A History of Literary Criticism in the Italian Renaissance

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A history of literary criticism in the Italian Renaissance. Weinberg, Bernard, 1909-1973. [Chicago] University of Chicago Press [1961] https://hdl.handle.net/2027/uc1.c081044511

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A HISTORY OF LITERARY CRITICISM IN THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE

A HISTORY of

LITERARY CRITICISM IN THE

ITALIAN RENAISSANCE VOLUME I

By Bernard

Weinberg

TO

THE UNIVERSITY OF

G

CHICAGO PRESS

MAIN

01436320x

Library of Congress

Repl

Catalog Card Number : 60-5470

The University of Chicago Press , Chicago & London The University of Toronto Press , Toronto 5 , Canada Published 1961 ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

425

Second Impression 1963 Printed by The University of Chicago Press Chicago, Illinois , U.S.A.

РP

Q

4031

‫اب‬

196 / a

vil

MAIN

Το

RONALD CRANE RICHARD

MCKEON

ELDER OLSON

PREFACE HE

HISTORY OF LITERARY CRITICISM in the Italian Renaissance has been written several times . It is the subject of a volume by Ciro Trabalza

T:

La Critica letteraria ( Dai primordi dell'Umanesimo all'Età published in Milan ( 1915 ) in the series “ Storia dei generi nostra ) and letterari italiani.” Inside and outside Italy the most widely read and in entitled

fluential treatment of the subject is to be found in Joel Elias Spingarn's History of Literary Criticism in the Renaissance (New York : Macmillan , form in 1904. The 1899 ) , published in Italian in a somewhat expanded various works of Marvin T. Herrick have provided much useful informa tion on the development of the theory of the genres during the Renais sance ,

The present attempt to rewrite that history has two justifications . The first of these lies in the limited bibliography upon which the earlier histories were based . Spingarn discussed , in the briefest fashion , only some thirty documents in the original edition , a few more in the Italian translation . Trabalza and Herrick dealt with a considerably larger number of docu ments , but they fell far short of an adequate representation of the numerous texts that actually constitute the vast bibliography of literary criticism in Renaissance . This bibliography comprises, besides the major printed works , a great quantity of manuscript materials preserved in the libraries of Italy ; these were left untouched by the earlier historians . It also includes many texts that are “ minor ” only in the sense that they are short the Italian

or relatively unknown ; they are frequently “ major " because of their ideas or because of the contribution they have made to the development of literary criticism . The second , and more important , justification derives from the way in which Spingarn and Trabalza used their materials . Their methods were those of the literary historians of an earlier generation . They tended rather to summarize texts than to analyze them , rather to disrupt texts ( by isolat ing terms and passages ) than to discover their structures , rather to con struct chronologies than to write histories . What one learns from them , essentially

,

is the order and

the content

of

a certain

number of works ;

but even here one cannot be sure , since the content as they state it is often philosophically unconvincing . One cannot be sure , from the evidence they

others

that

a

will convince

it is

it , his

,

its

is

for

present, that their reading is a proper one . Such cautions , of course , attach to any reading of any text ; the only recourse for the reader is his own reading of the text , and the only hope the historian that reading through consistency and through the citations that support tenable hypothesis about the particular the writing

of

experiment

in

an

have attempted

is

what

I

sense

,

a

In

.

text

viii

PREFACE

intellectual history . What is experimental is not the extension of the bibliography through the addition of hundreds of items not hitherto considered : this is merely the normal effect of the growth of biblio graphical knowledge and the continued pursuit of the subject. It is rather the organization of the materials and the elaboration of the historical statement . I have not sought to follow any author through his career or any term or concept through the century . Instead , I have tried to dis tinguish the main intellectual traditions of the century as they relate to literary criticism and to trace them , year by year and text by text , up through the sixteenth century to the final, arbitrary date of 1600. These traditions were of two kinds : they were ways of regarding the art of poetry ( a theoretical approach ) and ways of judging poetic works (a practical approach ) . This distinction accounts for the two major divisions

of my book . With respect

to the theoretical traditions , it has seemed to me useful to distinguish and identify them as developments and continuations of three great critical positions of the classical past : those of Plato , Aristotle , and Horace . These were the positions that provided Italians of the Renais sance with the greater part of their ideas on the art course , that any one of them appears , purely and

of poetry . It

is rare ,

of

of

those tendencies

be

one

of its

to

at

or

bear some resemblance

the major is

It

,

.

is a

it

completely eclectic work the texts indeed that we discover the existence unless

.

only through the reading

;

of

expected

the century

,

tendencies

of — to

or

of

be

may

dencies

,

its

simply , in any single text ; the Renaissance was not a period of intellectual purity and order entirety should liness . But any individual text , taken in classifiable major ten under one another the major traditions least

of of

,

at

is ,

,

in

.

It

its

a

or

,

;

of

to

I

.

its

it

,

, to

of

of

in

of

of

A

of

entirety should constitute consideration each the texts my approach the experimental aspects least one the first principles that approach have attempted the reading each work discover essential position discern what basically particular poetry about was saying about the art and peculiarly another

its

to

I

to

to

,

its

,

.

or

,

discover the method a

,

,

of

.

I

to

I

have frequently found

it

the texts themselves

,

Given the nature

of

.

a

conclusions and

have not undertaken conclusions guide any reading text but instead for the

passed from premises

which provide substitute that reading it

its

its

of

premises and

to to by an to to its

to

to

no

;

I

,

epitome

of

.

I

I

in

terms

of

methodological

the

is

define

in its

determine to

statements

;

;

to

and the logical bases for terms the whole complex relation should point out that what have said the work and concepts present represent the totality not intended about any individual text every report have tried idea than tried more have contents My inconsistency rather has been every aim failure account for give position economy possible greatest central state with the poem

PREFACE

ix

to discuss certain of them at two or three or four points in my commentary on Aristotle's Poetics , for example , might also make A significant contribution to the study of Horace's Ars poetica, another to a development of Platonic ideas , still another to the criticism of a con the temporary author . For the most part , though , each work is given major necessary study .

-

consideration only once . In a few cases I have had to deal with texts whose broad philo main subjects were not directly pertinent to my inquiry sophical treatises , works on other arts -- but which did contain useful materials . Here I have been obliged , contrary to my general practice , 10 isolate passages or sections rather than to study entire texts . I have limited my inquiry to literary criticism in the Italian Renaissance .

The temptation was present , constantly , to associate with literary criti cism such related fields as rhetorical theory and the criticism of the other arts, for the problems are the same or nearly so , and the documents them from one discipline to another . But I have had to sternly . The materials on literary criticism are them temptation resist this selves so abundant that to add others to them would have made the subject completely unmanageable . Moreover , the virtues of limitation to a

selves readily lead

of inquiry seemed to me obvious . Hence , the reader will find history here no of the important rhetorical documents of the century , even though there is much discussion of rhetorical ideas which appear in the treatises on poetry . Nor will he find any discussion of the quarrel over the

single line

Italian language , of the theory of painting or sculpture or architecture , in of the many resemblances of this theory to literary theory . I have taken " Italian " in a fairly broad sense , including the works not only of Italians publishing in Italy but of foreigners publishing there and

spite

century , except

those few cases

in

have limited it to the sixteenth

the

I

for

of Italians publishing abroad ; the criterion for inclusion is the direct relationship of any given document to the Italian tradition . On the other hand , I have given to the term “ Renaissance " a highly restricted meaning :

the

of

of

movement

by

a

to

trace

,

necessary

.

.

I

have found Here again

it

back into Quattro cento the decision was determined the nature the major development and full materials The Cinquecento was the century which

criticism had run

its

the renaissance

in

of

,

of

in

of

;

in

in

1600

,

century

.

preceding

By

,

a

,

its

all

,

in

poetic theory and practical criticism realization both Quattro overwhelming importance for other phases the Renais literary criticism sance provided only minor impetus the domain and the Seicento did little more than repeat and reorder the ideas the cento

full

sixteenth

to

.

all

In

to

of

.

.

century usage many terms had multiple meanings

-

Because

in

a

.

,

I

in

or

a

as

as

A

in

I

,

at

course and that date have ended my investigation my text provide word about the translations included order possible continuous text nearly one language have translated quoted passages from Latin make the Italian into English The effort translations both accurate and literate has been task full difficulties

and

PREFACE

х

because syntax and construction , in both the Italian and the Latin texts , are frequently loose and inaccurate , it has been necessary at every point to decide upon the particular meaning intended . I present these transla

tions with the usual reservations of the translator , urging the reader — if he thinks that I may have gone astray or if he wishes to follow the terminology in the original languages — to check them against the original texts , given in the footnotes . Among other technical matters , I have sometimes pro within the chapters for authors or subjects ; but this is consistently not done for every text - merely from time to time in order to help with the chronology and to call attention to the most important documents . I have regularly reproduced original texts exactly , in spite of vided subheadings

I

thought it necessary to make emenda all

obvious errors ; only rarely have tions .

materials are concerned , I have attempted in cases consult the best manuscripts and the earliest printed editions single Bibliography arranged alphabetically All documents are listed

As far

of

by

a

,

in

.

to

as the source

,

I

is

I

all

.

of

,

a

),

in

in of

.

of I

by

in

as

as

is

to

a

of

as

sulted freely such bibliographical

C.

I

tries show how those ideas are Renaissance thought have con

of . R.

to

.

,

writer obtained his ideas Rather related the developing currents

of it

,

in

. It

,

,

( to or of a at

a

of of

fresh history the subject lay the rereading pertinent many single the materials least could find My according analysis history reader and constant method therefore excludes some the approaches common the writing intellectual and literary history not concerned with sources and given fluences the usual sense with the discovery where and how

of

only possibility

on

on

to

by

,

I

of

of

.

no

.

;

a

is

given work author where more than one edition described study virtually have indicated the edition used for and citation There secondary bibliography Except for light bibliography itself and the dating works have chosen discuss works themselves rather than interpretations the those works others was convinced that the

;

I

of

of

.

of

,

in -

,

L.

instruments the lists Williams Bullock the Cooper Gudeman bibliography Aristotle's Poetics the bibliographies found earlier histories the subject and have also made use various biographies and separate studies concerning the authors themselves and W.

-

of

to

.

I

to

a

,

I

to

discharge those institutions which have both have many debts subsidized and furthered my work over period some twenty five years and those individuals who have counseled and helped me can dis

of

to

to

,

to

its

,

,

to

at

of

.

;

of

;

of

in

,

to

them

University

:

of

only through the simplest kind Washington thanks Chicago Northwestern University and the University my research for grants aid the John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation and the administrators the Fulbright Program for generous fellowships Princeton for the Institute for Advanced Study and hospitality Many friends have been unsparing time wisdom charge

PREFACE

I

of

all

material assistance ; would thank especially Donald Bryant , Ronald Phillip , DeLacy , Crane Edward Kaufmann , Paul Kristeller , and Peter Riesenberg for their reading of parts or the manuscript and for

.

of

,

of in

at

,

to

;

of

,

;

useful suggestions Mrs. Anne McDonnell Heisler for help the prepara Chicago too the manuscript and colleagues the University their erudition and advice name for the generous giving numerous tion

,

-o

,

,

in

,

of

,

all

;

in

,

at

all

I

to

co

peration should wish also thank many librarians for their kind University Chicago Newberry above those The Libraries the Library the Harvard University Library the British Museum the Biblio Italy but mostly thèque Nationale Paris the Biblioteche Nazionali ;

.

all

;

in

that Florence the other great Florentine libraries and the Vatican provincial libraries over Italy

and

CONTENTS PART ONE

POETIC

:

THEORY

I. The Classification of Poetics among the Sciences / The Methodology of the Theorists / 38

1

The Confusion with

/

I.

II .

Ars poetica

:

Horace's

The Earliest Commentaries

Aris

The Application

Practical

to

201

:

II .

Aristotle's Poetics

and Exegesis

/

/

Discovery

I.

Aristotle's Poetics

:

The Tradition tions 424 The Tradition

/

IV .

of

of of

The Tradition

Theory

/

of

:

of

II .

I.

Platonism

Horace's Ars poetica The Return Poetry The Defence 250 Christianity 297 The Triumph

349

Applica

The First Theoretical

of

Aristotle's Poetics

:

IV .

The Effect

V.

Theory

/

819 /

|

/

)

991

/

)

/

(

1113

/

on

1159

/

:

of

CRITICISM

Quarrel over Ariosto and Tasso Concluded The Quarrel over Guarini's Pastor Fido 1074 Conclusions Practical Criticism 1106 /

.

.

.

/

Index

the Genres

The Quarrel over Dante Concluded 877 The Quarrel over Speroni's Canace and Dramatic Poetry The Quarrel over Ariosto and Tasso 954

Bibliography

the Literary

797

PRACTICAL

(

. .

. .

The Quarrel over Dante

XX The

XXI XXII

Commen

715

Poetic Theory

PART TWO

XIX

/

Poetry

:

. .

Aristotle's Poetics

of

564

XIV The New Arts XV Conclusions on

XVI XVII XVIII

.

The Vernacular

:

III

/

The Tradition

/

XIII

.

The Tradition

.

Aristotle's Poetics

478

XII

Quarrels

of

taries

of of

.

XI

/

/

X. IX . .

VIII

The Tradition Platonism

:

.

VII

:

VI .

/

:

of

The Tradition Horace's Ars poetica Criticism 156

to

111

III .

/

IV .

totle

:

of

The Tradition

71

V.

Horace's Ars poetica

The Tradition

of

III .

II .

912

635

PART ONE POETIC THEORY

CHAPTER ONE . THE CLASSIFICATION OF POETICS AMONG THE SCIENCES

A

beginning a series of lessons on a topic or a text , almost invariably devoted the first lecture — the prolusio explaining his subject's place in the whole scheme of arts and

RENAISSANCE

,

PROFESSOR

-to

sciences . This was not merely an academic

by

to

its

by

of

of

of

the mind

possibilities belonged

,

means and

what faculty

it

ends and

its

;

neighboring sciences determining

were discovered

to its

from

by

its

it

.

or

as a

to

or

.

, it on

his

It fulfilled an intellectual expectation of auditors which had been passed them their medieval and humanist forebears For some centuries had been custom ary part regard each art science the great complex Phil osophy The individual science was defined distinguishing delimited gesture .

of

of

,

of

.

of

by

,

be

.

.

it

to

be it

what human need served under which the major branches human activity All subsequent thinking about the science subsumed was flowed from these initial and fundamental presuppositions To sure the time the Cinquecento the logical tightness these systematic attitudes had been considerably weakened The stern syllogistic ,

in

byan

by

,

of

of

.

,

as

-

—

to

of

it

in

the Schools had some cases been openly attacked others degenerate had been allowed almost imperceptibly into the rhe they did torical loquacity the universities The academies attracting great numbers aristocrats and bourgeois and providing them with essentially lay instruction frequently replaced the old severity method

of

discipline

a ,

,

to

of

.

of

to

,

,

a

of

fostering enthusiasm for new fields study and questioning even disparaging approach thought Nevertheless the traditional modes supply the usual points the old framework continued reference and

of

of

its

of

at a

a

to

to to

no

to of

to

.

it

be to

of

philo thinking continued inform the major part sophical discussion Perhaps say that the habit would correct systematic approach time when the the sciences was still cultivated analysis were longer adequate pursuing instruments the task the old habits

. as

a

,

,

an

.

—

of

-

of

an

.

it

,

of

,

of

by

last consequences

as , a

the science

of

For

its

and distinction final implications poetics one the old sciences made new fresh practical need and the rediscovery interest ancient texts this was true for other sciences Perhaps was especially true For poetics formerly considered auxiliary grammar and rhetoric auxiliary speech whose particular concern was with versification and figures but classification

of

,

,

.

a

”

of of

to

“

as a

,

on

.

of

of

guide now given new dignity the greatest the arts had special justification poesy need Witness the defenses which from the literary expression One fourteenth century were standard form

( 1 )

.

all

or

in

—

of

,

,

,

of

a

in

science

to

of

supplying that justification was place the means position dignity honor and utility among the others But even where justification was not the motive the theorists followed the exposition and somewhere traditional pattern the prolusio later the most effective

POETIC

-provided for poetics

THEORY

,

or

,

a

of

to

of of

or

of

of

it

"

"

or

”

to

example

were

classify

his

,

for

he

it .

it of

of

say about poetics would necessity great importance Hence the

.

in

a

to

Much what theorist was later derive from his original classification this initial step the critical process

If , of

of

.

,

“

.

of

,

or

to

be

.

its

proper place among the other sciences The family large which poetics was assigned might small incomplete complete depending upon the cast mind the theorist the neces sities his argument But always was sufficient magnitude throw upon the science light which for man the art the kind the Cinquecento could come only from classification and distinction

,

in

,

a

he

;

if

,

of

of

an

he

-

-

in

of

.

,

to

be

as

if in of

tendency would with rhetoric one the instrumental disciplines then poems consider terms their probable specific effects upon specific poems audiences He would were Aristotelian rhetorician think poet relationships poem terms audience were Ciceronian

,

.

,

of

an

or

as a

he

of

,

,

of

or his by do of to

,

of

invention disposition and elocution and what the poet must gain the acclaim begin his listeners On the other hand should defining poetry philosophy branch instrument moral then

terms

to

in

-

.

in

of

all

its

,

of

to

,

or

or

.

of

a

in

of

.

it to

of

be

produce whole theory must oriented toward the ability the poet Any judge change the critic the desired ethical effect classifica consequent shift tion brings with the whole conception the poetic beauty art The relationship the parts within the poem the criteria for hierarchy goodness poetic genres success the the various poetics these varied with the place assigned the total family sciences

.

.

of

its

all

, as

as to

,

,

its

we

a

of

THE ARTS OF DISCOURSE The Cinquecento inherited from the immediate past method classi may characterize fying poetry which the traditional system Poetics place according discourse this method among the arts took

.

or to

.

to (

to

on

,

a

in

),

of

all

—

,

it

,

of

as

,

,

—

belonged with Since poetry used words medium the logical disciplines with logic dialectic rhetoric and sophistic and with such grammar and history which also used words This meant that arts poetry was joined on the one hand Aristotle's group the trivium history instrumental sciences the other hand Renaissance theorists sense never abandoned this classification although the

in

different groupings and combina with poetry appear tions Throughout the sixteenth century find systems modeled this essentially medieval pattern on

.

.

we

sciences associated

to

),

,

In

of

on

hierarchy

their the basis definitely among the discursive

a

,

and sophistic and arranged with them relationship the truth.1 This placed

it in

,

,

.

so

(

as

For some Renaissance theorists such Bartolomeo Lombardi the classifying poetry was Averroës Averroës source and authority for they found poetry grouped with demonstrative logic dialectic rhetoric

[ 2 ]

.

,

,

se of

in

”,

;

so

in in

: "

,

Pt .

), 1,

,

(

“

in

.

I

of 1

no

single passage Averroës making this complete association and hierarchy have found combined various scattered places individual arts are the various arts mentioned But Aristotle trans Mantinus the Venice edition libros posteriorum cf. the Prooemium IIA 9-9v Ad reliquas vero quinque artes habet verè veluti dominus luntas 1574

AMONG

POETICS

SCIENCES

THE

sciences . Such early humanists as Coluccio Salutati had also , in passing , placed it among these sciences ; in his De laboribus Herculis , begun between 1383 and 1391 and left unfinished at his death in 1406 , Salutati character

ized poetics as a “ sermocinalis philosophie pars ,” a part of the branch of philosophy concerned with words.2 By the time we come to the later humanists , this particular branch has been fitted into more comprehensive views of the whole of philosophy . Thus Angelo Poliziano in the Panepiste , sets out to find a general scheme for doctrine into three the sciences treated in Aristotle's works . He divides philosophy and the mixed the invented kinds the inspired theology Philosophy the following way then subdivided divination Spectativa

De Anima Mathematicae

all

:

).

is

in (

(

,

(

1498

),

of

),

mon , printed in the Opera

Actualis

Rationalis

Mores Ethica

Grammatica

Historia Dialectica

Economica

Arithmetica Musica

Rhetorica

Politica Agricultura

Geometria Sphaerica

Poetica

Pastio Venatio

Calculatoria Geodesia Canonice

Architectura Grafice

Astrologia

Coquinaria

Optica

Teatricae

Mecanica

Etc.

to

is

" )

is

)

"

("

("

is

.”

as

. "

it is

“

,

to

:

be

is

is

)

"

,

,

,

to

as

,

music which comes under mathematics and graphics which belong the practical sciences and

,

)

);

(

"

to

such

architecture and

(

arts

"

"

creative

"

,

"

"

or

res

,

as

"

"

,

“

to

"

a

(“

,

In

spectativa one which science this system the contemplative given considers materia the practical actualis one which leads useful activity and the rational rationalis one which iudicat narrat demonstrat suadet oblectat Apparently one take referring specifically poetics the oblectat Poetica Insofar dissociated from other first noted two things need concerned

II,

" ; :

:

:

in

,

sit

,

,

, & 13 : “

, , .p

.

,

,

ad

, ac in

I

.

&

,

in

sic

,

& &

"

est

,

In

."

on ,

,

vt

,

&

ad

proportio illius cui subministratur ipsum seruum adinuentae enim suos subiectos quam hçc pars nobis tradit nempe sunt illae artes inseruiant scientiae demonstratiuae quod per persuasionem dialecticam vel rhetoricam persuadetur aut per fictionem poeticam fingitur Also the commentary Bk the same edition Potest tamen haec genera definitionum partes definitionum enuntiatio complecti quinque artes logicas and the libros rhetoricorum Aristotelis paraphrases trans Balmes same edition 73v quòd vnoquoque istorum generum orationis species rhetorica species manifestum topica species demonstratiua species sophistica qui sicut reperiuntur his artibus de

), is “

to a

.

by a '

". A

& :

( ,

by

[ 3 ]

.

viii

-

vii

.pp

also Introduction

,

17 ;

Ullman

, I,

B.

ed .

26 ).

De laboribus Herculis

,

2

” ( .p

,

)

(

to of

,

'

of

of

of in

syllogismus enthymema rhetorica reperiuntur exemplum 1522 volume logical works Averroës paraphrases Aristotle containing also Abram Balmes translation the Averroës paraphrase the Poetics Venice De Sabio followed separate section dated 1523 devoted the Epithoma Auerroys omnium librorum logice After treating other logical works the Epithoma passes section entitled De orationibus poeticis inductio

POETIC

THEORY

with the three members of the medieval trivium logic , grammar , and rhetoric — and with history . In a later passage , Poliziano places the poet close to the orator : " For the poet is very close to second , it is associated

Mathematica

Astrologia

Analytica Topica

Perspectiva

Sophistica [

Rhetorica

thus

aut organicae

]

,

Grammatica

,

),

Partes subministrae

Physica

Nifo

similar classi

into two sections

Partes principes

Musica Theologia

Of

1531

intellect

a

vivere

contemplative

”

solitudine

,

in

divided the

proposed

(

Poetica

auxiliary

)

He

iis

fication

qui apte possunt

.

( De

later date another formal philosopher , Agostino

a somewhat

“

At

in rhythms , so is he

:

the orator ( as Cicero says ) ; just as he is more restricted freer in the choice of words . " 3

:

he

on

Moreover

.

to

as

in of

discourse

express ourselves before listeners which are accustomed poetry was invented Aristotle suggested the book which

,

as

analytics

of

all

of

in

it

,

we

moral philosophy useful forms

is

the instrument

nevertheless

is

of

,

rhetoric natural philosophy

is

Though

“

is

of

)

or

(

”

,

,

is

.

In

of

“

,

analytics logic and instrumental parts the instru philosophy ment natural and rhetoric the instrument moral phil osophy the text however the connection between rhetoric and poetics completely not clear and the place the latter left ambiguous the

,

.” 4

of

“

of

is

we

is

.

,

)

as

in

of

(

wrote pleasure and utility for purposes both Here again with Poliziano music and poetry retain their essentially medieval positions merely one The implication that poetry those forms discourse poetics

of

",

to

by

so

far have not been specifically

which

concerned with the a

in

find the same basis classification lecture which must have been one the first public expositions Aristotle's Poetics Around 1541 according the testimony Vincenzo Maggi Bartolomeo

,

of

to

,

.

of

of

But

of

we

poetry

.

art

distin

.

pursues The documents cited

of

it

in

express ourselves before listeners which are accustomed utility and pleasure guished from the others the combined ends

at

the

;

est ( ut

Lombardi took Averroës

,

ut

,

de

,

eo

quibus dicere solemus Libro quem

: estin in

.”

I,

De

sit

" (q

est ( ut

conferendum [ 4 ]

est in

ad

&

delectandum

,

poetica scripsit

,

ita

.

89 : "

) & . ad

:

ed .) , .p

4 (

).

Sicut numeris astrictior 1535 Rhetorica naturalis philosophię tamen utilis omnibus dicendi generibus coram auditoribus Poetica autem inuenta Aristoteles auctor

).

Quippe finitimus oratori poeta Cicero uoted from Cicero uerbis licentior Oratore xvi Analytica licet moralis philosophie instrumentum : “

-

.

),

1498 fols Yix Yixy and Zvi

inquit

as de

In

.

ij )

(

;

1550

.p *

to

as a

(

In

3

poetica communes explanationes Opera

;

lectures

by on

of

series

,

a

of

addressed

to

Accademia degl'Infiammati Padua the the Poetics Lombardi died soon there Maggi but the first lecture was printed after and the series was given preface by Maggi Aristotelis librum his and Lombardi's Lombardi exordium

POETICS

AMONG

THE SCIENCES

his authority for placing poetry among the logical and rational sciences ; it logic , dialectic , sophistic , and rhetoric certain shares with demonstrative

common qualities :

...

,

,

,

its

.

all .

neither do they have a specific thing as their subject matter , but only words and discourse , nor do they consist in one specific genus but introduce themselves into These are their common characteristics As for the particular and distinct ones demonstration and two companions dialectic and sophistic are called

in

as

a

in

of

so ,

,

on

. . . .

,

,

if I

to

do

by

,

is

logical faculties since their major and more common use arguments and they effect what they set out means certain concise points and brief may say they exist exclusively syllogistic and strict fashion and forms Rhetoric and poetic the other hand are not called logical faculties ,

.

,

to

so

,

of

,

,

of

,

as

of ,

,

a

in

true and proper sense and hardly ever use the syllogism but they use rather example popular devices Their speak the and the enthymeme which are products insofar they are this kind are orations and poems and for the most part they are concerned with political subject matters.S

.

a

a

The use words and discourse and the cultivation universal rather particular classifying poetics subject than matter are thus the bases for along with these other sciences (

,

)

( or

as

he

,

,

.

is

of

)

,

,

a

In

much less systematic document Sperone Speroni Dialogo della rhetorica 1542 again conjoins poetry and rhetoric but for entirely dif Speroni ferent reasons not concerned with the whole system the sciences but only with the arts which classifies useful mechanical

:

;

and pleasurable the latter are subdivided into the arts which delight the body and those which delight the spirit Body

Spirit

Painting

Rhetoric

)

(

eyes

Cooking

of

? )

,

a

,

a

.

to

:

to

,

by

he

,

,

pp

.

(

words

.)

more difficult structure 138 154-54v is

of

which are the instruments the please their ends poetry aims only please and persuade As result the orator's since must produce much tighter rhythmic

to

.

art

rhetoric wishes both

)

( (

taste

touch

Poetry and rhetoric are arts They are distinguished

mind

)

nose

(

Perfumery Heating

Poetry

)

(

Music ears

ita

& .

in

&

.

...

,

&

:

&

,

&

;

:

in

:

), .p 8 : “

(

.

in

5

quòd neque materiae loco res habeant uerba tantum 1550 certo uno genere uersentur sed omnia insinuant sese haec communia Sophistica illa propria atque distincta quòd Demonstratiua eius duae comites Dialectica logicae ipsae appellantur quòd harum maior quidam usus communior dissertationibus quibusdam quasi punctis concisa breuiter admodum atque strictim quod proposuerunt Explanationes neque

orationem

[ 5 ]

,

:

. "

,

in

:

,

,

,

.

,

ac

ut

,

,

&

,

loquar syllogisticae prorsus existunt Poeticaque contra efficiunt Rhetorica quòd non adeò uerè propriè Logicae appellantur neque syllogismo ferè sed exemplo atque enthymemate rationibus quasi popularibus atque harum quà huiusmodi utuntur sunt politicis occupantur argumentis extant opera orationes atque poemata plurimumque

POETIC

THEORY

Robortello's In librum Aristotelis de arte poetica ( 1548 ) we return to the position of Lombardi ( whose preface was published two years later ) ; the classification is the same , although some of the reasons are different . Robortello's point of view is stated in his own preface , before the commentary on Aristotle actually begins :

With Francesco

is

,

it

material

all

Discourse is placed under the poetic faculty as

as

its

explicationes

placed under , ,

,

,

it

of

. .

.

to as

.

in

,

prove something for that different some way The most express what Insofar true degree that same moves nearer

forth

is

of

or

, to , is in to to set be a

it

treats and from the person who uses necessary that every discourse reason proper and genuine function discourse it is

;

as

),

to

is

. . .

a .

,

(

so it

.

in

the others which concern themselves with discourse These are five number proper demonstrative for call apodeictic discourse dialectic rhetoric sophistic poetic All these have discourse their matter indeed since dis things which course assumes different force and form both from the kind

it

the apparently

true

,

From among

(

seu probabile quod videtur

or

(

),

in

be

,

of

το

),

,

το

;

that which

these each separate faculty seizes upon one

kind

:

apparens verum seems probable

).

(

as

,

το

.

is

of

any kind departs from truth discourse what false Between truth and falseness kind interval between the two expressed are placed ένδοξον πιθανόν φαινόμενον which may Latin the probabile the probable the suasorium the persuasive and the

,

medium

,

words

as a

the use

of

.

or

of

in

,

of ;

,

on

the basis

.

The traditional classification still prevails here

,

,

;

,

of ;

;

,

demonstration upon the true dialectic upon the probable rhetoric upon the persuasive sophistic upon that which has the appearance probability but poetics upon the false the sense verisimilitude the fabulous

of be

to

VI .

.

all

of

as

of

,

his point

the soul gives the following

schema

:

His division

poetics among the sciences the more general the arts among human activities He admittedly departure the Nicomachean Ethics especially Book

of

the place

of

as

took

of

the place

of

lem

problem

to so

of

"

,

in

“

is a

.

as

,

to

,

by

in

be

to

an

to

a

is

,

.

if

A

of

approach seems present different kind the thinking original statement Varchi But Varchi which ante dates Robortello added later one his ultimate position turns out essentially the same Lezzione Robortello's The first document della maggioranza dell'arti delivered before the Florentine Academy the spring 1546. Varchi here addressed himself not much the prob Benedetto

,

. . .

.

ad

eo ,

ab

,

.

,

.

)

;

;

,

ex

& ,

&

,

,

), .p 1 : "

&

( sic

,

et

(

6

Explicationes 1548 Subiicitur tanquàm materies poëticę facultati oratio sicuti aliis omnibus quae circa orationem uersantur Eae autem sunt quinque numero Demon stratoria enim TTOSEIKTIKDV licet appellare dialectice rhetorice sophistice poëtice Omnes hae subiectam sibi habent orationem Verùm quoniam oratio diuersam accipit uim aliquid edisse qui ipsa vtitur genere rerum quas tractat tùm formam tùm

;

.

;

to

, est

ad , id , TÒ

, TÓ

&

,

...

[6]

.

,

.

,

;

&

;

id ,

.

seu fabulos

."

,

Poëtice falsum

[u ]m

.

.

,

;

apparens verum seu probabile quod libet Latinè proferre probabile suasorium his quaelibet facultas vnum arripit genus Demonstratoria verum Dialectice quod probabilis sed verisimilis habet speciem Rhetorice suasorium Sophistice

videtur probabile

Ex

sic

quę

.

id ,

,

,

à

,

&

,

;

probandum ideò diuersam quoque omnium oportet esse orationem Orationis genuinum munus est proferre quod verum est maximè proprium Quantum autem quod orationis quodque genus vero recedit tantò propius accedit falsum Inter pavóuevov verum sanè falsum medio quodam interuallo posita sunt Evdofov Miðavóv rendum

POETICS

AMONG

THE

SCIENCES

Anima

Ragione particolare intenzioni individuali cose particolari, gene

Ragione

universale intenzioni uniuersali cose private d'ogni materia , spogliate da tutte le pas

rabili , & corruttibili - cogitativa

sioni , teriali

ma

& accidenti

cose ingenerate , et incorru

tibili Ragione inferiore intelletto pratico ,

Ragione superiore specolativo , intelletto contemplativo

attivo fare , operare

= conoscere , intendere

Habiti pratichi

Habiti contemplativi intelletto

agibile

sapienza

fattibile

scienza

All

of the “ practical habits . " 7 Varchi gives of the kinds of arts included under each category : horsemanship , dancing , singing, playing musical instruments under the “ attiva ; " archi tecture , painting , and sculpture ( and “ infinite others ” ) under the “ fattiva . ” Presumably , poetry is one of the " infinite others ” ; although poetry is not specifically mentioned here , the last section of the lecture is devoted to a detailed comparison of poetry and painting ( pp. 68 , 72 ) . The major purpose of the lecture is to establish a hierarchy among the arts according to their nobility ; and since the dignity of the end is the criterion and since the arts fall under the second

the

.

be

,

to

,

,

and architecture occupy the highest positions warfare medicine relatively humble poetry will hierarchy the place assigned

in

,

up

as

set

examples

,

-

,

in

(

parole

)

(

cose

Contemplativa

Pratica

Specolativa

Attiva Agibile

Fisica

Etica

Matematiche 58–59

.

pp

.

549

),

7

”

philosophy

Loica giudiziale Dialettica Topica

Metafisica

Due lezzioni

real

Rationale

Reale

In

a

dividing philosophy into

“

by

He begins philosophy

)

"

rational

:

.

the sciences

and

“

of

—

,

to

,

in

be

to

a

in

to

,

by

of

supplemented These views Varchi's are and perhaps corrected way expressed another lecture careful and more fuller those delivered the Florentine Academy October 1553. This time refer ring again the Aristotelian system but including the Poetics which had been absent from the earlier materials Varchi does offer complete system

]

17

Sofistica Tentativa

POETIC

THEORY

Reale

Rationale

( cose )

( parole )

Aritmetica Musica

Economica

Rettorica

Politica Fattibile Arti meccaniche

Geometria

Astrologia

Poetica Storica Gramatica

In the commentary on this scheme , Varchi specifically states that poetry , coming as it does in the group of disciplines dealing with words , cannot be considered either an art or a science but merely a faculty . If it is sometimes called an art , this is only because it has been reduced to precepts and rules . 8

it

all

,

In

a to

.

,

"

:

It is

;

to

is

it it in is

to

its

position

in

fourth place among the instrumental sciences nobility shows rank according inferior not only the sciences but also the disciplines above the same group sense indistinguishable from those disciplines indeed true that dialectic its

Moreover ,

,

of

these faculties which Varchi assigns each corresponding instrument among the instruments

a

to

is

in

. " 9

of

of

,

,

a

subject matter and

in

another classification

of

is

to

at

be

,

in

,

logic and poetics are almost the same thing not being different substan tially but only accidents and thus the dialectician the rhetorician and nobility and placed honor the same level the poet may poetics How related the other rational faculties indicated

vero

demonstrative syllogism topical syllogism

favoloso

enthymeme example

)

finto

)

poetica

]

(

persuasivo

,

)

sophistical syllogism

retorica

is

,

of

,

,

of

,

, he

,

;

:

,

of

of

,

a

in

,

it

its to .

,

whose

is

is

,

”

placed

of

instrument the least worthy the very position.10 others inferior says later take into But this not Varchi's final word One must poetry first the host consideration two things with respect wonderful things which become the objects imitation second the magnificent making men good virtuous and happy that end which serves that Once again

“

poetics

ma

è

non

all

,

pare probabile

(

,

[

probabile

[

dimostrativa topica

dialetica sofistica

Discourse )

loica

Part [

Subject

,

Rational Faculty

of

:

discourse

so

, as

as

:

all

,

the sciences

poetica sono quasi vna medesima retore

,

,

il

."

, e

di

( 8 )

, e

,

vn

in

.

., si .p

,

il

e

il

loica

, e la

dialettica

cosa non essendo differenti sostanzialmente ma per accidente così dialettico poeta posson mettere medesimo grado nobiltà d'honore Ibid 573 10

,

of

,

,

itself necessarily

all

in

contain

.

),

571–72 Ben'è vero che

to in

, of

it

comes

, la

572

things divine well human sublime the most beautiful useful and delightful

and

la

1590

.pp

it

language

,

., .p

Ibid

(

Lezzioni

: “

In

9 8

,

way because

is

,

an

,

,

Since poetics then treats desirable and worthy end

all

as

of

.

,

perfecting the human soul When these qualities are taken into account human activities the greatest

poetry emerges

THE SCIENCES

AMONG

all

all

POETICS

,

of

,

arts and sciences

. 11

,

as

an

it is

in

,

it

; is

,

at

a

science than all the other faculties

,

greater honor

,

as a

as

of

,

of

,

the arts and the faculties once whence more noble more delight deserving without perfect itself thus them than each one ful and more any doubt greater marvel faculty and greater praise art and

to

its

, a

to

.

by

.

a

of

,

)

(

his

to

In

as

of

of

,

by

in

,

of

the desire break out the argument this last phase systematic restrictions imposed the system elevate poetry above the rational faculties the lowest rank one Dialogi della inventione poetica 1554 Alessandro the dedication Lionardi allies poetics once more with rhetoric and history although there stating are no traces more complete philosophical system He begins

One senses

...

be

:

that the two most necessary and useful human activities are speaking and doing

in in

in

,

in

us

,

...

.

as

is of

,

of

,

of to

,

,

of to

do ,

be ,

to

is of

to

us a

of

of

completely and properly neither the one nor the other these actions can knowledge history poems orations and those things say and required which teach deliberate what this life age and every manner actions and condition showing state discourse what imitated and what avoided done without

to

in

. 12

to

in

an

to

an

is

,

of

,

be

,

of

.

It

of

,

is

Poetry contains the other two within itself and hence the most worthy study again will noted that here there effort ennoble the assigning poetry poetry and that part art the process consists teaching men how important function live

it

,

;

so

to

subject

fix

,

on

:

no

logic have had

as

...

“

no

of

its

of

to

( I

,

is ) ,

For Giovanni Battista Pigna romanzi 1554 the reason for classifying poetry with rhetoric and dialectic under logic permit the explanation universality subject matter like the other instrumental sciences just has fixed subject rhetoric and dialectic since they are under ,

to

to

is

it

13

by

,

as

Ibid 592 Trattando dunque degno fine tanto sublime desiderato

is

).

all

in

,

somewhat different basis offered Antonio his De poeta 1559 He groups sciences under poetica tutte nel piu bello vtile

di

11

Sebastiano Minturno

(

which proceeds

a

on

A

of

."

in

.

of

,

,

poetry

be

,

matter which themselves any specific which falls under the same will not restricted say that the poet branch human activity Whence common every science participates division the sciences which again presents itself traditional but definite

,

,

le

e

&

,

, si di ,

di

,

de '

&

,

in

à

à

poemi come quelli ogni maniera stato parlamenti quel che

ne '

,

dell'orationi

questa uita nelle operationi

&

;

, di

. "

, , e e

di

,

nè

la

), da si , su .p à 19 : . si " ” ,

a

di

ha età , da & ci

di

, e

le

di

, e

nè

: di “

,

),

(

12

cognitione dell'istoria conueneuolmente fare senza insegnano fare dire deliberare cioche

che

, e le

la

e

se

è

à

in

, e

: “

., .p

cose così diuine come humane diletteuole modo per esser prosa viene contenere necessariamente tutte scienze tutte l'arti tutte facultà insieme più nobile piu piaceuole piu perfetta perse dunque merita donde ciascuna loro maggior lode come arte maggiore senza alcun dubbio maggior merauiglia come facultà honore come scienza tutte quante l'altre facultà arti scienze Dialogi 1554 p.3 queste due attioni potersi compiutamente l'una l'altra

la

la , è

si

dir

,

la

il

&

,

.

[ 9 ]

. "

La

;

,

la

&

la

,

&

ad

,

(

I

13

,

,

conditione richiede mostrandoci fuggire imitare Logica romanzi 1554 come Rhetorica Dialettica perche sono sotto alcun certo soggetto che fermino hauuto non hanno cosi Poesia che cade sotto poeta medesima alcuna certa professione non sarà astretta onde suole che d'ogni scienza partecipe

POETIC THEORY four major

headings : ( 1) those which are concerned

with

“

knowing the

things " and with a "contemplation

nature and the causes of

of divine

things ” ; ( 2 ) those concerned with “ instructions for good living ” ; ( 3) those

his

belonging to the “ faculty of discussing and speaking ” ; ( 4) mathematics. 14 Poetics , of course , belongs in the third category , along with grammar , rhetoric , logic, and history . Minturno introduces this distinction at a point where he is estimating the contribution of each of the other sciences to

his of

,

. 15

as a

of

an

poetry ; but the fact that it is fundamental in thinking about poetry analysis emerges from whole his work Alessandro Piccolomini who wrote commentaries both on the Rhetoric ,

Aristotle

considered himself an Aristotelian and found

on

and the Poetics

in

he

):

,

(

to

he

he is

he

;

as

.

of

of

justification for poetics views the philosophical position the works Aristotle themselves Thus defends the affiliation between explaining why expects rhetoric and poetics follows work on the Poetics after finishes his labors on the Rhetoric Piena parafrase nel terzo libro della Retorica d'Aristotele 1572 so

,

he ,

)

(

in .

it

is

of

to

in

,

in

be

a

in

,

..

closely for the reason that these two faculties rhetoric and poetics are kinship that great many linked together the subjects they treat can and equally useful should the one and the other faculty Thus that Aristotle knowing this repeat the same things order not both treatises when a

,

it ;

,

in

,

to

as

to it in

the first when necessary.16 ), on

to

he

In

referred

of

was writing about the one and the other made choice the aforementioned put common materials such wise one faculty those considerations which were closest and most conjoined with then writing about the other

its

as

“

at

,

he

,

;

”

life

.

to

by

”

“

,

faculty work the other Annotationi nel libro della Poetica d'Aristotile 1575 Piccolomini indicates his basic position referring directly says aim the Ethics All arts some honest utility and convenience for human hence poetry will also seek

(

the subsequent

it of

is

, all

to

The notion that civil science will gain

architectonic

"

the

"

) is

subordinated

."

in

all

which others are paraphrase for politics 87 : "

(a to

14

that art prudence

a

is

,

be

is

it

,

an to

of

be

“

,

end some such usefulness since poetry also habit the practical things may conse intellect relevant which can made and since quently among called art and since most honored the other nobility very close habits this kind and civil prudence which

,

of

.pp

in

in

",

.”

in

;

St.

, “

of

,

ac

in

cf.

., W. .p , 92 ;

15

in ,

in

), .p

ea

(

partem cognoscendo rerum naturam causasque posuerunt De poeta 1559 partem atque cum bene uiuendi institu rerum diuinarum perspicientiam coniunxerunt loquendi ratione partem tione uersari partem disserendi Mathematicis uoluerunt my article Ibid The Poetic Theories Mintumo Studies Honor ,

, & & la .

]) ,

la

,

a

,

&

,

;

in

, si

,

in

,

,

10 )

(

, le è

: di

,

&

in ,

di

,

rimetteua

.”

, si

&

,

'

' in

,

&

dell'altra

,

" (

“

di * 2v :

), ( " .p

(

16

Parafrase

,

Washington University Studies Louis Mo. 1942 101–29 1572 Percioche essendo queste due facultà Retorica parentela insieme che moltissime lor considerationi possono Poetica tanto congiunte qui che debbon communemente seruir all'una all'altra come Aristotele conoscendo questo per non replicar scriuer dell'una dell'altra stesse cose amendue fece delle dette communi considerationi vna scelta modo che quelle ch'alquanto fusser più vicine congiunte all'una ch'all'altra quella poneua quella scriuendo dette facultà Shipley

Frederick

AMONG

POETICS

THE SCIENCES

currency later in the century , and poetry will with increasing frequency be subsumed under it.17 Piccolomini's approach presupposes a purview of the Aristotelian system which extends beyond poetics and rhetoric and includes at least one other science in a different category , politics . A system which extends still farther beyond, and which really returns to the universal classifications of the first part of the century , is proposed by Federico Ceruti in a work which he presents as anonymous but which is probably his own , the De re poetica libellus incerti auctoris of 1588. Indeed , Ceruti outlines two possible com plete schemata

the sciences . The first would be divided as follows :

of

Practice

Logice

theologia

ethice

rhetorice

lanificium

mathematica arithmetice

oiconomice

grammatice

res militares navigatio

Theoretice

politice

Mecanice

historia poetice

musice geometria

agricultura venatio

astronomia physice

medicina pictura tectonica architectonica

fabrilis

A

and somewhat different division would proceed as follows

second

Theoretice mathematice metaphysice phisice etc.

Practice

Poietice

:

Instrumentales

de moribus

ars militaris

logice

de ciuili gubernatione

nautica

grammatice

pictura

rhetorice

de legibus etc.

musica

poetice

etc.

historia

,

“

vt "

of

a

by is

.

is

all

on

Whichever of these systems one adopts , says Ceruti , the place of poetics is clear. In both , in fact, it is linked with the same cognate disciplines, although in the first it is subsumed under grammar , which in turn is subsumed under logic , whereas in the second five instrumental sciences are the same plane What why group poetical arts which for the not clear ),

his

Il

-

,

commodo

dell'humana ;

intorno cose fattibili cosi fatti habiti honora vicinissima

."

&

,

( 11 )

.

10–11

gli

&

;

,

.pp

),

(

chap

. ix ,

re & in

poetica 1588

di trà

: "

), .p

(

la

.

,

&

18

De

Gabriele

the sciences

in

of

another such system

of

to

—

)

presents

qualche honesto giouamento 1575 ft6v poesia anch'ella vn'habito dell'intelletto prattico vita essendo por conseguente potendosi chiamar'arte essendo tutti altri tissima nobiltà alla ciuil prudentia architetonica tutte l'arti Annotationi

...

"

"

.

"

of

Ginani

à

17

the terms does not raise any questions for him.18 years later and very close the end the century

( or

Two Zinano

so "

is

of

proximity

(

part make things plurimum fiunt quae manibus hand poetics Apparently should not include itself for Ceruti the traditional poetry firmly established that even the close etymological place most

POETIC

THEORY

sogno , overo della poesia ( 1590 ). Zinano claims that the one he offers

is

Aristotelian : SCIENCES

Practical

Speculative

Internal

Metaphysics Physics

External Operations

Operations

Mathematics Geometry

(words, deeds )

( mind )

will : moral philosophy

Arithmetic Astrology Music

ethics

grammar

military art

economics

rhetoric

politics

poetry

agriculture navigation wool -making

intellect : dialectic

history

memory :

etc.

art of remembering

it

all

so

is

;

all

a

all its

Grammar , among the practical sciences dealing with words , is concerned with “ il ben dire " ; rhetoric , with “l'ornato dire . " As for poetry , it soon assigned compartment and becomes breaks out of universal science encompassing the others this because the others furnish with ,

it

or

or

,

on

to

,

is

an

is a

, in

).

(

to

sequel Della poesia romanzesca 1596 This earlier dialogue 1589 Della nuova poesia which Malatesta had not raised the question

testa's

of of

,

,

of

,

. 19

of

—

its

,

it

of

subject matter because teaches the lessons the others and because through allegory moral natural divine- contains the essential doctrines all the others The last important document among those examined insist the Gioseppe Mala grouping poetics with logic grammar and rhetoric

,

a

he

,

of ,

:

,

In

.

;

.

,

.

.

all of

poetry general the present one does hazard He divides the sciences into five groups the natural sciences the metaphysical sciences the rational faculties the liberal arts and the mechanical arts The rational faculties are arts discourse which have no specific subject matter they include logic and grammar They might also the classification

system

.pp

no

nature treat

specific

as

to

,

,

is

of

this group and this kind also poetry which subject matter was given but which rather remained free

of

by

to its

In

:

include poetics

many ,

,

,

le

,

scienze

gli enti

si in ,

La

la

le

il

si

.

,

de le

, ò

,

&

,

il

:

in

è

si

in

&

,

in

&

, la

,

di

,

da

origine hanno Non Peripatetico d'hauer cosi nel primo contenta qualità l'arti diuise che ancora considerando scienze esser varie secondo

cose le &

lui &

il

,

le

la

in

,

&

,

: “

),

(

Il

19

sogno 1590 prattica speculativa 19–21 Le scienze l'arti diuidono questa divisione presa dal fine perciò come vuole Aristotile nel primo della Metafisica speculatiua consiste contemplatione prattica operatione l'vna contempla tutto che cose dell'vniuerso l'altra quelle che sono soggette all'arti l'vna considera vero l'altra qui hanno origine l'intelletto speculatiuo prattico più tosto sopradette buono

&

,

,

in

in

.

.

." .

in di

& & .

,

12 ]

,

,

,

, in ,

(

, in di

si

di

&

,

,

.

la

&

,

).

of

. . . .

(

speculatiua subdiuide nel sesto the Metaphysics Metafisica Fisica Matematica subdiuide La prattica versando circa l'operationi secondo l'operationi diuide Del'operationi altre sono esterne altre interne L'operationi interne prouengono dalla mente sono tre sorti uolontà d'intelletto memoria Nella volontà consiste filosofia morale che diuide Etica Economia Politica Cf. also pp 21-31

AMONG

THE

SCIENCES

...

