. Type Dimensions Colour

TWE-A-00177-C-013 JU2 h.: 10,6 cm 5YR Reddish Yellow (7/8, 6/8) (slip)

45

Schaeffer 1956, III: 63. The Orange Burnished Ware must have been fired at a high temperature (over 900 °C) (Nigro 2002b, 355). 47 Nigro 2002; 2004, 310-11. 48 See TS 1613: Thrane 1978, fig. 77. 49 Singer-Avitz 2004a, fig. 17.10.7, for a White Painted III-IV jug. 50 Courtois 1978, fig. 2.15, a White Painted vessel with red decoration and a painted cross on the bottom; Schaeffer 1949, fig. 100.19, fig. 108.20). 51 Thrane 1978, TS 876, fig. 55; TS 1576, figs. 43-44 and 62, 43. 52 Bietak 1996, Pl. 26B, no. 3138. 53 Loud 1948, Pl. 26.17. 54 See e.g. Aström 1972a, fig. XVI: 4; Karageorghis 1999, 116, cat. No. 84, Inv. No. LS 525. See also Vilain in this volume. 46

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Description

The vessel has the shape of JU2 but differs from C-017 because the handle here is not attached to the neck but only on the shoulder. There is also no ridge between neck and shoulder. There is a ring base. The entire vessel is covered in an orange burnished slip.

No. Type Dimensions Colour Description

TWE-A-00177-C-017 JU2 h.: 19,4 cm 10YR 7/4 Very Pale Brown The vessel has a ring base. Its surface was smoothed but there is no other finish. The handle is double and there are two horizontal grooves marking the change from neck to body.

No. Type Dimensions Colour Description

TWE-A-00177-C-018 JU1 h.: 21,2 cm, mouth opening: 7,5 cm, diam. base: 3,6 cm 5YR 6/8 Reddish Yellow The piriform body has a round mouth opening and a rounded, curving rim. The vessel has a little flat base. There are traces of wheel turning visible inside and the surface outside is burnished but not slipped.

No. Type Dimensions Colour Description

TWE-A-00177-C-023 JU5 h.: 25,5 cm 5YR Reddish Yellow (surface), 10R 4/8 Red (paint) Six horizontal lines on neck, one line separating neck from body. In front of ‘mouth’ and behind handle start 9 vertical lines, one wavy line and again 9 vertical lines. In between those run 15 parallel horizontal lines near the upper part of the body. From those, on both sides, start 9 vertical lines, one wavy line and again 9 vertical lines. All lines cross on the base. Flat base and vessel can stand, square handle.

No. Type Dimensions Colour

TWE-A-00177-C-032 JU5 h.: 22,5 cm 2.5Y 7/4 Pale Yellow (surface) and black to Dark Reddish-Brown lines The, probably handmade, vessel has a flat base and a square handle. It is decorated with several parallel horizontal and vertical lines covering the entire body. The lines cross on the base. The handle has four parallel zigzag lines.

Description

CERAMIC MATERIAL FROM THE MIDDLE BRONZE AGE COMMUNAL GRAVE

289

No. Type Dimensions Colour Description

TWE-A-00177-C-046 JU3 Min. h.: 28,0 cm (preserved) 2.5YR 8/4-7/4 Pale Yellow (fabric), 5YR Yellowish Red (slip) The foot and the base are missing. The vessel is wheel turned and has a trefoil mouth. It is covered with a Yellowish Red burnished (vertical) slip over the entire body.

No. Type Dimensions Colour

TWE-A-00177-C-051 JU5 h.: ? 2.5Y 7/4 Pale Yellow (surface) and black to Dark Reddish-Brown lines The, probably handmade, vessel has a flat base and a square handle. It is decorated with several parallel horizontal and vertical lines covering the entire body. The lines end in a sharp line but do not cross on the base. There is a black line on the handle.

Description

No. Type Dimensions Colour Description

TWE-A-00177-C-054 JU3 h.: 24,0 cm 10YR 7/4 Very Pale Brown to 7.5YR 7/6 Reddish Yellow (surface) The neck may be wheel turned but the main body seems to have been made of coiled ‘sausages’ of c. 1 cm (see also C-045). The vessel has a trefoil mouth. There is a little ridge where the neck joins the body (from the process of joining neck and body?). There is a little disc base with a very little knob in the middle.

2.8 Dipper Jugs (Pl. 9, 16) There is only one type of dipper jug with minimal differences among the individual vessels.55 They all have a pinched mouth, an elongated body and a pointed base. Bietak did note that the rims of dipper jugs in MB IIA are blunter and not as pointed as those from MB IIB (as are those from Tell Tweini).56 Parallels are found in Beirut, dated to MB II, Ras Shamra, Tell el-Ash’ari and Tell Sukas.57

55

Three dipper jugs have been found in the tomb but there are fragments of at least one more dipper jug. 56 Bietak 2002, 50. 57 For Beirut: Saidah 1993-1994, 153, no. 611 and fig. 9:3; Ras Shamra: Courtois 1978, fig. 2.10; Tell el-Ash’ari: Al-Maqdissi 1993; and Tell Sukas: Riis et al. 1996, fig. 26 which resembles TWE-A-00177-C-067.

290

K. VANSTEENHUYSE

No. Type Dimensions Colour Description

TWE-A-00177-C-024 D1 h.: 22,5 cm 10YR 7/6 Yellow This vessel is possibly coiled because regular horizontal traces are visible of what appears to be flattened ‘sausages’ of c. 1 cm broad which were used to build the body of the dipper jug.

No. Type Dimensions Colour Description

TWE-A-00177-C-045 D1 ? 10YR 7/6 Yellow See C-024.

No. Type Dimensions Colour Description

TWE-A-00177-C-067 D1 h.: 17,3 cm 10YR Very Pale Brown (surface) See C-024.

2.9 Plates (Pl. 9-10, 17) There are five types of plates in the tomb even though the differences among those are relatively small. General parallels for the form can be found in any of the tomb contexts mentioned in 2.2.58 In contrast with tomb TWE-A-00051 no plate of type PL6 was found in TWE-A-00177. This triloop plate (TWE-A00051-C-004) has parallels in Tell el-Dab’a, Tell el-Ash’ari and Beirut.59 All parallels are dated to MB II. A parallel for type PL2 can be found at Ras Shamra and at Tell Sukas.60 PL1 Examples

Description

TWE-A-00177-C-025 TWE-A-00177-C-043 TWE-A-00177-C-072 This vessel has low slightly curving walls and a ring base with a square ring.

58 See also Lachisch: Singer-Avitz 2004b, fig. 16.20.1 and Tell el-Ghassil: Doumet-Serhal 1994-5, Pl. VI: A and C. 59 Tell el-Dab’a: McGovern 2000, Pl. 9C; Tell el-Ash’ari: Al-Maqdissi 1993; and Beirut: Saidah 1993-1994, 145, no. 5783. 60 Ras Shamra: Courtois 1978, fig. 3.7; Tell Sukas: Thrane 1978, fig. 50.

CERAMIC MATERIAL FROM THE MIDDLE BRONZE AGE COMMUNAL GRAVE

PL2 Examples

Description PL3 Examples Description

PL4 Examples Description

PL5 Examples Description

PL6 Examples Description

No. Type Dimensions Colour Decoration

291

TWE-A-00177-C-008 TWE-A-00177-C-010 TWE-A-00177-C-022 TWE-A-00177-C-069 TWE-A-00177-C-071 TWE-A-00177-C-097 This vessel is identical to PL1 but has a flat base.

TWE-A-00177-C-015 This vessel has low slightly curving walls and a ring base. It also has a little carination in the lower part of the body. The rim is rounded with a ledge on its inside.

TWE-A-00177-C-011 This vessel resembles PL2 but has a little pronounced disc base and a triangular rim.

TWE-A-00177-C-021 TWE-A-00177-C-034 This vessel resembles PL1 but the rim has a groove on top. It also has a flat base.

TWE-A-00051-C-004 This vessel has three handles as base. It was not plain but red slipped. TWE-A-00177-C-008 PL2 Max.: 7,4 cm, base diam. 10,5 cm, diam. 25,0 cm 5YR Reddish Yellow inside (surface inside) to 7.5YR Reddish Yellow (surface outside) No finish, incised fork with three ends (in triangle) visible outside (5,5 cm high; 3,5 cm wide), incised before baking. A storage jar from Level III at Lachisch carries an identical sign (Zimhoni 2004, fig. 26.22.4). Wheel turned.

292

K. VANSTEENHUYSE

No. Type Dimensions Colour Decoration Description

TWE-A-00177-C-010 PL2 Max. h. 9,5 cm, diam. Base: 10,7 cm, diam. 29,0 cm 5YR 6/8 Reddish Yellow No finish This is the highest and largest plate of the assemblage. Wheel turned.

No. Type Dimensions Colour Decoration Description

TWE-A-00177-C-011 PL4 Max. h. 7,1 cm, diam. Base 7,7 cm, diam. 24,0 cm 7.5YR 7/6 Reddish Yellow in and out No finish Rounded rim (slightly triangular) but no ledge inside, disc base but slightly curving inwards. Wheel turned.

No. Type Dimensions Colour Decoration Description

TWE-A-00177-C-015 PL3 h.: 5,2 cm, diam. base: 6,5 cm, diam. 20,0 cm 7.5YR Reddish Yellow in and out No finish Surface comes apart in thin layers at certain spots. Ring base. Rim is rounded but with a carination outside and ledge inside. Wheel turned.

No. Type Dimensions Colour Decoration Description

TWE-A-00177-C-021 PL5 Max. h. 7,5 cm, diam. Base: 11,1 cm, diam. 28,0 cm 5YR 6/8 Reddish Yellow No finish Traces of turning visible on bottom of base. Surface flaking. Wheel turned.

No. Type Dimensions Colour Decoration Description

TWE-A-00177-C-022 PL2 Max. h.: 7,0 cm, diam. base: 10,0 cm, diam. 26,0 cm 5YR Reddish Yellow (surface in and out) No finish Rounded rim with a little ledge on the inside, flat base. Wheel turned.

CERAMIC MATERIAL FROM THE MIDDLE BRONZE AGE COMMUNAL GRAVE

No. Type Dimensions Colour Decoration Description

293

TWE-A-00177-C-025 PL1 h.: 5,7 cm, diam. 23 cm 7.5YR Reddish Yellow inside (surface) to 7.5YR 6/4 Light Brown outside No finish, smoothed surface Rim is rounded and hangs a little over on the inside. The ring base is separated from the body by a groove. The ring base is square. Wheel turned.

No. Type Dimensions Colour Decoration Description

TWE-A-00177-C-034 PL5 h.: 9,0 cm, diam.: 30,0 cm Regular plate fabric No finish Flat base, groove in rim

No. Type Dimensions Colour Decoration Description

TWE-A-00177-C-043 PL1 h.: 7,0 cm, diam.: 30 cm 5YR Reddish Yellow (surface) No finish Rounded rim, flat ring base. Wheel turned.

No. Type Dimensions Colour Decoration Description

TWE-A-00177-C-069 PL2 h.: 6,8 cm, diam.: 30,0 cm 2.5YR Light Red (surface) No finish Flat base, vessel broken and incomplete.

No. Type Dimensions Colour Decoration Description

TWE-A-00177-C-071 PL2 h.: 6,9 cm, diam.: ? cm Light red fabric No finish Plate with flat base. No rings visible.

294

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No. Type Dimensions Colour Decoration Description

TWE-A-00177-C-072 PL1 h.: 5,0 cm, max. diam.: 20 cm 7.5YR Pinkish Gray to Pinkish White (surface) No finish Ring base. Wheel turned.

No. Type Dimensions Colour Decoration Description

TWE-A-00177-C-097 PL2 h.: 7,7 cm, diam. 28,0 cm 5YR Reddish Yellow (surface) No finish Flat base and rounded rim. Wheel turned (rings are visible).

2.10 Miscellaneous No. Type Dimensions Colour Decoration Description

TWE-A-00177-C-016 JAR1 Max. h.: 28,0 cm (preserved)(this is the minimal height the vessel had) 7.5YR Reddish Yellow (fabric) No finish Flat but slightly rounded base, the rim curves outwards and has a low expressed ridge. Wheel turned? (no rings visible).

BIBLIOGRAPHY Al-Maqdissi M. 1993: Chronique des activités archéologiques en Syrie, Syria 70, 443560. Bagh T. 2004: Levantine Painted Ware from the Middle Bronze Age Tombs at Sidon. New Material from the Lebanese Coast, AHL 20, 40-57. Bietak M. 1996: Avaris. The Capital of the Hyksos. Recent Excavations at Tell elDab’a. The first Raymond and Beverly Sackler Foundation Distinguished Lecture in Egyptology, London. Courtois J.-C. 1978: Corpus céramique de Ras Shamra-Ugarit. Niveaux historiques d’Ugarit. Bronze Moyen et Bronze Récent, in A. al-Ouche et al. (eds.), Ugaritica VII, 191-370. Doumet-Serhal C. 1995-1996: Le bronze moyen IIB/C et le bronze récent au Liban: L’évidence de Tell el Ghassil, Berytus 42, 37-70. — 2004a: Sidon British Museum Excavations 1998-2003, DAL, 102-123.

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— 2004b: Sidon (Lebanon): Twenty Middle Bronze Age Burials from the 2001 Season of Excavations, Levant 36, 89-154. Guigues P. E. 1937: Lébé’a, Kafer-Garra, Qrayé, Nécropoles de la région sidonienne, BMB 1, 35-76. — 1938: Lébé’a, Kafer-Garra, Qrayé, Nécropoles de la région sidonienne (suite), BMB 2, 27-72. Jans G. and J. Bretschneider 2019: A Collective Middle Bronze Age II Tomb at Tell Tweini Field A, in: J. Bretschneider and G. Jans (eds.), About Tell Tweini (Syria): Artefacts, Ecofacts and Landscape. Research Results of the Belgian Mission (Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta 281), Leuven, 201-241. Loud G. 1948: Megiddo II: Seasons of 1935-39. Texts and Plates (OIP 62), Chicago. Nigro L. 2002a: The Smith and the King of Ebla. Tell el-Yahudiyeh Ware, Metallic Wares and the Ceramic Chronology of Middle Bronze Syria, in: M. Bietak (ed.), The Middle Bronze Age in the Levant. International Conference on MB IIA Ceramic Material, Vienna, 24th-26th of January 2001 (Contributions to the Chronology of the Eastern Mediterranean 3), Vienna, 345-363. — 2002b: The Middle Bronze Pottery Horizon of Tell Mardikh/Ancient Ebla in a Chronological Perspective, in: M. Bietak (ed.), The Middle Bronze Age in the Levant. International Conference on MB IIA Ceramic Material, Vienna, 24th26th of January 2001 (Contributions to the Chronology of the Eastern Mediterranean 3), Vienna, 297-328. Saidah R. 1993-1994: Beirut in the Bronze Age: The Kharji Tombs, Berytus 41, 137210. Schaeffer C. F. A. 1949: Ugaritica II. Nouvelles études relatives aux découvertes de Ras Shamra (Mission de Ras Shamra 5), Paris. Schaeffer C. F. A. 1956: Ugaritica. III. Sceaux et cylindres hittites, épée gravée du cartouche de Mineptah, tablettes chypro-minoennes et autres découvertes nouvelles de Ras Shamra (Mission de Ras Shamra 8), Paris. — 1962: Ugaritica IV. Découvertes des XVIIIe et XIXe Campagnes, 1954-1955 (Mission de Ras Shamra 15), Paris. Singer-Avitz L. 2004a: The Middle Bronze Age Cemetery, in: D. Ussishkin, The Renewed Archaeological Excavations at Lachish (1973-1994), Volume III, Tel Aviv, 971-1011. — 2004b: The Middle Bronze Age Pottery from Areas D and P, in: D. Ussishkin, The Renewed Archaeological Excavations at Lachish (1973-1994), Volume III, Tel Aviv, 900-945. Thrane H. 1978: Sukas IV. A Middle Bronze Age Collective Grave on Tall Sukas (Publications of the Carlsberg Expedition to Phoenicia 5), Kobenhavn. Tufnell O. 1975-1976: Tomb 66 at Ruweisé, near Sidon, Berytus 24, 5-33. Vilain S., in collaboration with K. Vansteenhuyse 2019: The Bronze Age Cypriot pottery of field A, in: J. Bretschneider and G. Jans (eds.), About Tell Tweini (Syria): Artefacts, Ecofacts and Landscape. Research Results of the Belgian Mission (Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta 281), Leuven, 313-393. Zimhoni O. 2004: The pottery of Levels III and II, in: D. Ussishkin (ed.), The renewed archaeological excavations at Lachish (1973–1994), Tel Aviv, 1789-1899.

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Plate 1: Red juglets – Locus 00177.

CERAMIC MATERIAL FROM THE MIDDLE BRONZE AGE COMMUNAL GRAVE

Plate 2: Red juglets – Locus 00177.

297

298

K. VANSTEENHUYSE

Plate 3: Red juglets – Locus 00177.

CERAMIC MATERIAL FROM THE MIDDLE BRONZE AGE COMMUNAL GRAVE

Plate 4: Black juglets – Locus 00177.

299

300

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Plate 5: Black juglets – Locus 00177.

CERAMIC MATERIAL FROM THE MIDDLE BRONZE AGE COMMUNAL GRAVE

Plate 6: Other juglets and beakers – Locus 00177.

301

302

K. VANSTEENHUYSE

Plate 7: Lamps, bowls and jugs – Locus 00177.

CERAMIC MATERIAL FROM THE MIDDLE BRONZE AGE COMMUNAL GRAVE

Plate 8: Jugs – Locus 00177.

303

304

K. VANSTEENHUYSE

Plate 9: Dipper jugs and plates – Locus 00177.

CERAMIC MATERIAL FROM THE MIDDLE BRONZE AGE COMMUNAL GRAVE

Plate 10: Plates – Locus 00177.

305

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Fig. 1: Collection of red juglets – Locus 00177.

Fig. 2: Collection of black juglets – Locus 00177.

Fig. 3: Collection of beakers – Locus 00177.

Fig. 4: Juglets of the White Painted V Eyelet Style – Locus 00177.

Plate 11: Some vessels – Locus 00177.

CERAMIC MATERIAL FROM THE MIDDLE BRONZE AGE COMMUNAL GRAVE

307

Fig. 5: C-012

Fig. 6: C-044

Fig. 7: C-075

Fig. 8: C-085

Fig. 9: C-095

Fig. 10: C-122

Plate 12: Red juglets – Locus 00177.

308

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Fig. 11: C-080

Fig. 12: C-103

Fig. 14: C-109

Fig. 13: C-108

Fig. 15: C-117

Plate 13: Black juglets – Locus 00177.

CERAMIC MATERIAL FROM THE MIDDLE BRONZE AGE COMMUNAL GRAVE

Fig. 16: C-083

Fig. 17: C-088

Fig. 19: C-005

309

Fig. 18: C-121

Fig. 20: C-127

Plate 14: Juglets and beakers – Locus 00177.

310

K. VANSTEENHUYSE

Fig. 21: C- 113

Fig. 22: C-124

Fig. 23: C-125 Plate 15: Lamps – Locus 00177.

CERAMIC MATERIAL FROM THE MIDDLE BRONZE AGE COMMUNAL GRAVE

Fig. 24: C-014

311

Fig. 25: C-013 and C-017

Fig. 26: C-023

Fig. 27: C-032

Fig. 28: C-051

Fig. 29: C-024

Fig. 30: C-045

Fig. 31: C-067

Plate 16: Bowls, jugs and dipper jugs – Locus 00177.

312

K. VANSTEENHUYSE

Fig. 32: C-025

Fig. 33: C-043

Fig. 34: C-069

Fig. 35: C-071

Plate 17: Plates – Locus 00177.

THE BRONZE AGE CYPRIOT POTTERY FROM TELL TWEINI FIELD A Sarah VILAIN1 with the contribution of Klaas VANSTEENHUYSE2 1

Austrian Academy of Sciences - Vienna 2 UC Leuven - Limburg

The excavations at Tell Tweini1 yielded a large range of Bronze Age Cypriot wares that testify to the vivacity of interactions between Cyprus and the Northern Levant in the Second Millennium BCE. Gathered here is a corpus of 531 items that further supports this assessment.2 A first overview of the main Cypriot wares identified on the site was undertaken in 2008 by K. Vansteenhuyse.3 K. Nys and K. Middernacht completed Vansteenhuyse’s work by focusing on additional wares and shapes that were detected during the 2009 study season.4 However, the broad range of Cypriot wares as well as the importance both quantitative and qualitative of the corpus justify a new publication of the whole spectrum of the discoveries, with updated identification and classification when necessary. The wares are ordered according to the traditional sequence developed by P. Åström,5 beginning with the White Painted Pendent Line Style and ending with the White Slip II. To enhance the understanding of Cypriot imports, the origin and chronology of the wares in Cyprus are evocated before presenting the occurrences from Tell Tweini. When relevant, the parallels from other Northern Levantine sites are mentioned as well in order to encompass the Cypriot imports from Tell Tweini in the regional context. After the Late Bronze Age destruction probably caused by the Sea-people around 1192 BC (Level 7A), Cypriot imports are so far absent in the following Level 6GH of the later 1 First of all, I would like to express my gratitude to J. Bretschneider and G. Jans who welcomed me in Leuven and trusted me with this article. I am also indebted to K. Nys for her advises and her expertise. The tragic events that are occurring in Syria since 2011 made any access to the archaeological material impossible. However, the situation requires the publication of the data – even partial – that were already collected. Thus, this article is based on preliminary studies of the material made by K. Vansteenhuyse and on the database of Cypriot pottery created by K. Nys and K. Middernacht in 2009. The catalogue of Cypriot vessels that supports this research was elaborated thanks to drawings, photographs and inventories of the archaeological material, explaining succinct descriptions and cautious identifications. Nevertheless, all errors or inaccuracies remain mine. 2 I would especially like to thank B. Vandermeulen, K. Vansteenhuyse and H. Hameeuw who took the photographs that illustrate the catalogue. All drawings were made under the supervision of K. Vansteenhuyse. 3 Vansteenhuyse 2008. 4 Nys and Middernacht 2010. 5 Åström 1972b.

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12th century BC. With the new urban planning of the 11 century BCE (Level 6EF), also the appearance of White Painted I of the Cypriot Iron Age is attested. The trade relations with Cyprus will intensify in the first half of the 1st millennium BCE.6 White Painted Pendent Line Style (WP PLS) WP PLS is one of the earliest Cypriot productions discovered on the site and, more broadly, one of the earliest Cypriot ware known on the Northern Levantine coast. It is characterised by a buff, light brown or slightly reddish clay covered by a buff slip. The decoration, executed in red or black paint, is composed by vertical groups of straight and wavy lines. WP PLS was manufactured from MC III to LC IA in Eastern Cyprus, in Kalopsidha and maybe Kythrea.7 The characteristic shapes are the jugs and juglets with an everted rim, a cylindrical neck, a globular or piriform body, a slightly flattened bottom and a vertical handle from rim to shoulder.8 Four PLS fragments were formally identified on the site.9 The earliest example, CYP 4, is coming from Locus 01061 (Level 8AB-7DE, MB IIB-LB I). Two other fragments typical of this ware are from Levels 8-7 (CYP 2, Fig. 2 and CYP 3). The last one, CYP 1 (Fig. 1), is from a stone floor cleared in Locus 01027 (8CD-7BC). Its specific decorative pattern, composed of a thick wavy line alternating with fine straight lines, has parallels in Ugarit10 and SidonCollege site.11 The chronology of WP PLS was discussed in depth by R. S. Merrillees.12 The appearance of PLS in Locus 01061 agrees with the chronology of the ware in other Northern Levantine sites. WP PLS is found from MB IIB-C contexts in Ugarit, 13 Kassabine,14 Tell Sukas15 and Sarepta.16 An almost complete PLS jug was discovered in Burial 54 at Sidon-College Site.17 WP PLS is still found in LB I levels at Tell Arqa.18 6

This material is published by Karin Nys in this volume. Åström 1966, 82-83. 8 Åström 1972a, 27-30. 9 Some vessels classified previously as PLS (see: Vansteenhuyse 2008, 106) are identified as WP Composite Style in the present study. 10 Schaeffer 1949, 242, fig. 102, no. 3. 11 Doumet-Serhal, Rabate and Resek 2008, fig. 16. 12 Merrillees 2002. 13 Al-Maqdissi and Matoïan 2008, 136, fig. 8 (Grave 1, MB II); Schaeffer 1949, 254, fig. 108, no. 19-20 (Grave LXXXV, MB II); Courtois 1978, 202 (Grave 4496, MB II to LB I). 14 Åström 1966, 139, no. 2. 15 Thrane 1978, pl. 10:1, nos. 43-44, 55, 56. 16 Koehl 1985, 68, nos. 2, 3, 4, figs. 1-13. 17 Doumet-Serhal 2008, 17, fig. 16. 18 Charaf-Mullins 2006, 180, pl. 131:2. 7

THE BRONZE AGE CYPRIOT POTTERY FROM TELL TWEINI FIELD A

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White Painted IV (WP IV) A bowl with a painted decoration characteristic of WP IV (CYP 5, Figs. 3, 69) was identified by K. Nys and K. Middernacht.19 It is coming from Locus 00230, assigned to Level 8AB-7DE (MB II-LB I). In Cyprus, WP IV was produced from MC II and disappeared shortly after LC IA:1. Consequently, the bowl could belong to the first phase of use of Locus 00230. WP IV vessels were mostly discovered in Central and Northern Cyprus20 and are unusual in the Northern Levant, making the presence of this bowl on the site quite significant. White Painted Cross Line Style (WP CLS) The corpus of WP CLS from Tell Tweini is composed of body fragments belonging to jugs or juglets, the shapes of which are similar to those executed in WP PLS. The clay is fine or very fine, with a light brown, reddish or sometimes greenish colour. The proximity between the PLS and the CLS can be explained by the fact that both styles are connected.21 The characteristic decoration of WP CLS displays groups of straight lines crossing each other. As for the PLS, the motifs can be executed in black or red paint. In Tell Tweini, the CLS occurs in Level 8AB (MB II) in Loci 00919, 01055 and 01091 (CYP 6, Fig. 4; CYP 7, Fig. 70; CYP 21). Another fragment was found in Locus 01047, used from MB II to LB I. The vessel CYP 14 (Fig. 6) shows the distinctive pattern of this style in red paint. It is coming from a LB I context (Locus 00917). Six other fragments were gathered in Locus 01027, that also yielded some WP PLS. According to K. Vansteenhuyse, they could belong to the earliest phase of use of the locus.22 CYP 9 (Fig. 71), CYP 10 and CYP 22 are coming from later contexts and are likely heirlooms. In the Northern Levant, WP CLS is mostly found on coastal sites in MB IIB/C and LBI contexts. This style is discovered alongside PLS in Kassabine.23 The site of Ugarit delivered one of the most important assemblages of CLS, including rare shapes such as the zoomorphic askos.24 In the same area,

19

Nys and Middernacht 2010, 124. Åström 1972a, 38-63. WP IV is best represented in the center of the island, at PolitikoLambertis and Ayia Paraskevi. In Northern Cyprus, it is also known in Katydhata, Stephania, Dhenia, Dhali, Yeri and Vounous. In the South, it was discovered in Klavdhia, Arpera and Larnaca-Laxia tou Riou. In Eastern Cyprus, only one vessel of this ware is mentioned by P. Åström in Kalopsidha. 21 Åström 1966, 83: sherds painted with transitional WP PLS-CLS motifs were discovered in Kalopsidha. 22 Vansteenhuyse 2008, 106, 107, fig. 4.1. 23 Åström 1966, 139, n. 2. 24 Schaeffer 1949, 251, fig. 106, no. 10. 20

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it was encountered at Tell Atchana, Qalaat er-Rouss, Tell Sukas and Tell Daruk.25 This shape was also recorded in the Akkar Plain and in Sidon’s region.26 Worth mentioning is the presence of a particular jug (CYP 23, Figs. 7, 72) that was identified as a Cypriot CLS in previous publications.27 However, a closer examination suggests that it could be a Levantine production. The neck of the jug is shorter and larger than in usual Cypriot CLS, the surface does not seem to wear any slip and the painted decoration is only roughly executed. The direction of the lines does not match the usual pattern followed by Cypriot painters. Local imitations of WP CLS potteries are not unusual: the phenomenon is well known in Egypt, in Tell el-Dab‘a and ‘Ezbet Helmi.28 Closer to Tell Tweini’s area, a local juglet imitating the WP V “Framed Cross Line Style” was discovered in Tell Kazel.29 White Painted V “Zigzag Style” Another interesting discovery is CYP 24 (Fig. 8), from Level 7DE (LB I). This fragment was first classified among the PLS.30 However, the decorative motif could more surely belong to the “Zigzag Style”. The so-called “Zigzag Style” was identified by P. Åström in Kalopsidha.31 In the Northern Levant, this style is attested at least once in Ugarit: a rim fragment of a bowl was discovered in the “Sondage 173”, in the Northern Palace.32 White Painted V Framed Broad Band Style (WP FBBS) Less unusual than the “Zigzag Style,” WP FBBS and its variations were developed in Eastern Cyprus from MC III to LC I. Numerous examples were found in Kalopsidha, Enkomi and Larnaca.33 The clay is light buff, light gray, sometimes yellowish. The repertoire of shapes is only constituted by jugs with globular body and amphorae. The characteristic motif of this production is a large painted band framed by two thin lines.

25 Bergoffen 2005, 83; Ehrich 1939, pl. XXII; Buhl 1983, 52, no. 267, pl. XVI; Oldenburg and Rohweder 1981, 32, nos. 94, 96, figs. 31, 38, 39. 26 CLS was identified in Tell Kazel, Tell Arqa (Level 13 and transition to Level 13, CharafMullins 2010-2011, 150), Sidon-College Site (Karageorghis 2009, 326) and Kafer-Ğarra (Guigues 1938, 30-31, fig. 48). 27 Vansteenhuyse 2008, 106, fig. 2:5. 28 Maguire 1995, 4. 29 Dunand, Bounni and Saliby 1964, pl. XVIII:2. 30 Vansteenhuyse 2008, 106. 31 Åström 1966, fig. 99; Åström 1972a, fig. XVI: 4-6. 32 Mallet 2013, 327, no. 7, pl. coul. V; pl. I. 33 Åström 1966, 90.

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In Tell Tweini, this style is represented by three sherds. CYP 26 (Figs. 10, 73) seems to be a variation of FBBS or a fragment of Composite Style. Indeed, the decorative motif is composed of a horizontal plain broad band and a vertical grid band framed by pairs of lines. It was associated with WP PLS and CLS in Locus 01027 (Level 8AB-7BC). Another example is of particular interest: CYP 25 (Fig. 9) is a large body fragment of an amphora with a complete handle. The characteristic decoration of this production was executed in red paint. An amphora of a similar shape, but painted in black, is known from Grave 12.57 at Tell Arqa (Level 12, LB I).34 WP FBBS is attested in the Northern Levant from MB IIB/C (Sounding 173 at Ugarit,35 Level 13 at Tell Arqa).36 Isolated fragments were also identified in Sarepta37 and Sidon-College Site.38 The WP V Composite Style This category gathers WP V jugs which are painted with a combination of motifs that are usually associated with different WP styles. Three jugs from Grave 0017039 (CYP 28, 29, 30; Figs. 11a-c) which were initially classified as WP PLS can, after a closer examination, be considered as belonging to the “Composite Style.” The jug CYP 30 displays groups of horizontal and vertical lines tangent to each other. This pattern is characteristic of the “Tangent Line Style” (TLS). However, the decoration also includes a wavy line typical of WP PLS. CYP 29 combines a wavy line with a motif characteristic of the “Broad Band Style” (BBS). CYP 28 is painted with the same BBS motif as CYP 29 and is wearing a cross on the shoulder. The presence of jugs of Composite Style at Tell Tweini is not surprising, since other examples were discovered in funerary contexts at the neighbouring site of Ugarit.40 CYP 31 (Fig. 12) and CYP 32 (Fig. 75) could also belong to this category. The main motif of CYP 32 is a vertical wavy line framed by straight ones. In addition, it displays a wavy line framed by dots that has close parallels in Tell Arqa41 and Enkomi.42

34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42

Charaf 2008, fig. 5. Mallet 2013, 332, no. 66, 68. Charaf 2008, 127. Koehl 1985, 32. Karageorghis 2009, fig. 1, 1st row, 2nd sherd. For the communal grave, see Jans and Bretschneider in this volume. Schaeffer 1936, 131, fig. 18-R ; Schaeffer 1949, fig. 105, no. 37, fig. 107, no. 28. Charaf 2008, 127, fig. 5. Dikaios 1969, pl. 54:15.

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White Painted V Eyelet Style (WP ES) In Cyprus, WP ES was manufactured from MC III to LC IA.43 It was recorded in Kalopsidha, Enkomi, Galinoporni, Livadhia-Kokotes, Milia, Trikomo, Ayia Paraskevi, Throni and Lapithos.44 The characteristic shape of this category is the juglet with a pinched mouth, a concave neck, an ovoid body, a handle from rim to shoulder and a conical pedestal-base. The shape is inspired by RB juglets and was borrowed from Levantine prototypes.45 The ES took its name from its specific painted decoration that includes a small “eye” consisting of an encircled dot painted on each side of the pinched mouth. Three juglets from Grave 00170 are belonging to this specific production. The bodies of CYP 34 (Fig. 77) and CYP 35 (Fig. 78) are painted with geometric motifs, dots and undulating lines organized in panels, as usual in this style. The juglet CYP 33 (Fig. 76) is only decorated in its superior part. Another fragment was found in Locus 01027 (Level 8CD-7BC) that also delivered WP PLS, CLS and FBBS. Apart from Tell Tweini, in the Northern Levant, the ES is only known at Ugarit. Two juglets were discovered in the inferior burial of Grave LXXV,46 another one in Grave LXXXIII47 and two more in Grave LXXXV.48 A last juglet, from a grave belonging to MB is mentioned by Cl. F.-A. Schaeffer.49 In the Southern Levant, three examples were discovered in Strata XI and X of Megiddo, in MB IIB/C contexts.50 WP ES is also attested at Yftahel,51 Tell Kabri, Tirat Carmel, Atlit and Megadim.52 In Egypt, it was only found at Tell el-Dab‘a.53 White Painted V Varia and White Painted V or VI (WP V or VI) In the catalogue, the category WP V varia gathers fragments that were identified by their clay as WP V but that could not be assigned to a specific style. Seventeen fragments were recorded. CYP 41 (Fig. 16) is a small fragment of a closed vessel. CYP 52 and CYP 53 could come from carinated jugs or

43

Åström 2007, 106. Åström 1966, 87; Åström 2007, 97-99. 45 Åström 2007, 107. 46 Schaeffer 1939b, 283, fig. 5-L, M. According to the funerary material published by the excavator, this grave could have been in use from MB IIB/C to the beginning of LB II. 47 Schaeffer 1949, 254, fig. 108, no. 1. 48 Schaeffer 1949, fig. 108, nos. 16, 17. 49 Schaeffer 1939a, 26, fig. 17:10. 50 Loud 1948, pl. 34:16 and pl. 41:29, 30. 51 Åström 2007b, 102. 52 Åström 2007b, 101-102. 53 Åström 2007b, 102, no. 44. 44

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tankards.54 Three other sherds, CYP 54, 55 and 56, cannot be surely attributed to WP V or VI productions. White Painted VI (WP VI) WP VI was produced during LC IA-B. The clay is fine, homogeneous, soft or medium hard and usually quite friable. The fabric is yellowish or pinkish and covered with a light slip. The decoration is painted in black or dark brown, in the Triglyphic Style or in the Coarse Linear Style. Both of them were elaborated in Kalopsidha or in its vicinity.55 The typical shape of this production is the teapot but other shapes occurred, such as bowls, jugs, juglets and tankards. The earliest known examples of WP VI occur in Level 8 (MB II). One of them, CYP 82, is a rim fragment that belongs to a hemispherical bowl.56 A body fragment of a jug (CYP 55, Fig. 18) with chocolate brown paint and a fragment of a WP VI tankard (CYP 81) were found in Locus 01061. This locus was used from MB II onwards but was found disturbed by a LB pit, making it difficult to date the fragments with accuracy. A good example of WP VI Coarse Linear Style, CYP 62 (Fig. 20a), was discovered in a LB I context (Locus 00860, Level 7DE) where it was associated with a WS I bowl (CYP 360). However, most of the WP VI productions are coming from level 7BC. At least three teapots were identified (CYP 58, Fig. 19; CYP 60; CYP 61) as well as two jugs (CYP 59; CYP 66), one sherd of a tankard (CYP 81) and a rim fragment of a bowl (CYP 82). One residual fragment of a closed shape, CYP 63 (Fig. 20b), was found in Level 7A. Two other unusual fragments could belong to WP VI rattles. CYP 64 is a pointed base discovered in Locus 00838 (Level 7BC), that also delivered BR and LH III vessels. CYP 65 is another base fragment from Locus 01097 (Level 7DE-BC). Rattles are zoomorphic figurines, traditionally identified as an owl, containing small stones or shells in order to produce a specific noise when they are shaken.57 In Cyprus, some examples were found in Enkomi,58 Maroni,59 Kazaphani60 and Athienou.61 These objects are usually associated with funerary or ritual contexts. They could have been used as music instruments in religious

54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61

For examples of the shapes, see Åström 1972a, figs. XVII:8 and XVIII:9. Åström 1966, 90-93. Åström 1972b, fig. XLI:12. Matoïan 2004, 322. Dikaios 1969, vol. IIIa, pl. 53, no. 18 (1887/6). Johnson 1980, pl. LIV, no. 170. Nicolaou and Nicolaou 1989, 39, fig. 10, nos. 502-503. Merrillees 1983, 32, figs. 4:3, 6, 8, 9.

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practices or had an apotropaic function.62 WP VI rattles were discovered in LB IIA contexts at Ugarit63 and Sidon-Dakerman.64 White Painted Hand-made (WPHM) Varia In this category are integrated WP fragments too badly preserved or too small to identify the specific WP production they belong to. CYP 83 (Level 8CD-7BC) is a small fragment of an animal leg that could come from a zoomorphic vessel. Cyprus has a long tradition of animal-shaped vases.65 Such vessels, made in WP V-VI, were discovered in Ugarit, Sarepta and Tyre. 66 Three fragments of bowls have also been identified: CYP 103-105. The other discoveries are coming from closed shapes. CYP 84 (Level 8AB-7) is the everted rim of a WP (V?) jar. CYP 85a and b (Level 8AB ) are mouth and neck fragments of a jug with a pinched rim. CYP 93a, b and CYP 94 likely belong to tankards. White Painted Wheel-made Ware (WPWM) Contrary to other WP productions, that are hand-made, WPWM is a specific category manufactured on the fast potter’s wheel. WPWM I has a very fine clay with small mineral and sandy inclusions.67 In Cyprus, it was developed from LC IA to the end of LC IB. WPWM II has a grittier clay in a brownish, greyish or pinkish colour, with sometimes a darker core. The surface is covered with a whitish or greenish slip.68 It was developed from LC IB to LC IC and is mostly known from the graves of Enkomi.69 CYP 114, from Level 8AB (MB II), belongs to WPWM I. The vessels CYP 117-121 were identified as WPWM II. The earliest attestation of this category, CYP 120, was discovered in LB I context (Level 7DE). CYP 119, also from a closed vessel, is coming from a LB II locus (Level 7BC). The other examples of WPWM II cannot be dated with accuracy. Two fragments (CYP 115 and 116) could belong either to WPMW I or II. They are respectively assigned to Levels 7BC and 7 in general.

62

Gorris 2012, 242. Matoïan 2003, 105-113. 64 Saidah 2004, 25, no. 26, fig. 14. 65 Caubet and Merrillees 1997. 66 Schaeffer 1949, fig. 74, no. 20; Courtois 1978, 250, fig. 17:3; Koehl 1985, nos. 10, 70, fig. 1; Bikai 1978, 53, pl. LIIA-3, n. 3, pl. LXXXVII.1. 67 Åström 1972c, 700-701. 68 Åström 1972c, 274. 69 Åström 1972c, 701. 63

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In the area, WPWM vessels were identified at Ugarit and Minet el-Beida.70 Other fragments have been noticed at Sarepta.71 Unfortunately, the examples from these three sites are badly stratified and cannot be used to refine the chronology of the ware in the Northern Levant. Red Slip Ware (RS) An almost complete RS jug was discovered in Locus 00982 (CYP 122). The origin of this ware in Cyprus is still barely known. RS vessels are mostly coming from sites located in Central and Eastern Cyprus72 and are only found in minute quantities outside the island. In the Northern Levant, a RS II fragment was identified at Sarepta.73 The presence of RS is also attested in the Southern Levant, at Tell el-Ajjul,74 and in Egypt, at Tell el-Dab‘a. Red-on-Black Ware (RoB) and Red-on-Red (RoR) RoB and its variation RoR are both present at Tell Tweini. Ten fragments were identified: eight of them are rim or body fragments of bowls and two could come from closed shapes.75 This production has a very fine or fine clay, with a colour varying from light buff to pinkish. It is covered by a dark grey to black slip (RoB), or by a red slip (RoR). The decoration consists of groups of lines executed in red or purplish paint. The ware developed in the Karpas peninsula, in Eastern Cyprus, from the MC III to at least the end of the LC I period.76 One of the production centres was located in Phlamoudi-Melissa.77 This ware is also present in Galinoporni, Milia, Nitovikla, Paleoskoutella, Ayios Iakovos and Enkomi.78 In Tell Tweini, the earliest examples were found in Level 8 (MB II, CYP 125, Fig. 23; CYP 130). Two joining rim fragments were discovered in Level 8AB-7DE (MB II-LBI, CYP 123, Figs. 21, 79). The shape of the sherds suggests that they belong to an almost conical bowl as described in P. Åström’s Type ICa.79 CYP 133 (Fig. 27) and maybe CYP 132 (Fig. 26) are fragments of

70

Schaeffer 1933, fig. 3:3; Schaeffer 1949, figs. 67, 75:23; Courtois 1978, 250, fig. 17:4. Koehl 1985, 71, no. 13, figs. 1, 13; Anderson 1988, 267, pl. 29:2. 72 RS productions were discovered in Lapithos (Åström 1972a, 165-171); Ayios Iakovos (Åström 1972a, 314-321); Enkomi (Dikaios 1969, 223-224) and Kalopsidha (Åström 1966, 47, 49-52). 73 Koehl 1985, 32. 74 Åström 1972a, 225, n. 6. 75 Nys and Middernacht 2010, 124. 76 Åström 1965, 78. 77 Crewe 2009, 94. 78 Courtois 1981, 18. 79 Åström 1972a, 110, fig. XXXI-9. 71

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closed vessels, as jugs. The presence of this shape in Tweini is not surprising, as other examples of RoB jugs are known in Ugarit.80 The RoB/RoR is also present in Level 7BC (CYP 124, Figs. 22, 80; CYP 128; CYP 131; CYP 132), and Level 7BC-6 (CYP 126, Figs. 24, 81; CYP 127). The fragment CYP 131 (Fig. 25) was obviously misfired as shown by its dark surface. The appearance of RoB in Level 8 of Tell Tweini is coherent with the other occurrences recorded in the Northern Levant. In Ugarit, a fragment of this ware was discovered in a MB II context in a sounding made in the courtyard of the Temple of Baal.81 Other examples are coming from Level VI of Tell Atchana.82 However, it is during the LB I that this production is best attested. The RoB is mostly found on coastal sites such as Sabouniye,83 Bassit,84 Sidon,85 Sarepta86 and Tyre.87 However, it is also present in sites located close to the main trade roads of this period, such as Tell Kazel88, Tell Arqa (Akkar Plain)89 and Qatna (Orontes Valley).90 Composite Ware (CP) A fragment of a rare bowl, that belongs to CP (CYP 134, Fig. 28), was identified by K. Nys and K. Middenacht.91 CP is a production combining stylistic elements characteristic of other Cypriot wares. It was developed in MC III in Eastern Cyprus and the combined motifs are mostly belonging to wares elaborated in this area. The rim fragment from Tell Tweini was found in Locus 02554 (Level 8AB7BC, MB IIB-LBII). It was associated with WP V, RoB, PWWM and BR I, a combination that points to the LB I. The painted decoration displays a RoB motif on the outside and a WP PLS pattern on the inside. Other CP discovered in Ugarit and Tell Arqa are associating RS/BS and WP PLS motifs.92

80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92

Courtois 1978, fig. 5:12, Tomb 3464. Monchambert 2011, 112. Bergoffen 2005, R4, 83. Pamir 2013, 177. Courbin 1986, 182. Karageorghis 2009, 326, fig. 1. Koehl 1985, 32, figs. 1, 13. Bikai 1978, 55-56, pl. L-16, 17. Yon and Caubet 1990, 101, 107, no. 49. Charaf 2008, 136. Iamoni 2012, 164. Nys and Middernacht 2010, fig. 2. Monchambert 2004, 248, no. 1418, figs. 104, 110; Charaf 2008, 139, pl. 3a-b, figs. 21-22.