POETICS

,

to

to

he

,

,

be

in by

,

or

a

in

,

as a

it

things as it might wish and to enter everywhere . And therefore would have compared rhetoric been very proper for Aristotle when dialectic have added third poetics which no less than the other two occupies itself with things which can anyone which does not certain sense understood ,

on

is

classification

.

uniquely the subject matter

,

is

the basis

since the initial assumption

of

by

of

a

this analysis

,

In

in

recognize any definite limited subject matter and which every subject finds some way participant the goodness Nature

itself

that sciences are differentiated one from

-

,

is

it

—

in

of

subject matter.20 another solely the basis differences Beginning with the humanistic period which had inherited from the Middle Ages and extending throughout the sixteenth century there

,

“

is

,

of

to

, of

( or

it

of

.

" )

as

its

as a

the discursive

.

or

as

one with the others

,

,

strong tradition that associates poetry with logic

and history

of

a

grammar rhetoric instrumental sciences Poetry belongs discursive science because uses words dis that the this association means One consequence course emphasize problems language the special resultant theories will tend poetry from the other discursive kind diction which differentiates thus

or

of

by

to

on

,

is

for

to

,

is

,

.

as

to

the matter

of

rhythm and rhyme the figures and tropes which are peculiar poetic expression Another consequence that since words are symbols for things and represent meanings person the whom signification intended theories this kind will hesitate oscillate between emphasis the things themselves and attention the sciences

regarded

instrument

,

.

poetry

,

of

it

the end

of

it

of

.

of

,

,

conceptions an

as on

philosophy i.e.

of

theories based specifically especially those which consider

set

is

its

on

of

.

,

;

it

of

its

of

no

.

to

is

,

to

it

an

meanings as

of

Poetry associated with the words the readers thought instrumental science because have fixed subject matter and hence resemble logic grammar and rhetoric Result ing theories will stress on the one hand the universality subject and compile long things will lists the kinds treats the other hand quality qua instrument and the ends which they will consider achieves This latter activity will bring such theories into close contact with another kinds regarded

moral and civil

ethics and politics

HISTORY

or .

of as

of

be

,

.pp

it

,

20

.

,

to

it or

be

A

place must made for those classifications which include among the discursive poetry instrumental sciences related thought History may serving ethical too uses words and political ends But comparison with also presents other possibilities special

history

dal

si ,

che la

Et

,

, è

di

....

,

,

di

da

&

,

la

,

[ 13 ]

Natura

&

In

la

in

per

in se

ne

di fù ),

(

&

,

che

,

se

di

, a

la

è

". ,

: “

questo numero questa conditione 27-28 dalla natura sua prescritto niun soggetto particolare anzi quante cose volesse ingerirsi per tutto per tanto non saria stato non molto conueniente che quando Aristotele proportionò Rethorica quale non meno alla Dialettica hauesse aggiunta terza Poesia l'altre due ponno essercita sopra cose certo modo capirsi ciascuno non riconosce materia ognuna qualche modo partecipe definita limitata troua benefitio della Poesia romanzesca 1596 ancora Poesia cui non poter trattare venne libera

POETIC THEORY poetry ; these may be boiled down to the essential fact that history , like so many forms of poetry , presents a " narration . " One may thus apply to it ( albeit equivocally ) such common terms of the critical vocabulary as action , character, thought , episode, and so forth ; one may discover in it such common features as descriptions of places and persons, speeches , great deeds of kings and heroes . These further possibilities of comparison led another group of theorists to set up a separate classification of poetry as a kind of history ; they constitute in a sense a cognate strain of classification , beginning again with the humanists and continuing - although much less century . It is appropriate at this — throughout the sixteenth point , in order to picture out the this kind classification group examine the position theorists representing this cognate strain

,

to

of

of

a

.

of

of

fill

frequently

de

,

a

in

,

,

:

of

.

,

;

is

,

as

to

to

et

of

)

or

(

dialogue entitled Actius Giovanni Gioviano Pontano numeris poeticis lege historiae and written toward the end the fifteenth century prophecy history attempted relate poetry such divers activities oratory and painting but the comparison developed most extensively similarity are discovered the one with history The following bases both

;

,

as

,

of

;

;

of ,

relate ancient and remote deeds both describe places peoples nations both condemn vices and praise virtues both partake the demonstrative oratory and deliberative types shown by the orations which they

is

in

,

in

.

common characteristics

21

.

,

a

of of

.

by in

so

;

introduce both treat the unexpected and accidental events which happen frequently life The comparison continues these terms then supplemented series contrasts demonstrating what ways the two Finally arts differ sets criteria for both arts are derived from their

,

at

.

.

in is

.

In

on

is

in

an

to

pair poetry with history developed The same tendency some History found anonymous Dialogue length MS Vat Lat 6528 probably around 1560-65 whose date this dialogue the main exposi to

of

a

,

chiasmus

"

“

four way -

a

of

.

of

,

of

,

existence

be

presenting tor Hieronimo Zabbarella claims and defending the Pomponazzi on history He starts with the assertion theory the

division

narration into four

of a

of

a

the action narrated language

Both

and the whole

in

,

14 )

.

193–227

(

.pp

Previtera

,

ed .

,

Dialoghi

/

In

21

of

).

,

.

(

essentially analogical quality fols 142v 151 discussion has Julius Caesar Scaliger's point view the Poetices libri septem

of

very broad senses

.

of

kind

,

in

are used

special

of

of

the character

verse and

a

,

of ,

”

history

first

in

of

and

the use

an

”

poetry

“

,

,

second

in

Poetry differs from history “

single man many persons

of

:

Sermone

and

of

a

single action single action

many sayings and actions single man narration many and various actions many men narration

:

Vita

of a

:

:

Poema narration Historia narration

of

:

subordinate parts

POETICS

AMONG

THE SCIENCES

puts him into both categories of critics , those who classified poetry of “ oratio " and those who considered it a form of narration . He begins with a general division of “ oratio ” according to follows ends 1561 ,

Type

vtilitas

cives

voluptas

delectatio

theatra

,

“

by

narra

uses the common form

delectatio

. , It "

of

necessitas

expression

:

,

philosophi

veritas prudentia

The third type

as

Audience

Expression

of

End

of

its

as a part

,

is

a

is to

of in

another which

is is

intermediate

to

imitation

is

,

,

of

by

"

“

,

simpler thread poetry which either adds any case true things means false but poetry the case for history the final end )

This end

: “

teach

(

to

.”

with greater splendor also

a

in

imitates

As

or

discourse

truth

,

to

spinning fiction

of is

its

:

“

,

subdivided into history and ornate language tion accompanied by history which poetry sure belief professes and produces truth

a

of

,

on

22

."

a

,

.

a

in

of

a

is

In ,

final and which teach with pleasure history the De ratione essentially work which treatise scribendae historiae 1574 Uberto Foglietta spends certain amount drawing comparison between history and epic poetry Both are time it

In

.

,

of

by

of

in

it

it,

as

.

is

as

(

),

narrations the essential basis for the comparison both treat events which depends upon have actually happened But history different insofar may dispense with the truth and cannot exist without and insofar poetry various ornaments and decorations which are required his history Foglietta indicates that these discussion the component graces a

,

.

of

its

,

history

.

poetry

to

,

Il

as

means

the relationship

of .

instruction

raises the whole issue he

),

1584

of

,

so

common end

,

a (

serve

Lasca

theorists the two arts are narration because they pleasure His dialogue

by

of

the last this group much because they are forms

For Lionardo Salviati related not

of of of

. 23

its

of

is

this

as

document the poet Indeed such assumption that the internal procedures more interesting for history and poetry are the same than for the two arts theoretical statements about them

are the ones commonly cultivated

of

is to ,

the

of

a

is

it

if

,

to

Its

.

&

,

o

leggono

s'ella

sia ,

la

,

il

,

,

case

."

, e

medesimi

.

vtile cioè faccia prudente quei che guerra sappiano ben gouernare comune lor

8 : “

pace

947–48 963 ,

.pp

1576

Ch'ella

[ 15 ]

privata

lorin .p

che

with Bodin

( , in e le sia ),

, ed e ), .

,

:

pubblica

,

l'ascoltano

1584

si (

Lasca

se

Il

24 23

”.

,

ad

est

,

,

is

.

,

&

delectatione De ratione

private

pleasure inherent

profitetur Differunt autem quòd alterius fides certa verum altera aut addit ficta veris aut fictis vera imitatur medius illum vltimum qui docendi cum

prodit simpliciore filo texens orationem maiore sanè apparatu ... Hic enim finis

: est

1581

and themselves and their houses

achieved through the means

ed .) , .p 2 : “

;

this end

(

Poetice

24

,

public history

"

history 22

so be

it,

or

it is a

if it

is

,

history which tells not Unlike earlier theorists admits the possibility commonly believed and which may even tell lies when the truth but what these would useful usefulness render prudent those who read govern the community well hear that ... they may know how

che

storia

THEORY

POETIC

in the reading. Such views, of course , bring history very close to the com mon conception of poetry , and Salviati sees between them the following differences (pp . 11-13 ) : Poetry

History

forma : imitazione soggetto : verisimile fine : purgar gli animi

forma : narrazione soggetto : quel che si crede fine : prudenza

renderci ben costumati stromento : verso , melodia , ballo

stromento : favellare sciolto

For which reasons , ” he goes on to say , “ poetry may in a way be made subordinate to the philosophy of conduct , and history to that of govern ment ; nevertheless , as far as the end is concerned there might be occasion to argue to the contrary , that is , that it is the same both in history and in poetry ." 25 As the dialogue continues , however , Salviati argues that poetry “

achieves these ends less well than history , since it is not believed and has as a result no lasting moral effect , and hence is to be considered

an inferior

these texts , classifying poetry with

of

Most of

all

art .

.

as

to

of

,

a

of

in

it it all , to

to

as

,

.

to

is

,

of

is a

it

its

,

to

of

,

is

an

,

it

,

an

,

a

of

times out the conviction that poetry instrument that serves higher purposes assign more particular way there effort not another position but regarding find some supplementary way which will companion arts This effort make transcend with Varchi results recipient the affirmation that poetry universal science the riches philosophy whose function contribute the highest welfare .

classification might indicate really something more than

At

a

so

,

,

of

in is of all

a

to to

.

do

,

or

of

or

the rest the discursive with history singled out from among them fall the century The few which come later little more than continue tradition dating back the humanist period Not poetry them indeed give role restricted the mere process

instrumental sciences within the first sixty years

or be

is ,

as a

of

,

.

of in

its ,

.

to

an

as

,

to of

During the rest the century while the old classification con appear from time poetics will time the essential position keeping with part one rather more exalted functions that instrument moral philosophy mankind

tinues

MORAL PHILOSOPHY This position first assigned

,

,

to

nella poesia

.

medesimo

da :

de '

la

costumi

sarebbe forse . "

, e

16 )

è

,

nella storia (

, e

cioè che fosse ,

contrario

,

in

disputare

filosofia

fine

, ci

qualche modo sotto

La Storia ridur potrassi sotto quella della città tuttauia quanto

il il

Poesia

in

Per laqual cosa

la

11 : “

Ibid

., .p

25

:

,

.

of

of

,

Il

in

a

is

by

is

poetics among the documents studied Dedalione overo del poeta dialogo dated 1560 essentially The work rebuttal Plato's banishment the poets Ammirato divides philosophy into two main branches the contemplative and the active Scipione Ammirato

POETICS

AMONG

THE

SCIENCES

Active

Contemplative

Natural

"morale

Supernatural

“ domestica , familiare " ( = Economics )

Mathematics

“ civile ”

costumatezza " ( = Ethics )

( = Politics )

in

us

26

."

of

,

of

it

a

Poetics is subsumed “ If civil philosophy concerns good , the of our minds and of our bodies it will really concern both these larger , arts that is , poetics and medicine ; but take the matter equivocally say both the one and the other that concerns sense and medicine that the soul and that the body The poet bears the same let

under civil philosophy :

”

in it .

of

,

27

,

to

by

of

for

of

the reasons given below an

"

Poetica Ethica

:

The Poetics would fall into the sequence

-

-

-

“

Dialectica Rhetorica

works

.

Aristotle's

)

(

of

of

contents

is to

of

to

is

is

"

of

as

to

relationship the physician the legislator does the surgeon and the poetry driving end induce virtue into the soul vice out essentially the point This view Antonio Posio whose aim the pertinent section his Thesaurus 1562 summarize the order and the

,

,

to , a

it of

of

in

of

,

all

.

,

In

,

.

of

of it

in

do

to

to

,

be

,

is

of a

justice

of

and the other things that are necessary state To poetics rejected from perfect state what indeed added which must not ever Plato seems want with the eighth book the Republic fact ,

charity

of

of

is

is

in

Rhetoric fact the instrument the moral philosopher instrument with which good laws are proposed and which used the senate for the best deli peace berations about the observance the laws divine worship

,

.

be

is

it

,

,

as

,

,

them were added immediately

the

.

to

,

moral and civil philosophy ethics dedicated Nicomachus

to

.

true Moreover the same

discourse since the poet must arouse anger These books having been placed first hand

an

on

maidens books

to ,

,

poetics serves the state fear hope and the other passions

of

to

decide whether this

art

others as

leave

an

to

I

rhetoric

.

of

.

,

,

a

language purges the soul the poet using certain sweetness evil passions and brings great utility through the action and great pleasure through the imita part tion Those have not been lacking even who have maintained that

it ,

is

it

to

,

of

;

,

to

by

”

“

its

as a ,

Poetics remains here associate dialectic and rhetoric maintaining belongs function discursive science but the whole group which ancillary becomes moral and civil philosophy and poetry itself distinguished the pleasure and the utility which affords.28

28 27

la ,

de

&

;

la

&

&

la

il

la

.”

&

&

,

: “

), .p

(

In

26

corpi Opuscoli 1642 386 Se ciuile riguarda bene degli animi nostri poetica veramente ella riguarderà amendue questi cioè medicina ma prendiamo cosa più larga diciamo ch'ella riguarda equiuocamente l'vna l'altra medicina dell'anima del corpo

,

& in

ad

,

."

il

. * :Sv “ è

,

),

., “ il

(

la

Ibid fine della poetica indur nell'anima virtù discacciandone vizio Thesaurus 1562 fol Rhetorica enim est instrumentum moralis philosophi quo bonae proponuntur leges optimaeque fiunt senatu deliberationes obseruandas leges

in

.

.

,

.

.

,

,

,

sit

.

sit ,

,

&

.

,

de

,

ab

,

cultum diuinum Pacem pietatem Iustitiam caetera quae Reipub sunt necessaria Accedit optima Repub non est abiicienda Quicquid videatur velle Plato vero Poetica quae Repub Poeta enim cum quadam sermonis suauitate animum malis affectibus octauo purgat magnamque actione vtilitatem imitatione delectationem affert Non defuerunt

[ 17 ]

ac

,

."

de

.

,

ad ,

,

,

,

id

.

,

autem qui partem Rhetorices eam esse putauerint An verum aliorum nunc iudicium seruit autem ipsa Poetica Reipublicae tanquam sermocinalis facultas cum debeat poeta spem caeterosque affectus His praepositis ciuili commouere iram timorem morali philosophiae ancillis libri Nicomachum moribus statim adiecti sunt

THEORY

POETIC

its

The next statement is neither so systematic nor so explicit , since it relates poetry to moral philosophy without specifying the nature of the relation ship . It is found in Jacopo Mazzoni's Discorso in difesa della Comedia del divino poeta Dante ( 1572 , under the pseudonym of Donato Rofia ), which is

it

“

to

."

to

...

a

of he

to

I

no

by

we

3 .)

(p .

”

,

. in .

be

is

moral philosophy The assertion neither developed nor supported later the text nor are told how poetry serves the end moral philosophy have found earlier text Mazzoni which might referring

of

part

is

: “

devoted first chapter the proposition that not improper for philosophers discuss poets Mazzoni here makes only the bald state ment elsewhere we have sufficiently clearly proved that poetry

so

,

”

,

,

,

of

,

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:

up ,

.

,

to

seems

.

in

medicine and architecture his final arrangement Giacomini divide letters into two subgroups the first the scienzie contem

,

history

In ,

he

to

be

e

in

“

in

, in

is

"

“

a

of as

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dignity really the primary characteristic the art work which made public conclusions four years later 1576. Just Varchi 1546 had been concerned with the maggioranza dell'arti Lorenzo Giacomini 1576 proposed the topic Della nobiltà delle lettere delle armi for three lectures read the Florentine Academy Under logic rhetoric poetics letters included moral philosophy the art Concern with the

it

.

.

is

,

to

is

,

to

;

,

so

it

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;

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,

plative superior arms the second made moral philosophy knowledge merely supplies and other forms inferior arms since the doctrine which leads action Action itself more noble than doctrine Although not stated poetry presumably falls into the last category

be

to

,

,

of

to

us

“

,

instruction the literary arts will include rhetoric and poetics which explain moral subjects for our own benefit and furnish with the means that others and music also which like poetry used used for four

his

,

of

to

a

on .

it ,

?

of

.

to

,

,

five years earlier Jacopo Mazzoni had initiated

of

that

remembered

29

."

, an

or

it a

of

a

in

be

It

will

as

of

be

,

is

is

:

;

is

,

By

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ends for formation character for the purgation the passions for rest our studies from our affairs and for recreation poetics this date 1576 the position related moral philosophy firmly established very few dissenters later there will But new question now arises part philosophy instrument moral The distinction sometimes not clear but much debate centers upon especially large group documents relating the quarrel over Dante

MS B.N.

is a

in

,

di

...

,

he

,

,

on

every possible point counter Mazzoni this statement Poetry insisted

take issue with him

.

to

out

on

to

did not fail

29

he

1583. Since Bulgarini

set in

,

of

di

.”

“

defense

of

in

Dante with the statement that poetry part moral philosophy Sometime between 1573 and 1576-77 Bellisario Bulgarini M. Siena wrote his Alcune considerazioni sopra'l discorso Giacopo Mazzoni fatto difesa della Comedia Dante published only the discussion

, et

18 )

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la , .

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la

la

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impareremo Paris Fonds italien 982 fols 62-63 Rettorica spiegare suggetti morali danno modo benefizio nostro d'altrui quale Musica ancora come Poesia per quattro fini soleua vsarsi per costume negozij per diporto negli studij per purgazione degli affetti per riposo Poctica

POETICS

THE

AMONG

SCIENCES

could not be considered a part of moral philosophy because it was an art ; Aristotle and Horace should be taken as authorities for this . Moreover , if it were a part of philosophy it would belong to the rational and discursive branches, not to the practical group in which moral philosophy falls . Nor do I see , at best, how one can say anything else about it except that it might be an instrument of moral philosophy, in the way in which ( by those who know best ) logic is held to be an instrument of philosophy in general : and this

also according to the opinion of those who claim that the principal end of this same poetics is not to delight — as is maintained by many and not without reason —but to profit.30 thesis is an attempt to liberate poetry from the

a sense , Bulgarini's

In

be an

as

it

no

a

,

In

).

place

as

an

currently established

:

in

would not

be

...

all

to

retain poetry

wish

its

; (

di

in

his

by

.

to

is

an

;

he

its

place domination of moral philosophy ; to do so , he returns it to implies meanwhile that really should instrumental science but independent art whose end only give pleasure considered The passage cited from Bulgarini was answered directly Orazio Capponi manuscript Risposte alle prime cinque particelle delle con reality there are adequate siderazioni Bellisario Bulgarini 1577 opposition following given reasons for the the text largely illustrates

is

it

of

it

us

,

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as

as

,

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it

us

direct

)

to

say that part moral philos along the road which may lead

us

is

to

not improper

on an to

go

.

31

(

it

is

bring about this effect ophy whose only purpose happiness

—

at

of

of

,

in its

,

to

at

human life

of

us to

it

improper thing say that poetry insofar parts some we see clearly considering which the excess those passions which are found and teaches good modes conduct distinguishing them from the bad and many other such things useful for arriving poetry can human happiness insofar then useful purge

is

Di .sig

“

at

is

moral philosophy but

the same relationship that logic bears

to

part

of

he

a

not

asserted the same position but

lei , al

.pp

it

to

poetry

so

:

of it,

an at

bearing

30

instrument

it,

1579

( is In

Maggio

somewhat greater length

).

20.

"

di

,

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Siena

di

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in

.

,

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Capponi does say that even according Aristotle there no objection calling philosophy art part Bulgarini's reply came two years later his Repliche alle Risposte del Capponi published Orazio 1585 but the work dated the end

si

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31

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sia

,

,

di è

la

se

,

Alcune considerazioni più altro possa 1583 14–15 Ne veder che più intendenti dire non ch'ella istromento della moral filosofia nella maniera che Logica per istromento della filosofia questo anco per l'opinion tenuta vniuersale quelli che voglion ch'il principale essa Poetica sia non dilettare come molti giouare non senza ragion tiene ma ,

il

, a

,

la

19 )

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, e ci fà

in

si

,

si

e

da

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MS Bibl Com Siena G.IX.54 fol 14v non sarebbe cosa del tutto sconcia dire che quanto Poesia utile alla vita humana come uede manifesto risguardando nelle sue parti alcuna delle quali purga dal souerchio quelli affetti che trovano noi peruenire conoscere buoni costumi distinguendoli molte delle fatte cose utili poesia pud questo effetto cagionare sia parte alla felicità humana Inquanto dunque che della filosofia morale laquale altro non che indrizzarci per strada che possa condurci alla felicità

POETIC

THEORY

philosophy in general. He would suggest , with respect to logic and poetics , that the one and the other of them should perhaps be placed among the arts , or we might say sciences ( taking science in a broad sense ) which are called rational or discursive ; and that just as logic , agreeing in this with rhetoric , has no fixed subject matter about which it operates , almost the same thing happens with respect to poetics , and particularly with relationship to the human actions that it under takes to imitate ; so that , not being confined to speaking or treating exclusively of such or such human actions , it may have free choice with respect to any and all ,

directing them toward practical happiness the moral philosopher.32

,

,

of

men

the most immediate end

an

is

,

which

so

in

means

by a

to

(

to

it

certain

it )

it

of

,

it ; to

of

with the subject matters these latter whence will come also way their instrument since they use bring profit and form better always carries with the pleasure which the moral characters

of

be ,

to

)

(

its

with one or another kind of poem . Add to this the fact that just as logic was particular instrument invented primarily to serve philosophy in general as poetry perchance was invented serve the moral philosophies occupying itself

of

to

,

,

be

all

if

,

,

,

.

,

It

improper however consider poetry instrument natural compositions treating really poems science since verse the latter are not Bulgarini repeats finally his notion that arts are divided into the would

be

,

to

,

of

at

in

of

be

to

is in

an

;

,

this interchange

of

.

as

;

of

a

poetics

a

of to

of

,

,

the practical and the instrumental logic and rhetoric and belong the last these poetics cannot thus possibly con part practical sidered such science moral philosophy Bulgarini's manuscript this last work came the attention Lelio presumably Marretti who wrote answer the form Avvertimenti around 1579-80 the manuscript found with most the others speculative

.

of

: “

a

an in

,

It

“

to

,

it

.

,

it

as .

of to of a

it of

of an

an

is

it of

It

33

to

."

;

the moral

da

instrument

, si Ò

:

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,

, si , ò o di

,

,

in

)

in

;

,

, ha ò

, e

: la “

la

(p

, e

,

; e

, si

(

27–28 igliando

di

riporsi infra l'arti l'vna l'altra loro sia forse largo modo che razionali Scienza sermocinali Logica conforme chiamano che come ciò alla Retorica non alcuna deter minata materia intorno alla quale s'esserciti quasi che questo medesimo interuiene alla particolarmente prende Poetica intorno alle azzioni vmane ch'ella imitare con ),

Repliche 1585 vogliam dire scienze

.pp

me that one might say that poetry was

32

to to

be

is

a

of

in

the Biblioteca Comunale Siena Marretti's notes are misunderstanding Bulgarini's ideas He confused and show some politics begins with the thesis that poetry subordinate insofar the politician must judge poem the possible moral effects Still would proper does moral philosophy since call instrument not principles only not teach the that science teaches how live well special sense ignorant men instrument only seems

di

'

,

,

,

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,

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lei ,

di

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la

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."

à

[ 20 ]

,

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il

il è

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,

huomini costumi che ella porta tuttauia seco qual fin più propinquo del moral Filosofo gl'huomini rozzi ben viuere ma sol

la

,

per mezzo della dilettazione zandoli alla felicità pratica Avvertimenti fol 438 33

si

,

,

vn

'

in

,

in

.

à

,

à

,

à

queste quelle vmane azzioni dire trattar solamente habbia l'elezzion libera intorno tutte quante con vna con vn'altra sorte questo che Logica Poemi Aggiungasi come stata principalmente trouata per seruire alla Filosofia vniuersale come suo proprio stromento così Poesia per auentura per esse laonde verrà ad esser seruir alle Morali venendo ad essercitarsi intorno alle materie per giouare formar meglio anco certo modo loro stromento seruendosi quelle ciosiacosa che non essendo ristretta

indiriz

POETICS

AMONG

THE

SCIENCES

philosopher , since he uses it to give proper moral character to men , rather than an instrument of moral philosophy , since the latter teaches us man's end in life and how to achieve it, for which teaching neither poetics nor poetry is useful to us . I suspect that there is considerable equivocation about this word ' instrument . ""34 This stand rather leads Marretti to take sides with Capponi : “ The opinion of Capponi seems to me quite probable , that poetry is rather a part than an instrument of moral science , since it to be

of

placed anywhere without doubt could not moral philosophy both because deals with it

,

of

,

it

philosophy

it :

of

,

part

of

a

called

else than under the branch

be If

its

As

own way happiness poetry among the poetry could

for Bulgarini's classification rational disciplines Marretti will have none .” 35

the ordinary man

“

does exactly what that science does , bringing in

the very same matter and because

36

an

a

as

as -

of

or -

."

it

,

,

concerns the very same end During the years 1573–80 then the Bulgarini Capponi Marretti con troversy revolved about the designation poetry part instru

of

.

,

Francesco Patrizi was concerning himself with the same question

to In ,

same

a

the

,

.

of

to

About

instrumental

the

They hesitated between the practical period formal philosopher

.

science the art

and

of

to

poetry belonged

of

of

of

.

of

ment moral philosophy Some the difficulty decision arose from the inability the theorists decide which the Aristotelian branches

),

"

,

and sections to

The assignment

,

,

“

of

by .

,

,

,

Economics Poetics Rhetoric

the Problemata

: “

of

,

,

,

is

and

of

,

Ethics Politics 29

:

."

28 ,

(

(“

,

,

,

27 ,

these treatises 18 ,

of

he

” ),

a

I

of of

VIII Volume his Discussiones peripateticae 1571 devoted division Aristotle's works Aristotelicorum librorum extantium per Logi genera distributio first distinguishes eight groups works cum De Ente De Sapientia Mathematicum Naturale Medicum Morale Artificiale Each then subdivided and under the group Morale come Book

the Poetics

the

of

In

.

IX

is

to

in

be

the last book

. 37

Patrizi insists that the Poetics was really meant

to

(“

in

.

of

,

is ,

is

of

of by

at

for several previous theorists poetry ,

,

For Jacopo Zabarella

is

the Politics

as

of

” ,

)

butio

of

justified the Politics Book VIII reference moral sciences and the argument that along with music poetics useful for the instruc support tion the young The authority Plato cited Book singulis generibus distri the same volume Aristotelicorum librorum group

one

,

la

,

à

, al

et

,

il

.

la

ne

,

la

sia

del

fol .

."

,

ne

ci

il gli

,

si

à

: “

,

.

.,

34

potrebbe dire che Ibid fol 438v Più tosto par me Poetica fusse istromento del filosofo morale seruendosi d'essa per render costumati huomini che istrumento della filosofia morale insegnandoci questa fine dell'huomo modo d'acquistarlo che non poetica poesia Dubbito che non s'equiuochi assai intorno questa serue parola istromento

la di si

e

82 .

66-66v

,

.pp

."

(

1571

ed .) ,

'l

la

il

tomi primi

la

fa

la

,

,

."

se

la

: “

se

Discussionum peripateticarum

( 21 )

37

, e

,

.

.,

36

il

,

il

: “

.,

,

35

Capponi che poesia piu Ibid 438v Parmi assai probabile l'oppinion tosto parte che istromento del morale facendo medesimo appunto che scientia inducendo con suo modo felicità nell'huomo ordinario poetica potesse chiamar parte Ibid fols 439-439v Se filosofia senza dubbio perche raggira intorno alla non potrebbe porsi non sotto membro della morale perche riguarda medesima materia medesimo fine

POETIC

THEORY

&

,

; 13 , “

II,

in

to

of

his

and the same time related to the rational sciences and to moral philosophy . It should be noted that the work in which he discusses the problem is a work on logic, De natura logicae libri duo 1578 the specific chapters chapter devoted the discussion are Book De Rhetorica

,

."

&

,

.

by

is

of

do

an

is

at

,

,

to

&

15 , “

,

&

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;

,

14 , “

” ;

Poetica quòd philosophiae contemplatiuae instrumenta non sint chapter neque Quòd Rhetorica Poetica neque artium moralis phi losophiae instrumenta sint chapter and Quòd Rhetorica Poetica quomodo solius ciuilis disciplinae instrumenta sint The relationship logic the association with rhetoric are thus initial assumptions The point specifically what branch philosophy poetry issue served is

he

action rather than

Next

,

action

con

to

,

related

38

to

)

or

their usefulness

. "

...

they deal with things

in is

;

with action templation

: “

(

.

as

instrument Zabarella argues first that poetry and rhetoric not contemplative philosophy since the latter speculative serve con cerned only with knowledge whereas the two sister faculties are concerned argues that they

, of ' to

its

as

“

to

.

:

in

.

is to

by

,

to

,

to

moral philosophy which has function improve teach each man how himself but rather the civil discipline improve others Both are thus the tools which each man attempts the politician The distinction made clear the following passage are not instrumental

,

;

to

,

,

in

as

of

it

of

part particular rather logic insofar uses taken the broad sense

a

is

is a

.

,

of

,

of of

In

later chapters Zabarella contends that they are part than universal logic and that poetics Example example logic the one the means

or of

to

,

,

;

uses rhetoric through his own means but

. 39

by

he ,

however that other persons ,

.

with this distinction poetics means

of ,

to

;

to

is

he

The moral man who does right the citizen however causes others do right for the moral man wants make himself good whereas the citizen wants make others good ... Rhetoric and poetics are thus instrumental faculties which the citizen employs for action namely make his fellow citizens good

of

,

on

as in

of

of

as

in

be

, ,

of

.

,

,

to

the audience for imitation actions characters and passions presented rejection view Lionardo the point Some expansion and clarification poetry classifying already appeared with those one Salviati who has history may Aristotle's Poetics written seen his Commentary

he

,

a

a

on

.”

As

,

is

to

.

,

its

,

of

“

.

,

of to

of

Salviati considers the opinions such other commentators He decides that with respect and Castelvetro relative moral character the operation which the end the poem place for history within moral philosophy the poet will have poetry rejects Castelvetro's theory that presupposes treatise treatise 1585–86

Maggi Piccolomini

ad

,

53 : “

. .p

,

[ 22 ]

."

Poetica uerò per alios

;

,

ad ,

,

. ad . . .

,

,

,

vt

,

,

,

55 : “

., .p

39

."

.

),

(

38

con ad actionem potius quàm De natura logicae 1578 pp 53–57 esp templationem vtilitas ipsarum pertinet alii bene agant moralis moralis ipse est qui bene agit ciuilis verò facit Ibid atque Sunt igitur Rhetorica enim uult seipsum bonum reddere ciuilis autem alios agendum vtitur idest quibus homo ciuilis ciues Poetica facultates instrumentales bonos efficiendos cum hoc tamen discrimine quòd arte Rhetorica per semetipsum vtitur

POETICS

AMONG

THE

SCIENCES

on history . Even though the poet must know something about truth , “ to the knowledge of truth , in what pertains to things that have happened , not a treatise on the writing of history but history itself is required . And without reading histories the truth about things which happen may rather

...

be derived from experience . ” 40 Salviati's approach is not basically syste matic , and these statements show rather a preoccupation with current

.

All

As

41

. "

,

all

branches

of no

its

problems than an orderly attempt at solving them . A much more orderly treatment is seen in Bernardino Baldino's Discorso breve intorno all'utilità delle scienze et arti ( 1586 ) ; but the order here is derived less from philosophical principle than from moral conviction . That conviction is briefly put at the outset : “ ... poetry by essence can and must blame misdeeds less than certain other disciplines and arts

.”

So

,

;

"

"

,

its

If of

:

“

, “

in

“

to

.

sciences

in

,

a

of

philosophy are transformed into types moral are divided into speculative and practical The speculative exist theology order heal the soul which presumably provides medicine against our sins belongs for the this group practical the moral disciplines heal the mind vices and medicine result philosophy

is

of

Its ,

. 42

:

,

to

.

,

,

is

"

.”

to

in

gized

of

everything thus the health human bodies analo specifically curative medical terms the medical science involved rather than preventive Poetry along with rhetoric falls within the class curative functions are the soul liberal arts those which pertain stated thus contributes

to

in

is

,

.

it

,

,

it

... also like the other noble arts came into being enrich our spirit with salutary and honorable precepts But different from the other disciplines this that the others come unveiled and bear openly their bitterness and their

with which they freely touch and beat the hearts the harmful and the whereas poetry with masks and with sharp words but covered with

of

,

whip

,

;

vicious

as

of

,

to

its

.

to

,

by

to

to

as

,

,

proposes

do

the other doctrines attack the guilty and scold faults and bring corrupted spots and rottenness just errors and health sick minds the clever doctor sweetens bitter medicines ... And this they do attract young people study teachings and remedies against mis works which are full honey

del

11 ,

40

deeds and crimes.43 , a '

è

il

,

il

vero dell'accadenti

il

storie

la

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,

al

: “

,

senza legger

le

...

cose dall'esperienzia

eziandio misfatti

;

deue biasimare

i

&

sua ragione può

arti

B4v

.

de ., ., .p pp . B3 : B4 “ -

43

42 Ibid

.” di

poesia

,

non meno ch'alcune altre discipline

&

A2v

: “ la

1586

), .p

Discorso

(

41

."

puo ritrarsi

E

richiesta

.

è

in

,

la

.

II, II,

risguardando poema quale MS BNF fols 13–13v fine intorno costumi l'esercizio del poeta tra moral filosofia harà luogo ... alla cognizion del uero cio che all'auuenute cose appartiene non trattato dello scriuer storia ma essa storia

,

,

;

la

& e

ciò

In

.

& , de & i

,

, e

in

anch'essa come l'altre nobili arti venuta luce per arricchire l'animo precetti salutari questa nostro horreuoli differente dall'altre discipline che portano palese l'amarezza l'altre vengono scoperte sferza conche liberamente toc Ibid

,

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i

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.

,

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la

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i

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remedij contra (

documenti

, e

le

,

&

le

;

, e

di

i

,

piene

de

studiare l'opere

sue

& ma

&

,

le

,

,

flagellano poesia con maschere cano cuori nocenti vitiosi doue con parole pungenti coperte riprendere mele dissegna come altre dottrine mordere diffettosi magagne come diffalte errori sanare gl’animi amalati corrotti dalle macchie gioueni medico auueduto ch'adolcisce medecine amare fanno allettare

of

, is

the Dante quarrel

poetry

to

the documents

in

of

The last

the latter

.

of

representa

in

certain kind the century

a

tive decades

with extreme moralizing tendency thinking found with some frequency

,

of

of

Baldino's little treatise

THEORY

its

POETIC

concern itself specifically

Jacopo

by

.

in

is

II

,

of

by

.

is

at

I

in

,

a

di

with the classification Mazzoni's Della difesa della Comedia Dante voluminous work two parts completed about 1585 Part was published 1587 Part not until 1688. The argument which very complex He begins with the state Mazzoni arrives his conclusion ment that the arts and sciences are distinguished from one another the

things makable

:

as .” : 44

one might say

by

,

so ,

,

things and

of

.

to

it

interprets as

...

the objects

he in

,

”

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objects

of

which they treat As for the meaning according the opinion the Peripatetics eir sciences and arts derive their true and real distinction from objects not insofar they are knowable these are things but insofar differences

In

-

to

),

(

),

).

of

;

these

Poetics falls among the arts poetry form images kinds and forms

imitation

all

by

of

which deal with the last

is

to —

of the “

to

all

X ,

."

,

to

(

as

(

and Images which are made or

of

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to

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of

of

,

,

the considerations

of

,

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, of ”

,

if

art the Aristote persua rhetoric are directed the philosophy poetics phrase sible the imitable moral untranslatable the beatificabile humano For clarification the idea Republic way imitation turns Plato Book the three distinc objects tion Ideas which are contemplated Works which are made lian system

,

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,

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At

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secs 9–10 tiates the species

,

The genus being thus established Mazzoni differen determination the means which are harmony rhythm and meter and the subject matter which the credible rather possible than the false the this point finally comes the classifica Idols

45

be

:

is

. ”

by

;

is

“

deals with the credible

,

it

since

an

:

poetry placed under must properly faculty sophistic that rational which was called the ancients But this incomplete classification the complete one given shortly afterward tion

it

.

In In

as

is

.

,

in

,

is a

of

is a

,

,

sua vera

,

l'arti prendano

ma inquanto

la

, e :

,

,

), “

",

. 7 : “ le

1587 Proemio Sec scienze oggetti non inquanto che sono cose potesse dire artificiabili

che sono

....

fù

da

,

& ,

.”

se

, e

e

45

,

it in

as

or

,

53 , : si " da Pt . si I gli(

Della Difesa

reale distintione Scibili cosi

produc

Mazzoni can now summarize thus his reasons for placing

54 : "

,

pleasure

.

44

tive

faculty.46

.

of

Since

....

had previously stated that the means were exclusively

,

he

under the rational

an

it is

In it

is

an

I

,

it

be

,

of

be

art

may ... the poetic considered two ways that either considers the rightness the poetic Image makes and forms the latter the first way say that should called poetics and the second poetry the first part art which controls and uses the Image and the civil faculty species the second way art which forms and makes the Image and

,

."

( 24 )

,

.

arte formante

, e

modo

è

.

è

, , e lo , o

lo in

,

, e

... Nel secondo

parte della facoltà Ciuile specie della facoltà rationale .

vsante l'Idolo cante l'Idolo

, si o

.,

, , si & & è è

,

la

46

.”

gli

.,

Ibid Sec deue drittamente collocare sotto quella facoltà rationale che antichi Sophistica nominata può prendere Ibid Sec l'arte poetica due modi cioè secondo ch'ella con sidera drittura dell'Idolo poetico secondo che fabbrica forma Nel primo modo dico ch'ella deue nomare Poetica nel secondo Poesia Nel primo arte imperante

fabbri

THE

AMONG

POETICS

SCIENCES

,

by ,

its

is

is is

,

of

be or

,

it

all .

be

,

.

of ,

of

or

of

of

“

by

,

a

is a

:

of

serious

,

as a

kind privation

of

game the art poetry cessation activity the most noble may them Thus said that the civil faculty should divided into two highly important activity and was called parts one which considers the proper form politics the civil faculty The other considers the the general name

of of

higher justification

it

by

, 47

. ”

to

,

of

by

,

;

its

is

,

of

its

poetry under the rational faculty : “ Poetry is a sophistic art because of subject proper genus and the credible which imitation , which is being under that genus pleasure and which end since concerning itself with that subject and frequently seeking that end explained constrained admit the false The role the civil faculty

its

,

.

,

he

:

to it

assign

a

to

he

,

;

so

wishes

pedagogic

end

of

In

.

because

all

,

of

'

as

,

is

is

he

does not do an ethical purpose

of

of

or

."

,

be

of

politics or

48

of

proper form activity the cessation the proper form the activity Therefore the Poetics should properly and was called poetics considered the ninth book the Politics This argument for diffuseness remarkable for two points first Mazzoni insists that the end poetry pleasure exclusively places poetry under second even when games

to in

,

. ; ”

,

“

”

“

is

,

to

so

,

as

of

.

of

a

in

by

the types the ideal republic

in of

of

is

explained

Plato

,

a

of

practical useful Aristotle mankind which poetry

is

, il

che

è

per l'imitatione

il ,

in

of

be :

arte Sophistica

, e

Secs 66-67

Poesia

il è

Ibid

: " la

Sec

.

be

is a

if

;

of

of

of

in

lo 60

in

a

. 49

in it ,

is

which they spoke poetry would special kind conformity with the habits terms

Ibid

, e .,

47

of Aristotle

between the two philosophers

divergence

which only government

it

be

be

admitted poets on the side

The

has

moral philosophy and therefore good character will neces poetics way that bad character will not with and such since would destroy moral goodness But the practice the

conjoined

governments

philosophy

regulated and

;

qualified

it

by ,

speak

poetry part Plato for follows that poetic pleasure must

the side

been shown above

sarily

,

,

:

is

Reason

"

good

on

the

"

in

,

as

of

of

”

“

to

is

of

II,

poems Part the first book which devoted character poetry politics Mazzoni reopens the discussion the relationship He emphasizes the difference between the positions Aristotle and Plato poems admits both good and bad Aristotle who considers poems poetry whereas Plato whose approach characters ethical admits only

suo genere

è

.”

,

, e

,

lo

a

, e

è

“ la

48

a

al

,

,

proprio per per credibile che suo soggetto diletto che suo fine poiche per quel soggetto per rimirare quel fine viene esser sotto quel genere per esser intorno 99 astretta molte volte dar luogo falso

se la

è è

il

;

.

,

,

25 ]

[

ad

la

o

la

è

di

,

col

,

in

fù

, e

la

), .p 2 : si " .” è a

.”

de

, e

,

(

II

Pt . fù

.

, e ,

'

de

49

si

la :

.

.,

facoltà ciuile deua diuidere due principalissime parti l'vna considera rettitudine dell'operationi nomata nome generale Politica L'altra considera rettitudine della cessatione rettitudine delle operationi giochi nomata Poetica ragione percioche Difesa 1688 Platone fauoreuole Poetica parte della Philosophia come sopra dimostrato segue che diletto Poetico debba per cosi dire qualificato dalla morale Philosophia esser regolato Ma Aristotele fauoreuole I'vso Poeti

delle quali cioè ciuile

...

POETIC THEORY admissible as a form of entertainment . When the two theories are so seen , the contradiction between them disappears ( pp . 3–4 ). Similarly , the diffi culty over the classification of the art is solved if one realizes , again , that there are two ways of looking at it :

to

...

it

so of

by

in ; a

to

or

.

50

,

in

by

,

in

who read them One may the other way consider regulated and ordered operation ... the civil faculty .

them

poetry insofar

it is

to

who listen

as

it

no

in

,

in

its

Poetry may be considered in two ways , that is , in itself insofar as it is an art having the pleasure of man as pleasure aim such wise that means restores the energies grown weary serious occupations and when considered way delight those has other function but imitate human actions

in

he

a

of

;

.

,

of

of

,

to ,

Mazzoni for the most part considers poetry the first way and addresses problems himself structure and artistry but never completely loses sight preoccupation the second and there are constantly evidences with moral problems and values to

,

is

.

an

as

)

, la

,

et

,

,

'

à

.

In

il

,

da '

et

, : & la ,

its

,

of

by

que principii cause accrescimenti che poema heroico ricevono dalla philosophia morale governatori delle republiche accordance with this

tragedia

civile

many auxiliary questions and art The first highly 1586 whose title itself

classification

(

,

of

.

of

is a

Giason Denores

Discorso intorno

comedia

&

treatise

to

,

of

Fido The central issue legitimate forms the literary art led poetry and one these was the end document significant

of

this group belong another the great that waged over Battista Guarini's Pastor whether the pastoral and the tragicomedy were in

The remaining documents literary polemics the century

by

of

it

of of

,

51

."

its

to of ,

generate good principles

to

every

is

owes delight

,

their republics and

:

he

;

it

of

.

us

...

its

utility intermediate the more important end should never pursued for own sake Denores concludes where had begun let

be

the state

direct them towards happiness ... since moral and civil philosophy and subordinate The end most regulated productions

conduct poetry

also rhetoric one

to

serve the purposes

, “

wise men

to of

to is as it in is to

.

;

of

to ,

of

phil announced intention Denores throughout seeks the contribution osophers and rulers the invention and development the various kinds poems Poetry sprang from natural causes but was soon directed

is

in

,

it

to

it

of we

.

to of

any other part philosophy except conclude that does not belong everything that such compositions relation have dealt with remains within the province the moral and civil philosopher whose duty

...

politics

Si

. . . .

le

,

di le

se

in

retta

,

è

,

le

in

& e

ha di ,

in

,

& in

quanto ch'ella

ordinata dalla facolta

&

. "

,

la

,

è

( 26 )

;

ciuile

), da .p 2 : la “

.

,

&

morale

Poetica

per generar buoni costumi nelle loro republiche per inuiarle poetica come ancho rhetorica soggetta alla philosophia essa riceuendo ogni sua piu regolata produttione

1586 essendo

&

Discorso

alla felicità

( . "

51

può nell'altro modo considerare ciuile operante

la

le

in

,

è

il

si

, ., .p 6 : “ la

50

può Ibid Poetica due modi considerare cioè stessa inquanto ch'ella quello ella ristori vn'arte che rimira diletto humano accioche per mezo forze affati questo modo ella non assomigliare cate nelle graui occupationi altro officio che leggono attioni humane modo ch'elle dilettino quelli che ascoltano che

SCIENCES public

is

,

that

of

to

utility and benefit Two years later .

doctrines

THE

their true and proper end

to

arts and

AMONG

52

to direct

all

all

POETICS

in

a

to

.

.

;

to

of

of

.

,

is

of

of

,

, &

in

si

,

,

the same discussion Denores returned l'opinion qual genres d'Arist della tratta secondo his Poetica nella tragedia del poema heroico della comedia The second work adds little the theories the first except for certain emphases not formerly present poetry politics poetry One these the claim the superiority 1588

is

It

to it .

of

,

is

It

).

of

,

,

,

of

as

by

(

of

to

is

, in

to

equal

as is

in

part superior equal moral and civil philosophy both attend with every care the two most noble actions already men superior tioned the purgation the passions the inculcation virtue insofar the other proceeds means laws penalties and punishments while this produces the same result with the greatest enjoyment and recreation the part

insofar

spirit.53

,

in ,

,

as

in

.”

a

he

as as is a a to in

be

of

of

of

far be

is a

, or

.

,

is

it

;

in

.

,

he

.

fully instructed insists that the poet must not only politics ethics and but must himself the kind man undertakes praise cry from the early notions works This the poet rhetorician even farther from the more recent conception him sophist Poetry has become one with moral philosophy and the poet stances

his

,

a

of

To each these genres Denores specific circum specific audience

states ordered the common weal assigns special ethical function for

54

to

of

as

to

from the rulers and legislators

,

principles from Moral and Civil Philosophy

Finally

of

. “

as

in

all

art

a

,

he

a

in

of

-

is

the insistence

tragedy

-

in

that Aristotle the Poetics treated only three comedy and epic because these were the three com monly recited public gatherings and hence the only ones capable exerting moral influence the state With the greatest perspicacity philosopher parts accept moral and civil refused the poetic compositions such verse did not receive their rules and their Another such

genres

the

.

identified both with Cicero's ideal orator and with the Philosopher Good Man be

to

.

ha ,

in

,

pastorali

un

, di

,

le

he

Il

le

tragicomedie ad

.pp

52

scritto M. Giason Denores contra

et

of

to in

in

an

,

of

In

of

any controversial neither these works would there seem especially century materials for the last decades the But Battista Guarini saw the first them attack upon his manuscript Pastor Fido reply and quanto this attack wrote Verrato ovvero difesa suo

,

è

le

,

&

,

&

. "

al

,

,

è

&

, a

le

,

di

,

,

,

2v : " è

+

&

(

), , .p

al

53

&

,

..

.

.,

: “

43-43v concluderemo che non aspetti altra parte della philosophia che tutto quel che habbiamo trattato tai componimenti non fuor della profession del philosopho morale ciuile cui aspetta dirizzar tutte arti tutte proprio fine cioe alla utilità dottrine loro uero beneficio publico parte vguale parte superiore alla philosophia Morale Poetica 1588 Ibid alla politica

,

si

,

'da

67 . ,

Ciuile

See also

.p

,

...

"

27 )

Morale

beneficio commune

.

a

(

loro principii dalla Philosophia

delle Republiche

&

,

,

in

,

i

,

&

i

legislatori

. "

& , &

,

"

le

loro regole

da '

&

,

riconosceuano gouernatori

,

,

, in

,

il

tt :

., .p

di

54

&

.

E

.

E

vguale inquanto che ambedue con ogni studio attendono alle predette due nobilis superiore quanto che quella procede con leggi con pene con castigamenti sime attioni questa opera medesimo con sommo godimento ricreation d'animo egli come Philosopho Ibid Morale Ciuile con sommo auedimento non componimenti curò ridur tutti fatti verso come parti dell'arte Poetica che non

Ciuile

POETIC

THEORY

discorso di poesia ( 1588 ) . Guarini's stand on the classification of poetry is directly opposed to Denores ' :

of

is a

of

,

its

How can you hold that poetics , which is an art and therefore a habit of the speculative intellect , can take principles from ethics which habit the

teach them but solely

not

;

is

to it

does

to .

so

of

,

it

I

insist that

imitate them

it or .