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Monochrome Ware (MN) MN was elaborated during LC IA. Its production reached a peak in LC IB and disappeared slowly in LC IIA. As Pilides suggested, initial regional variations can be attributed to the possible existence of several manufacturing centres.93 Thus, the presence of the Monochrome A fabric (CYP 159), with a hard buff fabric and an orange to red slip, was recognized by K. Nys and K. Middernacht.94 They also identified a painted variation of the ware (CYP 171, Fig. 33). In Tell Tweini, MN is present in Level 8AB, in Locus 01057 (CYP 170, Fig. 32), where it was associated with WP productions. CYP 152 is from the MB Locus 01041, attributed to the same level. However, Locus 01041 could have been disturbed by a pit, explaining the presence of LB material. CYP 141, CYP 157 and CYP 161 are coming from MB II-LB I contexts (Levels 8-7DE). Nevertheless, the bulk of the discoveries belong to the LB II (Level 7BC). Some MN bowls were concentrated in Loci 00847, 00848 and 01019 where they were associated with other characteristic Late Cypriot Wares: WSh, WS II and BR II. Concerning the typology, we notice that bowls of Type IJ95 (CYP 159) and sub-Types IJb (CYP 139, with a simple carination)96 and IJc97 (CYP 138, Fig. 31; CYP 160, with a double carination) are represented. Sherds from larger vessels were also recognised. CYP 137, CYP 156, CYP 161 and CYP 171 (Fig. 33) are coming from deep bowls or craters of Type IIIA or IIIB.98 These types of vases were discovered at Tell Atchana,99 Tell Sukas100 and Ugarit.101 MN is encountered from MB IIB/C or from MB II-LB I transition in Tell Atchana (Level VI)102 and Sarepta (Stratum L).103 In Ugarit, the long use of the graves is preventing any attempt to date the appearance of the ware with accuracy. MN is attested from LB I in Tell Arqa104 and Tyre.105 This ware reaches its maximum diffusion in LB IB-LB IIA: this phenomenon is noticeable in 93

Pilides 1992, 297. Nys and Middernacht 2010, 125. 95 Nys and Middernacht 2010, 125; Åström 1972b, 95, fig. XLV, 7-8. 96 Åström 1972b, fig. XLV:7. 97 Åström 1972b, fig. XLV:8. 98 Åström 1972b, fig. XLV:12 or XLVI:1, 4-6. 99 Bergoffen 2005, 86, pl. 8a. 100 Riis 1963, 219, fig. 22. 101 Monchambert 2004, 251, nos. 1439, 1440, 1441, 1442, 1443, fig. 105; Courtois 1978, fig. 5:11, 13 ; Schaeffer 1949, figs. 74-29, 33. 102 Bergoffen 2005, M1, 84, pl. 4c. 103 Anderson 1988, 369. 104 Charaf 2008, 133. The earliest example of MN from the site is a locus bridging Level 13 to 12. 105 In Grave I of Tyre (stratum XVIII), MN is associated with BLWM, RLWM and BR I. This association is characteristic of LB I. 94

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Level 6 of Area IV at Tell Kazel,106 in Strata J/H at Sarepta,107 and, as mentioned previously, in Level 7BC at Tell Tweini. Among the discoveries from Tweini, the handle CYP 172 (Fig. 34) is of particular interest: it has the triangular shape characteristic of MN but the segments are clumsily made. In addition, the clay contains many grits and does not seem to fit the clays used for MN vessels. CYP 172 is more likely a Levantine production inspired by MN bowls. This phenomenon is not unusual and such imitations were discovered at Ugarit.108 However, without proper chemical analyses, we cannot determine if they were locally made in Ugarit or if they could have been manufactured at other sites of the Levantine coast. Bichrome Wheel-made Ware (BCWM) The origin of BC was the object of many discussions among scholars.109 This ware was perceived as essentially Levantine until the first NAA analyses which suggested that a part of the BC pottery was produced in Cyprus.110 BC vessels can be Hand-made or Wheel-made: the fragments from Tell Tweini belong to the last category. BCWM is particularly popular in Eastern Cyprus: seven hundred fragments were discovered in Nitovikla and two hundred in Enkomi.111 It was elaborated in LC IA and survived until the late LC II.112 The three fragments of BCWM identified at Tell Tweini are coming from Loci 01045 (CYP 173, Fig. 83; Level 7DE, LB I), 04008 (CYP 174, Level 7BC, LB II) and from Pit 00968 (CYP 175, LB). In the Northern Levant, BC is essentially discovered on coastal sites and along the main communication roads of the Bronze Age: it was identified at Tell Atchana,113 Ugarit, Minet el-Beida,114 Tell Sukas,115 Tell Arqa,116 Beyrouth 003,117 Tell el-Ghassil,118 Sidon-College site119 and Sarepta.120 106

Badre 2006, 71. Anderson 1988, Appendix C, 517. 108 Schaeffer 1949, 180, fig. 74:29, 33; Schaeffer 1936a, 123, fig. 14-P; Galliano and Calvet (dirs.) 2004, 201, no. 197. 109 See Artzy 2001 for a summary of the discussions concerning BC. 110 The Cypriot origin of some BC productions was shown in 1970 by M. Artzy, I. Perlman and F. Azaro thanks to NAA (Artzy, Perlman and Asaro 1973, 446-461). 111 Crewe 2007, 111. 112 Åström 2001, 136. 113 Bergoffen 2005, 84, pl. 4a, b. 114 Schaeffer 1949, fig. 50:2, 4, 11, 15, 12, 20-23; fig. 51:15; fig. 62: 18-19; fig. 67:5, fig. 73:1; fig. 74: 8, 18; fig. 81:5; fig. 83:8; fig. 98, no. 15, fig. 100, no. 30; Courtois 1978, 224, fig. 6:1-8; Monchambert 2004, 311, nos. 1703, 1704; fig. 129. 115 Buhl 1983, 57, nos. 310-319. 116 Charaf 2006, 182, pls. 108:2, 131: 10, 11. 117 Badre 1997, 44 fig. 20-1, 2; fig. 28-1. 118 Doumet-Serhal 1996, 177, pl. 114:4, 6-14. 119 Doumet-Serhal 2008, fig. 32; Karageorghis 2009, 327, fig. 2. 120 Anderson 1988, 366, pl. 21.6. 107

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BCWM is attested from MB IIC at Tell Atchana and in transitional MB IIC/ LB I contexts at Sidon-College Site. However, it is during LB I that this production spreads along the Levantine coast. The presence of BCWM in Level 7DE at Tell Tweini, attributed to LB I by the excavators, confirms the chronology of the diffusion of the ware in the area. Base-Ring Ware (BR) – Base-Ring I (BR I) BR was elaborated in the Ovgos valley, during the transition from MC III to LC I. This production is traditionally divided into two main phases, BR I and BR II, according to P. Åström’s classification.121 This subdivision as well as its implicit chronological implication were questioned by S. J. Vaughan.122 However, the traditional classification is still largely used in the archaeological literature and was kept in this article in order to ensure consistency with previous publications. The presence of BR I pottery was recorded in three loci from Level 8: 00862 (CYP 199), 01041 (CYP 207; Figs. 42, 87) and 02609 (CYP 182). Unfortunately, these contexts were disturbed by LB pits and are not relevant for the chronology of the ware in Tell Tweini. Consequently, one of the earliest attestations of the ware is the segment of a handle discovered in Locus 01061 (Level 8AB [7DE]). This locus held material from MB IIB to LB I and also delivered WP V, VI and MN. BR I is well represented from Level 7DE. CYP 186 (Fig. 37) is an almost complete juglet that belongs to the Red Burnished fabric defined by S. J. Vaughan.123 The opening and a part of the body are missing but its general shape relates it to P. Åström’s Type VIDIb.124 In Locus 00945, assigned to the same level, BR I was associated with WP VI and WS I. Thirty-one fragments were identified in Level 7BC, in LB II contexts. Bilbil juglets are the most common vessels, but open shapes are also represented. CYP 176 (Fig. 35) is a handle fragment of a bowl with a pinched ending, a feature characteristic of early bowls with an hemispherical body.125 It was associated with a WSh juglet. Locus 00848 delivered five BR I fragments. Two of

121

Åström 1972b, 126-97. Vaughan 1987. 123 Vaughan 1987. The author distinguishes four BR fabrics: The Metallic Slip Ware and Red Burnished Ware (BR I in Åström’s typology) and the Matt Slip Ware and Uncoated Ware (BR II in Åström’s typology). 124 Åström 1972c, 148. 125 Åström 1972c, fig. XLVII:4. 122

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them belong to bowls with an everted rim.126 Two others are superior parts of bilbil juglets with two horizontal ridges at the attachment of the handle. Different types of decoration can be noticed: CYP 187 (Fig. 84) has two vertical ridges on the body, opposite to the handle. Similar juglets were discovered at Tell Atchana,127 Ras Shamra,128 Byblos129 and Sidon-Dakerman.130 Locus 00967 delivered an inferior part of a jug with two antithetic arcs in relief in front of the body (CYP 184, Fig. 36). This type has parallels at Tell Atchana,131 Ras Shamra,132 Sidon-Dakerman,133 Byblos,134 Tell el-Ghassil135 and Majdalouna.136 A horizontal line is incised on the neck of CYP 191. Similar incised decorations were also found at Tell Atchana,137 Ugarit138 and Byblos.139 BR I is present in the Northern Levant from the very beginning of LB I, as shown by Grave 2 of Tyre.140 This production spread during the LB IBIIA: the discoveries from Palace IV at Alalakh141 and Deposit 213 at Minet el-Beida142 are among the largest BR I assemblages of this period. This ware is also well represented in the Necropolis of Sidon-Dakerman,143 at Tell Kazel, Tell Arqa144 and Sarepta.145 In inland sites, BR I productions were discovered in Kamid el-Loz,146 Tell el-Ghassil,147 Qatna148 and as far as Meskéné-Emar.149

126

Åström 1972c, fig. XLVII:5. Bergoffen 2005, 89, B36, pl. 50e. 128 Schaeffer 1949, 180, fig. 72:9; Courtois 1969, 130, fig. 7-D. 129 Salles 1980, pl. IX:7, 23. 130 Saidah 2004, 29, no. 54, figs. 24; 33, no. 84, fig. 37. 131 Bergoffen 2005, 89, pl. 17a-b. 132 Courtois 1969, 131, fig. 8-B. 133 Maïla-Afeiche 2009, 527, no. 29. 134 Salles 1980, pl. 10: 2-3, pl. IX:4-5. 135 Doumet-Serhal 1996, 33, 95, pl. 58.6. 136 Chehab 1940, 37, fig. 2f. 137 Bergoffen 2005, 88, pl. 15, d, e. 138 Courtois 1969, 132, fig. 7A. 139 Salles 1980, pl. 10:6. 140 Bikai 1978, 55. 141 Bergoffen 2005, 40-45 142 Schaeffer 1949, fig. 52:8-17, 20, 21. 143 Saidah 2004, fig. 24 no. 54; fig. 37 nos. 84-85, fig. 39 no. 99. 144 Charaf 2008, 131. 145 Anderson 1988, pl. 22:27. 146 Penner 2006, 100, fig. 52:14; pls. 9, 10; Kulemann-Ossen 2006, 100, pl. 3:5; Heinz 2010, pl. 15:2, pl. 20:3. 147 Doumet-Serhal 1996, 33, pl. 58.3. 148 Luciani 2008, 119. 149 Caubet 2007, fig. 1:2, pl. 1:a. 127

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– Base-Ring II (BR II) BR II was produced from LC IB:2-IIA:1 and is partly contemporaneous with BR I.150 The decoration displays linear motifs executed in white paint. According to P. Åström, BR II could have been made at Enkomi or in its vicinity.151 The research lead at Athienou, located about 20 km South-West of Enkomi, confirmed that the ware probably originates from the area.152 In Tell Tweini, BR II is present from the end of LB I, in Level 7DE.153 The recorded vessels belong to bowls (CYP 217, Fig. 45; CYP 218; CYP 250, Fig. 48; CYP 256) or juglets (CYP 239, 261). However, the bulk of BR II was found in LB II contexts (Level 7BC). In addition to bowls and juglets, fragments of large jugs were identified. CYP 232154 (Fig. 88) is wearing a decoration composed of horizontal parallel lines in white paint. CYP 243 (Fig. 47) is a base fragment of another vessel of the same type. The corpus of BR II contains also less common shapes, such as CYP 231, a rim fragment of a bowl with a hemispherical body. According to P. Åström, these bowls usually have a vertical pierced lug on the rim.155 CYP 225 is a rim sherd that belongs to a jug with the shape of an oversized bilbil juglet. A vessel of similar shape was discovered in the Necropolis of Sidon-Dakerman.156 Two other specific productions should be noticed: CYP 215 (Fig. 43) and CYP 216 (Fig. 44) are the legs of two different bull-shaped vases. They were discovered respectively in Locus 01061 (Level 8AB [7DE]) and Locus 07310 (Level 7BC). The Cypriot bull-shaped vases were studied in detail by K. Nys. Her research showed that this production was mostly exported from LC IIA:1 to LC IIC:1.157 Finally, three fragments without slip could belong to Uncoated Ware (CYP 280, Levels 7-5; CYP 281, Level 7BC; CYP 282, Level 7BC), one of the four BR fabrics identified by S. J. Vaughan.158 The BR II pottery appears in the Northern Levant during LB IB and spreads broadly from the beginning of LB II, which explains its prominent presence in Level 7BC of Tell Tweini. In Tell Kazel, the floruit of BR II is noticeable in Level 6 of Area IV, attributed to the same period.159 The archaeological site

150

Åström 1972c, 700. Åström 1972c, 770. 152 Crewe 2007, 155. 153 One BR II fragment was recorded from level 8 (TWE-A-01068-C-004) but it is coming from a disturbed context and cannot be taken in consideration for the chronology of the ware. 154 Vansteenhuyse 2008, 109, fig. 5:6; Vansteenhuyse 2010, ill. 4.6. 155 Åström 1972b, pl. LII:1. 156 Saidah 2004, 26, no. 30, fig. 16. 157 Nys 2001, 101. 158 Vaughan 1987. 159 Badre 2006, 71, fig. 5:2-9, 11. 151

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of Ugarit and its harbour of Minet el-Beida delivered the largest range of BR II of the Northern Levant.160 This production is found all along the Levantine coast and in sites located in the Orontes Valley, such as Hama161 and Qatna162 and, in the Bekaa Valley, Kamid el-Loz163 and Tell Hizzin.164 Red Lustrous Wheel-made Ware (RLWM) RLWM is easily recognisable thanks to its very fine red clay and its red slip cautiously burnished to a bright finish. Since more than a century, the origin of RLWM is the subject of numerous discussions. In 1993, Eriksson concluded that RLWM was produced in Cyprus, in the area of Kazaphani, between LCIA:2 and LC IIIA:1.165 However, in 2000-2001, new excavations lead by J. Seeher in Bogazköy delivered almost one hundred spindle bottles of this ware,166 challenging Eriksson’s hypothesis of a single production centre located on Cyprus. Thus, it is necessary to keep in mind that an Anatolian or Cilician origin of the ware cannot be ruled out in the actual state of the research. Five fragments of RLWM were already studied in Vanstenhuyse 2008.167 One of them is coming from Locus 01055 (Level 8AB , MB II), that has been cut by a LB pit. The RLWM sherd belongs probably to the pit and should be consequently attributed to Level 7BC. Another example was discovered in Locus 01059, that also delivered WP V and BR wares. The superior part of a spindle bottle was found in Locus 01077 (CYP 310). These discoveries belong to the LB I, the period when the ware was introduced on the site. The other fragments are from LB II levels (CYP 311, Fig. 50; CYP 316). We can now add new discoveries to Vansteenhuyse’s study. Level 7BC (LB II) delivered two more fragments of spindle bottles in Loci 01021 (CYP 313, Fig. 49b) and 00909 (CYP 314). A fragment of a plate, the only RLWM open shape discovered on the site, was found in Locus 00611 (Level 7BC-6). In the Northern Levant, the archaeological sites that delivered the most important corpus of this production, both qualitatively and quantitatively, are Tell Atchana and Ugarit. These sites could have played a role in the distribution of the ware at a regional scale. RLWM occurs in LB IA contexts at Tell

160

Vilain 2015. Fugmann 1958, 126, fig. 153. Level G2, contemporary to Alalakh IV, according to the excavator. 162 Du Mesnil du Buisson 1928, 21, no. 111, pl. XVIII; Al-Maqdissi et al. (eds.) 2002, 47. 163 Penner 2006, fig. 84:20; fig. 108:7-9, 11-13. 164 Genz and Sader 2008, fig. 4:10. 165 Eriksson 1993, 149. 166 Mielke 2007, 155-156. 167 Vansteenhuyse 2008, 109-110. 161

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Atchana (Level V168) and during LB I period at Ugarit.169 Apart from Tell Tweini, Ugarit is one of the few sites where RLWM open shapes have been discovered.170 Black Lustrous Wheel-made Ware (BLWM) A fragment from Locus 00847 (Level 7BC, LB II) could belong to BLWM (CYP 319). This ware was manufactured in Cyprus from LC I:A to LCII B or C171 and is well represented in Kalopsidha and Enkomi.172 However, a new examination would be necessary to confirm the identification.173 It would not be incoherent to find BLWM in Tell Tweini as it is already attested in Tell Atchana,174 Ras Shamra175 and Minet el-Beida.176 White Lustrous Wheel-made ware (WLWM) CYP 320 (Fig. 51) is a rim fragment of a jug or a bottle that has been identified as WLWM by K. Nys.177 This ware can be distinguished by its very fine and homogeneous clay in light brown, buff, pinkish or greyish colour. The surface is covered by a whitish slip and burnished with care. The shape of CYP 320 parallels the BLWM jugs of Type IVB1.178 It was discovered in a LB II context (Locus 01020, Level 7BC). WLWM is uncommon in Cyprus and has a very short life-span: it appears occasionally in the LC IA:2 but is better known in LC IB. The NAA analyses carried out on a bottle from Ayia Irini showed strong similarities with the clays from North-Eastern Cyprus.179 In the Northern Levant, the only archaeological sites where this ware was identified are Tell Atchana,180 Ugarit181 and Minet el-Beida.182 168

Bergoffen 2005, 47: ATP 39/295A and 39/295B, from the grave ATG 39/105. See for example Schaeffer 1938, 220, fig. 17:25, 37. 170 Monchambert 2004, 307, nos. 1692, 1693. 171 Åström 2007a, 19. 172 Crewe 2007, 46. 173 CYP 319 was not surely recognized as BLWM on the site. Unfortunately, the identification of the ware cannot be confirmed pending access to the archaeological material. 174 Bergoffen 2005, 97. 175 Monchambert 2004, 250, nos. 1420-1433. 176 Schaeffer 1933, 98, fig. 3:4. 177 Nys and Middernacht 2010, 125. The repertoire of shapes of WLWM is typologically linked to that of RLWM and BLWM. 178 Åström 1972b, 218. 179 Artzy 2007, 13, graph. 1. 180 Kozal 2010, 69: the WLWM bottle from Tell Atchana is coming from the Plastered Tomb, attributed to the XVth century BCE by the excavator. 181 Schaeffer 1949, fig. 75:13. 182 Schaeffer 1932, pl. X:3; Schaeffer 1934, fig. 3.1; Schaeffer 1949, 140, fig. 52:19. 169

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White Shaved Ware (WSh) WSh was created in LC IA:2 and developed from LC IB to LC IIB.183 This production has a soft or medium hard sandy fabric, in light brown, yellowish or reddish colour.184 It gets its name from its surface treatment: the neck, the handle and the body are wearing distinguishable shaving marks. A large quantity of the ware was discovered in Enkomi.185 A production centre could also have been located at Athienou, where a large range of these vessels has been recovered.186 The typical shape of this fabric – and the only one present in Tell Tweini – is the dipper juglet with a pinched mouth, a vertical handle from the mouth to the shoulder, a fusiform body and a pointed bottom. The handle is inserted through the body wall, according to a process also used in BR. One body fragment with a broken handle was discovered in a LB I context, in Level 7DE (CYP 331). However, most of the other attestations are from LB II levels (CYP 322-330, 332-337). In the Northern Levant, WSh is appearing in LB I but is better distributed in LB IIA, as shown by the discoveries in Level 6 of Area IV at Tell Kazel,187 the Necropolis of Sidon-Dakerman188 or Stratum J of Sarepta.189 The increasing of WSh in Level 7BC at Tell Tweini corroborates the chronology of the ware on the Levantine coast. Plain White Wheel-made Ware (PWWM) PWWM is a specific category that was first defined by P. Åström.190 He included under this appellation different regional productions, which he thought explained the variety of clays observed in this category. Moreover, he noticed the similarity of shapes between the Cypriot PWWM and the local pottery from Tell Atchana and Ugarit.191 Thus, some PWWM types could have been inspired by MB Levantine vessels. In Cyprus, PWWM I was produced from MC III192 to the beginning of LC IIC.193 The PWWM II is technically more achieved and developed from LC

183 184 185 186 187 188 189 190 191 192 193

Åström 1972c, 701. Åström 1972b, 221. Åström 1972c, 745. Dothan and Ben-Tor 1983, 41-43, figs. 9, 25, pl. 13. Badre 2006, 71, fig. 6. Saidah 2004, fig. 13 no. 21; fig. 16 no. 29; fig. 26 no. 59; fig. 30 no. 70; fig. 41 no. 112. Anderson 1988, Appendix C, 517. Åström 1972b, 232. Åström 1972c, 747. Åström 1972a, 199. Åström 1972c, 700.

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IIA until the end of LC III. Misfired productions were discovered in Graves 3, 5, 8, and 11 of Enkomi, that was certainly one of the manufacturing centres of the ware.194 In Tell Tweini, PWWM I (CYP 352) was identified in Level 8AB (MB II).195 The presence of PWWM I in this level is coherent with the discovery of PWWM vessels in a MB IIB grave in Kassabine, in the Jebleh plain.196 CYP 339, a base fragment belonging to a shallow bowl,197 is from a MB II-LB I locus. The other PWWM I vessels are from LB II contexts (Level 7BC, CYP 338, Fig. 52; Locus 00917,198 and CYP 340, Locus 01620).199 PWWM II is present from Level 7DE (CYP 346). The rim of a plate was discovered in Locus 00043 (CYP 348), in a LB II context (Level 7BC). The other vases of this category cannot be surely attributed to either PWWM I or II. CYP 344 could belong to a juglet. CYP 343 is a rim and neck fragment of another closed vessel. A base fragment that belongs to a stand ring (most probably PWWM II) was also identified.200 The jug CYP 342 (Fig. 53, middle) was submitted to provenance analyses by H. Mommsen. According to NAA results, this jug can be assigned to group CypJ and is compatible with the pottery produced in the area of Kition or Hala Sultan Tekke.201 This jug was discovered associated with a Mycenanean kylix.202 In the Northern Levant, the presence of PWWM I and/or II was recorded at Bassit,203 Ras Shamra,204 Tell Kazel205 and Sidon-College site.206 Pithoi Two fragments of pithoi were identified as Cypriot by K. Vansteenhuyse.207 The first one, CYP 357 (Level 7BC-6GH-EF, Fig. 54), is incised with an undulating line. The second one, CYP 358 (Fig. 90), has a wavy decoration in relief framed by parallel ridges.208 In the Northern Levant, pithoi with similar 194 Schaeffer 1936a, 135; Schaeffer 1952, 217, n. 2; Schaeffer 1936a, 139 (Tomb 8, no. 7); Schaeffer 1952, 148 (Tomb 11, no. 97). 195 Åström 1972b, fig LXXVII:1. 196 Åström 1966, 139, n. 2. 197 Åström 1972b, 235, pl. LXI:3. 198 Åström 1972b, fig. LXIX, n. 6. 199 Åström 1972b, fig. LXVII:7. 200 For a parallel to the shape, see Åström 1972b, pl. LXXI:5. 201 H. Mommsen, personal communication. See also Mountjoy and Mommsen 2015. 202 Jung 2010, 115. 203 Courbin 1986, 186. 204 Monchambert 2004, 315. 205 Badre 2006, 71, fig. 6:10-15. 206 Karageorghis 2007, 44. 207 Vansteenhuyse 2008, 110. 208 Vansteenhuyse 2008, n. 29. The author gives as reference Pilides 2000, fig. 26:226 (Sanida, no. 339) and Schaeffer 1949, fig. 86:21, 28.

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decorative motifs were discovered in Ras Shamra (XIIIth c. BCE)209, Minet elBeida (LB II)210, Beyrouth 003 (Rock-Cut Chamber, LB II),211 Sidon-College Site212 and Tyre (Stratum XIV, end of LB II - transition to Iron I).213 The White Slip Ware (WS) WS is the best represented Cypriot ware in Tell Tweini. All the discoveries belong to hemispherical bowls with a horizontal handle. The WS productions were developed at least partially from the WP tradition of North-Western Cyprus.214 The typology of the WS was elaborated by M. R. Popham who distinguished three phases: Proto-White Slip (PWS), White Slip I (WS I) and White Slip II (WS II).215 The first one, PWS, is absent from Tell Tweini. The earliest examples of the ware belong to WS I. – White Slip I Ware (WS I) WS I was produced from LC IA:2 to LC IB:2, with only sporadic apparitions after this period.216 The clay is very fine to fine, with a dark red or grey colour. The exterior and interior of the bowls are covered with a very white slip. The painted decoration can be monochrome (red, brownish, purplish or black) or bichrome (brownish-red and black). At Tell Tweini, WS I is only represented by ten fragments. The precise time of appearance of the ware on the site cannot be determinated with accuracy: CYP 359 (Level 8-7DE/BC, Fig. 55), CYP 361 (Level 9-7DE, Figs. 57b, 92), CYP 362 (Level 9) are coming from disturbed loci and CYP 363 (Figs. 57d, 93) is from a context attributed to Levels 8AB -7DE. Thus, the earliest well stratified WS I were discovered in Level 7DE (CYP 360, CYP 366). CYP 360 (Figs. 57a, 91) has a bichrome paint and a red fabric. The decoration is composed by a red wavy line below the rim and the beginning of a “Horned Frontal Motif ”217 characteristic of the Framed Wavy Line Style. The same pattern is visible on CYP 367.

209

Yon, Lombard and Renisio 1987, 55, fig. 36; Schaeffer 1949, 208, fig. 86:21, 24, 28. Schaeffer 1949, 208, fig. 86:13. 211 Badre 1997, 60, fig. 29:13. 212 Karageorghis 2009, 328. 213 Bikai 1978, pl. XL: a pithos from Stratum XIV of Tyre is wearing a wavy line decoration inspired by Cypriot pithoi. However, its bottom is typical of cananean shapes. 214 Crewe 2007, 39. 215 Popham 1972. 216 Åström 1972c, 700. 217 Vansteenhuyse 2008, 107, fig. 4:1; Vansteenhuyse 2010, 100, ill. 4:7. 210

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CYP 366 (Fig. 56) also belongs to the Framed Wavy Line Style. It displays pairs of horizontal black lines alternating with a wavy red line. It was discovered associated with a WP V juglet. CYP 359 (Fig. 55) has a carefully executed painted decoration, consisting of a wavy line and a “Rope Pattern” motif under the rim. The last sherd, CYP 365 (Fig. 94), is residual and was discovered in Level 6 (Iron I). The appearance of WS I in Level 7DE (LB I) at Tell Tweini is contemporary with its presence in LB I contexts in Ugarit.218 Tell Atchana, in the Amuq Valley, delivered one of the largest assemblages of this production.219 The WS I is mostly discovered on the Levantine coast (Ugarit, Sidon-College Site,220 Tyre221) and at sites located close to the main communication routes such as Hama,222 Qatna223 or Kamid el-Loz.224 – White Slip I-II Transitional (WS I-II) According to K. Vansteenhuyse, three fragments found in Loci 01046 (CYP 435, Fig. 63), 01080 (CYP 437) and 02607 (CYP 436, Fig. 64) could belong to the transition between WS I and WS II.225 This transitional phase is characterised by the introduction of decorative elements characteristic of WS II on vases of WS I manufacture, or by the conservation of WS I motifs on WS II bowls.226 Transitional bowls were also identified at Tell Arqa,227 Sarepta228 and Tyre.229 – White Slip II Ware (WS II) The WS II fabric is fine to medium-fine with a grey core and reddish outer layers. The mineral inclusions are composed of sand, calcite, quartz and mica. The painted decoration is black to brownish depending on firing conditions.230 WS II emerges at the end of LC IB, increases in LC IIA-B, declines in LC IIC

218

Mallet 2013, 323, sounding 173, level 1. Bergoffen 2005, 49-50, WS 1-39. 220 Karageorghis 2009, 327. 221 Bikai 1978, 55 “Imports 13”, pl. XLI.15, 18; pl. XLIII.6; pl. L. 7, 8, 13, 14(?). 222 Riis and Buhl 2007, 35, fig. 11b. 223 Luciani 2008, 124, fig. 3:5, 6. 224 Penner 2006, 101, Abb. 52, no. 12. 225 Vansteenhuyse 2008, 110. 226 For chemical characterization of this transitional productions see also Aloupi, Perdikatsis and Lekka 2001. 227 Charaf 2008, 129. 228 Anderson 1988, pl. 22:21. 229 Bikai 1978, 55, “Import 12”. 230 Popham 1972, 464-465. 219

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and then disappears from the archaeological material corresponding to LC IIIA.231 A rim fragment, painted in the “Dotted Row Style”, was identified as WS II Early (CYP 370; Figs. 58, 97) by K. Vansteenhuyse.232 This early phase is characterised by a very white slip and a decoration executed with care. Moreover, the bowls are usually deeper and have a wishbone or rounded handle different from the triangular one often associated with later productions. Most of the WS II from Tweini belong to the mature phase of the ware. The bowls are covered with a whitish or crème slip and wear a dark brown or black decoration. The motifs are executed with less care, explaining why the “Ladder Pattern” often has thicker outer lines. This phase begins in the LC IIA and lasts until the end of the LC IIB. Unfortunately, the fragmentary state of the material does not allow an evaluation of the frequency of each decorative pattern. CYP 388, CYP 490, CYP 491 and CYP 492, from Level 7DE, constitute the earliest attestation of WS II on the site. However, the bulk of the discoveries are from Level 7BC (LB II). A complete profile of a bowl displaying a “Ladder Pattern” was found in Locus 00908. This style is represented by several other rim sherds such as CYP 368 (Fig. 95), CYP 372 (Figs. 68d, 98, 99), CYP 373 (Figs. 68c, 100), CYP 375 (Fig. 59), CYP 376 (Fig. 101), CYP 379 (Figs. 60, 102), CYP 381 (Fig. 103), CYP 384 (Figs. 61, 104), CYP 385 (Fig. 105), CYP 386 (Fig. 106) or CYP 439 (Fig. 65). The “Dotted Row Style” and the “Hooked Chain Style” are present in minute quantity (CYP 370, 371, 380, 441). WS II productions are found throughout Level 7. One last residual body fragment with a worn “Ladder Pattern” (CYP 443) was discovered in Locus 00032, attributed to the transition to the Iron Age (Level 6GH-EF). The presence of WS II Late – when the popularity of the ware resulted in a massification of its production and in a consequent decrease in quality (the bowls are shallower, the slip is thicker and the painted motif is reduced to simple parallel lines) – is recorded from Level 7BC. Fragments CYP 503 (Fig. 66), CYP 506 (Fig. 116), CYP 507 (Fig. 68a, b), CYP 508 (Fig. 68a), CYP 509 (Fig. 67), CYP 529 (Fig. 68e) and CYP 530 (Fig. 68f) are good examples of this late production. In the Northern Levant, WS II is attested from the LB IB but increases dramatically in the LB IIA, as shown by the discoveries from Tell Kazel (Phase 6 of Area IV),233 Tell Arqa (Level 11),234 Sidon-Dakerman,235 Sidon-College

231 232 233 234 235

Åström 1972c, 700-701. Popham 1972, 447, figs. 52-53. Badre 2006, 69, fig. 4, 1-4. Charaf 2008, 129-130. Saidah 2004, fig. 18:34, fig. 39:96, fig. 40:107.

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Site,236 Sarepta (Strata J, H)237 and Tyre (Stratum XVI).238 The WS II spread in the Syrian hinterland as far as Khan Sheikhoun,239 Umm el-Marra,240 Emar,241 and Tell Fekheriye.242 CONCLUSION The coastal settlement at Tell Tweini (probably ancient Gibala) was flourishing in the MB and LB, as suggested by the remains of its material culture. Tell Tweini is located about 30 km south of Ugarit, the capital of an important kingdom involved in international trade, according to written sources.243 But, whereas MB levels are poorly known at Ugarit, the excavations at Tell Tweini yielded an uninterrupted stratigraphy from EB to IA that allows to complete our knowledge of Northern Levantine trade during the MB and LB periods. The circumstances of this study, given the impossibility to access the archaeological material, are only allowing cautious observations at the moment. However, the Cypriot sequence at Tell Tweini is critical for the understanding of relationships between Cyprus and the Northern Levant. The earliest Cypriot imports identified at the site are WP PLS and CLS productions, recorded from Level 8AB (MB IIB). They are exclusively closed vessels, probably imported for their content. The WP wares from Tell Tweini show close stylistic connections with Eastern Cyprus. The area of Kalopsidha, where WP PLS, CLS, Zigzag Style, FBBS and Eyelet Style are well attested, was certainly involved in the earliest connections with the Northern Levant.244 It is difficult to assess precisely in which level of Tell Tweini MN, BR I and WS I make their first appearance, as the earliest contexts in which they occur are attributed to a longer period (Level 8AB -7DE, MB IIB-LB I). At this state of the research, no rupture in the flux of Cypriot imports has been noticed in Tell Tweini between MB IIB and LB I. Nevertheless, it is significant that neither PWS nor PBR have yet been identified. This situation mirrors again the assemblages of Eastern Cyprus, where both PWS and PBR are very scarce. A similar situation can be noticed at Ugarit.245

236 237 238 239 240 241 242 243 244 245

Karageorghis 2011, 381. Anderson 1988, Appendix C, 517, for the distribution of imported wares. Bikai 1978, table 13A. Du Mesnil du Buisson 1932, 175, 178, fig. 3. Curvers and Schwartz 1997, fig. 20:5, 6, 8. Yon 2001, 122. Pruß and Bagdo 2002, 325, Abb. 6:d. See for example McGeough 2007, 324-333. Åström 1966, 82-90. Vilain 2015.

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BCWM, one of the markers of LB, is recorded for the first time in Level 7DE. In this level, we can notice the presence of WP VI, as well as MN, BR I, WS I and WSh. The persistence of WP VI is not surprising, as it is still found at the beginning of LC IB in Cyprus.246 BR II and WS II productions are also attested, suggesting that Level 7DE was not only used during LB IA but also in LB IB. The beginning of LBA at Tell Tweini sees the introduction of new Cypriot wares and shapes among the imported goods, showing an intensification of trade and a diversification of available Cypriot productions. The presence of Cypriot pottery at Tell Tweini reached a peak in Level 7BC, which is clearly of LB II date. MN, BR II, WSh and WS II wares dominate the repertoire of imported productions. NAA analyses run on the PWWM jug CYP 342 (Level 7A)247 bring us to consider the possibility of direct or indirect connections between Tell Tweini and Southern Cyprus. Indeed, sites such as Hala Sultan Tekke became increasingly important during the LC period and their potential role in trade with the Northern Levant should not be neglected. At the end of LB II, the increasing presence of WS II late bowls at Tell Tweini is symptomatic of the phenomenon of social inflexion that then affects Cypriot imports. Manufactured in large series, decorated without care, these bowls were apparently more commonly used by the inhabitants of the Levantine coast in their everyday life. The geographical proximity between Cyprus and the Northern Levant favoured the development of connections that are gradually increasing in frequency and intensity from MB IIB to LB II. The numerous imports found at Ugarit as well as written sources show that the city had close links with the island of Cyprus.248 Tell Tweini undoubtedly benefited from this proximity and from its strategic position on the maritime trade route along the Levantine coast.249 The excavations at Tell Tweini have shown that an important part of the imported Cypriot wares was intended for local consumption. However, the site could have contributed to the redistribution of Cypriot imports at a regional scale, as suggested by the discovery of WS II pottery at the neighbouring site of Tell Siyannu.250 An in depth examination of the Cypriot sequence at Tell Tweini as well as the complete study of the trading systems in which the site was involved should provide promising outputs in the future.

246 247 248 249 250

Åström 1972c, 700. See above, n. 197. Malbran-Labat 2004. Sauvage 2012, 273-274. Al-Maqdissi 2012, fig. 12.

THE BRONZE AGE CYPRIOT POTTERY FROM TELL TWEINI FIELD A

LIST ABBWLS: BBS: BC: BLWM: BR: CLS: CP: EB: ES: FBBS: IA: LB: LC: MB: MC: MN: PLS: PWWM: RLWM: RoB: RoR: TLS: WLWM: WP: WS: WSh:

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OF ABBREVIATIONS

Alternative Broad Band and Wavy Line Style Broad Band Style Bichrome Ware Black Lustrous Wheel-made Ware Base-Ring Ware Cross Line Style Composite Ware Early Bronze Age Eyelet Style Framed Broad Band Style Iron Age Late Bronze Age Late Cypriot Middle Bronze Age Middle Cypriot Monochrome Ware Pendent Line Style Plain White Wheel-made Ware Red Lustrous Wheel-made Ware Red-on-Black Ware Red-on-Red Ware Tangent Line Style White Lustrous Wheel-made Ware White Painted Ware White Slip Ware White Shaved Ware

BIBLIOGRAPHY Al-Maqdissi M. 2012: Notes d’Archéologie Levantine XXVII. Vingt ans de fouilles archéologiques à Tell Sianu dans la plaine de Jablé (1999-2009), in: V. Matoïan et al. (eds.), Etudes Ougaritiques II (Ras Shamra-Ougarit XX), Leuven, 297-315. Al-Maqdissi M., M. Luciani, D. Morandi Bonacossi, M. Novák and P. Pfälzner (eds.) 2002: Excavating Qatna (Documents d’Archéologie Syrienne IV), Damascus. Al-Maqdissi M. and V. Matoïan 2008: La céramique découverte par C. Schaeffer dans le palais royal d’Ougarit: remarques générales, in: V. Matoïan (dir.), Le mobilier du palais royal d’Ougarit (Ras Shamra-Ougarit XVII), Lyon, 127-155. Aloupi E., V. Perdikatsis and A. Lekka 2001: Assessment of the White Slip Classification Scheme based on Physico-chemical Aspects of the Technique, in: V. Karageorghis (ed.), The White Slip Ware of Late Bronze Age Cyprus. Proceedings of an International Conference in honour of Malcom Wiener, Nicosia, 29th-30th October 1998, Vienna, 15-26. Anderson W. P. 1988: Sarepta I: The Late Bronze and Iron Age Strata of Area II, Y, Philadelphia.

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the Bronze and Iron Ages. Proceedings of the International Symposium, Beirut, 2008 (Bulletin d’Archéologie et d’Architecture Libanaises Hors-Série VI), Beirut, 515-532. Malbran-Labat F. 2004: Alašiya et Ugarit, Res Antiquae I, 365-377. Mallet J. 2013: Ras Shamra - Ougarit (Syrie), 62e campagne, 2002. Poterie des chantiers 173 et 178 dans le Palais Nord, in: V. Matoïan and M. Al-Maqdissi (eds.), Etudes Ougaritiques III (Ras Shamra-Ougarit XXI), Leuven, 321-345. Matoïan V. 2004: Un “hochet” chypriote White Painted à Ougarit (Syrie), Report of the Department of Antiquities, Cyprus, 105-113. McGeough K. M. 2007: Exchange Relationships at Ugarit (ANES, Supplement 26), Leuven. Mielke D. P. 2007: Red Lustrous Wheelmade Ware from Hittite Contexts, in: I. Hein (ed.), The Lustrous Wares of Late Bronze Age Cyprus and the Eastern Mediterranean, Papers of a Conference, Vienna 5th-6th of November 2004, Vienna, 155-168. Monchambert J.-Y. 2004: La céramique d’Ougarit: campagnes de fouilles 1975 et 1976 (Ras Shamra-Ougarit XV), Paris. — 2011 : La céramique des sondages de 1992 et 2005, in: O. Callot (ed.), Les sanctuaires de l’acropole d’Ougarit: Les temples de Baal et de Dagan (Ras ShamraOugarit XIX), Lyon, 109-121. Mountjoy P. A. and H. Mommsen 2015: Neutron Activation Analysis of Aegean-style IIIC Pottery from 11 Cypriot and Various Near Eastern Sites, Egypt and the Levant XXV, 421-508. Nicolaou I. and K. Nicolaou 1989: Kazaphani, a Middle / Late Cypriot tomb at Kazaphani-Ayios Andronikos: T.2 A, B, Nicosia. Nys K. 2001: Base-ring Bull-shaped vessels in context, in: P. Åström (ed.), The Chronology of Base-Ring Ware and Bichrome Wheel-Made Ware: Proceedings of a Colloquium Held in the Royal Academy of Letters, History and Antiquities, Stockholm, May 18-19, 2000, Stockholm, 95-122. Nys K. and K. Middernacht 2010: The Cypriot pottery from field A, in: M. Al-Maqdissi et al. (eds.), Tell Tweini. Onze campagnes de fouilles syro-belges (1999-2010) (Documents d’Archéologie Syrienne), Damascus, 123-130. Oldenburg H. and J. Rohweder 1981: The Excavations at Tall Daruk (Usnu?) and ’Arab al-Mulk (Paltos), Copenhagen. Pamir H. 2013: Sabuniye: A Late Bronze-Iron Age Port Settlement on the Northeastern Mediterranean Coast, in: K. A. Yener (ed.), Across the Border: Late BronzeIron Age Relations Between Syria and Anatolia. Proceedings of a Symposium Held at the Research Center of Anatolian Studies, Koç University, Istanbul. May 31 - June 1, 2010, Leuven, 173-195. Penner S. 2006: Kamid el-Loz: Tempelanlagen T3 bis T1, Palastanlagen P5 bis P1/2, Königsgrab (‘Schatzhaus’) und ‘Königliche Werkstatt’, Bonn. Pilides D. 1992: Monochrome Ware: Its Regional Variation, in: P. Åström (ed.), Acta Cypria: Acts of an International Congress on Cypriote Archaeology held in Göteborg on 22-24 August, 1991. Part 2, Jonsered, 289-301. — 1996: Storage jar as evidence of the economy of Cyprus in the Late Bronze Age, in: V. Karageorghis and D. Michaelides (eds.), The Development of the Cypriot Economy: from the Prehistoric Period to the Present Day, Nicosia, 107-124. — 2000: Pithoi of the Late Bronze Age in Cyprus: Types from the major sites of the period, Cyprus, Nicosia. Popham M. R. 1972: White Slip Ware, in: P. Åström (ed.), The Swedish Cyprus Expedition IV, Part 1C. The Late Cypriote Bronze Age. Other Arts and Crafts, Relative

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Yon M. and A. Caubet 1990: La céramique importée de l’Ouest, in: L. Badre et al. (eds.), Tell Kazel, Syria. Excavations of the AUB Museum, 1985-1987, Preliminary Reports (Berytus XXXVIII), 98-124. Yon M., P. Lombard and M. Renisio 1987: L’organisation de l’habitat: Les maisons A, B et E, in: M. Yon and J. Mallet (eds.), Le Centre de la ville: 38e-44e campagnes (1978-1984) (Ras Shamra-Ougarit III), Paris, 11-129.

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CATALOGUE White Painted III-IV Pendent Line Style Catalogue number: CYP 1 (Fig. 1) Excavation number: TWE-A-01027-C-022 Level: 8CD-7BC Description: Body fragment, closed vessel. Black paint: groups of seven vertical lines alternating with a thick wavy line. References: Vansteenhuyse 2008, 106 Catalogue number: CYP 2 (Fig. 2) Excavation number: TWE-A-00159-C-005 Level: 8-7 Description: Body fragment, closed vessel. Black paint: groups of seven vertical lines alternating with thin wavy lines. References: Vansteehuyse 2008, 106 Catalogue number: CYP 3 Excavation number: TWE-A-00928-C-007 Level: 8-7 Description: Body fragment, closed vessel. References: Vansteehuyse 2008, 106 Catalogue number: CYP 4 Excavation number: TWE-A-01061-C-010 Level: 8AB-7DE Description: Body fragment, closed vessel. Very hard fabric (2.5 YR 6/6 “light red”), lustrous slip (7.5 YR 7/6 “reddish yellow”), black rather mat paint. White Painted IV Ware

Level: 8AB Description: Body fragment, closed vessel. Light reddish-yellow slip, two crossed groups of straight lines in brownish paint. References: Vansteenhuyse 2008, 106 Catalogue number: CYP 7 (Fig. 70) Excavation number: TWE-A-01055-C-010, 019, 025 Level: 8AB Description: Body fragments of a closed vessel. Groups of five lines crossing each other. References: Vansteenhuyse 2008, 106, fig. 2:3; Vansteenhuyse 2010, ill. 7.11 Catalogue number: CYP 8 (Fig. 5) Excavation number: TWE-A-01027-C-027 Level: 8CD-7BC Description: Body fragment, closed vessel. Light slip, groups of crossed lines in black paint. References: Vansteenhuyse 2008, 106 Catalogue number: CYP 9 (Fig. 71) Excavation number: TWE-A-00840-C-080 Level: 7BC Description: Body fragment, closed vessel. Groups of five lines crossing each other. Catalogue number: CYP 10 Excavation number: TWE-A-00114-C-048 Level: 6AB Description: Body fragment, closed vessel.