...

,

from ethics

it

in

I

to

?

it

active intellect You will tell me that from ethics derives notions character say you that gets them rather from rhetoric which and much different from ethics the definition the virtues But even granted that does get them

,

it

;

is

.

or

a

to

it

as

add further that serves politics insofar the legislator does given poem depending upon whether does not permit the people have demonstrates good bad mores That true but does not follow from that

You will

re

of

do

to

it

,

is it

in

.

.

point

of

by -

point denial

of

,

Guarini passes

argument

a

of

position

general

to

From this

its or

as

,

a

is

;

, it

its

principles from politics ... depending upon the form that takes the public poetry has more placed under less freedom ... And this only the politician but for intrinsic and formal principles has nothing sophistic and rhetoric.ss with politics but member

,

all of or

,

he

an

.

as

he

,

in

.

of

:

a

,

’

Denores Aristotle's intention the Poetics the status the minor poetic genres the nature the poet But does not completely relationship between poetry and politics rule out ethics the above quotation shows Instead distinguishes for each the dramatic genres

,

of

:

,

of

(

is

(

an

)

of an ,

;

,

is a

of

two separate ends instrumental end which for dramatic genres the imitation action and architectonic end which for each genre purgation for comedy the purgation special kind sadness through pity and fear which are moderated laughter for tragedy the purgation as

).

of

,

be

;

:

the Poetics

of

on

any

of its

he

the repetitions

was not concerned with speaking

its

,

moral and civil philosopher as

a

as

be

by

.

more than reaffirm his earlier convictions The nature Aristotle's intention this passage will indicated

in of

of of

.

an

in

to ,

.

of

is

of

in

.

of

a

in

to

way melancholy induce virtue for tragicomedy the purgation theory developed This Guarini's will and reinforced the polemic with Denores continues Apologia contra l'auttor del Verato Much 1590 Denores replied problems essay specific the devoted the tragicomedy and the poetry pastoral On the matter Denores does little the classification

]

[

,

40 : “

.pp

55

,

of

of

poetry principles from moral and such form did not receive rules and republics designed for the civil philosophy and from the rulers and legislators receiving only good them from these sources which those forms but common

,

il

,

gli

,

è

.

&

,

è

, la

la

io vi

.

&

.

i

,

mi

'

i

,

),

(

II

quale però Verrato 1588 39v Come volete che Poetica arte suoi principi dalla morale ch'è habito dell'attiuo habito dello ntelletto speculatiuo prenda quale Voi direte che dal morale prende costumi dico che anzi dal ritorico prenda dal molto diferente dal morale nelle difinizioni delle virtù ma posto che pur

è di ,

&

ha

,

."

, e

ai

le

,

al

è

lui ,

28 ]

[

.

See also pp 20–27 .

nò ,

al

,

la

,

è

il

la ,

fà

è

.

.

ha

di al

in

,

. vi

, e i

...

&

,

...

&

ma solo per imitargli ... soggiugnerete ancora popolo secondo ch'ella concede buoni cattiui costumi Egli vero ma non per tanto non seguita che dal Politico più quale secondo prenda principi forme delle Republiche della poetica politico ma quanto sottoposta suoi principi intrin E’n questo solo meno licenza della ritorica membro della sofistica ma che fare con esso sechi formali non per insegnargli morale dico che ciò non legislatore quanto politico che serue

POETICS

THE

AMONG

SCIENCES

could generate good principles of conduct or not so receiving them could generate bad principles of conduct in the minds of the citizens in general.56

The general contention is , again , that tragedy , comedy , and the epic have moral influence on the masses assembled to hear as their function to exert them , and that any kind of poem which does not fulfil this function is not

Il

to

,

it

(

or

)

to

(

He entitled

it

).

the title page

,

in

his

worthy of consideration as poetry . Although Guarini finished answer the following year 1591 was according not published until 1592 according the colophon 1593 Verato secondo ovvero replica dell'Attizzato it,

of

.

to

of

:

of

of

,

;

to at

is

of

of

.

in

In

ferrarese difesa del Pastor Fido Guarini first recon question poetry politics sidered the whole the subordination the first the achievement the outset Certain new principles appear politics necessary poetry the end the achievement not end accademico

,

,

,

moral betterment

?

means

.

of

as a

to

,

But what about purgation

of or

of to

,

in

;

?

,

is

moral and civil philosophy it

of

If

none other than public what need does have order make man happy fables Man acquires his happiness through the exercise the virtues which are rational and true operations fictional works for the most part since they are false and lying will rather harm than aid the achievement this end then the end happiness

individual

its

be

to

it

,

;

of

its

.

of

of

...

.

of

to

of

of

, it is

to

in

be ,

I

it

to

morality answer that order subordinate poetry not sufficient that should useful for the purgation the passions but would have necessary end virtue for the superior art cannot obtain the acquisition without the operation the inferior art man can purge the passions tragedy And moral terror and pity through other and better means than that and civil philosophy has own laws and private and public expedients for the this end.57

achievement

an

,

of

.

is

is

to

no

to

of

,

In

poetry auxiliary merely sum whatever moral profit may attach accompaniment pleasurable objects What the contemplation more an

, is

he

;

if

,

to

a

is

or

he :

“

is

to

.

of

is

to

poetry

in

foundation anywhere Aristotle for the subordination politics The end the poet not utilitarian one but aes thetic one His end then not imitate the good but imitate well whether imitate good bad moral character and imitates what there

di

si

,

, &

ha

è

. , " ò

, e

il

in

de '

,

ad

i

&

&

Se

63 : ne “

(

, ), ò .p

,

,

,

le

,

2v : "

,

da '

,

Il

57

,

&

,

&

di

(

), .p

1590 poesia

di

,

di

56

egli come philosopho morale ciuile non curo fauellar che non riceuea sue regole suoi principii dalla philosophia gouernatori legislatori delle Republiche morale ciuile utilità commune ma quelle che riceuendogli poteuano generar buoni costumi solamente non riceuendogli gli poteuano generar cattiui costumi Cittadini uniuersale animi dunque Verato secondo 1593 fine della morale ciuile Filosofia non Apologia

ogni forma

? ,

,

sia

,

, e

,

,

sia

,

...

,

lo

,

.

,

, di

,

,

la

o

, ' al

e il

,

la

publica priuata che bisogno altro che felicità ella per far felice l'huomo fauole qual huomo acquista sua felicità con l'esercizio della vertù che son opere ragioneuoli qual suo fine possono per più l'opere fauolose come false vere mentite anzi Rispondo che per esser subalternata alla morale non basta che nuocere che giouare

,

le

di

ha

, e

del

.

il

,

, e

."

29 ]

[

gli

'

la

E

, e

.

,

, e le

ha

ed

,

,

,

,

se ,

gioueuole alla purgazion degli affetti ma bisogna che necessaria all'acquisto della vertù perciochè l'arte superiore non può non con l'opera della nferiore ottenere suo fine può ben l'huomo per altra molto miglior maniera purgar affetti terrore della compassione che per quella della Tragedia Filosofia morale ciuile ciò sue leggi per questo fine pubbliche cure sue priuate

...

POETIC THEORY

be

to

:

of

do

,

or

or

,

;

or

get the rules from legislators ,

from whom does

from

? 59

,

which

he

,

of

,

or

,

,

or

,

or

?

of

to

to

or

,

or

as

an ,

or

,

sententious happy ending with respect poets

what does the poet have with the laws the city To whom accounting whether his plots are pathetic ethical complex simple single ridiculous double with poetry with turbulent ending which are the essential parts

to , or

he

Furthermore give

must

in

a

lie

all

good poorly , he will not be a good poet, but he may be called a good poet if he imitates well what is bad . " 58 Indeed , the important questions poem exclusively poetics itself asked about the realm

of

Like

,

the rhetorician

archi

in

or

;

the art

:

to

,

is a

,

a

or

of

;

a

it in or is

.

vigorous kind But primary one still remains the artistic end proper

... the poet that subject

.

uses

he would achieve his

persuasion form different audiences different less violent tragic effects purgation more less secondary one the any event this rhetorical end

tectonic end since times require more ,

he

moral character which his audience

if

the notions

he must consider the nature

of

,

ethics

of

.

,

of

on

to

of

,

Guarini also now develops two points made earlier that touching the poetry relation rhetoric and that the existence the instrumental and architectonic ends The poet derives from rhetoric rather than from

—

he

,

all

,

a

do

,

a

he

it

a

if

in

-

,

,

;

so

be

is

not concerned with purging more less but with imitating well may even though little useful for purgation which under subject with happy ending takes that will his job well with good imitation with the required unity with artful recognition with judicious to

is

(

of

,

of

its

it

or

or

of

a

or

an

as

66 il :“

58

.

to

by

own special ends is a

its

to

the ethical sciences and achieving following principles which are specifically own There definite philosophical relationship between the large group part texts which classified poetry instrument moral philosophy group placed among and that earlier which the rational discursive

neither

the rational disciplines nor

any his contemporaries come independent art subordinated

an

poetry

as

,

he

or

comes

as

a

Guarini theory

of

close

developing

to

as

as

This

is

)

of

,

,

sententiae with appropriate character and what more proper him than the rest with splendor diction will without doubt avoid being charged with that mediocrity which Horace blames.60

? le ” , o

?

, o

o

, da

A

ha

“

il

,

, o

di

le

fin , o

le fin

, , o o il

ha ). da

an

be

,

, se 90 : le “

in

, e

,

se di

,

,

la

,

,

,

fuggirà

senza fallo

, la

,

( 30 )

,

lo

.”

,

'l

di

più suo proprio splendor della locuzione tutto resto con quella mediocrità che biasima Orazio di

da '

,

,

, e

di

si

,

la

la

,

la

di

, o

,

ha

da '

, o

,

da

, o

: “ il

...

,

.p

,

poesia

60

., , o

semplici doppie parti essenziali con lieto con turbulento che sono regole legislatori pur poeti delle quali chi prende poeta non riguardo purgar più Ibid 118 meno ma bene imitar quel soggetto quantunque poco purgante che propone per modo che soggetto parte sua con lieto fine farà bene buona imitazione con debita vnità con l'arti prudente sentenza col conueneuol costume quello ch'è fizioso riconoscimento con

di o

piane

,

,

” (

,

e'l

è

:

., .p

, il ., " p .

)

59

(

il

Non dunque suo fine d'imitare buono ma bene imitare buono costume buono male imitando non sarà buon poeta ma imitando bene cattivo buon poeta potrà chiamarsi the original text reads imitando male cattivo but this must error poeta con leggi della città egli Ibid Del resto che fare cui render conto sue fauole son patetiche morate sentenziose ridicole rannodate

Ibid cattivo che sia

nota

SCIENCES

THE

AMONG

POETICS

;

of

,

.

or

an

or

, .

its

If

—

or

of

,

of ,

—

its

as

instrumental sciences . If the earlier group insisted upon the character of means poetry as useful for serving some final purpose through argu powers signification variously considered words which have group persuasion powers the later conviction ments which have poetry was discursive usefulness provided insisted upon the kinds political civil discourse concerned itself with moral activity ethical as

.

of

of

a

to to ,

to

or

,

of

—

of

, it

If

instrument for the achievement poetry was instrumental served good and bad conduct for examples supplying moral ends for inactivity activity persuading administering praise and blame for specification the group kind constitute thus comes The second

in

,

.

in

of

.

is

of

;

a

,

pushing

of

assumptions further conclusions the earlier critics are instrumentality problem the later ones with the ends concerned with the change concern accounts for the used The for which the instrument the art change classification

first

as

at

be

is

.

.

of

its

is

in

;

in

, of

le

his

as a

of

in

few works

equal position Such the case with Agnolo reference are both philosophy and history Ragionamento sopra cose pertinenti alla published revision lectures given 1573 basically Platonic his position which

an

to

in

states the essence

decide

the closest

a

or

,

all

)

in

(

,

for

in

occupy which seem Segni whom the frames The following passage from Poetica written 1576 1581

or

,

of

or

of

It

be

surprising that among these attempts should not logic history rhetoric favor moral philosophy poetry among the sciences there should least relative

to

all

ECLECTIC CLASSIFICATIONS

of

...

we

:

assumptions

, up

,

,

,

as

.

;

in

of

and the former history each the two being separate from the other but the one and the other conjoined generate poetry History residing things past and present expounds and narrates them different from their ,

philosophy

.

in

we

,

,

,

,

of

,

of

history may consider the difference manifest among these three faculties discourse For since there are and poetry and among their forms objects one the things two extreme species our world with their imperfec tions the other their perfect forms which call Ideas the latter make philosophy

of

to

,

or

,

to

,

.

is

,

at

,

to ,

,

,

;

in

as

,

present not they are were but similar their Ideas and show ing the Ideas not things which have been and things which are themselves but Whence history and philosophy which are the pure extremes are each com pletely true poetry which tries combine them since they remain uncombined

in

things past

or

.

in

,

as

.

in

,

as

or

they are Ideas just were themselves Philosophy rises the Ideas things different from the things themselves and these she contemplates they are their perfect nature Poetry joins the one part and the other recounting

,

;

it

in

.

is

,

to

:

in

in

in

part true and part false true for the Ideas which she expresses and false for the things which she puts these Ideas and because she makes things similar these Ideas whereas they are really different And therefore poetry intermediate participates between philosophy and history because these two extremes in

in

31 ]

[

, it is

in

in

its

it

of

;

as

philosophy and participates and insofar her objects better than history but because participation history and the particular sensible

POETIC

THEORY

things which are the objects of history , to this extent it is below philosophy, and the poet is of lesser dignity than the philosopher.61

Another eclectic document , and perhaps a more extreme one , is Torquato Tasso's Discorsi del poema heroico [ 1594 ). Poetry , for Tasso , serves the traditional ends of pleasure and utility ; but utility is foremost , pleasure auxiliary . Hence the role of the moral philosopher : Therefore it is the task of the political philosopher to consider what poetry is to be prohibited and what pleasure , so that the pleasure ... should not produce the effect of an infectious poison , or should not keep the mind occupied in idle reading . ... poetry is a first philosophy which from our earliest years teaches us principles of conduct and the ways of life . 62

to

the

proper

.

his own art the other

to of

is

queen

honest than useful Thus ,

,

is

the two ends which the poet envisages one the superior art.63

is

that art which

,

of

a

to

subordinated

profit and rather that which

of all

,

as he

;

is

his art

will not err far from that goal which political person and part the city

to

,

seeks some

but

,

he

least insofar

others

...

his attention as

all a

If

at

or he

poet pursues this end

as

the poet must direct

:

its

But insofar as poetry achieves political ends it is subordinate to a higher art and is considered in terms of that art ; considered in itself , it seeks only pleasure as end

,

,

. “

is

as

da

, .pp

,

of

is a

61

,

;

to

of

poetry the classifica When one comes consider the subject matter tion again changes abruptly the poet treating the probable and the veri similar kind dialectician the rhetorician Without doubt la

.

le

in se ,

.

la

se :

,

, da

,

,

le

,

&

: , “ & si

&

,

co '

tra

),

&

,

,

la le , (

Ragionamento può contemplare 1581 65-66 noi differenza tra queste poesia tre facultà manifesta historia filosofia tra loro orazioni che essendo due spezie estreme vna cose noi loro difetti l'altra loro perfezzioni che noi chiamiamo quelle l'historia Idee queste fanno filosofia ciascuna delle due parti ma l'vna parte poesia L'historia stando nelle cose nelle passate l'altra congiunte insieme generano ò

&

se ,

,

&

.

La

.

,

,

le

&

,

&

nelle presente l'espone narra dalle loro Idee diuerse così com'elle sono furono quelle contempla com'elle stesse La filosofia s'alza all'Idee delle cose diuerse dalle cose poesia congiugne l'vna parte sono nella natura loro perfette l'altra narrando cose in

&

,

,

,

le

,

di

,

filosofia

&

sotto

&

la

:

in è

&

Et

per questo

&

,

le

:

), . .p ” 7 : “

,

oggetto

la

'

la :

.

di ,

a

, è

,

il

particolari sensibili dell'historia degnità del filosofo poeta 62

la

, le

,

la

.

:

fa

le

de la

&

de

,

:

&

, et , le &

, è

, è

&

&

,

ò

&

,

è

presenti non come sono furono ma simili all'Idee mostrando l'Idee non ma nelle cose state nelle presenti Onde l'historia filosofia che stanno nelle pure poesia che congiugner estremità tutta vera l'vna l'altra vuole non essendo con giunte parte vera parte falsa vera per l'Idee quali ella esprime falsa per cose pone però doue ella cose simili loro essendo diverse mezzana tra filosofia poesia perche participa que due estremi quanto participa della l'historia migliore dell'historia ma per participazione dell'historia filosofia suoi oggetti state

minor

di

,

di

è

.

...

."

da

...

in ,

hà

, e

ne

... ...

la

il

al in

in

., .p 8 : “

63

, la , ò

, gli ci

;

, e

(

Poema heroico 1594 Però Politico s'appartiene considerare quale poesia qual diletto accioche piacere pestifero debba esser prohibita non facesse effetto poesia veleno non tenesse occupati animi vana lettione vna prima Filo qual sin dalla tenera età sofia ammaestra costumi nelle ragioni della vita quanto Poeta questo fine non errerà lontano Ibid Se'l Poeta dunque

,

è

,

."

,

,

.

à

è

32 )

de ,

;

i

è

(

è il

la

in

,

,

il il ,

si

i

, si

ò

e

,

quel segno alquale egli deue dirizzare tutti suoi pensieri quanto ma huomo ciuile parte della Città quanto quella ch'è Regina delle almeno sua Arte sottordinata propone giouamento quale altre honesto più tosto che vtile due fini dunque quali prepone proprio dell'arte sua l'altro dell'arte superiore Poeta l'vno

SCIENCES

THE

AMONG

POETICS

...

the poetry is placed in order under dialectic , along with rhetoric . probable insofar as it is verisimilar belongs to the poet, for the poet uses proofs less effectively than does the dialectician . " 64 Or the poet may be regarded as a kind of logician , if one attends now to the kinds of proofs he uses .

If there of

parts

of logic , so there are three kinds of poetry (or employs different proofs ( p . 28 ) : which of

are three kinds

poetry ), each

Logic

Poetry

Demonstrative

“dimostrando co ’

Filosofi ,

e usando

il

Filosofema ” “ seguendo il verisimile ,

Sophistic

poetic diction

" :

,

use

, a

of

of of a “

;

result

of

it its is to its

it

,

art

an

as a

of

,

grammar and rhetoric

it,

is

,

,

of ,

is a

,

in as

a

to

,

or

to

is

of

is

it

an

..

logic really part subordinated not only because produce pleasure just art grammar pro discourse which seeks poetic diction duces regulated speech and rhetoric persuasion but because frequently which not without imitation there kind tacit proof which is

poetry

a

on "

to

related

of

Poetry is then a part of moral philosophy if one looks at external part according part subject end dialectic matter logic but the basis the arguments uses also part

superior logic

of

“

its

( or apparent probable )

or

& seruendosi dell'essempio , e dell'enthimema ” "equiuoco , fallaci argomenti "

Probable

in

as

of

to

of

the methods them again

.

.

I

by

of

of

a

as

of

all

of

some the characteristics and the deficiencies thinking used speak the critics shall have occasion the following chapter

demonstrate in

is

they represent Tasso's position are interesting not only epitome they the theories the century but

kind

of of

in

one work

a

These shifts

in

in

,

;

most effective for one cannot imitate without the simile and the example but everything which appears verisimilar there proof.65 the example and kind

of

,

,

of

as

.

in

Aristotelian

from that most theorists the century strikingly absent the one we might call proper sense Of this type there were among

Tasso

classification the strict

is

type

or

one

of

From the thinking

of

ARISTOTELIAN CLASSIFICATIONS

a

,

,

in

,

.

., .p

., .p le

27 : “

64

65

of

:

of

,

, a

,

really only two examples that Lionardo very slight one and that Salviati Francesco Buonamici much more considerable one For Lionardo Salviati his Trattato della poetica the documents examined

il

:

al

la

nel

,

la ,

, è

il

,

[ 33 ]

,

,

in

&

,

:

; e

,

, la

,

, , , e è e la

persuasione ma perche parlar poetico Rhetorica vna tacita proua molte volte efficacissima perche non ogni cosa che paia senza essempio ma nell'essempio

”.

è il

è la

."

[ è ]

fà il

, è

è

regolato parlare Grammatica quale non senza imitatione può imitare senza similitudine proua verisimile

si il

in

è

la

il

la

: "

.

la

poesia senza dubio collocata ordine sotto dialettica insieme con probabile inquanto egli verisimile appertiene Poeta percioche 15 proue men efficacemente che non Poeta vsa dialettico poesia Ibid 129 vn'arte subordinata alla logica veramente vna sua parte laqual cerca non solamente perch'ella arte dell'oratione diletto non altrimente che Ibid rhetorica

THEORY

POETIC

prima ( 1564 ), the problem is less to relate poetry to other arts than

Lezzion

,

it

Salviati

of

66

the latter group

is

in

active inducing perfection

.

)

factitive

of an

in or

in

);

(i

not establishing inquiring into the kind

the intellectual are either

;

are either moral intellectual nducing perfection the operator poetry belongs some external matter habits

(

or

all

to establish the fact that it is an intellectual habit and hence susceptible of cultivation . He is replying to Plato , to the assertion that poetry is merely a furor . The skeleton plan which he suggests is essentially Aristotelian :

in

.

of

.

as

by

of

so

.”

“

of

of

in

of

of

of

he

an

).

(

it

in

it

by

to

to

set

,

a

in

, is

he is

is

merely Aristotelian system the sciences but activity involved poetry the production This not the case with Francesco Buonamici who wrote treatise which out restore Aristotle's Poetics whatever glory and authority may have been removed from such critics Castelvetro He called Discorsi poetici nella Accademia fiorentina difesa d'Aristotile 1597 He thought that could solve some the difficulties the text poetics presenting elaborate system the sciences which the place would explain some the operations the art But the system clear

(

of

speculative

sciences

),

things

of

seeks truth and contemplates the nature

the

,

is

all

:

is

.

;

I

in

,

,

is

to

examples itself confused difficult follow and lacking offer the following schematic reduction only with reservations The first knowledge step clear enough divided into two kinds one which presented

to

it

of

,

).

follows

:

as

be

(

activity represented may

is

the of

applying which seeks truth for purposes later some practical sciences among the latter which perhaps Poetics

the other

)

(

)

(

)

ποιεϊν

)

Politics

Logic

Poetics

Dialectic Rhetoric

Each

the subgroups under the practical sciences has itself

practical phase

theory

theoretical

of

of

Medicine

a

( (

πράττειν

Sciences

works

activities

)

(

specific subject matters with Instrumental

)

(

with specific subject matters Making Doing

no

Practical Sciences

is its an

of

)

the

(

,

a

of

,

is

,

it

In

.

in

;

is

,

10–12

of

).

(

in

all

.

,

speculative

.pp

or

of

of

,

in

of

in

from which the others derive the contemplative practical metaphysics sciences this the sciences

one master science politics

a

is a

:

a

a

there medicine which affords precepts practice applies theory poetry and which them Poetics and application theory writing poems theory logic and this the every divisions there the main each Moreover other science use and

of to

its

a

( 34 )

.

,

,

29 .

,

as

,

.

MS BNF Magl VII 307 fol ,

66

a

in

is

It

century which considered itself note that poetic very last years Aristotelian matters should have waited until produce showing comprehension text such Buonamici's some perhaps worthy

11

POETICS

AMONG

THE

SCIENCES

Aristotle's general system of the sciences and of the place of poetry among them . Buonamici lists poetry neither among the instrumental sciences nor

among the parts or instruments of moral philosophy . He sees it as speci fically a “ poetic " science whose function is to make poems. Along with the

of his contemporaries , however,

be

be a

to .

to

a

is

its

of

to

,

so

,

,

of

"

“

It to

he continues to regard it , in a broader larger ; politics intermediate artistic end view , as auxiliary to contributing happiness architectonic end that man's would good regard poetry without ceasing possible course rest

,

in

,

I

.

a

.

the Poetics

in

the text

to

of

;

everything would depend upon how general one interprets relation the other sciences reserve that analysis and that judgment for later chapter Aristotelian

of

to ,

,

us

.

of

to

an

a

of

—

to

be a

CONCLUSIONS Although there may seem similarity among the certain amount proposed during century might various theories the one even say monot ony the reasons for the predominant classifications close questioning impression diversity Let leads rather take for example the

faculty

;

as

or

,

,

be

(

,

).

“

"

a

art be "

an "

it

,

may Second made because poetry neither nor science but will belong with the others the family as

.

,

“

"

discursive sciences along with the others

of

is

they are regarded

,

in ,

, all all ,

of

by

,

is

assigned earliest and most persistent classification where poetry the logic grammar rhetoric with the occasional addition group constituted dialectic sophistic and history This assignment may made first because the arts the group use language their medium material

do

( as

or

of to

on

to

;

it

of

of

)

or

of

in

a

,

,

it

;

of

.

, it

"

of

"

a

the mind hence may third result from rational faculties Or consideration the poetics which deals not with the truth subject matter certain other sciences but with one the variations the probable the false sophistic the verisimilar this will relate the one hand and

,

as

for

or

,

presenting

persuasion the position will

how the reason for the assignment

in

see

to

,

to

,

how

be

,

as

its

the other discursive sciences

its

to of

is

).

is a

If

(

,

theory which the critic will give the poetic art unless contrariwise the classification proceeds from the poetry emphasis discursive science then the important thing qualities language how these differ from the language investigate

of

each case predetermine the emphasis

his

easy

to

is

It

.

,

of

, "

or as "

be

no

in

investigating expounding means materials of some other science

of

,

.

be

composed rhetoric on the other Or fourth the whole group may those disciplines which could classified instrumental sciences since knowledge activity but are useful only themselves they produce

language

will depend

to

to

an

it

If

or .

upon the total

is

,

,

in

,

-

35 ]

[

acceptable

its

as a

,

is a

its it

its

not

it is

whether

or

similar

—

by

of

of

.

If

,

may made conform rational faculty one will wish operation faculty about what know about the peculiarities special characteristics products the mind are manifested subject matter the false the probable art determined the veri the special norms established

philo

THEORY

POETIC

it is is an

it

If

.

of

all

sophical outlook of the theorist ; moreover , the plots to be used , the traits to be attributed to the characters, the handling of situation and story, will depend upon this conception subject matter instrumental to

be

;

it

to

is

be

broad range

diverging theories

and traditional interpretations and may pro

the poetic art

.

a

simple enough

of of

of

of

whole gamut

to

may seem

”

,

susceptible

is

it

,

a

duce

poetic

rhetoric

,

“

logic

enough

.

of

of

it

,

its

,

science finally uses will vary with the sciences which made serve caught inextricably between and the ends which made seek will the principles the architectonic science and the devices required for achieving the purposes that science Thus although the classification

an

or

as a

,

,

.

poetics

if Or

his

in

;

poems produced according

to

reflected

may result from

of

have

in to

to

be

.

in of

as

of

of

,

,

is

of

of

part The same true the classification instrument philosophy may example moral This result for from the observation persons with their conduct that poetry deals with the moral characters just does the science ethics both would then have the same subject matter The principles behavior established the theorist's ethics would

. of

poetry

by

achieved

is

how happiness

or

lost

:

,

,

in

persons

to

to

of

offers examples

various kinds

in of it

a

its

to

as

it

conviction with respect the ends the sciences produce happiness ethics has end the individual and politics produce happiness the state then poetics belongs both since

the of

to

to

as

,

on by

Or

or

.

be

.

is a

a

be

It

.

in

must therefore offer these examples various situations way right taught and the proper such that the moral lessons will effect produced But even within these limits there fair breadth possibilities The poet may completely subservient regarded moral philosopher the politician using his art achieve the ends

of

by

)

,

a

of of

,

be

he

to

.

he

be

(

he

an

.

or of as

may par with the other achieving ethical political ends determined using the resources himself his may completely independent own art Or the other functioning artist who merely happens cross the path the moral philosopher the other

"

as "

,

.

or

as

to

as

or

a

,

,

or

be

.

as

when touches upon character and conduct According this theory being the architectonic considered ethics will varies politics belonging having merely science for poetry the same family slight and accidental resemblance

of

,

.

,

be

of

.

in

be

subsequent chapters Another one and more said classification the method the present discussion would

much will to

,

Of this

germane

or

or

of

,

of

,

.

of

be

of

be

opinion Several explanations might offered for this great divergency poetics The most obvious one over the classification course would the nature the antecedent philosophical tradition and the character paraphrased the texts which were being explained commented upon

, of

of

a

.

of

be

at it ,

in

;

a

it of in

.

,

multiplicity itself Any art may the abstract considered from points from innumerable external positions view one may look large variety discussion contexts But these possibilities consider

if

36 ]

[

of

a

in

its

or

an

as

;

its

phil place need not affect essence art total system osophy these may remain firm and fixed the system itself provides

POETICS

AMONG

THE

SCIENCES

constant principles of classification . For the critics and philosophers of the Cinquecento , two things happened , one dependent upon the other . First , they used each of the many points of view as a basis for classification : if poetry may be considered in the light of the principles of ethics , it is an ;

is a

,

to

of

.

of

the rest

of

to

philosophy the parts for those which The critic might begin with principles which thought satisfactory for the classification might the sciences but might abandon them without realizing pursue them imperfectly

of

relationship

So

its

in

be

.

or

,

on .

so

it

its

if it uses words as means discursive science and Second the philosophical systems into which they fitted poetics were incompletely improperly understood Various systems which claimed widely different conceptions Aristotelian resulted the poetic art and ethical science ;

he

;

it

he

an

,

or

of

.

he

were admittedly Platonic

,

in

of

.

is

.

on be

of

in

be

to of

entirely different context analysis Such insufficiencies Perhaps this found frequently the documents studied literary matters were not because the large majority the men writing philosophers but critics not specialists analysis the formal disciplines and pass into

will

an

or

an

be

in

,

.

,

exculpation

as .

but critics and poets curious about the literary art This was not always explanation however and no event should taken

true

is

in

or

.

be

It

.

to

is

of

,

,

or

progress One may ask also whether any change evolution the perceptible through the century This question classification difficult answer should clear that the major theories exist simul theories

137

in

.

of

”

in

an

,

do

“

to

is

of

“

or

.

the century

)

among the dominant tendencies

of

a

”

be

to

in

an "

be

at

is

it

,

in

"

as a

of

is

be

;

It

.”

of

more prominent the first part the century whereas relative moral philosophy more frequent the second part the rhetorical approach gradually gives way the ethi may also cal that only the last decades the century we find any insistence that poetry has the right considered art itself that might approached from point artistic aesthetic view very mild insistence and might almost pass unperceived But this best the classification

"

rational faculty

or

as a

.

in

is

to

.

in

taneously throughout the century Perhaps the early years the tendency occupy oneself with complete philosophical systems more prevalent than the later Perhaps also the classification discursive science

CHAPTER TWO . THE METHODOLOGY OF THE THEORISTS

HE

PROBLEM of literary criticism in the Cinquecento was largely a problem in aesthetics . This would , of course , be true of criticism in any place and in any period . But it is true in sixteenth - century Italy

in a very special way and for two special reasons . Perhaps more than in any other time and place , the problem of criticism was essentially a theoretical problem . The major effort of the critics was to develop a theory of the literary art; even when they were engaged in practical criticism , their

of

of

of

a

so

, in

,

so

.

so

as ,

.

of

It to

,

it

,

to

at

all

of

.

a

of

.

,

is

literary theory Moreover and this the second reason literary the aesthetics the Cinquecento did not develop independently free and indigenous flowering Instead was transplanted from Greece and Rome and the European soils the Middle Ages must therefore manifest times two concerns concern with fidelity the borrowed

of

upon problems

,

,

,

of

all

preoccupation was primarily with theory and with the possibilities of applying theory to the judgment of specific works . At times they were aware theoretical cruxes theoretical difficulties theoretical modes approach Perhaps nowhere else the intellectual history the West can centering one find continual abundant and diverse attention

set

.

he

,

,

.

,

-

at a

or

of

,

to ,

.

a

, a

it

pretended tradition which continue and concern with the usefulness this tradition for new age and new literature For the theorist the task was thus extremely complex He must discover first the meaning the ancient text texts which had out interpret and this time when the texts themselves were imperfectly established The texts moreover were difficult ones which are still subject

of

he

,

it

of

.

,

a

it

,

his

to it

he

of

or by

he

,

.

to

of

a

or

of

to

.

,

he

he

by

of

a

it

to

to

of

interpretation Next much uncertainty and diversity must decide satisfactory reading possible whether was reach the text remaining within the données and the arguments the text itself whether must seek assistance reference another the available develop proceeded ancient texts Then when own theory basing upon single must choose between the alternative possibilities Finally upon ancient author conflation several ancient authors grew must see that his theory not only fitted the text out which

all

a

be

,

a

of

;

,

they are merely the problems which theorists developing theory must process the con

.

or

conscious fashion somewhere other sidered and resolved

in

by

in

.

by

it

to

judge more but that accounted for and explained and permitted him countrymen contemporaries recent works his and his We should not assume that these problems were posed and solved deliberate and

the procedure was only slightly less complica

an he

the practical critic

,

For

or

a

of

a

in

be

( 38 )

to

.

or

,

a

,

his

,

.

He too had

developed

to

find theoretical basis for his criticism whether contemporary own theory borrowed one from long and ancient philosopher He had versed the literature ted

OF THE THEORISTS to

he

all ,

THE METHODOLOGY

,

of

of

,

to

,

a

of

,

of

.

he

or

of

,

of

he

convert the had diversified critical tradition . Most important of reading guides for the into started which from theoretical statements poems admis the judging for norms into poems into criteria for the weapons types literary current contro for into new exclusion sion his intellectual reconcile the findings versy Perhaps had also with sensitivity his enthusiasms promptings his explorations with the long acceptances contrary theoretical conclusions his dislikes with the .

tradition

in

to

it

of

:

,

of

,

.

of

its

of

at

,

of

a

in

at

the crucial point Both the theorist and the practical critic stood point classical the doctrines which history that Western criticism antiquity were transformed into something new and different which view modern literary criticism From their point turn became the basis attempted essentially extract backward the critical process looked from classical and medieval traditions the lessons needed for the solution

;

at

,

,

or

of

the light

of

,

in

of

of

'

,

of of

.

of

view the whole contemporary critical problems From our point significance greater process had consequences even for the future specific the exact transformation the nature four centuries remove the considerable import character the new orientations become matters history ance intellectual

given

in

.

of

a

;

a

;

to

,

,

a

of

in

in

is

It

method these last considerations that the matter methodology becomes vital Given Renaissance criticism the history which these ancient texts given medieval tradition limited number certain transmutation texts when not forgotten had already suffered on

a

in

a

find these ancient and medieval materials new critical these materials will what results from this desire operating about large part upon the way depend which theorists and critics the solution their problems the individual theorist comes his problem with one set intellectual habits with one discipline for the desire

go

to

If

,

of

.

of

in

in :

apparatus

an

,

no

.

of

of

he

,

.

be

,

,

of

of

reading and interpretation texts with one attitude toward the procedures theory his predecessors the that himself propounds will one discipline kind Another habit another another attitude might produce entirely different kind theory

no

of

.

of

all

;

to

a

In

such situation there are really constants The basic texts them procedure selves change from reader reader the mode each critic

of

;

. In

,

a

in

of

.

be

in

of

will differ some way from those the others two the resulting exactly identical Hence the tremendous variety and com theories will plexity critical thought the Cinquecento sense the only valid a

as

a

.

of

.

,

a

statements one can make are statements about individual authors and thing general current individual texts Nevertheless there was such discipline through fairly constant intellectual the century There was

of

, a

a

39 ]

-

by

of

.

an

,

treated

[

-

to

of

to

the schools

be in

of

fairly definite tradition about relatively widespread assumption argument This general tendency always with respect the conduct with variations formed the basis the method employed the indi

formation habits mind how certain subjects were

THEORY

POETIC

vidual writer in his theorizing or in his criticism . It is this general method which I wish to describe in the present chapter , as a means to aiding the reader in his understanding of subsequent textual analyses . CLASSIFICATION AMONG THE SCIENCES The first characteristic of this method has already been described : the position to preface discussion of the poetic art by indicating This effort situating poetics

to in a

.

of

forms that

several

classification

at

the other arts and sciences

of

with reference might take one

to

its

tendency

a

of

,

.

of

,

;

a

as

its its

of in

a

of

to

it

of ,

of

a

by

it ,

all

or

;

as

of

art

;

as

of of

the components cognate arts such

of

:

the whole philosophy that relating smaller logic and rhetoric single sister art history that transforming analogy into such kind encompassing philosophy The first universal other branches symptomatic these forms has already been studied general phil osophical approach which essence was systematic the same approach

family group

.

in

.

be

poetics

,

to

the relating

history throughout the cen

to

several examples

of

of

to

,

us

,

to

,

is

in

apparent but reduced the scope intention the second Of the third and fourth something further needs said Let take illustrate how poetics was assimilated another art

,

to

since

of

an

of

.

,

Agricola's De inventione dialectica Here the two arts are compared

,

is

,

,

.

of

in

as

or

to

so

of

,

as

.

is

of

tury The problem here distinguished from that the preceding chapter not much discover the fact the basis classification determine what methodological approaches are involved the coupling Rodolphus the two arts An early case from the fifteenth century

.

in

,

to as in

As

happenings

antecedent

.

later summation

“

of

is

of

.

”

a

"

res with

,

in

"

“

an

"

,

to

both them use words narrate order events which have happened But whereas history bent upon representing the truth gives events the natural order which they actually occurred poetry may permit itself artificial order The typical case that the beginning medias far

method

of

Any other

.

of

in

as a

to

a

in

,

is

seeking concerned Agricola's consists factor common the two using this factor comparison and differentiation arts and means

as

;

he

.

la

de

in

is

of

)

(

la

,

poetry The important .

complete theory

of

which incidentally provides

a

a

of

to

et

de

of

features the arts are left out consideration.1 Dionigi Atanagi eccellentia his Ragionamento The procedure perfettione historia 1559 much more complex Atanagi wishes essentially history adopts characterize the art the best expedient lengthy set likenesses and differences between history and poetry

ad

a

.

:

[ 40 ]

id

:

.)

of : :

:

. (E

. . . .

...

'

.

conuenit

: “

. b

:

in

:

ex

:

.

,

),

,

ad

:

est

ab

:

(

1

De inventione dialectica Louvain Martin 1515 Liber Tertius fol viv Est tamen differentia poetice dispositionis historia vel maxima quod poeta solum quantum ipsius speciem tantum sequitur temporum hoc narrantis personam pertinet rerum gestarum natura plerunque perturbat eas atque ordinem quantum autem est mediis orditur rebus deinde quae primae fuerant earum posterius personae colore alicuius xample Aeneid Sin vero res ipsas respici aut alio quouis commento infert mentionem est mus non personas quibus dat orationem poeta iam videmus contrarium naturali Historie cuius prima laus est veritas naturalis tamen ordo artificialem ordinem esse

THE METHODOLOGY

OF THE THEORISTS

difference is not between the use of prose and the use of verse ( since some poems are also found in prose ), but between the use , or not , of imitation .

The differences may be summarized thus : History

Poetry

1.

No

2.

Many actions of many men

Imitation

imitation

3. Treats

Single action of one man Treats the universal , the pure Idea of things

the particular , things as

they are 4. Narrates things done as they were done

Narrates

things as they should be done , according to necessity, veri similitude , and probability

5. Presents characters as they were ,

Maintains

constancy of character subordinating

central plot beginning

Artificial order

in

hap

events

as

pened

events

;

Natural order ,

me

"

dias res

8. Limited by the materials , the truth of the facts

by

facts extensive addi produce the marvelous the tions stupendous the delightful

men real art consists dialogues orations

as

they should

speak

,

,

will

Freer

sen

use

words

,

at words

,

use

of

in

11. Restricted

Introduces gods uses personification

uses

of

gods

introduces personifications

in

10. Rarely

or

,

;

Also makes men speak

speeches attributed writing

to

Invents

in

9.

,

,

to

Not limited

;

7.

order ,

Certain

“

and confused order ,

following events themselves

to

6. Uncertain

all

varied , unstable , etc.

sententiae

tentiae 12.

Allegorical meanings hidden under

Literal meanings only for words

:

deliberative

types

of

invocation

"

but only poetry uses

“

be

summarized briefly

"

and the

,

"

“

demonstrative

narration

"

use the

and

“

Both

“

use

"

proposition

Both

similarity may also

"

or

likeness

rhetoric

to

;

,

to

,

is ,

,

, to

"

,

to

"

history Both use the judicial type which however more proper Both observe prudence and decorum delight bring profit history especially Both seek teach move and to

5.

4.

3.

2. 1.

The points

of

literal meanings

,

,

,

,

Both use ancient and distant subjects describe places peoples laws customs ,

6.

seeks utility

amplifications

variety

( 41 )

Both use digressions

,

emotions ,

8.

wide variety

a

leading

to

fortune

,

of

,

Both use sudden and unexpected accidents changes of

7.

etc.

POETIC THEORY 9. 10.

Both use numbers , figures of speech , although different ones Both must represent things in so graphic a way as to make them visible to the eye

What was for Agricola the whole basis of comparison becomes for Atanagi only one of many points of contact between the two arts . His method is to multiply such points of juxtaposition as far as his ingenuity will permit . Each additional point further circumscribes the material or the operation

of the art . One ends up with a conception of what poetry is compared not - as to history — and of what it is . What it is is not determined by discovery of a definition ( inductively ) and by derivation of the conse quences of that definition ; rather, it comes from an accumulation of isolated descriptive statements , generated dialectically by considering how it differs from something else . Moreover , the topics which are themselves significant of a method of thinking about poetry . Roughly , the topics are these : the genus , kind of action , relation to truth and probability , character , order , factualness, dia logue, use of the supernatural , diction , literalness , type of rhetoric , decorum , ends, ornaments , nature of plot , figures, numbers, visual quali resembles

and

all

ties . Presumably , a poem which satisfied

by

give rise to these statements

the

it

by or a

,

be

as

to

be a

of

the conditions established good poem consideration these topics would whether not might required conformed such other artistic demands more systematic approach.2

of

, is

to

,

we

to be

I

,

.

.

of

,

of As ,

in

on

,

A

anonymous similar approach but again fairly restricted that Dialogue History MS Vat Lat 6528 which have dated roughly around 1565. however the principal protagonist claims maintain ing the point Pomponazzi the ideas would belong view the early by

a

on of to

of

.

:

,

a

of

a

of

,

of

,

in

,

as

.

of

part the preceding chapter both have seen the century Here history and poetry are species the the genus narration differentiated single action fact that poetry narrates one man whereas history narrates many men The various poetic genres spring from single single action source historical annals these give rise the epic through the selection

;

.

a

he

,

to

,

,

of

to it ;

of

,

of a

"

"

a

to

;

so

one exceptionally great man and one his exceptionally great actions from the epic springs tragedy and for the rest Once the poet has treating the exceptional dedicated himself must find decorum and style and diction appropriate thence come into being the various poems the use poetic diction allegory and modes verse and ,

a

construct

a

a

discovered

whole

42 ]

(

on

,

history the two treatises starting point the genus his

as

in

-

.

34-6 142v 150v 151. ,

.

,

.

,

of

.pp

),

1559

(

Ragionamento

MS Vat Lat 6528 fols .

3 2

De

,

Giovanni Antonio Viperano the first scribenda historia 1569 also uses

of

of

difference

to of

from the single elementary theory the poetic art.3

so

—

of

.

is

to

prosopopoeia The procedure single common once more select factor the narration an action seek basis differentiation and

THE METHODOLOGY

OF THE THEORISTS

narration . Within this genus he finds three species , history , poetry , and oratory . (Oratory is included because , according to currently accepted rhetorical doctrines , " narration ” was one of the component parts of any speech : “ Habet quoque Orator narrationes suas . ") Further distinctions sometimes include oratory , sometimes do not . History and poetry differ in

of actions they represent , history using only “res gestas ” and poetry “res fictas .” Each of the three species has a separate end ; indeed , each seems to have several ends , one serving the other . History tries immediately to “ narrate well , ” ultimately to teach proper modes of action the kinds

and to form character ; it is also useful to the other arts, by supplying and materials, and should be accompanied by pleasure . Poetry tries immediately to " invent what is proper to each character ," finally to bring pleasure through narration For oratory the immediate end

to

is

,

.

its

examples

,

by

of

is

as

is

in

.

,

.

to

it

,

to

please through narration Finally blame but too seeks while history guides the mind poetry arouses and calms the passions interesting equivocation What this method the kind which oratory falls into the same genus history and poetry and the multiple praise and

),

in

to

present

all

biography

is

is

is

the main task

of

-

,

.

example

-

,

.

to

as

in a

For

the author's mind

.

of

to

of

,

(

.

to

distinctions applied these arts Viperano's second work De scribendis virorum illustrium vitis 1570 applies the general ideas biography the first the more specific field The general ideas are not repeated Instead biography discussed such way indicate that the trilogy history poetry oratory still present

of

the best poets

.

the best rhetorical tradition and practised

S

in

so

if

be

,

,

;

,

,

—

by

prescribed

by

-

of

the character the hero this will done properly the topics age sex condition nation and decorum forth are treated the way

as

I

,

;

of

of

he

If

,

of ,

,

.

he

;

).

(

of a

of

,

he

is

to

to

A

:

to in

is

on

to

of

position similar that the anonymous Dialogue History Sperone Speroni's Dialogo dell'historia found which Speroni assign published have not been able date 1596 For also history and poetry are kinds narration poetry narrates one action many men But goes beyond the Dialogue one man history one action when subject matter contrary introduces the question truthfulness commonly believed says both poetry and history treat the what One final example

,

,

.

.

.

,

( 43 )

in

of

845-48

B4v Cv

376 394-403 411–412 ,

is

; it

is

,

it

esp pp

B4 . . ,

it

. ed .pp )., .pp

is , . a it

”

an

(

ed ( .) , ) esp, .

(

to

be

;

De scribenda historia 1576 De scribendis vitis 1570 esp Dialoghi 1596

In

4 s 6

necessity and probability

this that imitation Thus although poetry like history history unlike since transforms the particular higher and more noble art.6 hence

, it

makes treating the truth into the universal

according

is

should poetry

of

it

as

“

it

of

is

of

,

is

,

,

.”

is

: "

is

.

truth one takes three such forms the annal history and poetry the following distinctions apply the annal true history true and worthy poetry poetry changed true and worthy and marvelous The truth into something higher and more wonderful through the process treating

POETIC

THEORY

What is involved , essentially , in these multiple comparisons of the art of history to the art of poetry is not classification but delimitation . The critic is faced with the problem of explaining the nature of one art . He finds that it is like another art in some salient respect — the use of language , the narra tion of an action , the treatment of the truth and he proceeds to search for

,

,

or

.

of or

;

of

be

or

or

be

of

be

of

his

other points of agreement or disagreement . The more such points he can comparison find , the more complete will be the two arts and hence satisfactory description the more will his either one For poetry the comparison may with history with rhetoric with painting with logic the resulting delineation the poetic art will more less ade

be

or

an

distinguishing characters

as

Its

the art

apprehended

art may thus never

method may also result merely

of

be

features

.

of

or

,

is

of in

.

of

of

is

as

or

or

ill

of

is

or

is

as

compari the other art well chosen the initial point danger potential inappropriate appropriate the method The son equivalence may that the original basis some aspect the poetic art which not really the essence the art and that the whole resulting discussion may therefore deal with auxiliary incidental accidental quate

systematic

a

in

a

in

to

in

of

no

,

to

,

.

a

Such collection commonplace pros and cons rela traditional statements about the art attempt tive the central topics with examine the art itself

all

a

which poetry becomes

The method and transcending

universal

science

,

by

.

way

containing

;

is

.

,

he

he

of

of

he

If

,

.

a "

.

"

-

“

:

in

a

;

if

he

in

,

the

“

a ”

or

-

,

“

or

of

display Homer's expertness thinking about geography and forth without end This kind poetry which document the such the late Greek world gave rise pseudo Plutarchian De Homeri poesi which made ocean Homer the

"

as

"

of

a

to

,

,

-

all

of

is

.

so

in

;

,

the

Odysseus

;

in of

the military art the wanderings

of

poetry rather the subject matters the broadest sense not human action things character verisimilar but the infinite variety poet may speak speaks poem about which the stars applies his knowledge encompasses astronomy battle describes same one

all

the subject matter Subject matters are here taken

or

a

of

,

is

others not too different Once again the critic always the single aspect selects for consideration the poetic art this

in

to )

,

a

distinguishing authority 339–75

.

.pp

in

of

no

way

degree

,

( 44 )

to

of

is

it

,

a

", is

),

in

is

“

48 .

( .p

);

have

Alter Tomus Operum Angeli Politiani

.

(

,

ed .

.

, by it

subject matters

the method came

to

How

If ,

.

8

,

.

of

the art

Lyon Gryphius See 1527-28 Orationes 1557 see See pp 3-5 In

9 8 7

de

in

as

.?

in

in

), (

(

singled out for attention feature

its

'

of

make

1557 Bernardino Parthenio's Della imitatione poetica using this method possible and numerous others poetry poetry universal science because that aspect a

1560

),

(

laudibus poetarum

In

,

In

.

by

of

knowledge the Quattrocento the De Homeri poesi was copied expositione Homeri Angelo Poliziano the his Oratio Cinquecento the same ideas were expressed Varchi's such texts Giacopo Grifoli's Oratio Lezzioni della poetica already referred large part

OF THE THEORISTS

subject

from

others

;

all

it

matter

all

a

single

included

the

of

of

.

be

,

a

,

by

"

“

of

to

.

in

hence

it

must universal science and the others The ambiguities involved here the use the the definition term subject matter the misconceptions with respect sciences their subject matters the imperfections the systems which logical impossibility will immediately apparent could permit such ;

the other sciences

philosopher , every

the systematic

which separated

,

materials preferable

to of all all

but poetry rather than having

For ,

its

the Renaissance is easily understood . specific subject matter

science had

be a

THE METHODOLOGY

GLOSSES AND COMMENTARIES

All

or

of

of a

.

of

as a

to

to

in

of

poetry classification and assimilation procedures part another art were which came the Renaissance treating the antecedent intellectual tradition The principal method in

the procedures involved

of

,

of

of

to

of it

if

a

it

a

or

of

a

a

.

,

in

of

as

.

, it

of

;

as

,

that

,

the gloss the extended commentary was another such applied from the recent past the chief critical texts anti quity approaching problems constituted one the standard ways criticism during the Cinquecento The method was fairly constant although the century progressed some variants were introduced and some refine ments added One took small section the text short paragraph prose section and printed after verses small number was text

heritage

a

.

it ,

.

If

of

by

,

of

.

at

.

Certain

.

and commentaries

authors chose

to

,

translations

by

vernacular

on to

so

a

a

;

in

,

in

,

a

or

,

of

of

,

or

short Sometimes marginal notation summarized commentary the content the Then the same was done for the next way section the text and the end Sometimes the end summary digest conclusion the comments was given the text usually was Greek Latin translation followed and after this the commentary later the same procedure was followed for the century commentary long

-

be

a

.

is

on ,

,

so

as

-

.

,

provide further enlightenment inserting paraphrase between trans text translation that the order would lation and commentary paraphrase commentary Thus time went the whole apparatus became more complicated and the commentary much longer What in

is

,

A

.

to

.

of

,

of

important for the student criticism course what was said the and how they were conceived few examples should suffice illustrate this method

commentaries

;

to

of on

a

“

,

of

grammatical gloss

reduces

in

.

that

is all )

he

,

the text

(

of

( 45 )

a

of

a

sections

and these precepts some forty brief final section the commentary There

precepts

in

concise collected together

writing

,

intervals corresponding to

meaning

to to

, in

At

.

ing

Instead

the text Gaurico does continuous prosification distinguish and clarify Horace's mean attempts

he

of

.

were the earlier ones

his

in

of

it is a

as

”

more

the separate words the epistle which

it

on

of

Pomponio Gaurico's Super Arte poetica Horatii was the earliest the Cinquecento commentaries the Ars poetica was written shortly dedicatory epistle before 1510. Gaurico himself claims Francesco commentary not written grammaticorum Pucci that new kind

are

little

POETIC

THEORY

in the way of explanation , although occasionally examples from ancient art or literature are added . A commentary of this type does little more than extract the barest meaning from the Ars poetica and isolate a given number of critical ideas . It makes no attempt to discover the philosophical structure of the work , the reasons for the order of presentation of ideas , the concep tion of the poetic art contained within it . The later edition of Gaurico , published in 1541, intercalates the commentary among passages of the text , divided into thirty -seven sections ; in this form , both text and com mentary are fragmented , and any semblance of synthesis is destroyed .

Indeed , such fragmentation may prevent the reader from seeing the work if it is badly done , if the points of separation are badly chosen , a totally false conception of the meaning of the text may result. A much more highly developed form of the same method is found in as a whole ; and

Battista Pigna's Poetica Horatiana of 1561. Once the text has been divided into sections — there are eighty in Pigna's division and the "precept ” stated for each fragment, the commentator proceeds to an elaborate exposition of the ideas of the text. He cites supporting or illustra tive passages from innumerable other theorists -- Cicero , Quintilian , , Aristotle Plutarch , Donatus , Plato — from miscellaneous philosophical Giovanni

texts on other sciences , finally from many poets who demonstrate Horace's principles . He goes into lengthy discussions of individual words and phrases , citing the authority of previous expositors of the text and seeking clarification from other texts . Sometimes this leads to the most astonishing

of the Ars poetica are made to refer , for example , to the four genres distinguished by Aristotle , with the “caput humanum " standing for the epic , the “ ceruicem equinam " for tragedy , the " collatas plumas ” for the dithyramb and the lyric, and the " atrum piscem " for comedy. Moreover , certain distinctions from other sciences are made to results : the first four lines

bear upon the text ; in an introduction , Pigna insists that the work must be studied in the light of “ res ” and “ verba " ( an essentially grammatical dis tinction ) and these in turn in their relationship to " invention , disposition , rhetorical distinction ). Thus, in spite of his tight chain the work Horace's precepts are linked expounds orderly becomes more confused and sense development lost procedure are say vices Some the same characteristics not an

of

on

—

,

in all a

it ,

he

to

of

,

).

is

;

is

(

de

Pietro Vettori's extensive commentary the Poetics his primum librum Aristotelis Commentarii arte poetarum 1560 Here the approach closely much more carefully philological the Greek text in

apparent

in of

is

10

as

of

all

elocution " ( an essentially

and

contention that

,

in

be

all

[ 46 ]

see

.p 3 .

);

1561

At .

.

as a

of

no

:

Poetica Horatiana

(

10

of

,

is

,

,

studied useful emendations are suggested better translations are proposed comprehensive interpretation But there still the text whole best there are certain general notions which determine the interpretation poetry must specific passages the idea that verse the idea that

THE METHODOLOGY

OF THE THEORISTS

of the poem must be such as to assure the persuasion and of the audience . Unfortunately , these ideas are such as to lead warping to a rather than to a clarification of Aristotle's meaning, and they capable are not of binding into an organized whole the multiple passages the treatment

the pleasure

into which the text has been broken

of

.

of

,

from the linguistic buted considerably

a

to

are

of to or

use

will

be examined in disruptive — sufficient illustrate the effect gloss was frequently helpful the textual gloss Such philological standpoint and the Cinquecento contri the critical the accuracy and the intelligibility

detail in later chapters the consistent

.

as these — and many others

Even so few examples

,

;

as

to

.

a

It

of

be

no

of

matter how different

to

,

result

”

authorities a

.

frantic search for outside

“

or

of

a a

general philosophical tendency

As

to

encouraged the total philosophical form the work parallel similar passages from other works and

citing

kind

of

of

of

.

of . It

, it

as

or

paragraph

miscellaneous

it

From the philosophical standpoint was almost always disadvantageous promoted regarding texts inculcated and the habit fragments collections and hence collections isolated precepts beyond any prevented the single line effort see over and contrariwise texts involved

Horace ceased

Horace

,

,

;

vast

.

of

all

a

Aristotle never became Aristotle each grew instead into containing monument the multiform remains the literary past and

SCHOLASTIC APPROACHES a

as

of

of

in

,

a

of

be

his

.

of

.

as

,

.

"

“

,

be

a

it

I

;

to

I

the textual commentary method Cinquecento which came the from the antecedent literary tradition might have called frankly scholastic method Certain other ap proaches could also loosely described somewhat remains the fairly standard scholastic tradition One such approach would the use any subject After the prolusio formula for the introduction which have characterized this use

to

is ,

(

)

to

"

“

,

de

."

11

;

is

"

it

its

it .

,

.

),

(

on

to

he

;

it

In it

go

he

be

,

,

he

his

of

In to

of

particular subject among the other might sciences well indicate how meant about treating For many authors the pattern would prefatory the same the materials great commentary Aristotle 1548 for example Francesco Robor says tello that means discuss what the poetic faculty and what proposes for itself what effect has what end the subject matter out product Similarly the Prolegomena which makes Vincenzo Maggi's poetica communes explanationes Aristotelis librum 1550 the author indicated the place

.

of

, in

of

sit

In

. " 12

de

,

11

,

of

its

,

“

,

be ,

in

,

a

, of

contains program for Maggi's own treatment the Aristotelian text He subject will discuss order the usefulness the title what order the author should read the divisions the text the method instruc practical tion and under what faculty the latter falls the field ,

,

,

,

,

ex

), .p 1 : “

(

;

uia Quamque haec sub facultatem cadat

. "

,

Doctrinae

[ 47 ]

,

,

auctor legi debeat Divisio

13 : "

ed .) , .p

." 9

;

In

(

12

&

poëtica facultas librum Aristotelis arte poetica explicationes 1548 Qualis quam habeat uim Quem finem propositum qua opus Quam materiem subiectam suum conficiat Explanationes scriptionis Propositum 1550 Vtilitas Inscriptio Quo ordine

THEORY

POETIC

,

,

et

,

of

of

,

a

as

as

, .” 13

the handling

instruction

Such programs these subject providing

of

in

order

the method

author

the

,

“

,

,

,

of

the name

of

they did

the book semblance

the proportion

of

the division

,

the name made for

praefationes written around the Orationes the topics are respectively the purpose the

;

in

is

the order

1582

of

,

utility

a

,

1550

of

VIII

Preface published

the text

;

he

of

set

criticism , Marcantonio Maioragio applies to the analysis of Book IV of admittedly borrows from Averroës eight topics which the Aeneid a

a

of

.

to

of

of

as a

in ,

,

of

a

kind advance outline for the consecutive discussion important points relevant number the materials They came into assuring the consideration being indeed means these points .

of

order and completeness

theorists and critics on

for

the same advantages

,

of

.

by

,

of

.

of

set

a

replace

as

of

For

But

by

to

the discussion

they tended

of

,

of

the course

as is

the case with many thinking rules thumb active about poetics answering questions parts routine The various the outline were considered isolated topics without the necessary illumination any one the topics the answers found for the others somewhere

It

.

organizing their ideas used another such fixed system the poetic art was one which had very ancient and very firm philosophical bases and

of

a

in

.

and realized An example Maggi's Explanationes 1550 where by imitating human actions poetry ),

be

fully developed

found

(

sometimes

the former type might

in

,

much reduced form

of

,

,

In

."

“

:

a

to

to

which had contributed the later Middle Ages and the humanistic period mold for their intellectual procedures namely the method the four causes the Cinquecento the mold was sometimes used

of

”

,

its

“

to

the

15

"

the

.

the listener

of

,

eloquence

, in

is

which

the end which

is

—

,

the form

and

in

,

is

in

—

),

(

in

be

14

:

"

,

"

every oration and speech consists the thing proposed which

matter

is ,

it to

,

“

is

,

of

he

points out first that the end through pleasant language material and later that ennoble the mind proposes the human mind which refine with the best principles conduct another would Alessandro Lionardi's Dialogi della inven passing author remarks that almost where tione poetica 1554

to

he

;

is

in

by

),

(

As

it .

of

a

is

vague reflection obviously only the method and little Here there Filippo Sassetti employed comprehension his marginalia merely Piccolomini's Annotationi 1575 the form still abbreviated

,

is

,

its

of

In

16

,

13

.”

,

“

of

poetry was the poet says that one might say that the efficient cause himself the formal cause the imitation the material cause the verse and brevity this statement spite the final cause pleasure revela ,

,

."

,

,

, : "

,

sibi expolien è la

che

cosa

pro lo

causa efficiente della Poesia fusse finale diletto . "

uerso

,

nella materia parlamento

, la e & , la

il

,

materiale

moribus

."

:

l'eloquenza

... optimis

il

), .p

13 : "

quem

consiste ogni oratione potrebbe dire che

BNF Postillati formale l'imitatione stesso Poeta la

è

“

nella forma che

l'uditore

[ 48 ]

nel fine che

16

animus scilicet humanas

la

), .p

1554

and

15 , è 15 .p : “ 65 : “ , si

( . ”1

Dialogi

, et

posta

,

15

excultum reddere dum proponit

" ;

(

14

,

ed .) , , ( .p

et

praefationes 1582 Orationes 178 intentionem utilitatem ordinem diuisionem proportionem uiam doctrinae nomen Libri nomen authoris Explanationes 1550 actiones humanas imitando suaui sermone animum

THE METHODOLOGY

OF THE THEORISTS

tory of the whole theory of poetics held by Sassetti ; it indicates the useful ness of the method for concentrating the attention on certain central problems of the art and for eliciting definite pronouncements about those problems .

All four of the causes are present in Julius Caesar Scaliger's Poetices libri ( septem 1561 ), but in a strange way ; they are introduced at a point where Scaliger is making the traditional distinction among the terms poesis , poema , and poeta . “ Poema, ” he says , “ is the work itself , the matter ...

to

...

in

;

."

,

to

of

,

,

a

it

a

of

the

I

,

is

or

.

”,

he

In

,

of

e

as

called acting disposition

...

the case may verisimilar expressed

indeed the

is

section entitled interprets the

the poem that cause say which operating through habit poet the be .

the soul

,

of of

cause

the divine spirit

poem

Aristotle's Poetics 1585–86 actually basing upon good

discussion the Poetics forma fine difinizione del poema ,

,

, : by is “

efficient

on

in a

to

,

of

his

The

causes thus moved

his Commentary much fuller extent

preliminary

materia

,

“

Agente

or or

combine this analysis with the traditional defini

17

)

.

Lionardo Salviati exploits the method

same

or

,

(

to

of

is

of

,

is ,

,

,

,

is

two and the attempt tions

deal

: “

his

which is made . But poesis is the reason and the form of the poem ” ; poeta argument of course the poet. Then he concludes Thus you have three causes the material the formal and the efficient and the preceding commentary the final that the ultimate end instruction imitation poema and poesis strange What the assigning the meanings say nothing the first two causes the interpretations given the other is

The matter through ornamented

disposition The final cause which treated only much later when Salviati finally concerns moral character poetry decides that the special and ultimate final cause to profit and delight imitating with verse major part Since the the work running commentary however Aristotle the method soon aban any sense inform the rest doned and does not the treatment.18 , “

.”

the flawless

“

is

,

is

,

of

of pp ) .

example Niccolò Rossi's Discorsi intorno Jacopo Mazzoni's Della difesa della

,

-

.p

,

for

in

In

various other texts alla tragedia 1590 21v

(

is

of

."

on

a

,

by

of

,

is

is

The form

, ”

.

speech

and

fit .

as

Poesis autem Efficientem

:

,

,

to

it

as

of

of ,

is

it of

its

to .

,

or

, in

:

,

Formam

...

"

' col

a

è

, o

mossa diuino verisimile espresso quale intorno

il 13 , “ il

fol

.

" ", ;

,

disposta

, si o è

, o

del

( 49 )

da

, la

, , la

,

,

e è la

sia . . . .

si è

.

.

" ;

: “

,

o

quae

contribute

est Imitationem siue vlteriorem finem doctionem cagione del poema cagione dico quale agente La

, " id

9–9v

: “

11 ,

II, II,

Finem , . La è

(

...

uero efficiente chiamata l'anima del poeta habituata spirito ch'ella materia medesimo poema disposizione senza fallo fauellar condito La forma costumi fol 151v Giouare dilettare imitando col uerso

...

fails

Poema est opus ipsum materia and Ita habes causas tres Materiam

...

fols

that

,

" 13 : “

Poetice 1581 forma Poematis superiori commentario

MS BNF

all

—

)

ff .

as

is

ed .) , .p

a

is

it

,

,

&

18 in

ratio

analysis

total and exhaustive

ac

17

producing

63

;

in

(

di

Comedia Dante 1587 several the causes appear incidentally development the course the Indeed because essen tially the method employed incidental some other frame discus capable sion because never fully exploited own right

POETIC

THEORY

of

of

of it

would

properly on ,

solutions proposed

no

to

,

;

its

something about general nature did not assure that applied the few examples cited here with the variety

be

a

of

of

to

,

,

.

a

of

all

completely as it might to a clarification of critical ideas . The eclectic possible methods approach within tendency , the wish to amalgamate single treatise easily led the best characteristics the nullification the best methods Moreover knowing the existence method and

.

of

full

scale

, it

wished

-

to

be

of

,

Since

it

.

a

of

text

operated

,

,

,

in ;

is

"

“

a

.

,

its

of

of

in

develop and expound the ideas contained After the poem principal the sonnet and restatement idea the author

paraphrase

a

to

usually

.

of

,

of

,

in

.

as

shorter texts such the sonnet There are throughout the there had been the Quattrocento innumerable lectures Exposition mostly they discourses epistles which take the form the this form Petrarch The intention concern themselves with sonnets

,

most readily Cinquecento

as on

Sposizione

“

scale

”

In

of

a

of

to

of

,

in

,

suggest that there was should suffice this century sure grasp logical the instruments that would have been needed make the device the four causes valid basis for discussion the poetic art practical criticism one the field the favorite devices was the full

its

,

of

a

a

or

.

its

,

a

in

,

,

a

to

usually proceeds philosophical back discussion the idea itself validity and usefulness for human conduct grounds and implications provides the text for philosophical The poem sense sermon

.

.

of of

as a to

it

to

philosophy than almost

.

in

be

,

entirely from the materials

some other branch

and have hence omitted them considered the present work

I

to

the history

the Cinquecento

to

in

ments belong rather aesthetics

of

or

of

do

of

disquisition that soon leaves the poem entirely out consideration Rarely these expositions make any reference the artistic structure and attempt qualities art Such docu work evaluate the poem

FOUR CHARACTERISTIC METHODS

All

,

be

to

,

as

of

in

.

of

a

of

its ,

by ,

of

that the Italian sixteenth century did the way method was not imperfect approaches inherited piecemeal however and combination from recent past Writers the century developed the years went

of

as

be

may examine the method

of

the first among these

we

.

ideas

,

As

of

,

,

,

,

—

a

set characteristic methods that were their own which had many ties with the past which had been practiced before and which have been practiced since but which nevertheless may studied development and presentation representing the predominant modes sure

imitation a

of

as

in a

to

-

of

,

or

,

.

a

of

theory single ancient text Theorists who wished develop antiquity literary genre which had not been satisfactorily treated comedy say chivalry would take the romance their model some

[ 50 ]

,

;

.

in

of

or

of

fit

of

,

as

or

to

.

be

ancient theoretical text The rules for the new genre would merely the subject matter old rules transposed the special circumstances question end manner the genre The ancient text most frequently used the model was course Aristotle's Poetics hence the production

THE METHODOLOGY

OF THE THEORISTS

of a large number of “Aristotelian ” theories of the minor or the recent literary genres or, in fact, of any genre which Aristotle himself had not completely explored . We may take , as an example of this methodological phenomenon ,

I

Giovanni Battista Pigna's romanzi ( 1554 ) , which is a lengthy study of the “ romance " form as practiced by Italian poets . Pigna himself , at the end of Book I , which is devoted to the general theory of the romance , confesses his indebtedness to Aristotle :

of

on

us

on

he

,

of

.

of

he

to

in

is

of

",

in

.

is

”

“

:

how the framework the new form

the subject

used the highest interest The skeleton Argomento del primo libro shows brief part the Poetics transferred the discussion

called

of

I,

Book

is

,

which Aristotle

outline

of in

The way

“

,

of

so

he

had never seen here has been our guide them had never spoken even though

the duel which romances

as

its .

This is what I have thought proper to say about the romance considering it in general . Although I have never mentioned Aristotle while speaking about it , that does not mean that I have not used the whole of his Poetics , making use of every part of light And just this same Aristotle gave the subject

;

to

is

,up

.

is

First words and subject matters are treated generally And then the epic which considered with respect the plot and thence springs the

taken

of

be

and reversal

;

of

complex type come the recognition kinds the question whether good poets should

be ,

.

,

,

six

,

.

of of

,

be of

,

it

of

;

conclusion that imitation and narration are practically opposites and then the role truth and verisimilitude and how the action may made illustrious may and how made one Similarly we derive the plot one and two plot Under the kinds and the simple complex passionate and ethical types which last contains

of

all

.

;

in

,

to

of

is

of

.

of to

.

to

as

banned from the republic Under the ethical type the four requirements for character are expounded And this discussion concerns the qualitative parts With respect the quantitative parts there composition and the introduction beginnings with the matter giving the reason for this out going back the first origins the story and

"

“

.

of

,

is

"

ex

,

“

it

of

.

is

greater than epic And then there we then discuss why tragedy the resolution which brings with the treatment the deus machina and the Fates Next come the episodes both good and bad which are divided into epangelia ),

....

are

of

all

,

" (

“

[

)

amaprattomena and those actually acted under which fall paladins knights explained the cantos and the errant and the which those narrated

,

at

I,

is

)

(

on

)

15

,

,

to

.

(p

as

of

of

;

1450a4

)

( 51

or

.

.

It

of

all

on

so

;

15 )

.

however

,

,

mean

(p

from 1447a15 and down the line All this does not points that Pigna agrees with Aristotle even that accepts the general body merely means that Aristotelian doctrine

means he

2

.p

,

in

plot from Poetics 1451b5 the definition imitation from object manner and the differentiation imitations according ;

is

.

to

;

is

in

although many other ideas This outline followed fairly closely Book many points not intervene and there are lengthy digressions moreover referred the outline Aristotle called upon for distinctions and clarification Thus the initial distinction between poetry and history

POETIC

THEORY

from the Poetics a relatively complete schematism for the handling of the genre.19 Francesco Robortello appended to his commentary on Aristotle's he borrows

of

in

.

,

,

A

as

and Cicero

Donatus Vitruvius

to of

could find such supple the brief outline

them are added whatever materials Robortello

mentary sources

,

of

.

of

all

Poetics ( 1548 ) , a short treatise on comedy , in which the method is again the imitation of the procedures of the basic text . The treatise is very short (less than ten folio pages ) ; hence it presents a kind of epitome of that comedy Aristotle said about tragedy translated into terms All Aristotle's direct statements about comedy are course included and

byto

of

,

on

its so

of

of

and

imitate

and the time

the types

on

long section

a

For

,

the form

of

on

.

of

;

as

to

a

man's instinct

then the growth and development compared with that tragedy invention forth

of

invention

-

)

,

its in

( as

.

then the causes for

;

genre

in

.

of

,

,

of

.

a

contents will show how the method works Robortello begins with state poetry ment the end He then differentiates imitations according each case which are used means object and manner indicating comedy There follows Aristotle brief history the origins the

,

he

,

.

In

of

;

he

or is

,

of

comedy Aristotle Donatus but his imitation draws heavily para tragedy apparent qualitative parts the discussion the phrases transposes Aristotle making almost identical statements about recognition knot and solution about the four require with some parallels taken from Horace about say about apparatus spectacle sententiae and diction For what has ) ;

;

,

or

to

.

he

(

for character

,

,

,

of

plot the kinds

ments

he

of

.

to

,

however the core

the work

an

is

,

in

is

,

mi

, al

di ho

è

.

Questo

di

&

65 : “

the

itself

;

), .p

(

found

which

comica

quello che intorno Romancio m'è paruto dire quantunque d'Aristotile mai del quale mentre fauellato non stato però che tutta sua Poetica seruito non sia

romanzi 1554 generalmente considerandolo

I

single text

,

19

of

A

clear statement the intention imitate prefatory section Antonio Riccoboni's De

re a

to

of

. 20

,

of

these supplementary borrowings still follows the outline of the Poetics spite

In

to

,

of .

to

,

he

rests upon Vitruvius and for the quantitative parts refers Donatus The final statements about the limitation five acts and the number interlocutors are ascribed Horace and Donatus

however directly

,

:

:

&

& il

.

Et

" la ;

ne ne

,

lui

da la

:

,

.

&

&

&

.

ne

si

è

la

il

in

. ne Et

:

ne

& la in

;

a2 : è “

.p

è

mentione fatto non habbia tutta maneggiandola come tutto Duello non mai veduto lume diede esso parlasse Aristotile cosi quiui Romanzi stato nostra guida benche egli mai non pigliasi l'Epopeia Prima delle parole delle materie generalmente tratta quale quanto alla fauola considerata cosi nasce come l'imitare narrare sieno quasi contrarij parte del uero del uerisimile come l'attione sia illustre come

,

:

la

&

:

il

i

il

&

,

,

il

& il

& lo . . i &

da

.

il

si sei

:

di

&

la

.

se i

.

la de

&

& il è,

si

,

la il

.

genere semplice composto una nasce parimente fauola d'un genere due agnitioni perturbato composto sono peripetia che contiene costumato sotto quistione che poeti quattro una buona republica scaccino sotto costumato espongono comporre decori tutto cio intorno alla qualità Nella quantità euui ,

di

il

la

i

:

&

,

i

in

:

&

i

&

i

i

ui è

:

gli

&

la

la

52 )

(

.

.

),

(

de

"

In

of

II

20

.

.

&

in ,

....

si

&

da

principij senza prima origine cagione l'introducimento nel render cio segue perche piu sia Tragedia che Epopeia sciorre che con seco porta trattare Episodij della machina delle Fate Vengono uitiosi buoni che diuisi sono epangelia amaprattomena sotto quali cadono canti cauaglieri erranti paladini che tutti dichiarano Part the librum Aristotelis arte poetica explicationes 1548 pp 41-50

THE METHODOLOGY

OF THE THEORISTS

appendix to his translation of the Poetics ( 1579 ) . The full title is “ De re comica ex Aristotelis doctrina , ” and the purpose is summarized thus :

...

with respect to comedy , on the one hand to collect together everything that is

found in that most authoritative philosopher , on the other hand also , in imitation of those things which have been written down about tragedy and the epic , to devise some precepts which will in no way disagree with the Aristotelian theory , and by means of which comedy may be created in a laudable fashion . We shall do this in such a way as to investigate first the origin of comedy ; then what comedy is ; in the third place what qualitative parts it has ; in the fourth place, what quantitative parts ; finally , what kinds of ridiculous things they are that serve the purposes of comedy .

The program here outlined is virtually a complete listing of the later chapter headings , except for such additions as the chapters for the various "

parts ."21

Such imitative treatises , long or short , constituted a large part of the effort of the century . They will be examined , along with the theories they produced , in later chapters . theoretical

The second of the characteristic methods of the Cinquecento was the systematic comparison or combination of two different texts of classical

, it

the Poetics was clearer

.

in

of

as a

,

,

de

.

on

His statement

demonstrate that those things which ea

de

to

if,

.pp

ed .) ,

have declared the

Aristotle's Poetics matters pertinent

,

in

of

were able

I

...

,

Aristotle

all of we

:

be

of it

the

I

to 21

Latini

Vincenzo Pisones Interpre

more specific

Since indeed those two parts this little book which fundamental ones were written almost entirely imitation believed that would useful after having explained Poetics

kind

view

of

is

.

the point

of ad

If ,

order and ideas were

easily understood

his

to Q.

In

his be

,

could not

then

and

both

was even thought

Horatii Flacci arte poetica librum commentary 1550 the Poetics

appended

tatio

Horace

the Greek Poetics Such indeed

in

zation Maggi

of

,

that the same order was followed generally the same Horace could

.

since the order

be by

,

Moreover

of

if

that the two works said essentially the same things about the poetic that one sought carefully one could find identical statements

art

antiquity . The method was most constantly applied to Horace's Ars poetica, which presented to the commentators grave problems of understanding and interpretation ; therefore , they sought clarification in a point -by - point paralleling of the text with Aristotle's Poetics . The initial assumption was

, ita

ab

,

,

ad

,

de

,

&

de

:

: "

(

In

colligere omnia Aristotelis ars poetica 1579 433–34 tum Comoedia quaecunque apud grauissimum philosophum reperiuntur imitationem eorum tum uero quę Tragoedia Epopoeia tradita sunt praecepta quaedam conformare Aris quibus confici Comoedia laudabiliter possit Quod doctrina non abhorrentia primum originem Comediae inuestigemus faciemus deinde quid Comoedia tertio loco quas partes habeat qualitatis quarto quas quantitatis postremo cuiusmodi sint ridicula illa quae comicae seruiunt The 1587 140 substitutes the following sentence ipsius origine differentijs Poesis genere simili naturam eius inuestigemus quam habet cum alijs Poesibus definitione imitationibus tudine dissimilitudine pulcherrima constitutione partibus quantitatis partibus qualitatis .

:

sit

:

ex

:

ex

:

."

:

&

,

ex

ex

:

,

ed ., .p

:

,

&

( 53 )

ex

ex ,

:

&

,

ex

."

rei

ut ,

“

:

:

:

vt

,

,

totelica

POETIC

THEORY

are found in Horace are already found in Aristotle , as in a spring from which he made this book flow like a small river .

In the treatise that follows , Maggi's only interest is to demonstrate the conformity between the two texts . The first thirteen lines of Horace , for example, are equivalent to what Aristotle has to say about plot ; no less than five passages in Aristotle — referred to by the numbers earlier assigned by Maggi in his commentary on the Poetics — are adduced as parallels . Lines 14–23 refer to episodes ; compare passages from Aristotle on episodes . The same procedure continues for the whole of the Horatian text . Wherever Maggi is unsuccessful in finding a comparable text in Aristotle , he declares that the passage in the Ars poetica is a digression ; for example , most of the final section on the poet , lines 412 ff. to the end , is so labeled . Besides the indication of the parallels, there is little of interest for the theory of poetry in the Maggi text.22

Sometimes the search for parallels is less dogged and unimaginative . At of the century , for example , in 1599 , Antonio Riccoboni published his De Poetica Aristoteles cum Horatio collatus . In the course of up

all

the very end

of

of

;

of

these headings

.

;

;

;

;

of

:

,

.

to

of ,

the Ars poetica broken into small sections and according his outline That outline itself was the needs very simple containing the following general headings On the nature poetry On the kinds poetry On the causes imitations and poems On the qualitative parts On the quantitative parts On faults and their excuse the work he cited

rearranged

to

.

he

of

as

he

;

of

to a

he

placed prose passage meant sum Aristotle relevant that heading then followed the thought pertinent Riccoboni's approach passages from Horace which Maggi's differs from insofar seeks correspondence only between the

Under each

marize the doctrine

a

of

,

A

of on

.

,

doctrine Aristotle and the passages from Horace not between passage and passage third method this technique which really constitutes variant

,

his

-

In

a

in

so

does

of

,

plot character ,

composed

of

is

decided

to

,

,

diction

,

,

thought

Aristotle's opinion tragedy

spectacle and melody

he

Seeing then that

in

:

he

Aristotle

,

Horace treats the same materials different order

whereas

as

,

in in

).

(

of

.

is

,

a

a

or

.

a

to

,

is

one text with several the conflation the century characteristic limiting others Rather than himself Horace Aristotle comparison the triple quadruple analogy thereby enriching theorist introduces the commentary and making his interpretation more complex This procedure Giacopo Grifoli the Artem poeticam Horatii interpretatio the introduction makes the point that An initial statement 1550

discuss the constitution ,

:

in

,

librum hunc deduxit

. "

,

,

ab

;

quo uelut riuulum [ 54 ]

fonte demonstrarem

, à

uelut

in

,

;

Aristotele

ad

ea ,

, si

ad : “

. .p

),

,

(

22

Quoniam uero partes illae duae libelli huius quas 328 1550 esp praecipuas esse diximus totae ferè Poetices Aristotelis imitationem conscriptae sunt non expli quae postquam Aristotelis Poeticam attinebant inutile futurum existimaui Horatio habentur cauimus cuius ratione omnis mihi fuerat susceptus labor quae hic Interpretatio

THE METHODOLOGY

OF THE THEORISTS

.

of

,

believed

he

of

(

or

of

by

is ,

,

,

.

in

.

to

so

,

he

no

is

to

of

of

he

speech

Aristotle and omitting

controversy could most conveniently might wish the come And

which

...

means

23

,

all

those points over which there progress those places both spoke place diction second

to is

)

,

ή

by

no

which not treated even changing the order

περί διανοίας περί μύθου discussing speech that in

detail But Horace seeing that although place thought character that

is in

“

”,

is

a

is

it

diction , and he handled these play said that acted there

in

all of

the plot first since it contains the basis for the imitation of the whole object ; then , since character and thought are expressed through words , he began to elaborate the on style immediately after plot . In this he did not follow either the order plan of Aristotle ; for the latter treated character after plot, then thought, then

an

is

,

-

is

It

.

or

, of

,

,

,

to

.

in

.

in

of

This analysis Horace's attitude toward the text Aristotle prepares the way for the second the fundamental analogies Grifoli's text This implicit one The order suggested plot then diction the passage above -brings pseudo mind the traditional divisions Ciceronian Ciceronian rhetoric i.e. invention disposition and elocution not in

.

of

he

:

at

of

as

long before Grifoli specifically sees these divisions supplying the ordering principle parts least certain Horace's text Thus the passage the commentary on verses 32-45 to

he

is

to

is

of

( a

he

.

,

,

he ,

,

a

-

a

,

at

And the same time touches upon the three points which belong the orator's faculty invention elocution and disposition And because had used thing which turned about order placing elocution before disposition did treating language proper for reason since here the matter and this

To

a

,

..

to

he

,

to

his

),

in

passing about dis the right place for language and then speaking lightly and position nevertheless returning order after having said little about 24 disposition elocution now comes back

he is

a

,

,

.

,

,

-

,

is

six

is

following Aristotle's division into the first assumption that Horace qualitative parts added then following second assumption that the commonplace three way rhetorical distinction Grifoli's commentary will therefore shift back and forth between these two analyses although commentary

the

of

in

a

is

sense reversed .pp

23

The situation

in

.

the comparison with Aristotle remains the dominant one

Giason

,

,

do

,

de

,

,

in

;

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ea

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),

Interpretatio 1550 esp 11-12 Videns igitur Aristotelis iudicio Tragoediam constare fabula moribus sententia dictione apparatu melodia primum constitutione fabulae disserendum esse statuit nam totius imitandae rationem continet deinde cum mores sententiae verbis explicentur orationem statim post fabulam coepit expolire quo non secutus nec ordinem nec rationem Aristotelis nam hic post fabulam mores tum sententiam post dictionem explicauit atque his omnibus omnia diligenter executus

.pp

24

,

de

ijs

ac

.

...

"

.

ad

,

,

, h

se

de

,

,

ea

de

,

de

.

,

est Videns autem Horatius quamuis agi fabula dicatur tamen nullum esse locum aut Tepl uứdou qui non tractetur oratione existimauit sententia aut more idest tepl Slavolas quibus disserendo etiam mutata Aristotelis dispositione omissis omnibus posse quàm commodissimè quos vellet vtriusque locos peruenire nulla est controuersia Itaque secundo loco oratione dixit

"

in

...

,

rei

,

.

,

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,

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&

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35 )

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.

vi

in

Et

de

de Et

vbi

.

sit ,

&

,

.

: & “

,

.,

Atque simul tres partes attigit quae sunt Ibid 24–25 oratoris sitae Inuen dispositionem quia praepostero vsus erat ordine praeponens tionem elocutionem quod tamen cum causa fecit cum elocutionem dispositioni oratione hic apta tractet proprius orationis dispositione casu hic locus obiter loquatur tamen ordi pauca Dispositione dixit nem hçc suum redigens Elocutionem redijt

POETIC

THEORY

Denores , In epistolam Q. Horatij Flacci de arte poetica ( 1553 ) . Here the major point of reference is the invention disposition elocution schema, as Denores indicates at the beginning : “ in this same epistle to the Pisos are collected together by Horace , who chose them from various works by many authors, the points which seemed to him to be essential for the

...

judging of the writings of poets or for the formation of our taste with respect to every rule of invention , disposition , and elocution in every type of poetry .” 25 Denores follows this schematism faithfully throughout . The first lines of the Ars poetica , he says , concern invention ; lines 24–31 make distinctions relative to elocution ; lines 32-41 are on disposition , as are lines 42-45 ; lines 46–72 treat certain problems of elocution ; and so forth . How ever , from the very beginning the parallels with Aristotle are presented either implicitly or explicitly . So Denores ' first remark about invention is that it is the “ anima " of poetry : the term comes directly from Aristotle's characterization of plot . Figurative language ( in re lines 46–72) is pleasur able because of the imitation involved , and imitation itself is enjoyable

of knowledge ; compare Aristotle . In a similar way , constantly brings Denores in from the Poetics statements or comparisons which illuminate his essentially rhetorical interpretation . Such a method is among the most dangerous of those used by theorists because it is a source

of

the Cinquecento : dangerous in the sense that it must inevitably result

of the texts involved . The mere fact that it should have been practiced so widely is symptomatic of the philosophical naïveté in hopeless deformation

,

,

,

.

of

do

in

.

to

to

.

or

They discovered

users

;

its

certain obvious parallels similarities between texts this led them seek other less obvious agreements the point where the texts became totally equivalent What they did not realize was that two texts having occasional similarities may their essence present completely different theories the poetic art Aristotle and

of

possibility

of

in

to of

.

at a

ever arriving

of

all

understand

if

as

.

if

as

either text To read Horace

indicate complete failure were Aristotle Aristotle or

the Poetics and the Ars poetica

is he to

to

an

a

a

,

of

is

as ;

of

a

of

touch upon certain number common topics but the one poems concerned with the internal structures these become objects contemplation poems beautiful the other with the making specific upon particular given which will have effect audience time identity To generalize from the accidental similarities doctrine Horace

essentially

he were

to of

a

at

,

de

ad

5v : "

25

.

to

of

,

to

of

on

to

eliminate

.

of

is

proper interpreta tion either This error the part the Cinquecento was course correlative other errors already noted especially the tendency reduce texts series isolated fragments thereby destroying their basic phil osophical integrity Horace

,

,

."

[

56 ]

ex

,

,

ab

ac

,

ad

in

), .p

in

de

(

In

epistolam 1553 poetarum scriptis diiudicandis hac ipsa Pisones uel dispositionisque uel communiter nostris ingenijs omnem inuentionis elocutionis quocunque poematum genere formandis quae praecipua uidebantur uarijs rationem multorum libris excerpta diligentissime Horatio colliguntur

THE METHODOLOGY

OF THE THEORISTS

A

fourth characteristic approach of critics in this century was the con to reconcile divergent positions . When " authorities ” were recognized as equally valid , differences of opinion between them must be explained away and ultimate agreement must be discovered . Perhaps the stant attempt

central figure in such discussions was Plato , whose attacks upon poetry in the Republic needed to be reconciled on the one hand with his own defences

and on the other hand with the numerous “ apolo authorities ” and with such a position as Aristotle's . The passages in the Republic on the banishment of the poets were at the center through the humanistic period and the of attention and controversy

of

it in other dialogues

by other

“

XXX

libri

1516

to

)

in

is

of

all ,

):

antiquarum

(

Lectionum

(

as

a

of

.

to

he

, in

One the favorite arguments the attempt reconcile only those poets Plato with himself was insist that banished after whose writings contained undesirable moral teachings That the point view such writer Lodovico Ricchieri Caelius Rhodiginus his .

Cinquecento

of

all

gies ”

he

in

to

he

,

and eloquently

the Dialogues ,

all

their wicked doctrines

:

of

:

),

is

.

,

of

(

de

Plato banished them because

the

said

In

in

poets

in

cite others

which Plato praises poets and poetry Giacopo Grifoli's opinion Oratio laudibus poetarum 1557 similar despite that might

be in

of

to

on

,

After this statement Ricchieri goes

favor

their

to

in

improvement celebrating elegantly their hymns the gods.26

moral heroes

or

,

exhort praises

of to to

be

;

by

)

(

to

But with respect these fables for the young we must note carefully that the poets are not condemned outright Plato since the degree which holds rejected when they disturb the state and invent shameful that they should things that same degree embraces them and kisses them tenderly when they

;

all

he

,

he of

he

go -

or

he

,

of

truth we must believe that that famous philosopher condemned the teach ings poets even though himself had called them the fathers wisdom that banished them because they were harmful even though himself had ,

he

. 27

of

of

of

of

be

of

;

of

declared that they were the betweens the gods and although held that their poems are not human inventions but gifts the gods ordered that they should driven from the territory his state because they were wicked

in

of

is

do

it

.

of

or it

,

it

in

:

analysis This type the various Platonic texts does one two things concludes that good poets remain acceptable the state while bad ones are excluded decides that only poems with undesirable moral tenden cies are the objects Plato's attack What does not discover that different conclusions about poetry are reached different texts because

26

the fact that the problems posed and the contexts established

are themselves

,

,

,

ad

,

si

."

59 : “

), .p

(

In

27

,

,

,

,

iis

in

: “

), .p

,

,

à

(

Lectionum 1516 158 Sed illud impense animaduertendum non damnari prorsum Platone Poetas Siquidem quantum ubi perturbant aut turpia fingunt reiiciendos putat tantundem amplexatur exosculaturque bonam frugem hortentur laudibus heroum aut Deorum hymnis eleganter facundeque concelebratis Orationes 1557 est vero credendum illum philosophum doctrinam damnasse

57 ]

[

,

.”

,

à

,

&

,

,

qui eosdem ipse sapientiae patres appellarit aut tanquam perniciosos exclusisse quos idem interpretes deorum testetur esse quorum poemata non hominum inuenta sed munera coelestia esse ducat hos tanquàm impios arcendos finibus ciuitatis suae statuisse ,

poetarum

POETIC THEORY different . Plato is seeking answers to widely divergent questions in the Symposium and the Republic and the Laws; hence , what he has to say about poetry will in each case be influenced by the special context in which he is considering it . That this was not realized , or was realized rarely, by the critics of the Renaissance is again explained by their general method : fragmentation and the concentration on the isolated passage did not lead to an awareness of the total philosophical meaning of texts and of the relationship of any individual passage to that meaning. At times, of course , this kind of awareness was present. We may take as an example Marcan

XXIV

of :)

ca.

tonio Maioragio's statement in the “ Oratio the Orationes et praefationes ( 1550

De arte poetica

:

of

"

to

a

he all

,

all

.

to at a

is

so

,

all

is

no

,

in

,

of

,

as

in

,

is

The fact that Plato led the poets out his state no argument against them especially since many other places Plato himself praises them the skies with almost divine commendations and admires them most extraordinary degree Indeed just that state where nobody sick but are healthy and body there sound need for doctors Plato since was inventing be

,

,

of no

it ,

,

itself

it

of

,

,

in

for

conduct

to

,

in

things removed the poets from state most blessed and most wise because state which had already achieved the highest end there seemed living for any instructions for any precepts further need for any teachers

for that

was ready for good and blessed living.28

it

, .

to of

so

we

in ,

to

of

explain away Plato's banishment the poets which the most common construction put upon the

large degree

purgation

as a

.

the Cinquecento

to

in

,

of

is

,

a

to

,

was this wish a

is

It

relatively rare

led

or

to

all

,

of

Here Maioragio realizes that within the assumption the Republic that things are considered with reference justice within the achievement unnecessary the state poetry undesirable means that justice But such realization along with the making distinctions that involves

.

to

it all

;

,

in

.

of

,

on

as

in to

of

of

"

an

"

Aristotle's Poetics Here are confronted not attempt reconcile two contradictory texts with the one text the light the other the grounds that both are talking about the same thing Plato had banished the poets because things their undesirable moral effects Aristotle who wished con clause

much with interpretation

.

So

.

of

that whereas

by

Castelvetro argues

be

;

al

in

1570

)

Platone

ca.

comune

(

di

of

"

it " is

in

,

;

tradict Plato said that their moral effect was desirable consisted pre cisely pity and fear the purgation runs the argument One variation found Lodovico Castelvetro's Chiose intorno libro del Plato

poems must their followed found assumes rejected readers Aristotle answers that they may either followed :

or

,

be

in

that the examples

è

.

in

,

& ,

ea

ex

ita sit

,

.

in

: "

), .p ,

ea

,

,

&

in in

, id

est

(

et

28

praefationes Orationes 1582 147v quod autem ciuitate sua Plato poetas quidem nullum eduxerit contra illos argumentum cum praesertim alijs locis plurimis idem Plato propè diuinis celum laudibus eosdem efferat mirandum modum admiretur aegrotus sed omnes bene Verum quemadmodum ciuitate ubi nullus omnino corpore bene constituto nihil medicis opus est ualentes Plato cum omnium beatissi

. "

ad

,

,

ei

,

,

se

[ 58 ]

,

,

,

&

sapientissimam fingeret ciuitatem poetas eduxit quoniam mam ciuitati quae iam optimum finem esset consecuta nullis uitae magistris nullis institutionibus nullis morum praeceptis amplius opus esseuidebatur cum per contenta esset benè beateque uiuendum

Plato supposes that poetry was invented for examples and that whatever found means teach necessity others This followed bad can and must )

.

be

by

is

of

by

of

be it

395

,

or to

( Rep .

other reason than good poetry ,

III ,

In this passage

in no

OF THE THEORISTS

THE METHODOLOGY

it

to

we

what Plato says

29

this passage

.

contradicting

in

to del

listened

by

to it,

,

of

.

,

,

to

,

of

—

to

,

so ,

is

in

;

as a

is

is of all ,

proposed before we wish that poetry should contained may have examples matter for careful consideration and that frighten the wicked and learn about console the good and kinds men and women And therefore Aristotle said that tragedy through the nature the men who fears and injustices drove out fears and injustices from the heart

for what

false

teach

of

is

,

in

.

of

so

was always eager

so

He does this because

to

he

?

tragedy

its ,

he

, of

).

(

is

presented Another variation Girolamo Frachetta's Dialogo that Aristotle assigns Frachetta's general thesis furore poetico 1581 pleasure never that poetry only the single end instruction Why then pedagogical intent the definition should include purgation with

,

in

of

by

;

in

such passions.30

on

frees our minds

to us

)

he (

of

,

of

]

(

of

fear

it

,

he

,

of

of on

and

in

he

at

so .

do

to

we

contradict Plato much that times went about begging and borrowing the occa sions Wherefore seeing that Plato forbids his Republic the horrible and pitiable subjects the poets which his opinion make fearful pity and consequently and full low and poor heart and wishing correct defining tragedy that pity him this matter Aristotle said means might almost say that

to

is

of

to as an

the

of

utility

in

or

pedagogical device part the is

.

an is

,

,

, in

never questioned

That assumption itself

.pp

to

the Poetics

moral improvement

is

of to

is

the same argument what

these variations

the assumption that catharsis

29

and the special kind

. 31

,

all

In

,

of

performance the circumstances which the genre meant have audience

and

of

of

poets answer Plato's banishment tragedy specifically because the nature

is a

it

.

,

to is ,

,

la

;

of in

theory purgation poetry He ascribes

instrument

in

Lorenzo Giacomini's opinion the matter stated his academic dis purgazione della tragedia delivered the Accademia degli course Sopra again that Aristotle develops his Alterati 1586 his general position

.

, o

da ,

e

, 92 : “

& a

cid fà

), .p ,

30

. "

,

le .

, e

uomini delle donne ingiustizie scacciava quello che dice Platone

,

, e

le gli

de

la

le

gli

de la

i

, e le

,

E

i

ventare consolare buoni conoscere natura perciò diceva Aristotele Tragedia con paure che con paure ingiustizie dal cuore uomini ascoltanti riprovando questo luogo in

lo se

o

sia ,

,

sia

, o

da

da

rei , e

,

, e &

,

;

è

,

, e è

Il

.

da

,

: "

),

si

in la

( ,

In

In

Opere varie critiche 1727 215-16 561. Nihil aliud agere vel imitari oportet questo luogo presuppone Platone che Poesia non trovata per altro non per insegnare per Esempio possa ciò che truova Poesia bene male che altri proposta prima che vogliamo che insegna per debba seguire che falso perciocchè spa materia farvi pensamenti sopra acciocchè abbiamo esempj d'ogni maniera

59 ]

[

.

29–52

,

.

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,

la

. "

,

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&

di

;

&

de ,

da

ci

di , & le

&

a

di

fu

lo

&

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&

.

1597

.pp ,

e

discorsi

),

la ,

di

,

Orationi

(

In

,

si

31

(

Dialogo 1581 perche egli sempre uago contradire Platone intan può dir per poco ch'egli sia andato alle volte limosinando accattando occasioni poeti horribili La onde ueggendo ch'egli diuieta nella sua Republica cose com passioneuoli perciò che pieni suo parere fanno paurosi misericordia conse pouero cuore guentemente disse definendo cio ripigliare uolendol stremo tragedia che ella per compassione per spauento libera l'animo cotai passioni toche

POETIC THEORY of reading Platonic intentions into Aristotle . For Plato , in the Republic, the “ effect” of poetry is a pedagogical or a moral one ; therefore , in Aristotle , the " effect " of tragedy must also be pedagogical or moral . result

of

as

its

,

,

its

its

if

The two texts are more than reconciled ; the second is read as procedures and premises conclusions were the same those

the

of

a

the imitation

the conflation

for

single text

or the

one text with another

;

of

be

)

:

;

new theories

(2

of

development

four characteristic methods

the

(1

would seem Cinquecento critics

,

of

approaches

)

then

,

These

to

.

first

of

of

of

:

of

of

of

,

be

of

;

( 4 )

of

we

.