Catalogue number: CYP 5 (Figs. 3a-b, 69) Excavation number: TWE-A-00193-C-012 Level: (8AB-)7DE Description: Rim and handle fragment of a bowl. White slip, black mat paint: groups of crossed lines on the outside; two wavy lines and a horizontal band on the inside, below the rim. References: Nys and Middernacht 2010, 124, fig. 1

Catalogue number: CYP 11 Excavation number: TWE-A-01026-C-050 Level: 8AB-7 Description: Body fragment, closed vessel.

White Painted IV-VI Cross Line Style

Catalogue number: CYP 13 Excavation number: TWE-A-01027-C-015 Level: 8CD-7BC Description: Shoulder fragment, closed vessel.

Catalogue number: CYP 6 (Fig. 4) Excavation number: TWE-A-00919-C-010

Catalogue number: CYP 12 Excavation number: TWE-A-01027-C-038, 042 Level: 8CD-7BC Description: Body fragment, closed vessel.

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Catalogue number: CYP 14 (Fig. 6) Excavation number: TWE-A-00917-C-017 Level: 7DE Description: Body fragment, closed vessel. Light slip, red paint: part of a horizontal band, two groups of six lines crossing at their extremity. Catalogue number: CYP 15 Excavation number: TWE-A-01027-C-025 Level: 8CD-7BC Description: Body fragment, closed vessel. Catalogue number: CYP 16 Excavation number: TWE-A-01027-C-028 Level: 8CD-7BC Description: Shoulder fragment, closed vessel. Catalogue number: CYP 17 Excavation number: TWE-A-01027-C-037 Level: 8CD-7BC Description: Body fragment, closed vessel. Catalogue number: CYP 18 Excavation number: TWE-A-01047-C-002 Level: 8AB(-7DE) Description: Body fragment, closed vessel. Catalogue number: CYP 19 Excavation number: TWE-A-01055-C-014, 018, 027, 017 Level: 8AB Description: Body fragment, closed vessel.

345

White Painted Cross Line Style (Levantine imitation?) Catalogue number: CYP 23 (Figs. 7, 72) Excavation number: TWE-A-00934-C-002 Level: 8AB Description: Jug with an everted rim, a slightly concave neck, a globular body and a rounded bottom. Vertical handle from mouth to shoulder. Painted decoration in brownish mat paint: three horizontal lines at each extremity of the neck, a cross at the base. From the back of the jug, on the shoulders, two groups of four lines that cross in front of the body, below which are groups of four vertical lines. In addition, three horizontal parallel lines on the top of the body and four concentric circles at the base. References: Hameeuw et al. 2008, 147; Vansteenhuyse 2008, 106, fig. 2:5; Vansteenhuyse 2010, 111, ill. 7:13 White Painted Zigzag Style Catalogue number: CYP 24 (Fig. 8) Excavation number: TWE-A-01025-C-017 Level: 7DE? Description: Body fragment of a closed vessel. Yellowish slip, black decoration: two zigzag lines between pairs of vertical lines. References: Vansteehuyse 2008, 106 White Painted V Framed Broad Band Style

Catalogue number: CYP 20 Excavation number: TWE-A-01055-C-032 Level: 8AB Description: Body fragment, closed vessel. Catalogue number: CYP 21 Excavation number: TWE-A-01091-C-003 Level: 8AB Description: Body fragment, closed vessel.

Catalogue number: CYP 25 (Fig. 9) Excavation number: TWE-A-00230-C-013 Level: 8AB Description: Body fragment of an amphora with a vertical handle. Light reddish-yellow slip, red painted decoration: a large band framed by two thin lines on both sides of the handle and two vertical lines on the back. References: Vansteenhuyse 2008, 106, fig. 2:4; Vansteenhuyse 2010, ill. 7.12

White Painted V Cross Line Style Catalogue number: CYP 22 Excavation number: TWE-A-00838-C-062 Level: 7BC Description: Body fragment, closed vessel.

Catalogue number: CYP 26 (Figs. 10, 73) Excavation number: TWE-A-01027-C-021 Level: 8CD-7BC Description: Body fragment of a closed vessel, yellowish slip, red painted decoration: a thick

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horizontal band framed by two lines, below which is a vertical grid band framed by pairs of straight lines. References: Vansteenhuyse 2008, 106, fig. 2:2; Vansteenhuyse 2010, ill. 7.10

of three straight lines. The lines end sharply at the base. The back ot the handle has four parallel zigzag lines. References: Vansteenhuyse 2008, 106; Vansteenhuyse 2010, 101

Catalogue number: CYP 27 Excavation number: TWE-A-02607-C-022 Level: 8 Description: Body fragment, closed vessel.

Catalogue number: CYP 30 (Figs. 11c, 74) Excavation number: TWE-A-00177-C-023 Level: 8AB Description: Jug with an everted rim, a concave neck, a globular body and a flattened base. Vertical handle from rim to shoulder. H.: 25,5 cm. Complete. Slip: 5YR “reddish-yellow” (surface). Paint: 10R 4/8 “red”. Decoration: on the rim, one horizontal line that extends on both sides of the handle; five bands on the neck and another one at the junction of the neck and the body. In front of the body and behind the handle starts a vertical vawy line framed by groups of nine straight lines. In between those run fifteen parallel horizontal lines on the upper part of the body. From those, on both sides, start nine vertical lines, one wavy line and nine more vertical lines. All vertical lines cross under the base. References: Vansteenhuyse 2008, 106; Vansteenhuyse 2010, 100

White Painted V Composite Style Catalogue number: CYP 28 (Fig. 11a) Excavation number: TWE-A-00177-C-051 Level: 8AB Description: Jug with an everted rim, a concave neck, a globular body and a flattened base. Vertical handle from rim to shoulder. Complete. Slip: 2.5Y 7/4, pale yellow. Black painted decoration: on the rim, one horizontal line that extends on both sides of the handle; six bands on the neck and another one at the junction of the neck and the body. On the main body, two black bands flanked by three vertical lines left and right separate the vessel in two halves. In between those vertical motifs, on the superior part of the body, are eight horizontal lines on one side, with a wavy line in between, and seven on the other side. From the lowest of these lines, another two black bands are vertically flanked by three lines left and right. In the space to the right of the handle is a black cross. One black line on the handle. References: Vansteenhuyse 2008, 106; Vansteenhuyse 2010, 101 Catalogue number: CYP 29 (Fig. 11b) Excavation number: TWE-A-00177-C-032 Level: 8AB Description: Jug with an everted rim, a slightly concave neck, a globular body and a flattened base. Vertical handle from rim to shoulder. H.: 22,5 cm. Complete. Slip: 2.5Y 7/4 “pale yellow.” Black to dark reddish-brown painted decoration: on the rim, one horizontal line that extends on both sides of the handle; five bands on the neck and another one at the junction of the neck and the body. On the main body, four vertical bands flanked by three lines left and right. In one of the four open spaces is a wavy line framed by groups

Catalogue number: CYP 31 (Fig. 12) Excavation number: TWE-A-02609-C-001 Level: 8AB Description: Body fragment of a closed vessel, reddish-yellow slip, red painted decoration: six horizontal thick lines, among them one wavy line, below which are three vertical lines. Catalogue number: CYP 32 (Fig. 75) Excavation number: TWE-A-00043-C-008 Level: 7BC Description: Body fragment of a closed vessel. Painted decoration: one thick horizontal band followed by three thinner lines, below which is one vertical wavy line framed by groups of straight lines. In the blank space: one oblique wavy line framed by dots. White Painted V Eyelet Style Catalogue number: CYP 33 (Fig. 76) Excavation number: TWE-A-00177-C-083 Level: 8AB

THE BRONZE AGE CYPRIOT POTTERY FROM TELL TWEINI FIELD A

Description: Juglet with a pinched mouth, a concave neck, an ovoid body, a handle from the mouth to the shoulder and a conical pedestal-base. Whitish slip, painted decoration: five horizontal lines on the neck, one band at the junction of the neck and the body. Below it, on the shoulder, one band filled with dotted circles alternating with groups of vertical lines, followed by another thick horizontal band and a thin line. References: Vansteenhuyse 2008, 106; Vansteenhuyse 2010, 101 Catalogue number: CYP 34 (Fig. 77) Excavation number: TWE-A-00177-C-088 Level: 8AB Description: Juglet with a pinched mouth, a concave neck, an ovoid body with an angular shoulder, a handle from the mouth to the shoulder and a conical pedestal-base. Whitish slip, painted decoration: five horizontal lines on the neck, one band at the junction of the neck and the body. On the shoulder is one zigzag line framed by two straight lines and followed by another thick horizontal band. Below it is a vertical band filled with a broken line forming dotted triangles. In the blank space is a horizontal wavy band filled with dots. Three horizontal bands on the lower body. References: Vansteenhuyse 2008, 106; Vansteenhuyse 2010, 101 Catalogue number: CYP 35 (Fig. 78) Excavation number: TWE-A-00177-C-0121 Level: 8AB Description: Juglet with a pinched mouth, a concave neck, an ovoid body, a handle from the mouth to the shoulder and a conical pedestal-base. Pale slip, painted decoration: five horizontal lines on the neck, one band at the junction between the neck and the body. Under it, on the shoulder, one band filled with dotted circles alternating with groups of vertical lines, followed by another thick horizontal band, below which are a pair of vertical wavy lines and a vertical lattice band framed by groups of straight lines. Four horizontal bands at the transition to the base. A dotted circle (“eyelet”) on each side of the pinched mouth. References: Vansteenhuyse 2008, 106; Vansteenhuyse 2010, 101 Catalogue number: CYP 36 Excavation number: TWE-A-01027-C-002

347

Level: 8CD-7BC Description: Body fragment of a juglet. References: Vansteenhuyse 2008, 106 White Painted V Varia Catalogue number: CYP 37 (Fig. 13) Excavation number: TWE-A-00928-C-001 Level: 8-7 Description: Upper part of a jug with a round mouth, an everted rim, a cylindrical neck and the departure of a vertical handle. Very desurfaced, traces of horizontal bands in red paint on the neck. Catalogue number: CYP 38 (Fig. 14) Excavation number: TWE-A-00235-C-008 Level: 8AB Description: Base and body fragment of a closed vessel, light reddish-yellow slip, groups of four vertical lines in red paint. References: Vanteenhuyse 2008, 106 Catalogue number: CYP 39 Excavation number: TWE-A-00140-C-006 Level: 6-5 Description: Neck and shoulder of a large closed vessel. Catalogue number: CYP 40 (Fig. 15) Excavation number: TWE-A-02609-C-009 Level: 8AB Description: Partial handle of a closed vessel. Reddish-yellow slip, red painted decoration: a line at the base, a band on each side, a vertical thick line on the back of the handle. Catalogue number: CYP 41 (Fig. 16) Excavation number: TWE-A-00159-C-003 Level: 8-7 Description: Body fragment of a closed vessel. Black to reddish-brown painted decoration: three straight lines, one wavy line and the beginning of a thicker band. References: Vansteenhuyse 2008, 106 Catalogue number: CYP 42 (Fig. 17) Excavation number: TWE-A-00230-C-008 Level: 8AB

348

S. VILAIN

Description: Body fragment of a closed vessel, yellowish slip, two horizontal bands in brownreddish paint. Catalogue number: CYP 43 Excavation number: TWE-A-01620-C-034 Level: 7BC Description: Body fragment of a closed vessel. Painted decoration: two broad bands, a wavy line and the beginning of another band. Catalogue number: CYP 44 Excavation number: TWE-A-03306-C-007 Level: 6-5 Description: Base fragment, closed vessel. Catalogue number: CYP 45 Excavation number: TWE-A-00638-C-032 Level: 8-7BC Description: Body fragment, closed vessel. Catalogue number: CYP 46 Excavation number: TWE-A-00840-C-176 Level: 7BC Description: Body fragment, closed vessel. Catalogue number: CYP 47 Excavation number: TWE-A-01025-C-017, 034 Level: 7DE? Description: Body fragment of a closed vessel, worn paint. References: Vansteenhuyse 2008, 106 Catalogue number: CYP 48 Excavation number: TWE-A-01027-C-034, C-043 Level: 8CD-7BC Description: Body fragment, closed vessel. Catalogue number: CYP 49 Excavation number: TWE-A-01045-C-011 Level: 8AB-7BC Description: Body fragment, closed vessel. Catalogue number: CYP 50 Excavation number: TWE-A-01045-C-012 Level: 8AB-7BC Description: Rim fragment, closed vessel. Catalogue number: CYP 51 Excavation number: TWE-A-01047-C-003

Level: 8AB(-7DE) Description: Body fragment, closed vessel. Catalogue number: CYP 52 Excavation number: TWE-A-02607-C-017 Level: 8 Description: Body fragment, closed vessel. Catalogue number: CYP 53 Excavation number: TWE-A-05605-C-008 Level: 7-4 Description: Body fragment, closed vessel. White Painted V or VI Ware Catalogue number: CYP 54 Excavation number: TWE-A-01061-C-019 Level: 8AB(-7DE) Description: Base and body fragment of a tankard. Catalogue number: CYP 55 (Fig. 18) Excavation number: TWE-A-01061-C-009 Level: 8AB(-7DE) Description: Body fragment of a closed vessel, buff slip, five lines in brown paint. Catalogue number: CYP 56 Excavation number: TWE-A-00043-C-022 Level: 7BC Description: Body fragment, closed vessel. White Painted VI Ware Catalogue number: CYP 57 Excavation number: TWE-A-00847-C-055 Level: 7BC Description: Rim fragment of a closed vessel. Painted decoration: transversal strokes on the rim, broad band on the outer surface. Catalogue number: CYP 58 (Fig. 19a, b) Excavation number: TWE-A-00840-C-116 Level: 7BC Description: Rim and body fragment of a teapot with a complete vertical handle from rim to shoulder. Yellowish slip, traces of horizontal lines in brown paint on the back of the handle.

THE BRONZE AGE CYPRIOT POTTERY FROM TELL TWEINI FIELD A

Catalogue number: CYP 59 Excavation number: TWE-A-00915-C-032 Level: 7BC Description: Rim fragment and vertical handle of a jug, traces of painted lines on the handle. References: Nys and Middernacht 2010, 124 Catalogue number: CYP 60 Excavation number: TWE-A-00636-C-004 Level: 7BC Description: Spout of a teapot. Catalogue number: CYP 61 Excavation number: TWE-A-01011-C-011 Level: 7BC Description: Spout of a teapot. Catalogue number: CYP 62 (Fig. 20a) Excavation number: TWE-A-00860-C-004 Level: 7DE Description: Body fragment of a closed vessel with the attachement of a broken handle. White slip, linear decoration in reddish-brown paint. Catalogue number: CYP 63 (Fig. 20b) Excavation number: TWE-A-05581-C-021 Level: 7A Description: Neck fragment of a closed vessel. White slip, two horizontal bands in black paint. Catalogue number: CYP 64 Excavation number: TWE-A-00838-C-039 Level: 7BC Description: Pointed base fragment of a closed vessel (rattle?). Catalogue number: CYP 65 Excavation number: TWE-A-01097-C-074 Level: 7DE-BC Description: Base fragment of a rattle. References: Nys and Middernacht 2010, 125 Catalogue number: CYP 66 Excavation number: TWE-A-00909-C-039 Level: 7BC Description: Handle of a jug, one painted line on both sides of the handle and four lines on the back. Catalogue number: CYP 67 Excavation number: TWE-A-00915-C-014

349

Level: 7BC Description: Vertical handle of a closed vessel, one painted line. Catalogue number: CYP 68 Excavation number: TWE-A-00848-038 Level: 7BC Description: Handle of a closed vessel. Catalogue number: CYP 69 Excavation number: TWE-A-00874-C-011 Level: 7BC Description: Body fragment of a closed vessel. One horizontal line just under the neck and five vertical lines starting from the neck. Catalogue number: CYP 70 Excavation number: TWE-A-00855-C-085 Level: 7 Description: Body fragment with the handle of a closed vessel, traces of paint. Catalogue number: CYP 71 Excavation number: TWE-A-01092-C-011 Level: 7BC Description: Body fragment and onset of handle of a closed vessel, traces of worn paint. Catalogue number: CYP 72 Excavation number: TWE-A-00830-C-039 Level: 7BC Description: Body fragment of a closed vessel, very desurfaced, traces of a painted line. Catalogue number: CYP 73 Excavation number: TWE-A-00945-C-010 Level: 7DE Description: Body fragment, painted decoration: two horizontal lines and four vertical lines. Catalogue number: CYP 74 Excavation number: TWE-A-00848-C-117 Level: 7BC Description: Body fragment, closed vessel. Catalogue number: CYP 75 Excavation number: TWE-A-00848-C-039 Level: 7BC Description: Body fragment, closed vessel.

350

S. VILAIN

Catalogue number: CYP 76 Excavation number: TWE-A-00848-C-044 Level: 7BC Description: Body fragment, closed vessel. Catalogue number: CYP 77 Excavation number: TWE-A-01026-C-051 Level: 8AB-7 Description: Body fragment, closed vessel, worn paint. Catalogue number: CYP 78 Excavation number: TWE-A-01064-C-001 Level: 8-7 Description: Body and base fragment, closed vessel. Catalogue number: CYP 79 Excavation number: TWE-A-01097-C-016 Level: 7DE-AB Description: Body fragment, closed vessel. Catalogue number: CYP 80 Excavation number: TWE-A-00909-C-064 Level: 7BC Description: Body fragment, closed vessel, painted linear decoration. Catalogue number: CYP 81 Excavation number: TWE-A-01061-C-022 Level: 8AB(-7DE) Description: Body fragment of a tankard, yellowish fabric, slightly soft. Clay: 10 YR 8/4 “very pale brown”; Slip: 2.5 Y 8/3 “pale yellow.” Paint: sepia black. Catalogue number: CYP 82 Excavation number: TWE-A-00948-C-033 Level: 8 Description: Rim fragment of an open vessel. Painted decoration: one horizontal line below the rim; two vertical lines under it. Diam.: 14 cm. White Painted Hand-made Ware Varia Catalogue number: CYP 83 Excavation number: TWE-A-01027-C-032 Level: 8CD-7BC Description: Leg of a zoomorphic vessel.

Catalogue number: CYP 84 Excavation number: TWE-A-01026-C-040 Level: 8AB-7 Description: Fragment of an everted rim, closed vessel. Catalogue number: CYP 85 Excavation number: TWE-A-02609-C-002, C-016 Level: 8AB Description: Pinched rim and neck fragment of a closed vessel, traces of paint on the rim. Catalogue number: CYP 86 Excavation number: TWE-A-07152-C-001 Level: (7?-)6 Description: Rim fragment, closed vessel. Catalogue number: CYP 87 Excavation number: TWE-A-00114-C-056 Level: 6AB Description: Rim fragment, closed vessel. Catalogue number: CYP 88 Excavation number: TWE-A-00855-C-094 Level: 7 Description: Neck fragment, closed vessel. Catalogue number: CYP 89 Excavation number: TWE-A-01024-C-029 Level: 8AB-7BC Description: Neck fragment, closed vessel, very worn paint. Catalogue number: CYP 90 Excavation number: TWE-A-01027-C-009 Level: 8CD-7BC Description: Neck fragment, closed vessel. Catalogue number: CYP 91 Excavation number: TWE-A-01022-C-008 Level: 7BC Description: Body fragment and base of a vertical handle, closed vessel. Catalogue number: CYP 92 Excavation number: TWE-A-02554-C-060 Level: 8A-7BC

THE BRONZE AGE CYPRIOT POTTERY FROM TELL TWEINI FIELD A

Description: Vertical handle of a closed vessel (tankard?): one line on both sides of the handle, groups of three and two lines on the back. Catalogue number: CYP 93 Excavation number: TWE-A-01026-C-030, 035 Level: 8AB-7 Description: Vertical handle, closed vessel (tankard?), very desurfaced. Catalogue number: CYP 94 Excavation number: TWE-A-01026-C-033 Level: 8AB-7 Description: Onset of a vertical handle, closed vessel (tankard?). Catalogue number: CYP 95 Excavation number: TWE-A-02607-C-009 Level: 8 Description: Vertical handle, closed vessel. Catalogue number: CYP 96 Excavation number: TWE-A-02607-C-010 Level: 8 Description: Vertical handle, closed vessel, possible traces of a protruding lug. Catalogue number: CYP 97 Excavation number: TWE-A-00190-C-003 Level: 8AB-7DE Description: Vertical handle, one painted line. Catalogue number: CYP 98 Excavation number: TWE-A-02607-C-005 Level: 8 Description: Body fragment and handle, closed vessel. Catalogue number: CYP 99 Excavation number: TWE-A-00840-C-058 Level: 7BC Description: Handle. Catalogue number: CYP 100 Excavation number: TWE-A-02554-C-080 Level: 8A-7BC Description: Vertical handle, one line in the middle of the back of the handle, following its shape.

351

Catalogue number: CYP 101 Excavation number: TWE-A-02607-C-007 Level: 8 Description: Vertical handle, closed vessel. Catalogue number: CYP 102 Excavation number: TWE-A-01027-C-006 Level: 8CD-7BC Description: Vertical handle, closed vessel, very worn dark paint. Catalogue number: CYP 103 Excavation number: TWE-A-00230-C-011 Level: 8AB Description: Body fragment, open vessel. Painted decoration: broad bands alternating with wavy lines on the inside, monochrome surface on the outside. Catalogue number: CYP 104 Excavation number: TWE-A-00037-C-009, 013 Level: 7ABC Description: Body fragment, open vessel, traces of a painted line. Catalogue number: CYP 105 Excavation number: TWE-A-00840-C-094 Level: 7BC Description: Body fragment, open vessel. Catalogue number: CYP 106 Excavation number: TWE-A-00044-C-009 Level: 8AB Description: Body fragment, closed vessel: two lines in dark paint. Catalogue number: CYP 107 Excavation number: TWE-A-00158-C-004 Level: 8AB-7DE Description: Body fragment, closed vessel. Catalogue number: CYP 108 Excavation number: TWE-A-00840-C-068 Level: 7BC Description: Body fragment, closed vessel. Catalogue number: CYP 109 Excavation number: TWE-A-00840-C-091 Level: 7BC Description: Body fragment, closed vessel.

352

S. VILAIN

Catalogue number: CYP 110 Excavation number: TWE-A-01026-C-042 Level: 8AB-7 Description: Body fragment, closed vessel. Catalogue number: CYP 111 Excavation number: TWE-A-01064-C-038 Level: 8-7 Description: Body fragment, closed vessel: two vertical lines, zigzag line.

Catalogue number: CYP 119 Excavation number: TWE-A-00851-C-037 Level: 7BC Description: Body fragment, closed vessel, worn dark paint. Catalogue number: CYP 120 Excavation number: TWE-A-00866-C-013 Level: 8-7DE Description: Body fragment, closed vessel.

Catalogue number: CYP 112 Excavation number: TWE-A-01097-C-008 Level: 7DE-BC Description: Body fragment of a closed vessel (possible CLS).

Catalogue number: CYP 121 Excavation number: TWE-A-04021-C-004 Level: 7-5 Description: Body fragment, closed vessel.

Catalogue number: CYP 113 Excavation number: TWE-A-01620-C-042 Level: 7BC Description: Body fragment, closed vessel.

Red Slip Ware

White Painted Wheel-made Ware Catalogue number: CYP 114 Excavation number: TWE-A-01057-C-001 Level: 8AB Description: Neck fragment, closed vessel. Catalogue number: CYP 115 Excavation number: TWE-A-00855-C-031 Level: 7 Description: Body fragment, closed vessel. Catalogue number: CYP 116 Excavation number: TWE-A-01089-C-006 Level: 7BC Description: Body fragment, open vessel. Catalogue number: CYP 117 Excavation number: TWE-A-04021-C-013 Level: 7-5 Description: Rim fragment, closed vessel. Catalogue number: CYP 118 Excavation number: TWE-A-04021-C-006 Level: 7-5 Description: Handle, closed vessel.

Catalogue number: CYP 122 Excavation number: TWE-A-00982-C Level: / Description: Incomplete jug with a short concave neck, a globular body and a vertical handle from the upper neck to the shoulder. The mouth, the base and a part of the body are missing. Very worn surface, traces of dark red slip. Red-on-Black Ware Catalogue number: CYP 123 (Figs. 21, 79) Excavation number: TWE-A-00190-C-006, 015 Level: 8AB-7DE Description: Two joining rim fragments of a bowl, black mat slip, vertical red painted lines on the inside and groups of oblique lines on the outside. References: Nys and Middernacht 2010, 124 Catalogue number: CYP 124 (Figs. 22a-b, 80) Excavation number: TWE-A-00851-C-052 Level: 7BC Description: Rim fragment and part of a horizontal handle, black slip, vertical red lines on the inside, below the rim. Horizontal lines on the superior part of the handle. Catalogue number: CYP 125 (Fig. 23) Excavation number: TWE-A-02607-C-027

THE BRONZE AGE CYPRIOT POTTERY FROM TELL TWEINI FIELD A

Level: 8 Description: Rim fragment of a bowl, black slip, oblique parallel lines in red paint on the inside. Catalogue number: CYP 126 (Figs. 24, 81) Excavation number: TWE-A-01708-C-005 Level: (7BC-)6 Description: Rim fragment of a bowl, black slip, vertical red lines on the inside and on the outside. Catalogue number: CYP 127 Excavation number: TWE-A-00611-C-029 Level: 7BC-6 Description: Rim fragment, open vessel. Catalogue number: CYP 128 Excavation number: TWE-A-00828-C-017 Level: 7BC Description: Rim fragment, open vessel. Catalogue number: CYP 129 Excavation number: TWE-A-02554-C-084 Level: 8AB-7BC Description: Rim fragment, open vessel. Catalogue number: CYP 130 Excavation number: TWE-A-02607-C-023 Level: 8 Description: Transition neck-body fragment, open vessel.

353

Composite Ware Catalogue number: CYP 134 (Fig. 28) Excavation number: TWE-A-02554-C-059 Level: 8AB-7BC Description: Body fragment of a large bowl. Painted decoration: black slip and vertical red lines on the inside, light slip with horizontal black bands alternating with wavy lines on the outside. References: Nys and Middernacht 2010, 124, fig. 2 Monochrome Ware Catalogue number: CYP 135 (Figs. 29, 82) Excavation number: TWE-A-01058-C-003, 008 Level: 8-7 Description: Two rim and body fragments of a bowl, a complete horizontal wishbone handle attached below the rim, red slip. Catalogue number: CYP 136 (Fig. 30) Excavation number: TWE-A-01019-C-033 Level: 7BC Description: Rim and body fragment of a bowl, a complete horizontal wishbone handle attached below the rim, red slip. Catalogue number: CYP 137 Excavation number: TWE-A-00855-C-038 Level: 7 Description: Rim fragment of a large deep bowl.

Catalogue number: CYP 131 (Fig. 25) Excavation number: TWE-A-01008-C-007 Level: 7BC Description: Body fragment, open vessel, misfired: black surface, reddish-brown painted lines barely visible.

Catalogue number: CYP 138 (Fig. 31) Excavation number: TWE-A-01064-C-011 Level: 8-7 Description: Rim and body fragment of a bowl, double carination, traces of red slip.

Catalogue number: CYP 132 (Fig. 26) Excavation number: TWE-A-04217-C-001 Level: 7BC Description: Body fragment, black slip, five vertical lines in red paint.

Catalogue number: CYP 139 Excavation number: TWE-A-00909-C-002 Level: 7BC Description: Rim, body fragment and handle of a carinated bowl.

Catalogue number: CYP 133 (Fig. 27) Excavation number: TWE-A-00829-C-004 Level: / Description: Body fragment of a closed vessel, black slip, red parallel lines.

Catalogue number: CYP 140 Excavation number: TWE-A-01019-C-026 Level: 7BC Description: Rim fragment and handle, open vessel.

354

S. VILAIN

Catalogue number: CYP 141 Excavation number: TWE-A-00875-C-001 Level: 8-7DE Description: Rim fragment, open vessel.

Catalogue number: CYP 150 Excavation number: TWE-A-04200-C-015 Level: 6 (7) or 6AB Description: Rim fragment, open vessel.

Catalogue number: CYP 142 Excavation number: TWE-A-01024-C-031 Level: 8AB-7BC Description: Rim fragment and handle, open vessel.

Catalogue number: CYP 151 Excavation number: TWE-A-01027-C-045 Level: 8CD-7BC Description: Rim fragment, open vessel.

Catalogue number: CYP 143 Excavation number: TWE-A-00848-C-112 Level: 7BC Description: Rim fragment, open vessel. Catalogue number: CYP 144 Excavation number: TWE-A-00840-C-020 Level: 7BC Description: Rim fragment and handle, open vessel. Catalogue number: CYP 145 Excavation number: TWE-A-00847-C-057 Level: 7BC Description: Rim fragment, open vessel. Catalogue number: CYP 146 Excavation number: TWE-A-00847-C-046 Level: 7BC Description: Rim fragment, open vessel. Catalogue number: CYP 147 Excavation number: TWE-A-00848-C-156 Level: 7BC Description: Rim fragment and handle, open vessel.

Catalogue number: CYP 152 Excavation number: TWE-A-01041-C-001 Level: 8AB Description: Rim fragment, open vessel. Catalogue number: CYP 153 Excavation number: TWE-A-01010-C-019 Level: 7BC Description: Rim fragment and handle, open vessel. Catalogue number: CYP 154 Excavation number: TWE-A-01025-C-032, 035 Level: 7DE? Description: Two joining rim fragments, open vessel. Catalogue number: CYP 155 Excavation number: TWE-A-01010-C-019 Level: 7BC Description: Rim fragment and handle, open vessel. Catalogue number: CYP 156 Excavation number: TWE-A-00855-C-037 Level: 7 Description: Neck and body fragment, deep bowl or crater?

Catalogue number: CYP 148 Excavation number: TWE-A-00848-C-168 Level: 7BC Description: Rim fragment and handle, open vessel.

Catalogue number: CYP 157 Excavation number: TWE-A-01061-C-014 Level: 8AB(-7DE) Description: Horizontal handle, open vessel.

Catalogue number: CYP 149 Excavation number: TWE-A-00848-C-116 Level: 7BC Description: Rim fragment, open vessel.

Catalogue number: CYP 158 Excavation number: TWE-A-01024-C-041 Level: 8AB-7BC Description: Handle, open vessel.

THE BRONZE AGE CYPRIOT POTTERY FROM TELL TWEINI FIELD A

Catalogue number: CYP 159 Excavation number: TWE-A-00983-C-001 Level: 7DE Description: Bowl fragment, hard, buff fabric, orange to red slip. References: Nys and Middernacht 2010, 125 Catalogue number: CYP 160 Excavation number: TWE-A-00847-C-044 Level: 7BC Description: Carinated body fragment, open vessel. Catalogue number: CYP 161 Excavation number: TWE-A-01061-C-004 Level: 8AB(-7DE) Description: Body fragment, open vessel (crater)? Catalogue number: CYP 162 Excavation number: TWE-A-00855-C-044 Level: 7 Description: Body fragment, open vessel. Catalogue number: CYP 163 Excavation number: TWE-A-01027-C-047 Level: 8CD-7BC Description: Body fragment, open vessel. Catalogue number: CYP 164 Excavation number: TWE-A-01024-C-033 Level: 8AB-7BC Description: Carinated body fragment, open vessel. Catalogue number: CYP 165 Excavation number: TWE-A-01024-C-037 Level: 8AB-7BC Description: Body fragment, open vessel. Catalogue number: CYP 166 Excavation number: TWE-A-01020-C-022 Level: 7BC Description: Body fragment, open vessel. Catalogue number: CYP 167 Excavation number: TWE-A-01020-C-028 Level: 7BC

355

Description: Body fragment and part of handle, open vessel. Catalogue number: CYP 168 Excavation number: TWE-A-01019-C-012 Level: 7BC Description: Body fragment, open vessel. Catalogue number: CYP 169 Excavation number: TWE-A-01019-C-011 Level: 7BC Description: Body fragment, open vessel. Catalogue number: CYP 170 (Fig. 32) Excavation number: TWE-A-01057-C-014 Level: 8AB Description: Rim and body fragment of a carinated bowl, blackish colour on the upper part of the vessel, reddish slip on the lower part. Catalogue number: CYP 171 (Fig. 33) Excavation number: TWE-A-00896-C-001 Level: / Description: Rim and shoulder fragment of a carinated deep bowl (or crater?), black paint. References: Nys and Middernacht 2010, 125 Monochrome Ware (Levantine imitation?) Catalogue number: CYP 172 (Fig. 34) Excavation number: TWE-A-00838-C-007 Level: 7BC Description: Rim fragment of a bowl with a horizontal triangular handle, reddish gritty clay, minor traces of what could be a reddish wash. Bichrome Ware Catalogue number: CYP 173 (Fig. 83) Excavation number: TWE-A-01045-C-002 Level: probably 7DE Description: Shoulder fragment of a closed vessel. Light slip, painted decoration: red and black geometric motifs. References: Vansteenhuyse 2008, 108, fig. 4:2

356

S. VILAIN

Catalogue number: CYP 174 Excavation number: TWE-A-04008 Level: 7BC Description: Fragment of a vessel. References: Vansteenhuyse 2008, 108 Catalogue number: CYP 175 Excavation number: TWE-A-00968 Level: 9-7DE (pit) Description: Fragment of a vessel. References: Vansteenhuyse 2008, 108

Catalogue number: CYP 183 Excavation number: TWE-A-00851-C-053 Level: 7BC Description: Rim fragment. Catalogue number: CYP 184 (Fig. 36) Excavation number: TWE-A-00967-C-001 Level: 7BC Description: Lower part of a jug, mended from ca. 40 pieces. The neck, the handle and parts of the body are missing. Ovoid body, ring base, “red” (10R5/8) to “dusky red” (10R3/3) slip. Two antithetic arcs in relief in front of the body.

Base-Ring I Ware Catalogue number: CYP 176 (Fig. 35) Excavation number: TWE-A-00840-C-008 Level: 7BC Description: Rim fragment of a bowl, complete wishbone handle with a pinched end. Catalogue number: CYP 177 Excavation number: TWE-A-00848-C-155 Level: 7BC Description: Rim fragment of a bowl. Catalogue number: CYP 178 Excavation number: TWE-A-00848-C-164 Level: 7BC Description: Rim fragment of a bowl. Catalogue number: CYP 179 Excavation number: TWE-A-00917-C-023 Level: 7DE Description: Rim fragment of a bowl. Catalogue number: CYP 180 Excavation number: TWE-A-01620-C-038 Level: 7BC Description: Rim fragment of a bowl. Catalogue number: CYP 181 Excavation number: TWE-A-02554-C-110 Level: 8AB-7BC Description: Rim fragment of a bowl. Catalogue number: CYP 182 Excavation number: TWE-A-02609-C-019 Level: 8AB Description: Rim fragment of a bowl.

Catalogue number: CYP 185 Excavation number: TWE-A-00222-C-017-018019-020-021-022-023-024-026-028 Level: 7-6 Description: Ten body fragments of a jug, a flat handle incised with two vertical lines. Catalogue number: CYP 186 (Fig. 37) Excavation number: TWE-A-00983-C-002 Level: 7DE Description: Almost complete BR I juglet with a missing mouth. Conical neck, ovoid body, ring base, vertical strap handle from neck to shoulder. Two horizontal ridges on the neck, at the handle attachment. Red burnished slip. Catalogue number: CYP 187 (Fig. 84) Excavation number: TWE-A-00967-C-002 Level: 7BC Description: Almost complete juglet, with missing mouth and handle. Conical neck, ovoid body, ring base. Two horizontal ridges on the neck, at the handle attachment, and two vertical lines in relief on the body, opposite the handle. Catalogue number: CYP 188 (Fig. 85) Excavation number: TWE-A-00848-C-166 Level: 7BC Description: Superior part of a juglet with a funnel mouth and a conical neck. Two horizontal ridges on the neck, at the handle attachment. References: Vansteenhuyse 2008, 108, fig. 5:5; Vansteenhuyse 2010, ill. 4.5 Catalogue number: CYP 189 (Fig. 38) Excavation number: TWE-A-00848-C-169

THE BRONZE AGE CYPRIOT POTTERY FROM TELL TWEINI FIELD A

Level: 7BC Description: Superior part of a juglet with a funnel mouth, a conical neck and the departure of a broken handle. Dark brown slip, two horizontal ridges on the neck, at the handle attachment. Catalogue number: CYP 190 Excavation number: TWE-A-00848-C-167 Level: 7BC Description: Spout and part of the neck of a juglet. Catalogue number: CYP 191 Excavation number: TWE-A-01020-C-016 Level: 7BC Description: Part of the neck of a juglet, incised lines at the height of the handle. Catalogue number: CYP 192 Excavation number: TWE-A-00915-C-033 Level: 7BC Description: Neck and shoulder fragment of a closed vessel, a ridge in relief at the transition from neck to shoulder. Catalogue number: CYP 193 Excavation number: TWE-A-00838-C-044 Level: 7BC Description: Neck fragment of a juglet, a horizontal ridge. Catalogue number: CYP 194 Excavation number: TWE-A-00114-C-024 Level: 6AB Description: Pierced handle with a knob. Catalogue number: CYP 195 Excavation number: TWE-A-00527-C-003, 009 Level: 6AB Description: Handle and shoulder fragment of a closed vessel, two bands in relief on the shoulder. Catalogue number: CYP 196 (Figs. 39, 86) Excavation number: TWE-A-01061-C-002 Level: 8AB(-7DE) Description: One complete and one broken segment of the wishbone handle of a bowl. Catalogue number: CYP 197 Excavation number: TWE-A-00858-C-035

357

Level: 7 Description: Handle fragment, closed vessel. Catalogue number: CYP 198 Excavation number: TWE-A-00861-C-002 Level: 8CD-7 Description: Handle, closed vessel. Catalogue number: CYP 199 Excavation number: TWE-A-00862-C-016 Level: 8AB Description: Handle, closed vessel. Catalogue number: CYP 200 (Fig. 40) Excavation number: TWE-A-00858-C-011 Level: 7 Description: Body fragment and handle of a juglet, worn black slip, joins possibly TWE-A00858-C-021 (“CYP 211”). Catalogue number: CYP 201 Excavation number: TWE-A-01068-C-004 Level: 8 Description: Body fragment and part of a handle, closed vessel. Catalogue number: CYP 202 Excavation number: TWE-A-01202-C-019 Level: 7BC Description: Handle, closed vessel. Catalogue number: CYP 203 Excavation number: TWE-A-05558-C-006 Level: 7-5 Description: Vertical handle with two vertical grooves, worn slip, closed vessel. Catalogue number: CYP 204 Excavation number: TWE-A-01021-C-034 Level: 7BC Description: Vertical handle with two vertical grooves, closed vessel. Catalogue number: CYP 205 (Fig. 41a) Excavation number: TWE-A-01023-C-066 Level: 7BC Description: Fragment of the handle of a jug with two vertical incisions. References: Vansteenhuyse 2008, 109

358

S. VILAIN

Catalogue number: CYP 206 (Fig. 41b) Excavation number: TWE-A-01023-C-072 Level: 7BC Description: Neck fragment of a juglet, two horizontal ridges. References: Vansteenhuyse 2008, 109 Catalogue number: CYP 207 (Figs. 42, 87) Excavation number: TWE-A-01041-C-006 Level: 8AB Description: Neck fragment of a juglet, very black slip, two horizontal ridges at the handle attachment.

Level: 8-7 Description: Body fragment, closed vessel. Base-Ring II Ware Catalogue number: CYP 215 (Fig. 43) Excavation number: TWE-A-07310-C-003 Level: 7BC Description: Right leg of a bull-shaped vase, worn reddish slip.

Catalogue number: CYP 208 (Fig. 41c) Excavation number: TWE-A-01023-C-080 Level: 7BC Description: Ring-base of a juglet.

Catalogue number: CYP 216 (Fig. 44) Excavation number: TWE-A-01061-C-013 Level: 8AB(-7DE) Description: Right leg of a bull-shaped vase, black slip, traces of white paint. References: Nys and Middernacht 2010, 123

Catalogue number: CYP 209 Excavation number: TWE-A-00945-014 Level: 7DE Description: Body fragment of a jug or a juglet, one line in relief.

Catalogue number: CYP 217 (Fig. 45) Excavation number: TWE-A-06048-C-004 Level: / Description: Rim and shoulder fragment of a bowl, partial handle.

Catalogue number: CYP 210 Excavation number: TWE-A-01024-C-030 Level: 8AB-7BC Description: Body fragment with a vertical ridge, closed vessel.

Catalogue number: CYP 218 Excavation number: TWE-A-00195-C-002 Level: 8AB-7DE Description: Rim fragment, open vessel.

Catalogue number: CYP 211 Excavation number: TWE-A-00858-C-021 Level: 7 Description: Body fragment of a juglet, worn black slip, joins possibly TWE-A-00858-C-011. Catalogue number: CYP 212 Excavation number: TWE-A-00909-C-003 Level: 7BC Description: Body fragment. Catalogue number: CYP 213 Excavation number: TWE-A-00915-C-022 Level: 7BC Description: Body fragment, closed vessel. Catalogue number: CYP 214 Excavation number: TWE-A-01077-C-010

Catalogue number: CYP 219 Excavation number: TWE-A-00838-C-042 Level: 7BC Description: Rim fragment, open vessel. Catalogue number: CYP 220 Excavation number: TWE-A-00902-C-029 Level: 6 Description: Rim fragment, open vessel. Diam: 12 cm Catalogue number: CYP 221 Excavation number: TWE-A-00848-C-027 Level: 7BC Description: Rim fragment and handle, open vessel. Catalogue number: CYP 222 Excavation number: TWE-A-00848-C-144 Level: 7BC

THE BRONZE AGE CYPRIOT POTTERY FROM TELL TWEINI FIELD A

359

Description: Rim fragment and handle, open vessel.

Level: 5A Description: Rim fragment, bowl.

Catalogue number: CYP 223 Excavation number: TWE-A-00848-C-151 Level: 7BC Description: Rim fragment and handle, open vessel.

Catalogue number: CYP 232 (Fig. 88) Excavation number: TWE-A-03303-C-029 Level: 6A Description: Mouth of a jug with an everted rim. Black slip, two horizontal parallel lines in white paint. References: Vansteenhuyse 2008, 109, fig. 5:6; Vansteenhuyse 2010, ill. 4.6

Catalogue number: CYP 224 Excavation number: TWE-A-00840-C-0131 Level: 7BC Description: Rim fragment, closed vessel, white painted decoration. Catalogue number: CYP 225 Excavation number: TWE-A-00909-C-007 Level: 7BC Description: Rim fragment, closed vessel. Catalogue number: CYP 226 Excavation number: TWE-A-00909-C-008 Level: 7BC Description: Rim fragment, open vessel. Catalogue number: CYP 227 Excavation number: TWE-A-01092-C-005 Level: 7BC Description: Rim fragment, closed vessel. Catalogue number: CYP 228 Excavation number: TWE-A-01097-C-002 Level: 7DE-BC Description: Rim and neck fragment, closed vessel, traces of white paint on the neck. Catalogue number: CYP 229 Excavation number: TWE-A-01097-C-007 Level: 7DE-BC Description: Rim and neck fragment, closed vessel, white paint on the neck. Catalogue number: CYP 230 Excavation number: TWE-A-01097-C-015 Level: 7DE-BC Description: Rim fragment, closed vessel, one white line on the neck, below the rim. Catalogue number: CYP 231 Excavation number: TWE-A-01015-C-011

Catalogue number: CYP 233 (Fig. 46) Excavation number: TWE-A-03349-C-006 Level: 7DE Description: Rim and body fragment with the departure of a handle, desurfaced on the outside. Catalogue number: CYP 234 Excavation number: TWE-A-00333-C-022 Level: 7BC-6 Description: Rim and neck fragment, closed vessel. Catalogue number: CYP 235 Excavation number: TWE-A-00903-C-021 Level: 6CD Description: Rim fragment, closed vessel. Catalogue number: CYP 236 Excavation number: TWE-A-00855-C-095 Level: 7 Description: Rim fragment and handle, open vessel. Catalogue number: CYP 237 (Fig. 89) Excavation number: TWE-A-00855-C-024 Level: 7 Description: Rim fragment and shoulder of a bowl, beginning of a horizontal handle. Catalogue number: CYP 238 Excavation number: TWE-A-01011-C-013 Level: 7BC Description: Spout of a closed vessel, traces of white paint. Catalogue number: CYP 239 Excavation number: TWE-A-00852-C-014 Level: 7DE

360

S. VILAIN

Description: Neck and body fragment, closed vessel. Catalogue number: CYP 240 Excavation number: TWE-A-01061-C-017 Level: 8AB(-7DE) Description: Neck fragment, open vessel. Catalogue number: CYP 241 (Fig. 41d) Excavation number: TWE-A-01023-C-055 Level: 7BC Description: Neck fragment of a jug, groups of three and two horizontal lines in white paint. Catalogue number: CYP 242 Excavation number: TWE-A-01015-C-014 Level: 5A Description: Neck fragment, closed vessel, horizontal lines painted in white. Catalogue number: CYP 243 (Fig. 47) Excavation number: TWE-A-01019-C-030 Level: 7BC Description: Base fragment of a large jug. Catalogue number: CYP 244 Excavation number: TWE-A-00638-C-004 Level: 7BC Description: Base fragment, closed vessel. Catalogue number: CYP 245 Excavation number: TWE-A-01098-C-003 Level: 7 Description: Base fragment, small vessel. Catalogue number: CYP 246 Excavation number: TWE-A-00517-C-006 Level: 7BC Description: Fragment of a ring base, closed vessel. Catalogue number: CYP 247 Excavation number: TWE-A-00915-C-018 Level: 7BC Description: Base fragment, closed vessel. Diam.: 5 cm. Catalogue number: CYP 248 Excavation number: TWE-A-00855-C-092 Level: 7 Description: Base fragment, open vessel.