If

)

(

3

divergent conflation several texts the reconciliation would explain certain the difficulties Renaissance criticism two auxiliary problems must considered the problem ter minology and the meanings words and the problem the procedure the

positions

.

argumentation

TERMINOLOGY AND MEANINGS to

if

.

a

of

to

to

or

.

of

of

”

“

of

“

is

of

in

a

is

(

epistola

ad as it

Giraldi Cintio's Super imitatione

imita

Ciceronian

model for matters Giovambattista found Coelium Calcagninum dated

the use

—

This meaning

the case

confusion was the

,

style

.

expression

,

,

language

and

single term

of

of

.”

of

-

meaning confusion associated with tion One sense the word not subject meaning the imitation earlier poets

to a

of

of

;

of

to

,

to

a

in

is

of

terminology and meanings sense related the the attempt reconcile differing texts For one try tried reconcile the major ideas one also had reconcile the terms the discussions the latter attempt was concomitant the former Perhaps the best example meanings the multitude hence the The matter

subject just discussed

re in

or

),

(

is

),

an

recall that there are two kinds

of

:

me reasonable and necessary

.

speech

32

of

,

to

in

in

of

is

,

figures

.

words and

to

of we

treat only the other one which consists

of

.

,

in

One

in

expressing which consists excellent fashion the nature and characters those persons whom undertake imitate And this poetry ... But leaving this type the end imitation Aristotle we shall .

poetic imitation

to

seems

to

...

it

of

.

,

(

),

in

Celio Calcagnini's Super imitatione commentatio 1532 Bernardino Parthenio's Della imitatione poetica 1560 clear and mains distinct from the others Indeed Parthenio states the difference be imitation tween two major kinds 1532

"

“

.pp

we

la

.

of

et

de

"

in

as

a

be

,

of

“

is

It

these which might called rhetorical imitation Ciceronians were talking about and that interested such langue française theorist Du Bellay the Deffence illustration that was free confusion and ambiguity The difficulty arises when wish the second

the type that the

,

,

è

il

Et

.

"

. ad

di

la

ne

, et

[ 60 ]

et

,

ci

di

,

: , “

),

,

di

i

et

di

.

le

. . . .

le

(

32

imitatione poetica 1560 92-94 mi pare ragioneuole douuto ricordar sorti della Imitatione poetica Vna laquale consiste nell'esprimere eccellente quelle persone che proponiamo d'imitare questo mente nature costumi queste sorti cura Aristotele sola imitationi lasciando Ma fine della poesia dire modi mente tratteremo dell'altra laquale consiste nelle parole Della due esser

the

in

or

of

,

)

is

.

.

where which the

392–93

poetry the narrative

in

Steph

(

of

the Republic :

"

three

styles

of

Book

"

in

distinguishes

Socrates

III

in

it

as

to in

,

,

;

.

of ”

“

,

of

:

was the discussion

And

assigned

meanings

of

,

,

;

"

of

"

,

he

;

in

of

in

which the poet takes the his own person the imitative which the and the mixed imitates thus another whom

poet speaks

person

in

all

imitation

to

difficulty springs the the term superimposition dialogues several Plato and second the various the Poetics used these meanings upon the term Perhaps the single passage Plato which led the greatest uncertainty

of

meaning poetic to consider from two causes first the variety

the

OF THE THEORISTS

THE METHODOLOGY

in

for

the second

or

)

(

second style and Aristotle's TTPÓTTOVTAS KAI Évepyoữvtas

for

(

.

of

an

,

to

an

.

two other styles are combined Now critics the Renaissance saw this imitation Poetics 1448a19 on the manners exact parallel They thus saw also equivalence between Plato's dià uiuñoews the passage

”

of

he

to of

"

"

or

”

“

: Is

of to

"

in

. ”

"

of

,

is

If

on , a

so

?

an

?

it

an

Aristotle

what extent

poetry considered come within the categories Or are tragedy and comedy the only true imitations To the epic imitation narrative poem not imitation

and does

is ?

,

by an

imitation

as

in

he

“

if

).

”

of

“

“

",

:

“

reasoning was the basis manner The next step the later equivalent confusion Aristotle here uses dramatic Plato's imitative then when himself uses imitative imitation the interminable discussion This assumption led means dramatic meaning imitation Aristotle and related problems the lyric dramatic

to

be

as

of a

if

in

,

of

is

.

one single thing

the case horse were repre descriptions the painter things which differ from one by

is

the imitation

by

:

as

would

of

,

the first

art means lines and colors the poet The second the imitation ,

).

(

I

:

of of

imitating

imitation

by

by by

..

there are three ways through different kinds sented words

.

?

as

an

as

be

be

in of

it

to

need have unity And into manifold ramifications Echoes these doubts and uncertainties and misunderstandings are Pigna's found such texts romanzi 1554 The following passage example may taken

does

as is

;

in

,

a

of

is to

I

if

.

of in

of

(

.

is

to

,

in

on

,

,

of

in

in

,

,

of

through one kind represent beautiful things imitation were verse alone and ugly things verse alone The last the imitation one single thing through one kind imitation but different manner the case with poetry but the latter intro the epic and the tragic poet who treat heroes persons stage duces action the the former narrates how they accomplish their actions And this epic procedure also appropriate our own writers another

them

,

done

the more the poet

so

is

the more frequently

,

which

the

,

person and another

it

,

,

),

since these relate how matters stand and when the opportunity presents they quote the conversatio that have taken place between one

romance

itself

said that these compositions

come closest

to

it

.

and not merely heard And

is

,

of

.

of

is a

,

imitates since introducing actors themselves that they may speak together way making the action come more directly before our eyes And therefore tragic and comic plots are called dramatic because the events which are seen being

be

in

61 ]

[

”

“

as

.

in

,

"

“

to

,

paintings are truly praised when they really true imitations the same way come close life itself Therefore since the word poet means nothing else but imitator the more we introduce people conversation the more will we

THEORY

POETIC

worthy of that name . Nevertheless it would seem to be better to avoid this kind of imitation and to use narration more continuously.3 .

I

of

of

equivalent to " dramatic " and as opposed to consequences

narrative .

"

all

quote the text at such length because it is important to see how the shift in terminology takes place . Pigna begins with a distinction of the three kinds of imitation (which he calls “ modi " ) , paraphrasing Poetics 1447a16 . The third distinction , that of manner , leads him to use " imitation ” as

Follow

”

the

.

,

of

it

to

in

I

the manuscript

.

in

follows

poetry once more the ,

:

at a

;

of

,

to

the Poetics

arrive definition merit lengthy quotation

to

in

is

to

,

of

the Republic Plato says that imitate make one and that poetic imitation exists when the poet speaks says the Tenth differentiating imitation whole making images and that the that idols that he

,

as a

of

, of

,

.

,

he be

it

is

he is

,

is

.

of of

of

of

idols with things

he

all is

in

is a

,

follows that poetic imitation fabrication speech which fabricates idols and images But that form it

speech

of

.

speech

is

imitates

.

in to

by

is a

of is , of

of

is a

,

is is a a

it

fabrication images ... whence imitator fabricator and maker idols that led say also that poetic imitation fabrication idols But surely not neces sary speaking fabricate idols only the person another but this can done another way But since the proper instrument the poet with which to

that

In

of

,

the Third book thing resemble another the person another

is a a

”

“

,

of

to

is

such

In

is

passage

attempting as

,

whose translation

it

Giacomini Giacomini

of

.

is

"

“

of

the term

in

this Platonic sense Another document which involves such progression meanings not only fragment but also imitation fable MS Laurenziana anonymous but Ashb 531. The fragment attribute Lorenzo the use

in

,

,

is

.

the Third book divides mythology

mythology

;

to

,

which Plato

of

,

is ,

,

of

is

of

.

,

says that none other than fable and mythology Aristotle therefore when poetry imitation means not that first imitation the Third book Plato but mythology and fable And this this second one the Tenth that clear furthermore because Aristotle himself applies imitation the same division with

for Plato assigns three kinds ,

,

by

.

,

to

in

pp .

33

,

he

is

an

,

to

and Aristotle three kinds imitation and the same ones But when Aristotle says that poetry imitation meaning imitation mythology agrees with Plato who the Third book conjoins poetry with mythology and

di

in

.

in se

di

:

gli

,

in

&

in

.

di

:

le

in

&

,

:

.

le

il

vn

i

: “

(

&

;

I

),

1554 15-16 tre sono modi dell'imitare L'uno vna istessa cosa quale mostrato sarà dal dipintore come nell'esprimere con l'arte cauallo parole l'altro con lineamenti con colori dal poeta con descrittion cose tra diverse d'un genere istesso come s'io versi solo belle cose rappresentar voglia versi solo sozze L'ultimo vna cosa medesima d'un medesimo genere ma diuerso romanzi genere diuersa

su la

in

&

.

ci

da à

.

&

:

la

, è

gli gli

i

tra

le

i

.

il : Et & i

.

de

&

:

,

,

à

si

di

,

i

si

le

:

& à il :

Tragico che poeticamente modo come l'Epico heroi trattano ma questi persone induce negociare quegli narra come scena fatti loro trattino tale tutta quando uia con nostri confà conciosia cosa ch'essi dicono come cose stiano l'opportunità loro s'offre riferiscono parlamenti corsi l'una parte l'altra che quanto proprij piu frequenta essendo che l'introducere fare tanto maggiormente s'imita negociatori insieme venga perciò fauellare far che piu cosa dinanzi occhi :

, di

.

al

,

essere nel narrar piu continouo

]

[

62

.”

.

sia

di

la le

,

&i

sorte d'imitatione

,

le

&

Et ,

,

le

.

si

le

Tragiche Dramatiche chiamano Comiche fauole affari che non vditi ma nel modo dicesi che cotesti componimenti piu alla imitatione s'accostano veduti sono dipinture quali veramente lodate sono quando che viuo veramente s'appressano poeta altro non suona che imitatore Adunque perche tal nome degni tanto piu voce fuggir questa saremo quanto piu parlamenti induceremo Con tutto ciò pare che meglio

OF THE THEORISTS

THE METHODOLOGY

the poet with the mythologist , that is , the teller of fables . If then poetry is an imitation , and the poet an imitator, and to imitate is to feign and compose fables , it follows that the poet can imitate even if he speaks in his own person . There

...

being then two kinds of imitation , these two authors mean now the one , now the other ; but in the definition of poetry Aristotle means that broader one, that is, mythology , that is, fable - telling speech .

,

or

of

.

is

of

a

as

"

“

it

by

,

in

lie ;

he

Besides , it seems that fable has two meanings according to the aforementioned two authors , because Plato in the Second book of the Republic says that fable lying and tells fables But generally is a for discourse which later takes part tragedy Aristotle the poetic art taking the fable the epic ;

by

,

, of

,

...

certain lying and falseness

or

by

an

.

is ,

,

themselves and with imitates true actions and real things.34

in

narrated discourses not true

a

a

of

,

of

.

we

,

is ,

is is ,

a

means fable the actions themselves feigned and false whence fable has double meaning that say that false discourse and false action When therefore lying dicourse poetry mythology we mean the first kind fable that Poetry feigned and mendacious form speech thus which means

of

in

.

of

ligent

;

of

is

of

careless unintel the errors produced extreme case not handling procedures terms such are common much the critical writing the Cinquecento

This

is

.

also related the even more important shifting and the theorist's use terms

of

argumentation For

of

question

terminology

is

To this matter

if

of

PROCEDURES OF ARGUMENTATION

lo

il

lei

et

lo

et di

a di

è

...

la

de

: “

la

,

et la

ad .

,

.

è è di

,

di di

di X

.

.

in

34

Repa Platone dice 531 fols 39–39v Nel terzo libro imitare poeta parla essere assimigliare una cosa unaltra imitazion poetica essere quando persona d'altri Nel ponendo differenza tutta l'imitazione dico essere fabrica imagini mento cio facimento idoli cio imitatore essere fabricatore facitore imagini idoli cio onde viene dire ancora che l'imitazione poetica sia fabricamento

MS Laur Ashb

,

è

la

di

de le

et le

gli

la

et

è

X ,

la

la

la

à

tre

,

.

il

et

è è

in et

,

il

et

,

,

il

et

è

,

la

,

il

et

al

3

, la et i

,

, la è et

la

.

Se

la

medesima con assegna Platone essere imitazione

,

. et

manifesto ancora perche esso Aristotile divide l'imitaziono con divisiono quale Platone nel mythologia perche mytologia divide modi poesia tre Aristotile imitazione medesimi Ma dicendo Aristotele per imitazione intendendo mytheologia convien con Platone quale favoleg poesia congiunge mithologia mythologo nel terzo con col poeta cio giatore adunque poesia poeta imitatore fingere imitazione l'imitare favola

questo

,

di

.

la

et ,

il

.

la

si

in

questo puo fare ancora quale egli imita l'orazione

è

è

,

che non

in

persona d'altri ma che necessario fabricare idoli parlando proprio instrumento del poeta col altro modo ma essendo seguita poetica imitazione essere fabricamento idoli con quale fabrica imagini orazione ma l'orazione idoli cose altro non che mythologia Aristotile adunque quando dice ogni poesia essere imitazione intendo favola non quella prima del terzo libro Platone ma questa seconda del ciò mythologia

idoli ma certo

.

,

la

.

,

è

,

et

,

la

de

la

è

ne

,

il

propria persona comporre favole seguita che poeta puo imitare parlando ancora essendo adunque due l'imitazioni ora questa ora quella intendono questi due autori poesia Aristotile intende quella piu larga cio mythologia ma diffinitione cio l'orazione fauolosa ,

è

lo

vero azzioni

et

,

la

.

falsità imita

le

,

il

et

]

63

et

mendacio

[

con qualunque

la de

,

et

et

la

è

la

,

narrate

,

la

la

i

la

.

,

è

E

...

et

vere voraci

se

.” da

.

la

la

la

et

la

de

et

la

de

la

Ancora pare che fauola sia doppia secondo due autori predetti perche Platono nel piglia per Republica dice secondo favola generalmente essere mendacio dipoi orazione mendace favolosa Ma Aristotile nel arte poetica pigliando favola per una parte tragedia del epopeia intende favola essere l'azzioni stesse finte false per qual cosa doppia cio favola l'orazion falsa l'azzione falsa quando adunque poesia essere mythologia intendiamo primo genere diciamo favola cio l'orazion adunque poesia orazione finta quale con l'orazioni non mendace mendace cose

POETIC THEORY uncertain , he can with difficulty pursue an orderly argument or achieve a convincing demonstration . Among critics of the Cinquecento the two defi ciencies , of terminology and of argumentation , were sometimes concomit

ant , sometimes separate . That weakness in logical method should appear is not surprising , given the wilful rejection of the Aristotelian logic of the schools , the failure to discover the essence of Plato's method of dialectic,

of

and the unawareness

of considering and analyzing

the art

plete and consistent philosophical documents. The best way to illustrate these deficiencies or peculiarities

texts as com

of argumenta

tion is , of course , to analyze some work or works in entirety . Since I shall be doing that frequently and repeatedly in the later chapters , perhaps it will be sufficient at this point - in order to avoid repetition — to study a section of a work which presents a typical example . Let us take the sections

of Francesco Patrizi's Della poetica : La deca disputata ( 1586 ) in which he attacks Aristotle's proposition that poetry is an imitation . Patrizi is a reputable philosopher ; much of his philosophy was based upon a wish to controvert the theories of Aristotle ; his method in controverting them must have been the best he could find and the object of careful attention and consideration . This particular attack begins with Book III . Starting with the objection that Aristotle had nowhere defined the term imitation , Patrizi collects six passages from Aristotle in which the term uiunois has six different meanings , two from the Rhetoric and four from the Poetics . For several of these passages the meaning is found by consulting texts of

,

cf.

of ,

Hermogenes kai

TÒ

If

( cf. 2 )

2;

, .

(

XI ,

III

Rhet

,

vivid description

.

be

of

or

enargia

”

"

all

III

),

Plato . Patrizi concludes that these are six separate meanings , with distinct definitions . Asking , then , whether individually these meanings supply a proper definition for poetry , he concludes that they do not: ( 1) If poetry is , I, 8 ; Cratylus 423 an imitation because words are imitations ( Rhet. poetry then forms discourse would imitation means

in

Book

of

.

IV ,

"

be a

:

;

or

,

or

,

(

”

“

these propositions

"

"

,

be a "

),

.

( 3 )

If

,

be

)

,

poetry μέγιστον ποιήσεως μίμησιν εναργή then only some parts would contain imitation which would also found rhetoric and history plot mythology imitation means favola fable propositions necessarily every poem Poetics 1450a3 then two must follow poem Leaving the first will favola and every favola will

)

,

(

“

:

he

,

.

poem

,

is a

"

an

”

imitation

favola

accord neither with the first premise nor (

in

“

conclusion which

is

a

we

obtain

is

an imitation

favola Therefore every

64 )

Every

“

Every poem

is

to

we

,

if

a

,

in

”

in

,

is

Patrizi demonstrates that the many second false for the ancients wrote favole here fables which prose and many ancient authorities were not poems because they were made careful distinction between poetry and mythology Moreover says reduce Aristotle's argument the following syllogism

for discussion

OF THE THEORISTS

, as in would

representation ),

394

,

.

cf.

with the facts . ( 4) If by imitation is meant a dramatic Rep III comedy and tragedy ( Poetics 1449b24 ; admit neither epic nor dithyrambic poetry but prose comedy and dialogues imitation does

then

it

THE METHODOLOGY

If

in

be

it to ,

is

by

;

),

25 ,

these are taken

,

if

,

;

then

be

:

,

.

of

;

.

-

of

which some are

And none

them

is

,

all all

sufficient

this argument are immediately apparent Not only .

of

48a9

other writings also and not writers both poetry and non

of

to

,

to

will

have different meanings

others are common others make the compositions poetry and others make them non poetry provide the genus for poems.35 ,

poetry

imitations only when the stage Patrizi summarizes thus

therefore

to

of

these are not forms poetry then they

poetry

The weaknesses

"

“

If

( 6 )

Poetics 1447a15

of to

”

,

imitations

“

six

not appropriate proper poetry

and gnomes

,

they are represented

All

.

,

,

all ,

for

forms on

,

as

is

at

not poetry metaphorically

(

hymns blames

,

,

encomia

of

,

,

in

of in

)

(

he

(

),

.

( 5 )

in

,

it

would include both include the epic and then Aristotle contradicts himself when the dithyramb Poetics 1447a13 very little because imitate later says 1460a5 that many epic poets they speak constantly and imitation consists their own persons auletic speaking constituted another imitation the person equivalent citharistic syringic and orchestic poetry which would

,

in ,

is

,

.

in

,

(

." of

,

of

' is a

'

"

,

;

of

)

is a

as

or

"

by

to

,

by

"

all

imitation plot -given mean Aristotle which are directly excluded that context but these terms and others shift their meaning passes stage Patrizi from stage the argument Moreover there pseudological analysis propositions being attacked which kind the very proposition e.g. itself unsure his treatment the itself incorrectly every poem derived that favola The careful reader working his poetry are the terms from the Poetics— ings which are not justified the context

of

a

to

,

he

is

by

he

of ,

in

to

context and submitted always

searching analysis

on

.

,

redefinition justified and careful distinction

,

by

,

of

;

of

.

no

no

a

of

way through such series arguments feels himself driven point complete confusion where words longer have fixed meanings and validity Perhaps Patrizi felt that demonstration has was following example the the Platonic dialectic instead was violating the very principles meaning accompanied that dialectic which change

I

in

partial explana they were and , ad tra

as

a

as

sei

be

74 : "

.pp

to

of

:

,

reasons first and primarily that they might serve interpreted tion how the ancient theories came 35

,

,

of

to

so

.

I

of in

of

a

to

.

,

to of

These remarks the methodology the critics have been fear fairly damaging They would seem point philosophical incom degree petence both the reading and interpretation earlier texts and the development new theories have ventured make them for two

,

le

, e

.

le

65 )

essere genere alle poesie tutte

. "

ad

.

niuna bastante

(

.

altre del tutto non poesie

E

),

; .v a p . de

, e

non poesic

. e

e

ad ( sic )

.

(

Della poetica 1586 59–74 Tutte adunque imitazioni hanno loro significati differenti De quali altri poesia non conuengono Altre sono communi poeti Altre che fanno composizioni altrui poesie altri scrittori non proprie

POETIC

THEORY

how the new theories came to assume the form that they did ; second , so that the reader might be more acutely aware , as he reads the subsequent chapters , of what is taking place in the individual texts analyzed . He should not , however, conclude from these remarks either that method was univer sally bad or that the theorists never succeeded in making consistent sense in their treatises . There were examples of good method ; there were cases of solid contribution to theory ; there were completely consistent and well developed documents.

.

or

,

,

a

,

let

.

-

on

be to

of

a

to

us

Perhaps we may thus analyze the situation with respect to the procedure best of the theorists . A given critic has developed , say clearly thought out and perfectly self contained poetics He may undertake then commentary write Aristotle's Poetics The peculiarities the defi ciencies his general philosophical method permit him read his own

of the

.

of

set

a

to

of

in or

of

of

an ,

to of

set

he

.

Or

theory into the text Aristotle even though the two may worlds apart may poetry which will expound his own out write art theory The peculiarities the deficiencies his general philosophical support method permit him cite his doctrine whole miscel

,

of

,

his is

as

,

;

it

In

. or it

be

entirely irreconcilable with laneous texts which might taken separately essentially the interpretation either situation the ancient text texts which suffers own theory remains undamaged except insofar

on

.

or

of

.

,

in

,

)

on

I

to

of , to

at

of ,

,

(

of

By

be

inappropriate places inadequate the proofs offered may appear way illustration such procedures wish summarize briefly my Cinque findings published previously four the most prominent cento critics Robortello Scaliger Minturno and Castelvetro Francesco Robortello published 1548 the first extensive commentary

In

his

in

far

of in

;

as it

.

of

a

to

,

he

of

36

.

de

Aristotle's Poetics his librum Aristotelis arte poetica explica tiones But from approaching basic text without prior suppositions interpreting the text only about the poetic art and with the intention brought completely worked out theory and for itself the text poetics He had derived this theory from his reading Horace's Ars poetica and the Greek and Roman rhetoricians hence was essentially

of

if

of

of

of

,

be

an

of

of

.

on of a

of

.

in

poetry character Robortello conceived written for the given utility pleasure and producing certain effects good audience The audience was composed elite wise men persuaded only actions certain kinds moral character who would rhetorical purpose

a

a

;

,

on

.

,

,

as a

.

of of

to

persuasion was necessary ante and characters were presented them cedent both utility and pleasure The work itself would produce variety utilities and pleasures not whole but through different parts and elements For example certain lessons about human destiny

in

on

,

.

319-48

and

:

by

the sententiae

Critics and Criticism

pp , .

),

,

66 )

(

al .

et

S.

R.

in

demonstrated

the Poetics Crane University Chicago Press 1952

of , "

:

Chicago

on

Robortello

Modern

(

36 “

;

poems certain truths would

be

,

of

a

of

be

tragedy develop would learned from watching the action the stage certain lessons about character from the observation characters the

Ancient and

THE METHODOLOGY

OF THE THEORISTS

basis of these the audience would be moved to undertake action or to refrain from it . With respect to pleasure , again it would be produced by separate parts of the poem : that related to imitation would come from the plot itself, that associated with the difficulté vaincue from successful treat

ment of unpleasant subjects , that ascribable to admiration from certain kinds of episodes , from diction , from various ornaments . Now this is a completely conceived system of poetics , which Robortello could defend upon philosophical or pragmatic grounds . But when he to

.

:

be

his

proceeds to read Aristotle as if this were Aristotle's theory , too , he com pletely deforms the meaning of Aristotle basic text What happens may summarized thus

to of

to a

is

in

a

,

a

in

.

is a

poetic method essentially different from Aristotle's The ... what emerges poetic fundamental alteration comes the passage from rhetorical posi position the achievement which the essential consideration tion from

; in

do

of

to

of

.

I

a

is

no

a

is

in

the internal and structural relationship which will make the poem beautiful one which the main problem the discovery those devices which will upon produce specified desired effect audience not mean that given Aristotle consideration the effect the poem upon the audience as

of

of

.

,

to

of

of

;

of to

its

it to or

likeness hero audience the argument they are funda giving certain kind artistic ”

”

"

of

of

a

to

"

,

tragedy and their purgation fear the among the requisites character are integral

“

of

"

,

is

to

in

at

,

every crucial point object indeed the Poetics the relationship con templation contemplator concepts maintained constant Such the pleasure proper given species the pity and derived from imitation the effect

of

a

it .

to

or to

this

no

.

of

of

is

of

is

of

,

merely accompaniment inaction which the pleasure involved composed yielding instrument and the audience men capable persuasion rather than enjoying this pleasure men capable ; in

an or

of

an

,

of

is

of

:

no

is

to

if

mental the work art fulfil function pleasure the men who see hear But herein lies the basic departure longer one Robortello the effect produced artistic pleasure resulting from the formal qualities the work but one moral persuasion action

of

to

is

in of its

a

,

as

of

a

a

in

,

.

or

its be

to

"

.

,

these are not vital On the other hand which diction made ornate assume is

no

of

.

as

;

structure for the work need retained such elements diction and the means great importance

by

be

.

a

a

of

of be :"

,

in

,

of

as

.

of

pleasure This means turn that the artistic unity and plot may part the work disappear the problem removed specific from among the poetic elements work and may transferred ally histrionic functions Only the vaguest notions unifying and ordering tegrity

of

persuasion

by

,

,

separate pleasure The bases for the inclusion any given part highly specified audience given reaction itself awaken to

a

or ,

capacity

by

utility

a

,

,

,

to

as is

an

longer compound out This means that the problem for the poet the constitutive parts artistic whole which whole will produce the desired aesthetic effect but rather insert into the work such parts will them selves produce multiple utilities and pleasures each part producing separate

,

is

,

is

.

a

of

,

[ 67 ]

or

,

of

,

Moreover since the sense the total poetic structure lost there longer any possibility deriving from such structure the criteria for the appro priateness for the goodness badness individual parts Instead criteria for

POETIC

THEORY

each separate part will be separately derived by a reference to the character of the audience as it specifically affects that part and in the light of the utility or the pleasure which that part should produce . At each step , there will be reference outside the poem . The poem becomes , as a result , a collection rather than a unit. From it the audience derives utility of a moral character and pleasure of a non aesthetic kind, since it is not related to the structure or the form of the work as a whole . 37

Julius Caesar Scaliger, who died in 1558 , left behind him the completed manuscript of his Poetices libri septem , which was published in 1561.38 Unlike Robortello's work , this is an original art of poetry ; it presents in an orderly and highly systematic fashion Scaliger's theory of the art . Indeed , so orderly and systematic is the presentation that this work might well be taken as an example of a " good " method employed by a Renaissance theorist . The theory as a whole might be described as a grammatical one , in the sense that Scaliger is essentially preoccupied with poetry as an art of discourse . Poetry is conceived primarily as language . As language , it must enter into two distinct relationships : ( 1) the relationship with the things which are signified by the words employed and ( 2) the relationship with

for whom

principles of

its

the signification is intended . Scaliger will thus con things cern himself with as they are in nature - or in Vergil's Aeneid , which represents perfectly the norm of nature — and with the effects of pleasure and utility produced in the audience . Both nature and the needs of the audience impose conditions upon poetry , which has no conditions or the audience

a

.

,

,

,

,

,

of

as

, of on

;

of

to

its

.

arguments

as . a

of

,

of

he

,

of

is ,

system own except those that are purely prosodic Such recog d iametrically opposed Scaliger course that Aristotle and points nizes this fact when takes direct issue with Aristotle such tragedy poetry and the the definition constituent parts the end internal economy the poem This does not prevent him however from using the Poetics constantly source definitions distinctions and

),

.

,

as

,

,

—

, of

,

a

It

39

,

,

,

,

,

.

, is

in

(

of

The De poeta Antonio Sebastiano Minturno 1559 almost exactly achieving contemporary with Scaliger's work much less successful order and system draws heavily upon wide variety works Plato's Republic Laws Ion etc. Aristotle's Poetics and Rhetoric Horace's Ars poetica Quintilian Cicero's Orator De oratore De optimo genere oratorum Topica Such works the Poetics and the Ars poetica are almost completely or

incorporated into Minturno's treatise

—

his

to

of

,

W.

.

),

(

1942 337-60 Shipley

Frederick 101–29 .

pp .

of

XXXIX

Honor

)) in ,

,

,

Mo. 1942

[ 68 ]

St.

”, (

Studies

,

Modern Philology

The Poetic Theories Minturno Washington University Studies Louis

in

", ",

Poetics

of

on

.

.,

of

. .

.pp

39 38 37 “ “

Ibid 346-47 Scaliger versus Aristotle

( “

,

no

;

others contribute more less exten single central But from these disparate elements apply certain approach emerges Not only does Minturno fail concepts distinctions consistently but there are whole groups the rules sive developments

THE METHODOLOGY

OF THE THEORISTS

of an

its

its

and precepts for the specific genres , for example — which do not in any way derive from the more general concepts of the work . Even among these more general ideas , a complete ordering to a central problem is lacking . Some of them relate to the poet himself , to his faculties and his character as a good man ; some of them to the audience with desire for pleasure

an

.

is

as

.

to

to

an

is

no

.

in a

is

;

is

, it

of

as

to

of

;

of

and need for moral improvement some them the poem qualitative and quantitative parts But imitation composed one complete each fragmentary form and presented these analyses Minturno passes rapidly from one context another Insofar there ordering ordering rhetorical principles For the various ideas

Aristotle's system

of of

at

is

,

in

,

of

,

or

of

,

is

,

of

,

a

a

or

to

,

.

at a

to

of

in

,

,

system

of

.

the detail the really treatment however Minturno's Ciceronian and most specific passages comes from one the discussion another Cicero's discipline again rhetorical works Here the lack order the lack the impose synthesis failure arrive central organization upon

in

taken into consideration

In

the speech itself must

the Rhetoric which the the orator and the proofs presented

of

the character be

,

the audience

,

at

in

in is

.

reminiscent

of

nature

all

vaguely

of

as a

or

;

of

,

each chain

;

an

is ,

of

relationships established within the work there one end effect upon the audience the other end some faculty producing that effect the poet capable the middle the poem serving arrangement essentially rhetorical and means instrument This chains

of irreconcilable materials are evident Lodovico Castelvetro's Poetica d'Aristotele vulgarizzata sposta 1570 commentary like Robortello's work the Poetics.40 Unlike Robor

)

(

on

Castelvetro sets out

refute Aristotle and

to

however

,

,

tello

to

,

a

is ,

et

.

mass

suggest his

no

in is its

,

,

imagination

to no

no

a

.

own theories instead He begins with the basic assumption that poems are written for specific audience the ignorant multitude which has knowl ,

memory

in

it

,

so

:

so

or

all

—

. In

,

respected —

be

,

comfort and which demands that please this audience order and pleasure the only end the poet must above seek credibility verisimilitude combina credibility tion with the marvelous that the unimaginative audience will believe the marvelous that will find pleasure the uncommon edge

plots These two factors determine the nature they poetry character the choice materials make kind history which differs from history only the use verse The audience's

of ,

a

of

.

of of a

;

in

,

,

of

.

of

and the extraordinary episodes

to

its

of

it is

(

,

of

of

”

“

a

in

which every

349–71

.

,

.pp

as cit

this

.,

.op

system

al .,

a

in

be

S.

in R. .

Cranc

[ 69 ]

, ”

of

Poetics

Such

et

of

40 “

precepts which the poet must follow Castelvetro's Theory

an

as ,

;

of

”

)

an

,

it .

of

;

of

as by

“

of

demand for comfort introduces the requirement unity time imagination adds the unity place the unity lack action which Castelvetro does not really consider essential even though the only adjunct one the three required Aristotle comes the unities time and place serves additional ornament and shows the excel lence the poet Moreover the audience will impose upon the work special conditions which will whole set codified the rules and

POBTIC

THEORY

.

the Poetics the commentary

,

in

of

be a

commentary

the course

Castelvetro's own doctrine will result

of

.

but much illumination

of

be

on

its

presentation should that the vehicle for Little light will thrown the Poetics

on

thing results from the necessity of pleasing a specific audience , is rhetorical in a sense ; besides , it is historical to the degree that it concerns itself with credibility . It is , of course , clearly distinct from Aristotle's conception of poetics ; and what is amazing from the point of view of methodology is

of ,

I

the details

of

of

An examination

in

,

,

of

by

this chapter

in

These four documents are representative their general outlines the produced application results the methods that have described

by

all

to

of

the characteristic ways

of

,

lectual approach the major difficulties

,

of

we

.

,

-

,

all

,

We should not ,

work

.

in at

.

discussion would show other course expect find the methods exemplified any single work the faults and failings epitomized any one theorist who would thus become the arch sinner Renaissance critical theory Rather should expect that the various habits intel procedures

solving

,

a

,

in

we

.

If

of

of

in ,

in

varying those difficulties would manifest themselves variously and body combinations the numerous documents which constitute the critical materials the Cinquecento are concerned not only with practical what the theoretical and the critics said their writings but with why they said what they did we should anticipate that constant awareness is to

of

of

of

.

,

to

us

of

methodological factors will enable judge both understand and writings problem reading their The Renaissance critical texts com plex not only because the critical situation itself but the complexities a

in

to

in

.

in

of

( 70 )

.

in

be

we

,

or it in

of

time and intellectual habits By con given vices method are present simplicity document shall without doubt able discover some complexity and some clarity confusion our distance from stantly asking what virtues because

CHAPTER THREE . THE TRADITION OF HORACE'S ARS : I. THE EARLIEST COMMENTARIES

POETICA

T

HIS

CHAPTER and the three succeeding ones will be concerned with tracing through the course of the sixteenth century in Italy the intel lectual fortunes of Horace's Ars poetica . Of all theoretical documents relative to the art of poetry in classical antiquity , this was the only one which had some currency during the Middle Ages and which came to the

humanistic period and the Renaissance as a part of their more immediate intellectual heritage.1 Throughout both periods , it continued to be a dominant text in the molding of critical opinion and in the formation of new doctrines . Horace's work represented , in addition to the specific recommendations of the text itself, a general way of thinking about poetry which was highly acceptable to the Renaissance mind and which continued to dominate critical thinking in spite of the emergence of such new points

of view

as that contained in Aristotle's Poetics .

,

an in

in

,

,

of

ticular audience

of

of

be

a

a

by

.

in

to

to

to

of

to

all

Essentially , the Ars poetica regards poems in the context of the society for which they are written . It considers above the dramatic forms please and relation both nature and their capacity instruct given kind that would see them given age under given audience any poem will circumstances What goes into the making determined large part the expectations the requirements the taste this par

its

(

its

of

the

),

of

(

a

),

at

the

,

its

.

Translated into terms the poem these requirements ordering and unification audience disunity certain conventions for super ficial forms the audience expects that plays will have five acts and limited number interlocutors certain recommendations for the decorum certain precepts for dislikes disorder and laughs become

,

of

the

of

of

.

a

to

it

in .)

, of

(

),

(

characters audience has fixed notions both about types and about traditional heroes and certain generalizations about diction audience writing with each associates specific kinds diction and styles the literary genres Moreover since the various age groups and the divers social sectors the audience make different demands upon the poem provide proper combination pleasurable and profitable will have elements

of

,

.

to

his

,

In

of

brings

audience

by

,

of

Horace's theory the internal characteristics the poem not exclusively the external demands the theory very close specifically rhetorical approaches

if

, in

The fact that

are determined largely

in

,

all of

of

be

)

(

71

Poetics

during

the medieval period

,

of

Aristotle's

352

.

.p

an

in

,

an

of

is

,

chap

. ix ,

1

For the scattered appearances

below

of

this kind the determining factor the production the internal principle structural perfection but rather acceptance the those elements are included the assumption that producing upon susceptible work that will the desired effect the theories work not

sco

POETIC THEORY envisaged , arranged in an order calculated to achieve the

audience

maxi

or

it

as

)

( or

:

of

approaches , one essential element - absent from Horace - enters at poet really times into consideration the character the orator

is all

mum degree of that effect. However , in proper and complete rhetorical

).

(

it

If

be

to

is

to

,

For theorists and critics

of

of

.

it

is

is a as it

)

(

appear Quintilian made Aristotle's Rhetoric incomplete rhetoric because Horace's thesis rhetorical one omits this essential aspect

,

.

or

of it

as a

of

I,

in

we

as

its

,

the Renaissance the rhetorical tendency poetica perhaps Horace's Ars was most appealing characteristic Indeed already Chapter have seen their own thinking about poetry frequently considering inclined most toward kinsman rhetoric

.

an

be

to

,

to

in

as

to

instrumental science serving the ends moral philosophy Whatever may they specific passages doubts have had about how Horace's text were interpreted they seem have sensed immediately what extent the ,

.

of

at

to

of

an

in

to

of of

looking poetry whole corresponded their favorite ways the art Perhaps they merely continued the paths their medieval ancestors for adjunct many rhetoric and for whom the Ars whom poetry was to

to by

so

is

it

-

an

in

of be

to

,

of

"

I

,

.

all

in

,

be

;

,

,

of or

.

of

“

a

of

,

be on

an

predominantly

such

Horatian text the Cinquecento from one which sprang primarily from Cicero Quintilian transmuted into authority poetry The details the art the treatment the specific ideas might different but the basic assumptions the fundamental ways considering the poetic art would the same For this reason shall include the present chapter and the following ones not only those works difficult

distinguish

fact was taken rhetorical approach frequently extent that

taken and essentially

is

as

—

.

to of

(

)

poetry

Horace's verse epistle may thus Renaissance critics the epitome poetry Indeed this the art true

an

aspects

.

of

of

of

poetica provided occasional ideas for the arts poetry which were other rhyming and for passing allusions wise largely arts the broader

to

of

as

to

I

do

as

,

in

since that

of

,

the rhetorical documents themselves

But treatment cognizance were not a

vast and complex undertaking

if .

in

itself would poetic theory

be a

Cinquecento the history

of

I

.

,

a

in

it

which are commentaries upon Horace but such works are related secondary way insofar approach they represent the kind indicated As stated the Preface not mean trace through the

,

of

,

.

treatment

-

THE LATE CLASSICAL COMMENTATORS

:

for

its

,

of

be

to

the logical place

in

;

of

is

of

in

be

incomplete the period would taken the impact rhetorical theory upon poetics and since this rhetorical theory most closely associated the Renaissance with the interpretation chapters seems Horace's Ars poetica the present series

ACRON AND PORPHYRION

72 )

(

.

be

of

by

to

a

as

to

The Ars poetica did not come the Renaissance naked text for provided which the simplest and most elementary interpretations had printed accompanied The earliest editions were two commentaries the

ARS POETICA

EARLIEST COMMENTARIES

:

Roman period , that attributed to Helenius Acron ( second century of Porphyrion ( third century A.D. ). Moreover , these printed editions continued an ancient manuscript tradition ( extant manuscripts late

A.D. ) and that

date back to the ninth and tenth centuries ) in which the same commentaries

accompanied the Horatian text.3 To these were added , before 1500 , the commentary of Cristoforo Landino , and , around 1500, the commentary of Iodocus Badius Ascensius ; and although Badius ' annotations were for a

a

all

number of years printed only in Paris editions , they ultimately were added to the earlier commentaries in Italian editions . By the time, then , that the major Cinquecento studies of the text were made , four glosses were

.

,

is

,

of

is

in

.

;

of

,

.

a

He provides classifications for the various Horace cites parallels from other poets explains

paraphrase

speech used

,

of

,

gives

by

he ,

obscure figures

in

or

to

of

as a

of

,

of

standard part the available editions and critics and theorists took them point departure for their own interpretations say Much essentially gram what Acron has his commentary explanatory explains meanings matical character He the words particularly syntax word order matters sometimes when the sense

of a

-

an

in

of

—

or

.

in , a

he

a

,

to

grammatical and histori legends and allusions brings the text kind explication passages cal However for numerous makes remarks single word interpretation sentence sometimes which suggest

he

.

to it in do it

as

of ,

a

fairly com the basic work and these remarks taken together constitute poetry thing plete theory Acron discovers Horace One that

)

in

,

as

et

,

of

et

de

est

.

Et :

“

his

of

tia

at

a

a

was the first

precepts

,

that

of

I

presume

.

is to

(

and

distinguish

he

for this particular text definitely series labeled such the Ars poetica He prefaces these indications with statement the very beginning commentary De inaequalitate operis loquitur dat praecepta poema primum praeceptum dispositione scribendi conuenien does

set

.

It

.

is

"

“

as

he

,

”

in

is

of

a

of

to

to

a

a

for reducing the text fixed rules for the writing precedent which Renaissance commentators were follow

precedent

poetry

,

of

lishes

to

,

he

,

a

"

a

.

At

.” 's

he

or

some dozen more precepts this kind few other places although does not specifically praeceptum call his remark uses some such word docet thinking essentially the same terms This procedure show that not without importance for the subsequent history Horace's text estab Subsequently

carminis

are pointed out

.

;

, "

Guldin

.

, et

,

,

II,

iii ;

,

Porphy Ferdinand Hauthal Acronis 1864 also 574 648 649 and 665 ), I,

,

of (

Bartholomew forth

by

,

;

"

,

Q.

in

,

of

a

3

For list the manuscripts see the edition rionis commentarii Horatium Flaccum Berlin

so by

,

called editio Romana printed Milan 1474 of Venice 1481 and

-

,

;

,

2

B.g. the editio princeps the beck around 1475 the edition

of so

,

.

constantly More important still however was the general orientation which Acron

in

);

as

:

be

Acron will

be

.

,

by

( 73 )

.

to

85 ,

II,

is

,

3

in

,

;

to

Ed .

the Badius commentary Item Milan 1518 Hauthal cited note above 575. All subsequent references page will this volume comments not specifically located found number indicated s

containing

,

,

,

(

*

,

See the Index s.v. Badius Ascensius Quintus Horatius Flaccus Editions the United States and Canada Mills College California 1938 the earliest Italian edition listed here

under the line

POETIC

THEORY

gave to the Ars poetica in his reading

of it . This

was an essentially rhetorical any if it did not introduce new ideas, emphasized and exaggerated tendencies latent in the Horatian text . One such tendency is to consider poetry in terms of the conventional rhetorical distinction of invention , disposition , and elocution . The passage previously cited ( " pri already shows this intention The dispositione mum praeceptum trilogy appear other two terms the the commentary line subject matter which fulfilling neither capable one selects : "

if

40 .

on

dispositio

“

The term

”

,

of

him . " .

lacking

the gloss on the following

line But the .

in

inventions nor eloquence can appears close conjunction

in be

a

he in to is

of

)

"

de

est

orientation which ,

a .

of .

to

all

to

is

,

of

be a

to

it

,

of

If

to

of

-

is

three way distinction little more than suggested and does not constitute the major effort the commentary attempt guiding principle for Acron's whole one were find reading principle appropriateness the text would probably Everywhere the attempt questions made reduce matters est

“

it :

of ,

on ,

:

).

So

is

.

(p

"

on

31

in

is

the commentaries

...

of

27

the

ne si

(“ ,

a

.

a

in in

fit ,

of

Ars poetica

the

rule the

prin

,

in all .

;

the Horatian text itself the only operating many places where the imply For example lines 125–

it at

sees

Horace seems not

,

fit

,

that Acron

was to as

original text

is it it

is

difference

more vague than

of

is

ciple

no

,

of

,

of

fit

diction must the characters the conception characters must notion decorum the end must the beginning one has made whose application depends almost exclusively upon the sensitivity right given relationship But the poet upon his sense what

of

.

fit

,

is in

"

);

so

" ),

ita

(“

),

”

ab

in

et ,

.

is

...

(“

"

et

,

et

in

,

hic

),

line Docet quis non esse indulgendum eloquentiae quae careat arte ratione opinionem superflui inepti incidat lines 35–37 enitor omni parte tota parte poeta uideri nulla lines 47–48 alia discrepans through ponantur proprie innumerable on opportune and uerba passages The principle itself vague since no criterion for appropriate presented the subject the When one has said that the style must ness ,

line

de ,

is

.

et

,

"

of

The same organizing concept invoked Ita ergo qui scribit nisi opportune scribat

577

20 (“ ).

(

.p

“

,

of

it

;

.

of

.”

et

,

“

, to

of

”

“

,

fittingness

in

”

"

of

apparent this that This attempt precept already primum praeceptum the first cited dispositione conuenientia carminis From then one hardly ever loses sight principle Praecipit precept the central The second restates poetam conuenientiam seruare debere here Acron's summation the meaning the first three lines the text 576 does the third Docet non inportune inducendam esse parabolam aut descriptionem propriety

again

,

et

,

ab

,

ad

et

Siquid inexpertum scaenae committis audes personam formare novam imum servetur qualis incepto processerit sibi constet

( 74 )

,

,

,

a

: “

deesse possunt

."

eloquentia

.p

.,

-

6

be

undoubtedly contain kept constant recommendation that character qui eligit quam possit inplere Ibid 581 materiam huic nec inuentiones nec

ARS POETICA

EARLIEST COMMENTARIES

:

or consistent throughout a work ; but Acron's gloss on “ sibi constet " is as follows : “Let the material finish within itself , nor should it pass on to something else . Do not pass to anything else before you have finished it. " 7 The idea is generalized and is made into another expression of the notion of " fittingness " or " belongingness . " That central notion itself provides in effect a rhetorical rather poetic basis of organizing and constructing a work . I do not mean norm of “ appropriateness ” does not or could not apply to poetic

central than a that a

works . But in such a document as Aristotle's Poetics , the relationship between one part and another of the poem is stated in other terms : in terms of the hierarchical interdependence of such component parts as plot, character , thought , and diction , or in terms of the specifically poetic devices which link the parts together, necessity and probability . That is, a given element ( a word or an action or a passion ) is “ appropriate ” to the whole work in a special way determined by the total unity and the total order of the given work itself . But for Acron ( following and simplifying Horace ), the ;

thus unspecified

,

it is

If

to

of

it

of

as

character historical personages the last analysis appropriateness

.

traits

to

and

in of

of

of

,

all

principle of appropriateness is general rather than specific ; it applies in the same way to works regardless their particular natures involves appropriateness subject matters such diverse kinds that meters

by

is

,

all

,

.

its

In

.

all

is at

,

,

it

is

not determined from within the work but times judged from without the particular peculiarly rhetorical quality audience this resides As Acron interprets Horace the constant search for the appropriateness because

” ;

,

ac

a

,

,

to

,

“

:

...

of

"

;

to

"

,

,

a

.

“

,

all

it

to

of

is a

a

of

is ,

This

it

.

of

poem part please the the constant search course Horatian principle but Acron extends and states much more explicitly For example the commendare line 225 clearly means to render acceptable the public Acron expands the applied originally general statement statement satiric drama into poetry about nam omnia quae dicimus placere desideramus elements within

audience

,

, id

“

”

of of

on

“

ad

,

.

explaining the in the good poet “

In

: "

to

."

the work goes say

on

to )

(

”

of

:

the end

beginning line 148 medias leads his listener immediately

he

hastens

to

he

the reader

res ,

.

, ut ,

,

by a

is

up

."

In

a

,

is ut

ita ,

per hoc uidentur conmendare quae dicimus auribus auditorum Omnia quae dicuntur poetis enim debent dici conmendari uideantur est libenter adspiciantur similar way Horace's emphasis the audience everywhere pointed semper Acron The euentum festinat Considering the possible distaste line 148 the occasion for the gloss

...

." 9

aliam

,

ad

.

nec

ad

,

finiatur materia

ante

."

“

”

ad

,

in

)

ea

,

75 )

(

,

(

."

Cogitans fastidium lectoris 601 exitum operis properat 602 adducit bonus poeta auditorem suum quasi nota and bonus poeta quae placere non possunt hoc est praeterit quae tractatu ingrata sunt : : “ "

., ., ea .p .p ,

9 8

Ibid Ibid relinquit

ad

."

: “

., .p

In

se

in

,

is ,

,

Ne transeas

"

aliud transeat

...

Ibid 598 quam illam finias 7

;

he

“

,

known things and then for the next line the good poet excludes those things which cannot please that passes over those things which are not agreeable the treatment

THEORY

POETIC

...

"

"

"

a

11

."

a

in

:

of

]

[

” 10

he all

153 is

in

elucidated thus : “ what I and the people might desire , that would willingly listen to .... For omne tulit punctum provides this explanation He alone obtains the votes and the line 343 poem favorable judgment the people who writes useful and pleasant fashion and who can both profit and delight Line

is , what

"

by

be

it

of

: “

of

no

:

of

;

so

on

,

,

.

:

,

is

of

of

,

be

an

,

12 : "

in

."

”

in

is

in

The general thesis stated connection with the phrase Ut pictura poesis poem pleases line 361 indeed excellent even when fre quently repeated Within this audience various segments must pleased special ways Acron again emphasizes Horace's ideas Part special pleased the audience low ignorant and wicked and must poetic commentary kinds fare the lines 213–14 He indicates the cause for the increase licence because the ignorance the

of :

: "

is

be

,

on

,

;

by

13

."

“

",

people and because there was difference between the good and the bad and because the people was uneducated Another segment consists anything grave persons officials and noblemen offended who will dishonorable the commentary line 248 reads The meaning this

of ,

if

,

The Roman Knights and senate fathers who have great wealth and hence anything shame are noble and enjoy honorable reputation are offended

by

(

its

to

,

do

:

is

of

15

is ."

of

):

"

on

,

in

is

." 14

expressed before them ful Some the audience are young and will light things some are old and want serious materials com find delight mentary line 342 The meaning this Old men are pleased the gravity weight the verse and the the diction young men not like the same gloss shows that The introduction austere and grave things : 16

. "

it

it

its

,

so

,

its

“

be

of

poetry profit for the old the pleasure intended for the young poem properly through tempered pleasure The must that will satisfy severity through younger the older will men and serve the

,

those

, is

—

”

dulcia sunto

poems which are morally

...

et

.

,

id

est quid libenter audiant omncs iudicium populi tulit qui utile dulce poema scripsit

."