Catalogue number: CYP 249 Excavation number: TWE-A-00861-C-005 Level: 8CD-7 Description: Base fragment of a large jug. Catalogue number: CYP 250 (Fig. 48) Excavation number: TWE-A-01025-C-030 Level: 7DE? Description: Base fragment and beginning of the body of a bowl, reddish slip. Catalogue number: CYP 251 (Fig. 49a) Excavation number: TWE-A-01021-C-035 Level: 7BC Description: Base fragment of a jug, traces of white paint. Catalogue number: CYP 252 Excavation number: TWE-A-06010-C-015 Level: 7-4 (very mixed) Description: Base fragment, closed vessel. Catalogue number: CYP 253 Excavation number: TWE-07190-C-002 Level: 7BC Description: Base-ring of a large jug, white encircling band painted on the transition to the body. Catalogue number: CYP 254 Excavation number: TWE-A-00903-C-048 Level: 6CD Description: Handle, open vessel. Catalogue number: CYP 255 Excavation number: TWE-A-01015-C-012 Level: 5AB Description: Handle. Catalogue number: CYP 256 Excavation number: TWE-A-00866-C-023 Level: 8-7DE Description: Body fragment and part of a handle, open vessel. Catalogue number: CYP 257 Excavation number: TWE-A-00875-C-006 Level: 8-7DE Description: Body fragment and part of handle, closed vessel.

THE BRONZE AGE CYPRIOT POTTERY FROM TELL TWEINI FIELD A

Catalogue number: CYP 258 Excavation number: TWE-A-01015-C-015 Level: 5AB Description: Body fragment and handle, closed vessel. Catalogue number: CYP 259 Excavation number: TWE-A-00855-C-059 Level: 7 Description: Fragment of a closed vessel, dark grey outer cores and brick red inner core. Light grey slip and bright white painted decoration: two parallel lines. Catalogue number: CYP 260 Excavation number: TWE-A-00156-C-027 Level: 7BC Description: Body fragment, open vessel. Catalogue number: CYP 261 Excavation number: TWE-A-00158-C-023 Level: 8AB-7DE Description: Body fragment, juglet. Catalogue number: CYP 262 Excavation number: TWE-A-00538-C-006 Level: 7BC Description: Body fragment (part of neck?), closed vessel. Catalogue number: CYP 263 Excavation number: TWE-A-00840-C-013 Level: 7BC Description: Body fragment, closed vessel, white painted decoration. Catalogue number: CYP 264 Excavation number: TWE-A-00840-C-070 Level: 7BC Description: Body fragment, closed vessel, white painted decoration. Catalogue number: CYP 265 Excavation number: TWE-A-00840-C-075 Level: 7BC Description: Body fragment, closed vessel, white painted decoration. Catalogue number: CYP 266 Excavation number: TWE-A-00847-C-038

361

Level: 7BC Description: Body fragment, slightly lustrous black slip, faint traces of at least three parallel lines. Catalogue number: CYP 267 Excavation number: TWE-A-00848-C-052 Level: 7BC Description: Body fragment, black slip, traces of white paint. Catalogue number: CYP 268 Excavation number: TWE-A-00848-C-153 Level: 7BC Description: Body fragment. Catalogue number: CYP 269 Excavation number: TWE-A-00848-C-170 Level: 7BC Description: Body fragment. Catalogue number: CYP 270 Excavation number: TWE-A-00874-C-005 Level: 7BC Description: Body fragment with traces of white paint. Catalogue number: CYP 271 Excavation number: TWE-A-00874-C-028 Level: 7BC Description: Body fragment, open vessel. Catalogue number: CYP 272 Excavation number: TWE-A-00874-C-030 Level: 7BC Description: Body fragment, open vessel. Catalogue number: CYP 273 Excavation number: TWE-A-00874-C-044 Level: 7BC Description: Body fragment, open vessel. Catalogue number: CYP 274 Excavation number: TWE-A-00951-C-011 Level: 7(DE) Description: Body fragment, closed vessel. Catalogue number: CYP 275 Excavation number: TWE-A-00847-C-028 Level: 7BC

362

S. VILAIN

Description: Body fragment, open vessel. Catalogue number: CYP 276 Excavation number: TWE-A-00847-C-030 Level: 7BC Description: Body fragment, open vessel. Catalogue number: CYP 277 Excavation number: TWE-A-00855-C-052 Level: 7 Description: Body fragment and part of handle, closed vessel. Catalogue number: CYP 278 Excavation number: TWE-A-00855-C-060 Level: 7 Description: Body fragment, closed vessel. Catalogue number: CYP 279 Excavation number: TWE-A-00866-C-022 Level: 8-7DE Description: Body fragment, closed vessel. Base-Ring Uncoated Ware

Catalogue number: CYP 284 Excavation number: TWE-A-00840-C-083 Level: 7BC Description: Rim fragment, open vessel. Catalogue number: CYP 285 Excavation number: TWE-A-04021-C-005 Level: 7-5 Description: Spout, neck and part of handle, closed vessel. Catalogue number: CYP 286 Excavation number: TWE-A-00145-C-030 Level: 7BC-6CD Description: Rim fragment of a jug. Catalogue number: CYP 287 Excavation number: TWE-A-00145-C-032 Level: 7BC-6CD Description: Rim fragment of a jug. Catalogue number: CYP 288 Excavation number: TWE-A-00048-C-014 Level: / Description: Neck and shoulder fragment, closed vessel.

Catalogue number: CYP 280 Excavation number: TWE-A-04021-C-002 Level: 7-5 Description: Body fragment and handle, open vessel, possible traces of a white paint.

Catalogue number: CYP 289 Excavation number: TWE-A-00180-C-003 Level: 7BC Description: Neck fragment, closed vessel.

Catalogue number: CYP 281 Excavation number: TWE-A-00909-C-006 Level: 7BC Description: Handle of a bowl.

Catalogue number: CYP 290 Excavation number: TWE-A-00842-C-016 Level: 7BC Description: Base fragment.

Catalogue number: CYP 282 Excavation number: TWE-A-01620-C-036 Level: 7BC Description: Body fragment.

Catalogue number: CYP 291 Excavation number: TWE-A-02605-C-023 Level: 7BC Description: Base fragment.

Base-Ring Ware Catalogue number: CYP 283 Excavation number: TWE-A-00840-C-082 Level: 7BC Description: Rim fragment, open vessel.

Catalogue number: CYP 292 Excavation number: TWE-A-00840-C-137 Level: 7BC Description: Base fragment, open vessel. Catalogue number: CYP 293 Excavation number: TWE-A-00840-C-163

THE BRONZE AGE CYPRIOT POTTERY FROM TELL TWEINI FIELD A

363

Level: 7BC Description: Base fragment, open vessel.

Description: Neck fragment and part of handle, closed vessel, two bands in relief.

Catalogue number: CYP 294 Excavation number: TWE-A-00858-C-031 Level: 7 Description: Body fragment, closed vessel.

Catalogue number: CYP 303 Excavation number: TWE-A-01024-C-039 Level: 8AB-7BC Description: Body fragment.

Catalogue number: CYP 295 Excavation number: TWE-A-00858-C-037 Level: 7 Description: Body and handle fragment, open vessel.

Catalogue number: CYP 304 Excavation number: TWE-A-01024-C-038 Level: 8AB-7BC Description: Body fragment.

Catalogue number: CYP 296 Excavation number: TWE-A-00866-C-007 Level: 8-7DE Description: Base fragment, closed vessel.

Catalogue number: CYP 305 Excavation number: TWE-A-01024-C-036 Level: 8AB-7BC Description: Body fragment, closed vessel, relief decoration.

Catalogue number: CYP 297 Excavation number: TWE-A-01026-C-001 Level: 8AB-7 Description: Handle, open vessel.

Catalogue number: CYP 306 Excavation number: TWE-A-01620-C-037 Level: 7BC Description: Body fragment.

Catalogue number: CYP 298 Excavation number: TWE-A-00638-C-037 Level: 7BC Description: Handle.

Catalogue number: CYP 307 Excavation number: TWE-A-02554-C-073 Level: 8AB-7BC Description: Body fragment, closed vessel, very dark slip.

Catalogue number: CYP 299 Excavation number: TWE-A-00830-C-028 Level: 7BC Description: Handle, open vessel. Catalogue number: CYP 300 Excavation number: TWE-A-00858-C-006 Level: 7 Description: Handle and body fragment, open vessel. Catalogue number: CYP 301 Excavation number: TWE-A-00866-C-006 Level: 8-7DE Description: Body fragment and handle, closed vessel. Catalogue number: CYP 302 Excavation number: TWE-A-01022-C-013 Level: 7BC

Catalogue number: CYP 308 Excavation number: TWE-A-06212-C-013 Level: 7BC-6AB Description: Body fragment, closed vessel.

Red Lustrous Wheel-made Ware Catalogue number: CYP 309 Excavation number: TWE-A-00611-C-040 Level: 7BC-6 Description: Rim fragment of a plate, open vessel. Catalogue number: CYP 310 Excavation number: TWE-A-01077-C-001 Level: 8-7 Description: Rim and neck fragment of a spindle bottle.

364

S. VILAIN

References: Vansteenhuyse 2008, 110

Black Lustrous Wheel-made Ware (?)

Catalogue number: CYP 311 (Fig. 50) Excavation number: TWE-A-00847-C-012 Level: 7BC Description: Neck fragment of a spindle bottle, red slip vertically burnished. References: Vansteenhuyse 2008, 109; Vansteenhuyse 2010, 100

Catalogue number: CYP 319 Excavation number: TWE-A-00847-C-011 Level: 7BC Description: Rim fragment of a closed vessel.

Catalogue number: CYP 312 Excavation number: TWE-A-00938-C-032 Level: 8CD Description: Transition neck-body fragment, closed vessel.

Catalogue number: CYP 320 (Fig. 51) Excavation number: TWE-A-01020-C-030 Level: 7BC Description: Rim fragment of a jug or a bottle, white slip carefully burnished. References: Nys and Middernacht 2010, 125

Catalogue number: CYP 313 (Fig. 49b) Excavation number: TWE-A-01021-C-037 Level: 7BC Description: Base fragment, spindle bottle. Catalogue number: CYP 314 Excavation number: TWE-A-00909-C-059 Level: 7BC Description: Handle, closed vessel. Catalogue number: CYP 315 Excavation number: TWE-A-01059-C-002 Level: 8AB-7DE Description: Body fragment, spindle bottle. References: Vansteenhuyse 2008, 110 Catalogue number: CYP 316 Excavation number: TWE-A-00181 Level: 7BC Description: Body fragment, closed vessel. References: Vansteenhuyse 2008, 110

White Lustrous Wheel-made Ware

White Shaved Ware Catalogue number: CYP 321 Excavation number: TWE-A-00870-C-116 Level: 8CD-7 Description: Rim fragment and handle, dipper juglet. Catalogue number: CYP 322 Excavation number: TWE-A-01011-C-012 Level: 7BC Description: Rim fragment and part of vertical handle, dipper juglet. Catalogue number: CYP 323 Excavation number: TWE-A-00847-C-037 Level: 7BC Description: Rim fragment with onset of handle, dipper juglet.

Catalogue number: CYP 317 Excavation number: TWE-A-01924 Level: 6CD Description: Body fragment, closed vessel. References: Vansteenhuyse 2008, 110

Catalogue number: CYP 324 Excavation number: TWE-A-00848-C-051 Level: 7BC Description: Rim fragment, dipper juglet.

Catalogue number: CYP 318 Excavation number: TWE-A-01055 Level: 8AB Description: Body fragment, closed vessel. References: Vansteenhuyse 2008, 110

Catalogue number: CYP 325 Excavation number: TWE-A-05996 Level: 7BC Description: Upper part of a dipper juglet, onset of a vertical handle.

THE BRONZE AGE CYPRIOT POTTERY FROM TELL TWEINI FIELD A

Catalogue number: CYP 326 Excavation number: TWE-A-00855-C-091 Level: 7 Description: Part of vertical handle, dipper juglet. Catalogue number: CYP 327 Excavation number: TWE-A-01923-C-043 Level: 7BC Description: Body fragment and part of vertical handle, dipper juglet. Catalogue number: CYP 328 Excavation number: TWE-A-00830-C-040 Level: 7BC Description: Body fragment, dipper juglet. Catalogue number: CYP 329 Excavation number: TWE-A-00830-C-046 Level: 7BC Description: Body fragment, dipper juglet. Catalogue number: CYP 330 Excavation number: TWE-A-00848-C-028 Level: 7BC Description: Body fragment, dipper juglet. Catalogue number: CYP 331 Excavation number: TWE-A-01025-C-039 Level: 7DE Description: Body fragment and part of vertical handle, dipper juglet. Catalogue number: CYP 332 Excavation number: TWE-A-00840-C-138 Level: 7BC Description: Body fragment, dipper juglet. Catalogue number: CYP 333 Excavation number: TWE-A-00840-C-047 Level: 7BC Description: Body fragment and part of vertical handle, dipper juglet.

365

Level: 7BC Description: Body fragment, dipper juglet. Catalogue number: CYP 336 Excavation number: TWE-A-00830-C-049 Level: 7BC Description: Body fragment, dipper juglet. Catalogue number: CYP 337 Excavation number: TWE-A-01020-C-019, C-020, C-026, C-031 Level: 7BC Description: Body fragments, handle and base fragment of the same vessel, dipper juglet. Plain White Wheel-made Ware Catalogue number: CYP 338 (Fig. 52) Excavation number: TWE-A-00917-C-018 Level: 7BC Description: Rim fragment, closed vessel, very visible wheelmarks on the outside. Diam.: 14 cm. Catalogue number: CYP 339 Excavation number: TWE-A-00866-C-024 Level: 8-7DE Description: Flat base, open vessel. Catalogue number: CYP 340 Excavation number: TWE-A-01620-C-032 Level: 7BC Description: Shoulder and body fragment, closed vessel, sharp carination. Catalogue number: CYP 341 Excavation number: TWE-A-06212-C-021 Level: 7BC-6AB Description: Standring and base, closed vessel.

Catalogue number: CYP 334 Excavation number: TWE-A-01620-C-024 Level: 7BC Description: Body fragment, dipper juglet.

Catalogue number: CYP 342 (Fig. 53) Excavation number: TWE-A-00185-C-025 Level: 7BC Description: Almost complete jug, mouth and part of body, inclusing base, missing. Conical neck, globular body, vertical handle from rim to shoulder.

Catalogue number: CYP 335 Excavation number: TWE-A-00851-C-050

Catalogue number: CYP 343 Excavation number: TWE-A-01620-C-022

366

S. VILAIN

Level: 7BC Description: Rim and neck fragment, closed vessel. Catalogue number: CYP 344 Excavation number: TWE-A-02607-C-026 Level: 8 Description: Rim fragment (juglet?). Catalogue number: CYP 345 Excavation number: TWE-A-02554-C-081 Level: 8A-7BC Description: Rim fragment. Catalogue number: CYP 346 Excavation number: TWE-A-00852-C-016 Level: 7DE Description: Rim fragment and handle. Catalogue number: CYP 347 Excavation number: TWE-A-00001-C-017 Level: Topsoil Description: Rim fragment, open vessel. Diam: 12 cm. Catalogue number: CYP 348 Excavation number: TWE-A-00043-C-029 Level: 7BC Description: Rim fragment, plate. Catalogue number: CYP 349 Excavation number: TWE-A-00860-C-005 Level: 7DE Description: Rim fragment and vertical handle, closed shape. Catalogue number: CYP 350 Excavation number: TWE-A-01027-C-017 Level: 8CD-7BC Description: Neck fragment, closed vessel. Catalogue number: CYP 351 Excavation number: TWE-A-01305-C-003 Level: / Description: Base fragment, jug. Catalogue number: CYP 352 Excavation number: TWE-A-00044-C-006

Level: 8AB Description: Body fragment, small closed vessel. Catalogue number: CYP 353 Excavation number: TWE-A-00856-C-014 Level: 8AB Description: Body fragment. Catalogue number: CYP 354 Excavation number: TWE-A-00855-C-058 Level: 7 Description: Body fragment, closed vessel. Catalogue number: CYP 355 Excavation number: TWE-A-01027-C-011 Level: 8CD-7BC Description: Body fragment, closed vessel. Catalogue number: CYP 356 Excavation number: TWE-A-02605-C-004 Level: 7BC Description: Body fragment, open vessel? Two parallel horizontal ridges with slant grooves on top. Pithoi Catalogue number: CYP 357 (Fig. 54) Excavation number: TWE-A-00156-C-007 Level: 7BC Description: Shoulder fragment, three horizontal grooves below which is an incised wavy line. References: Vansteenhuyse 2008, 110 Catalogue number: CYP 358 (Fig. 90) Excavation number: TWE-A-00840-C-023 Level: 7BC Description: Shoulder fragment, a horizontal wavy line in relief. References: Vansteenhuyse 2008, 110 White Slip I Ware Catalogue number: CYP 359 (Fig. 55) Excavation number: TWE-A-00250-C-004 Level: 8-7BC

THE BRONZE AGE CYPRIOT POTTERY FROM TELL TWEINI FIELD A

Description: Rim fragment of a bowl, white slip, black painted decoration: a wavy line and a horizontal “Rope Pattern” under the rim. Catalogue number: CYP 360 (Figs. 57a, 91) Excavation number: TWE-A-00860-C-003 Level: 7DE Description: Rim fragment of a bowl, red fabric, white slip, bichrome decoration: one red wavy line under the rim, below which are two parallel black lines and the beginning of a “Horned Frontal Motif” in dark reddish-brown paint. References: Vansteenhuyse 2008, 107, fig. 4:1; Vansteenhuyse 2010, ill. 4.7 Catalogue number: CYP 361 (Figs. 57b, 92) Excavation number: TWE-A-00968-C-167 Level: 9-7DE (pit) Description: Rim and body fragments of the same bowl, white slip, reddish-brown paint: two horizontal lines under the rim, below which is one vertical band with lattices.

367

Description: Body fragment of a bowl painted with a “Horned Frontal” motif: two vertical wavy lines framed by dots. References: Vansteenhuyse 2008, 107 Catalogue number: CYP 366 (Fig. 56) Excavation number: TWE-A-01027-C-031 Level: 8CD-7BC Description: Body fragment of a bowl (just under the rim), white slip, painted decoration: pairs of horizontal black lines alternating with a wavy line in red paint. References: Vansteenhuyse 2008, 107 Catalogue number: CYP 367 Excavation number: TWE-A-00951-C-012 Level: 7(DE)? Description: Body fragment of a bowl, bichrome painted decoration: long brown lines with red dots between them (“Horned Frontal Motif”). White Slip II Ware

Catalogue number: CYP 362 (Fig. 57c) Excavation number: TWE-A-00945-C-007 Level: 7DE Description: Body fragment of a bowl (just under the rim), two horizontal lines, one vertical ladder. Catalogue number: CYP 363 (Figs. 57d, 93) Excavation number: TWE-A-01043-C-008 Level: 8AB-7DE Description: Body fragment of a bowl, very white slip, red painted decoration: a vertical band with lattices. References: Vansteenhuyse 2008, 107 Catalogue number: CYP 364 (Fig. 57d) Excavation number: TWE-A-00969-C-033 Level: 9 (disturbed by a pit?) Description: Wishbone handle of a bowl, white slip, black painted decoration: two groups of four parallel lines with four dots between them on each segment of the handle, four other lines on the top, one line following the shape of the handle. Catalogue number: CYP 365 (Fig. 94) Excavation number: TWE-A-01051-C-004 Level: probably 6

Catalogue number: CYP 368 (Fig. 95) Excavation number: TWE-A-00847-C-039 together with 062, 021 (two joining fragments) and 052, 059, 042, 043, 041 (five joining fragments) Level: 7BC Description: Hemispherical bowl, four rim fragments (039, 041, 042, 052) and three body fragments (021, 043, 059, 062). Painted decoration: a horizontal “Ladder Lattice” band under the rim, below which are a vertical ladder and a dotted line. Catalogue number: CYP 369 (Fig. 96) Excavation number: TWE-A-00968-C-177 Level: 9-7DE (pit) Description: Body fragment with the onset of a broken handle, “Ladder Lattice” pattern. Catalogue number: CYP 370 (Figs. 58, 97) Excavation number: TWE-A-01020-C-012 Level: 7BC Description: Rim fragment of a bowl with the attach of a broken handle. White slip, dark brown paint, dotted rim. Decoration in the “Dotted Row

368

S. VILAIN

Style”: a horizontal dotted line framed by two “Ladder Lattice” bands, beginning of a vertical “Ladder Lattice Pattern” under the handle. References: Vansteenhuyse 2008, 110 Catalogue number: CYP 371 Excavation number: TWE-A-01202-C-015 Level: 7BC Description: Rim fragment of a bowl. Painted decoration: a hooked chain between two lattice bands (“Hooked Chain Style”). Catalogue number: CYP 372a, b, c (Figs. 98, 99) Excavation number: TWE-A-00838-C-035, 036, 049 Description: Two rim fragments and one body fragment of a bowl, whitish slip, brown paint: a horizontal “Ladder Lattice” band under the rim, below which are a vertical ladder and a vertical dotted line. References: Vansteenhuyse 2008, 110 Catalogue number: CYP 373 (Figs. 68c, 100) Excavation number: TWE-A-00838-C-047 Level: 7BC Description: Rim fragment of a bowl, worn buff slip and worn brown paint, a horizontal “Ladder Lattice” below which is a vertical “Ladder Lattice” motif. References: Vansteenhuyse 2008, 110 Catalogue number: CYP 374 Excavation number: TWE-A-00838-C-058 Level: 7BC Description: Rim fragment of a bowl, worn light buff slip, “Ladder Lattice” pattern in brown paint. Catalogue number: CYP 375 (Fig. 59) Excavation number: TWE-A-00858-C-034 Level: 7BC Description: Rim fragment of a bowl, light slip, dotted rim, beginning of a “Ladder Lattice” pattern: thicker and darker outer lines, lighter and thinner inner lines. References: Vansteenhuyse 2008, 107 Catalogue number: CYP 376 (Fig. 101) Excavation number: TWE-A-03411-C-006 Level: 7BC

Description: Rim fragment of a bowl, one horizontal “Ladder Lattice” pattern below the rim. Catalogue number: CYP 377 Excavation number: TWE-A-00847-C-047 possibly with TWE-A-00847-C-036 Level: 7BC Description: Rim fragment, handle and body fragment of a bowl. Catalogue number: CYP 378 Excavation number: TWE-A-00847-C-023 Level: 7BC Description: Large piece of rim, open vessel. Catalogue number: CYP 379 (Figs. 60, 102) Excavation number: TWE-A-00848-C-020 joins with TWE-A-00848-C-047 & 034 Level: 7BC Description: Rim fragment and two body fragments of a bowl, buff slip. Brown painted decoration: “Ladder Lattice” pattern under the rim, below which are a vertical ladder and two dotted lines. Catalogue number: CYP 380 Excavation number: TWE-A-00909-C-005 Level: 7BC Description: Rim fragment of a bowl. Dotted rim, painted decoration in the “Dotted Row Style”: a dotted line framed by two horizontal “Ladder Lattice” bands. Catalogue number: CYP 381 (Fig. 103) Excavation number: TWE-A-00915-C-019 Level: 7BC Description: Rim fragment of a bowl. Painted decoration: dots on the rim, one horizontal “Ladder Lattice” band below the rim and one “Ladder” motif starting just below the first one. References: Vansteenhuyse 2008, 110 Catalogue number: CYP 382 Excavation number: TWE-A-00928-C-008 Level: 8-7 Description: Rim fragment of a bowl. Painted decoration: two partial “Ladder Lattice” patterns. Catalogue number: CYP 383 Excavation number: TWE-A-00903-C-019

THE BRONZE AGE CYPRIOT POTTERY FROM TELL TWEINI FIELD A

Level: 6CD Description: Rim fragment of a bowl. Painted decoration: one horizontal “Ladder Lattice” band under the rim, below which starts a pair of vertical lines. Diam: 24 cm. Catalogue number: CYP 384 (Figs. 61, 104) Excavation number: TWE-A-00908-C-001 Level: 7BC Description: Almost complete profile of a bowl with a triangular handle. Painted decoration: one horizontal “Ladder Lattice” motif under the rim, below which are one vertical “Ladder Lattice” band, one pair of vertical lines and one vertical dotted line. Catalogue number: CYP 385 (Fig. 105) Excavation number: TWE-A-00851-C-024 joins with TWE-A-00851-C-025 Level: 7BC Description: Rim and body fragment of a bowl with the beginning of a handle, white slip, painted decoration: a horizontal “Ladder Lattice” under the rim, below which is one group of four vertical parallel lines. Catalogue number: CYP 386 (Fig. 106) Excavation number: TWE-A-01072-C-002 Level: 7BC Description: Rim fragment of a bowl, horizontal “Ladder Lattice” band painted below the rim. Catalogue number: CYP 387 (Fig. 107) Excavation number: TWE-A-00840-C-062 Level: 7BC Description: Rim fragment of a bowl, a horizontal “Ladder Lattice” band under the rim, below which is a vertical ladder. Catalogue number: CYP 388 Excavation number: TWE-A-00945-C-027 Level: 7DE Description: Wishbone handle, bowl, several lines along the handle. Catalogue number: CYP 389 Excavation number: TWE-A-00908-C-004 Level: 7BC Description: Rim fragment of a bowl. Painted decoration: dots on the rim, horizontal “Ladder

369

Lattice” band below and traces of a vertical ladder. Catalogue number: CYP 390 (Fig. 108) Excavation number: TWE-A-00840-C-067 Level: 7BC Description: Rim fragment, bowl. References: Vansteenhuyse 2008, 110 Catalogue number: CYP 391 Excavation number: TWE-A-00636-C-027 Level: 7BC Description: Rim fragment, bowl. Catalogue number: CYP 392 Excavation number: TWE-A-00874-C-010, C-014 Level: 7BC Description: Rim fragment, bowl. Catalogue number: CYP 393 Excavation number: TWE-A-00829-C-006, 007, 009 Level: / Description: Rim and body fragments, bowl. Catalogue number: CYP 394 Excavation number: TWE-A-00541-C-002 Level: 7BC Description: Rim fragment, bowl. Catalogue number: CYP 395 Excavation number: TWE-A-00829-C-008 Level: / Description: Rim fragment, bowl. Catalogue number: CYP 396 Excavation number: TWE-A-01008-C-003 Level: 7BC Description: Rim fragment, bowl. Catalogue number: CYP 397 Excavation number: TWE-A-01008-C-007 Level: 7BC Description: Rim fragment, bowl. Catalogue number: CYP 398 Excavation number: TWE-A-01061-C-015 Level: 8AB(-7DE) Description: Rim fragment, open vessel.

370

S. VILAIN

Catalogue number: CYP 399 Excavation number: TWE-A-01000-C-035 Level: 7-1 Description: Rim fragment, bowl. Catalogue number: CYP 400 Excavation number: TWE-A-00522-C-008 Level: 7BC Description: Rim fragment and part of handle, bowl. Catalogue number: CYP 401 Excavation number: TWE-A-00861-C-003 Level: 8CD-7 Description: Rim fragment, bowl. Catalogue number: CYP 402 Excavation number: TWE-A-01014-C-009 Level: 7BC Description: Rim fragment and handle, bowl. Catalogue number: CYP 403 Excavation number: TWE-A-01614-C-018 Level: 6AB Description: Rim fragment, bowl. Catalogue number: CYP 404 Excavation number: TWE-A-00840-C-024 Level: 7BC Description: Rim fragment, bowl. Catalogue number: CYP 405 Excavation number: TWE-A-00841-C-077 Level: 7BC Description: Rim fragment, bowl. Catalogue number: CYP 406 Excavation number: TWE-A-00858-C-026 Level: 7BC Description: Rim fragment, bowl. Catalogue number: CYP 407 Excavation number: TWE-A-00858-C-033 Level: 7BC Description: Rim fragment, bowl. Catalogue number: CYP 408 Excavation number: TWE-A-00840-C-101 Level: 7BC

Description: Rim fragment, bowl. Catalogue number: CYP 409 Excavation number: TWE-A-00840-C-171 Level: 7BC Description: Rim fragment, bowl. Catalogue number: CYP 410 Excavation number: TWE-A-00840-C-179 Level: 7BC Description: Rim fragment, bowl. Catalogue number: CYP 411 Excavation number: TWE-A-00851-C-011 Level: 7BC Description: Rim fragment, bowl. Catalogue number: CYP 412 Excavation number: TWE-A-00851-C-045 Level: 7BC Description: Rim fragment, bowl. Catalogue number: CYP 413 Excavation number: TWE-A-00851-C-054 Level: 7BC Description: Rim fragment, bowl. Catalogue number: CYP 414 Excavation number: TWE-A-01021-C-042 Level: 7BC Description: Rim fragment, bowl. Catalogue number: CYP 415 Excavation number: TWE-A-01021-C-043 Level: 7BC Description: Rim fragment and handle, bowl. Catalogue number: CYP 416 Excavation number: TWE-A-05763-C-006 Level: 7-6EF Description: Rim fragment, desurfaced bowl. Catalogue number: CYP 417 Excavation number: TWE-A-05763-C-007 Level: 7-6EF Description: Rim fragment, bowl. Catalogue number: CYP 418 Excavation number: TWE-A-02605-C-021

THE BRONZE AGE CYPRIOT POTTERY FROM TELL TWEINI FIELD A

Level: 7BC Description: Rim fragment, bowl. Catalogue number: CYP 419 Excavation number: TWE-A-01021-C-045 Level: 7BC Description: Rim fragment, bowl. Catalogue number: CYP 420 Excavation number: TWE-A-01097-C-006 Level: 7DE-BC Description: Rim fragment, bowl. Catalogue number: CYP 421 Excavation number: TWE-A-05814-C-005 Level: 7-6 Description: Rim fragment, bowl. Catalogue number: CYP 422 Excavation number: TWE-A-00847-C-050 Level: 7BC Description: Rim fragment, bowl. Catalogue number: CYP 423 Excavation number: TWE-A-06404-C-007 Level: 7?-6GH Description: Wishbone handle, bowl. Catalogue number: CYP 424 Excavation number: TWE-A-01014-C-008 Level: 7BC Description: Wishbone handle, bowl. Catalogue number: CYP 425 Excavation number: TWE-A-00633-C-007 Level: 7BC Description: Wishbone handle, bowl. Catalogue number: CYP 426 Excavation number: TWE-A-00826-C-020 Level: 7BC-6 Description: Handle, bowl. Catalogue number: CYP 427 Excavation number: TWE-A-00538-C-009 Level: 7BC Description: Handle, bowl.

371

Catalogue number: CYP 428 Excavation number: TWE-A-00874-C-004 Level: 7BC Description: Wishbone handle, bowl. Catalogue number: CYP 429 Excavation number: TWE-A-01014-C-005 Level: 7BC Description: Wishbone handle, bowl. Catalogue number: CYP 430 Excavation number: TWE-A-00858-C-036 Level: 7BC Description: Horizontal handle, bowl. Catalogue number: CYP 431 Excavation number: TWE-A-00855-C-047 Level: 7 Description: Horizontal handle, bowl. Catalogue number: CYP 432 Excavation number: TWE-A-00600-C-0065 Level: Topsoil Description: Body and handle fragment, bowl. Catalogue number: CYP 433 Excavation number: TWE-07190-C-001 Level: 7BC Description: Body fragment and handle, bowl. Catalogue number: CYP 434 (Fig. 62) Excavation number: 06027-C-003 Level: / Description: Body fragment of an open vessel (just under the rim), white slip, decoration in black mat paint: four horizontal lines, one cross hatched lozenge. Catalogue number: CYP 435 (Fig. 63) Excavation number: TWE-A-01046-C-002 Level: 8AB(-7DE) Description: Body fragment of a bowl, very white slip, “Ladder Lattice” motif in brown paint. References: Vansteenhuyse 2008, 110 Catalogue number: CYP 436 (Fig. 64) Excavation number: TWE-A-02607-C-016 Level: 8

372

S. VILAIN

Description: Body fragment of a bowl, light slip, “Ladder Lattice” in brown paint. References: Vansteenhuyse 2008, 110

Level: 7BC Description: Two body fragments of the same open vessel.

Catalogue number: CYP 437 Excavation number: TWE-A-01080-C-001 Level: 7BC Description: Body fragment, bowl. References: Vansteenhuyse 2008, 110

Catalogue number: CYP 445 Excavation number: TWE-A-00627-C-003 Level: 7BC Description: Body fragment, bowl.

Catalogue number: CYP 438 (Fig. 109) Excavation number: TWE-A-00838-C-043 Level: 7BC Description: Body fragment of a bowl, “Ladder Lattice” pattern. References: Vansteenhuyse 2008, 110 Catalogue number: CYP 439 (Fig. 65) Excavation number: TWE-A-00847-C-045 possibly with 56 and 60 Level: 7BC Description: Body fragments of a bowl, white slip, “Ladder Lattice” pattern, one vertical dotted line in brown paint. Catalogue number: CYP 440 Excavation number: TWE-A-00848-C-040 Level: 7BC Description: Body fragment of a bowl, buff slip, “Ladder Lattice” in brown paint. Catalogue number: CYP 441 Excavation number: TWE-A-00246-C-004 Level: 7DE-7BC Description: Body fragment of a bowl, painted decoration in the “Hoocked Chain Style.” Catalogue number: CYP 442 (Fig. 110) Excavation number: TWE-A-02002-C-015 Level: 7-6CD Description: Body fragment of a bowl, part of a “Ladder Lattice” pattern. Catalogue number: CYP 443 Excavation number: TWE-A-00032-C-016 Level: transition to Iron Age Description: Body fragment of a bowl, worn “Ladder Lattice” pattern. Catalogue number: CYP 444 Excavation number: TWE-A-00541-C-014, 025

Catalogue number: CYP 446 Excavation number: TWE-A-00636-C-008 Level: 7BC Description: Body fragment, bowl. Catalogue number: CYP 447 Excavation number: TWE-A-01047-C-005 Level: 8AB(-7DE) Description: Body fragment, bowl. Catalogue number: CYP 448 Excavation number: TWE-A-00874-C-013 Level: 7BC Description: Body fragment and onset of handle, bowl. Catalogue number: CYP 449 Excavation number: TWE-A-00856-C-012 Level: 8AB Description: Body fragment, bowl. Catalogue number: CYP 450 Excavation number: TWE-A-00856-C-013 Level: 8AB Description: Body fragment, bowl. Catalogue number: CYP 451 Excavation number: TWE-A-01019-C-007 Level: 7BC Description: Body fragment, bowl. Catalogue number: CYP 452 Excavation number: TWE-A-00855-C-093 Level: 7 Description: Body fragment and onset of handle, bowl. Catalogue number: CYP 453 Excavation number: TWE-A-01020-C-021 Level: 7BC Description: Body fragment, bowl, very bluish slip.

THE BRONZE AGE CYPRIOT POTTERY FROM TELL TWEINI FIELD A

Catalogue number: CYP 454 Excavation number: TWE-A-01022-C-019 Level: 7BC Description: Body fragment, bowl. Catalogue number: CYP 455 Excavation number: TWE-A-01019-C-074 Level: 7BC Description: Body fragment, bowl.

373

Catalogue number: CYP 464 Excavation number: TWE-A-00848-C-046 Level: 7BC Locus: 848 Description: Body fragment, bowl. Catalogue number: CYP 465 Excavation number: TWE-A-00848-C-049 Level: 7BC Description: Body fragment, bowl.

Catalogue number: CYP 456 Excavation number: TWE-A-01619-C-050 Level: 7? Description: Body fragment of a bowl. Painted decoration: two parallel vertical lines.

Catalogue number: CYP 466 Excavation number: TWE-A-00848-C-050 Level: 7BC Description: Body fragment, bowl.

Catalogue number: CYP 457 Excavation number: TWE-A-01025-C-012 Level: 7? Description: Body fragment, bowl.

Catalogue number: CYP 467 Excavation number: TWE-A-00848-C-053 Level: 7BC Description: Body fragment, bowl.

Catalogue number: CYP 458 Excavation number: TWE-A-00847-C-048 Level: 7BC Description: Body fragment, bowl.

Catalogue number: CYP 468 Excavation number: TWE-A-00840-C-057 Level: 7BC Description: Body fragment, bowl.

Catalogue number: CYP 459 Excavation number: TWE-A-00847-C-053 possibly with C-054 Level: 7BC Description: Body fragment, bowl.

Catalogue number: CYP 469 Excavation number: TWE-A-00840-C-059 Level: 7BC Description: Body fragment, bowl.

Catalogue number: CYP 460 Excavation number: TWE-A-00848-C-035 Level: 7BC Description: Body fragment, bowl. Catalogue number: CYP 461 Excavation number: TWE-A-00848-C-036 Level: 7BC Description: Body fragment, bowl. Catalogue number: CYP 462 Excavation number: TWE-A-00848-C-037 Level: 7BC Description: Body fragment, bowl. Catalogue number: CYP 463 Excavation number: TWE-A-00848-C-042 Level: 7BC Description: Body fragment, bowl.

Catalogue number: CYP 470 Excavation number: TWE-A-00840-C-060 Level: 7BC Description: Body fragment, bowl. Catalogue number: CYP 471 (Fig. 111) Excavation number: TWE-A-00840-C-065 Level: 7BC Description: Body fragment of a bowl, a vertical ladder. Catalogue number: CYP 472 (Fig. 112) Excavation number: TWE-A-00840-C-066 Level: 7BC Description: Body fragment of a bowl, two vertical ladders. References: Vansteenhuyse 2008, 110 Catalogue number: CYP 473 Excavation number: TWE-A-00840-C-072

374

S. VILAIN

Level: 7BC Description: Body fragment, bowl.

Level: 7BC Description: Body fragment, bowl.

Catalogue number: CYP 474 Excavation number: TWE-A-00840-C-077 Level: 7BC Description: Body fragment, bowl.

Catalogue number: CYP 484 Excavation number: TWE-A-00840-C-100 Level: 7BC Description: Body fragment, bowl.

Catalogue number: CYP 475 Excavation number: TWE-A-00840-C-081 Level: 7BC Description: Body fragment, bowl.

Catalogue number: CYP 485 Excavation number: TWE-A-00840-C-102 Level: 7BC Description: Body fragment, bowl.

Catalogue number: CYP 476 Excavation number: TWE-A-00840-C-084 Level: 7BC Description: Body fragment, bowl.

Catalogue number: CYP 486 Excavation number: TWE-A-00840-C-135 Level: 7BC Description: Body fragment, bowl.

Catalogue number: CYP 477 Excavation number: TWE-A-00840-C-086 Level: 7BC Description: Body fragment, bowl.

Catalogue number: CYP 487 Excavation number: TWE-A-00851-C-055 Level: 7BC Description: Body fragment, bowl.

Catalogue number: CYP 478 Excavation number: TWE-A-00840-C-087 Level: 7BC Description: Body fragment, bowl. Catalogue number: CYP 479 Excavation number: TWE-A-00840-C-089 Level: 7BC Description: Body fragment, bowl. Catalogue number: CYP 480 Excavation number: TWE-A-00840-C-090 Level: 7BC Description: Body fragment, bowl. Catalogue number: CYP 481 Excavation number: TWE-A-00840-C-095 Level: 7BC Description: Body fragment, bowl. Catalogue number: CYP 482 Excavation number: TWE-A-00840-C-098 Level: 7BC Description: Body fragment, bowl. Catalogue number: CYP 483 Excavation number: TWE-A-00840-C-099

Catalogue number: CYP 488 Excavation number: TWE-A-00851-C-057 Level: 7BC Description: Body fragment, bowl. Catalogue number: CYP 489 Excavation number: TWE-A-00909-C-004 Level: 7BC Description: Body fragment of a bowl, “Ladder Lattice Pattern.” Catalogue number: CYP 490 Excavation number: TWE-A-00945-C-028 Level: 7DE Description: Body fragment of a bowl, “Ladder Lattice Pattern.” Catalogue number: CYP 491 Excavation number: TWE-A-00969-C-013 Level: 7DE Description: Body fragment of a bowl, “Ladder Lattice Pattern.” Catalogue number: CYP 492 Excavation number: TWE-A-00969-C-027 Level: 7DE

THE BRONZE AGE CYPRIOT POTTERY FROM TELL TWEINI FIELD A

375

Description: Body fragment of a bowl, “Ladder Lattice Pattern.”

Description: Body fragment of bowl. Painted decoration: one straight line and one dotted line.

Catalogue number: CYP 493 Excavation number: TWE-A-01021-C-041 Level: 7BC Description: Body fragment, bowl.

Catalogue number: CYP 502 Excavation number: TWE-A-07157-C-010 Level: 7-6 Description: Body fragment, bowl.

Catalogue number: CYP 494 Excavation number: TWE-A-01021-C-044 Level: 7BC Description: Body fragment, bowl. Catalogue number: CYP 495 Excavation number: TWE-A-01021-C-046 Level: 7BC Description: Body fragment, bowl. Catalogue number: CYP 496 Excavation number: TWE-A-01027-C-030 Level: 8CD-7BC Description: Handle, bowl. Catalogue number: CYP 497 Excavation number: TWE-A-01027-C-023 Level: 8CD-7BC Description: Body fragment, bowl. Catalogue number: CYP 498 Excavation number: TWE-A-01200-C-079 Level: Topsoil Description: Body fragment, bowl, very worn. brownish paint. Catalogue number: CYP 499 Excavation number: TWE-A-01310-C-027 Level: 7BC-6 Description: Fragment of a horizontal wishbone handle, bowl. Catalogue number: CYP 500 Excavation number: TWE-A-05814-C-004 Level: 7-6 Description: Fragment of a horizontal wishbone handle, bowl. Catalogue number: CYP 501 Excavation number: TWE-A-05863-C-004 Level: 7-6EF?

White Slip II Late Catalogue number: CYP 503 (Figs. 66, 113) Excavation number: TWE-A-01064-C-002 Level: 8-7 Description: Rim fragment of a bowl, light buff slip, painted decoration: four horizontal lines under the rim (two thicker outer lines and two thinner inner lines), below which are groups of four and two vertical lines. References: Vansteenhuyse 2008, 110, fig. 5:3 Catalogue number: CYP 504 (Fig. 114) Excavation number: TWE-A-00422-C-035 Level: 7BC-4 Description: Rim fragment of a bowl, four parallel lines under the rim, below which are four vertical lines. One dot in the blank space. References: Vansteenhuyse 2008, 110, fig. 5:3 Catalogue number: CYP 505 (Fig. 115) Excavation number: TWE-A-00838-C-034, 017 Level: 7BC Description: Rim and body fragment of a bowl, four horizontal lines below the rim. References: Vansteenhuyse 2008, 110, fig. 5:3 Catalogue number: CYP 506 (Fig. 116) Excavation number: TWE-A-00217-C-007 Level: 6AB Description: Rim fragment of a bowl, whitish slip, traces of a decoration in brown paint: four horizontal parallel lines under the rim, below which starts a group of four vertical parallel lines. References: Vansteenhuyse 2010, ill. 4.3 Catalogue number: CYP 507a, b (Figs. 68b, 117, 118) Excavation number: TWE-A-00838-C-032, 033 Level: 7BC

376

S. VILAIN

Description: Rim and body fragments of a bowl, four horizontal parallel lines under the rim, four vertical parallel lines. References: Vansteenhuyse 2008, 110

Catalogue number: CYP 515 Excavation number: TWE-A-00541-C-021 Level: 7BC Description: Rim fragment, bowl.

Catalogue number: CYP 508 (Figs. 68a, 119) Excavation number: TWE-A-00838-C-046 Level: 7BC Description: Rim fragment of a bowl with the beginning of a handle. Worn slip, brown paint, four parallel lines under the rim, beginning of vertical parallel lines under the handle. References: Vansteenhuyse 2008, 110

Catalogue number: CYP 516 Excavation number: TWE-A-00541-C-026 Level: 7BC Description: Rim fragment, bowl.

Catalogue number: CYP 509 (Fig. 67) Excavation number: TWE-A-00843-C-015 Level: 7BC Description: Rim and body fragment of a bowl with the beginning of a broken handle, light buff slip, four horizontal parallel lines in a brown paint under the rim, groups of four parallel vertical lines. References: Vansteenhuyse 2008, 110 Catalogue number: CYP 510 Excavation number: TWE-A-00426-C-027 Level: 7BC Description: Rim fragment and onset of handle, bowl. Catalogue number: CYP 511 Excavation number: TWE-A-00518-C-006 Level: 7BC Description: Rim fragment, bowl. Catalogue number: CYP 512 Excavation number: TWE-A-00519-C-006 Level: 7BC Description: Rim fragment, bowl.

Catalogue number: CYP 517 Excavation number: TWE-A-00840-C-063 Level: 7BC Description: Rim fragment, bowl. Catalogue number: CYP 518 Excavation number: TWE-A-00840-C-088 Level: 7BC Description: Rim fragment and onset of handle, bowl. Catalogue number: CYP 519 Excavation number: TWE-A-00848-C-121 Level: 7BC Description: Rim fragment and handle, bowl. Catalogue number: CYP 520 Excavation number: TWE-A-00855-C-019 Level: 7 Description: Rim fragment and onset of handle, bowl. Catalogue number: CYP 521 Excavation number: TWE-A-00859-C-006 Level: 8AB Description: Rim fragment and onset of handle, bowl.

Catalogue number: CYP 513 Excavation number: TWE-A-00532-C-021 Level: 7BC Description: Rim fragment, bowl.

Catalogue number: CYP 522 Excavation number: TWE-A-00908-C-002 Level: 7BC Description: Rim fragment of a bowl. Painted decoration: four horizontal parallel lines below the rim. Diam: 18 cm.

Catalogue number: CYP 514 Excavation number: TWE-A-00532-C-023 Level: 7BC Description: Rim fragment, bowl.

Catalogue number: CYP 523 Excavation number: TWE-A-01700-C-009 Level: 5-1 Description: Rim fragment, bowl.

THE BRONZE AGE CYPRIOT POTTERY FROM TELL TWEINI FIELD A

Catalogue number: CYP 524 Excavation number: TWE-A-01071-C-003 Level: 7BC Description: Rim fragment, bowl. Catalogue number: CYP 525 Excavation number: TWE-A-06454-C-027 Level: 6EF Description: Rim fragment and handle, bowl. Catalogue number: CYP 526 Excavation number: TWE-A-04021-C-015 Level: 7-5 Description: Rim fragment, bowl. Catalogue number: CYP 527 Excavation number: TWE-A-05581-C-003 Level: 7AB Description: Rim and body fragment, bowl. Catalogue number: CYP 528 Excavation number: TWE-A-04014-011 Level: 7BC(-6AB)

377

Description: Rim fragment, bowl. Catalogue number: CYP 529 (Figs. 68e, 120) Excavation number: TWE-A-00838-C-038 Level: 7BC Description: Rounded bottom of a bowl, whitish slip, reddish paint on the outside: four groups of four parallel lines converging towards the center of the bottom of the bowl. Catalogue number: CYP 530 (Fig. 68f) Excavation number: TWE-A-00838-C-040 Level: 7BC Description: Rim and body fragment of a bowl, yellowish slip, red painted decoration: four horizontal lines under the rim, below which is a group of four vertical lines. Catalogue number: CYP 531 Excavation number: TWE-A-00843-C-032 Level: 7BC Description: Body fragment and handle, bowl.

378

S. VILAIN

Fig. 1. CYP 1

Fig. 2. CYP 2

Fig. 3a, b. CYP 5

Fig. 6. CYP 14

Fig. 4. CYP 6

Fig. 7. CYP 23

Fig. 5. CYP 8

Fig. 8. CYP 24

THE BRONZE AGE CYPRIOT POTTERY FROM TELL TWEINI FIELD A

Fig. 9. CYP 25

Fig. 10. CYP 26

Fig. 11a, b, c. CYP 28, 29, 30

Fig. 12. CYP 31

379

380

S. VILAIN

Fig. 13. CYP 37

Fig. 16. CYP 41

Fig. 19a, b. CYP 58

Fig. 14. CYP 38

Fig. 17. CYP 42

Fig. 15. CYP 40

Fig. 18. CYP 55

Fig. 20a, b. CYP 52, CYP 63

381

THE BRONZE AGE CYPRIOT POTTERY FROM TELL TWEINI FIELD A

Fig. 21. CYP 123

Fig. 22a, b. CYP 124

Fig. 23. CYP 125

Fig. 25. CYP 131

Fig. 24. CYP 126

Fig. 26. CYP 132

Fig. 28a, b. CYP 134

Fig. 27. CYP 133

382

Fig. 29. CYP 135

S. VILAIN

Fig. 30. CYP 136

Fig. 32. CYP 170

Fig. 31. CYP 138

Fig. 33. CYP 171

Fig. 34. CYP 172

THE BRONZE AGE CYPRIOT POTTERY FROM TELL TWEINI FIELD A

Fig. 35. CYP 176

Fig. 38. CYP 189

Fig. 41a. CYP 205

Fig. 36. CYP 184

Fig. 39. Fig. 35. CYP 196

383

Fig. 37. CYP 186

Fig. 40. CYP 200

Fig. 41d. CYP 241

Fig. 41b. CYP 206

Fig. 41c. CYP 208

Fig. 42. CYP 207

384

Fig. 43. CYP 215

Fig. 46. CYP 233

Fig. 49a, b. CYP 251; CYP 313

S. VILAIN

Fig. 44. CYP 216

Fig. 47. CYP 243

Fig. 50. CYP 311

Fig. 45. CYP 217

Fig. 48. CYP 250

Fig. 51. CYP 320

THE BRONZE AGE CYPRIOT POTTERY FROM TELL TWEINI FIELD A

Fig. 52. CYP 338

Fig. 54. CYP 357

Fig. 53. CYP 342

385

386

S. VILAIN

Fig. 55. CYP 359

Fig. 56. CYP 366

Fig. 57a-e. CYP 360, CYP 361, CYP 362, CYP 363, CYP 364

THE BRONZE AGE CYPRIOT POTTERY FROM TELL TWEINI FIELD A

Fig. 58. CYP 370

Fig. 59. CYP 375

387

Fig. 60. CYP 382

Fig. 61a, b. CYP 384

Fig. 62. CYP 434

Fig. 63. CYP 435

Fig. 64. CYP 436

388

S. VILAIN

Fig. 66. CYP 503

Fig. 65. CYP 439

Fig. 67. CYP 509

a. CYP 508

b. CYP 507a, b

c. CYP 373 d. CYP 372a, b, c

e. CYP 529 f. CYP 530

Fig. 68a-f

389

THE BRONZE AGE CYPRIOT POTTERY FROM TELL TWEINI FIELD A

Fig. 69. CYP 5

Fig. 70. CYP 7

Fig. 72. CYP 23

Fig. 71. CYP 9

Fig. 74. CYP 30

Fig. 73. CYP 26

Fig. 75. CYP 32

Fig. 76. CYP 33

Fig. 77. CYP 34

Fig. 78. CYP 35

390

S. VILAIN

Fig. 79. CYP 123

Fig. 82. CYP 135

Fig. 84. CYP 187

Fig. 80. CYP 124

Fig. 81. CYP 126

Fig. 83. CYP 173

Fig. 85. CYP 188

THE BRONZE AGE CYPRIOT POTTERY FROM TELL TWEINI FIELD A

Fig. 86. CYP 196

Fig. 87. CYP 207

Fig. 88. CYP 232

Fig. 90. CYP 358

391

Fig. 89. CYP 237

Fig. 91. CYP 360

Fig. 92. CYP 363

Fig. 94. CYP 365

Fig. 95. CYP 368

Fig. 92. CYP 361

392

S. VILAIN

Fig. 96. CYP 369

Fig. 99. CYP 372b

Fig. 102. CYP 379

Fig. 104. CYP 384

Fig. 97. CYP 370

Fig. 100. CYP 373

Fig. 98. CYP 372a

Fig. 101. CYP 376

Fig. 103. CYP 381

Fig. 105. CYP 385

THE BRONZE AGE CYPRIOT POTTERY FROM TELL TWEINI FIELD A

Fig. 106. CYP 386

Fig. 108. CYP 390

Fig. 109. CYP 438

Fig. 113. CYP 503

393

Fig. 107. CYP 387

Fig. 110. CYP 442

Fig. 111. CYP 471

Fig. 114. CYP 504

Fig. 112. CYP 472

Fig. 115. CYP 505

Fig. 116. CYP 506

Fig. 117. CYP 507a

Fig. 118. CYP 507b

Fig. 119. CYP 508

Fig. 120. CYP 529

THE IRON AGE CYPRIOT POTTERY FROM TELL TWEINI FIELD A Karin NYS Vrije Universiteit Brussel - Maritime Cultures Research Institute (MARI)

During the excavation campaigns of 2009 and 2010, we set up a systematic study of all the Cypriot pottery found in Field A at Tell Tweini.1 First, the Cypriot pottery was identified in the pottery bags and a preliminary identification was noted in a database. In a second stage, the campaign leader, Joachim Bretschneider, agreed with the author to keep the Cypriot pottery as a separate assemblage, so that cross joints between sherds from different loci would be more easily detected. The goal was that every sherd would be photographed and that all the diagnostic fragments (mainly rims) would also be drawn. In addition, it was the intention to note the Munsell colour reference for every diagnostic sherd. The unfortunate events in Syria, prevented us from continuing the study of the Cypriot pottery, which implies that not all the Cypriot sherds were examined, and those that were preliminary examined were not always photographed and/or drawn. As we decided in 2010 to focus more on the Bronze Age pottery, the 154 items in the catalogue do not represent the complete picture of the Cypriot pottery of the Iron Age horizons in Field A at Tell Tweini. Since the White Painted, Bichrome and Black-on-Red wares can also be locally produced, we decided for this publication to label a sherd as a Cypriot production if there was sufficient data available through the notes in the database in combination with drawings and/or photographs. The typology is based on Gjerstad’s system as developed in volume IV:2 of the Swedish Cyprus Expedition.2 White Painted Ware Three open shapes and two closed shaped can be recognised within the White Painted I types. 1-3 are fragments of at least two deep bowls on a small conical foot and two opposite horizontal handles (Pl. 1). The decoration usually consists of a broad band on the rim and on mid-body. It is not excluded that 1 I would like to thank Joachim Bretschneider for having invited me to study the Cypriot pottery found in Field A at Tell Tweini and his generous hospitality during the field campaigns of 2009 and 2010. Special thanks should be given to Sarah Vilain for gathering all the available data on the Cypriot pottery at Tell Tweini and for taking charge of the publication of the Bronze Age pottery. 2 Gjerstad 1948, 1960.

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K. NYS

the conical foot 3 belongs to the same deep bowl as 2. This type of bowl can be compared with similar items from Palaepaphos-Skales.3 4-5 represent two medium-size deep bowls that were either standing on a ring-base or a conical foot.4 The third open vessel type (6-7) is a very shallow bowl with a wide flat base or ring-base, which Gjerstad labelled as a dish (Pl. 1).5 An amphoriskos on a small conical foot (8, Pl. 1)6 and a jug with a globular body (9)7 represent the closed shapes in White Painted I ware. For four fragments (10-13) there is not sufficient information available to assign them either to Type I or Type II. The open shapes are represented by a deep bowl on a conical foot (10), while the closed vessels consist of two barrelshaped jugs (11-12)8 and a shoulder fragment decorated with an arcade motif (13).9 The deep bowl (14)10 and the barrel-shaped jug (15-16, Pl. 1)11 are the shapes that can be recognised in Type II. White Painted III ware is represented by nineteen open and five closed vessels. Within the open shapes, 17-23 are fragments of deep bowls with a carinated body and two opposite horizontal handles. 17 is a more or less complete item with a stemmed conical foot (Pl. 1).12 Sometimes this type of bowl has an offset rim,13 which is further emphasized with a ridge on the transition to the body and decorated with small motifs, like the swastika on 19. The body of the bowl is usually divided in panels that are filled with a central motif or either left undecorated. 18 is decorated with a bird with hatched wings that is comparable to the central panel decoration on similar bowls on a low foot (Pl. 1).14 Nine items (23-32) are not enough preserved to determine whether they are

3

Karageorghis 1983, 28, Pl. XXX, Fig. LV (T. 44.33), 55, Pl. XLVIII, Fig. LXXI (T. 48.16), 58, Pl. XLIX, Fig. LXXII (T. 48A.6), 69, Pl. LVII, Fig. LXXXII (T. 49.119), 296-297, Pl. CLXXVIII, Fig. CLXXVIII (T. 85.42 and 51). 4 For the decorative motif of a vertical band of latticed lozenges framed by three parallel lines of 5 see Gjerstad 1948, Fig. II:3 and 5. 5 Gjerstad 1960, 110. For the decorative motif on the base see Gjerstad 1948, Fig. I:1 and Karageorghis 1983, 15-16, Pl. XXI, Fig. XLIX (T. 43.73). 6 For the shape see Karageorghis 1983: 160, Pl. CV, Fig. CXXII (T. 67.31), 296, Fig. CLXXII (T. 85.43), 300, Fig. CLXXIV (T. 85.85). 7 Compare with Gjerstad 1948, Fig. III:11-15. 8 For comparisons in Type I see Karageorghis 1983, 238, Pl. CXLIX, Fig. CXLVII (T. 78.34), 292, Pl. CLXXV, Fig. CLXIX (T. 84.21); for comparisons in Type II see Karageorghis 1983, 243-244, Pl. CLIII, Fig. CXLIX (T. 79.31). 9 For comparisons in White Painted I ware see Karageorghis 1983, 294, Pl. CLXXVIII, Fig. CLXXV (T. 85.7); Gjerstad 1948, Fig. VIII:19 and 21; for comparisons in White Painted II ware, see Gjerstad 1948, Fig. XIII:15. 10 Compare with Gjerstad 1948, Fig. XII:14-15. 11 Compare with Gjerstad 1948, Fig. XIII:7. 12 For the shape see Gjerstad 1948, Fig. XVIII:9. 13 Gjerstad 1960, 111. 14 Karageorghis and Des Gagniers 1974, nos. XXV.a.5 and XXV.a.8.

THE IRON AGE CYPRIOT POTTERY FROM TELL TWEINI FIELD A

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fragments of deep bowls standing on a low foot15 or on a ring-base16. 33-35 are fragments of dishes.17 The shape of the amphora 36 fits best the characteristics of Type III,18 but since the neck decoration of a framed lozenge inscribed with a latticed chequer motif is a familiar motif on amphorae of Type II,19 we assume that 36 is an early Type III of the ninth century BCE. This is in accordance with Level 6ABCD in which this vase was found. The closed shapes in White Painted III ware are a large (37)20 and a small type of barrel-shaped jug (38-39, Pl. 2), and a pilgrim flask (40).21 A White Painted III/IV category was created to group the items for which insufficient information is available to either attribute them to Type III or to Type IV. Eight items (41-48, Pl. 2) belong to wide, rather shallow bowls, that are usually decorated with encircling bands and lines.22 Since the bowls are only fragmentarily preserved, it is not excluded that lost parts were decorated with red bands, which would define them as Bichrome vessels. Three of these bowls show an unusual groove on the outer rim. Since they were found in Level 5 (46-47) and Level 4 (48) they are possibly Type IV bowls. 49-51 are fragments of deep bowls with a carinated body. For six fragments (52-57) it cannot be assessed to which bowl type they belong. The closed vessel shapes are a barrel-shaped jug (58-60), a juglet with a globular body (61-62),23 and an undetermined large vessel (63) – possibly an amphora with horizontal handles on the body or a hydria.24 Eight fragments can be attributed to White Painted IV vessels. Four types of bowls can be recognised: a deep bowl (64-65),25 a bowl on a low ridged foot (66-68),26 a large wide bowl (69),27 and a smaller wide bowl (70).28 An amphoriskos (71) is the only closed vessel that can be attributed to Type IV.29 For 31 items in White Painted ware (72-102) there is not enough data to assign them to a specific Type. If 72 is not an intrusive piece in Level 5AB, it 15

Gjerstad 1948, Fig. XVIII:9-10. Gjerstad 1948, Fig. XVIII:7. 17 Compare with Gjerstad 1948, Fig. XXI:1. 18 Gjerstad 1960, 119. 19 E.g. Karageorghis 1983, 243, Pl. CLII, Fig. CXLIX (T. 79.23). 20 Compare with Gjerstad 1948, Fig. XIX:1. 21 For the shape see Gjerstad 1948, Fig. XXIII:13. 22 For a comparison of the shapes see Gjerstad 1948, Fig. XXI:3 (Type III) and Fig. XXX:16 (Type IV). 23 For a comparison of the shapes see Gjerstad 1948, Fig. XXII:14 (Type III) and Fig. XXVIII:23 (Type IV). 24 The rim may be compared to Gjerstad 1948, Fig. XX:9 (Type III) and Fig. XXIX:13 (Type IV). 25 Compare with Gjerstad 1948, Fig. XXVIII:9. 26 For the shape see Gjerstad 1948, Fig. XXXI:3. 27 For the shape see Gjerstad 1948, Fig. XXXVII:15. 28 For the shape see Gjerstad 1948, Fig. XXX:14. 29 Compare with Gjerstad 1948, Fig. XXIX:13. 16

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K. NYS

might be a fragment of a White Painted IV cup.30 Other types that can be recognised are a deep bowl on a low foot (73-74), a dish (81), undetermined bowls (75-80), and a jug with a pinched spout (93). Bichrome Ware Within the assemblage that we examined, we could not detect fragments of Bichrome I ware. Only two fragments belong to Bichrome II types: 103 is a rim part of a deep bowl,31 while 104 is a base fragment of a dish.32 Bichrome III ware is represented by seven items: 105 and 106 are probably all fragments of the same deep bowl with offset rim,33 which is much similar to 19 in White Painted III ware. The closed vessels consist of a jug on a conical foot and probably a basket handle (107, Pl. 1),34 two barrel-shaped juglets (108109),35 and two small juglets on a flat base (110-111).36 The Bichrome III/IV category comprises fifteen fragments, which cannot be safely assigned to either Type III or Type IV shapes. The wide bowls 112-119 are the bichrome counterparts of the White Painted bowls 41-48. 112 (Pl. 2) has a similar groove on the outer rim like 46-48. 120 and 121 are fragments of deep bowls, while 122 is a rim fragment of an unidentified bowl. The closed shapes are represented by fragments of two amphorae (123-125),37 a pilgrim flask (127) and a large unidentified shape (126). The bull horn 124 is probably detached from the amphora 123. Bull protomes are not unusual on vessels of Type III or IV.38 It is not excluded that body fragments of three other loci also belong to amphora 123: TWE-A-00139-C-008, TWE-A-00145-C-025, TWE-A00104-C-052. 128, a shoulder fragment, possibly from a large jar with a short cylindrical neck,39 is the only item in Bichrome IV ware. It is decorated with a bull torso: the animal’s back is emphasized with an outer band and an inner line, the ribs are rendered with seven parallel lines and the hoofs are rendered naturalistically with two parallel lines marking the fetlock (Pl. 2). A similar rendering is shown

30

Compare with Gjerstad 1948, Fig. XXVIII:13. Compare with Gjerstad 1948, Fig. XV:12. 32 Compare with Gjerstad 1948, Fig. XV:8. 33 Compare with Gjerstad 1948, Fig. XXI:11. 34 Compare with Gjerstad 1948, Fig. XXIII:10. 35 Compare with Gjerstad 1948, Fig. XXII:6. 36 110 is similar to Gjerstad 1948, Fig. XXII:10, and 111 can be compared to Gjerstad 1948, Fig. XXII:9. 37 For a comparison of the shapes see Gjerstad 1948, Fig. XXIV:2 (Type III) and Fig. XXXVI:2 (Type IV). 38 E.g. Gjerstad 1948, Fig. XVIII:15 (Type III) and Fig. XXXII:1-2, 4, 6, 8-10 and Fig. XXXVI:7 (Type IV). 39 Compare with Gjerstad 1948, Fig. XXXII:4-5. 31

THE IRON AGE CYPRIOT POTTERY FROM TELL TWEINI FIELD A

399

on the bulls and cows on the shoulder of a Bichrome IV amphora in the Cyprus Museum.40 Seven Bichrome fragments cannot be attributed to a specific Type: 129 belongs to an open vessel, 130-133 are fragments of large barrel-shaped jugs, 134 is a rim fragment of a jar, while 134 and 135 are pieces of unidentified closed vessels. Black-on-Red Ware 136 and 137 are upper fragments of two juglets with a vertical handle on the neck ridge.41 They can be identified as Black-on-Red I (III) types because of their funnel-shaped upper part of the neck with a flaring rim.42 Black-on-Red II (IV) is represented by four items. 138 belonged to a deep bowl with an erect, off-set rim that is typical of Type IV.43 Bowl 139 shows four encircling grooves on the outer rim, which is comparable to a similar decoration on Red Slip II (IV) bowls.44 However, Karageorghis also observed encircling grooves on the outer rim of Type I45 and Type II bowls.46 140, the upper part of a juglet, is assigned to Type IV because of its flat horizontal rim.47 The raised flat base of 141 is typical for Type IV and even for Type V.48 Seven Black-on-Red vessels (142-148) cannot be attributed to a particular type. 142-146 are fragments of deep rounded bowls.49 Two pieces belong to closed vessels: 147 is a fragment of a juglet with an oval body,50 while 148 was part of a medium-size jug. Black Slip I/II Ware Field A yielded body sherds of three closed vessels in Black Slip ware (149151). Since all the fragments show a fluted body, they most probably belong

40

Karageorghis and Des Gagniers 1974, no. XVI.a.1. Compare with Gjerstad 1948, Fig. XXV:6, 9-10. 42 Gjerstad 1960, 115. 43 Compare with Gjerstad 1948, Fig. XXXVII:24. 44 E.g. Gjerstad 1948, Fig. XLII:17. 45 Karageorghis 1983, 54, Pl. XLVIII, Fig. LXXI (T. 48.12). 46 Karageorghis 1983, 160, Pl. CVIII, Fig. CXXVII (T. 67.12), 165, Pl. CVIII, Fig. CXXVII (T. 67.106) and 270-271, Pl. CLXVI, Fig. CLXIII (T. 82.11, 12 and 23). 47 Gjerstad 1960, 115. The shape may be compared to Gjerstad 1948, Fig. XXXVIII:9. 48 Gjerstad 1960, 115. 49 For a comparison of the shapes see Gjerstad 1948, Fig. XXIV:13 (Type III) and Fig. XXXVII:18 and 20 (Type IV). 50 For a comparison of the shapes see Gjerstad 1948, Fig. XXV:10 (Type III) and Fig. XXXIX:11 (Type IV). 41

400

K. NYS

to jugs or amphorae of Type I or II, because the body of later types is usually plain.51 Grey Polished I (III) Ware It is astonishing to find two items in Grey Polished I (III) ware (152-153), since the ware is also uncommon on Cyprus. 152 (Pl. 2) is a juglet with a round rim and a vertical handle from neck to shoulder,52 while 153 (Pl. 2) is a juglet with a pinched rim and a vertical handle from rim to shoulder.53 The grooved decoration on the latter is reminiscent of Black Slip I and II types. Plain Ware It is beyond doubt that a significant amount of the plain wares found in Field A at Tell Tweini are actually imports from Cyprus. However, without good analyses of the fabrics it is difficult to identify fragments as Cypriot products. Consequently, we classify with some reserve 154, the rim fragment of a jug with a pinched spout, as a Cypriot import during Iron Age II.54 Iron Age I Horizon The twenty vessels of Type I and II represent the Cypriot imports of the Iron Age I horizon. Open and closed vessels are equally present.55 All the shapes point to the pouring of liquids and the consumption of food and drinks. White Painted ware seems more popular than Bichrome ware,56 which corresponds to the occurrence of early Cypriot pottery elsewhere in the Levant.57 The presence of Black Slip I/II ware is unusual. According to Gjerstad, this ware is never found in the Levant and only rarely attested in Egypt and Anatolia.58 This could indicate that the few vessels in Black Slip Ware (149-151) were part of the goods and chattels brought by Cypriots to Tell Tweini or, conversely, acquired by inhabitants of Tell Tweini in Cyprus.

51

Gjerstad 1948, 78-79. For a comparison of the shapes see Gjerstad 1948, Fig. X:9 (Type I) and Fig. XVII:2-3, 5 (Type II). 52 Compare with Gjerstad 1948, Fig. XXVI:8. 53 Compare with Gjerstad 1948, Fig. XXVI:9. 54 The shape may be compared with Gjerstad 1948, Fig. XXVII:21-22 (Type III) and Fig. XLV:11 (Type IV). 55 The open shapes comprise 8 White Painted and 2 Bichrome vessels; there are also 10 closed shapes: 7 White Painted and 3 Black Slip vessels. 56 15 White Painted vessels versus 2 Bichrome shapes. 57 Schreiber 2003, 37. 58 Gjerstad 1948, 241, 262.

THE IRON AGE CYPRIOT POTTERY FROM TELL TWEINI FIELD A

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Iron Age II Horizon All the Type III (34 vessels) and Type III/IV (39 vessels) pottery are assigned to the Iron Age II horizon, which implies that nearly half of all the Cypriot Iron Age imports in Field A at Tell Tweini belong to this horizon. The 2:1 ratio between open and closed vessels differs significantly from the previous period. Karacic and Osborne explain a similar predominance of Cypriot consumption vessels in the Amuq Valley as a sign that the Cypriot pottery was imported “to serve as a component of an elite feasting assemblage”.59 In contrast, Aubet and Núñez observe at Tyre Al-Bass a prevalence of amphorae in the Cypriot imports, but since these vessels were found in a cemetery, they were used as cremation urns instead of storage jars.60 White Painted ware is still the dominant ware, although it cannot be excluded that some vessels were decorated with red bands on unpreserved parts (see supra). Black-on-Red ware is modestly presented: even if we would add all seven undetermined Black-on-Red vessels to the two juglets of this horizon, then the total amount (9) would still be meagre in comparison with the total amount of White Painted (47) and Bichrome (21) pottery. This observation is in contrast with Schreiber’s analysis that Black-on-Red started to outweigh the White Painted and Bichrome imports.61 The two Grey Polished I (III) juglets (152-153) are unique pieces, since – as far as we know – Grey Polished Ware is never found outside Cyprus. Consequently, these juglets were probably personal belongings either brought by Cypriots to Tell Tweini, or obtained by Tell Tweini people in Cyprus. Early Iron Age III Horizon The thirteen vessels of Type IV are assigned to the Early Iron Age III horizon. A thorough analysis of the Cypriot Type III/IV and undetermined sherds will probably raise the total amount of Type IV pottery. Later types are not attested in Field A at Tell Tweini. This probably implies that the explanation by Grave et al. regarding the declining presence of Cypriot pottery at Kinet Höyük in Anatolia, viz. that the expansion of the Neo-Assyrians impeded the imports of Cypriot products,62 might also be valid for Tell Tweini.

59 60 61 62

Karacic and Osborne 2016, 14. Aubet and Núñez 2008, 98. Schreiber 2003, 46. Grave et al. 2008, 1990.

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K. NYS

BIBLIOGRAPHY Aubet M.-E. and F. J. Núñez 2008: Cypriot imports from the Phoenician cemetery of Tyre Al-Bass, in: C. Doumet-Serhal (ed.), Networking Patterns of the Bronze and Iron Age Levant. The Lebanon and its Mediterranean Connections, Beirut, 71-104. Gjerstad E. 1948: The Cypro-Geometric, Cypro-Archaic and Cypro-Classical Periods (The Swedish Cyprus Expedition IV:2), Stockholm. — 1960: Pottery Types. Cypro-Geometric to Cypro-Classical, Opuscula Atheniensia III, 105-121. Grave P., L. Kealhofer, B. Marsh and M.-H. Gates 2008: Using neutron activation analysis to identify scales of interaction at Kinet Höyük, Turkey, Journal of Archaeological Science 35:7, 1974-1992. Karacic S. and J. F. Osborne 2016: Eastern Mediterranean economic exchange during the Iron Age: Portable X-ray fluorescence and neutron activation analysis of Cypriot-style pottery in the Amuq Valley, Turkey, Plos One, 1-17 (doi: 10.1371/ journal.pone.0166399). Karageorghis V. 1983: Palaepaphos-Skales. An Iron Age Cemetery in Cyprus (Ausgrabungen in Alt-Paphos auf Cypern 3), Konstanz. Karageorghis V. and J. Des Gagniers 1974: La céramique chypriote de style figuré. Âge du Fer (1050-500 Av. J.-C.) (Biblioteca di antichità cipriote 2), Roma. Nys K. and K. Middernacht 2010: The Cypriot pottery from field A, in: M. AlMaqdissi et al. (eds.), Tell Tweini. Onze campagnes de fouilles Syro-belges (19992010) (Documents d’Archéologie Syrienne), Damascus, 123-130. Schreiber N. 2003: The Cypro-Phoenician Pottery of the Iron Age (Culture and History of the Ancient Near East 13), Leiden - Boston. Vansteenhuyse K. 2008: The ceramic material from Tell Tweini – Field A, in: J. Bretschneider and K. Van Lerberghe (eds.), In search of Gibala: An Archaeological and Historical Study based on Eight Seasons of Excavations at Tell Tweini (Syria) in the A and C fields (1999-2007) (Aula Orientalis Supplementa 24), Barcelona, 103-140. — 2010: The ceramic material from Tell Tweini – Field A, in: M. Al-Maqdissi et al. (eds.), Tell Tweini. Onze campagnes de fouilles Syro-belges (1999-2010) (Documents d’Archéologie Syrienne), Damascus, 95-105.

THE IRON AGE CYPRIOT POTTERY FROM TELL TWEINI FIELD A

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CATALOGUE White Painted I Ware Catalogue number: 1 (Pl. 1) Excavation number: TWE-A-05875-C-009 Level: 6EF Description: Deep bowl on a conical foot and two opposite horizontal handles; rim chipped, pieces of rim and body missing, surface much worn. References: Nys and Middernacht 2010, 125, Fig. 4 Catalogue number: 2 Excavation number: TWE-A-00027-C-022 Level: 6GH-EF Description: Rim-body fragment of a deep bowl decorated with a broad band on rim, mid-body and inside of rim. See also cat. no. 3. Catalogue number: 3 Excavation number: TWE-A-00027-C-010 Level: 6GH-EF Description: Conical foot and lower part of a deep bowl. It is possibly that it belongs to the same bowl as cat. no. 2. Catalogue number: 4 Excavation number: ? Level: Surface Description: Upper part of a deep bowl decorated with a broad band on rim and mid-body. Catalogue number: 5 Excavation number: TWE-A-01922-C-004-005 Level: 6CD Description: Rim-body fragment of a mediumsize deep bowl, decorated with a band on the inner and outer side of the rim and a vertical band of latticed lozenges framed by three parallel lines. Catalogue number: 6 Excavation number: TWE-A-00025-C-009 Level: Unknown Description: Base fragment of a dish; encircling bands on the inside and a triangle motif on the base. References: Nys and Middernacht, 124, Fig. 6

Catalogue number: 7 (Pl. 1) Excavation number: TWE-A-00016-C028 Level: 6AB-5AB Description: Base fragment of a dish, decorated with chain of latticed lozenges and four parallel lines. Catalogue number: 8 (Pl. 1) Excavation number: TWE-A-01400-C-001 Level: Topsoil Description: Amphoriskos with conical foot, depressed body, cylindrical neck and two vertical handles. Decorated with encircling parallel bands and lines on mid-body, two encircling parallel wavy lines on shoulder, an encircling band on neck-shoulder transition, metopes of chained latticed lozenges on neck. Half of neck and one handle missing, foot chipped. References: Nys and Middernacht, 124, Fig. 5 Catalogue number: 9 Excavation number: TWE-A-00016-C-002-005006-008-051 Level: 7-5 Description: Five body fragments of at least one jug with a globular body. White Painted I/II Ware Catalogue number: 10 Excavation number: TWE-A-07002-C-005 Level: 7A? Description: Conical foot and lower part of deep bowl. Catalogue number: 11 Excavation number: TWE-A-00027-C-069 Level: 6GH-EF Description: Body of barrel-shaped jug; neck and handle missing. References: Vansteenhuyse 2008, fig. 12:5; Vansteenhuyse 2010, ill. 1:5 Catalogue number: 12 Excavation number: TWE-A-00610-C

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Level: Unknown Description: Body of barrel-shaped jug; neck and handle missing. Catalogue number: 13 Excavation number: TWE-A-05973-C-005 Level: (6AB-)5 Description: Shoulder fragment of a closed vessel decorated with an arcade motif. References: Nys and Middernacht 2010, 125-126 White Painted II Ware Catalogue number: 14 Excavation number: TWE-A-00814-C-106107-108 Level: 6CD-AB Description: Three fragments of a deep bowl with two opposite horizontal handles and possibly a low foot; the decoration consists of horizontal bands on the in- and outside and at least one vertical band of lozenges framed by parallel lines. Catalogue number: 15 (Pl. 1) Excavation number: TWE-A-00814-C-007-037055-061 Level: 6CD-AB Description: Barrel-shaped jug; vertical band of winged latticed lozenges below handle. Rim chipped and parts of body missing. Catalogue number: 16 Excavation number: TWE-A-00815-C-001 Level: 6CD-AB Description: Barrel-shaped jug; vertical band of winged latticed lozenges below handle. Rim chipped and parts of body missing. References: Vansteenhuyse 2008, fig. 12:2; Vansteenhuyse 2010, ill. 1:2

bands of winged, latticed lozenges framed by three vertical parallel lines. Some pieces from lower body, rim and one handle missing. References: Vansteenhuyse 2008, fig. 12:3; Vansteenhuyse 2010, ill. 1:3 Catalogue number: 18 (Pl. 1) Excavation number: TWE-A-00503-C-029 Level: Unknown Description: Body fragment of a deep bowl with carinated body; part of a bird decoration within a framed panel; left part of the frame preserved, consisting of five parallel lines. Catalogue number: 19 Excavation number: TWE-A-00815-C-058 Level: 6CD-AB Description: Rim-body fragment of a deep bowl with carinated body. The rim is offset and the transition to the body is marked with a ridge. The rim is decorated with a swastika. Catalogue number: 20 Excavation number: TWE-A-00501-C-035-044-055 Level: 5 Description: Rim, body and handle fragment of a deep bowl with carinated body. Catalogue number: 21 Excavation number: TWE-A-00501-C-046-048059-060 Level: 5 Description: Rim-body fragments of a deep bowl with carinated body; a band on rim and body carination and six vertical parallel lines on the body. Catalogue number: 22 Excavation number: TWE-A-00818-C-012 Level: 6CD-AB Description: Rim-body fragment of a deep bowl with carinated body; one horizontal handle preserved.

White Painted III Ware Catalogue number: 17 (Pl. 1) Excavation number: TWE-A-03214-C-001-002 Level: 5AB Description: Deep bowl with carinated body, stemmed conical foot and two opposite horizontal handles; bands on rim and carination, and vertical

Catalogue number: 23 Excavation number: TWE-A-07154-C-010 Level: 6 Description: Two joining rim-body fragments of a deep bowl with carinated body, decorated with encircling parallel bands and lines om rim and body carination.

THE IRON AGE CYPRIOT POTTERY FROM TELL TWEINI FIELD A

Catalogue number: 24 Excavation number: TWE-A-00504-C-039 Level: 6AB-5AB Description: Rim fragment of a deep bowl. Catalogue number: 25 Excavation number: TWE-A-00711-C-030 Level: Unknown Description: Rim fragment of a deep bowl. Catalogue number: 26 Excavation number: TWE-A-00502-C-014 Level: 5AB-4AB Description: Rim fragment of a deep bowl. Catalogue number: 27 Excavation number: TWE-A-06400-C-002 Level: 6-5 Description: Rim fragment of a deep bowl. Catalogue number: 28 Excavation number: TWE-A-00815-C-051 Level: 6CD-AB Description: Rim-body fragment of a deep bowl. Catalogue number: 29 Excavation number: TWE-A-00823-C-013 Level: 6CD Description: Rim-body fragment of a deep bowl. Catalogue number: 30 Excavation number: TWE-A-00808-C-006 Level: Unknown Description: Rim-body fragment of a deep bowl. Catalogue number: 31 Excavation number: TWE-A-00818-C-021 Level: 6CD-AB Description: Rim fragment of a deep bowl.

405

Catalogue number: 34 Excavation number: TWE-A-00104-C-007 Level: 5 Description: Base fragment of a dish, decorated with a zigzag line. Catalogue number: 35 Excavation number: TWE-A-01305-C-035 Level: Unknown Description: Rim fragment of a dish. Catalogue number: 36 (Pl. 1) Excavation number: TWE-A-00421-C-007 Level: 6CD-AB Description: Ca. two thirds of an amphora on a low conical foot with handles from rim to shoulder; monochrome foot and lower body, two encircling bands on mid-body, an encircling band on neck-body transition, on shoulder a panel framed on either side by two vertical and one wavy line and a central lozenge inscribed with a latticed chequer motif, monochrome rim, wavy line one outer handle. Body pieces missing and one handle missing. References: Vansteenhuyse 2008, fig. 12:1; Vansteenhuyse 2010, ill. 1:1 Catalogue number: 37 Excavation number: TWE-A-00501-C-004 Level: 5 Description: Neck fragment of a large barrelshaped jug. Catalogue number: 38 Excavation number: TWE-A-00221-C-008 Level: 6AB Description: Neck-body fragment of a barrelshaped juglet.

Catalogue number: 32 Excavation number: TWE-A-00818-C-029 Level: 6CD-AB Description: Rim fragment of a deep bowl.

Catalogue number: 39 (Pl. 2) Excavation number: TWE-A-00611-C-001 Level: 7BC-6 Description: Barrel-shaped juglet; rim chipped, some body pieces and vertical handle missing.

Catalogue number: 33 Excavation number: TWE-A-00019-C-011 Level: 6CD-AB Description: Base fragment of a dish decorated with a zigzag band near the edge.

Catalogue number: 40 Excavation number: TWE-A-00128-C Level: 5AB Description: Body fragment of a pilgrim flask, decorated with concentric bands interconnected

406

K. NYS

with a zigzag band framed on either side by two parallel lines. White Painted III/IV Ware Catalogue number: 41 (Pl. 2) Excavation number: TWE-A-00501-C-061-062 Level: 5 Description: Two joining fragments of a wide bowl decorated with encircling parallel lines and bands. One horizontal handle on rim preserved. Catalogue number: 42 Excavation number: TWE-A-01310-C-041 Level: 7B-6 Description: Rim fragment of a wide bowl, decorated on the outside with two bands of parallel lines. Catalogue number: 43 Excavation number: TWE-A-00300-C-007011-017 and TWE-A-00800-C-001 Level: Topsoil Description: Four fragments of a wide bowl, decorated with parallel bands and lines. Catalogue number: 44 Excavation number: TWE-A-01620-C-039040-041-043-044-045 Level: 7B Description: Six joining fragments of a wide bowl, decorated with encircling bands. Catalogue number: 45 Excavation number: TWE-A-00504-C-026 Level: 6AB-5AB Description: Rim fragment and horizontal handle of a wide bowl. Catalogue number: 46 Excavation number: TWE-A-00604-C-004-005 Level: 5 Description: Two joining rim fragments of a wide bowl with a groove on outer rim and decorated with encircling parallel bands and lines. Catalogue number: 47 Excavation number: TWE-A-00501-C-041b Level: 5

Description: Rim fragment of a wide bowl with a groove on outer rim. Catalogue number: 48 Excavation number: TWE-A-01101-C-023 Level: 4 Description: Rim fragment of a wide bowl with a groove on outer rim. Catalogue number: 49 Excavation number: TWE-A-00900-C-034-035 Level: Topsoil Description: Two body fragments of a deep bowl with carinated body; traces of an encircling band on mid-body and vertical parallel lines on body. Catalogue number: 50 Excavation number: TWE-A-00300-C-034 Level: Topsoil Description: Foot fragment detached from a deep bowl. Catalogue number: 51 Excavation number: TWE-A-00021-C-029-039 Level: 6CD-AB Description: Two non-joining rim-body fragments of a deep bowl. Catalogue number: 52 Excavation number: TWE-A-01305-C-001 Level: Unknown Description: Rim fragment of a bowl. Catalogue number: 53 Excavation number: TWE-A-01305-C-018 Level: Unknown Description: Rim fragment of a bowl. Catalogue number: 54 Excavation number: TWE-A-01200-C-066 Level: Topsoil Description: Rim fragment of a bowl. Catalogue number: 55 Excavation number: TWE-A-01200-C-067 Level: Topsoil Description: Rim fragment of a bowl. Catalogue number: 56 Excavation number: TWE-A-00825-C-012

THE IRON AGE CYPRIOT POTTERY FROM TELL TWEINI FIELD A

Level: 6CD Description: Base fragment of a bowl decorated with concentric circles. Catalogue number: 57 Excavation number: TWE-A-01100-C-046 Level: Topsoil Description: Rim fragment of an open vessel. Catalogue number: 58 Excavation number: TWE-A-00527-C-019 Level: 6AB Description: Body fragment of a barrel-shaped jug. Catalogue number: 59 Excavation number: TWE-A-00526-C-013 Level: (6AB-)5 Description: Body fragment with nipple of a barrel-shaped jug. Catalogue number: 60 Excavation number: TWE-A-00526-C-006 Level: (6A-)5 Description: Body fragment of a barrel-shaped jug. Catalogue number: 61 Excavation number: TWE-A-00526-C-009 Level: (6A-)5 Description: Body fragment of a small juglet with globular body. Catalogue number: 62 Excavation number: TWE-A-00206-C-031 Level: 5? Description: Body fragment of a juglet with a globular body. Catalogue number: 63 Excavation number: TWE-A-00217-C-008 Level: 6AB Description: Rim fragment of a large closed vessel. White Painted IV Ware Catalogue number: 64 Excavation number: TWE-A-00906-C-033-046

407

Level: 6 Description: Two rim-body fragments of a deep bowl, decorated with a band on rim and mid-body. Catalogue number: 65 Excavation number: TWE-A-00504-C-004-032 Level: 6AB-5AB Description: Two joining rim fragments with horizontal handle of a deep bowl. Catalogue number: 66 Excavation number: TWE-A-00906-C-005 Level: 6 Description: Low ridged foot of a deep bowl. Catalogue number: 67 Excavation number: TWE-A-00504-C-019 Level: 6AB-5AB Description: Low ridged foot of a deep bowl. Catalogue number: 68 Excavation number: TWE-A-00619-C-015 Level: 5 Description: Base of a deep bowl on low foot. Catalogue number: 69 Excavation number: TWE-A-00113-C-021 Level: 6-5 Description: Rim-body fragment of a wide bowl. Catalogue number: 70 Excavation number: TWE-A-00600-C-042 Level: Topsoil Description: Rim fragment of a small wide bowl. Catalogue number: 71 Excavation number: TWE-A-00607-C-038-047 Level: 5AB Description: Two joining rim fragments of an amphoriskos. White Painted Ware Catalogue number: 72 Excavation number: TWE-A-00609-C-027 Level: 5AB Description: Body fragment and vertical handle of a cup.

408

K. NYS

Catalogue number: 73 Excavation number: TWE-A-00813-C-014 Level: 6CD-AB Description: Foot of a deep bowl. Catalogue number: 74 Excavation number: TWE-A-00825-C-021 Level: 6CD Description: Foot fragment of a deep bowl on low foot. Catalogue number: 75 Excavation number: TWE-A-00904-C-047 Level: Unknown Description: Rim-body fragment of a bowl, decorated with parallel bands on rim and mid-body. Catalogue number: 76 Excavation number: TWE-A-00003-C-002-006 Level: 6AB-5AB Description: Rim fragment and horizontal handle of a bowl. Catalogue number: 77 Excavation number: TWE-A-00016-C-004 Level: 6AB-5AB Description: Rim fragment of a bowl; band on inner and outer rim. Catalogue number: 78 Excavation number: TWE-A-01100-C-072 Level: Topsoil Description: Rim fragment of a bowl. Catalogue number: 79 Excavation number: TWE-A-00611-C-051 Level: 7BC-6 Description: Base fragment of a bowl decorated with concentric circles on the in- and outside. Catalogue number: 80 Excavation number: TWE-A-00503-C-040 Level: Unknown Description: Rim fragment of bowl. Catalogue number: 81 Excavation number: TWE-A-00709-C-024 Level: 7 Description: Rim and/or base fragment of a dish.