,

: “

Ibid 632 Solus suffragia qui prodest delectare potest et

let

populus desideret

,

ego

esse poemata

Therefore

et

quid

et

602

: "

Ibid

after the gloss

., ., .p .p

11 10 et

Ibid

13 12

,

-when

“

Non satis est pulchra

:

%

put on line

99

.

to

“

—

of

,

,

Apparently the insistence upon moral precepts philosophical arguments grave and the arousing the passions because these are matters especially intended for the older men The effort find everywhere both pleasure and utility may account for the somewhat startling construction

. ”

,

, , si

."

,

;

et "

est et :

. "

,

et

pondere delectantur

( 76 )

seniorum

ut

,

et

. "

:

et : “

: ." “

satisfaciat

dictionis

seruiat iuniorum

,

., .p ., .p

Ibid 631 Sensus est Senes grauitate carminis grauia non amant iuuencs austera uoluptati Poema debet temperari Ibid 631

et

15

16

honestum fuerit prolatum

"

,

: : “ “ : “

et

., ., .p .p

,

14

et

., ac p .

probum uero poema placet etiam saepe repetitum 634 Ibid 611 Dicit autem causam per quam creuit licentia propter inperitiam populi quia nulla erat differentia inter bonos malos and quia indoctus erat populus Equites Romani patres senatores quibus sunt substantiae Ibid 619 Sensus aliquid coram cis in per hoc nobiles magnae honestate gaudentes offenduntur

seueritati

ARS POETICA

EARLIEST COMMENTARIES

:

recommendable have beauty as well and carry the mind of the auditor wherever they will , either to pity or to indignation , " the phrase " dulcia sunto " is translated by the formula “ Ethica sint, ” which I take to mean “ having moral implications . " 17 In any case , the pleasure - profit distinction

of

,

,

,

be of

it

,

of a

is

of

important the consideration what extent customs saying story through the suitableness the persons introduced and may without art without beauty the mores even though pleases sounding verses which are high sententiae more than

to

He shows only that sometimes the expression

:

cf.

on

comes to be crossed with another grammatical and rhetorical one , the “ res verba " juxtaposition ; the gloss line 320

-

of

.

in

of ,

without gravity lacking the observation the mores Things without ornament can please more than poems adorned with words without substance.18

is

nature

Acron

.

of

his notion

ut

25 , is

of

"

“

."

,

"

,

:

a

."

is on

"

"

“

.

the same connection The

have

all

is

of

”

“

20

)

“

(

.”

we

.

:

he

of

"

ad

,

we

,

as

."

ad

,

,

ad

,

, et ,

Habeant ergo haec quae sunt probata etiam uenustatem quocumque indignationem siue siue misericordiam Ostendit modo quantum prodest consideratio consuetudinis dicens ,

593

: “

, ., .p

it

us

"

19

. "

is we

"

17

Ibid

uoluerint animum auditoris trahant 18

in

We

follows

: “

glossed

as ff .

108

108

,

line

lines

interesting

intus passions within our souls nature and they are moved singly whenever they see their own images says this others For the iuvat aut impellit iram line 109 charmingly presented For through Nature delights when we see nature become angry feel pleasure have pity The angit explained meaning that Nature herself troubles the spec line 110 in byof

comments

as et

sit

unum

of

quod vis simplex dumtaxat

highly significant phrase Quiduis scribe simplex Similarly interpreted specie ueri simile the recte line imagine boni dum praeferimus imaginem ueritatis The whole series adds

is

”

a

of

is

is

a

.

in be

course true

Thus for line 23— et

.

does This

the first lines indicates that

,

sit

Denique

,

is

of

does not conform

sees

merely states the idea more explicitly

-he

to

of

he

,

in

,

not count but what the audience thinks the spectator Horace and the laughter the monster

certain conception what nature does

;

as

it its to

.

it

,

of

is

nature The audience the custodian nature and uses this conception criterion

reference

if

“

at

,

to

.

of in

it

"

as

of

nature

a

in

“

of

his

of

the audience the role Acron's conception figures Horace's work Clearly for appropriateness judging poem the precise way many things possible through not made apparent for some least the judgment

One special aspect interpretation

,

,

,

, et

ex

in

natura

singuli mouen

(

uidemus

Nam natura irascimur

,

cum delicata

.

,

nos natura

."

,

: “

594 Delectat miseremur

., .p

Ibid delectamur

animis nostris

."

in

: "

.,

Ibid 594 adfectus omnes habemus aliis tur cum imagines suas uiderint

77 )

.p

20 , 19

."

.

,

,

,

,

,

sit

ot

,

: “

., .p

Ibid 629 quod interdum fabula opportunitate personarum inductarum expressione morum quamuis sine arte sine uenustate sine grauitate sententiarum plus placet quam uersus bene quidem sonantes sed morum obseruatione carentes Magis possunt delectare res sine ornatu quam ornata poemata uerbis sine rebus

POBTIC

THEORY

tator . " 21 The commentary on line 111 is essentially the same in intent.22 Finally , the distinction between historical and newly invented subjects is transformed by Acron into a distinction between the true and the veri similar ; for line 119 he says : “Si ergo certam scribis, famam sequere , aut

,

verisimilitude

”

the term

all

Aliud prae In these upon

the insistence

the interaction between nature and the spectator

,

of

an

,

,

the introduction

the indication

“

passages nature

of

si fingis, habeat artem et uerisimilitudinem figmentum tuum . ceptum : aut notam historiam scribe , aut uerisimilia finge ."

.

of

”

"

"

,

.23

“

,

he

"

,

or

be

by

"

“

it to

.”

“

to

is

of

in

,

.

to

In

an

in

to

of

approach poetry are signs which the role the audience even Horace himself more emphatically stressed than approach the goal pursued such the poet must also related laughter applause the audience Acron begins with the the something very close the audience and extends mean fame glory victory the Ciceronian Whoever writes unless write appropri to

as

20 )

,

"

"

by

) is (

of in

” (

,

"

"

"

“

finis

on

will not obtain glory for himself line The single word referring line 406 which Acron apparently mistakes the poetry end translated laudatio and several comments on line 412– ately

ad

...

,

"

gloriam uenire studet quia finis istiusmodi uitae

“

:

Qui

dicit gloriam

parit

a

,

.

to

.

, ,

in

mind authority for their own ideas Finally

of

or

of

the text have these remarks constantly

cite them when they need support

,

of

their orientation

large measure determine

.

in

-

of

,

to

—

precepts Acron's commentary the reduction the upon rhetorical elements the attention the role later critics about the Horatian enter bodily into the thinking

the salient tendencies the emphasis text and

.

,

all

in

if

as

it

Renaissance students

audience

,

in as

,

of

,

of

a

so

.”

,

Id

“

”

at

it is

have insisted

;

propositi finem gloriam such length on ancient commentator Acron because his remarks for readers the Cinquecento are sense contemporary both with the text Horace and with themselves They scholarly and critical editions are read along accompany that text they with almost had been written by Horace himself Moreover

If I

gloriam sempiternam

glory

is

that the goal Optatam ergo metam

est ,

"

-insist

;

Qui studet optatam cursu contingere metam

is

or

a

of

.

of

Only

the basis

a

,

.

,

.

precepts

few points are worthy

for judging appropriate ,

."

."

,

78 ]

[

."

ad

,

,

:

: “

ad Id

: "

pp

,

Ibid

series

As with Acron

Ipsa natura spectatorem 594 est natura quae me deiecit rerum miseratione extollit 594–95 iracundiam humanitatem modo modo deducit 578 qui scribit nisi opportune scribat non sibi conparat gloriam

, ., ., ., et .p .p .

23

Ibid Ibid peritate

: "

22 21

special mention here

of

to of a

,

of

the work

of

reduction

of

,

is

;

of

,

,

. It

the commentary

of

Porphyrion Acron that repeats certain amount brief pedestrian and relatively unimportant usually material material from Acron but this the grammatical Porphyrion's contribution explanatory type which constitutes the bulk The major emphases Acron are lacking save perhaps that upon the

As compared with

pros

ARS POETICA

EARLIEST COMMENTARIES

:

approval — is by reference to , laughs says Porphyrion , is “quod nature . The reason that the audience contra naturam omnia faciat . " 24 Poets should choose subjects equal to their strength not ( as we presume Horace to have meant ) so that they can

for assuring

In

).

.p

(

"

,

ut

the work properly

so

but that they may please the eligant qua possint placere eam materiam 651 the

: "

audience

parts

the audience's

,

complete

of

all

ness — and hence

gloss on line 119

Aut famam sequere aut sibi conuenientia finge

,

,

an or

”

-

“

in

as

of

,

of

.

,

Acron

1482

)

CRISTOFORO LANDINO

(

.

its

to

addendum that the Cinquecento

of

res verba terms very

they corroborate These few ideas insofar Porphyrion made the commentary Acron which was not without influence upon critics

Acron

of of

to

of

in

.

a

but between known history and some other known fact The distinction again appears connection with lines 319–20 similar those insist upon those

as

to

: “

25

a

in

.”

a

is in

a

to

he

if

,

or

is he

,

it

of

is

to

-

a

of

precept different from that Porphyrion states For the poet Acron going write must either describe something according the handle dry history does not wish men common opinion proper way were must introduce known things The distinc tion here not between history and what invented verisimilar way

who

in

in

by

is

.

,

at

.

century

sixteenth

Cristoforo

Landino

and

Badius

commentary

as

on

.

the

Both groups enter the Horatian tradi two commentators who stand the ,

of

of

humanists the fifteenth century tion through the intermediary threshold Ascensius

:

,

is a

,

of

-

by

of

,

,

Acron second century Porphyrion third century between them and long gap This gap part the critics the Cinquecento there filled part the late classical grammarians Donatus and Diomedes the

in

I

as

his

he

a

,

in , of

of

;

he

,

,

,

of

by

he

of

of

, Byin

the edition

in ,

the Ars poetica appeared first far published Horace's Opera which Florence way incorporating into 1482. remarks typical medieval thinking poetic lengthy quotations from Diomedes about matters introduced way taking cognizance quoted the humanist contribution Plato cited Aristotle called frequently upon Cicero and long pre

Landino's

know

of .

in

on

in

of

to a

he

;

no

by

,

the Hauthal edition

which

,

is

in

a

high esteem

kings

cited throughout

Nam

.

for Acron

poeta scripturus

historiam

aut secundum hominum consensum debet aliquid tamquam tritam non vult adtingere debet conucnicnter notam ,

655

aut

649

of

, .p

has always been held

[ 79 ]

."

,

si : as “

., .p

Ibid

describere inducore

he by

;

a

,

religion

the comment on the first line

for Porphyrion 25

of in

instrument

In

an

24

is

:

is

.

,

fatory section presented poesy defence the fashion Boccaccio poetry Moreover referred his own dialogue his edition Vergil Landino's defence comprises the arguments which were already traditional the poet creator inspired the divine furor other writer equals him civilizing influence wisdom and eloquence exerts

THEORY

POETIC

and rulers . Great philosophers have always praised him , especially Plato in the lon and Aristotle- " et ipse de facultate poetica duos : de poetis

its

:

its

autem tres libros elegantissime scripserit . " One passage in this preface indi cates clearly how Landino conceives of the art of poetry and of allegorical uses

,

by

in

,

by

;

of

by

[ is ]

,

of

all

Indeed matter much more divine than that other writings for embrac ing them and bound together varied rhythms and circumscribed separated measures and adorned short various ornaments and various

be

of

it

be

For when

us ,

by

;

a

,

,

,

it

embellishes with admirable fictions whatever men have heretofore done whatever they have accomplished whatever they have known and contem plated with divine genius and for fear that they cannot understood except through allegories perceived transposes completely into things flowers

it

at all ,

by

of

is

in

of

,

it

a

be

a or . to

to to

narrating something most humble most appears singing delight little fable idle ears that very time writing rather secret way the most excellent things and which are drawn forth from the fountain the gods.26 different kinds and ignoble

of

in

.

,

,

,

is

: "

as ,

be

he

at

invention and disposition

In

relate

.”

to

,

a

to

of

of

in

of

,

In

way the commentary itself Landino goes far beyond Acron interpreting Horace disposition terms invention and elocution His gloss on the first words the text reads follows Because the writing poem the first thing investigated invention disposition and explains immediately those things which elocution the very beginning this regard Landino points out how to

to

to

on to

in

of

:

.

to in

;

to ),

cf.

(

is to

close poetry rhetoric the precepts for elocution are common both Cicero whereas the differences occur the other two parts He then proceeds subdivide the text according these distinctions after the lines which the relationship the subject matter nature and

in

')

"

.

46 , “

, ”

27

41 ,

(

"

is

low

high

)

.

selves into three groups

In

(

If

,

of

(

"

an A

"

),

to

,

is

disposition beginning with line decorum treated Horace passes lucidus ordo then elocution beginning with line verbis cognate rhetorical distinction that three styles introduced the interesting fashion subject matters which are invented divide them ,

"

to

of

”

,

“

"

,

develop

.pp

as

,

Verum rem esse multo illis diuiniorem quç illas distinctisque pedibus circumscripta numeris colligata uarias denique luminibus uariisque floribus illustrata quçcunque hactenus homines fecerint ingenii diuinitate contemplati fuerint admi quecunque egerint quecunque cognouerint

clviv_clvii

et

:

ad .

nobis perceptis intelligi

possint

in

:

ne

:

randis figmentis exornat nisi allegoriis omnino species traducit Nam cum ostendat

se a ac

;

ac

uariisque

:

(

1482 amplectens

:

omnes

: "

Opera

ed .) ,

26

.

,

,

,

.

to

"

the

,

of

poems used

"

the middle and the then diction used them and the kinds express them must also fall into the same three groups Vergil's three major poems the Aeneid the Georgics and the Bucolics may serve examples proper adaptation the types

diversas

aliud quippiam longe humilius ignobiliusque

in

ad

a in

( 80 )

.

clviii clviii -

also

.pp

exequitur

" ;

:

: “

., .p

27

. ”

et a

narrare aut fabellam ociosas aures oblectandas canere tunc res omnino egregias diuinitatis fonte exhaustas occultius scribit poemate scribendo inuentio dispositioque atque elocutio Ibid clvii Quoniam primis inuestiganda est statim principio quę inuentionem dispositionemque spectant

ARS POETICA

EARLIEST COMMENTARIES

:

As far as Horace is concerned , the principle is intimated in lines 86 ff ., Descriptas servare vices , etc. ” Elocution thus fits invention , always within the framework of one of the three " figures , " and a mixing of styles becomes as impossible as a mixing of matters : “ neither may we write a tragedy “

about comic matters nor a comedy about tragic ones .

" 28 This fittingness of matter is expressed in the general term decorum , which for Landino is one of the concerns most “ proper " to poets . As for invention itself, subjects must be natural , verisimilar , but “ feigned " or created ; this is because the end of poetry is to please or delight— “Nos enim delectare uult ” —and there is no delight without belief . The false , the

style to genre to subject

ridiculous , the monstrous will cause laughter or disdain because they are not representations of nature, and one of the fundamental notions about poetics is that every art imitates nature— “ omnis ars naturam imitetur . "29 The same end of delight necessitates the cultivation of variety : “The major

be

,

is

to

a

to

be

of

It

.”

all

virtue is to distinguish the poem by much variety ; for by variety we delight the soul of the listener, and render him attentive , and remove him from boredom will noted what extent these remarks depend upon conception given pleasure rhetorical the audience which either

, to is

in

,

.

of

,

he

on

” ;

in

ut

“

or to

be

quemcunque affectum mouere possit moved— auditores although and Landino makes the appropriate comments Horace's emphasizes much more demands for moral utility his commentary pleasure and feeling The audience itself however superior elements

a

,

,

of

fashion

invention

and

disposi of

the three styles

in

to

is

the elements we

,

or

this same consistent

, or in

circles close

whether we start with the audience

it at is

,

to

-

A

.

of

or

all

,

end with some other these totally self consistent rhetorical system factors with them imposed bodily upon the Horatian poetic and made coincide with

,

tion and elocution

,

,

, in

,

all

Landino

,

one

In

. 30

an

.

of

,

to

engage that for rhetoric being more erudite and having more time reading and rereading disposition example the work Hence for the poet may use natural restricted artificial order whereas the orator

point

.

every

1500

)

(

BADIUS ASCENSIUS

in

.

of

of

aut

tragica comediam

in

so

:

comica tragediam

de

,

re

de

ne

: “

clxv and clxi

importantly

the

scri

clxii and

clviii

" ;

ab

et

:

et

:

.

est

.

.p

clxiiv poema multa varietate distinguere Animum enim Virtus maxima uarietate delectamus attentum reddimus omni fastidio remouemus ;

see also

clviiiv

( 81 )

.p

auditoris

clviiv

: “

Ibid

.

Ibid

., ., ex .p .p p .

30 29

."

bamus

. in

of

a

,

are added the grammarians who figured .pp

Ibid

.,

28

To them

of

by

is

.

,

it

'

is

,

of of

With the publication the commentary Iodocus Badius Ascensius 1500 the interpretation the Ars poetica takes another step forward Not only Badius discussion much longer and more complete than any the earlier ones but enriched vast quantity materials brought from new sources Acron Porphyrion and Landino are course quoted

POETIC

THEORY

conceptions of poetry , Diomedes , Donatus , and Priscian . There to Plato.31 But most significant of Badius calls constantly upon the Institutes Quintilian and upon the various rhetorical works Cicero for explanations clarifications and examples Horace's ideas sense then the commentary Badius once bridges the gap between the late classical period and the Renaissance incorporating the all ,

medieval

of

,

,

relates Horace specifically

the chief

of

of

.

“

"

sources and

to

principal medieval Latin rhetoricians

it

-

by

at

of

,

,

a

,

In of

.

of

are also references

in

to

he

a

&

In

diligentem castigationem cohor Badius sees almost everywhere

the work

,

the ideas

ad

:

&

.

&

in

quinta

of

).

In

Ilv

"

tatur

( .fol

.

consummata fuit docet

Et In

.

&

.

. In

: "

is

.

a

in

is a

Badius lover divisions and maker distinctions almost the prologue scholastic fashion Hence his commentary indicates that the Ars poetica divided into five sections Item quarum prima inquiunt poeta vitia extirpat secunda verbi decorum instituit tertia rerum qualitatum personarum decora discrimina Item poematos genera quarta actores formam agendi quomodo inuentores demonstrat

Pro descriptione poetice subnotandum est tripli triplicem stylum triplex potissimum materiam scribentium triplicem triplicem qualitatem decorum finem similia ibid The distinguished are the true which supplies the facts for three matters history the verisimilar which supplies the arguments for comedy and the fictional which neither true nor verisimilar and which supplies the

(

.) .

”

(

,

is

(

),

(

so

"

),

"

,

,

&

,

esse

his ,

-

: “

three way distinctions

cem

as a

is

"

in

or or

”

to

on

“

“

;

,

of

,

,

of

.

to

is

it

38

of

, ,

-

is

,

at

“

ad

be

should ”

).

It

gloss noted that the distinction made Rhetorica from the derived and that line materiam say Herennium that time ascribed Cicero But Badius goes way sublime into the division matters three that there another elevated which involves gods heroes and kings the mediocre middling which consists didactic the scientific information exploited

for poetry

fables

upon the

”

of ) -

,

a

:

,

of

'

32

."

of

"

in

"

,

a

of

.

,

a or

low

style and

of (

is

of

adapted

,

.

of

"

humble

is

“

and the

of

;

containing pastoral and trivial subjects To each these form verse result three way styles also called distinction characteres figurae genera dicendi and commonplace the division rhetorical the course This meters Vergil decorums Ages epitomized The three wheel the Middle poetry

”

“

;

at ;

or to

,

to

,

of

of

,

,

du

Faral Les Arts poétiques ,

E.

cf.

87 ). ",

), .p

[ 82 ]

,

"

of

.

to

on

(

:

-

(

.

•

Gerlier 1500 the earliest edition that ,

of

,

to

is

It

31 ° 32 I et ; . du ,

in

,

,

,

trilogies should come significant that the first statement this set commentary preface second expanded that the and his the author's

Paris quote Badius passages from the edition this edition know all references are Vergil wheel the Ibid fols VIII VIIIy XIII siècle Paris Champion 1923 XII

I

,

;

of

,

to

VIIIv

).

.

(

same time fol

,

of of to , of

of

qualities persons the three things verse words and are the styles the low correspond and the middle elevated the the three poems the mixed and the are the narrative the dramatic three kinds please bring profit the do both the poet are three ends

ARS POETICA

EARLIEST COMMENTARIES

:

should appear very early in his remarks on the text . For the interpretation is in every sense prior to Horace His key standard procedure will wait for some point the text where gives him the opportunity word such the materiam line exploit one fully develop distinctions and then connection .

in

to

a

in

46

X ).

(

"

oratore

fol .

the has

”

becomes

de

re

And

est

,

a

of

to

characters their age

,

and their

indeed central

the whole conception

of

decorum

it is

This matter

to

of

(

).

various kinds

,

life

XIXv

of

condition country fol.

of

or

of

"

,

id

“

-

of

to

persons prefaced the decorum the personarum imprimis remark Quia decorum obseruandum ostendit quo pacto the fortune the discussion and continuing seruabitur leads

long development

by

dicentis erunt fortunis absona dicta

on

Si

line

for citing what Cicero

in

style and

of it

to )38

of

low

”

ita “

on

“

verbis etiam tenuis

the

De hac dicit Cicero beginning with line 112— “

say about

In

it :

to

.

with that word Thus the occasion for expatiating the passage

to

”

“

his

of

(

as

be

schematism

of

his

statement

the

if

is

,

,

he

.

in

is

of

on

,

so

work even more than Horace For Badius separates his ideas poetry into small groups three must find some device for collecting precisely the them together again into larger units and that device

:

Styles

Middle

Low

gods heroes kings sublime

information

shepherds

mediocre

humile

pentameter

iambic comedy

,

Elevated

altisonum

tenue

hexameter epic tragedy

didactic

:

,

Genres

,

:

Meters

,

to

a

."

to

as

follows

:

“

,

"

"

,

a

rough tabular form

,

:

Matters

in

"

“

relationships

of we

is

, in

all

'

,

of

principle

.

in

he

of as

.

of

really little Decorum accepted this broader sense appropriateness similar that which have major group seen Acron Once again Badius ideas fall into three things dividing themselves according sees the major distinction the the elevated middle and the low One may represent these decorum

more than

a

principle

pastoral

it

of of

),

of

,

"

: a "

a

(

of in

in

a

them hence the decorum general rhythmic patterns and them both sounds Moreover these persons will engage .

of

of to its

the structure

style fitted

, its to (

of

of to in

or

in

),

in

spoken

verse suited

.

to

of

or

as

speaking words

'

in

the ideas necessitate

a

of

,

is

inexact and incomplete since certain subsequent refinements crossing over from column column But does represent the fundamental concept thinking high genre Badius tragedy will present persons such the epic certain kind each persons whom has the proper traits character hence the decorum The table

.

of

(

of (

83 ]

[

in

)

of

).

actions appropriate their characters and stations hence the decorum things All but two representation and the smaller trilogies manner major relationships end the poet are combined this set

POETIC THEORY The Ars poetica is thus read as if it were part of the classical -medieval rhetorical tradition , which culminated in the rigorous hierarchy of the literary types as it is symbolized in the " wheel of Vergil . " What is more , Badius introduces other essentially rhetorical distinctions which complete

of the Horatian text . As the above table shows, the " res verba " division is made to apply in a very real way , “ matters " being the “ res ” and “ styles ” the “ verba .” Such a statement as the following , the transformation

offered as explanation of lines

310-11

Rem tibi Socraticae poterunt ostendere chartae : Verbaque provisam rem non invita sequentur

-may

no

,

of

,

, ,

to

of

in

,

at

.

is ,

).

, of

a

,

of

art

fol .

be cited in corroboration : “ Poema enim constat ex re & oratione . Res autem ex philosophia originem trahit vt praecepta contineat . Oratio in grammatica & rhetorica dicitur " ( XXXVIv There thus poetry merely combination philosophy grammar and separate rhetoric The rhetorical categories invention disposition and elocution very are introduced the outset the conclusion the first set :

or

be

;

an

be

to

)

of

33

."

"

"

(

;

a

in ,

a

in

in

of

: “

at

remarks Three things are therefore necessary first The careful con economy sideration and invention disposition the whole matter placed other fitted with deliberation for the events narrated will poem than history and their embellishment wise exornatio accordance with their arrangement As for the rhetorical ideas

of

,

: "

in

( ex 23 .fol

in .

,

a

Cicero and Quintilian they are introduced whenever Badius can find plausible reason for bringing them For example the requirement unity stated Apta autem digressio line elicits the following remark

of

;

"

de

ita

...

ideas incorporated into the commentary

those

,

the medieval

of

).

( .

in

As for

de

),

(

: “

in

is

).

V

of

"

;

quarto Quintiliani colligitur tribus modis fieri and Quintilian's falling enumeration follows Where Horace speaks the danger sought lines 25–26 into obscurity when brevity Badius finds the anti qua Cicero dote Cicero De apta tamen breuitate non nihil dicemus inquit rhetorice veteri enarratione loquens and the quota tion follows fol VII ”

“

in

de

arte

listen

of

, "

us

Pisones

say

let

ad

on of to

",

he

"

;

he

“

,

,

"

goes

of

a is

.

Horatii Flacci

Quinti matters among them the title poetica institutio to understand this to

no

),

of

(

I

which call medieval since they were the standard sources ideas about poetry throughout the Middle Ages they frequently come into the discussion even when there justification general the Horatian text itself Badius opens his prologue with number Diomedes and Donatus

,

or

a

is

,

in

,

.

,

says Diomedes Poetics metrical structure narration true proper rhythm meter suitable for pleasure and false things composed

:

in

. "

: in 84 ]

[

&

& in

.

.

: “

.

.,

.

33

Ibid fol IIIly Tria ergo primum sunt necessaria Materiae totius excogitatio atque poemate aliter historia aliter enim inucntio Excogitate apta oeconomia seu dispositio qua elegantic disposite exornatio decori habenda est ratio locabuntur res narrande

ARS POETICA

BARLIEST COMMENTARIES

:

pages collecting together

he

,

'

he

,

of

,

. 35

do

on

lines 275

to

have nothing

ff .,

,

on

,

remarks

a

set

Diomedes dicta about the dramatic forms Similarly after his with Horace treating the history tragedy and comedy

,

which essentially

of

all

”

,

;

us

let

or utility . " 34 Much later, after he has finished his gloss on lines 189–201 , he adds : “ Since we have promised to speak of the decorum of comedies and tragedies a little later , now forth few things about their description and parts taken from Diomedes and writes over three full

to

“

:

is

no

a

us

let

of

a

it

.

so

,

to

of

as a

or

,

to

,

"

to

.

...

36

,

,

of

in

,

to

say the same subject With respect the invention satires tragedies and comedies recite few things found Obviously the intention longer the grammarian Donatus provide elucidation for Horace's text but merely use the commentary repository for everything that Badius knew could find about the art poetry transform into vade mecum the kind which the Renais useful sance found adds what Donatus has

its

to

in

found

is

of

precepts

the text

the addition Horace was

to

to

The net result taries

six

.

Badius

'

epitome

-

the twenty

which they interpretations in

of

-

of in

complete

five

the order

these four pre Cinquecento commen that text something very special

-

of of .

of

,

one would have the Ars poetica

the first twenty

assemble them

make

of

are given

a

.

the text Were one

of

of

portions

to

five such rules corresponding

to

of

a

",

of

“

at

"

"

as

.

to a

set

:

The tendency

to

Acron and Porphyrion here carried inevitable conclu sion For whereas the earlier commentators had only occasionally labeled precepts their remarks Badius constantly and invariably supplies regula the end each section the commentary There are twenty One final remark reduce Horace

its

.

as

of

by

.

of

for Cinquecento readers The latent rhetorical characteristics the Ars poetica had been made explicit and stated overtly the two earlier com mentators The two later ones had produced further evidence ,

,

of

all

of

a

no

.

all

,

of

so

of

,

of

.

a

of

parallel quotations from classical rhetori rhetorical character number cians and had completed the rhetorical distinctions Moreover they had knowledge about the made their commentaries compendiums poetic art longer theory poetry but the that Horace's work was theory poetry the summum useful ideas about the art Text and be

,

let it

,

—

to

a

of

an

.

est

34

,

an

,

as

they always were provided for the commentaries taken together Cinquecento reader poetics which was initiation not very special kind forgotten initiation

tragoediarum decoro paulo post loqui Dyo partibus pauca praemittemus ex

& &

de

de

Quia comoediarum ipsarum descriptione

"

....

Nunc

"

...

[ 85 ]

.

: “

.

ex

.,

Ibid fol XXXIIIv Circa inuentionem satyrarum 19 pauca Donato grammatico recitabimus

tragoediarum

&

36

mede

.

polliciti sumus

: “

fol XXVv .

Ibid

.,

35

."

:

ad

.

: "

.

.,

Ibid fol Ilv Pro quo intelligendo audiamus Diomedem Poetica inquit ficte vereque narrationis congruenti rythmo vel pede composita metrica structura vtilitatem voluptatemque accommodata

comoediarum

THEORY

POETIC QUATTROCENTO THEORISTS

During the Quattrocento , evidences that this Horatian - rhetorical mode of thinking about poetry was common are found in various documents . I

shall cite here only a few cases , which are not in themselves directly related to the Horatian text but which show the continuation , into the humanistic period , of the standard medieval distinctions about the art of poetry . A brief example is found in the In errores Antonii Raudensis adnotationes of Lorenzo Valla ( d. 1457 ). Antonio had provided the following definition : * Clamare , deinde mouere tragoedias , est mouere exclamationes & excla mare . " To which Lorenzo objects thus : And he cites the example of Quintilian ; but neither in Quintilian nor in Cicero is it found in this sense . Rather , [ it means ] to make things more terrible and shameful by the use of the right words , which is the function of the writers of tragedy , who always speak of sad and terrible things ; just as , on the contrary , to make comedies or comoediari is used by Aristophanes "to speak ridiculously or bitingly . "

and certain other Greeks

to mean

To Antonio's remarks on comedy

he offers these corrections :

The author seems not to know that the " toga ” is the dress of the Romans just as the " pallium " is the dress of the Greeks ; and that the " togatae ” were comedies which were not translated from the Greek but composed by Romans of

of

“

,

since they themselves

.

"

”

,

called inventors than Caecilius invented and did not translate

,

,

”

;

,

all

and Terence

,

,

,

Plautus

or

all

nearly ... Indeed , the works the best comic writers Caecilius Plautus and Terence were translated from the Greek and therefore Antonio should not have have said that Plautus was the greatest inventor comedies ... for certainly Afranius and others like him are much more properly and Latins .

,

to

of ,

of

37

."

,

et

of

of

In

"

to

,

is

is

significant here What the reference Quintilian and Cicero the simple distinction between tragedy and comedy and the meaning attached the rhetorical term invention regno regis the De institutione libri IX Francesco Patrizi Bishop

ed .) , .p

37

II,

IX ,

,

is

of

in of

.

to

its

.

of

.

(d

1494

),

poetry Horatian notions the pleasure and utility utility comedy are crossed with Platonic ideas moral criteria The comprise also made usefulness for teaching the language another conception pertinent chapter passage occurs medieval The Book Gaeta

.

ac

,

,

,

,

de

est

,

& ,

e

:

,

: in “

(

&

,

, In

Opera 1543 Affertque exemplum Quintiliani sed neque apud Quinti 399 lianum neque apud Ciceronem hanc significationem inuenitur Imò rem uerbis atrocem magis indignam efficere quale opus tragicorum rebus atrocibus semper moestisque loquentium pro ridicule sicut contrario comoedias agere siue comoediari dicaciter

."

86 )

(

,

Et

: “ .

. . . , .

Plautus

,

quàm Caecilius

,

,

&

,

,

torem nam certe Afranius similes magis inuentores Terentius dicendi sunt qui ipsi inuenerunt non transtulerunt ,

,

,

è

...

alij

,

,

:

.p

" ;

,

,

à

,

è

,

ut

,

loqui apud Aristophanem alios nonnullos Graecorum and 400 Autor uidetur pallium togatas esse nescire togam esse vestem Romanorum uestem Graecorum Latinisque compositas comoedias non Graeco traductas sed Romanis Etenim Graeco traducti sunt Caecilij Plauti omnes aut ferè omnes summorum comicorum libri Terentij eoque non fuit Raudensi dicendum fuisse Plautum maximum fabularum inuen

ARS POETICA : EARLIEST COMMENTARIES “

Qui Scriptores Legendi Discendique sint , quíue negli

Rege

Futuro

A

gendi ” :

without utility that one may also read tragedies , if morality is respected ; in them for they carry weight , and have elegance of expression and gravity of thought , especially Euripides. ... In the same way the writers of comedy are also to be read . For they nourish everyday conversation , and by the propriety and the elegance of their words they make the art of speaking more polished and

It is not

.

, of a

be

to

all

richer . But to conclude briefly , individual poets , even if they are read with a certain pleasure , have certain virtues of their own , and a certain wonderful grace king which is not at unsuitable the dignity wh

,

to

us

.

38

if

to

.

let

absolutely rejected because they corrupt good mores Obscene poets must orders and imbue the soul with wickedness ... But listen Plato write those things which will make men good and will teach them the poets they are rich and that the good are happy and the bad are unhappy even lucky -

,

,

in

.

of

as is

of

A

of

this Horatian rhetorical point much more complete representation view contained Giovanni Pontano's dialogue Actius already men tioned one those documents which classified poetry with history On to ,

,

,

its

as

of

;

of

;

”

,

ut

:

,

is

of

the one hand the dialogue full rhetorical distinctions applied poetry both history and poetry fall within the deliberative and demonstra oratory each proposes tive categories ends doceat delectet moveat the functions both are divided into invention disposition and

to

is

,

”

is in

:

in

or

in

,

in

no

,

to

.pp

De

,

a

?

that both men give

it

attention

to

to

.

is to

move and carry away the listener Indeed carry directed this capacity move and to

away and the extraordinary

is

what end

:

,

;

of .

"

,

I

ask

to

both orater and poet

what end

is

res

medias

of

a

; "

in

,

, of

of to

The end to

of

,

natural order narration while poetry beginning The language the orator special the forum and the senate that the poet must display magnificence elevation and excellence

cultivates the kind

”,

probabilia ficta history follows

veri similia

fitted

is in

;

"

well

vocabulary and rhythms especially the the truth whereas poetry treats and sometimes things which are wise restricted

"

“

as

of

more studied and elegant use new words history

its in

of

or

.

”

“

or

”

“

of

“

;

of

victory very similar elocution the personal goal for the orator glory for the poet On the other hand differences that fame between poetry and either history rhetoric are usually explained terms distinctions found Horace his commentators poetry

The orator in

,

,

.

,

, si

.

,

&

, si

ac 57 : “

,

ed .) ,

(

, . . &. vt .

,

38

regno 1567 56v Non sine vtilitate etiam leguntur Tragoedi mores tuto fuerint habent enim pondus nitorem verborum sententiarum grauitatem precipue Euripides Eodem etiam modo Comici legendi sunt Alunt siquidem quotidianum proprietate elegantiáque verborum eloquentiam nitidiorem uberiorémque sermonem reddunt Sed breuiter concludam singuli poëtae cùm delectu quodam leguntur proprias

,

,

,

ea

,

,

87 ]

[

." ,

ac

si , &

à

,

&

,

...

. . . .

.

quasdam virtutes habent regia dignitate nequaquam mirificam quandam gratiam quae aliena est Obscoeni poëtae omnino negligendi sunt bonos enim mores corrumpunt poëtas scribere iubet animum nequitiis imbuunt Nos autem Platonem audiamus qui quae viros bonos efficiant doceantque bonos beatos esse malos verò miseros etiam fortunati diuites essent

THEORY

POETIC

of

he

by

,

the reader

means

.

he

in

of

and impressed admiration the soul the listener which will acquire fame and reverence

or his

clearly wishes to persuade the judge , the poet wishes to obtain the admiration of the listener and the reader , since the first strives for victory , the second for fame and glory .... The poet will be completely cheated of end unless has aroused

;

to in

. 39

of

to

)

us ,

for

is a

'

some ancient

it , in is

their works all

,

their characters lists has any interest

of

,

,

,

, on

.

in

)

(

,

of

,

of

series notices place and time which they practiced opinions about them

offer

the way

theoretical poetis Latinis 1505 was very slight His work the Latin poets containing brief remarks the poets birth family studies protectors and friends the genres

Libri on

statements

had

Petrus Crinitus de

in

his

What Pietro Ricci

(

of

,

it

of

is

a

as

passage Such this almost completely Ciceronian tone taken together with the other ideas the text demonstrates what extent rhetoric and poetics were combined under the aegis Horace

,

at of

at

In

amplum

" ;

&

"

ac ,

he

I

,

,

.

as

of

,

of

.

or

of

his

it

If

.

because for work are offered usually the form formulas these occasional attempts practical criticism judgment remain essentially the same the standards those the Middle Ages reflecting the tradition which am here dis cussing says elegantia Plautus excelled scribendi salibus each poet passing estimates epithets concise critical

"

"

,

a

in

“

de

to

of

is

to

, .” "

& of

&

"

,

of

he to

,

"

elegantia

sermonis

“

was perfect

;

sonorum dicendi genus Terence proprietate and moreover according the opinion Donatus he controlled the emotions such way that tragedy nor descends neither swells the magnitude the level praised for his senarii simple history officio Sextus Turpilius Pacuvius cultivated the

:

ut

."

be ,

they may

state thinking about century older ,

into the sixteenth

of

of

Brief though

the current ways

.

of

: "

to

. "

, of

quam delectare

this kind are indicative poetic works and the persistence orientations toward the art ments

40

,

as

a

uideatur

:

docere

of

ac

in

"

&

”

(

a

),

“

grauitatem atque ratione uiuendi Publius Syrius for his sententiarum singularem elegantiam standard formula used also for other writers gratiae Horace because plenus est iucunditatis The Horatian ends magis instruere phrase appear Manilius this applied such

1510

on

)

(

POMPONIO GAURICO

et pp .

,

in

of

,

to

I

as

, ed .

39

as

The earliest formal commentary the Ars poetica the Cinquecento Pomponio Gaurico far have been able discover was that

,

in

,

ac

ut ,

,

,

?

in

ex

[ 88 ]

,

neque

ad

ut

Bv ,

D2

Avi

.

temperauit affectus

historicam

",

: ad "

,

,

,

:

),

(

De poetis Latinis 1505 Alii Aiv Av Avv tragicam magnitudinem intumescat neque abiciatur

ita

.pp

40

."

,

sit

. . . .

et

ac

,

: “

.p

;

;

,

,

),

(

est

et

ut

et

,

et

ac

I

In

Dialoghi Utriusque etiam Previtera 1943 193-94 202 232 and 233 poetae officium oratoris movere flectere auditorem verum quonam quo inquam haec commotio flexio maximum utriusque hoc ipso studium Oratoris scilicet persuadeat iudici poetae legente comparet admirationem sibi audiente cum ille gloria poeta fine omnino defraudabitur suo nisi pro victoria nitatur hic pro fama legentis animo pepererit infixeritque admirationem per quam audientis famam venera tionemque assecuturus

of

ARS POETICA : EARLIEST COMMENTARIES in

on

to

he

in

to

an

to

in

as

,

).

ca.

1541 under the title Horace Published with the text ( 1482-1530 Pomponius Gauricus super Arte poetica Horatii the commentary alone had undated edition which the De Arte poetica been previously printed his dedication about 1510.41 Gaurico declares must go back -

of

.”

,

be

to

be

.

In

a

is

as

of

set )

to

he a

42

“

(

,

of

,

of

or

to

is

-

to

,

he

.

,

he

to

in

of

does not wish

a

give word for word gloss the grammarians text the fashion the but collect together the precepts themselves and tell what himself Horace had warned against precepts Nevertheless does not reduce the text certain predecessors gives his had done Instead what little more than running paraphrase prosification the original text that paraphrase little added the ideas the text little that might said the

Francesco Pucci that

"

De

be

“

”

,

.

of

,

” “

,

De Dispositione

” “

“

ff . , ,

Inuentione

indicating that Gaurico

De

once again effecting the conflation

is

38

as

,

” “

of

a

De

the marginalia read

Elocutione

,

in

De

,

” “

."

“

lines

to

he

he

by

.

in

.

of

contribution Gaurico What does contribute follows the lines pre viously indicated chapter this He emphasizes what thinks the putting brief formulas most important ideas the margin such speciebus concipiendis totius operis aequabilitate De proposito provide reading De stilo These kind outline for his Horace For

Horace and the standard rhetorical approach Other significant remarks are found such formulas Numeros materiam accomo dandos De Comoediae Tragoediaeque decoro De optima Ratione

,

Comoedia Tragoediaque necessarium

In

in

”

Quid

“

and

,

compositionis

.”

” “

” “

,

“

in

as

ad

.

between

”

is is is

a

to

,

be 43

to

. "

,

A

38 ,

.” :

of

of

:

of

"

“

44

“

materiam uestris line further circumscribes this and indicates the essential orientations the commentary

Sumite

"

nature

as

: “

do

,

.: do

of

to

24 ff

to

on

"

on the

"

,

on

of

reduce

;

a

to

of

appropriateness

all

,

versal principle

.

to

Horace's suggestions uni Frequently this appropriateness norm nature thus the comment the first lines for what said about poets and painters that they may what they please this valid the extent that they not depart from nature Or the remarks style relevant lines That style turns out the best which will imitate the nature the thing treated somewhat longer passage the text itself Gaurico tends

,

to

by

is

to

it

of

,

of ,

:

on

,

is

it

De

41

.

If

it

in be

,

,

a

to

You will have find subject matter this kind not absurd not difficult not far removed from daily usage but appropriate susceptible ornament and thoroughly and capable sustaining such that you will know the very end such you will understand better what manner the disposition

,

be

"

a “

,

II;

,

page Bivv given Pope The Arte poetica the first edition prints Sanctio Julius since Julius was Pope between 1503 and 1513 this would presumably the ten

&

eatenus licet

:

Poetis licere quod uelint

:

praecepta ipsa colligerem

:

quod aiunt Pictoribus

ac

"

A :

.p

ed . .),

( :

: “

., a .p

Nam

Av

sed tantummodo

[ 89 ]

qui eius

de

illum uideri stilum

rei

optimum

:

"

-

Av

Aii :

."

natura non recedant

.,

Ibid imitabitur

1510 cnarrarem

."

44

Ibid quatenus

.pp

43

De Arte poetica quid ille commonuerit

ca.

42

.

year period during which the edition was printed

qua agitur naturam

POETIC

THEORY

be treated and you will be able to express the matter in words much more appropriately.45

At other

" merely means following the norms of of comic verse for a tragic subject would be like an impropriety of dress ( p. Aiiv ). A few isolated passages are worthy of attention : ( 1) the " prodesse " of line 333 is explained as meaning “ ad

times , “ appropriateness

decorum ; for example , the use

institutiones uitaeque praecepta referamus , " thus putting the emphasis upon moral teaching ( p. Bv ) ; ( 2) the pendant “ delectare ” is made to depend upon verisimilitude , “ we invent things which make for pleasure, the things invented must appear as similar to the truth as possible ; lest by

if

chance you may suppose

that you must invent things which cannot be in any way believed to have happened " ; 46 ( 3) the end of the lyric is also made one of utility , in the following terms : "ut hominibus uiam ad uirtutem

significaremus : Regum gratiam aucuparemur ” ( p. Biji ). The main direc tions of Gaurico's development of the Horatian text would thus seem to be toward a pointing up of the rhetorical tendencies of the Ars poetica and their association with Ciceronian rhetorical principles , toward an extension

of

or even exaggeration

of appropriateness, and toward an insist of nature held by the audience addressed .

the idea

De

his

ence upon the conception

an

be

it

it

).

,

(

During the same years , Vittore Fausto published brief comoedia expansion upon Donatus and libellus 1511 He declares that will Diomedes and soon becomes clear that this expansion will take the form .

of

“

,

is

,

in

"

is

in

.

of

,

a

to

of

few references Aristotle and some crossing with the rhetorical mode The Ars poetica does not enter directly into cause but some the positions approximated example the earlier commentators are For the res present verba distinction the following statement which Fausto to

: “

of

....

,

of

said

in

what require great

discussed

to

.

is

poetry

The poet

poesy

is

,

another defence

of

In

.

the first one the art

of

a

) is

(

of

,

. 47

,

of

to

of

on

45

is

sundry matters

essentially

,

.

of

"

is

treatise

to

plot For the rest Fausto's types The two ways refer concerned with the seven kinds words which cause laughter stage action and apparatus with the appropriate with the importance action and with historical matters ness intonation Le selvette Niccolò Liburnio 1513 collection short dialogues so

doing

of ,

to

of

be

telling how the goals comedy may try achieved Since poets used bring this about with things and with words they will have two ways

:

:

:

:

.

:

ea

:

uoluptatem faciunt confingemus hec que confingentur ueri que facta fuisse nullo modo forte putetis fingenda uobis

"

.

[

primis poetae rebus

&

illud

,

...

in

Quandoquidem

bifariam 90 ]

1511 AA3 ipsa quidem

re : “

uerbis efficere conabantur

), .p

comoedia libellus

, (

De

47

."

:

: "

., .p

que Ibid Büi simillima uideri debebunt credi possunt

:

ne ad

."

poteritis

si

46

cloqui

: et

sit

et

et

:

a

:

: “

., .p

Ibid Aii Inuenienda uero uobis scribendi materia erit non absurda non aspera non longius cotidiana consuetudine remota sed que conueniat que ornamenta suscipiat quam constanter substinere ualeatis Sic enim uos pulcherrime cognitam habeatis quemadmodum dispositio tractanda rem ipsam multo conuenientius melius intelligetis

ARS POETICA : EARLIEST COMMENTARIES erudition , especially in Greek literature ; he must be adept in language ( acquired through art ) and in subject matters ( acquired through extensive reading ). To achieve perfection in a work he must combine art , nature , and

. Horace's precepts for the comportment of the poet are cited , and various models for the writer are proposed , including Dante , Petrarch , Antonio Tibaldeo , Sannazaro , and Bembo . Follows at last a long series of the conventional arguments in defence of the art. The “ Selvetta terza " urges the poet to imitate earlier models , as Dante imitated Vergil and Vergil diligence

of to it

."

quindecim annotationes appeared centum about although this time the exact date unknown Bonfini's annotations the Ars poetica are however disappointing since they are exclusively grammatical and lexicographical light upon the character and throw interpretation theoretical document the text

on

.

no

of

.

as a

of

in

,

,

,

,

is

at

et

Horatianis operibus

In

be

,

it

record

is to

is

a

it a

,

of

matter

with the eyes the mind may derive from way which will teach good and happy living pointed out that Matteo Bonfini's should

48

to

,

, ... it a

in

,

Horace are

from such profit and

of of

;

necessary

, it in is

“

so

these

for

tricked into assaying and utility a

may benefit

great mass read necessary the second whatever you write garland lovely and elegant varied flowers that whoever the first

pleasure

As

“ stile ”

as

The ends of

ancient authors weave

of all

.

for

:

please

in

imitation

” and poetic writing

“ materia

to

imitated Homer . Both

a

of in

, ,

,

his

of

comedies Terence not have sufficient so

the seams and

so

all

do

:

construction Horace

Plautus often gape

of of

a

on

.

These are the standard terms

at

of

.

all

The comedies

limatior

the general

rhetorical criticism the requirements

satisfies

." . In

" "

,

cultior

In

"

,

is "

a

"

elegantia

is

by

it

an

is

It

.

of

in

in

of of

49

"

,

In

to

"

In

the 1517 Aldine edition Terence there appeared for the first time prefatory letter entitled which has since been Terentium epistola Navagero interesting attributed Andrea letter because judges Terence terms the criteria supplied Horace and thus practical Horatian criticism The author proceeds essay kind the comparison between Terence and Plautus indicating throughout basis language the reasons for Terence's superiority first Terence excels

,

be

is

in

to

is

.

be

tu 33 ~

it

if

.pp

,

in

.pp

Le

all

if

-

so

any others For that decorum which not observed dramatic compositions

, be

be

,

all

in

the greatest art indeed there carefully observed things 48

.

,

,

of

.

a

all

Those Terence are well woven within themselves make unity out the elements that nothing could more completely precisely the realized than those compositions nothing more perfect And this thing poets and writers must principally excel and which demands which cohesion complete

...

[ 91 ]

si

l'Hellénisme

,

-

à

:

(

."

&

,

&

di

fa

Alde Manuce

et

,

Didot

.

see Firmin 465–66

-

A.

,

,

gli

al co

,

ed pp. . ,

,

-

:

(

),

427. On the 1917 Firmin Didot 1875

), .p

1718 Paris

de

, "

,

in

; ),

of

49

&

;

(

selvette 1513 9–14v and —34: alla prima mestieri leggere uaga selue d'authori antichi alla seconda cio iscriui bisogna fiori uarii tessere pulita ghirlanda posse che chiunque s'inueschi d'assagiarla occhi dello'ntelletto dillettatione utilita sciugharne con modo maestreuole buono beato viuere Opera omnia Padua Volpi Camino For the basis the attribution see Navagero

Venise

THEORY

POETIC

to each personage , then

of

of

50

.

is

appropriately

of

all

where everything must be contrived nothing at accomplished

.

audience

To

1518

)

(

GIOVANNI BRITANNICO DA BRESCIA

(

of

,

of

da

approximately the same period belongs another extensive commen the Ars poetica that Giovanni Britannico Brescia Ioannes

on

tary

a

to

,

,

of

,

Furthermore the two possible types humor that actions and that superior words Terence cultivates the former and hence appeals

26 ,

by

,

as

of

;

).