Catalogue number: 82 Excavation number: TWE-A-01305-C-004-031 Level: Unknown Description: Two joining rim fragments of an open vessel. Catalogue number: 83 Excavation number: TWE-A-00021-C-43 Level: 6CD-AB Description: Rim fragment of a small open vessel. Catalogue number: 84 Excavation number: TWE-A-00127-C-033 Level: 6AB Description: Rim fragment of an open vessel. Catalogue number: 85 Excavation number: TWE-A-01000-C-015 Level: 7-1 (mixed) Description: Rim fragment of an open vessel. Catalogue number: 86 Excavation number: TWE-A-00709-C-017 Level: 7 Description: Rim fragment of an open vessel. Catalogue number: 87 Excavation number: TWE-A-01310-C-033 Level: 7BC-6 Description: Rim fragment and handle of open vessel. Catalogue number: 88 Excavation number: TWE-A-00100-C-004 Level: 6-3 (mixed) Description: Rim fragment of an open vessel. Catalogue number: 89 Excavation number: TWE-A-00609-C-025 Level: 5AB Description: Rim fragment of an open vessel. Catalogue number: 90 Excavation number: TWE-A-01308-C-017 Level: 6AB Description: Rim fragment of an open vessel. Catalogue number: 91 Excavation number: TWE-A-00803-C-003

THE IRON AGE CYPRIOT POTTERY FROM TELL TWEINI FIELD A

Level: Unknown Description: Rim fragment of an open vessel. Catalogue number: 92 Excavation number: TWE-A-00100-C-007 Level: 6AB-3 (mixed) Description: Base fragment of an open vessel. Catalogue number: 93 Excavation number: TWE-A-00709-C-003 Level: 7 Description: Rim fragment of a jug with a pinched spout. Catalogue number: 94 Excavation number: TWE-A-00113-C-002 Level: 6-5 Description: Rim fragment of a large jug. Catalogue number: 95 Excavation number: TWE-A-00400-C-001 Level: 6-4 Description: Rim-neck fragment of a jug. Catalogue number: 96 Excavation number: TWE-A-00400-C-002 Level: 6-4 Description: Neck-body fragment of a closed vessel; band on neck transition and a dotted circle surrounded by dots on shoulder. Catalogue number: 97 Excavation number: TWE-A-00813-C-026 Level: 6CD-AB Description: Rim fragment of a closed vessel. Catalogue number: 98 Excavation number: TWE-A-06501-C-002 Level: 6AB(-5) Description: Rim fragment of a closed vessel. Catalogue number: 99 Excavation number: TWE-A-05600-C-003 Level: 5-3 Description: Rim fragment of a closed vessel. Catalogue number: 100 Excavation number: TWE-A-00709-C-007 Level: 7 Description: Base fragment of a closed vessel.

409

Catalogue number: 101 Excavation number: TWE-A-00400-C-034 Level: 6-4 Description: Base fragment of an open vessel. Catalogue number: 102 Excavation number: TWE-A-00610-C-005 Level: Unknown Description: Base fragment of a closed vessel. Bichrome II Ware Catalogue number: 103 (Pl. 1) Excavation number: TWE-A-05558-C-002 Level: 6AB Description: Three rim fragments of a deep bowl with one horizontal handle preserved; bands on rim and mid-body, a cross and seven vertical parallel lines on body. Catalogue number: 104 Excavation number: TWE-A-00157-C-010 Level: 5 Description: Base fragment of a dish, decorated with concentric lines and bands. Bichrome III Ware Catalogue number: 105 Excavation number: TWE-A-00711-C-025026-028-031 Level: Unknown Description: Rim, body and handle fragments of a deep bowl with offset rim, transition to body marked with a ridge. On rim, panel with central swastika and chevron band framed with three vertical parallel lines on either side; traces of five vertical parallel lines on body. Catalogue number: 106 Excavation number: TWE-A-00703-C-011-015 Level: 6AB-5AB Description: Two joining rim-body fragments of a deep bowl. Possibly belongs to same vessel as cat. no. 105. Catalogue number: 107 (Pl. 1) Excavation number: TWE-A-00527-C-001

410

K. NYS

Level: 6AB Description: Jug on conical foot; basket handle missing. Catalogue number: 108 (Pl. 2) Excavation number: TWE-A-01056-C-001 Level: Unknown Description: Barrel-shaped juglet; chipped rim. Catalogue number: 109 Excavation number: TWE-A-00501-C-003 Level: 5 Description: Half body of a barrel-shaped jug. Catalogue number: 110 Excavation number: TWE-A-00501-C-041a Level: 5 Description: Rim-neck fragment of a juglet. Catalogue number: 111 Excavation number: TWE-A-00113-C-011-012 Level: 6-5 Description: A flat base and a body fragment of a juglet with globular body.

Catalogue number: 115 Excavation number: TWE-A-00815-C-007 Level: 6CD-AB Description: Rim fragment of a wide bowl. Cat. no. 116 possibly belongs to the same bowl. Catalogue number: 116 Excavation number: TWE-A-00815-C-053 Level: 6CD-AB Description: Rim fragment and handle of a wide bowl. This sherd possibly belongs to the same wide and shallow bowl as cat. no. 115. Catalogue number: 117 Excavation number: TWE-A-00526-C-022 Level: (6AB-)5 Description: Rim fragment of a wide bowl. Catalogue number: 118 Excavation number: TWE-A-00711-C-029 Level: Unknown Description: Base fragment of a wide bowl. Catalogue number: 119 Excavation number: TWE-A-01305-C-005-006 Level: Unknown Description: Two base fragments of a wide bowl.

Bichrome Ware III/IV Ware Catalogue number: 112 (Pl. 2) Excavation number: TWE-A-00501-C-040-042050-051-056-057 Level: 5 Description: Seven joining fragments of a wide bowl with a groove on outer rim and decorated with encircling parallel bands and lines.

Catalogue number: 120 Excavation number: TWE-A-01116-C-039 Level: 6AB Description: Rim fragment of a deep bowl. Catalogue number: 121 Excavation number: TWE-A-00709-C-046 Level: 7 Description: Rim fragment of a deep bowl.

Catalogue number: 113 Excavation number: TWE-A-01200-C-071 Level: Topsoil Description: Rim-handle fragment of a wide bowl; a star motif below handle.

Catalogue number: 122 Excavation number: TWE-A-01300-C-012 Level: Topsoil Description: Rim fragment of a bowl.

Catalogue number: 114 (Pl. 2) Excavation number: TWE-A-01301-C-023-029 Level: 5 Description: Three joining rim-body fragments of a wide bowl with horizontal handle on rim; decorated with encircling parallel lines and bands.

Catalogue number: 123 (Pl. 2) Excavation number: TWE-A-00144-C-001-002003-004-005 Level: 6GH-EF, disturbed? Description: Five joining shoulder fragments and onset of a vertical handle of an amphora,

THE IRON AGE CYPRIOT POTTERY FROM TELL TWEINI FIELD A

decorated with concentric circles and encircling parallel lines below the handle. Catalogue number: 124 (Pl. 2) Excavation number: TWE-A-00144-C-022 Level: 6GH-EF, disturbed? Description: Bull horn detached from a large vessel, probably cat. no. 123. Catalogue number: 125 Excavation number: TWE-A-00423-C-002011-027 Level: 6 Description: Three joining rim fragments of an amphora. Catalogue number: 126 Excavation number: TWE-A-05508-C-009 Level: 6-5 Description: Body fragment of a large closed vessel. Catalogue number: 127 Excavation number: TWE-A-00310-C-004 Level: 6-5 Description: Body fragment of a pilgrim flask.

411

Catalogue number: 131 Excavation number: TWE-A-00020-C-030 Level: (7-)6AB Description: Body fragment of a large barrelshaped jug. Catalogue number: 132 Excavation number: TWE-A-00217-C-012 Level: 6AB Description: Body fragment with nipple of barrelshaped jug. Catalogue number: 133 Excavation number: TWE-A-00801-C-003 Level: 5 Description: Rim fragment of a jar. Catalogue number: 134 Excavation number: TWE-A-00412-C-028029-030 Level: 6CD-AB Description: Complete profile of a closed vessel on conical foot. Catalogue number: 135 Excavation number: TWE-A-01924-C-044 Level: 6CD Description: Rim fragment of a closed vessel.

Bichrome Ware IV Ware Catalogue number: 128 (Pl. 2) Excavation number: TWE-A-03214-C-018 Level: 5AB Description: Shoulder fragment of a large jar or amphora showing a bull torso.

Black-on-Red I (III) Ware Catalogue number: 136 Excavation number: TWE-A-00215-C-032 Level: 6AB Description: Rim-neck of a juglet with vertical handle on neck ridge.

Bichrome Ware Catalogue number: 129 Excavation number: TWE-A-00608-C-021-043 Level: 5AB Description: Rim-body fragment of an open vessel. Catalogue number: 130 Excavation number: TWE-A-00104-C-055-061 Level: 5 Description: Two body fragments of a large barrel-shaped jug.

Catalogue number: 137 Excavation number: TWE-A-00200-C-099 Level: 5-3 Description: Rim-neck of a juglet with vertical handle on neck ridge. Black-on-Red II (IV) Ware Catalogue number: 138 Excavation number: TWE-A-00604-C-007

412

K. NYS

Level: 5 Description: Rim-body fragment of a deep bowl with an erect, off-set rim; concentric circles on body. References: Vansteenhuyse 2008, fig. 13:2; Vansteenhuyse 2010, ill. 1:8

Catalogue number: 146 Excavation number: TWE-A-00604-C-003 Level: 5 Description: Base-ring fragment of a bowl.

Catalogue number: 139 Excavation number: TWE-A-00703-C-005-006 Level: 6AB-5AB Description: Rim and body fragment of a bowl with four encircling grooves on outer rim.

Catalogue number: 147 Excavation number: TWE-A-00200-C-101 Level: 5-3 Description: Body fragment of a juglet with oval body. References: Vansteenhuyse 2008, fig. 13:1; Vansteenhuyse 2010, ill. 1:7

Catalogue number: 140 Excavation number: TWE-A-00409-010 Level: 5AB-4AB Description: Rim and handle fragment of a juglet.

Catalogue number: 148 Excavation number: TWE-A-00215-C-1 Level: 6AB Description: Base fragment of medium-size jug.

Catalogue number: 141 Excavation number: TWE-A-0001-C-030 Level: 5-1 (mixed) Description: Raised flat base fragment of a closed vessel.

Black Slip I/II Ware

Black-on-Red Ware Catalogue number: 142 Excavation number: TWE-A-00600-C-012 Level: Topsoil Description: Rim fragment of a deep bowl. Catalogue number: 143 Excavation number: TWE-A-00711-C-017 Level: Unknown Description: Rim fragment of a bowl. Catalogue number: 144 Excavation number: TWE-A-00607-C-053 Level: 5AB Description: Rim fragment of a bowl.

Catalogue number: 149 (Pl. 1) Excavation number: TWE-A-01920-C-015-027028-029 Level: 6AB Description: Four fragments of a jug or amphora with three encircling grooves above the fluted body. Catalogue number: 150 Excavation number: TWE-A-01930-C-008-010 and 005-011-012-013-014-015-016-017 Level: 6AB Description: Ten fragments joined into two fragments of a jug or amphora. Catalogue number: 151 Excavation number: TWE-A-01102-C-001 Level: Unknown Description: Body fragment of a jug or amphora. Grey Polished I (III) Ware

Catalogue number: 145 Excavation number: TWE-A-0001-C-019 Level: 5-1 (mixed) Description: Body fragment possibly of a deep bowl. Encircling bands on mid-body and above a ladder motif.

Catalogue number: 152 (Pl. 2) Excavation number: TWE-A-00814-C-091 Level: 6CD-AB Description: Upper part of a juglet with round rim and vertical handle from neck to shoulder.

THE IRON AGE CYPRIOT POTTERY FROM TELL TWEINI FIELD A

Catalogue number: 153 (Pl. 2) Excavation number: TWE-A-00127 Level: 6AB Description: Upper part of a juglet with pinched rim and vertical handle from rim to shoulder. Three encircling grooves below shoulder; signs of vertical furrows on the body.

413

Plain White Ware Catalogue number: 154 Excavation number: TWE-A-00021C-018 Level: 6CD-AB Description: Rim fragment of a jug with a pinched spout.

414

K. NYS

Fig. 1: Cat. No. 1

Fig. 2: Cat. No. 7

Fig. 3: Cat. No. 8

Fig. 5: Cat. No. 103

Fig. 4: Cat. No. 15

Fig. 8: Cat. No. 18

Fig. 6: Cat. No. 149

Fig. 7: Cat. No. 17

Fig. 9: Cat. No. 107 Plate 1: Fig. 1-6: Iron Age I, Fig. 7-10: Iron Age II

Fig. 10: Cat. No. 36

THE IRON AGE CYPRIOT POTTERY FROM TELL TWEINI FIELD A

Fig. 11: Cat. No. 39

Fig. 14: Cat. No. 153

Fig. 16: Cat. No. 114

Fig. 12: Cat. No. 108

415

Fig. 13: Cat. No. 128

Fig. 15: Cat. No. 152

Fig. 17: Cat. No. 123-124

Fig. 18: Cat. No. 112 (a), 141 (b)

Plate 2: Fig. 11-12, 14-18: Iron Age II, Fig. 13: Early Iron Age III

BRONZE AND IRON AGE PALAEO-ECONOMY IN A CHANGING ENVIRONMENT. THE BIOARCHAEOLOGY OF TELL TWEINI, ON THE NORTHERN LEVANTINE COAST Veerle LINSEELE1,2,3, Elena MARINOVA1,2,4, Bea DE CUPERE2, Jan VAN DER VALK, Patricia VANDORPE5, Wim VAN NEER1,2 1

KU Leuven - Laboratory of Biodiversity and Evolutionary Genomics 2 Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences, Brussels 3 Universiteit Gent - Department of Archaeology 4 State Office for Cultural Heritage Baden-Württemberg Laboratory for Archaeobotany 5 University of Basel - Integrative Prehistory and Natural Science (IPAS)

1. INTRODUCTION In this contribution, the archaeozoological and archaeobotanical data are presented from the excavations in Field A at the settlement mound of Tell Tweini, on the Syrian coast (35°22′17.93″N, 35°56′12.60″E), dated mainly to the Bronze Age and the Iron Age. Because of its long-term occupation, the site is well suited for the study of diachronic developments. Importantly, Tell Tweini is one of the rare sites of the area where the transition between the Bronze Age and the Iron Age is recorded. The long and continuous occupation of the site allows reconstructing the impact of the environmental changes that have been documented for coastal Syria, a climatically sensitive zone,1 both on the animal and plant husbandry of the area and on how the humans living there adapted their subsistence economy to the environmental change. In addition, the influence of regional political and socio-economical changes on the animal and plant economy can be established. Tell Tweini was located on the crossroads of multiple trade routes, and the area has undergone influences from different political powers in the eastern Mediterranean. The general composition of the fauna at Tell Tweini has been reported on before,2 and a separate article has discussed the possible meaning of the numerous remains of Nile perch (Lates niloticus), which was imported from Egypt, as well as the range of questions that this trade raises.3 Another contribution dealt with the plant and animal remains from Middle Bronze Age tombs at Tell

1 2 3

Kaniewski et al. 2008; Kaniewski et al. 2010. Linseele 2008; Linseele 2010. Linseele et al. 2013.

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V. LINSEELE ET AL.

Tweini and placed them in the context of the subsistence during this phase of occupation at the site.4 It appeared that the food items offered to the dead were similar to those consumed by the living. Despite the climatic and political changes that the area has undergone during the period of occupation at Tell Tweini, the bioarchaeological data from Field A have thus far only been able to document minor diachronic variation. This includes a slight increase in the relative importance of fish remains through time and small variations in the relative importance of game and the different domesticated species.5 It remains to be verified, however, whether some of the variation may have been masked in the previous studies, as the data were grouped in relatively broad phases, namely Early Bronze Age, Middle Bronze Age, Late Bronze Age and Iron Age. Studies carried out in the southern Levant have shown that using finer chronological subdivisions can be considerably more revealing for reconstructing change through time.6 In the present paper an attempt will therefore be made to document finer diachronic changes in the faunal remains from Tell Tweini. Emphasis will be laid on the relative importance of different vertebrate taxa and groups and, for the domestic animal species, also on slaughtering ages and body size. The excavations at Tell Tweini have also yielded considerable amounts of shells, which will not be dealt with here. Further, in order to describe the economy of the site, the macrobotanical evidence on agricultural production and land use will be considered. As the macrobotanical samples are not that numerous, only the broader chronological groupings (Middle and Late Bronze Age, Iron Age) will be taken into account. The Early Bronze Age is excluded from broader comparisons and discussion due to the limited amount of evidence (one sample only). However, adding this information will allow a complete picture of the subsistence economy of the site to be drawn based on the available bioarchaeological evidence. 2. STUDY AREA AND ARCHAEOLOGICAL CONTEXT Tell Tweini is a settlement mound on the Syrian coast, near the modern town of Jebleh and about 30 km south of modern Lattakia (Fig. 1). It is situated at elevations between 19 and 27 meters above sea level and covers a surface area of about 11.6 ha. The distance from Tell Tweini to the Mediterranean is ca. 1.5 km. The site had access to the sea via the Rumailah River, which was navigable until the early 20th century AD. However, the mouth of the river was

4 5 6

Marinova et al. 2012. Linseele et al. 2013. Sapir-Hen et al. 2014.

BRONZE AND IRON AGE PALAEO-ECONOMY IN A CHANGING ENVIRONMENT

419

probably too narrow to allow seagoing ships to directly reach the site.7 A spring-fed rivulet, the Al-Fawar, flows south of Tell Tweini and joins the Rumailah River ca. 200 m west of the tell. During the occupation of the site, the plains south of the tell were reed marshes, while the plains west of the tell were well drained.8 The entire topographic setting, the sedimentology and the identified freshwater molluscs from the cores all indicate that the water near the site was fresh. The coastal lowlands of Syria are separated from the inland by a 140 km long north-south mountain range that is 40 to 50 km wide, with peaks of 1200 m above sea level, the Jabal an Nusayriyah. Coastal Syria is situated at the transition between the Mediterranean and subtropical climates. While most areas of Syria are arid at present, with 200-400 mm of mean annual rainfall, mean annual precipitation at Tell Tweini can reach 600-1000 mm.9 Under such conditions, rain-fed agriculture is possible, without serious losses in drought years. The natural vegetation of coastal Syria belongs to the Mediterranean phytogeographical zone,10 now largely degraded to cultivated areas, pasture land or maquis shrublands. Study of pollen from a core drilled into the alluvial deposits of the Rumailah River has shown two large-scale shifts to more arid climatic conditions, one from ca. 2200 to 1900 BCE and another from the early 13th/12th century BCE until the 9th/8th century BCE.11 The second dry period was comparatively longer and drier than the first one, and was characterised by the development of warm steppe (1100-800 cal BCE) and a peak with hot desert at 900 cal BCE, as indicated by pollen-derived biomisation. Presumably, the people of Tell Tweini suffered less from water shortages during dry phases than did those at other locations in the area because of the abundant springs in its immediate surroundings.12 It is assumed that modern Tell Tweini can be identified with ancient Gibala, the southernmost town in the Ugarit Kingdom and one of its four harbours (Late Bronze Age, ca. 1600-1200 BCE), mentioned in cuneiform tablets.13 The archaeological finds testify to (trade) relationships and intense regional contacts, especially with Cyprus, but also with Crete, Syro-Mesopotamia, the Hittite Empire and Egypt. Excavated levels recognised for the site can be fit into the larger, regional chronology (Tab. 1). Excavations at Tell Tweini have yielded remains from dating from Early Bronze Age III-IV (ca. 2600 BCE, Level 11) to recent times (Level 1), but the main period of occupation at the site was between the Middle Bronze Age and Iron Age I/II (2000-500 BCE) 7

Baeteman and Bogemans in this volume. Baeteman and Bogemans in this volume. 9 Wirth 1971, 3. 10 Zohary 1973, 73-79. 11 Kaniewski et al. 2008; Kaniewski et al. 2010. 12 Kaniewski et al. 2008. 13 Van Soldt 1997. 8

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(Levels 8-5). Below follows a brief summary of the main features of each of the periods relevant for this paper.14 The earliest records from Tell Tweini date to the Early Bronze Age (26002000 BCE, Levels 11-10-9). Loci from this period have been reached in one deep sounding, but they are largely disturbed by later features. During the Middle Bronze Age (ca. 2000-1600 BCE), with the emergence of a series of small states, complex commercial trade relations developed in the Levant.15 Middle Bronze Age I (2000-1800 BCE, Level 8 C-D) is an enigmatic period in the area of Tell Tweini, which left only limited archaeological traces at the site, including a few graves and tombs. Most of these burials date to Middle Bronze Age II (1800-1600 BCE, Level 8 A-B), including a communal tomb with the remains of at least 58 individuals.16 The Late Bronze Age (ca. 16001190 BCE, Level 7) represents a period of prosperity in the economic and cultural history of the eastern Mediterranean. It was the time of the great Ugarit Kingdom, of which the capital Ugarit (modern-day Rash Shamra) was located ca. 30 km north of Tell Tweini. Tell Tweini/ancient Gibala was a harbour town of this empire. The many imported luxury goods from the Late Bronze Age found at the site confirm the existence of an elaborate network of international relations and commercial activities. An abrupt climatic change in the Eastern Mediterranean and the Levant starting in the late 13th/early 12th centuries BCE seems to be one of the reasons for social and political unrest in the region.17 The collapse of the Late Bronze Age civilizations of the Eastern Mediterranean, including the destruction of Ugarit around 1192 BCE, is linked by many scholars to the migration to and attacks on the Near East by central and eastern Mediterranean people – the socalled Sea-People.18 A contemporary devastation layer with fire destruction is attested to for Tell Tweini too.19 While many northern Levantine sites, including Ugarit, show a gap in their occupation sequence after the Late Bronze Age, Tell Tweini has yielded two main architectural levels (Levels 6 G-H and 6 E-F) from the Early Iron Age (ca. 1190-1020 BCE). The later Early Iron Age settlement of Level 6 E-F ended around 1020 BCE, in a second violent destruction, leaving rich house-inventories with storage facilities and e.g. Cypriot ceramic imports in situ.20 By the later 10th to beginning of the 9th century BCE (Level 6 C-D), Tell Tweini was completely redeveloped, and new cities and villages were created 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

Mainly based on Bretschneider and Van Lerberghe 2008. Akkermans and Schwartz 2004. Jans and Bretschneider in this volume; Hameeuw and Jans 2008; Ricaut 2008. Kaniewski et al. 2010. Cline 2014 with further bibliography. Kaniewski et al. 2010; Bretschneider et al. 2010. Bretschneider et al. 2012; Kaniewski et al. 2010.

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and organised in the region. Whereas the Bronze Age levels show mainly evidence for domestic structures, as well as some tombs, excavations in the Iron Age levels at Tell Tweini also revealed the remains of monumental buildings with a public function. With the renewal of urban culture on the Levantine coast, new trade networks between this area and Cyprus and inner Syria emerged. The trade connections with the Aegean at this time are reflected at Tell Tweini in the numerous finds of imported Cypriot pottery. At the beginning of the 8th century BCE, the Syrian coast came under Assyrian control. Trade towns such as Tell Tweini probably retained a certain autonomy but had to pay large tributes. At the end of the 8th century BCE, another phase of architectural renewal took place at the site (Level 5 A-B). Installations related to olive oil production appear at this time in several houses, and it is therefore assumed that the production of olive oil became the main economic activity of the town. Contemporary data from other areas in the Near East also suggest an on-going intensification of olive production.21 The monumental buildings seem to have lost their original function and were divided into small compartments in which specific economic or commercial activities took place. Very few traces of the final part of the Iron Age have been found at Tell Tweini (Level 4 A-B). 3. MATERIALS AND METHODS From 1999 until 2010, a Belgian and Syrian team conducted archaeological research at Tell Tweini. The Belgian team worked in a part of the site labelled Field A, while the Syrian team worked in Field B. The bioarchaeological results presented here relate to Field A. 3.1 Archaeozoology The majority of the animal remains were found in fill layers from settlement contexts, including from some monumental buildings (mostly Iron Age I and II, possibly going back to the Late Bronze Age) as well as a few graves (Middle Bronze Age). Faunal remains from floor levels were very scanty and are not considered separately. Most of the faunal remains were recovered by hand collecting during excavation. In addition, animal bones were also collected from sediment samples that were processed by means of floatation for the retrieval of macrobotanical remains, both from the floated fractions and from the heavy residue (see below). The latter two types of collection are referred to as “sieved” for the remainder of this manuscript. The sieved remains can only be 21

Riehl 2009.

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used to make a very rough estimate of what part of the fauna was missed by the hand collecting, as the exact sediment volumes that were hand collected are not known. In general, the dating of the faunal remains was based on the stratification and associated ceramic assemblages of the same find unit (locus).22 Faunal analyses in the field were carried out by the first author in 2006, 2007 and 2009, and by the third author in 2010. The remains were well preserved (usually Behrensmeyer’s weathering stage 123), although they were often broken and covered in clayey sediment. The material was not washed prior to analysis, but only cleaned with a dry brush, in order not to cause any further damage. Standard recording of the identifiable animal remains included skeletal element; taxon; where possible, data on sex and age at death; size reconstructions and measurements;24 traces of butchery;25 traces of burning; gnawing and pathologies. Tooth wear of cattle and sheep/goat was recorded using the system of Grant,26 and was later converted to the Halstead and Payne systems, respectively.27 Specific identification criteria will be mentioned under the relevant species (see below). With the permission of the Syrian Department of Antiquities, all fish and all bird bones and a selection of other animal remains were exported to Belgium for further study with adequate reference collections of modern animal skeletons at the Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences. The exported remains from Tell Tweini are still stored at this institute. All statistical treatment of data was done with the program PAST.28 Quantification of the results was done through simple specimen counts (number of identified specimens, NISP). In total, ca. 47000 vertebrate remains were analysed. All data previously published were updated using the final dates of the excavated loci. Ca. 20000 remains of the total sample could be attributed to a specific level of Field A at Tell Tweini (Tab. 1). Remains from level 7 A-B-C, corresponding to the Late Bronze Age II, are by far the most common. They constitute about half of the total quantity of bones that could be attributed to a specific level. When the remains are considered by large time period, Early Bronze (Level 9), Middle Bronze (Level 8), Late Bronze (Level 7), and Iron Age (Levels 6-4), the total number of dated bones rises to ca. 29500. The other bones are from loci for which there is either no date at all, a date marked with “?”, or for which the attributed date covers multiple levels or large time periods. 22

Bretschneider and Van Lerberghe 2008; Vansteenhuyse 2008. Behrensmeyer 1978. 24 Size reconstructions for the fish were done by direct comparison with reference specimens of known size and are expressed as standard length (SL), meaning the length from the tip of the snout to the beginning of the tail. Mammal and bird bones were measured according to von den Driesch 1976. 25 Following the system of Lauwerier 1988, 181-212. 26 Grant 1982. 27 Following Hambleton 2001. 28 Hammer et al. 2001. 23

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In total, ca. 25 % (n = 593) of the sieved and 64 % (n = 475) of the hand collected fish bones were identified below the zoological level of class, against 13 % (n = 939) of the sieved and 51 % (n = 18320) of the hand collected mammal bones. The large percentages in the hand collected material reflect the bias in these samples in favour of the largest and most obvious specimens, as well as the relatively good state of preservation of the bones. Apart from small, identifiable bones that are missed when only hand collection is carried out, the sieved samples also contain many unidentifiable fragments. For diachronic study of the size of the domesticated animals, ideally measurements on single, specific elements should be plotted. However, because such data are too scanty for Tell Tweini, particularly when considering them by fine period, a different approach has been used in which measurements on different elements are combined in one graph. For sheep and goat as well as cattle we used the “Log Size Index” (LSI) method29 in which the measurements on the archaeological bones are compared with those of a standard animal.30 Diachronic trends at Tell Tweini are compared with those at other sites in the area where similar methods have been applied.31 3.2 Archaeobotany The archaeobotanical data used for the overview of the plant economy at Tell Tweini were collected during the 2004, 2008 and 2010 excavation seasons. The field work was carried out by Patricia Vandorpe (1998-2004), Elena Marinova (2008) and Jan Van der Valk (2010). The majority of the plant macro remains had been preserved through charring, which occurs through heating under reducing conditions. In addition, a few mineralized seeds were found. Mineralization usually occurs when minerals carried in solution are deposited around plant cell surfaces or within inner voids, effectively encasing the plant structure. In order to extract the plant macro remains from the cultural layers, soil samples of 10-30 litres were taken from ‘key loci’, i.e. ones that are well 29

Meadow 1999. The standard animal we selected for cattle is a female aurochs from Denmark whose measurements are presented by Degerbøl and Fredskild 1970. For sheep and goat, reference measurements were taken from Uerpmann and Uerpmann 1994. The analyses were based on the following measurements, where available for the archaeological specimens. For cattle: scapula: LG, BG, SLC; humerus: SD, Bd, BT; radius: Bp, BFp, SD, Bd; os femoris: Bp, DC, SD, Bd; tibia: Bp, SD, Bd; talus: GLl, Bd; calcaneus: GL; os centroquartale: GB; os metacarpale III et IV and os metatarsale III et IV: Bp, SD, Bd; phalanx proximalis and phalanx media: GL(pe), Bp, SD, Bd. For sheep and goat: scapula: GLP, LG, BG, SLC; humerus: Bp, SD, Bd, BT; radius: Bp, BFp, SD; os femoris: Bp, DC, SD Bd; tibia: Bp, SD, Bd; talus: GLl, Bd, calcaneus: GL; os metacarpale III et IV and os metatarsale III et IV: Bp, SD, Bd; phalanx proximalis and phalanx media: GL(pe), Bp, SD, Bd. 31 Chahoud 2013; Grigson 2015. 30

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preserved and seem to be datable, for subsequent flotation or fine sieving. This sampling strategy, also called purposive or judgmental sampling,32 was chosen also out of practical considerations, as it produces fewer samples for analysis and speeds up the processing, since small volumes (rather than entire contexts) may be used. All samples gathered from fill layer contexts are composites; they are made up of small amounts of sediment gathered from all over the corresponding locus, which were combined in the soil sample bucket(s). Point sampling was used for small features and for the soil inside or under ceramic vessels. For the processing of the archaeobotanical samples, the floatation system built by P. Vandorpe was used from the start of the excavations. This system involves a combination of flotation and wet sieving. Hereby a light fraction is floated from the sediment by applying pressure by means of water coming from below. The floating (i.e. light or organic) fraction is washed out via an overflow and then collected in a series of sieves (2 mm, 1 mm and 0,3 mm). The remaining material, retained in the mesh (1 mm), constitutes the heavy (inorganic) fraction. At least half of each heavy fraction was systematically checked for plant and animal remains. The plant material was studied both in the field laboratory and in the archaeobotanical laboratory of the Center for Archaeological Science at the KU Leuven. Plant macro remains were identified using a stereomicroscope with magnification ×6 to ×50. Modern reference collections, illustrated seed atlases,33 identification guides34 and other publications35 were consulted to aid in the identification. All the identifiable plant remains (seeds or fruits) were counted and a rawdata table (Appendix 11) was constructed. It consists primarily of counts of all taxa and types of plant remains found (rows) across all analysed samples (columns). Cultivated plants were categorized into functional groups, such as cereals, pulses, fruit trees, or condiments. Weed and wild taxa were grouped based on ecological data from floras into probable weeds, humid freshwater habitats, sandy soils and sclerophilous scrubland (maquis/batha). ‘Varia’ comprises those plant remains identified only to the family level and whose reproductive and vegetative plant parts, such as culm nodes, glumes, tubers and twigs, were classified. The fragmented remains of seeds or fruits of grape (Vitis vinifera) and olive fruit stones (Olea europea) were quantified by weighing the remains and extrapolating the weights to the number of complete fruits. For grape, six samples with abundant remains were selected for quantification and weighing of

32 33 34 35

Van der Veen and Fieller 1982. Cappers et al. 2006; Cappers et al. 2009. Nesbitt 2006. van Zeist and Bakker-Heeres 1985.

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the size groups (whole, major and minor fragments). The mean masses of the two fragmented groups (major and minor) are compared separately as fractions of the mean mass of the whole grape seeds. These ratios can then be applied to the grape remains of every sorted sample (which were also counted by group to this end) to estimate (i.e. reconstruct) the number of whole grape seeds. Exactly the same procedure was applied to the olive remains. In total, 76 samples with an aggregate volume of 2789 litres of sediment are considered here. Most of the samples come from the Late Bronze Age layers (n=30) (Level 7) of the site, followed in rank order by those from the Iron Age (n=20) (Level 6), the Middle Bronze Age (n=18) (Level 8) and the Early Bronze Age (n=1) (Level 9). The variation in sample numbers from the different phases of each period, e.g. stratigraphic level, is too great (Appendix 11) to enable us to reliably evaluate the data by the different phases of each period. Therefore only the general chronological developments could be considered here. 4. RESULTS 4.1 Archaeozoology Tab. 2 and Tab. 3 show the numbers of bones recorded by broader taxon at Tell Tweini, by level and by large time period.36 The detailed species lists can be found in Tabs. 4-5 and 7-10. Bones of what appeared in the field to be a special concentration (locus 02710, Level 5 A-B) are included in these species lists, but are excluded from any calculations to establish proportions between taxa (see below). All size reconstructions for the fish and all measurements taken on animal bones from Tell Tweini can be found in the Appendices. In what follows, the faunal data from Tell Tweini will be presented by animal group. Apart from the human remains recovered from the graves that were recognised during the excavations,37 miscellaneous human remains were also found among the faunal remains. These were separated out from the fauna but have not been studied by an anthropologist. However, we can confirm that at least some of these human remains were the remains of (small) children. These may represent material from disturbed graves or, in the case of the children, from shallow burials in refuse layers. These human remains have not been included in the faunal lists. 36 See Marinova et al. 2012 for details on the fauna from the Middle Bronze Age tombs. The data have been added to the rest here because the number of remains is small (three identified fish and 39 identified mammal bones) and because we have shown that the species composition in the Middle Bronze Age tombs is similar to that of contemporary settlement refuse. 37 Ricaut 2008.

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4.1.1 Fish With fish representing 24.2 % of the sieved faunal remains and a mere 2.0 % of the hand collected remains, it is clear that fish constitute only a small portion of the total faunal sample. They are represented by both marine and freshwater taxa (Tabs. 4 and 5). The sieved samples yielded remains of species with small bones that were missing in the hand collected material, such as herrings (Clupeidae), needle fish (Belonidae) and eel (Anguilla anguilla).38 The larger-sized fish prevail in the hand collected samples, namely, Nile perch in the case of the freshwater taxa and groupers (Serranidae) and breams (Sparidae) in the case of the marine taxa. Due to sampling bias, the taxonomic composition of the fish of the two subsamples differs considerably. The sieved material contains 80 % marine fish compared with 20 % freshwater fish (n identified fish = 593), whereas the hand collected material contains 26 % marine fish compared with 73 % freshwater fish (n identified fish = 475). The marine fish are represented mainly by coastal and estuarine taxa, such as herrings (Clupeidae), groupers, breams and mullets (Mugilidae). The marine taxa were probably caught along the Syrian coast, although for the southern Levant, the possibility of import of breams from a lagoon off the Egyptian coast has been suggested based on stable isotope analyses.39 The freshwater taxa are represented by groups with different possible origins. Eel can occur in marine, brackish and freshwater environments but may have been obtained mainly from local river environments, where cyprinids would have been caught. Nile perch was imported from Egypt.40 In the hand collected samples, this species is the most frequently recorded fish, representing 72.6 % of all identified fish remains (Tab. 5). Catfishes (Clariidae) and barbel (Barbus sp.) live in the Nile as well, but as they also occur closer to the site, in the Orontes basin, or farther south, in the coastal rivers of the southern Levant,41 it is more likely that they are local. Previously, we reported that the relative importance of fish at Tell Tweini, in general, increases through time when numbers by large time period are considered, 42 and with the updated data, this remains true (Tab. 6). However, when finer chronological phases (levels) are considered, the trend becomes much less clear. This is partially due the small size of some of the samples. It seems that between the different Iron Age levels, the relative importance of fish remains is variable, with Level 5A-B containing the lowest proportion of fish remains and Level 6 A-B the highest. The sample size is too small for the earliest phases 38 39 40 41 42

See also the fish size reconstructions in Appendices 1 and 2. Sisma-Ventura et al. 2015. Linseele et al. 2013. Krupp 1987. Linseele et al. 2013.

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of the Iron Age (Levels 6 G-H and 6 E-F) to allow for any statements concerning their abundance. We have previously also shown that bones of imported Nile perch become increasingly important through time at Tell Tweini.43 This trend is confirmed with the updated data for the large time periods and is particularly clear for the hand collected samples (Tab. 6). However, the picture is more blurred for the finer diachronic stages, largely due to the small sizes of the samples. As all of the hand collected fish bones from Level 5 A-B are of Nile perch, we are not able to state that the drop in fish bones in this level is due to a reduction in imports of fish from Egypt. In the Eastern Mediterranean, Egyptian fish have been found starting from the late Chalcolithic, and there they generally increase in importance through time.44 4.1.2 Amphibians, Reptiles, Birds The site as a whole yielded 13 frog or toad remains in the sieved samples and none in the hand collected fauna (Tabs. 7 and 8). Reptiles are not very numerous at Tell Tweini either, and apart from unidentifiable snake and small lizard bones, which come mostly from the sieved samples, they are mainly represented by turtle and tortoise (Tabs. 7 and 8). Among the latter, Greek tortoise (Testudo graeca), Caspian turtle (Mauremys caspica) and soft shell turtle (cf. Trionyx triungius) were identified, mainly from pieces of the carapace and plastron but also from some long bones. The geographic distribution of Greek tortoise is wide-spread, and it occurs in a large variety of terrestrial habitats,45 while the Caspian turtle lives in aquatic habitats, both freshwater and brackish.46 Soft shell turtle is a nominally freshwater animal that would have been found all along the Levantine coast and that is also well known for venturing out into the sea.47 Bird remains are rare in the faunal remains from Tell Tweini. Only 28 bird bones were counted in the sieved samples and 144 in the hand collected material (Tabs. 7 and 8). Compared with the numbers of bones, the diversity in taxa is large, and includes, amongst others, ducks (Anatinae), goose (Anser sp.), chukar partridge (Alectoris chukar), pigeon (Columba sp.) and crow (Corvus sp.). With 33 bones, geese are the largest group, while the other groups are represented by fewer than ten bones each. Two species of geese have been identified, namely greylag goose (Anser anser) and grey-white fronted goose (Anser albifrons). In addition to bird bones, a fragment of ostrich (Struthio camelus) eggshell was recorded (locus 00964, (8 C-D -) 9 A-B). Ostrich is a 43 44 45 46 47

Linseele et al. 2013. Van Neer et al. 2004. van Dijk et al. 2004. Gasith and Sidis 1983. Kasparek and Kinzelbach 1991.

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bird from arid, open environments that has been extinct in the Middle East since the 20th century AD.48 With the possible exception of ostrich, all bird taxa recorded at Tell Tweini could have lived in the immediate surroundings of the site. There appears to be a predominance of water birds. However, birds from drier, possibly cultivated land are present as well, chukar partridge in particular.49 4.1.3 Mammals 4.1.3.1 Micromammals Under the category micromammals, we grouped all mammal species smaller than hare (Lepus europaeus). Conform expectations around recovery bias, this group is proportionally best represented in the sieved samples; 684 micromammal bones have been counted in those, as compared with 83 in the hand collected samples. Taxa identified include bat (Microchiroptera), hedgehog (Erinaceinae), shrew (Crocidura sp./Suncus etruscus), mouse (Mus cf. musculus), Palestinian mole rat (Nannospalax ehrenbergi) and least weasel (Mustela nivalis) (Tabs. 9 and 10). Most of the micromammal material consists of postcranial remains of small rodents or insectivores that could not be identified to a lower taxonomic level. Weissbrod et al.50 found that in urban settlements of the 2nd and 1st millennium BCE in the Near East, shrew and house mouse (Mus musculus domesticus) dominate the micromammal assemblages, while contemporary rural settlements are significantly richer in taxa. Although for Tell Tweini we have not attempted to distinguish between M. m. musculus and M. m. domesticus, which should be done based on geometric morphometrics,51 the data from the site are not contradictory with those presented by Weissbrod et al. for urban settlements. The mole rat is a burrowing animal,52 while the least weasel lives in crevices as well as in burrows of other animals.53 For the latter species, the occurrence of concentrations of skeletal elements, as well as their more recent appearance, confirms that the remains are partial skeletons of animals that are probably younger than the archaeological deposits they were found in. The ca. 90 remains are found spread over ca. 20 loci, and presumably represent as many individuals. The micromammals identified at Tell Tweini occur in a wide range of habitats, but mole rat is most typical for arid environments and can also be seen in cultivated fields.54

48 49 50 51 52 53 54

BirdLife International 2016b. BirdLife International 2016a. Weissbrod et al. 2014. Cucchi et al. 2013. Schlitter et al. 2017. McDonald et al. 2016. Schlitter et al. 2017.

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4.1.3.2 Large Wild Mammals Larger wild mammals identified at Tell Tweini include hare, beech marten (Martes foina), red fox (Vulpes vulpes), brown bear (Ursus arctos), elephant (Elephas maximus/Loxodonta africana), wild boar (Sus scrofa), hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius), goitred gazelle (Gazella subgutturosa), red deer (Cervus elaphus) and Mesopotamian fallow deer (Dama mesopotamica) (Tabs. 9 and 10). With the exception of those of fallow deer, bones of all large wild mammals occur only in very low numbers. Tell Tweini yielded an elephant molar (locus 04212, 6 - 7 A-B-C), as well as a very large long bone epiphysis, tentatively identified as an elephant proximal radius (unfused, locus 04018, 7). Indian elephant (Elephas maximus) used to be part of the Syrian wild fauna, and the species occurred there until rather late in the Holocene.55 And considering the site’s links with Egypt, the import of parts of African elephant (Loxodonta africana) via that area cannot be excluded. However, it is more likely that the elements found at Tell Tweini belonged to Indian elephant, as remains of this species have been found at archaeological sites all over the Levant.56 We considered the elephant molar from Tell Tweini as a possible curiosity,57 but it has recently been suggested that molars may also have been collected as raw material.58 However, we did not record any traces of working on the molar from Tell Tweini. For the distinction between wild boar (Sus scrofa) and domestic pigs (Sus domesticus),59 only a few useful measurable specimens are available from Tell Tweini. Based on these measurements, it seems that pig and wild boar were present in equal proportions at Tell Tweini (Appendix 4), with seven remains of each. An additional seven suid bones could not be measured but were clearly so large that we are confident that they belong to wild boar (Fig. 2). The remaining 93 suid bones likely comprise both wild and domesticated individuals.60 The exact proportions in which these two forms are present remain unclear. Domesticated animals may have been killed at relatively younger ages, when size is not yet a distinguishing feature, and domesticated pigs may therefore be more common in the unidentified group. However, one mandible shows the presence of a young wild boar in the faunal assemblage of Tell Tweini (Tab. 11).61 Tooth eruption and wear (Tab. 11), as well as the state of ossification and fusion of the suid bones, with, for example, 8 out of 12 metapodials

55 56 57 58 59 60 61

Becker 1994. Vila 2014; Çakırlar and Ikram 2016. Linseele 2008. Çakırlar and Ikram 2016. Payne and Bull 1988; Evin et al. 2014. Contrary to Linseele et al. 2013. The first zeros of each 5 digit locusnumber were omitted in the tables of this article.

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unfused distally, indeed indicate that, proportionally, many individuals were juvenile or subadult (ca. 6 months-2 years). Based on canine shape and size, two female and one male suid were identified. No pathologies have been recorded on the suid bones. The two diagnostic hippopotamus remains are ivory, distinguishable from elephant ivory by the presence of large surfaces covered in enamel, showing distinct ridges62 (Fig. 3). In both cases, the ivory is worked. The hippo tusk fragment from locus 02704 (5 A-B - 6) was found inside a pot. Hippo ivory is proven to have been used in the Levant as raw material for the manufacture of artefacts and ornaments from the Chalcolithic onwards.63 Hippos are now extinct in the region. The former distribution of the animals is not well known, but archaeozoological finds, including postcranial remains, show that they probably lived in the Levant until at least the Iron Age.64 Goitred gazelle, dorcas (Gazella dorcas) and mountain gazelle (Gazella gazella) all occur in the Levant. Measurements on gazelle bones from Tell Tweini (Appendix 3) fit best with goitred gazelle.65 The differentiation between red deer and fallow deer was done on both a morphological66 and a metrical67 basis. Among the cervid remains are 39 pieces of antler, of which one was identifiable as red deer and nine were identifiable as fallow deer. Two of the fallow deer antlers and also two of the undiagnostic cervid antlers are attached to a skull fragment. Judging from its present-day distribution pattern, roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) may also have been present near Tell Tweini, but no bones of this species could be identified with confidence among the remains of Artiodactyla of this size class. It is not excluded that some of the largest sheep, goat and cattle bones are from the wild rather than the domesticated form (Appendices 7-9, Figs. 9-14 and 20-22). However, the number of very large specimens is very low, and none fall clearly outside the range that can be expected for a population of domesticates, and especially the (larger) males of these populations (see below, and especially Figs. 11, 14 and 22). Equids are presumably mainly represented by the domesticated forms, but it cannot be excluded that onager (Equus hemionus) is also present at Tell Tweini.68 Two mandibles, one pelvis and one femur of a felid have been found. The size of these remains (Appendix 3) indicates Felis silvestris, which could be either wild or domesticated. 62

Espinoza and Mann 1991. Horwitz and Tchernov 1990. 64 Horwitz and Tchernov 1990; Chahoud 2013, 287. 65 Boessneck and von den Driesch 1989. 66 Lister 1996. 67 Kitagawa 2008; Chahoud 2013, Figs. 24-27. 68 Species identifications of equids from bone remains is extremely difficult in Southwest Asia, and it has been shown by Twiss et al. 2017 that there is often no agreement in identifications between different specialists. 63

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While many of the identified large mammal species can be found in a variety of habitats, the emphasis on deer shows that hunting mainly occurred in woodlands,69 which would have been available in the hinterland of the site, probably only a few kilometres away. However, the presence of goitred gazelle indicates that hunting also took place in more arid environments, as this is an animal of the desert and semi-desert.70 The skeletal distribution of the wild mammals (Tab. 12) indicates that, with the exception of hippo and elephant, complete carcasses were brought to the site. Some butchery marks have been noted. A gazelle horn core (locus 04217, 7 A-B-C) is chopped through at both ends, and a gazelle skull has cut marks on the horn base (locus 05505, 4 A-B (- 5 A-B)). Six of the antler specimens have chop marks (Fig. 4). In three cases, it was possible to see that the antler had shed naturally, and in four cases the antler was still attached to the skull, indicating that the animals were hunted. The fusion data of the long bones of fallow deer as well as the less commonly hunted taxa indicate that hunting strategies targeted mainly adult animals. Due to the previously mentioned difficulties surrounding taxonomic identification, it is not possible to establish the precise numerical importance of remains of large wild mammals compared with domesticated mammals. The percentages in Fig. 5 have to be considered as minima. In any case, it is clear that wild species represent only a small share of the larger mammals present. It appears that the Late Bronze Age has the highest proportion of wild mammal bones, ca. 2.4 % of the total identified larger mammal remains. It is not clear whether this is typical for Level 7 A-B-C only. Level 7 D-E contains no bones of wild taxa at all, but this may be coincidental, due its extremely small sample size. For the Early and Middle Bronze Age, as well as the Iron Age, the percentage of large wild mammals is around 1 %. The details by level suggest some variation within the Iron Age, but sample sizes are small. Generally in the Levant, wild game was more important during the Early Bronze Age than during the later parts of the Bronze Age.71 The Early Bronze Age sample from Tell Tweini is small, and we cannot confirm the pattern here. It may be meaningful that gazelle only appears in the Late Bronze Age and that gazelle bones are comparatively more numerous in the Iron Age than in the Late Bronze Age (Fig. 6). Again, small sample sizes make an examination of finer diachronic differences unfeasible.

69 70 71

Werner et al. 2015. Mallon 2008. Chahoud 2013, fig. 67.

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4.1.3.3 Domesticated Animals – Dog (Canis familiaris) Bones of dogs are not very common in the faunal material of Tell Tweini. They represent ca. 1 % of the total number of identified large mammal remains. Dog bones are generally rare at contemporary sites in the Levant.72 The minimal number of dog individuals represented in the excavated deposits at Tell Tweini is ca. 60, approximately equalling the total number of loci which contained dog remains. There is also indirect evidence for the presence of dogs on the site. Ca. 35 bones have been recorded with carnivore gnawing marks, most probably dogs. Probably some additional gnawing marks went unnoticed because the bones were not washed prior to analysis. Three loci yielded a bone that is etched because it passed through the digestive system, presumably of a carnivore. Dog bones in various stages of fusion have been recorded, pointing to the presence of animals of different ages. Few measurable dog bones have been recorded (Appendix 6). One dog lumbar vertebra is chopped, indicating that their meat may have been consumed occasionally. No pathologies were noticed on the dog remains. – Pig (Sus domesticus) Remains of suids are rare in the faunal assemblages of Tell Tweini. They represent less than 1 % of the total identified large mammals. Only seven specimens could be identified as domesticated on osteometric grounds, but more are probably present among the unidentified suid bones (see above). Pigs are generally kept as a source of meat and therefore slaughtered when young. In the case of Tell Tweini, it is believed that at least part of the young suid remains reflect this management strategy. Nevertheless, an adult female domesticated pig has also been recorded in the faunal assemblages (Tab. 11). – Sheep (Ovis aries) and Goat (Capra hircus) In general sheep/goat bones are the most frequent of all animal remains at Tell Tweini and represent 60 % of all identified large mammal remains. For the distinction between remains of sheep and goat we relied mainly on Boessneck et al.73 In addition, during fieldwork in 2007 and 2009, the mandibles and mandibular teeth were identified based on morphological traits74 not included in Boessneck et al. Generally speaking, sheep and goat were identified in about equal numbers. 72 73 74

Chahoud 2013, fig. 127. Boessneck et al. 1964. Cf. Zeder and Lapham 2010 for an evaluation of the reliability of criteria. Zeder and Pilaar 2010.

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There are insufficient data to analyse the ages at death of the sheep and goat from Tell Tweini by level or even by large time period. However, the slaughtering ages based on tooth wear (Fig. 7) suggest that sheep as well as goat were generally being slaughtered at various ages, albeit relatively often after four years of age. This shows that apart from meat, secondary products, more specifically milk and wool, were also important. A few occurrences of abnormal tooth eruption and/or wear, resulting in an uneven height of the biting surface of the cheek teeth (Fig. 8), have been recorded. Length measurements of more or less complete long bones without articulations show the presence of a few foetuses (Tab. 13) and indicate that live (gravid) animals were present, at least for some time, on the site. Withers height estimates for sheep from Tell Tweini indicate quite a large size variation of between 51 and 83 cm, with a mean of 68 cm (Tab. 14).75 Size estimates by level reveal no clear diachronic changes, but apart from Level 7 A-B-C, there are insufficient data to make statistical inferences. When considered by large time period, the Middle Bronze Age sheep show a smaller mean withers height than those from the other periods. A comparison of the sizes of sheep bones with the LSI method (Figs. 9 and 10), shows that the Late Bronze Age sheep appear to have been the largest. It seems that within the Iron Age, sheep size may have varied considerably (Fig. 9), but we lack sufficient data by level to confirm this pattern. In any case, none of the mentioned size differences based on the LSI method appear to be statistically significant.76 A survey of other sites in the Levant revealed an increase in sheep size between the Early and Late Bronze Age.77 When all LSI values for sheep bones from Tell Tweini are plotted in a histogram (Fig. 11), it appears that, perhaps, one value is outside of a normally distributed range, of which we need to suppose that it is of wild sheep (see above). For the goats of Tell Tweini, withers height estimates vary between 56 and 81 cm, with a mean of 65 cm (Tab. 15). As for the sheep, the size range is quite large.78 The highest mean withers height has been noted for the Late Bronze Age. Size comparisons using the LSI method show an increase in goat size after the Middle Bronze Age, with a peak in sizes during the Late Bronze Age (Figs. 12 and 13). This fits with the general increase in goat size that has been noted for the northern Levant over the course of the Bronze Age.79 At Tell Tweini, goats are smaller again during the Iron Age, yet not as small as they 75 Compared, for example, with Tell Mozan (northeastern Syria, mainly Early Bronze Age), where, based on talus lengths, sheep withers height estimates are between 60 and 76 cm (Doll 2010). 76 Kruskal-Wallis test for equal medians. By level: H (chi2): 11.39, p (same): 0.2499. By large time period: H (chi2): 4.312, p (same): 0.2297. 77 Chahoud 2013, 335. 78 At Tell Mozan, goat withers height estimates are between 59 and 75 cm (Doll 2010). 79 Chahoud 2013, 331.

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were during the Early and Middle Bronze Age (Fig. 13). Although numbers of observations by level are small, within the Iron Age, the goats of Level 5 A-B seem to be smaller than those in other levels (Fig. 12). As was the case for sheep, none of the size differences based on the LSI method described for goat are statistically significant.80 The histogram combining all LSI values for goat bones from Tell Tweini indicates that at the most two or three of them are of wild animals, if any (Fig. 14) (see above). Six sheep/goat tali with smoothed medial and lateral surfaces have been found, covering the Middle and Late Bronze Age as well as the Iron Age in date (Fig. 15). The bones may have been used in games, although finds in tombs and religious buildings all over the Levant and the Eastern Mediterranean Basin indicate that they may also have had a symbolic meaning.81 Apart from these real tali, there was also a piece of ivory or bone sculpted in the shape of a talus (locus 01100, no date) (Fig. 16). A goat scapula (locus 01613, 6 A-B) has a small, clearly intentionally made hole at ca. 6 cm from the distal end (Fig. 17). Although butchery marks have been recorded on the remains of sheep/goat, they will not be discussed here because there are insufficient data to present them by level or period. Additional butchery marks probably went unnoticed because the bones were not washed prior to analysis. Apart from butchery marks, occasional burning was also recorded. A concentration of bones was found in 2007 in samples excavated in locus 02710 (5 A-B) (Tab. 16). This concentration contained one goose and five cattle bones, but otherwise mostly consisted of sheep/goat remains. Two bones have been attributed to sheep, and 123 were diagnostic for goat. The sheep/goat bones represent the remains of at least nine adult (based on nine left lower M3s) and two juvenile individuals. The skeletal distribution of the sheep/goats shows a relatively high proportion of cranial parts, including horn cores, and elements of the limbs, on the one hand, and an underrepresentation of ribs, vertebrae, carpals, tarsals and phalanges, on the other (Tab. 16). As mentioned above, the assemblage from locus 02710 has been removed from any calculations to establish relative proportions between different animal taxa; only fauna from the other loci of Level 5 A-B are considered in these calculations. – Cattle (Bos taurus) After bones of sheep/goat, bones of cattle are the next most common at Tell Tweini. The tooth wear data of the cattle from Tell Tweini show that most animals were adult or senile when slaughtered (Fig. 18), but due to sample size 80 Kruskal-Wallis test for equal median. By level: H (chi2): 13.69, p (same): 0.1337. By large time period: H (chi2): 3.221, p (same): 0.3588. 81 Gilmour 1997; Minniti and Peyronel 2005.

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we are not able to investigate whether preferential slaughter ages varied over time. As was the case for the sheep/goat, the presence of older animals suggests that cattle were kept for their milk as well as their meat. And again as was the case for the sheep/goat, abnormal wear and eruption of cattle mandibular teeth was noted, due to which the teeth did not always fit the tooth wear schemes (Fig. 19). Measurements of long bones lacking their articulations indicate the presence of foetuses in the archaeological deposits at Tell Tweini (Tab. 13), which can be seen as an indication that live animals were on the site. The limited occurrence of draught-related pathologies82 indicates that cattle were probably not an important source of power, e.g. for traction of ploughs. For complete or more or less complete metacarpals and metatarsals, sex attributions were done based on the principle that bones of male cattle will generally be taller and, especially, more robust than those of females. In this way males and females were recorded in about equal numbers (Appendix 10). The sex attributions have to be considered as tentative, because it is not clear to what extent different kinds of cattle, particularly taurine vs. zebu (see below), with different types of body proportions, may influence the data. Also, the possibility of the presence of castrated bulls, with usually longer and more slender legs compared with uncastrated bulls, cannot be excluded. Withers height estimates for cattle based on long bone lengths were calculated once with and once without taking the sex attributions into account (Tab. 17). Both yielded a mean size of 126 cm, and the estimates fit well with those from other sites in Syria.83 There are insufficient withers height estimates for cattle from Tell Tweini to look at diachronic changes. Comparisons of cattle sizes based on LSI analyses show very similar values for all periods at Tell Tweini (Figs. 20 and 21). The largest average values date to the Middle Bronze Age, after which there is a small size decrease during the Late Bronze Age, with a further minor decrease in the Iron Age. The size decrease may only have begun after Level 6 E-F, but sample sizes for the different Iron Age levels are too small to confirm this (Fig. 21). As was the case for the sheep and goat, the observed size differences based on the LSI method are not statistically significant.84 At Tell Nebi Mend (northwestern Syria), cattle continue to be of similar size throughout the Bronze Age, but they become slightly smaller by the Iron Age.85 Based on the histogram combining all LSI values for cattle bones from Tell Tweini, there is no good reason to assume the presence of animals outside of the range of domesticates and that therefore represent wild cattle (Fig. 22) (see above).

82

Bartosiewicz et al. 1997. E.g. Doll 2010. 84 Kruskal-Wallis test for equal medians. By level: H (chi2): 15.71, p (same): 0.0731. By large time period: H (chi2): 2.842, p (same): 0.4167. 85 Grigson 2015. 83

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Three bifid neural spines of cattle thoracic vertebra have been recorded in the animal remains from Tell Tweini, from locus 00816 (6 A-B-C-D), locus 06357 and locus 07003 (both 6 - 7) (Fig. 23). Zebu cattle (B. t. indicus), which are humped, always have such bifid spines, but the trait can also occur in taurine cattle (B. t. taurus), which are unhumped.86 Bifid cattle thoracic spines have been found at various sites in southwest Asia, and zebu cattle, which originate from Iran or the Indian subcontinent, appear in the region at least by the Late Bronze Age.87 Their arrival has been connected with climatic aridification.88 Zebu cattle are said to be more slender than taurine cattle.89 It is therefore possible that the size decrease visible in the LSI analyses, which are based on breadth measurements, is related to an increasing influx of zebu-type cattle. Current Asian cattle types are mostly hybrids between zebu and taurine cattle.90 – Equids and Camels Equid bones have been found in relatively small amounts at Tell Tweini. They represent at most a few percent of the total number of identified large mammals. Their relative importance is inflated in Iron Age Level 5 A-B by the presence of ca. 50 bones in one locus, among which 20 teeth, that are possibly of one individual. Looking at measurements on equid bones, we can see that horse (Equus caballus) is present, as well as a smaller equid, probably mostly donkey (Equus asinus) (Appendix 10). Morphological analysis of the teeth has resulted in the identification of both donkey and horse.91 However, onager (Equus hemionus) may also have been present, as well as hybrids between the different possible equids.92 In an undated locus (locus 03104), a proximal metatarsal and a metapodial diaphysis of a camelid were found. The metatarsal mostly resembles dromedary (Camelus dromedarius),93 rather than the other possible species, Bactrian camel (C. bactrianus), whereas for the metapodials, a distinction between the two was not possible. The earliest domestic camels, probably both Bactrian camel and dromedary, from northern Syria date to the Late Bronze Age.94

86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94

Epstein 1971, 538. See summary in Grigson 2015. Matthews 2002. Grigson 2000. Decker et al. 2014. Based on criteria from various authors compiled in De Cupere 2001. Weber 2008. Cf. Steiger 1990. Grigson 2015.

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– Relative Proportions of Pig, Sheep, Goat and Cattle through Time It is abundantly clear that the numerical importance of pig remains at Tell Tweini is negligible compared with that of domesticated sheep and goat and cattle. This is not incongruent with the general trends observed for sites in the Levant, where domesticated pigs almost entirely disappear by the Late Bronze Age.95 At coastal sites, they had already become rare during the Middle Bronze Age.96 Grigson97 writes that there is tendency in northern Syria for a reduction in the proportion of pig bones from the Early to the Middle and the Late Bronze Age, followed by an increase in the Iron Age. The limited data for the Early Bronze Age at Tell Tweini suggest that pigs may have been more important at that time than during any later occupation of the site. However, it is clear that there is no increase in pigs for the Iron Age at Tell Tweini. Indeed, in some Iron Age levels pigs are missing entirely. The fluctuating importance of pig in the Levant, and its general rarity in the Late Bronze Age in particular, can be explained through a combination of various environmental, political, economic and cultural reasons.98 As mentioned earlier, sheep and goat bones are more frequent than cattle bones at Tell Tweini. The overall proportion is 65 % vs. 35 %, and these proportions appear to be quite stable through time (Fig. 24). Only in Levels 4 A-B and 5 A-B (not taking into account the concentration in locus 02710) do we see a different pattern, with cattle bones being predominant. Looking at the data grouped by large time period, we see that cattle are a little more numerous in the Late Bronze Age and Iron Age (ca. 35 %), compared with the Early and Middle Bronze Age (ca. 30 %). This fits with the general trend noted for the Levant, with an overall predominance of sheep and goat, but with numbers of cattle increasing over the course of the Bronze Age.99 Within the Iron Age at Tell Tweini, there appears to be some variation, with, as noted above, clearly higher proportions of cattle remains in Levels 4 A-B and 5 A-B. Overall, sheep and goat have been identified in about equal proportions, and this, too, seems to be a pattern that remains stable through time (Fig. 25). There are some levels where one species predominates over the other, but this may be purely coincidental, due to small sample size. Only in Level 8 A-B is the predominance of sheep – 36 bones were identified as sheep, 11 as goat – more likely to be meaningful. This predominance in level 8 A-B also has an effect when the data are grouped by large time period. The Middle Bronze Age stands out as the only time slice with more sheep than goat. The observations at Tell 95 96 97 98 99

Chahoud 2013, 371. Chahoud 2013, 371. Grigson 2015. E.g. Vila 2006. Chahoud 2013, 343.

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Tweini fit with those of the larger region, as a compilation of data for the Early to Late Bronze Age in the Levant showed no clear patterns of predominance of either sheep or goat.100 4.2. Archaeobotany 4.2.1 The Plant Economy in Overview An overview of the quantification of the archaeobotanical data is given in Tab. 18. Wheat (Triticum sp.) and barley (Hordeum vulgare), the staple cereal crops, together usually represent about one third of all identified plant remains per sample at Tell Tweini. Barley is often regarded as an inferior staple and the poor person’s bread.101 However, it withstands drier conditions, poorer soils and some salinity,102 all of which are characteristic for some of the soil types that developed in the surroundings of the site. It is also the main cereal used for beer fermentation in the Old World and was an important feed supplement for domestic animals. Emmer (Triticum dicoccum), the most important wheat in the economy of Tell Tweini, was also the principal wheat for agriculture in the Neolithic and Early Bronze Age of the study area.103 Since classical times, free-threshing tetraploid cultivars of this plant constituted the main wheat crop in the summer-dry, relatively warm Mediterranean basin.104 However, because of the relatively low number of identifications to species level, we should also take the possibility of the presence of free-treshing hexaploid wheat into account. This is the most variable aggregate of cultivated wheats and is nowadays the most economically important wheat species.105 Hexaploid T. aestivum is a wheat species that evolved under cultivation from the already domesticated tetraploid T. turgidum stock. The free-threshing tetraploid (4x) T. turgidum forms can be separated from their hexaploid (6x) T. aestivum counterparts by the morphology of the rachis segments of their ears.106 Since none of these rachis fragments have been found at Tell Tweini, we cannot draw any conclusions about which of the free-threshing wheat types were present and used there. Bitter vetch (Vicia ervilia) and lentil (Lens culinaris) are the most abundant amongst the pulses. Pea (Pisum sativum), grass pea (Lathyrus sativus), chick pea (Cicer arrietinum) and faba bean (Vicia faba) are found at Tell

100 101 102 103 104 105 106

Chahoud 2013, 327. Zohary et al. 2012. Riehl 2009. Riehl and Nesbitt 2003. Nesbitt and Samuel 1996. Zohary et al. 2012. Jacomet 2006.

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Tweini as well, but are very rare. However, many of the pulses with bigger seed size when fragmented are not identifiable to the species level, which increases the underrepresentation of such pulses as pea, grass pea and fava bean. The vegetables and condiments native to West Asia and the Mediterranean basin seem to have entered cultivation rather early. The tradition of their planting and usage is already well documented in classical Greek, Roman and Jewish sources. Very few remains of this group of crops have been discovered in archaeological contexts, and our knowledge of the beginning of their domestication is consequently insufficient.107 The condiment finds from Tell Tweini are coriander (Coriandrum sativum) and dill (Anethum graveolens). In the study area, other sites, such as the 2nd millennium Tell ed-Der in Syria, also delivered identifiable coriander and cumin remains.108 Interesting are the finds of fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum) (Fig. 26). It occurred in three contexts: one related to food preparation and two related to food refuse. Charred fenugreek seeds have been recovered at Tell Halaf (Iraq, radiocarbon dated to 4000 BCE)109 and Early Bronze levels of Lachish (Israel), among others.110 Fenugreek was used not only as a condiment, but also as a vegetable. Further vegetable finds include melon (Cucumis melo), a crop which has a subtropical origin and has been used in Egypt since predynastic times.111 Most probably the Nile valley was the region from which it was introduced into the agricultural system of the Levant during the Bronze Age. Remains of fig (Ficus carica), grape and olive, the three main fruits associated with the beginnings of arboriculture in the Near East and Mediterranean area,112 are quite common in the archaeobotanical samples from all studied periods of Tell Tweini, and this surely indicates their prominent place in the economy of the site. Further fruit remains are very scarce (single finds comprising 6 samples from the total 76 of samples studied). Those are pear (Pyrus sp.) and plum (Prunus sp.). Considering both their rare occurrence in the archaeobotanical record at Tell Tweini and the composition of the potential natural vegetation in the area,113 such finds most probably originated from wild stands growing in the surroundings of the site.

107 108 109 110 111 112 113

Zohary et al. 2012. Van Zeist et al. 1984. Neuweiler 1935. Helbaek 1958. Fahmy 2008. Zohary and Spiegel-Roy 1975. Zohary 1973.

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5. DISCUSSION 5.1 Taphonomy Most of the excavated anthropogenic deposits at Tell Tweini, and also most of the ones that are richest in finds, are fill layers. As a consequence, the bioarchaeological remains represent a mixture of refuse of different human activities, as well as naturally deposited animal remains. It is important to consider remains that are not anthropogenic, the so-called intrusives, separately.114 The intrusive animals likely include small taxa, such as the frogs, toads, snakes, small lizards, perching birds, mole rat, small insectivores, small rodents and least weasel. Among the rodents, there are probably commensal animals that are contemporaneous with the human occupation. Other intrusive animals may have arrived at the site only after its abandonment, possibly much later, especially in case of the burrowing species. Least weasel and Palestinian mole rat both burrow, and especially the latter is notorious for the bioturbation of archaeological deposits.115 The Greek tortoise also burrows, and the remains of this animal may not be anthropogenic either. Only for least weasel did we find concentrations of skeletal elements of single individuals. It is suspected that at least some of the larger birds represent natural deaths, in particular the birds of prey and the crow, even though only isolated bones were found. The dog and equid remains are probably mostly the remains of carcasses, meaning animals that were not eaten after their death. The presence of incomplete skeletons of these two animal taxa, as well as of incomplete human skeletons among the faunal remains, indicates significant disturbance of the archaeological deposits at Tell Tweini. Presumably animal carcasses were mainly dumped at some distance from the actual settlement area, to avoid bad smells and vermin. Therefore species that were usually not eaten, such as the dogs, equids and camels, are probably underrepresented in the studied faunal samples from Tell Tweini, compared with the proportions in which they must have been living at or near the site. A small proportion of the animal remains are artefacts (the smoothed sheep/goat tali), raw material for the production of artefacts (the hippo ivory and possibly the elephant tooth) or remains of animals hunted for their fur (wild carnivores). Most of the other animal remains probably represent food refuse. In one case, we seem to be dealing with the waste of a single butchery event or a series of similar butchery events (locus 02710). For an accurate interpretation116 of the archaeobotanical assemblages, it is crucial to obtain detailed knowledge about the formation processes that

114 115 116

Cf. Gautier 1987 for this and other taphonomic groups in archaeozoology. Reed 1958. Willerding 1991.

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generated them. Charred plant assemblages, such as those preserved at Tell Tweini, correspond to only a small proportion of the plant remains originally present and discarded at site. The archaeobotanical remains in nearly all of the samples show good preservation and considerable diversity; in total 128, different plant taxa were identified. The average concentration of plant remains through all of the studied periods is ca. 6 items per litre of sediment, with most varying between 1 and 10 items per litre. This indicates that depositional conditions were similar for most of the samples. Hence the findings from most of the assemblages are more or less comparable. Only three of the samples have higher concentrations of plant remains, containing twenty or more identifiable (to species, genus or family level) items per litre, and all of them come from the Middle Bronze Age levels. Two of these samples are dominated by barley (Hordeum vulgare) and come from a fill of an oven (locus 00959, Level 8 C-D), and the other, also dominated by cereal crops, comes from a cultural layer deposit (locus 02537, Level 8 A-D). The composition of the plant spectrum indicates that the majority of the plant remains are cereal crops (grains), followed by fruits (grape pips, fig fruitlets and fragments of olive stones) and a diversity of wild plants that are potentially field weeds or that belonged to the wild-growing, mostly open local vegetation. The formation processes that generated these assemblages can be one of the following: plant materials used for fuel, the accidental burning of crop stores or food processing remains, and the destruction of spoiled or infested crops.117 Looking at the composition of the archaeobotanical assemblages in general, it seems that in most cases they originate from contexts that represent fuel refuse and cooking accidents. The cereal crop finds from Tell Tweini derive largely from the final stages of their processing for consumption, as they are represented mainly by grains. Most probably, these are grains which were charred accidentally during food preparation. The regular finds of grape seeds (occurring in 87 % of the studied samples) is likely mainly the result of the use of those residues as fuel. The possible grape-pressing residues, like frit “skins” and infructescence stalks (Fig. 27), were found in several contexts, from both the Late Bronze Age and the Iron Age, which suggests that at least during these periods the plant was processed for wine. Usually grape-pressing residues are valuable raw material which could be used as fuel or fertilizer.118 A similar scenario can be invoked for the finds of olive fruit stones.119 The regular occurrence of small-sized, compact seeds of wild-growing plants, but also of fig, relates to remains that could pass through the digestive tract and that therefore could come from dung used as fuel. While grain can be consumed as either 117 118 119

Van der Veen 2007. Margaritis and Jones 2006. Braadbaart et al. 2016.

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human food or fodder, chaff is less suitable for human consumption and more appropriate for other uses, one of which is fodder. The association of fig “seeds” with Rumex and Trifolium has been observed by others as circumstantial evidence for dung.120 Thus at least part of the glume bases of emmer could have been incorporated into the archaeobotanical assemblages after first passing through the digestive tract of domestic herbivores121 and then being part of dung fuel that had become charred. The composition of the archaeobotanical assemblages suggests a high contribution of dung fuel and, therefore, that the waste of its disposal was regularly dumped in certain areas of the settlement. The samples from locus 00959 (Level 8 C-D - oven) in particular show clear evidence of a possible cooking accident, leading to exceptional preservation of many cultivated food plants, such as barley (about 100 grains) and not further identifiable cereals. Indeed, this locus is a clear example of a horse-shoe-shaped hearth – also called tannur.122 Its botanical content (dominated by barley grains) differs markedly from the content of other installations of that kind, where mostly possible fuel remains were found. Those installations typically yield wild plant seeds, fragments of olive stones and grape pips, and they could be interpreted as the remains of jift (pressing residues) used as fuel.123 Sometimes jift mixed with animal dung is used as fuel as well. This is, for example, the case in the modern village of Suleikhat in the Jordan Valley.124 So these structures could be ovens with differing content. Interestingly, the macrobotanical spectrum of pit 00942, Level 9 A-B, is quite similar to that of the tannur at locus 00959. The most plausible explanation is that ashes created by the cooking fire of another tannur were gathered up and deposited in this pit. Summarizing, we can state that the charring of the Tell Tweini remains was likely mostly due to the burning of fuel and that the material represents a mixture of consumption refuse, stored food and dung fuel. 5.2 The Natural Environment around Tell Tweini and Its Use As far as the animals are concerned, the data show a remarkably limited exploitation of local wild resources. This is particularly striking for the fish, which are better represented by taxa imported from the Egyptian Nile than by local taxa. Nevertheless, some fishing probably took place in the rivers surrounding Tell Tweini and possibly also in nearby estuarine and marine coastal environments. The birds, with a predominance of water birds, suggest that people were doing some fowling in the reed marsh near the site. The larger 120 121 122 123 124

See for example Valamoti 2005; Riehl 2010. Valamoti 2013. Peyronel 2008. Brun 2003. Neef 1990.

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wild mammal species present may have been brought in from greater distances, and are hence not good indicators for the local environment. The appearance of gazelle in the Late Bronze Age and its increased relative importance in the following Iron Age is possibly correlated with the arid event in the earlier Iron Age (early13th/12th century BCE until the 9th/8th century BCE).125 Alternatively it could mean that, over time, animals were brought in from different areas. The deer that is overall predominant among the hunted mammals was hunted in forested environments, the closest of which would have existed at a distance of a few kilometres. Near Tell Tweini, there also must have been cultivated fields, which could have attracted such animal species as chukar partridge and Palestinian mole rat. We assume that the domesticated animals come from herds kept in the surroundings of the site, and that at least some live animals could have been found at the tell itself, as suggested by the presence of a few foetal bones. The predominance of sheep and goat fits well with both the natural environment of the coastal Levant and an urban economy probably under some kind of state control.126 The wild plant assemblages indicate a variety of habitats which developed in the surroundings of the site. Throughout all occupation periods, but especially during the Iron Age, wetland vegetation is well represented at the site, including temporary flooded meadows, but also wetlands, river banks and shallow water bodies. Some of these plants, such as common club-rush (Schoenoplectus lacustris), could have been used as matting or construction material, but they also could be part of the pasture, as their seeds can also survive digestion by ruminants.127 Particularly during drier periods, such wetlands are increasingly important as pasture ground or as a source of other valuable resources, which are reduced in areas that are more strongly affected by drought.128 A further group of wild plants represented are those of open grasslands, open forests and shrub land. These were likely growing in the close vicinity of the settlement. It is plausible to suggest that the latter served as pasture land and were probably extended by human activities in the area. 5.3 Diet Although the emphasis on hand collection as a sampling method for the animal bones means that fish bones are underrepresented, fish was probably a relatively small part of the total amount of animal proteins consumed by the

125 126 127 128

Kaniewski et al. 2008; Kaniewski et al. 2010. Zeder 1991. Wallace and Charles 2013. Becker and Kroll 2008; Riehl and Marinova 2016.

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inhabitants of Tell Tweini, for two reasons. The fish bones that are missed due to the collection methods are mainly of small specimens, thus representing smaller amounts of food. And even for the larger fish, one bone corresponds to much less food than a bone of a larger mammal, such as sheep or goat or, even more so, cattle. Wild animal protein – from birds and mammals – also only contributed in a limited way to the diet, at least in quantitative terms. It is clear that domesticated species represented the main source of meat and, as shown by the slaughtering ages, were also milked. Although sheep/goat bones are more numerous than cattle bones, when we take into account the large live weight of cattle, we see that cattle must have represented the main sources of meat. Cereals represent the main crop at Tell Tweini. Wheat and barley can be prepared as flat breads or porridge on a daily basis. In Mediterranean cuisine, lentil is a characteristic companion of wheat and barley, and it was also important at Tell Tweini. Compared with cereals, yields are relatively low (about 500-1500 kg/ha129), but lentil stands out as one of the most nutritious and tasty of the pulses. The protein content is about 25 per cent, and, probably together with the bitter vetch, lentil constituted an important meat substitute. As the name of the plant implies, the seeds of bitter vetch are bitter and toxic to humans and to some animals, but the poisonous substance can be removed by soaking in water. At least since Roman times, this vetch has been utilized primarily as an animal feed, for it is regarded as inferior for human consumption and is only eaten by the very poor, or in times of famine. The same goes for grass pea, which occurs only rarely in the archaeobotanical record of Tell Tweini. Emmer and barley can also be used for brewing beer; however, direct evidence of brewing residues was not recorded at the site. The numerous grape finds, including those that could originate from pressing, as well as the pressing installations found at the site, suggest that wine production was practiced. Compared with cereal grains and stones of fruits, vegetables and tuber crops are highly perishable, and their soft parts stand only a rare chance of becoming charred and being preserved in archaeological contexts. It is therefore not surprising that very few remains of vegetables and tubers have been found in archaeological excavations. Yet this is partly compensated for by evidence from Mesopotamian Bronze Age literary sources and by drawings and descriptions found in Egyptian tombs. The combined evidence shows that at least since the start of the 2nd millennium BCE, vegetable gardens constituted an integral element of food production in Babylonia and in the Nile Valley. Plants grown during these early times that have been satisfactorily identified are melon, leek, garlic, onion, lettuce, and chufa. These appear to be the major elements of 129

Riehl 2009.

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Bronze Age vegetable production.130 The archaeobotanical record at Tell Tweini indicates that at least some of them, such as melon, were consumed at the site. Generally, crops and their weeds are the most common source of seeds and fruits in archaeobotanical assemblages. This is also the case for Tell Tweini. The analyses revealed, however, that several species (listed in Appendix 11 under the groups “Fresh and wet habitats” and “Disturbed habitats/Open vegetation”) were not correlated to the crops. Therefore other possibilities for their origin had to be considered. In view of a growing number of ethnographic and ethnoarchaeological studies that have demonstrated that arable farming is not the only activity producing remains throughout the year, it was decided to consider sources of archaeobotanical seeds other than crop-processing activities. People in Mediterranean countries do (still) gather wild plants for various purposes, sometimes in large amounts.131 Apart from the crops, many of the typical modern weed plants were used for consumption in different periods and regions. Amongst the wild plants recorded from Tell Tweini, several are known historically as food plants, like Portulaca oleracea, Stellaria media, Capparis, Polygonum, Potentilla. However, because most of the vegetables are consumed before flowering, it is difficult to prove that the leaves were consumed when only the seeds are found in archaeological contexts. The outcome of the stable isotope analyses that have been carried out on human, animal and plant remains from Tell Tweini will be dealt with in a separate publication.132 These analyses will provide us with, amongst other things, indications on the proportions in the human diet of animal and plant food, which cannot be calculated based purely on the archaeozoological and archaeobotanical data. 5.4 The Animal and Plant Economy in Diachronic View One of the major goals of this paper was to look at diachronic changes in the composition of the animal remains from Tell Tweini that reflect the major political, socio-economic and climatological changes the site witnessed during its long period of occupation, which are summarised in Fig. 28. In the description of the archaeozoological results above, diachronic trends are discussed by animal group. Despite the large number of faunal remains studied overall, sample sizes were often insufficient to look at such trends by level or even by large time period, in particular for specific aspects, such as ages at death. Nevertheless, some diachronic changes were noted, which are discussed in 130 131 132

Zohary et al. 2012. Ertug 2000. Fuller et al. in preparation.

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chronological order in what follows. Because the archaeobotanical evidence is less abundant and the different occupation levels/phases are presented in very variable amounts in the botanical sample record, only the broader periods could be considered and discussed below. In general, the composition of fauna and flora from Tell Tweini fits with that from contemporary sites elsewhere in the Levant.133 For the Early Bronze Age, numbers of identified faunal remains are small at Tell Tweini (all from Level 9 A-B). As a consequence, no sensible statements can be made for many of the aspects discussed. We have not been able to detect anything that could be related to the drought between 2200 and 1900 BCE, at the transition between the Early and Middle Bronze Ages. It is not excluded that the higher proportion of suids in the Early Bronze Age level at Tell Tweini compared with the younger occupation phases fits with the regional pattern of a higher importance of domesticated pigs during the Early Bronze Age than later in the Bronze Age. One possible explanation for this higher importance is a more rural, less centrally controlled economy.134 The archaeobotanical evidence on the Early Bronze Age from Tell Tweini is even less, and is based on only one sample, containing 15 litres of sediment (Tab. 18) originating most probably from discarded fuel (see section 5.1.). Nevertheless, the staple cereal crops that dominate throughout the studied occupation periods of the site are already present in the Early Bronze Age sample, and the prevalence of emmer that is recorded for other sites in the same period is already visible in this single sample. However this could be just a random result, and because only the data from this single sample are available, not much interpretations could be done. For the Middle Bronze Age, the majority of the data are from Level 8 A-B. The most particular feature of the fauna from this level, and from the Middle Bronze Age in general, is that it is the only time where sheep clearly predominates over goat, while elsewhere sheep and goat occur in about equal proportions. This predominance of sheep suggests that sheep’s wool may have been a more important commodity during the Middle Bronze Age than it was during other occupation phases of Tell Tweini. The start of trade relationships in the Levant during the Middle Bronze Age is reflected here in the appearance of imported Egyptian Nile perch. Although during the Middle Bronze Age, and also during other periods, Tell Tweini was in contact with different parts of the Eastern Mediterranean, through the fauna we have only been able to show the link with Egypt. The inhabitants of Tell Tweini relied on emmer and barley throughout the Middle Bronze Age (Level 8 A-D). In the archaeobotanical assemblages from this period, also some free-threshing wheat appears, but as a minor component. The proportion of barley, a rather drought-resistant crop, 133 134

Riehl 2009; Chahoud 2013. Zeder 1991, 30-31.

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is nearly equal to that of emmer during the Middle Bronze Age (Level 8 A-D), and this is the period of its greatest importance in the economy of the site. Increasing aridity from the Early to the Middle Bronze Age in the Near East must have had an effect on the yield of many crops. Indeed, aridity is considered to be the explanation of the prevalence of barley and emmer over freethreshing wheat in Syria, the last having much higher water requirements. Bitter vetch, another crop with considerable drought stress adaptation, which today is not part of the human diet, is the most important pulse in the Middle Bronze Age economy of Tell Tweini. However, the relatively high proportion of grape and also the occurrence of flax indicate that the magnitude of the climatic deterioration was not as strong as in the eastern parts of the country and that probably tracts of land with favourable conditions still existed around the site. For the Late Bronze Age, there are hardly any faunal remains from Level 7 D-E; the vast majority are from Level 7 A-B-C, which was the most intense period of occupation of Tell Tweini. Some features of the fauna confirm that this was also its most wealthy occupation phase. Larger numbers of Egyptian fish were being imported than before, and it is also the period with the largest proportion of large wild mammals. We assume a connection with the fact that in the Bronze Age and the Iron Age of the Levant, hunting was no longer an important activity for subsistence, but an expression of political power.135 The domestic sheep and goat from the Late Bronze Age are the largest ones encountered on the site. No larger sizes were noted for cattle during the Late Bronze Age, but that may relate to the arrival of zebu-type cattle around that time. Zebu cattle have different body proportions than taurine cattle, which were present first. In any case, none of the size differences are statistically significant. Although emmer and barley still dominate the annual staple crop assemblages, it seems that from the Late Bronze Age onwards (Level 7 A-E), freethreshing wheat gained slightly in importance in the economy of Tell Tweini, a tendency observed generally for the plant economy of the Near East136 for this period. The drought-resistant crop bitter vetch persists in importance and, considering the favourable humidity conditions, this likely has a cultural rather than an environmental explanation. Generally, the time of innovations in the spectrum of cultivated plants seems to be the Late Bronze Age (level 7 A-E). This is the period in which most of the vegetable or condiment finds (Cucumis melo, Coriandrum sativum, Trigonella foenum-graecum, see Tab. 18) are concentrated and also when faba bean occurs more frequently. Of course we should bear in mind that most of the studied archaeobotanical samples originate from the Late Bronze Age (Level 7 A-E) and that the chance for new finds is bigger for this level than for the periods that have been less studied. However, when 135 136

Marom and Bar-Oz 2013. Riehl and Nesbitt 2003.

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we are looking at the archaeobotanical evidence for the region,137 the observed changes should reflect general cultural developments in the Eastern Mediterranean. During the entire period of occupation for which archaeobotanical evidence is available (Middle Bronze Age to Early Iron Age), it seems that grape retains its importance for the economy of the site. Considering the remains of possible wine-making installations at the site,138 it seems at least from the Iron Age onwards the processing of grapes took place on a bigger scale. We could not detect any traces in the fauna of the political turbulent times that were brought about by the collapse of the Ugarit kingdom in 1192 BCE. Small sample sizes ensure that we cannot draw any conclusions for the earliest phases of the Iron Age, present at Tell Tweini but missing in most other sites in the area. However, it seems that these earliest levels of the Iron Age, Levels 6 G-H and 6 E-F, show mostly continuity with Level 7 A-B-C. During the Iron Age, there is a further increase in the importance of fish, and of Nile perch in particular, compared with the Late Bronze Age. However, hunted mammals have become less important. In general, the fauna shows that the Iron Age is far from homogenous. Level 5 A-B is, for example, distinct, characterised by a drop in the proportion of fish remains and an increased importance of cattle, compared with the older Iron Age levels. There is no reason to assume that this has anything to do with methods of collection in the field. The larger number of cattle in Level 5 A-B is all the more striking, as previously we noticed that larger numbers of cattle are more typical for public buildings than for residential buildings of the Iron Age,139 and the public buildings at Tell Tweini no longer served as such after Level 6. The Iron Age was not only time of a political turbulence, but also a period of prolonged drought, which may actually have been an underlying cause of the political changes. In the fauna, only the increased relative importance of gazelle is a possible sign of the arid phase. The tendency for an increase in importance of free-threshing wheat and a reduction in barley continues and is even enhanced during the Early Iron Age (Level 6). Concerning the pulses, the lentil is the pulse that gains importance during this period. Most of the crops introduced during the Late Bronze Age continue to be cultivated. The olive is also present throughout all of the periods, but finds of olive markedly increase during the Early Iron Age (Level 6). This could relate to the general increase in importance of oil crops in the region and the enlargement of the scale of their production,140 but it could also relate to the subsequent use of olive-pressing residues as fuel,141 which would have

137 138 139 140 141

Zohary et al. 2012. Bretschneider et al. 2008. Linseele 2008. Marinova and Riehl 2009. Braadbaart et al. 2016.

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favoured the preservation of the olive stones in charred condition (being the main kind of botanical preservation at the site). Although we have been able to detect some diachronic changes in the bioarchaeological assemblages at Tell Tweini, most of these differences are quite subtle, and the general composition stays similar. As we have been very careful to select only well-dated contexts in which no signs for mixing were noticed in the ceramics, we believe that the overall similar nature of the plant and animal remains cannot be attributed to mixing or poor dating of material. Moreover, relative stability in the composition of the fauna over a long period of time has also been shown elsewhere in Syria,142 where it was connected to local environmental conditions that remained more or less the same. A similar situation is observed for the main crops on the Levantine coast, where even with some reduction in frequencies, the staple cereals and pulses do not show the kind of pronounced fluctuations we see in the eastern, more drought-prone parts of Syria.143 In the case of Tell Tweini, we assume that the many natural springs in the vicinity served as a buffer during regional phases of climate aridification. 6. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS Tell sites are by definition used over a long duration, which at first sight makes them ideal for diachronic studies. However, they usually also have complex histories of use and thus complex stratigraphies, which makes dating deposits far from easy. The bioarchaeological remains available from Tell Tweini derive mostly from fill layers, not primary contexts, and they represent mixtures of activities that may be unrelated to the structures they were found in. In addition, our analyses have suggested serious disturbance of deposits that resulted in incomplete and disarticulated skeletal remains of animals and humans that must have been buried whole. With respect to the animal remains, our goal was to look at fine diachronic changes in the animals and the animal economy at Tell Tweini. We have thereby concentrated on the best-dated contexts. Less than half of the total number of bones studied (46747) were useful for the diachronic studies. It appears that, overall, the animals and the animal economy at Tell Tweini remained similar from the Early Bronze Age to Iron Age III (ca. 2200 BCE333 BCE). The same kind of stability is observed also in the studied archaeobotanical assemblages from the site, covering the period from the Middle Bronze Age to Early Iron Age II (ca. 1800 BCE-700 BCE). The impact of the 142 143

Grigson 2015. Riehl 2009; Riehl 2010.

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at times very turbulent regional political and climatic events on the site’s economy, as visible in the bioarchaeological evidence, was only minor. Climatic fluctuations were probably locally buffered at Tell Tweini by the presence of many springs. Most of our data come from the Late Bronze Age, Level 7 A-B-C in particular (1450-1200 BCE), and this fits with the fact that this was the most important and most prosperous phase of occupation, when Tell Tweini was part of the Kingdom of Ugarit. Our detailed data suggest considerable variability in the animal economy during the subsequent Iron Age (1200-333 BCE), which is not surprising considering the comparatively long duration of this period. However, sample sizes by fine chronological phase are too small to precisely pinpoint the nature of variation and the characteristics of each phase. In any case, the earliest phases of the Iron Age, after the fall of Ugarit in 1192 BCE, which left a local destruction layer, show mainly a continuation of what we observed for the Late Bronze Age. Over the entire duration of occupation at Tell Tweini, its inhabitants were mainly relying on sheep, goat and cattle for the animal food component of their diet. They probably used both the meat and the milk of these animals. The use of staple cereal crops also shows continuity through time, with the exception that free-threshing wheat gains in importance from the Late Bronze Age onwards. This period also sees an emphasis on the use of vegetables and condiments. During the Iron Age, considering both the archaeobotanical and the archaeological record, olive cultivation and the pressing of olives for oil was added to the economy of the site. The exploitation of wild resources played only a very minor role. The animal remains also testify to interregional (trade) connections, especially in the form of the import of Nile perch. Bones of this fish appear for the first time in the Middle Bronze Age (2000-1600 BCE), and their relative numbers gradually increase after that. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank Karel Van Lerberghe and Joachim Bretschneider, the two directors of the excavations at Tell Tweini, for giving us the opportunity to work on the faunal and botanical remains from the site. We are also very grateful to Joachim Bretschneider and Greta Jans for their help and patience during the preparation of this contribution. Many thanks are due to the field team at Tell Tweini, for their help and the pleasant work atmosphere. Veerle Linseele contributed to this chapter as a postdoctoral fellow of the FWO-Flanders. In 2009 she obtained a travel grant from the FWO-Flanders for the fieldwork at Tell Tweini.