Britannicus Brixianus Britannico flourished toward the end the fifteenth century and produced commentaries on various Latin authors the standard biographical dictionaries give the date his death 1510 but Tiraboschi

. It

is a

I

),

is

to

or

on

I

Q.

at

(

,

of

a

)

.,

,

,

I

do

;

(

,

ed

VI3 992 cites document him dated November not know when the commentary Horace was written first but since the first edition that have been able discover that Horatij Flacci poemata Milan Scinzenzeler 1518 am discussing the commentary conventional commentary this chronological position Venice 1796

1518. appeared

of

,

,

of

no

to

of

It

.

its

, of

glosses

It

,

as

be

.

,

,

,

in

every respect frequently calling did others the time upon Acron Porphyrion Diomedes and Donatus Badius and mention makes may possibly goes beyond most other early earlier than his exegesis

,

.

,

,

a

,

,

;

,

,

, in

however the extent references multitude classical writers Plato Cicero Quintilian Pliny Valerius Flaccus Vitruvius Vergil and Homer are called upon frequently for examples and explanations One

to

a

in

is

.

to

of

to

,

are

.

of

is

of

being brought humanistic erudition upon explanation poetica emerges bear the the Ars What sense disappointing since few new critical orientations discovered Britannico realizes that the whole richness

a

,

,

of

"

“

to

:

on at

in

of

to

.

he

,

,

of

of

a

,

of

continues make systematic reduction the Horatian text series precepts and most these precepts repeat the traditional rhetorical thinking admonitions The undercurrent terms invention disposi proper places tion and elocution rises the surface the when for provide example wishes remarks the Rem line 310—

says

Thus

to of

-he

in he

Rem tibi Socraticae poterunt ostendere chartae

of

is

of

”

of

of

)

in

is

a

“

.”

in

)

as

(

: "

"

“

."

is

be

of to

is ”

“

(

Or

indicates

: "

he

42

all

: “

that the invention the materials neces respect poet line the ordinis with else the defines for order the disposition and distribution the materials put which shows what each place The verba line 311 provides following the definition the occasion for line 310 rem elocution for elocution Cicero teaches the Rhetorica the fitting sary above

."

,

.

ab

ut in

&

:

,

,

:

92 ]

[

:

, si

,

id

ac

.

:

in

,

.

,

ex

ita

:

ad

ab

&

,

,

a2 se : “

ed .) , .p

50 (

Hyant nonnunquam neque satis cohaerent Plauti Comoediae ita 1517 omnia Terentij inter nexa omnibus unum quoddam conficitur nihil aptius illius unguem possit atqui hoc fabulis nihil magis fieri est quod praecipue praestari poetis scriptoribus omnibus debeat maximam aliud quippiam artem exigat iam decorum illud quod omnibus tantopere custudiendum rebus est fabulis uero ubi congrua unicuique personae effingenda sunt omnia nisi seruetur nihil prorsus fiat

EARLIEST COMMENTARIES

ARS POETICA :

sententiae to the invention . ” 51 What Britannico says in the sentences immediately following shows that he is also making

of proper words and of of

the usual association “

For

,"

every poem

with the

these elements

" res - verba " distinction

of words and things. The things

he says , “ consists

:

are

these same moral precepts , and the words are the diction itself .”: 52

What is perhaps a more distinctive contribution on Britannico's part is his development of a dichotomy between the parts of poems providing pleasure and utility to the audience . Pleasure is a product of both “ verba " and "res " : of “ verba ," insofar as pleasantness and elegance of language are delightful in themselves (of the " dulci " in line 343 he says : " iucundi intelligit : quae multum delectat , ” after expression which he states that it is another of the “ delectare ” in line 333 ) ; tatem , elegantiamque

sermonis

“ res, ” insofar as a " natural " and " verisimilar ” objects is pleasurable. The conditions here imposed are Horace's monster is ridiculous rather than pleasurable, “ contra naturam , " and however fictional and imaginary

of

representation of important ; for if

-

to

be

"

“

,

by

be

by

to

is a

,

.

it

if

It

.

”

“

in to

.

nature Both the real and the fictional must impress the audience Utility however they are product give pleasure only consists the lessons learned the audience from

being true res

by

is

;

”

as

“

like

of

in or a

be

,

to

is

res ”

it is because it is the ornaments of a poem may be , they must nevertheless be like the truth . Another principle is really involved here : that part of “ which imitated from nature e.g. the characters assigned people according decorum must actually faithfully copied from nature consistent and appropriate way whereas that part which feigned created the poet must

.

he

as

in sit

"

“

.

“

;

to ”

“

of

"

to

sit as of

it is

,

and the moral examples presented the poet Hence not sufficient for the poet imitate the mores men must limit good himself the imitation mores Britannico interprets morataque meaning having correct mores but meaning recte line 319 not

of

the moral precepts

no

53

of .

of

,

).

In

a

a

by

of

merely

be

would not

by

be

the same kind are assorted

ed .) , .p

as

of

31

transposition into literary nature and put together nature must not

is

appropriateness

the notion that things

that such things

-

(v .

of

is .pp

of

of

of

or

versal principle terms

. "

quae

a

instructa

:

“

turpitudine aliena difficulty fitting the stand Into this central scheme Britannico has ard elements Horatian theory and the traditional interpretations Simplicity unity plot merely reflection the natural oneness the materials imitated CXIIIv CXIV the same way the uni quae bonis moribus

in

sit

: “

, "

cf. .p

:

&

: “

in

."

:

&

."

:

ut

,

ad : "

: “

especially

CXXXVI

( 93 )

the last page

debet enim fictio

: "

CXVv

,

CXIV

-

Ibid CXXXVIIv artificiosa naturam imitari

.

; ” ; pp .p .

" ., ; .p & ., : .p

.p

52

53

&

:

: sit “

" ; .p

rei

(

,

sicque ostendit poeta necessariam imprimis Poemata Milan 1518 CXXXVI esse inuentionem CXVIv Est autem ordo dispositio distributio rerum qui CXXXIy Per seriem igitur demonstrat quid quibusque locis collocandum and intellige ordinem quae distribuit quid quibusque locis rerum dispositionem collo candum and CXXXVI est enim elocutio docet Cicero rhetoricis idoneorum uerborum sententiarum inuentionem accommodatio Ibid CXXXVI omne enim poema rebus uerbis constat res enim sunt ipsa praecepta uerba uero ipsa oratio

POETIC THEORY combined by art . Therefore the three styles , each of which assembles coherent and consonant elements , and the interdiction against crossing or mixing them : literary " species " are as distinct and discrete as natural species . The theory

of the literary genres is rounded out by prescription of subject the matters and of the meters for each . Thus, as compared with earlier or with contemporary commentators , Britannico would seem to place greater emphasis on the relationships between poetry and nature , although he by no means decreases the time and attention devoted to rhetorical matters.

:

its

,

,

as

a

in

;

it

.

to is

his

The Epistola of Andrea Navagero , cited a few pages back , had been dedicated to Pietro Bembo . In 1525 , Bembo himself published Prose linguistic document essentially della volgar lingua This title belongs indicates but the present inquiry two ways first because

be ,

to

in

of of

so he

for

example

Bembo discusses the

for any

used

given

subject

matter

the three styles

be

be

:

referring

to

by

of

.

current Horatian tradition Book choice and disposition words

,

II

In

,

,

in

,

it

in

was the earliest important document the quarrel over Dante which century speaks later the and second because when the relationship between language and poetry Bembo does terms the

raged

a

of

;

if

,

a

;

,

,

,

,

,

or

of

in

as

as

, .

of

in

,

of

,

in

is

.

, a

by

to

,

,

little

to

all

is

move necessary

possible

the direction the one the other extreme these rules the observance use discretion nevertheless varying occasionally both grave words with and above avoid satiety temperate ones and temperate words with light ones Nevertheless most general and universal rule that each one these manners and styles we

It

tend

to

,

,

if of

,

a

,

be

,

to

of

is

If

speaking high subject matter the words one chosen should grave elevated sonorous clear luminous low and vulgar subject matter light plain humble popular quiet they should subject midway between these two one should speak with middling and temperate words and ones which

,

.

54

to

,

,

must choose the purest the cleanest the clearest the most beautiful and agree able words possible and bring them our compositions -

in

on

to

of

of

se di

in

an

of

de

de

.

, in

an

ed .) , .p

54

as

,

be

.

of

,

to

an

,

In

self determined Bembo's linguistic theory styles and words exist categories with the only reference external context being the subject matters which they express As for his dicta general types Dante they will treated the appropriate chapter Like Navagero's Epistola Mario Equicola's Libro natura amore practical criticism application example the 1525 may serve

si ,

,

,

di

È

.

la

et in le

, et

si

di

et

:

et

,

;

;

et li

di

,

: se

: “

,

: , se , di

et

,

;

(

Prose 1525 xxiiiv Da scieglerc adunque sono uoci materia grande ragiona graui alte sonanti apparenti luminose uolgare lieui piane dimesse bassa popolari chete temperate mezzana tra queste due medesimamente con uoci mezzane lequali meno all'uno questi due termini che puo all'altro pieghino mestiero queste medesime regole seruar modo nondimeno schifare sopra tutto satieta uariando

...

94 )

(

."

si

le .

et

di

et

le

et

, le

et

è

et

,

, le

, le

in ,

temperate con alcuna leggiera uoci graui con alcuna temperata queste maniere piu Tuttafiata generalissima uniuersale regola ciascuna stili piu chiare sempre pure piu monde piu belle piu grate uoci scieglere arrecaro possa alle nostre compositioni che alle uolte

ARS POETICA : EARLIEST COMMENTARIES Horatian and rhetorical principles which are here occupying us . The occa sion for such an application comes in the first book , where Equicola is discussing the poets who have treated of love . In his remarks on Guittone d'Arezzo he speaks of the pleasure afforded by poets through the use of music and rhythms , and Guido Cavalcanti is praised for the everyday flavor of his diction . Petrarch seems to occupy his high position in Italian poetry largely because he added to Tuscan many words from other regions of Italy , and Boccaccio because ( like Lucian and Apuleius ) he wrote poeti cally in prose and “ embraced delightful poetry and beautiful materials .” Most of Equicola's critical remarks , though , concern the work of Jacopo Calandra of Mantua , in connection with whom he states a number of critical principles . He speaks of the difficult task of the poet who must “ delight and move with ornamented language " and of the remarkable talent required to “ discover , and to take care to dispose and order well , whatever he invents . ” Even if invention and disposition are provided by nature , the poet will fail to delight and move unless he be a master of diction ; and this requires erudition , study , labor , art. “The invention may be as beautiful as you please ; without ornament it is a mass of gold that does not shine ." To achieve ornament , the poet must know many things, cultivate exquisite sententiae , tend to the propriety of words ; above all, he must choose words in common usage and those which will please the ear .

All

as all

he is

,

of

to

of

these qualities are found in Calandra . In his Aura he observes the decorum of persons throughout ; above all, his style displays great virtues : words purely and properly derived from Latin , well - chosen diction , a great impression of naturalness and perfect rhythms . 55 In the last analysis, Equicola's criteria reduce language matters and almost

of

is

.

as

"

materials in

art versus nature

Pro Archia

on

—

so

fitted

the commentators

,

of

Of

the side

,

-

-

,

he

of

he

oratory which distinguishes invention the five parts memory elocution and pronunciation accords most time ,

.

,

disposition

as is

length

of

at

He debates

to

a

,

.

for the orator language

frequently done the question the poet citing Plato's Ion and Cicero's

Horace had

the work

of

poet

the three styles

the basis

nature

for the

of

the effect that

as

,

,

on on to

,

of

tre

in

"

exclusively concerned with the volgar lingua was Bembo Another work essentially linguistic character Niccolò Liburnio's Le fontane the following year 1526. Liburnio studies the language preliminary statement Dante Petrarch and Boccaccio after having made

95 )

(

."

is

inuentione

the best as

well

quanto uoi bella

,

39 : “ la

3v 5v ,

.pp

),

(

natura amore 1525 una massa d'oro che non risplende

all

cultivate as

to

.

to

as

is , is

,

,

Tuscan words and

,

de

Libro

omamento

learn thoroughly

the past who will provide them with invention

e de

55

authors

all

is

writers

of to

;

of

.

,

is

in

.

to

elocution The reasons are clear for this the part which most admirable which involved the three styles and which demands the greatest application Of the three styles Vergil cited the consummate young master the opinion the Middle Ages endures The advice with senza

POETIC THEORY elocution . Cicero and Quintilian and Horace are cited as authorities for this opinion . 56 In the light of these last documents , it is perhaps not fortuitous that Giovan Giorgio Trissino should have published his Italian translation of Dante's De vulgari eloquentia in 1529. Clearly , we are in a period of intense interest in problems

of language and

the problem

especially

of

the

Italian

language . Dante's De la volgare eloquenzia comes appropriately just a few years after Bembo's Prose della volgar lingua . Moreover , for readers of

,

at

did not fall Dante's treatment

of it

of of in

.

contemporaries The basis

",

of

,

to

,

be

”

“

,

"

“

language into three levels the illustre division the subject and the humile which conform three kinds

is a

of "

poetry

,

these years were saying that

much like what writers strangely upon the ears mediocre

to

.

to

his

all so by

the time , it was a contemporary document . Many of them believed that Trissino himself had written it - no version of Dante's text had previously been printed — and was merely trying to gain authority for ideas assigning them say besides sounded Dante What Dante had

,

:

,

,

to

is

,

.

to

,

It

.

,

,

of

,

,

matter the tragic the comic and the elegiac should noted that these are kinds materials not literary genres and that the meanings attached the terms are different from the conventional ones The tragic style for poems about war about love and about virtue example adapted

...

the sententiae and the excel

has already and this style

,

,

but because the highest

it

;

be

we

to

of

the words are assorted one another been proved that the highest things are worthy

lence

of of

all

of

It

of

appears certain that we use the tragic style when the gravity and the loftiness the verse and the elevation of the constructions

;

"

to

”

set “

)

in

in

to

.

of

as a

to

,

which rhetoric whose course sound very familiar kind

)

(

1531

46 ,

be

,

Q.

of

should probably attributed Aulo Horatii Flacci Artem poeticam commentaria pub the twenties

.pp * iiv ,

la tre

Giano Parrasio's

In

the same decade

Le

the subject matters

.

of

AULO GIANO PARRASIO

57 56

of it

to

regard poetry

problems are essentially linguistic would the reader the 1520's

To

or

,

,

the three styles and

this tendency

of

terms

to

,

of

thinking

they belong

music

regulated

the best and that composed the vulgar tongues the degree which imitates the other This way

to

is

achieve excellence

in

of

will

(

“ a

in

it

be

is

as

Poetry itself defined rhetorical fiction invention may any composed language written but that the

classical languages

in

be

to ,

,

,

is ,

:

in

be

as

,

to

call the tragic seems the highest the styles therefore those things which we have already distinguished demanding sung the highest manner must sung safety love and virtue.57 this style only that

which

[ 96 ]

, e ,

;

de i

si , e cv la : “ , e

,

). lo

,

la

by;

,

,

de le

c

), de i de .pp le b

(

in

da

I

;

,

(

"

.

de i

la

il

,

le , e

,

e la

.

,

),

(

è de il le ,

...

, e la

la

fontane 1526 64v volgare eloquenzia trans Trissino 1529 Appare certamente De viii and gravità superbia che noi usiamo stilo tragico quando sentenzie versi elevazione construzioni excellenzia vocabuli concordano insieme ma perche gia provato che questo stilo cho cose somme sono degne somme stili però quelle cose che havemo gia distinte sommo kiamiamo tragico pare essere questo solo stilo cantate cioè doversi sommamente cantare sono essere salute spelling modified conventional o's have replaced Trissino's omegas amore virtù

ARS POETICA

EARLIEST COMMENTARIES

:

lished posthumously by Bernardino Martirano in 1531. This is another full scale commentary that was to be incorporated frequently into later editions the Horatian text . 58 Parrasio's position is essentially the same as that of his predecessors , but there are certain notable departures that show some forward movement in the thinking about Horace's epistle . Before beginning

of

his study of the text , Parrasio writes a lengthy introduction , which is in itself a kind of miniature ars poetica. He develops , on the basis of Plato , the theory of the divine origin of poetry , of the divine furor , of the poet as prophet . He may be alluding indirectly to Averroës ' paraphrase of the Poetics when he insists that harmony and rhythm are natural or instinctive in man , that poetry was used originally for purposes of praising virtue and attacking vice, that the poet must form in advance a complete conception of the poem before beginning to write it . 59 From Quintilian he derives not only the idea that the poet must be a good man , but also that he must be “ peritus " in an infinity of subjects . Both of these ideas are developed in because they are so frequently re - echoed in he

First

unless

the virtues

he ,

in

all

able

“

understand do

,

wisdom unless so

he

" :

,

is

all

,

an

of

he

he .

poetry that infinite knowledge

the whole

be “

And

of

,

.”

vices

on

have absorbed 60

all

unless

his

he

he

be a

a

to

good man This will not what things are proper good man himself unless himself abound lack

of the poet :

wise man that

to

“ goodness ”

be a

is

all it

later critical writing of the century . On the of essential that the poet himself

be

passages which are interesting

,

in

be

,

,

,

,

let

,

of

,

,

.

to

He

is

of be

It

necessary then that every poet expert on may matters that speak copiously everything able about must know well the customs the various peoples the usages the laws the details about maritime and places agriculture the military art the sayings land cities the descriptions

in

,

in

as

of

necessary and ,

myths

is

of

of

histories and

.

of

.

of

,

,

of

,

of in

every

grammar.61 list

to

a

knowledge

related

58

thing that

is

But above

all

as

,

in

;

of

expert with the stylus erudite and the acts illustrious men him geometry learned architecture and music experienced well natural and writing not ignorant moral science the art medicine He must remem lawyers have certain knowledge astrology and astronomy ber the opinions

-

to

ed .) , .p

.

cf.

6v ; as

.pp 1, to

,

;

to

is

of

,

.

,

),

by in

59

,

as

(

4

to

of

For references some these editions see the Index the Mills College check commonly given note above s.v. Parrhasius Aulus Janus The date Parrasio's death 1534 the standard biographical dictionaries but note that the dedication the 1531 already dead edition Martirano refers him (“

,

,

,

,

,

X.

ch .

Bk . I,

, ut

I.

ch . ,

,

,

[ 97 ]

,

cf.

" ;

,

.

,

,

,

&

,

sit ,

,

,

,

.

,

,

,

,

,

in

,

Bk .

,

cf.

" ;

,

sit

,

,

f

" ), .p , , p .gv.

(

2,

(

: “

re 2v 3 : “

.pp

., &

, . ., id pp .

60

de

61

),

Commentaria 1531 Averroës 1481 f2v Omne itaque poema omnis oratio poetica aut est uituperatio aut est laudatio Ibid 3–3v Ante omnia oportet ipsum poetam esse sapientem quae boni uiri sint intelligat quod non faciet nisi ipse bonus nisi omnibus abundet uirtutibus nisi poeticam omnem est sapientiam imbiberit careat uitijs Quintilian XII Quemcunque autem poetam rerum omnium peritum esse oportet Ibid possit copiose dicere Mores populorum una quaque consuetudines iura terrestrium maritimarumque cognitiones urbium locorumque descriptiones agriculturam rem mili geometriae eruditus tarem clarorum uirorum dicta factaque pernoscat graphidos peritus architecturam edoctus musicam sciat scientiam cum naturae morum tum disserendi responsa teneat astrologiam coelique calleat medicinae non ignaris iurisconsultorum fabularumque cognitio quaeque grammaticae rationes compertas habeat Nam historiarum copulantur primis sunt necessaria Quintilian

POETIC THEORY Parrasio's introduction contains , moreover , other elements that reveal his attitudes toward poetry . He conceives of the end of poetry as being both rhetorical and moral : rhetorical insofar as it must "inflame the souls

of men , extinguish wrath ,

arouse hate and sorrow , or lead them away from passions gentleness these same to and pity " ; moral insofar as it must good living by " invite men to means of examples and reasoning , teach

character and the passions, prescribe in a pleasant way what things are to be done . ” 62 The insistence , in the above paragraph concerning knowledge, on a mastery of grammar and , in this last citation , on the pleasant way " is explained by Parrasio's stand on diction . For whereas most of his remarks so far have pertained to the poet and the effect of the poem upon the audience, when he actually does speak about the poem itself , he speaks of it largely in terms of diction . “ Nothing , " he says , “ is as poetic as the diction . " This emphasis will be apparent in the commentary itself ; it is also prominent in the concluding section of the introduction , where he outlines Horace's general procedure . This procedure consists in dividing the work into two parts , the function of the first being to show what things are to be avoided ( “ uitanda ostendere " ) and of the second to prescribe what things are to be done ( “ sequenda praecipere " ). Five precepts contain the essence of the first : ( 1) admit nothing inappropriate , lest there be discrepancies in the invention and a lack of total harmony ; ( 2) avoid placing things where

they do not belong, or introducing digressions

or superfluous ornaments ; style pursue ( “ dicendi figuras " ) to the point the various kinds of ( 3) do not falling opposite ; of into the vices ( 4) in the search for variety , so important poet , to the refrain from the excessive cultivation of mythology , the exces

for eloquence , for superfluous and inappropriate ornament ; ( 5 ) depart never from the most important matters . For the second , there seem to be seven brief precepts : ( 1) know how to provide a fitting order for the whole work ; ( 2) narrate elegantly ; ( 3) write beautifully ; ( 4) cultivate variety constantly ; ( 5) attend to the perfection of the whole ; ( 6 ) start from an advance idea of the structure of the total poem ; ( 7) achieve a tight cor respondence of beginning , middle , and end. It is in the set of negative sive desire

on style is found . 63 In the commentary itself , Parrasio develops and expands the notions epitomized in his precepts. As he does so , certain of the distinctions now so familiar - invention , disposition , and elocution , “ and verba the to

,

”

all

”

-

in

(

dolorem incen bene uiuen gerendas cum

:4y res " ,

,

.p

.

";

,

" ;

.pp

,

&

,

98 ]

[

,

est

,

&

ad

”.

., .p 3 : “

to

;

to

”

,

is

“

to

., ab .p 3 : “

,

becomes

belong elocution the three styles verba invention poetis maiori obser which more important than invention

extinguere iram odium Ibid inflammare animos hominum and misericordiam reuocare lenitatem dere aut his ijsdem exemplisque inuitare dum rationibus mores affectionesque docere iocunditate praecipere poeticum quam eloquutio Ibid Nihil tam 6-6v 63

light and are

res

ad

62

elocution

,

equivalent

the poet come interesting ways

: “

.

in

,

,

,

three styles nature art and practice exploited These cross one another

“

res ”

precepts especially that the emphasis

ARS POETICA : EARLIEST COMMENTARIES uanda diligentia , ” p . 12 ) since it depends more completely upon genius (or nature ) than upon art, which is sufficient for invention and disposition . The further distinction of pleasure and utility is also related , because in a general way utility comes from the " res " and pleasure from the “verba . " One might reduce his argument in connection with Horace's line 333 as follows

:

voluptas

necessitas 1

modus ( = verba )

res

1

1

elocutio

inventio 1

1

iucunde scribere

fabula morata 1

delectet elegantia

prosit doctrina

to

. "

“

in

in a

,

"

"

it

res ”

Furthermore , a kind of distinction among genres seems to be made on the same basis : tragedy aims primarily at utility , comedy at pleasure.64 The principle of decorum applies to both “ and verba With respect things correspondence the work imitated between the res involves

to

is

...

so

,

we

is

in

;

is

to

. “

in

of

art and things nature this the most important thing for the poet only speech nothing observe Not our lives but also more difficult proper perceive what than what the Greeks call Tapétrov and call

,

." 65

of

“

a

an

,

67 )

in

in

to

78 ),

man

(p

.

"

ut

to .

"

to

the

On

,

and and move through credibility

se

in

,

,

autem cum morata recto prosit doctrina delectet est

,

ut

.

est

.

,

38 .

...

,

&

.

ad

,

in

,

,

7 : “ .p

., " . ; .p

instinctive

they involve verisimilitude and decorum

constituta delectatio uero modo quo docemus Prosumus fabula delectamus cum iucunde scribimus Laus poetae elegantia and 65

66

is (

,

of

"

of

,

as

of as

that imitation

habent inter nonnullam similitudinem uescentes scribentes uoluptatem quibusdam necessitatem Docendi necessitas rebus

,

69v utantur

not only connection poetry there are again strong

imitatio naturae the genius matters res are referred criteria

they must persuade

ad 72 : “

.,

.pp

64

estest

Ibid quibusdam

as

a

.

In

general way

of of to

the poet

nature insofar audience insofar

the origins

the statement

poetry

the definition

."

of

in to

related

in

Averroës

the commentary

all an “

of

with decorum but echoes

its

do

of

be

all

enter prominently as

nature

"

"

to

to

of

“

; ",

to

in

.

to

appropriateness We must pay due attention that we really happens imitate what nature and not disturb order appropriate With respect verba the principle decorum involves things way ness words words must chosen and placed in fitting and proper Considerations the things the dignity decorum

&

in

."

cf.

" ;

. "

a

est

a

homini respectu ceterorum animalium

( 99 )

in

istud proprium

,

&

. "

&

est

&

...

...

,

.

,

,

in

ad in

rem

:

assimilatio

ut

ed .) ., ., , , p p , p . . rei . ut ad : : : , “ “ “

(

67 66

Ibid non solum omni uita sed etiam oratione nihil difficilius quam uidere quid deceat TrpétrovGraeci uocant nostri decorum Est suus conuenientiae labor quae adhibendus naturam cadunt fingantur illius ordo non perturbetur rerumque dignitatem apte Ibid 12v decore poesis nisi imitatio uitae Ibid 68v Nihil enim aliud morum quae hominis propria est facitque uel hac una differat caeteris animalibus with which Averroès prima sua natiuitate 1481 f2v Prima quidem quum homine existit naturaliter

are referred

to

of

the three styles according

the

.

in

art which consists ,

verba

essentially the proper exploitation usual rhetorical precepts

to

THEORY "

matters

“

the other hand ,

of

all

POETIC

a .

as

to

,

as

.

as

on

in

of

of

in

of

These interrelationships distinctions perhaps indicate Parrasio poetry than was present more tightly knit conception the art earlier many disconnected remarks commentators He provides just isolated many different authorities passages did his predecessors refers in

a

by

art ;

as

;

of

:

his

,

in

But over and above these one senses some fairly definite orientations thinking toward seeing system what had hitherto been independent sets distinctions toward emphasizing diction the really poetic element ,

to

to

a

est

.

,

to

of

a

as

of

special talent furthered special and the product toward analyzing more searchingly the relationships the poem nature the poet and the audience

on

,

“

”

followed

of

the model

be

as

Vergil 20 ).

three styles

( .pp

all

had previously recommended

unfailingly for

to

as

of

"

he

models

;

"

,

of

,

...

of

In

proprie connection with line 128 the Ars poetica Difficile communia dicere Parrasio had developed his ideas another kind imitation that other writers whom the poet might take his ,

on

by

tradition

the

Ars

state

poetica

.

the commentaries

I

has the Horatian

on

to

of

,

,

ad

lenitatem

,

uegetior

?

,

,

uel dolorem incitandos ad

odium

amorem

:

in

in

is

in

uel ad

,

iram animos uel ijsdem permotionibus

ad

ad

it

time

the rhetoricians that Giraldi's

praising Cicero which Giraldi the compared with similar ones the commentators

passage

may

ad

quis ab

...

that

,

following

original

be

cite the

so

ments bear close resemblance

this

,

by

so

it

of

,

to

, is

by

. of

;

completely imitation but assimilated the standard language

quis

of by

.

is

,

in

,

,

These were not course conjunction with the new ideas and they had before this appeared Horatian text But their timeliness here indicated the fact that they the appear almost contemporaneously with the writing two letters subject Celio Giovambattista Giraldi Cintio and imitation Calcagnini dated 1532 Calcagnini Giraldi's letter concerned exclu sively with the art oratory and with what may gain from proper 43–43v

misericordiam

. 68

in

?

?

?

?

?

?

quis uerborum copia locupletior quis sententiarum pondere reuocandos aptior quis totius grauior quis figuris iucundior quis trallationibus magnificentior quis dicendo candidior orationis serie magis elaboratus

of

,

.

-

100 ]

[

of

he

202–3

.

.pp

ed .) ,

in

,

be

1540

(

In

in

68

Poematia

,

of

the single model who

the components Cicero and for Latin must long the Horatian rhetorical tradition familiar terms speaks

of

of

favor

,

of

.

a

Giraldi decides

in

rhythms and harmonies

.

:

is

"

”

by

be

is

occupied with the debate between those who insist that Giraldi's letter many different authors should imitated and those who maintain that single model The subject imitating this the best results are obtained exclusively figures speech imitation diction choice words imitation

ARS POETICA : EARLIEST COMMENTARIES Celio Calcagnini , to whom the letter had been addressed , answered in the same year in another letter entitled Super imitatione commentatio . In it , he defended the necessity of practicing imitation , especially for modern Italians who wished to rise out of barbarism . Then , basing his discussion on the three elements of invention , disposition , and elocution , he pointed out that the first of these is inherent in the material itself, the second is within the power of the writer , the third comes entirely from without . That

by

is to

” ),

as

of

,

of

).

(p .

of

of

of an

a

is

rei

uerba inuenire

of

"

of

proper imitation things the proper fitting words propositae accommodata phrase which almost the battle cry the Horatians 217 poetry Two other favorite ideas the Horatians the interpretation allegory concealing moral lessons and the insistence upon the necessity

(

lesson taught

.

its

is , the ability to handle language in an excellent manner is learned from the part The greatest teacher or the models ; it is here that imitation plays

to

a

in

tre tiranni

.

of

respect

comedy

to

of

joyous and pleasant

With

is ,

Agostino Ricchi's

I

to

as a ,

preface

the first Vellutello argues that the principal requirement

,

to

readers printed

is

,

emphasis short critical document verse are the main points the following year 1533. This Alessandro Vellutello's letter the

“

or

is

as

a

is

or

,

.

is

of

,

in

...

, of

on

of

.”

“

:

or to

of

of

.

of

”

,

He

"

discourse hide always some then interprets the allegory senso mistico Ricchi's play He defends Ricchi's use verse the basis comedy the usage the whole history the Greeks and the Romans the authority Aristotle the Poetics Poetry verse and such opposed everything that prose true history rhetorical under the veil

useful and appropriate morality

In

of

;

to

an

to

of

,

in

as

in

,

”

al

uero —and goes far modern subject alive

69

a

et

,

imitation

with . "

al

naturale

comedies

“

no in

“

be

of

contra

accept the use prose themselves and necessitating

to

as

to

be

it

—

."

which would

to

as

verse

to

do

or we

,

of

do .

,

any part belongs prose but the fictional fables oration them the poets never Since not believe that the same things one can equally well adapt verse prose we think that when this write them happens judgment than must rather attributed lack over sight He admits blank verse everyday speech than rhymed closer

in

of

of

a

by

it

;

,

to of

Lodovico Dolce published his translation the Ars poetica into Italian verse was accompanied dedication Pietro Aretino which Dolce raises the practical question the usefulness Horace's 1535

69

.

is

;

of

by

he

be

,

of

.

in

precepts the present day His first argument itself Horatian Starting from the premiss that the poet depends both upon nature and upon art for suggests that the mediocrity against which the excellence his work Horace had warned may avoided only the practice art and the

de i

le

,

è

, ot

di

; .p

)

101

a

ci

".

(

a ,

,

in

,

a : la “

, o

le

A

.

di

,

et

di " : ; " .p ,

(

et

, o

al

), .p

I

,

In

Aijv sotto uclo tre tiranni 1533 piaceuole discorso sempro lieto Aiij Aiijv tutto quello che accomodata moralità fidele Hi parte prosa ma storia ucro Oration rethorica loro appartiene finte fauole quali cose non considerando potendosi nel medesimo modo adattaro Poeti non mai uerso scriuere Prosa pensiamo che sempre questo saria piu tosto attribuito giuditio che trascuraggine mancamento Ricchi

nascondere utile

of

all

He

THEORY

POETIC

. “

in

a

of is

,

a

,

." 70

a

a

in

he

phases Ars poetica is the best source of wisdom on the art com book which collected together wonderfully small space everything that good poet needs Dolce feels that such work posed

the basic elements

:

,

of

especially needed today when poets are ignorant their art

,

,

it )

in

a

or

,

all of

,

spent

their time not without ,

all

all

,

,

our language

.

, in

71

a

to

little splendor has come studies labor

do

, we

in

.

of

,

we

(

up

,

to

in

pass because writing today for the most part the vulgar since we are born and grow we think that having studied Petrarch can with little effort write some verse sonnet that will give off perfect odor poetry And not understand that this same Petrarch and our own century Sannazaro Bembo and also Ariosto from whom not

And this comes

tongue

his

concerned with the more philosophical

"

“

It

as

(

) is a

1541

Horatian

the ingredient

of

a

in

a

to

be

.

in

.

,

in

,

is

Bartolomeo Ricci imitation models but more complete and way than they had been His De imitatione libri tres justifies document several respects imitation

of

, in

he

.

poetry

Giraldi and Calcagnini

ike

of

art

,

brief defence

.

all

of

of

make

a

—

to his

in

,

of

his

,

of

the century

,

his

writers

, of , of

to

include Aretino himself among the distinguished praising him for the purity and appropriateness disposition diction for the felicity invention for the observing decorum for the pleasantness and gravity for his judgment thoughts passing them Horatian qualities Nor does fail Dolce does not fail

a

it

no

a

a

of

(

).

of

.

of of

of

precepts

it

the genres that they represent and ;

provides certain important genres number for each the more Ricci recognizes the existence two theories imitation and current debate over their respective merits The first proposes that any writer imitate only his own to

models according

; it

,

,

of

;

art that must added nature maintains that writer imitates the disposition and elocution selects and classifies his model

invention

he

to ,

,

.

of

;

all

at

.

of

I

. “

is

che

a

,

in

tutto quello

."

cui

,

;

-

),

in

, (

Poetica d'Horatio 1535 A2v vn Libro compose breue campo mirabilmente racolse buon Poeta necessario questo auiene che scriuendosi hoggidi per Ibid A3 .p è

in

,

of

in a

of

to

other matters artifice artifice and that each one needs

A3 : “

is

in

imitation

nature

.pp

as

that

nature

70

to

:

therefore believe this great benefit

as

to it

by

in

,

to a

,

to

,

help devote from outside the second proposes that nature with exclusively positions himself the imitation another Both thinks Ricci are extreme for the first neglects the contribution that art can make single model nature while the second unnecessarily restricts the writer supplementing nature with art correcting The best solution consists variety experience adding other authors genius the one's

]

(

102

; :

di

il

,

, e

il

,

il

;

gli studi

.”

consumato

ne

i

;

,

senza fatica

la

il

,

,

, e

;

e

; ci

o

si

;

e

in

;

: " E

.,

71

maggior parte nella pare che hauendo Petrarcha studiato per esser noi nati cresciuti essa Poesia possa dettare alcun verso Sonetto che renda perfetto odore con poca fatica l'Ariosto Bembo Sannazaro nel secol nostro che esso Petrarcha non comprendemo lor tempo non anchora da quali n'è vscito non poco splendore alla lingua hanno tutto lingua volgare

ARS POETICA : EARLIEST COMMENTARIES entirely the help of the other .”

By this process , the deficiencies of the individual's talent will be compensated by the experience of his predeces 72

sors .

? ”

of

,

so to

73

do

,

of

to

of

is a

as

to

all

art

Such a procedure, says Ricci, merely follows the normal patterns of nature . All the arts derive ultimately from nature ; one may take rhetoric as speaking what else an example : “ Indeed , in the universal the propose adapt precepts rhetoricians than their Nature herself any art any precepts Just reduction nature the activity

to

,

his

if

by

he

...

he

. “

is

he

;

be

, do :

of

in

to

reducing his own nature artist should consist the satisfactory modes artistry and for this purpose the best device imitation Thus will my imitator will preserve carefully the many natural gifts with which any then are lacking may obtain will have but endowed

I,

of

his

.

in

,

of

,

74

. "

of

study through the imitation from elsewhere the good selecting the best models writers The problem then becomes one those which will best complement one's native genius Late Book them

of

.

to

he

;

of

Ricci indicates that criteria for the choice models are essentially their invention and elocution but some his discussions the narrative and dramatic genres reveal that also accords some importance disposition

in of

,

of

endings sufficiently makes enacted on the stage following (

of

words

he

or ,

the latter

his

,

of

be

;

in to

in

its

denouement with respect whether they related

,

sad

in .

is

),

of

triviality one must beware Terence for seriousness and decorum Seneca the only model for tragedy He satisfies the requirements suspense excellence the arousing the conduct the action and

.

(

;

is

.

,

,

of

,

.

in

in

of

as

of

,

is

Since his greatest concern with Latin eloquence Ricci surveys the whole field Latin poetry and selects those poets who may best serve necessity criteria for the models each the genres This involves only Plautus and Terence genre and for poetry general For comedy are acceptable Plautus better for continuous comedy and laughter but

to

in

as

,

a

“

,

he

:

The

is

in

,

greater applause for himself from the spectator the elicit obtain for himself merited esteem this discussion .pp

of

In

75

.”

a

,

a

more will more will

he he

,

in

of

,

in

).

Horace's distinction His whole conduct the tragedy the serious the royal personages the grave words such achieve applause for the poet the desired goal more tragic writer arouses pity the spectator the more makes the subject cruel and terrible the action

&

,

,

&

,

ut

. "

75

,

id

? "

."

,

...

ca

,

14 : , “ si ita

.p

,

sic

, – sic 13 : in “

ed .) ,

in

ut (

In

ad

., .p

.,

,

73

74

1545

4v : “

72

Ego igitur 12x sentio naturao artificium caeteris rebus imitatione plurimum prodesse atque alterum alterius auxilio omnino indigere Ibid uniucrsa ucro dicendi arte quid aliud Rhetores attendunt quàm cius praecepta omnia naturam ipsam accommodentur Ibid meus faciat imitator cui naturae bonum plurimum affuerit dili genter conseruabit quae uero desiderabuntur suo studio aliunde bonorum imita tione comparare debebit De imitatione naturam

artificio

."

)

103

ab

,

ac

(

,

,

,

: “

., .p

Ibid 22v Quanto tragoediae scriptor magis misericordiam auditori commouebit quanto rem crudeliorem magis atrocem facict tanto hoc maiorem sibi plausum excitabit tanto eius gratiam inibit aequiorem

POETIC THEORY tragedy, Ricci's sources and orientations become apparent. Horace is accompanied by some allusions to Aristotle ; Cicero provides the general rhetorical goal ; moreover , the old medieval conception of the genre still serves as a basis . Similar recommendations are made for the other forms: Tibullus is first among the elegiac poets , Horace for the lyric and hexa meter ,

, Vergil for the epic . of the De imitatione treat the practical rules for imita , Ricci declares that one may imitate the invention and

Martial for

the epigram

II and III

Books

tion . Once again disposition of a work as well as elocution . He authorizes the copying or translation of whole passages and points to the great achievements of modern imitators . Yet there are important theoretical statements . In his insistence that the moderns can equal the ancients, that Nature has been

a all

,

as

.

of

a

to

,

language consideration Ricci's treatise bridge between works rhetorical theory and works time when the latter were just beginning come into

a

,

of

of

to

devoted

whole represents poetic theory

at a

III

Book

is

as generous to us as to men of the classical past, he presents an idea that was soon to be exploited by Sperone Speroni and then by Du Bellay . He distinguishes natural from artificial order in the development of a plot , discerns a rhetorical order of parts ( demonstration , narration , and so forth ) in the poems and cantos of Vergil . On the purely practical side,

of

,

is

is

-

on

mally called

again the subject the Giraldi Calcagnini sense Giulio Camillo Delminio although only one them in

by

Imitation treatises

of

.

prominence

two

for

in

of

is

its

no

it

exclusively linguistic and upon language

in ,

is

,

on

, :

lo

of

is

more remote from Horace than the letters largely because approach almost higher rationale evinces terms the ,

on

.

than from Horace The second imitation already studied

:

is

.

treatise

che possono

in

,

a

imitation The work his Due trattati l'uno delle uenir sotto stile dell'eloquente l'altro della imitatione published strictly rhetorical eloquence 1544. The first these character and derives its materials and its basic theses rather from Cicero materie

“

as ,

up

of

.

it , at is

,

, "

as

or

or in

,

.

a

as

or

,

in

language

as

of

potential audience Camillo distinguishes figurative topically figurative literal and con cludes that one author may borrow the first two types from another without engaging either plagiarism imitation The third provides the occa sion for true imitation and hence the special prerogative the poet effects

,

as

in is ,

)

of its

of of its

of

occasion

discuss

a

finds

to

a

to

Giraldi

104

of

by

genres

,

practicing the separate

the course the ten dia mere biographical account

. In

the expositors

which are devoted

(

of

the ideas added

certain

by

to

,

,

of

many logues poets

.

.

,

In

be

in

although the orator may also use times Cicero usual held the sole model for imitation Latin and the ways which proper imita achieved are outlined tion may 1545 Lilio Gregorio Giraldi published his long Historiae poetarum dialogi which belongs the Horatian tradition virtue not only reflection numerous borrowings from the Ars poetica itself but also

ARS POETICA : EARLIEST COMMENTARIES The first dialogue, especially , is a full - scale principles defence of the art and a statement of finds useful the standard commentators but also call not only upon the witness upon such ancient authorities Tyre and Plato Strabo Maximus number of theoretical matters

it

he

,

of

,

,

In

certain sections closely after Aris subsequent chapter connection

.

a

he

patterns

shall indicate

in

I

,

,

Moreover

totle's Poetics

.

Theophrastus

as

as

to

of

it ,

. In

its

.

in

of

,

hidden meanings literal statements upon generally the art and that the meaning an

is

in

,

is

: "

is

it

,

its

,

connection with these Giraldi insists upon the poetry upon the mysteries concealed beneath essentially allegorical nature seems that poetry one thing said whereas another meant its

of . all In

as a

;

its

its in

;

:

of

.

,

of

he

,

,

,

of

poetry with his defence cites the recent apologies Petrarch Boccaccio Budé and Pontano The defence itself follows the traditional lines the early esteem which poetry was held kind first theology civilizing function and first philosophy uses sacred writings

to

Eratosthenes and

that poetry need only

must be

that

to

Horace

it

need only instruct

(

(

that

),

Strabo

it

discusses the arguments

of (

of

),

of

delight

,

second

he

.

;

he

.

,

—

of

a

to

of

." 76

a

,

to

,

so

to

speak under veil The defence also requires answer topics long Plato's ban and demonstration the usefulness the art familiar the Horatians For the first Giraldi declares that Plato had quotes Petrarch exiled only poets who lied about the gods the effect that only scenic poets had been excluded from the Republic For the hidden

.

the poets

in

of

an

by

in

us it

,

Indeed these things have been feigned

: we "

daily lives

,

" ).

“

”

as

is

“

both prodesse and delectare His own conclusion would seem necessary and that that instruction takes several forms For one thing image Cicero pointed out poetry offers fictional guise our

such

,

in

;

,

77

"

as .

in

in

of

in

wise that see our own characters represented other persons and we daily life see expressed them our image For another specific tragedy and comedy moral lessons are contained such genres

:

tragedy

...

in

,

of all

,

;

,

to

.

to

of

all

is

of

tragedy are this the opinion the comic poet Timocles who says that found the models and the teachings for life and for every human condi tion ... thus from some writers you will learn bear with equanimity certain things and from other writers how things bear other indeed the sum ,

to

,

is

greater than those which any one person suffers and the man who misfortunes has observed that they have befallen others has become accustomed bear his

...

dici uidetur

,

poëtica enim unum plerunque dicam uelamine occultatur

from the aliud

."

, 9 : ut “

), .p

10 : “

72 ,

., .pp ., .p

81 , ,

77

78

&

(

Historiae poetarum 1545 uerò significatur sensus quodam

and comedy are derived

tragedy

,

76

Giraldi's general notions

ita in

of

own more easily and more imperturbably.78

in

ut

,

)

105

& : ,

ab ait ,

. "

,

sic

...

&

,

.

(

,

: “

ex

."

,

à

Ibid Haec enim conficta sunt Poëtis effictos nostros mores alienis personis expressamgue imaginem nostram uitae quotidianae uideamus idque qui apud Tragoediam totius uitae Ibid 676 Timocle Comico alijs alia aequo animo ferre disces conditionis esse exempla atque documenta qui alijs accidisse contemplatus omnia enim maiora quàm quiuis patitur infortunia suas ipsius calamitates aequius faciliusque ferre consueuit

POETIC THEORY medieval - Horatian school , and this in spite of the fact that he cites defini tions and discussions from Aristotle . Dialogue VI is devoted to tragedy . He defines the genre thus : “ Tragoedia est heroicae fortunae in aduersis com

, ut nostri definiunt ” (“ nostri ” being critics writing in Latin , such as Diomedes ); then , after citing Theophrastus ' definition in Greek , he is

in

.”

&

,

est

.” I

cite these

of

,

by

&

“

,

plena

molestiae

Giraldi

traditional ideas and ,

he

compare tragedy and comedy Donatus and Diomedes

again

:

readers

of

in

so

comes

terms familiar

In

does

to

When

formulas.79

turbulenta

the continued use

to

samples

he

as

passages

re

the antiquity

bium Tragoedia exiuit

,

fortunę heroicae calamitas seu enim propria tristia luctus Aristotle prouer tragedy and then Giraldi remarks that

of , of

cited

: “ Tragoedia

de

tragoediae

.

it in Latin

on

paraphrases infortunium

est

prehensio

,

in

.

;

at

In

is

In

.

,

,

,

at

:

,

,

of

,

of

comedy indeed the ordinary fortunes men the minor shocks and perils tragedy everything are represented and the ends the actions are happy imposing personages great fears calamitous outcomes the opposite the former unsettled events the beginning calm ones the end whereas

it .

us

,

be

is a

of

, to

as

,

by

a

an

as in

,

to of in

In

" 81

in is

—

the

of it .

be

to to

of

.

If

of

,

as a

to

if

he

: "

,

of

composite his definition the poet himself elements accepted Perhaps wrong derived from various sources one would not poet were define the man who moved the divine afflatus speaks nobly and appropriately great things such way arouse equal element every admiration this definition verse added thing will seem plainly included his treatment the details poetic composition handling the three styles the five acts

of

Similarly

to

so

by as

is

in

.

it, in

to

us

,

is

to

as

a

in

in

tragedy things transpire tragedy life represented the opposite order Then way comedy such make wish flee make desire Finally every comedy derived from subjects invented the poet but tragedy frequently springs from historical truth.80

,

by

.

“

"

of

,

—

to

,

of

,

its

comedy and various kinds the histories the genres the definitions the minor types Giraldi refers directly and specifically Horace and the various expositors who the Renaissance commentators were inte grated into the corpus ideas Horatian

of

CONCLUSIONS

of

in

., ., .p , pp .

79

to

Aristotle's Poetics and the references The gradual emergence Gregorio formal definitions and discussions Giraldi Lilio

appearance

,

vii ;

,

,

,

Tragoedia

saepe

de

,

,

fictis argumentis

in

,

,

,

1 .

V.

,

,

, ed .

,

de

postremò omnis Comoedia

."

106 )

(

si

,

hominem esse qui cui definitioni

. . . .

,

is

,

., .p

Ibid non malè fortasse dixerit qui poëtam ita definierit spiritu afflatus magna egregiè appositeque cum admiratione loquatur par carmen addatur omnia planè comprehensa uidebuntur

,

86 : “

81

."

capessenda exprimitur historica fide petitur

,

.

in

, at

& in

:

,

in

,

; cf.

,

I,

ed .

In

,

,

;

2;

IV .

: "

,

80

ed .