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Table 1: Chronology of Tell Tweini and number of identified specimens (NISP) of studied animal remains by level and by large time period. Level 1-2-3 4 A-B 5 A-B 6 A-B 6 C-D 6 E-F 6 G-H 7 A-B-C 7 D-E 8 A-B 8 C-D 9 A-B 10-11 No level Large time period Hellenistic-modern (level 1-2-3) Iron Age (level 4-5-6) Late Bronze Age (level 7) Middle Bronze Age (level 8) Early Bronze Age (level 9) Early Bronze Age (level 10-11) No large time period Total all

Regional chronology Hellenistic to modern IA III (& Persian Achaemenid Period) IA III IA II IA II IA I IA I LBA II A-II B LBA I MBA II MBA I EBA IV B EBA IV A-III

Approximate date 333 BCE-present 550-333 BCE 700-550 BCE 850-700 BCE 960/900-850 BCE 1100-1020 BCE 1190-1100 BCE 1450-1190 BCE 1600-1450 BCE 1800-1600 BCE 2000-1800 BCE 2200-2000 BCE 2600-2200 BCE

333 BCE-present 1200-333 BCE 1600-1200 BCE 2000-1600 BCE 2200-2000 BCE 2600-2200 BCE

Fine

Hand

Total

-

-

-

33

205

205

914 2139 2139 689 1182 1182 88 669 669 1 250 250 34 171 171 1855 8224 8224 222 122 122 635 1253 1253 61 861 861 114 379 379 5225 21699 21699

-

-

-

3062 11243 11243 2162 9144 9144 787 2518 2518 114 379 379 -

-

-

3746 13870 13870 9871 37154 37154

Fish Frog or toad Reptile Bird Wild micromam. Large wild mam. Large domesticated mam. Wild or domesticated mam. Unidentified mam. Total

Large time period

Level

8 C-D

8 A-B -

7 7 D-E A-B-C -

18 2 2 3 -

2

-

34 61

11 1 4 -

3

-

95 114

479 635

-

17

35 1 2 4 97 -

81 91

-

-

2 3 4 1

47 222

-

5

121 6 2 41 -

1349 1855

3

53

189 1 24 11 223 2

70 85

-

2

10 3 -

EBA MBA MBA MBA LBA LBA LBA

9 A-B

-

1

9 1 1 1

21 34

IA

6 G-H IA

1

-

-

1 -

6 E-F

62 88

-

12

13 1 -

IA

6 C-D

413 689

2

8

250 5 2 9 -

IA

6 A-B

853 914

-

30

24 2 4 1

IA

5 A-B

1

-

9 -

23 33

IA

4 A-B

564 1303

3

20

651 2 15 2 46 -

IA

-

Table 2: Summary of animal groups identified in the sieved material from Tell Tweini (NISP) (mam. = mammal).

2321 3746

-

85

1041 7 36 5 248 3

-

-

6412 9871

9

238

2384 13 95 28 684 8

Total

BRONZE AND IRON AGE PALAEO-ECONOMY IN A CHANGING ENVIRONMENT

459

Fish Reptile Bird Wild micromam. Large wild mam. Large domesticated mam. Wild or domesticated mam. Unidentified mam. Total

Large time period

Level

8 C-D

8 A-B -

7 7 D-E A-B-C -

4 4 2 3

282

1

565 861

1 2 1

72

3

300 379

818 1253

6

410

5 3 7 1 3

279 404

1

120

1 1 2

37 122

-

78

4 1 2 -

4205 8224

47

3669

137 23 41 8 94

271 798

6

500

8 1 12

EBA MBA MBA MBA LBA LBA LBA

9 A-B

3 1 1

82 171

1

83

IA

6 G-H

2 -

130 250

-

118

IA

6 E-F

384 669

1

264

12 2 4 2

IA

6 C-D

491 1182

7

595

38 3 11 31 6

IA

6 A-B

1073 2139

1

1048

10 2 1 4

IA

5 A-B

6 1

79 205

-

119

IA

4 A-B

228 33 23 34 43

IA

-

747 111 144 83 309

Total

30

113

6842 17775

290 38 51 6 137

-

-

2682 6476 17872 6627 13870 37154

9

3575

Table 3: Summary of animal groups identified in the hand collected material from Tell Tweini (NISP).

460 V. LINSEELE ET AL.

Ray or skate (Raja sp.) Rhinopteridae/Myliobatidae Chondrichthyes Herrings (Clupeidae) Sea bass (Dicentrarchus sp.) Needlefishes (Belonidae) Groupers (Serranidae) Jacks and pompanos (Carangidae) cf. Carangidae Meagre (Argyrosomus regius) Brown meagre/shi drum (Sciaena umbra/Umbrina cirrossa) Drums (Sciaenidae) Sea bream 1 (Diplodus sp.) Sea bream 2 (Pagrus sp.) Sea bream 3 (Sparus aurata) Sea breams (Sparus Pagrus sp.) Sea breams (Sparidae)

Large time period

Level

8 C-D

8 A-B -

7 7 D-E A-B-C -

2 -

1 -

-

2 1 -

-

1

-

-

3 1 1

-

-

-

1 4 19

7 -

1 1

1 17

2 -

1 1 6 1 6 -

1 -

-

-

EBA MBA MBA MBA LBA LBA LBA

9 A-B IA

-

-

3

6 G-H IA

6 E-F

1

-

-

IA

2

-

1 -

6 C-D

1 1 1 16

1 3

1 13 2 -

IA

6 A-B

Table 4: List of fish identified in the sieved material from Tell Tweini (NISP).

IA

3

-

1 -

5 A-B IA

4 A-B

-

-

-

1 1 1 1 47

1 3

1 25 1 2 17 3

IA

-

-

6 1 6 38

2 -

3 1 25 7 34 3

2 8 2 13 2 147

1 13 6

1 4 4 76 1 12 61 8

Total

BRONZE AND IRON AGE PALAEO-ECONOMY IN A CHANGING ENVIRONMENT

461

Chub mackerel (Scomber colias) European parrotfish (Sparisoma cretense) Barracuda (Sphyraena sp.) Mullets (Mugilidae) Total marine fish Barbel (Barbus sp.) Carps (Cyprinidae) Catfishes (Clariidae) Nile perch (Lates niloticus) Eel (Anguilla anguilla) Total freshwater fish Fish identified Fish unidentified Fish total

Large time period

Level

8 C-D

8 A-B -

7 7 D-E A-B-C -

1

-

4 2 2 6 12 18

-

-

4 0 4 7 11

1 7 1 1 8 27 35

1

-

1 1 0 1 1 2

-

-

17 50 3 3 53 68 121

-

-

1 7 45 1 5 11 2 1 20 65 124 189

2

-

1 0 1 9 10

-

-

EBA MBA MBA MBA LBA LBA LBA

9 A-B

Table 4 (continued)

IA

-

-

3 0 3 6 9

6 G-H IA

6 E-F

1 0 1 0 1

-

-

-

3 0 3 10 13

IA

6 C-D

1

1

12 53 1 16 1 18 71 179 250

IA

6 A-B

-

-

1 5 1 1 6 18 24

IA

5 A-B IA

-

-

1 1 2 2 3 6 9

4 A-B

3

1

29 137 4 21 2 27 164 487 651

IA

-

2

-

2 27 157 10 2 10 25 47 204 837 1041

-

-

3 96 472 1 26 13 51 30 121 593 1791 2384

9

3

Total

462 V. LINSEELE ET AL.

Requiem sharks (Carcharhinidae) Chondrichthyes Sea bass (Dicentrarchus sp.) Groupers (Serranidae) Jacks and pompanos (Carangidae) Meagre (Argyrosomus regius) Drums (Sciaenidae) Dentex (Dentex sp.) Sea bream 1 (Diplodus sp.) Sea bream 2 (Pagrus sp.) Sea bream 3 (Sparus aurata) Sea bream 3 (Sparus sp.) Sea breams (Sparidae) European parrotfish (Sparisoma cretense) Barracuda (Sphyraena sp.) Mullets (Mugilidae)

Large time period

Level

8 A-B

7 7 D-E A-B-C -

1 -

2 -

1

-

-

-

2

1 1 2 2 1

2 1 18 -

1

-

-

1 -

1

MBA MBA LBA LBA LBA

8 C-D IA -

-

1 -

1 -

6 G-H IA -

-

-

1 -

6 E-F IA

-

-

-

2 -

6 C-D IA -

1

1 -

4 -

6 A-B IA

5 A-B

-

-

-

-

IA -

-

1 -

1

4 A-B

Table 5: List of fish identified in the hand collected material from Tell Tweini (NISP).

IA

-

5

1 1 3 6 1 2 -

6 -

-

-

-

1 5

6 3 3 10 -

1 18 3

1

1 14

8 1 1 1 7 12 3 15 1

2 2 51 4

3

Total

BRONZE AND IRON AGE PALAEO-ECONOMY IN A CHANGING ENVIRONMENT

463

Grey triggerfish (Balistes carolinensis) Total marine fish Carps (Cyprinidae) Nile perch (Lates niloticus) Eel (Anguilla anguilla) Total freshwater fish Fish identified Fish unidentified Fish total

Large time period

Level

8 A-B

7 7 D-E A-B-C -

1 1 1 2 3 5

2 1 1 3 1 4

1 0 1 3 4

32 52 52 84 53 137

1 2 5 5 7 1 8

-

MBA MBA LBA LBA LBA

8 C-D IA 2 0 2 1 3

6 G-H

Table 5 (continued)

IA 1 0 1 1 2

6 E-F

2 6 6 8 4 12

IA

6 C-D

6 21 21 27 11 38

IA

6 A-B

0 6 6 6 4 10

IA

5 A-B IA 2 4 4 6 6

4 A-B

25 112 112 137 91 228

IA

-

51 2 137 1 140 191 99 290

-

-

127 2 345 1 348 475 272 747

1

Total

464 V. LINSEELE ET AL.

BRONZE AND IRON AGE PALAEO-ECONOMY IN A CHANGING ENVIRONMENT

465

Table 6: Quantitative importance of fish remains relative to the total number of animal bones and of Nile perch (Lates niloticus) relative to the total number of identified fish remains at Tell Tweini (id. = identified). Sieved

Level 4 A-B 5 A-B 6 A-B 6 C-D 6 E-F 6 G-H 7 A-B-C 7 D-E 8 A-B 8 C-D 9 A-B No level Large time period Iron Age Late Bronze Age Middle Bronze Age Early Bronze Age No large time period Total all

Hand

n

%

n

%

n

%

n

%

Total

Fish

Fish id.

Nile perch

Total

Fish

Fish id.

Nile perch

33 914 689 88 1 34 1855 222 635 61 114 5225

27 2.6 36.3 15 100 27 10.2 54.5 5.5 30 9.6 32.6

3 6 71 3 1 3 65 53 8 6 4 370

67 205 0 2139 23 1182 0 669 0 250 0 171 3 8224 0 122 0 1253 0 861 0 379 4.7 22094

2.9 0.5 3.2 1.8 0.8 1.8 1.7 3.3 0.4 0.5 0 2.4

6 6 27 8 1 2 84 1 2 3 0 335

67 100 78 75 0 0 62 0 50 33 0 75.8

3062 2162 787 114 3746 9871

31.2 14.8 7.0 9.6 27.8 24.2

251 119 15 4 204 593

15.5 11243 1.6 9144 0 2518 0 379 5 13870 8.6 37154

2.8 1.6 0.5 0 2.8 2

187 92 5 0 191 475

79.7 62 40 0 71.7 72.6

Frog or toad (Anura) Small lizard Snake Caspian turtle (Mauremys caspica) Unidentified turtle Total reptile Goose (Anser sp.) Common teal (Anas crecca) Duck (Anas sp.) Pigeon (Columba sp.) Common moorhen (Gallinula chloropus) Small perching birds (Passeriformes) Unidentified bird Total bird

Large time period

Level

8 C-D

8 A-B -

1 1 0

2 1 1 2 0

1 1 1 2 1 3 4

2 1 3 0

4 2 6 1 1 2

1 7 17 24 1 8 2 11

IA 1 1 0

7 7 6 D-E A-B-C G-H

EBA MBA MBA MBA LBA LBA

9 A-B IA 5 5 1 1 2

6 A-B IA 0 1 1 2

5 A-B

Table 7: List of reptiles and birds identified in the sieved material from Tell Tweini (NISP).

2 9 6 15 1 1 2

IA

-

-

-

7 16 15 1 4 36 1 1 3 5

13 41 49 1 4 95 1 1 1 1 1 11 12 28

Total

466 V. LINSEELE ET AL.

Snake Small lizard Caspian turtle (Mauremys caspica) Caspian turtle (Mauremys caspica)? Greek tortoise (Testudo graeca) Greek tortoise (Testudo graeca)? Softshell turtle (cf. Trionyx triungius) Unidentified turtle Unidentified reptile Total reptile Heron (Ardea sp.) Greylag goose (Anser anser) Grey-white fronted goose (Anser albifrons) Goose (Anser sp.) Mallard (Anas platyrhynchos) Duck (Anas sp.) Diving duck (Aythya sp.) Unidentified duck (Anatinae) Black kite (Milvus migrans)

Large time period

Level

8 C-D

8 A-B -

7 7 D-E A-B-C -

1 1 -

2 2 4 -

1 2 3 -

0 -

1 1 -

8 15 23 1 5 2 1 1 2 1

1 1 -

EBA MBA MBA MBA LBA LBA LBA

9 A-B IA 0 1 -

6 G-H IA 1 1 2 2 -

6 C-D IA 1 1 1 3 4 1 -

6 A-B IA 1 1 2 -

5 A-B

Table 8: List of reptiles and birds identified in the hand collected material from Tell Tweini (NISP).

2 2 17 10 2 33 1 12 1 1

IA

-

-

1 1 9 13 1 1 12 38 1 6 1 1 5 -

3 3 12 1 43 1 1 44 3 111 1 1 1 30 3 2 1 9 2

Total

BRONZE AND IRON AGE PALAEO-ECONOMY IN A CHANGING ENVIRONMENT

467

Goshawk (Accipiter gentilis) Common buzzard (Buteo buteo) Honey buzzard (Pernis apivorus) Accipitridae Chukar partridge (Alectoris chukar) Commong crane (Grus grus) Lapwing (Vanellus vanellus)? Charadriiformes Pigeon (Columba sp.) Crow (Corvus sp.) Small perching birds (Passeriformes) Unidentified bird Total bird Ostrich (Struthio camelus) - eggshell

Large time period

Level

8 C-D

8 A-B -

7 7 D-E A-B-C -

1 1 2 -

1 1 2 -

4 1 1 1 7 -

1 1 -

0 -

1 1 3 1 1 1 20 41 -

0 -

EBA MBA MBA MBA LBA LBA LBA

9 A-B

Table 8 (continued)

IA 1 -

6 G-H IA 1 1 4 -

6 C-D

1 5 11 -

IA

6 A-B IA 1 1 -

5 A-B

1 1 1 5 23 -

IA

-

-

-

1 2 1 2 3 4 2 22 51 1

1 1 1 1 9 1 1 6 7 7 3 56 144 1

Total

468 V. LINSEELE ET AL.

Bat (Microchiroptera) Palestinian mole rat (Nannospalax ehrenbergi) Shrew (Crocidura sp./Suncus etruscus) Mouse (Mus cf. musculus) Small rodent/insectivore Least weasel (Mustela nivalis) Total micromammal Hare (Lepus europaeus) Mesopotamian fallow deer (Dama mesopotamica) Red deer (Cervus elaphus) or fallow deer Total large wild mammal Dog (Canis familiaris) Sheep (Ovis aries) Goat (Capra hircus) Sheep or goat Total domesticated mammal Wild boar (Sus scrofa) or domesticated pig (Sus domesticus) Small bovid/cervid Total wild or domesticated mammal Total identified mammal Unidentified mammal Total mammal

Large time period

Level

8 C-D

8 A-B -

7 7 D-E A-B-C -

3 3 0 2 2 0 5 34 39

4 4 0 3 3 0 7 95 102

0 114 479 593

-

0 17 17

-

1 6 89 97 -

1

-

0 5 81 86

-

1 0

-

1 3 4 1

-

-

0 46 47 93

-

0 5 5

-

39 2 41 -

-

-

2 3 281 1349 1630

1

1 2 1 52 53

-

21 7 187 3 223 1

5

-

0 5 70 75

-

0 2 2

-

3 3 -

-

-

EBA MBA MBA MBA LBA LBA LBA

9 A-B

-

1 1 1

-

1 1 1

-

-

0 3 21 24

IA

6 G-H

-

1 1 -

-

-

0 13 62 75

-

0 12 12

IA

6 C-D

-

0 8 8

-

9 9 -

-

-

2 2 19 413 432

IA

6 A-B

Table 9: List of mammals identified in the sieved material from Tell Tweini (NISP).

-

4 4 1

-

-

0 35 853 888

-

1 30 30

IA

5 A-B

3

-

2 3 69 564 633

1

0 2 18 20

-

1 4 38 46 -

IA

-

1

1

0 336 2321 2657

-

3 1 4 2 78 85

2

3 20 198 25 248 1

-

-

7 9 939 6412 7351

2

1 8 1 7 2 228 238

2

26 38 380 31 684 5

10

1

Total

BRONZE AND IRON AGE PALAEO-ECONOMY IN A CHANGING ENVIRONMENT

469

Palestinian mole rat (Nannospalax ehrenbergi) Hedgehog (Erinaceinae) Small rodent (or insectivore) Least weasel (Mustela nivalis) Total micromammal Hare (Lepus europaeus) Beech marten (Martes foina) Red fox (Vulpes vulpes) Brown bear (Ursus arctos) Indian (Elephas maximus) or African elephant (Loxodonta africana) Wild boar (Sus scrofa) Hippotamus (Hippotamus amphibius) Goitred gazelle (Gazella subgutturosa) Red deer (Cervus elaphus) Mesopotamian fallow deer (Dama mesopotamica) Red deer or fallow deer Total large wild mammal

Large time period

Level

8 C-D

8 A-B -

7 7 D-E A-B-C -

-

0 -

-

-

-

-

-

3

3

-

0 -

-

1

-

-

-

-

1

3

3

-

-

-

-

-

1 1 -

-

2 2

-

-

-

-

-

-

1 1 -

-

0

-

-

-

-

-

-

0 -

-

15 94

61

-

5

-

4

-

2 5 8 7 2 -

1

1 12

6

1

1

-

1

1

2 2 1 -

-

EBA MBA MBA MBA LBA LBA LBA

9 A-B IA -

1 1

-

-

-

-

-

-

0 -

6 G-H IA

6 E-F

0

-

-

-

-

-

-

0 -

-

IA -

2 2

-

-

-

-

-

-

0 -

6 C-D

-

6

1

1

1

-

-

-

1 30 31 1 1 1

IA

6 A-B IA -

1 4

2

-

-

-

-

-

0 1 -

5 A-B

Table 10: List of mammals identified in the hand collected material from Tell Tweini (NISP).

IA -

1

-

-

1

-

-

-

0 -

4 A-B

-

8 43

18

1

9

1

4

-

13 21 34 2

IA

-

68

2

11

1

4

1

2 4 6 4 4 1

-

41 137

-

-

71 309

162

5

28

2

14

2

1 20 61 83 13 1 7 4

1

Total

470 V. LINSEELE ET AL.

Dog (Canis familiaris) Domesticated pig (Sus domesticus) Sheep (Ovis aries) Goat (Capra hircus) Sheep or goat Cattle (Bos taurus) cf. Horse (Equus cf. caballus) cf. Donkey (Equus cf. asinus) Equid Camel (Camelus bactrianus/ dromedarius) Total domesticated mammal Cat (Felis sp.) Unidentified carnivore Wild boar (Sus scrofa) or domesticated pig (Sus domesticus) Small bovid/cervid Large bovid/cervid Total wild or domesticated mammal Total identified mammal Unidentified mammal Total mammal

Large time period

Level

8 C-D

8 A-B -

7 7 D-E A-B-C -

8 8 154 102 3 5

-

282 -

1

-

1

5 6 39 22 -

-

72 -

3

-

3

6

1

5

410 -

-

36 11 259 98 1 -

-

5

286 420 565 818 851 1238

-

-

76 300 376

2

-

124 279 403

1

1 -

-

120 -

-

6 5 57 47 1 3

-

1

47

8 2

32

3669 1 4

-

202 185 1933 1279 1 8 37

2

22

78 3817 37 4205 115 8022

0

-

-

78 -

-

8 6 39 22 2

-

1

520 271 791

6

3 1

2

500 -

-

16 27 205 214 2 1 9

-

26

EBA MBA MBA MBA LBA LBA LBA

9 A-B

-

2

85 82 167

1

-

-

83 1 -

-

7 6 41 27 -

IA

6 G-H

Table 10 (continued)

-

-

118 130 248

0

-

-

118 -

-

7 11 60 40 -

IA

6 E-F

-

-

1

7

5

2

595 -

-

47 44 312 171 20

IA

6 A-B

1

3

1

-

1

1048 -

-

20 146 610 218 23 1 26

IA

5 A-B

267 639 1053 384 491 1073 651 1130 2126

1

1 -

-

264 -

-

18 12 162 70 2

IA

6 C-D

-

2

9

2 1

6

3575 -

-

271 206 1815 1217 1 3 20

1

41

IA

-

3

73

2

1137 1070 9109 6039 31 36 165

7

179

Total

30

17 9

41

113

32 19

93

6842 17775 2 4 2 6

2

481 393 3385 2443 3 18 41

-

-

120 3661 7056 18320 79 2682 6476 17872 199 6343 13532 36192

0

-

-

119 -

-

5 4 38 69 1 -

IA

4 A-B BRONZE AND IRON AGE PALAEO-ECONOMY IN A CHANGING ENVIRONMENT

471

7 A-B-C 7 A-B-C-D-E - 8 A-B 7 A-B-C 5 A-B 7 A-B-C 9 A-B 6 A-B-C-D-E-F-G-H - 7 A-B-C

Date Sus scrofa Sus domesticus Sus domesticus Sus domesticus Sus scrofa/domesticus Sus scrofa/domesticus Sus scrofa/domesticus

Animal taxon

Female

Sex

× present but wear not possible to record * The first zeros of each 5 digit locusnumber were omitted in the tables of this article.

2013 1045 1092 2520 3339 942 434

Locus*

1/2 ×

C

dP4

b c

P4

a

c U e m V

M1

Table 11: Mandibular wear stages (Grant 1982) recorded for suids from Tell Tweini.

C

b j

a/b

M2

a? d

M3

472 V. LINSEELE ET AL.

BRONZE AND IRON AGE PALAEO-ECONOMY IN A CHANGING ENVIRONMENT

473

Beech marten (Martes foina)

Red fox (Vulpes vulpes)

Brown bear (Ursus arctos)

Indian (Elephas maximus) or African elephant (Loxodonta africana)

Hippotamus (Hippotamus amphibius)

Wild boar (Sus scrofa)

Goitred gazelle (Gazella subgutturosa)

Red deer (Cervus elaphus)

Mesopotamian fallow deer (Dama mesopotamica)

Cranium Cranium + proc. corn. Cranium + antler Proc. corn. Antler Maxillare Dentes maxillare Mandibulare Dentes mandibulare Dentes Atlas Vertebra cervicalis Vertebra thoracalis Vertebra lumbalis Os sacrum Vertebrae Costae Scapula Humerus Radius Radius? Ulna Ossa carpi Os mc III+IV Os coxae

1 1 1 1 1 2

-

1 1 1 -

1 1 -

1 1 -

2 -

1 1 1 2 2 1 1

1 4 4 1 1 6 2 3 -

1 1 -

1 2 7 3 4 15 2 1 4 3 3 14 12 2 11 5

Red deer or fallow deer

Skeletal element

Hare (Lepus europaeus)

Table 12: Skeletal element distribution of large wild mammals identified at Tell Tweini, hand collected and sieved combined (proc. corn. = processus cornualis; mc = metacarpale; mt = metatarsale; mp = metapodiale; phal. = phalanx).

2 27 3 4 4 2 1 1 1 2 3 3 2 2 -

474

V. LINSEELE ET AL.

Red fox (Vulpes vulpes)

Brown bear (Ursus arctos)

Indian (Elephas maximus) or African elephant (Loxodonta africana)

Hippotamus (Hippotamus amphibius)

Wild boar (Sus scrofa)

Goitred gazelle (Gazella subgutturosa)

Red deer (Cervus elaphus)

Mesopotamian fallow deer (Dama mesopotamica)

Red deer or fallow deer

Os femoris Patella Tibia Talus Calcaneus Os centroquartale Os mt III Os mt III+IV Os mt IV Os mt Ossa mp Phal. proximalis Phal. media Phal. distalis Total

Beech marten (Martes foina)

Skeletal element

Hare (Lepus europaeus)

Table 12 (continued)

1 1 1 1 2 4 1 18

1 1

2 1 1 7

2 4

2

2

2 1 2 14

1 3 2 28

2 1 5

8 10 8 7 3 10 5 13 9 2 164

2 4 3 3 2 1 72

mixed/no date 8 A-B 6 A-B-C-D-E-F-G-H - 7 A-B-C-D-E 8 C-D 7 D-E - 8 A-B 4 A-B - 5 A-B - 6 A-B-C-D-E-F-G-H 7 A-B-C 8 C-D mixed/no date mixed/no date 8 C-D mixed/no date 8 A-B 9 A-B 9 A-B 9 A-B 9 A-B 6 C-D 7 A-B-C-D-E - 8 A-B-C-D - 9 A-B 7 A-B-C

933 1078 335 953 190 1701 2522 938 3112 435 938 4529 923 942 942 942 942 1925 966 5764

Grey cell contains estimated value

Date

Locus Ovis a./Capra Ovis a./Capra Capra hircus Ovis a./Capra Ovis a./Capra Ovis a./Capra Ovis a./Capra Ovis a./Capra Ovis a./Capra Ovis a./Capra Capra hircus Ovis a./Capra Ovis a./Capra Bos taurus Bos taurus Bos taurus Bos taurus Bos taurus Bos taurus Bos taurus

Taxon

h. h.

h. h. h. h. h. h. h.

h. h.

Humerus Humerus Os mc III+IV Os mt III+IV Radius Radius Radius Radius Radius Scapula Scapula Tibia Tibia Radius Os mc III+IV Os femoris Os mt III+IV Humerus Radius Tibia

Element 51 61 56 48 37 45 70 73 84 40 51 49 95 94 96 110 109 105 147 82

GL (mm) 120-136/112-131 (birth) 136-145/112-131 (birth) new born (length at birth 51.5 mm) 110-120/112-131 (birth) 100-110/ 90-112 111-120/112-131 (birth) 136-145 (birth)/new born (length at birth 63.0 mm) 136-145 (birth)/new born (length at birth 63.0 mm) 136-145 (birth)/new born (length at birth 63.0 mm) 100-120/90-112 new born (length at birth 50.0 mm) 90-100/90-112 136-145 (birth)/new born (length at birth 83.5 mm) ca. 230 ca. 230 ca. 230 ca. 230 ca. 240-250 new born (length at birth 130 mm) ca. 190-200

Age estimate (in numbers of days since conception)

Table 13: Greatest length without articulations (GL) and age estimates (based on Habermehl 1975) of bones of foetal and neonatal sheep (Ovis aries), goat (Capra hircus), and cattle (Bos taurus). BRONZE AND IRON AGE PALAEO-ECONOMY IN A CHANGING ENVIRONMENT

475

n Min. Max. Mean Stand. dev. Median

1 53 53 53 0.0 53

8 C-D

8 61 73 68 3.9 67

8 A-B 24 60 78 67 4.7 68

7 A-B-C 4 62 71 66 4.1 65

6 C-D 4 62 71 66 4.1 65

6 A-B 1 63 63 63 0.0 63

5 A-B 10 53 73 65 5.9 67

MBA 28 60 83 69 6.2 68

LBA

37 61 81 68 4.5 67

IA

61 51 79 68 5.5 67

-

136 51 83 68 5.4 67

All

Table 14: Summary of sheep (Ovis aries) withers height estimates (cm) at Tell Tweini by level and large time period. Estimates are based on the factors of Teichert, as presented in von den Driesch and Boessneck (1974). See appendix 7 for sheep bone measurements (Min = minimum; Max = maximum; Stand. dev = standard deviation).

476 V. LINSEELE ET AL.

n Min. Max. Mean Stand. dev. Median

1 65 65 65 0.0 65

8 C-D 1 62 62 62 0.0 62

8 A-B 2 61 71 66 7.1 66

7 A-B-C 2 64 66 65 1.4 65

5 A-B 2 62 65 64 2.1 64

MBA 4 61 71 66 4.8 66

LBA

14 60 66 63 1.9 62

IA

15 56 81 66 7.4 66

-

Table 15: Summary of goat (Capra hircus) withers height estimates (cm) at Tell Tweini by level and large time period. Estimates are based on the factors of Schramm, as presented in von den Driesch and Boessneck (1974). See appendix 8 for goat bone measurements.

35 56 81 65 5.4 64

All

BRONZE AND IRON AGE PALAEO-ECONOMY IN A CHANGING ENVIRONMENT

477

478

V. LINSEELE ET AL.

Unidentified bird

Sheep (Ovis aries)

Goat (Capra hircus)

Sheep or goat

Cattle (Bos taurus)

Unidentified mammal

Cranium Cranium + proc. corn. Proc. corn. Maxillare Dentes maxillare Mandibulare Dentes mandibulare Dentes Atlas Axis Vertebra cervicalis Vertebra thoracalis Vertebra lumbalis Os sacrum Vertebra indet. Costa Scapula Humerus Radius Ulna Ossa carpi Os mc III+IV Os coxae Os femoris Patella Tibia/Tibiotarsus Talus Calcaneus Os centroquartale Os mt III+IV

Goose (Anser sp.)

Table 16: Skeletal element distribution of animal taxa recorded in locus 2710 (Level 5 A-B) at Tell Tweini, hand collected and sieved combined. The total number of remains from this locus is 2258 (indet. = indeterminans).

1 -

1 -

1 -

3 33 6 6 8 10 2 2 2 1 13

22 3 2 30 50 54 1 4 3 11 8 11 1 13 37 32 17 12 11 15 6 49 39 3 19 2 4 14

1 1 2 1 -

-

BRONZE AND IRON AGE PALAEO-ECONOMY IN A CHANGING ENVIRONMENT

479

Unidentified bird

Sheep (Ovis aries)

Goat (Capra hircus)

Sheep or goat

Cattle (Bos taurus)

Unidentified mammal

Os mp Phal. proximalis Phal. media Phal. distalis Os sesamoidea Unidentified Total

Goose (Anser sp.)

Table 16 (continued)

1

1

1 2

5 16 9 7 123

7 1 4 1 4 481

5

1637 1637

Table 17: Summary of cattle (Bos taurus) withers height estimates (cm) at Tell Tweini. Estimates are based on the factors presented in von den Driesch and Boessneck (1974). See appendix 9 for cattle bone measurements. Column A shows size reconstruction based on length, taking tentative sex attributions into account. Column B shows size reconstruction based on length, multiplied by the average of the factors for males and females. A n Min. Max. Mean Stand. dev. Median

33 1124 1389 1241 75 1230

B 33 1107 1371 1241 64 1243

17.20

Average concentration per liter

Cereal crops Hordeum vulgare hulled Hordeum vulgare undiff. Hordeum vulgare undiff. Triticum dicoccum Triticum dicoccum Triticum aestivum s.l./durum Triticum spec. Cerealia indet. Cerealia indet. Cerealia indet. Cerealia indet. Pulses Cicer arietinum Lathyrus sativus charred charred charred charred charred charred charred charred charred charred charred charred charred

seed/fruit seed/fruit rachis seed/fruit glume base seed/fruit seed/fruit seed/fruit glume base clum clumnodium

seed/fruit seed/fruit

4.65

12

1 1

0.39 0.39

6 2.33 99 38.37

1.55

4

%

258

Total number of plant remains

n

15

Total sample volume (l)

Type of remains Type of preserv.

1

Number of features studied

Taxon

Early Bronze Age

Large time period

%

2 13

3

0.07 0.46

0.11

104 3.69 107 3.80 2 0.07 219 7.78 16 0.57 3 0.11 173 6.14 400 14.20 2 0.07

n

7.8

2816

425

18

Middle Bronze Age

%

1 12

5

0.03 0.40

0.16

46 1.51 47 1.55 3 0.10 195 6.42 45 1.48 41 1.35 279 9.19 521 17.16

n

5.81

3037

609

30

7 6

1.26 1.08

%

2

0.36

34 6.10 4 0.72 25 4.49 21 3.77 72 12.93

n

4.24

557

165

7

Late Late Bronze Bronze Age /Iron Age

Table 18. Summary of the archaeobotanical finds from Tell Tweini by large time period and by economic and ecological groups. (preserv. = preservation)

4

30 5 33 33 122

4 20

n

4.92 %

0.32

2.40 0.40 2.64 2.64 9.76

0.32 1.60

1250

391

20

Iron Age

480 V. LINSEELE ET AL.

17.20

Average concentration per liter

Lens culinaris Pisum sativum Vicia ervilia Vicia faba Fabaceae (cultivated) Oil and fibre crops Olea europaea Linum usitatissimum Linum cf. usitatissimum Linum spec. Garden plants Apium graveolens Apium cf. graveolens Coriandrum sativum Cucumis melo Cucumis melo Trigonella foenum-graecum

charred charred charred charred charred charred charred charred mineralised charred charred mineralised charred mineralised charred

seed/fruit seed/fruit seed/fruit seed/fruit seed/fruit

seed/fruit seed/fruit seed/fruit seed/fruit

seed/fruit seed/fruit seed/fruit seed/fruit seed/fruit seed/fruit

1.16

3

1

0.39

58 22.48

2.33

6

%

258

Total number of plant remains

n

15

Total sample volume (l)

Type of remains Type of preserv.

1

Number of features studied

Taxon

Early Bronze Age

Large time period

Table 18 (continued)

229 5 1

43 5 59

47

n

7.8 %

8.13 0.18 0.04

1.53 0.18 2.10

1.67

2816

425

18

Middle Bronze Age

4

0.13

0.13 0.16

0.03

1

4 5

9.65 0.07

1.55 0.10 6.39 0.49 1.25

%

158 2

47 3 194 15 38

n

5.81

3037

609

30

2.33 0.00 1.26

1.97

%

3

1

0.54

0.18

116 20.86 1 0.18

7

13

11

n

4.24

557

165

7

Late Late Bronze Bronze Age /Iron Age

1.04

%

2

0.16

202 16.16

345 27.60 2 0.16 19 1.52

13

n

4.92

1250

391

20

Iron Age BRONZE AND IRON AGE PALAEO-ECONOMY IN A CHANGING ENVIRONMENT

481

17.20

Average concentration per liter

Fruit trees Ficus carica seed/fruit Ficus carica seed/fruit Prunus spec. seed/fruit Pyrus spec. seed/fruit Olea europaea seed/fruit Olea europaea seed/fruit Vitis vinifera seed/fruit Vitis vinifera seed/fruit Vitis vinifera fruit Vitis vinifera pulp Vitis vinifera stalk Potential weeds Ruderals/Segetals undiff. Grasslands/Maquis/Open vegetation Temporary flooded and wet habitats Varia Indet. charred mineralised charred charred charred mineralised charred mineralised charred charred charred 4.65

6.98 1.55 1.55 0.39 8.91 1.94

12

18 4 4 1 23 5

%

258

Total number of plant remains

n

15

Total sample volume (l)

Type of remains Type of preserv.

1

Number of features studied

Taxon

Early Bronze Age

Large time period

Table 18 (continued)

0.11

3

2 0.07 14 0.50 491 17.44 35 1.24 146 5.18 39 1.38 74 2.63 49 1.74

345 12.25 24 0.85

5.08 0.21

%

143 6

n

7.8

2816

425

18

Middle Bronze Age

6.39 2.96 0.07 0.10

4.45

2.70 1.75 0.03

%

411 13.53 65 2.14 164 5.40 34 1.12 57 1.88 80 2.63

194 90 2 3

135

82 53 1

n

5.81

3037

609

30

3.59 0.90

%

64 11.49 26 4.67 40 7.18 3 0.54 24 4.31 12 2.15

58 10.41 1 0.18 33 5.92 7 1.26

20 5

n

4.24

557

165

7

Late Late Bronze Bronze Age /Iron Age

4.56

1.12 2.00

%

41 3.28 5 0.40 1 0.08 1 0.08 1 0.08 125 10.00 49 3.92 63 5.04 33 2.64 25 2.00 33 2.64

57

14 25

n

4.92

1250

391

20

Iron Age

482 V. LINSEELE ET AL.

BRONZE AND IRON AGE PALAEO-ECONOMY IN A CHANGING ENVIRONMENT

483

Fig. 1: (upper) Map of the Eastern Mediterranean area showing the location of Tell Tweini and other sites mentioned in the text. (lower left) Detailed map of coastal Syria and its topography. (lower right) Google Earth image of Tell Tweini modified to show the two rivers surrounding the site.

484

V. LINSEELE ET AL.

Fig. 2: Suid pelvic bone from locus 840 (7 A-B-C) at Tell Tweini. Although the bone could not be measured using the landmarks in von den Driesch (1976), it was attributed to wild boar (Sus scrofa) based on its large size.

Fig. 3: Remains of worked hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius) ivory from locus 1028 (no date) at Tell Tweini.

BRONZE AND IRON AGE PALAEO-ECONOMY IN A CHANGING ENVIRONMENT

485

Fig. 4: Base and first tine of antler of Mesopotamian fallow deer (Dama mesopotamica) with chop marks from locus 2127 (6 C-D-E-F-G-H – 7 A-B-C) at Tell Tweini.

4 A-B (120) 5 A-B (455) 6 A-B (608) 6 C-D (267) 6 E-F (118) 6 G-H (85) 7 A-B-C (3810) 7 D-E (78) 8 A-B (419) 8 C-D (286) 9 A-B (76) IA (5280) LBA (4406) MBA (828) EBA (76) Mixed/no date (7009) Total (18197) 00

01

01

02

02

03

Fig. 5: Percentage of large wild mammals of total identified large mammals in the hand collected samples by level and by large time period at Tell Tweini (excluding the concentration of bones from locus 2710 (Level 5 A-B)).

03

486

V. LINSEELE ET AL.

Goitred gazelle

Red deer and fallow deer

100% 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% EBA (0)

MBA (8)

LBA (90)

IA (46)

Mixed/no date (122)

Total (276)

Fig. 6: Relative importance of goitred gazelle (Gazella subgutturosa) and red (Cervus elaphus) and fallow deer (Dama mesopotamica) by large time period at Tell Tweini.

50 45 40 35

n

30 25 20 15 10 5 0 A

B

C

D

E

F

G

H

I

0-2 mth

2-6 mth

6-12 mth

1-2 yr

2-3 yr

3-4 yr

4-6 yr

6-8 yr

8-12 yr

Sheep

Goat

Sheep/goat

Fig. 7: Ages of sheep (Ovis aries) and goat (Capra hircus) for all loci combined at Tell Tweini based on mandibular tooth wear. Age classes following Payne (1973) (mth = months; yr = years).

BRONZE AND IRON AGE PALAEO-ECONOMY IN A CHANGING ENVIRONMENT

487

Fig. 8: Sheep/goat mandible (buccal view) with uneven biting surface from locus 5514 (4 A-B – 5 A-B – 6A-B) at Tell Tweini.

Fig. 9: Box-plot of Log Size Index (LSI) – transformed measurements for sheep (Ovis aries) by level at Tell Tweini. Number of observations in parentheses. The higher the LSI value, the larger the bone.

488

V. LINSEELE ET AL.

Fig. 10: Box-plot of LSI-transformed measurements for sheep (Ovis aries) by large time period at Tell Tweini. Number of observations in parentheses. The higher the LSI value, the larger the bone.

Fig. 11: Histogram combining all LSI values for sheep (Ovis aries) bones from Tell Tweini.

BRONZE AND IRON AGE PALAEO-ECONOMY IN A CHANGING ENVIRONMENT

Fig. 12: Box-plot of LSI-transformed measurements for goat (Capra hircus) by level at Tell Tweini. Number of observations in parentheses. The higher the LSI value, the larger the bone.

Fig. 13: Box-plot of LSI-transformed measurements for goat (Capra hircus) by large time period at Tell Tweini. Number of observations in parentheses. The higher the LSI value, the larger the bone.

489

490

V. LINSEELE ET AL.

Fig. 14: Histogram combining all LSI values for goat (Capra hircus) bones from Tell Tweini.

Fig. 15: Smoothed sheep (Ovis aries) or goat (Capra hircus) talus (lateral view) from locus 1059 (7 D-E – 8 A-B) at Tell Tweini.

BRONZE AND IRON AGE PALAEO-ECONOMY IN A CHANGING ENVIRONMENT

Fig. 16: Ivory or bone “sculpted” into the shape of a sheep/goat talus from locus 1100 (no date) at Tell Tweini.

Fig. 17: Goat (Capra hircus) scapula with hole (caudal view) from locus 1613 (6 A-B) at Tell Tweini.

491

492

V. LINSEELE ET AL.

12

10

n

8

6

4

2

0 A

B

C

0-1 mth

1-8 mth

8-18 mth

D

E

F

18-30 mth 30-36 mth young adult

G

H

I

adult

old adult

senile

Fig. 18: Ages of cattle (Bos taurus) for all loci combined at Tell Tweini based on mandibular tooth wear. Age classes following Halstead (1985) (mth = months).

Fig. 19: Cattle mandible (buccal view) with uneven biting surface from locus 1029 (5 A-B – 6 A-B-C-D-E-F-G-H) at Tell Tweini.

BRONZE AND IRON AGE PALAEO-ECONOMY IN A CHANGING ENVIRONMENT

Fig. 20: Box-plot of LSI-transformed measurements for cattle (Bos taurus) by level at Tell Tweini. Number of observations in parentheses. The higher the LSI value, the larger the bone.

Fig. 21: Box-plot of LSI-transformed measurements for cattle (Bos taurus) by large time period at Tell Tweini. Number of observations in parentheses. The higher the LSI value, the larger the bone.

493

494

V. LINSEELE ET AL.

Fig. 22: Histogram combining all LSI values for cattle (Bos taurus) bones from Tell Tweini.

Fig. 23: Bifid neural spine of a thoracic vertebra, probably of zebu cattle (Bos indicus), from locus 7003 (6 A-B-C-D-E-F-G-H – 7 A-B-C-D-E) at Tell Tweini.

BRONZE AND IRON AGE PALAEO-ECONOMY IN A CHANGING ENVIRONMENT

495

4 A-B (116) 5 A-B (396) 6 A-B (574) 6 C-D (262) 6 E-F (118) 6 G-H (81) 7 A-B-C (3599) 7 D-E (75) 8 A-B (404)

Cattle

8 C-D (272)

Sheep and goat

9 A-B (72) IA (5158) LBA (4136) MBA (791) EBA (72) mixed/no date (6702) All (17355) 0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90% 100%

Fig. 24: Relative importance of sheep (Ovis aries) and goat (Capra hircus) compared with cattle (Bos taurus) by level and by large time period at Tell Tweini (excluding the concentration of bones from locus 2710, Level 5 A-B). Numbers of observations between parentheses. 4 A-B (9) 5 A-B (41) 6 A-B (91) 6 C-D (30) 6 E-F (18) 6 G-H (13) 7 A-B-C (387) 7 D-E (14) 8 A-B (47)

Sheep

8 C-D (16)

Goat

9 A-B (11) IA (781) LBA (444) MBA (74) EBA (11) mixed/no date (874) All (2207) 0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

Fig. 25: Ratio of sheep (Ovis aries) and goat (Capra hircus) by level and by large time period at Tell Tweini (excluding the concentration of bones from locus 2710, Level 5 A-B). Numbers of observations between parentheses.

496

V. LINSEELE ET AL.

Fig. 26: Charred seed of Trigonella foenum-graecum (from locus 7731, Late Bronze Age). (Scale bar is 1 mm).

Fig. 27: Possible remains of wine pressing. From left to right, the first three images are of grape fruit “skins” and the last image is of a grape stalk (from locus 2008, Late Bronze Age). (Scale bar is 1 mm).

BRONZE AND IRON AGE PALAEO-ECONOMY IN A CHANGING ENVIRONMENT

Fig. 28: Schematic summary of climatic data for coastal Syria (from Kaniewski et al. 2008, 2010) and the local chronology and events at Tell Tweini, as well as important regional events.

497

Marine fish Herrings (Clupeidae) Sea bass (Dicentrarchus sp.) Needlefishes (Belonidae) Groupers (Serranidae) Jacks and pompanos (Carangidae) cf. Carangidae Meagre (Argyrosomus regius) Brown meagre/shi drum (Sciaena umbra/Umbrina cirrossa) Drums (Sciaenidae) Sea bream 1 (Diplodus sp.) Sea bream 2 (Pagrus sp.) Sea bream 3 (Sparus aurata) Sea bream 3 (Sparus sp.) Sea breams (Sparidae) Chub mackerel (Scomber japonicus) 5 -

2 5 -

-

2 3 38

-

43 1 8 1 1 1

1

5 2 7

-

8 3 -

-

1 3

-

1 9 -

-

1 -

-

3 -

1

1 4 30

-

19 5 -

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

1 2

-

1 1 2

3

3 9 4

-

1 1

-

4 1 4

-

-

-

1 -

-

-

-

6 -

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-