Etymologiae 671-74 for the formulas Isidore VIII Evanthius Diomedes Keil 487 Donatus Wessner parui impetus Ibid 681 Comoedia quidem mediocres fortunae hominum periculaque laetique sunt exitus actionum Tragoedia omnia contraria ingentes per sonae magni timores exitus funesti habentur illic turbulenta prima tranquilla ultima Tragoedia contrario ordine res aguntur tum Tragoedia fugienda uita Comoedia Ibid Wessner

ARS POETICA : EARLIEST COMMENTARIES derived from Aristotle indicate the arrival at a turning point in the Horatian tradition . The next text to be studied will be the first in a long series of texts which effect an intermingling of Horace's theories with those of Aristotle , and which produce in the end a complete confusion of Horace

with Aristotle . Before proceeding to that study , however , it will be well to estimate the effects of the growth of the Horatian tradition in Italy up to about the year 1545 . In the first place , there is what we might call the material growth of the

tradition . By that I mean the gradual accretion to the text of Horace of a host of other texts , which first become attached to it and then become inseparably identified with it . The earliest of these would be the ancient commentators , who persist with the text throughout the Middle Ages and bring to it an initial interpretation . Next would come the commentators of the fifteenth century , who add not only their own glosses and their own ideas but who incorporate as well relevant materials from the the end

of

grammarians and from the Latin rhetoricians . To some degree , also , these writers bring into the tradition the growing humanist knowledge of ancient texts , including both theoretical documents and

late - classical

various kinds of poems . Finally , the commentators of the first half of the sixteenth century expand the number of Greek and Latin theorists who are considered to have said things relevant to the interpretation of the Ars poetica . Plato , Aristotle , and Averroës are called upon increasingly, as well as many minor writers on poetic and rhetorical theory. There is another sense in which we may perceive a material growth

of the tradition : to formal , commentaries on the Horatian text are added first , independent theoretical statements in other contexts or in separate works , and , second , essays in practical criticism in which principles belonging to the tradition are applied to poems of one kind or another . Not only are more things added to the text

In

the Ars poetica , but it is constantly applied to more things. the second place , we discern what might be called a methodological

of

growth of the tradition . The earliest form of commentary is essentially a grammatical commentary , in which the exegesis of the text as a linguistic document is the primary problem . To be sure , philosophical interpretation is already present, but it is present in a secondary way . This type of gram matical commentary will continue throughout the later phases , but will gradually be subordinated to other types. To it is added , in the fifteenth century , more and more interpretation of a philosophical and literary character . At the outset, this kind of interpretation is applied to separate lines or passages in the text , for which analogues or explanations are found

in other texts and for which illustrations are found in the poets . But already , because of the character of the documents which are cited as analogues, a totality of interpretation ( which , as we have seen , is a rhetori cal one ) is present . In the sixteenth - century commentaries , the large body of disparate distinctions brought into the tradition in connection with one ( 107)

THEORY set

POETIC

of

,

.

of

by

, .

of

of

is a

of

,

is

of

systematic

In

of

or another is organized into a related distinctions and interpretations Horace appear with some frequency None gloss the earlier forms abandoned and the increasing length and complexity the commentaries reflection the greater number things done with the text and their greater diversity passage

it

.

,

of

all

-

in

be

”

at

.

"

to

,

,

of

evidences

of

and far the most important the tradition presents considerable doctrinal growth Two words caution are growth necessary about the meaning given this point For one thought that during the period under consideration there was should not any notable change understanding the over the Horatian epistle the third place

of

as a

be

by

by

or

of

,

.

to

of

any appreciable shift from one way regarding the text another Throughout these years the Ars poetica was read kind rhetoric that utility pleasure could brought about indicated how certain effects

.

of

,

or as

.

,

in

to

of

a

or

"

”

be

of

a

in

specific audience making treating nature certain ways and adaptations subject matter For another certain kinds words meaning necessarily that the later growth should not understood documents were more sophisticated more complicated philosophically larger and richer body that they contained ideas What doctrinal

be

as

of of

see

we

If

a

of

.

is

.

in

,

as a

as

of

as in

be

growth there was must sought the tradition whole the sum compared with the sum during the doctrine during the later years compared with the sum during the early years Here there middle years development substantial progress the general process consisting Horace with the more and more complete identification to

in

At

is

to

-

.

as

-

of

,

present rhetorical tradition then the first stages would the simplest assimilation the invention disposition elocution analysis Horace's correspond statements This assimilation will grow the division made

-

of of of

.

all

,

in its

or of

at

of

of

more and more completely with parts the Ars poetica the same time looking main point being the the text another way poetic matters appropriateness emphasis upon the necessity appears

,

,

to

of

.

so

,

genre

of to

type

to

of .

as

of

,

of

,

or

,

to

be

to

or

to

to

historical conceptions genre social station appropriateness will genre and verse material forth The canon enlarged and expanded likewise the tradition grows Consonant with the text critics the rhetorical associations the increasing complexity character traits character subject matter style diction

.

an

;

all

times each

The constantly this manner

of

.

of

of

or

At

.

part

these

times

108

)

(

back again

to

needs

go

,

For certain other relevant distinctions one

to

.

greater attention moral considerations considering the ends

the audience

is a

of

of

as

(

to

sought for some special segment

at ); at

to

,

to

be

to

times one

pleasure with Landino the only one the work achieved through separate parts as

is

,

is

are said one

clarified

emphasized

is

or

both

ends

of

to

by

explanations and examples

of

its

to

will tend orient their thinking more definitely toward the audience and develop theories fitting orientation The requirements and such instructing pleasing poetry with respect the audience that end

ARS POETICA : EARLIEST COMMENTARIES the earliest commentators and from them trace a widening and diversified of ramifications . This would be the case for the insistence , with respect be

discourse

It

the arts

grammatical

essentially

.

to

belong

of

an

dichotomy

”

verba

,

to Horace , upon the “ distinction which comes

all

to res -

set

would

of all ,

in

a

of

;

is

questions

diction

;

reduced

of

to

then they may also

be

all

if

.

be

of ,

the three styles

.

an

,

diction and to

with the text To them also related the matter interesting way For poetic concerns may reduced

the ideas connected

in

of

to

,

,

the case again for the three styles especially the postmedieval years upon provide organization styles these are called basis for nearly

its

of

it

in

of

,

to

be

.

a

If

or

as a res .”

,

or

,

of

considering poetry which will never lose popularity one during the Renaissance will exclusively consider terms words expression style there are thus several separate approaches verbal character there are also several which spring from preoccupations the ways

in

is

of

,

of

a

,

"

to

'

the theorists attention

facet

res ."

to

, of in

,

is a

.

of

and verisimilitude

One special

in

.

is be

,

to

“

."

a

to

a

of

as

of

of

is

it

or

he

be

,

this the insistence certain writers that when the poet deals with historical matters must true whereas when his subjects are feigned invented sufficient for him verisimilar Still another direction doctrinal growth discerned what we may transforming poetica characterize the the Ars into total poetics pertinent large number Horace himself had treated matters the art is

phase

a

of

an

to

.

in

a

of

is

of

“

The most prominent these the reading Horace essen principle reading document centered about decorum complete interpretation expression which reaches Badius Such course related those which were insistent upon appropriateness but specialized way Similarly the persistent return considerations nature with tially

,

of

,

or

,

of

.

in

,

of

,

of

so

by

,

of

of

:

of

poetry the internal order poems the appropriateness diction the history and the materials certain genres the behavior the poet the function great the critic and forth All these matters are developed examples detail the commentators either through the addition

At

constitutes no

,

times this actually basis ).

dogmas for which there

is

as

(

for Badius

a

is

of

or

.

,

of

regula

”

“

)

(

for Acron the discovery

a

as

the declaration that every statement

of or

effort results

”

praeceptum

in

“

solid and substantial

by

.

of

be

of

a .

of

through the expansion the ideas Moreover other developments occur precepts would probably The transformation the text into set rules one these Horace's fairly fluid organization materials made more

it

a

in

109

the commentators

of

,

to

.

Finally

,

prophet

.

seer and

:

the poet essential goodness the universality the character

a

as , a (

his

,

of

his inspiration through divine furor capacities his knowledge

ideas

relevant

his

concepts

]

“

Horatian

"

a

a

evalism enter into the sum introduce large number

of of

,

of

.

A

of

to

a

,

to

of

of

to

it

.

in

poetry the Horatian text itself The aggregation the defence the Horatian tradition expands and enriches notable degree since soon involves the crossing with other traditions and the appeal other part authorities this defence consists the allegorical interpretation poetry where again both continued medi renewed Platonism and

Through such

its

POETIC THEORY

.

to

,

In

up to

in

a

—

accretions as these , the Ars poetica — with attendant glosses becomes repository for everything that was being thought about poetry the humanistic period and during the Renaissance about 1545 the following years another impulsion material and methodological a

in

,

110

)

(

.

of

.

to

as

is

to

given and doctrinal growth the Horatian tradition and such way merit separate and detailed study This impulsion comes from the Aristotle's Poetics text and the interpretation

CHAPTER FOUR . THE TRADITION OF HORACE'S POETICA : II. THE CONFUSION WITH ARISTOTLE

ARS

BE ERRONEOUS to believe that in the years before 1545 work on Horace's Ars poetica had been done exclusively by persons who

' T WOULD

did

Poetics . The passing allusions and refer chapter would disprove such a belief. A more correct statement would be that although these scholars knew Aristotle's treatise or knew of it , such knowledge did not fundamentally affect their general reading and interpretation of the not know

Aristotle's

ences to the Poetics mentioned in the preceding

Horatian text. They read it in the same way as did their colleagues

who

lacked this knowledge ; and allusion and reference were incidental to an interpretation which had nothing to do with the Poetics . In the years that we shall now be studying , however , a number

of theorists brought Horace's work into clear juxtaposition to and explicit comparison with Aristotle's , and in some cases at least , a new analysis of Horace resulted . What hap pened to Aristotle will be treated in a later section.1 Nor should it be thought that the comparison with Aristotle produced a revolution in the interpretation of Horace . We shall increasingly discover commentators and theorists who make the assimilation of the Greek to more fre - writers who persist in the earlier tradition . Both in theory and in practical criticism , it may be that the “ un - Aristotelians ” or the “ non Aristotelians " constitute the dominant element in the Horatian tradition of the later years as they did in the earlier . To determine the proportion , the Roman ; but we shall also continue to meet - and perhaps

quently

to weigh the importance of the two trends, will be one of the problems of this and the succeeding chapters. FRANCESCO FILIPPI PEDEMONTE ( 1546) The first of the Cinquecento commentaries on the Ars poetica to make use of Aristotle was Francesco Filippi Pedemonte's Ecphrasis in Horatii Flacci Artem poeticam , published by his pupil Puresius in 1546. In some respects this is a conventional commentary , but in others it presents extensive

notable innovations . For example , Pedemonte follows the usual routine of dividing Horace's text into small sections , with a commentary for each section ; but he varies the technique by giving a heading to each section .

Thus lines 1-13 are preceded by “De Idea Concipienda , " lines 14-23 by Non esse à materia discedendum , " and so on . These headings themselves indicate the direction of the interpretation . But the great innovation con “

1 The samo subject with respect to Horace is treated by Marvin T. Herrick in The Fusion Horatian and Aristotelian Literary Criticism , 1531–1555 (Urbana : University of Illinois Press , 1946); but since Herrick proceeds by a fragmentation of texts and an arrangement according to critical ideas , he does not achieve the kind of historical statement of the develop ment which I am here seeking .

of

( 111 )

POETIC THEORY of Aristotle

sists in the use made

Let us

.

how this is done in several

see

typical passages . In the first passage , lines 1-13 , Pedemonte sees an expres sion of Plato's theory that Ideas precede forms ; from this theory he derives Horace's contention that “ it is necessary that the artist have a preconceived notion of the things which are made by him before putting his hand to them , and that he see in advance in his mind's eye the Form according to This is the procedure , painting the arts molding and sculpturing which indeed seem proceed Aristotle the same way imitation does poetry Thus Aristotle's theory imitation made equivalent Plato's theory the imitation Forms ."

of

to

of

.”

as

to

,

is

of in ,

of

work

especially

to

,

“

the arts and

of

,

he goes on to say , in

in

all

he may give form to every

of which

the model

in

.

of

no

,

( as

: “

a

an as

,

of

fit ,

,

passage

of

he is

in

to

Horace's initial statements the Ars poetica Later the same speaking unity when disparate when the impossibility elements are combined Pedemonte again quotes Aristotle the first parts the poem will not with the last and the poem whole which and

in

on

the reference

to

of

"

a

In

by .

be

)

his

lie "

by

he

,

of

shed upon the Horatian passage

is

,

is

of

,

to

as

be

a

,

be

.

be be

(

new light Aristotle.2 cases

,

a

,

,

of .”

be

)

a

of

beginning way Aristotle says consists middle and end will complete Here Aristotle's principle unity identified with Horace's principle appropriateness Finally Horace's recommendations that nature must followed are said corroborated Aristotle's insistence that Homer taken the best model since best taught how something out which would nature should told each these

,

ad

.

by

the Horatian passage goes

on to

”

(I

to to

of

an

he

“

As

TTPÉTTOV

.

TÒ

),

,

. ”

“

,

is

in

commentary Pedemonte's procedure similar lines 92–107 De decoro atque affectibus exprimendis quae res actionem pertinere uidetur After initial sentence about the importance quotes Aristotle observing decorum locate the have been unable passage quid deceat equivalent thus making Horace's Aristotle's headed

the effects produced

the

poem

et

Non satis est pulchra

:

,

esse poemata dulcia sunto quocumque volent animum auditoris agunto

to

of

;

he is

,

est

.

to

is

to

to

on

to

of

-Pedemonte first cites Cicero on the closeness the poet the orator sway their audiences then both Cicero and and the necessity for both portraying Aristotle the need for the poet feel the passions that the reference Aristotle Poetics 1455a31 At the end the com ,

se

à

,

" ;

,

,

,

in

sic

]

[

,

I

, by 4v

.pp

" ;

up

to

of

since was called Pedemonte scholars and including

).

112

he ,

ac

“

Filippi rather than the whole tradition 235

”

,

ex

,

ed , .,

,

(

,

''

the name Pedemonte pupil Puresius and Venice 1796 VIII

by "

)

;

4 : “

( .p ut

;

.

,

;

3v : “

,

), .p

(

2

Ecphrasis 1546 necesse enim artificem earum rerum quae fiunt prius quam manum admoueat precognitam habere notitiam animoque praeuidere formam cuius exemplo opus quodque informet itaque omni arte pingendi maxime fingendi atque sculpendi quae quidem eodem imitationis tramite cum poesi Aristoteli incedere uidentur poematis primę partes cum postremis non conuenient miniméue totum ipsum quod inquit Aristoteles principio medio fine constat absoluetur also 16. use his own Tiraboschi

ARS POETICA : CONFUSION

WITH ARISTOTLE

mentary

- and for reasons difficult to discern - he quotes Aristotle on the beautiful animal and on the proper magnitude of a poem ( 1450635 ). These passages in the Ecphrasis are typical . For an indication of the extent to which Pedemonte seeks parallels in Aristotle , a simple list of the texts involved will suffice :

Ars poetica

Poetics 1447a18 , 1450627 , 1460a18

1-13 42-45

1459631

46–72

1458631

73-88 89-91

1459631 , 1448632 , 1459a11 144969 , 1448a16

92–107

1455a31 , 1450635 1448635 , 1460616

128–34 149_52

1451a32

179_88

1448a36 , 1449b21 , 1448a30 , 144964 , 1449a31 , 1451a16 , 145363 ,

189–92

1451a9

193-95 202-19

1456a25

220-24

1449a21

234-39

1458631 , 1456a20

1453619

1455632

275-80

144999

281-84

1449a36

338

40

1451a36

457-69

1447619

As compared with earlier commentators , the extent of these references is considerable ; but the study of later commentators will show that we have here only the beginning of an important tendency . What is important , however, is not the fact of reference , but the degree to which such reference causes a change in the interpretation of the text of Horace . A careful reading of Pedemonte's commentary shows that while several new ideas are added to the Horatian tradition as the result of the parallel with Aristotle , none of the old ideas is in any way modified ; the process is one of accretion rather than change . I have already referred to several of these new ideas : Aristotle's theories of imitation and of the magnitude of beautiful poems compared to that of beautiful animals . Other added elements are the notion of necessary order , in which no part of a poem may be moved or removed without destroying the total struc the explanation of the various compo ; that definition the insistence that unity of plot is not provided by

ture ; the definition

of

its

nents

of tragedy and

of

(

113

the statement that the

they should

be ,

;

of

things

as

the presentation

of

poetry

plot and

four kinds

)

domain

is

the distinction

of

,

spectacle

of ;

in

unity of hero ; the declaration that tragedy should attain effect even the reading through the constitution the plot rather than through stage according

POETIC THEORY

on

Acron

;

,

to

of

)

in

the first

group

in

and Parrasio the second Pedemonte's contribution consists ing them together and adding necessity them the notion

he

had appeared in earlier commentators (

be "

cf.

should

on

to necessity and probability . In connection with this last , it should be noted that both the idea of the “ verisimile " and the idea of " things as they

which

of

.

does not explain

“

,

”

on to

he

compositione

” “

“

,

,

of

.

,

,

,

,

of

or

of

,

.

is

in

of

,

,

The addition these Aristotelian concepts does not mean however that any the old components the Horatian theory are lost dimin ished The work still read the light Cicero Quintilian Acron and Donatus and the essentially rhetorical interpretation still obtains Thus lines 38–72 the Ars poetica are divided into three sections entitled respectively De Inventione De Dispositione and De Vocabulorum

:

is

,

it

,

of

he

to ,

.” 3

is

It

: “

of

“

,

,

"

;

as

passes the next section Pedemonte remarks and abundantly discoursed about poetic invention disposition Similarly when speaks comedy and the artistry elocution Pedemonte insists not sufficient have invention but also

So far we have

to

”

“

by

”

"

“

,

“

.” 4

to

a

in

res -

to

understand disposition and elocution and fashion the poem itself according the rules The related verba distinction appears rhythmi somewhat special form since the verba are replaced necessary

).

of

,

to

(

”

”

,

own colors

of

his

on

.

on

is he

of

he

he

,

he

,

so ” in ),

,

." .

to

(“

,

'

,

obliged

variety the necessity means produce admiration

insists

aim Much later however when Aut prodesse volunt aut delectare poetae the text itself consider the dual end and does these

line 333

by

discusses

will

no

“

,

otherwise and pleasure which are the poets

by

,

the Ars poetica

for

it

line

the poetic work

of

29

of

in "

variare

”

6

be

,

by

,

respect

to

poetry Pedemonte seems the ends remain unde pre cided between the two rival positions most commonly held decessors that which maintained that the end was pleasure and that which mingled with utility Commenting declared that pleasure must the

to

With

."

distinct

its

by

is

of

by

,

in

So

: “

is

“

“

in

contrary and these turn are called colores the usual practice speech which reserved the term colores for figures The distinction poetry two principal things are considered formulated thus namely the material the things which are taken the poet for treatment and the numbers from which this material receives its form and made

dispositione

elocutionisque

to in

give pleasure and was entirely alien

artificio

uerum etiam dispositionem

ac

,

poetica

est

inuentione

,

,

of

be

: ." “

.

.,

3

Ibid 12v Hactenus abunde disseruimus

de

p

to

to

in

part Yet since poetry seems have been invented part also utility lest someone might think that

it to

:

terms

,

,

."

)

114

qui poetarum est scopus

,

,

oblectationemque

praebeat

(

,

;

,

admirationem

,

, à

ac

;

,

cum alioquin

6 : "

Ibid

nequaquam

."

in

: “

., .p

., . " .p

6

à

s

;

: “

., .p

*

Ibid 40v Non enim satis inuentionem habere elocutionem callere oportet ipsumque poema rite intexere poesi duo praecipua considerantur Ibid 14v Ita rerum uidelicet quae tractandę poeta sumuntur quibus informatur efficiturque suis coloribus materia numeri distincta

ARS POETICA

WITH ARISTOTLE

CONFUSION

:

of

in

. [

,

,

,

of

of

.]

I

,

all

pleasure he (Horace ) felt it necessary to remove such a concern from men's minds by making a universal distinction among poets The three kinds poets dis tinguished say who communicate Those provide utility verse the precepts the disciplines and the arts especially the precepts which are called moral ,

[E

.

of

in

a

In

,

:

,

of

as

,

a

By

the wrappings life.7

of in

envelop way

to

to

fiction fact those very ancient poets have set for themselves that same purpose fables doctrinal mysteries and moral instructions

seem

and

of

they include under the appearance

who first invented poetic lies

.

)

to to

,

in

of

,

,

of

proper living ... These poets mpedocles Lucre and who teach the norm tius Aratus etc. seem have created many things their poems for purposes pleasure sculptured image addition moral portraits and life which

an

in

as

in

of

by

of

of

.

,

is he

of

,

a

such statement the last one Pedemonte allies himself with those poetry residing theorists who had seen the chief utility alle gorical function Moreover indicates the passage that his whole con ception poetry the ends unaffected his study and his citation be

to

it

of

seems

brought about

In

by

proverbs

or

utility

,

the actual production entirely almost the introduction

for

of

As

.

Aristotle

to

,

of

"

among

,

lines 309–22 where

all

the commentary

on

).

(

present

in

sententiae

is

to

by

"

,

in

be ,

to

."

of

“

,

.

sententiae connection with lines 202–19 Pedemonte insists that ethical philosophy filled tragedy right and comedy with most weighty sententiae apposite the teaching living appears passage There the same some connection plot between poems offering such sententiae and the moral type distinguished position respect Aristotle Poetics 1456al The same with

,

: “

,

of

a

we

? ” 9

a

,

to

,

other related things Pedemonte says this Indeed unless comedies and tragedies derived their seriousness from precepts and sententiae pertaining dry discourse everyday life what would say they were other than commentary and sterile matter At the end the same Pedemonte A

a

,

of

ad

or

no

if

ad

.pp

or

or

: “

,

, or

of

,

of

,

it

is

if

,

to

of

utility over pleasure itself gives priority poem faithfully this kind reflecting mores adorned with philosophical passages containing useful grandeur beauty matter even without the seduction words delight cleverness construction will better and hold the public than poem with the most highly embellished verses knowledge wisdom ,

: "

...

carmini

,

tum praesertim quç moralia uocantur

...

ab

,

praecepta artiumúe ,

inquam qui disciplinarum

.

ex

,

à

ne

,

.,

7

Ibid 51-51v cum tamen poesis oblectandum partim partim uero iuuandum aliquis existimaret omnino uoluptate eam esse alienam uatum omnium inuenta uideatur uniuersali distinctione eiusmodi scrupulum euellere animis necessarium duxit Prosunt

,

,

,

ab

illi ,

inuoluerent

,

ad

quae tragoedias comoediasque grauissimis sententijs

&

."

modum

., .p

recte uiuendum

repleuit

."

8

Ibid appositis

36 : "

uiuendique

ut

;

&

.

,

,

.

,

bus tradunt recteque uiuendi normam edocent multa enim illis oblectationis causa alioquin expressos mores insculptamquo uitae imaginem sub falsitatis efficta uidentur qui umbra continent Nam uetustissimi initio poetica mendacia excogitarunt illud sub fabularum inuolucris doctrinarum mysteria mores sibi scopum proposuisse uidentur

,

,

ac

à

,

,

,

)

(

? "

115

ni

,

: “

., .p

ad

9

sententijs praeceptis pondus Ibid 49v comoedias omnes tragoediasque quottidianam uitam spectantibus accepissent quid aliud esse quàm iciunum sermonum sterilemguc materiam diceremus

POETIC THEORY supports it . ” The position is of course that of Acron and later commenta tors ; 10 it would not be that of Aristotle at any point in the Poetics . A little later , Horace's dictum on brevity ( 1. 335 ) is expanded to refer specifically to these moral precepts : “He advises us to make every possible effort

toward brevity, which indeed is held to be particularly suitable for teaching the mind , and to stray as little as possible from the line of profiting and teaching ; so that the learners may more easily grasp the precepts and may

keep them as long as possible locked within the storehouse of the memory ." 11 We have already examined the tenor of Pedemonte's discussion of decorum in connection with Ars poetica 92–107 ; as in the Horatian text , decorum will be throughout one of the commentator's primary concerns . It should be pointed out further , relative to the above passage , that

;

, to

of to of

to

be

,

,

so

let is

,

let

Pedemonte tends to make a proper observance of decorum one of the con ditions both of sound teaching and of audience attention . Two sentences show this : " All of those who have undertaken the task of writing poetry , according judgment them pay attention especially their powers what decorous that the proper qualities attributed each person and them observe decorum itself through ignorance which offense ”

;

in

in

of

or

to

no to

12

;

. "

of

is in

by

"

,

,

in

poetry and speeches results not only life but most frequently and give Furthermore the writer who fails each personage speech that keeping with character will means obtain the attentive minds the open ears his listeners Decorum also provides one the bases for distinguishing poetry from history for whereas the historian treats

no

to to

"

", "

"

locisque philosophicis

ornatum

,

"

, "

of of

.

his

:

,

50 : “

poema bene moratum

Ibid

., .p

10

is

in

by

,

what Pedemonte adds the text predecessors The basic principle Horace had already been added unity stated simplex congruens the conventional terms unum

”

to

.

."

work The treatment significant additions Aside from these major emphases

of

13

of

,

or

treated with decorum

be

only those things which can which seem likely confer splendor upon the ages follows Horace with the decorum

true the poet pays attention ,

is

what

utilemúe continens ,

,

sit

,

: “

II,

,

ed .

,

,

,

,

cf.

,

" ;

,

,

materiam sine tamen uenustatis lenocinio aut uerborum maiestate aut constructionis quàm exornatissimis uersibus artificio melius spectantem populum oblectat detinetque nulla subiecta sententia neque scientia Acron Hauthal 629 dicens quod ,

,

ut ,

ac

à ad

: "

pp .

,

11

,

.”

,

,

et

expressione morum quamuis interdum fabula opportunitate personarum inductarum sine arte sine uenustate sine grauitate sententiarum plus placet quam uersus bene quidem sonantes sed morum obseruatione carentes Ecphrasis quae quidem 512-52 docendos animos admodum idonea habetur

12

;

.”

,

;

praecipiendi linea errandum maxime studendum esse monet minimeque iuuandi discentes praecepta facilius comprehendant memoriaeque thesauro recondita quamdiutissime seruent

in

&

,

;

in

.”

,

,

13

,

16 : “

.p

" ;

;

in

,

ut

,

: “

., .p

Ibid 15v Omnes qui poeticam prouinciam susceperint pro suo iudicio maxime quid deceat animaduertant unicuique persone suę partes tribuantur ipsumque decorum poemate obseruent cuius ignoratione non modo uita sed sepissime oratione peccatur and Praeterea qui personae cuique congruentem orationem nequaquam tribuet nullo pacto attentos animos patentesúe aures habebit

."

,

ea

,

116

]

[

,

: “

., .p

Ibid 24v sic Poeta non omnia sed tantummodo attendere debet quae tractari cum decoro possint quaeúe splendorem operi allatura uideantur

ARS POETICA : CONFUSION ( p.

5).

For

each

of

WITH ARISTOTLE

the “ simple " styles , Vergil may be taken as the model

5v) . But lest simplicity cloy, one introduces variety into the poem always keeping appropriateness in mind — and in so doing one follows the example of nature ; “for poetry and numerous noble arts follow nature as

( p.

their guide, and nature , indeed , rejoices to an astonishing degree in variety . " 14 The " following of nature " is one of the kinds of imitation ; but in addition to the Platonic and Aristotelian meanings assigned to the term , the text also uses it to mean the adaptation of old plots and the following the commentary on lines 128 ff.

of

,

he a

model and

sort

,

to

;

to

he is

if

: “

a

good man

castum decet

).

.p

(

”

,

a

must himself

be

,

,

proper moral influence pium poetam 56v

exert esse

15

.”

,

I

,

whose likeness everyone should execute his own work should say make the sum total and not merely separate parts conform this Finally the poet who executes such works image excel and in

image

as in a

to

be

”

is

,

tendis fabulis and the general thesis stated poem which we undertake imitate must

: “

( “ Difficile imitatione atque conver this way Finally the

De

“

entitled

is

of

the section

proprie communia dicere

" )

est

of models. Hence

.

,

at

.

to

of

to

in

in

it

to

of of

a

of

on

,

,

its

In

main lines then Pedemonte's Ecphrasis 1546 adds the tradi commentary the Poetics reference Horace sizable amount interpretation and This reference adds some new ideas the corpus changes times results that interpretation But for the most part the tion

in

is

found

a

.

similar alliance of Aristotelian and rhetorical elements by

A

a

to

by

,

construction put upon the Ars poetica remains unaltered and Pedemonte merely adds another document the series which this time had estab lished standard reading for the text

. in

),

is

of

(

to

),

(

in

I

: “

remember

,

to

praises

on

;

”

This insistence

Aristotle Poetics 1458a18 although directly from Aristotle the the discussion

reference is

what

finds that clarity which

what Aristotle says the Poetics 1459631 greatly the hexameter verse appropriate the heroic style

hexameter

14

so ,

not necessarily

of

,

its

is

itself

be a

in

derives both from the words and from their ordering.16

he

,

in

"

of

lovely through their varied ornamentation distinguished clarity the kind by

,

,

in

,

selected words

the translation

clarity may

,

of

of

is

he

in

;

1 ,

,

,

in

to

letter Claudio Tolomei Marcantonio Cinuzzi dated July 1543 but published 1547. Once more the rhetorical elements are predominant discussing Cinuzzi's translation Tolomei Claudian's Rape Proser pine ingenious praises the three books the work because they are disposition elevated invention clear their great sentiments terse

who

since

&

,

,

;

ad

;

)

.p 9 .

,

";

,

8 : "

), .p

117

(

,

(

Delle lettere 1547 son ingegnosi per inuenzione chiari per disposizione per gran sentimenti tersi per iscelte parole uaghi per uario ornamento also

,

."

&

,

16

."

6 : “

21 : “

., .p

., ; .p

15

in &

Nam poetica artes quamplurimae nobiles naturam tanquam ducem quae quidem mirum modum uarietate gaudet Ibid Poema denique quod imitandum suscipimus debet esse exemplar imago quasi quaedam cuius similitudinem opus suum quisque effingat totum inquam corpus non partes singulas conformet Ibid sequuntur

alti

, all

POETIC THEORY

as

)

)

(

readjustments

1550

(

AND MAGGI

1548

a

,

to

,

of

Pedemonte although lesser degree Francesco Robortello seeks establish parallels between Horace and Aristotle his Paraphrasis librum Horatii qui vulgo arte poetica Pisones inscribitur in

ad

on

de

,

is in

to

Continuing the lead

systematic

.

sembled from various sources with

ROBORTELLO

17

. "

;

no

of

all

-

do

as

that kind of verse does not as easily happen in the speech of men at times six syllable verses and other similar forms Here again critical elements kinds are slight and commonplace they are

is

it

all ,

at

is

is

if

to

he

a

.

If , ,

to

of

As

in

.

(

);

1548 this one the appendices Robortello's commentary the Poetics his title promises limits himself almost exclusively paraphrasing Horace's epistle and there any doctrinal value little paraphrase necessary Robortello's statements

be

"

.

of In to

all is

,

.

a "

of all ,

at

"

in of

"

an

is

of

—

he

so

—

says because the order Horace's treatise obscure and many points need expansion and clarification Indeed Horace's work not poetry art but merely sermo touching upon current poetry The expositor's function will therefore errors the writing

42-45

1460a5

73–74

1459631

79

101-13

iambic definite passage 1454a16 mores

125-27

1453a17

(

Homer's narration

1454a37

193–201

1456a25

.

as

(

ex

Trapahoyiouós

deus

machina

1456al

)

)

(

)

)

(

(

(

of ,

of

,

,

in

was interested

,

decorum

of

subject matters juxtaposing the two texts metrics certain rules for the handling narration and ,

of

A

and

ethical plot

the comparisons shows first the kinds

for which Robortello ethics

(

317-20

ff .

281-88

chorus tragedy from satire 1449a19 1449a2 old comedy

mere listing

)

)

1460a18

191-92

)

(

151-52

( (

dualiav

)

)

few families

1451611

1454a25

meter

)

,

(

;

necessity

of

)

(

no

(

)

(

hexameter for epic

1449a23

82

)

Aristotle

Horace

220

a

to

)

he

opinions These are the parallels established

:

does and thus corroborate

.

his

(

,

his

of

is

to

distinguish what order perceptible and expand and clarify the text paraphrase the course Robortello finds occasion cite number passages from the Poetics which claims say the same things Horace

,

to ,

.

)

these historical considerations and second the miscellaneous character problems Robortello goes Aristotle for scattered details which resemble

]

[

118

, e

i

il

,

di

,

ne la

.”

,

fa a

:

lo

a

di

8v : “

., .p

17

qvel che dice Aristotile poetica ilqval loda molto Ibid mi souuiene percio che qvella sorte uerso non cade cosi stile Heroico uerso Hesametro atto alcvne altre simili ageuolmente nel parlar che l'hvom tutte l'hore come uersi senarii forme

ARS POETICA

WITH ARISTOTLE

CONFUSION

:

isolated remarks in Horace , not for any consistent

or particularized theory

of poetry . In this series of

de

Q.

In

an

I

).

(

,

ad

on

his

the early “ comparers " of Horace to Aristotle , the first to read Horace in the light of the Aristotelian text was Vincenzo Maggi , commentary who appended to the Poetics Horatii Flacci arte poetica librum Pisones Interpretatio 1550 have already referred

. "

in

.

18

to

“

in ”

“

in

of

II

in

of

to

Chapter and quoted Maggi's assumption that the important Horace's work were written almost entirely imitation Aristotle's Poetics and his intention demonstrate that those things which are found Horace are already found Aristotle But the text Maggi discovers three merits more complete and more intensive study this text

sections

,

all

,

to

)

(

;

treat

3

to

(1 )

:

in

Horace teach the laws for the proper making poetry itself criticize satirize and render

of

to

poems

; . 19 ( 2 )

of

separate purposes

is

,

be

is

;

of

,

to

on

.

,

to

is

is

."

is

“

of

of

,

he .

of

parallels This clearly stated Maggi the introduction where declares that will not repeat the explanations quae huic nostro others but merely treat those things cum Aristotele communia sunt The procedure not novel course Maggi's parti pris begin with Aristotle and work but what new forward Horace rather than following the usual inverse process in

satisfied with the discovery and adducing

by

lla

is

,

a

of

,

in

of

.

a

;

to

to

Only the first two are essential the work and materials them derive from Aristotle anything concerning the third digression and promptly dismissed Since labeled fundamental parts the work have their source Aristotle their meaning can clarified citation the parallel Aristotelian text and Maggi for the most part ridiculous belonging

in

.

on

:

to

he

.

be

all

to

of

to

all

,

,

of

is

of

of

reading example this method found the commentary very the first section the Horatian text lines 1-13 Maggi quotes five relating separate texts from the Poetics the distinction between plot plot itself Then goes say and episode and the importance

An

to

at

is

,

is ,

is ,

,

is

of

of of so all , it to

,

it

,

may clearly concluded that Aristotle Therefore since from these texts plot and episodes and himself divided Homer's poetry into two parts that speak the soul poetry that that plot the thing which most important seems me reasonable that Horace should have given the so

is ,

and

Ars

,

to

,

,

is

in

no

is

of

on

that

the

53 .

19 18

of

,

;

in

at

he

of

this work the precepts for the proper making the plot evidently treats very once and the threshold his work what first poetry especially since there foremost other place Horace's poetica except this one which explicitly deals with the plot that say composition events.20 beginning

ac

,

: "

; , &

in

."

)

119

,

sit ,

in

ex

(

in

&

,

,

: &

,

,

,

,

,

in

ut

,

: est

,

, id

de

, ), .p

(

de

ex

.

,

in

: “

pp .

., ut

20

,

In

de

, .p

See above poetica communes explanationes Aristotelis librum 1550 328 partim leges partim criminari rectè Poesim conficiendi docere partim Poesi ipsa tractare perinde satyricum mordere irridereque Ibid 329–30 Quare cùm omnibus his locis plane colligi possit Aristotelem ipsum Homeri Poesim episodia duas diuisisse partes fabulam inquam fabulam esse ueluti Poeseos animam hoc est quiddam omnium maximum rationi consentaneum praecepta quibus posset operis esse mihi uidetur Horatium recte fabula confici huius quod potissimum est ipso statim libri limine initio tradidisse Poesi primum praesertim excepto tractare uideretur cùm nullus tota Horatii arte Poetica locus hoc qui fabula rerum constitutione instituto pertractet

POETIC THEORY He then asks whether the precepts for plot suggested by the two theorists are the same and concludes that they are , with Aristotle's requirements of and probability corresponding to Horace's insistence upon the properly constituted animal . Plainly , the argument runs this way : Horace is imitating Aristotle ; he finds in Aristotle precepts for the proper constitu necessity

as

own

say

:

to

his

to of

of

as as

.

on

.

...

;

in

.

as a

be

.

of

to

”

particulae the the Poetics are the commentary preceding He has this “

in to

of

ff .,

example his treatment

Maggi's references divisions the text

as

can possibly discover We may take lines 312 the general subject decorum

Aristotle

of

in

many equivalents an

he is

,

In

of

,

is

of

set

tion of the plot , the most important part of any poem ; he introduces at the beginning of his treatise an equivalent precepts As far the interpre tation Horace concerned this means that lines 1-13 will read poetic plot section on the proper organization general Maggi's procedure seek for each passage Horace

.

et

.

Aristotle quoted

).

translation

]

=

(

of

.

ex

[

, :ait

ibi

:

:

siquidem

Pars uero

:

sumptum uidetur illa

.

in

):

[

,

=

.

. II .

ex

,

mihi uidetur Horatius intelligere poetam oportere rectè actiones exprimere personis congruas quae pars desumpta esse uidetur VIII .IX particulis quibus dicitur Poesim necessario imitari Illud 1447a13 1447613–24 Respicere exemplar uitae autem .LXXX particula 1454b8 Aristotelis

, .

:

in

,

in

:

,

Interdum speciosa iocis morataque rectè ubi Horatius uerba cum rebus confert docetque multo maiorem rebus ipsis quàm particulae Poetices Aristotelis .XLI uerbis curam esse adhibendam eo

ac

translation

).

.

]

(p

.

. (

Verba autem Aristotelis sunt haec

of

primas sibi uendicare asserit Aristotle quoted 360

,

,

,

.

in

,

, et

.

]

(

=

proportione respondere uidetur fabulam enim 1450a29 loco cum praecipuum locum moribus dictionibus sententiis conferens principatum Poesi obtinere docuit ita Horatius illum imitatus res uerbis comparans ipsas

to

a

is

in

,

at

to

.

to

,

on

A

,

a

of

It

be

can readily seen how such determination will lead times the discovery parallels that are very farfetched indeed point case subject the remark lines 38-41 where Horace advises the poet select ,

all

of

of

,

.

of

,

as

to

it

or

Horace's departures

is

).

justify finds possible clever imitations from the order the doctrine the Aristotelian text

he

Indeed

,

.

crepancies

(p .

or

of

in

"

"

to

"

“

,

to

;

"

“

to in

his own genius order achieve facundia and correspond ordo for Maggi this seems Poetics 1450a35 treating plot than which Aristotle insists upon the greater difficulty any such dis character diction 334 But Maggi unaware matter suited

“

factam

120

it

Aristotele

,

communemýue

nec uerbum uerbo reddens

of

." 21

treating epic first instead ." ab

,

,

by

it

iam

]

nam uulgatam

Poeticam effecit alio eam ordine tradens

[

”

“

his borrowings ,

345

: “

Ibid

dissimulated

., .p

21

Horace

,

by

,

he

,

“

) ;

1.

In

in a

(

”

/

Horace follows his own precept Nec uerbum uerbo curabis reddere fidus Interpres 133 fact made the Poetics his own which had already been made generally known and public Aristotle handing down different order and not translating word for word Thus

propriam

ARS POETICA : CONFUSION

WITH ARISTOTLE

(

,

38-41

genius subject

1450a33

42-45

epic

1460a1 1459a29 1458631–1459a16

)

,

)

).

,

1449a21

1459631

digression

)

,

old comedy

1448a29

,

(

260_74

)

)

(

,

)

(

)

(

)

;

;

( )

( (

satire

(

1458631

1449a19 145146 no equivalent

rustic audience iamb

(

but

)

)

digression

satire and tragedy

cf.

3

(

(

,

)

(

)

1456a25

chorus

tragedy

1461626

1452614

201-19

1449a14

146066

)

121

ff .

)

,

1450a29

1453611

also Rhetoric

on

,

,

1449621 1453al brevity

(

)

(

defences

145468

(

( pleasure

)

(

,

utility

,

1447b13-24

digression

)

,

equivalent

1447a13

)

)

9

no

( (

)

(

imitation

)

(

wisdom

)

(

digression

295–308

347–60

)

;

1449a14

interlocutors

also Rhetoric 145361

,

192

(

1460all

333-46

,

,

,

(

)

1454a33

)

of

age

179–88 incredible 189-92 plot

275–84 285-94

but cf. 146263

1460a18-33

)

true and false

decorum

317-22 323–32

1448634

no equivalent

)

151-52

309-16

1454a15

,

,

1456a7

)

of

,

)

)

old

( (

( ( (

1453b21

1459a29

153–78

193–201

1456a33

1454a15 146169

plot

epic

1449a21

1448a14

,

)

)

( ( (

(

,

)

,

1455a31 145668

new characters poets 128-35 imitation 136 45 epic beginning 146-50

1448628

digression

diction

decorum

244-50 251-59

:

)

( (

)

(

1460al

tragic comic verse passions pity

(

89-95

234-43

,

,

)

( )

)

digression

96-103

220-33

(

)

)

:

)

(

new words

73–85 meters 86-88

119–27

last two above

digression

46–59 60_72

112–18

,

1451633 1458a18

,

episodes

diction

( (

14-23 24-31 32-37

1450a38

1451a36 )

,

1456a25

1450a15

,

,

1450a3

1451a23

,

1455b12 1451627

(

)

(

1-13 plot

104-11

complete listing follows

Aristotle

Horace 1

of

satirical digressions

A

characterizes

.

which

as

he

all

tragedy, as Aristotle had done ( p. 335 ) , and by introducing his counsels on new words in connection with the epic rather than with tragedy, since the epic demands high - sounding speech ( p. 336 ). This generous conception of parallelism leads Maggi to find equivalent passages in Aristotle for almost sections the Ars poetica except those

POETIC THEORY Horace

Aristotle

361-65 (poetry and painting ) 366_78

145468

379-90

(digression (

) )

391-407 ( natural origins)

144864

408–11 ( nature vs. art ) 412-18

( digression )

419-44

(

445-52 (meter and poetry ) 453–76

1456624

1461626

)

( digression )

of

all

Maggi's initial thesis that Horace was versifying Aristotle and his demon stration of the parallelism of the two texts did not fail to produce changes in the interpretation of the Ars poetica . Not only are traces the late in

"

.

of

read

of .

necessity

,

"

,

,

of

to "

of

”

of

of

be

“

.

is

of to

as

is

prodesse Aristotle's pity similarly pity the arousal fear and

an

,

audience's passions now related exemplification taken

;

),

99

(

1.

of

by by

to

by

.

of

and probability episodes digressions Horace's are identified with Aristotle's The vices diction pointed out the Roman are found the opposites the virtues diction extolled the Greek The dulcia sunto Horace long since identified the commentators with the arousing the to

principles

plot and diction The

the poem cohere

as

parts

is

admonition make equivalent the organizing

of

general

all

becomes the much more specific division

to

"

verba

"

.

"

.

of

),

in

(

classical and the humanistic commentators removed this had already been accomplished Robortello's Paraphrasis but certain new orientations the reading the text are introduced And these concern really important poetic matters Horace's somewhat vague distinction between res and

a

to

by

.

is

of

”

by

,

of

to

.

by

“

,

qidávopwtrov while delectare becomes synonymous with the pleasure produced traced truth with falsehood mixture Horace's imitation trapaloyiouós impossible probable back Aristotle's and the Notions imitation which had already been related earlier commentators in

'

,

,

on

.

of

,

,

of

Maggi more definitely connected with Aristotles copying nature are conception Finally Maggi follows his predecessors associating action

of

.

in

a

of

is

,

)

1550

of (

GRIFOLI

,

of

.

in

Horace's precepts decorum with Aristotle's recommendations for character All all this not an inconsiderable reorientation the reading pioneer Horace and Maggi becomes kind this respect

he

early

or

was published

,

:

it

to

as

whether

of

in

.

it

122

]

[

in

,

,

,

I

,

.

is

the Grifoli volume

true for the Maggi volume But since the dedication the latter am assuming that was published fairly early 1550 and hence

is

indication

the year the same dated September 1549 antedated Grifoli

late

in

.

; no

There

is

22

of

in

In

of

in

,

to

be

Giacopo the same credit for pioneering may also accorded Grifoli who the same year 1550 published his Artem poeticam Horatii interpretatio.22 For Grifoli also rereads the Ars poetica the light the Poetics Two factors however decrease his originality first Some

ARS POETICA : CONFUSION

WITH ARISTOTLE

came after Maggi and probably knew his Interpretatio ; second , in certain senses , his "rereading ” reverts to a much earlier tradition .

Grifoli's

com

in Its

is for -

for -

mentary is long and complete ; it follows the usual pattern of citing a passage of the text, giving a general interpretation of the passage , and then a

is

is

.

do

I

in

as

: "

,

of

is

.

to to

,

,

.

-

or

providing a line very line word word gloss total position assumption Epistle imitating curious one The basic that Horace the Aristotle and adopting paraphrasing and reorganizing Aristotle's central ideas This clear from such statements the one found the dedication Fabio Mignanelli Bishop Lucera This certainly not hesitate in

",

of

,

,

in

,

,

to

,

he

,

of

: “

of

of

I

,

in

that have expounded the passages Horace and that this work Poetry was culled almost entirely from Aristotle's Art and others body proper Seeing the the text then that Aristotle's opinion plot characters thought diction spectacle tragedy consists and melody thing decided that the first discuss was the construction affirm

plot nor does follow any the less here than elsewhere Starting way Aristotle from this assumption seeks

the teaching

he

“

of

”

;

the

of

,

he

,

, a

in

,

,

to

,

,

of

.

to of 45 ,

he

as .

it

he

,

(

.p

11 ).

as

,

is

in

of

,

.” 23

explaining organization Horace's terms the Poetics He finds first that Horace concerned essentially with tragedy just Aristotle was and that treats the epic only insofar has characteristics common with tragedy Second believes that Horace has ordered his work tragedy altering however the sequence around the six qualitative parts plot lines 114-18 and 319–22 treatment Thus lines 1-23 are devoted to

,

,

to

,

,

of

as

,

to ,

.

is

,

,

thought lines 24–31 32 character lines 93-113 114-18 and 319-22 spectacle 114-18 and 319–22 diction and lines 179–83 and 275–80 uncertainty overlappings melody and But there much the and repeti

of

to

,

of of

,

II

of

I

in

.

by

;

is a

tions indicate this result the corruption the original assumption positions systems other derived from other Chapter have already pointed out how Grifoli adds the system just outlined the set disposition rhetorical distinctions invention and a

of

,

is

a

of of

-

of

to

as , to a

In

.

.

of

,

read

it

is

says

.

thereby introducing meanings What Horace third layer preconceptions about the not only under the influence representation Poetics but also well known rhetorical topics This possible given passages variety makes attach associated mean ings speaking lines 32–45 for example Horace the necessity elocution

on

,

"

he in

;

is

if

."

,

.

a

a

to

choosing subject fitted one's genius this done eloquent words proper things more and order will ensue Grifoli sees the lines abstruse than most people suspect paraphrases First and quotes to

."

)

(

123

; he a

" ; .p

&

,

, " ; .p

,

de

,

;

primum melodia constitutione fabulae disserendum esse statuit minus quàm vnquam alias praeceptionem Aristotelis secutum

11 : 39 : , “ "

,

certe affirmare non dubito ostendisse me locos Horati Aristotelis Arte poetica decerptum Videns igitur constare fabula moribus sententia dictione apparatu ,

(

ac

,

Illud

), .p 7 : “

Interpretatio 1550 anos totum ferè hoc opus Aristotelis iudicio Tragoediam

ex

23

in

)

(

to

,

in

of

poems those ascribable Aristotle the two types errors the poetic art and those ascribable some other art Poetics 1460015 craftsman like the one Horace mentions sins the poetic art when

neque nunc

THEORY 11.

POETIC

:

of

a

is

),

undertakes a task superior to his capacities . Next ( for 38-41 Grifoli here beginning new section the work after having

states that Horace

he

,

:

,

.

to

Grifoli

leads

the proper choice

of

ordo

"

”

a

“

Horace's statement about facundia and parallel between the poet and the orator equivalent matter invention ordo

“

is

in

.

be

of

expounded the proper composition the plot now indicates how beauty may achieved through diction We shall see that this division between plot and diction fundamental the commentary Finally

draw subject

understand

his

In

Grifoli's commentary

to

.

of

order

in

however

,

,

,

in on is in

A

”

by

II ).

in

of

to

,

necessary

further distinction completely what going

“

,

to

"

,

“

see

(

to

is

to

disposition and facundia Chapter elocution the passage quoted above The general rhetorical preoccupations the work are confirmed Grifoli's frequent references Cicero Quintilian and other masters the art

est : ,

to

).

In

12

(p .

”

ea

, of

ex

ijs

&

“

)

11

.

(p

in

”

,

ad

),

“

,

.

(

,

is

introduction speaking tragedy incidentally Grifoli twice insists that about and the epic Horace was concerned essentially with the matter appropriateness diligenter quaecunque rerum congruentiam decorum attinent igitur praecipuè persecutus and Constat hic libellus rebus quibus maxime quid deceat apparet his effort reconcile in

,

,

a

,

in

of

“

",

or

"

"

fabula

.

on

of

",

and Régis

oratio and the time between these two parts Thus lines 1–23 commentary but the section lines 24–31 begins

on ad

"

fabula

or

.

are uïdos

Ars poetica thus divides concern

six

:

to

two most important

its

the

of

is

at

he

this emphasis with the Aristotelian system that sees the work Grifoli appropriateness poetic arrives this solution The major form things Of Aristotle's qualitative parts therefore work words

eis

to

a

in as

?

of

&

:

.

17 ),

(p

”

.

ad

:

by

of

is

the translator

the mind and

its

since speech

is or

, “

;

diction moreover

,

in

.

no

is

of

means

.

.

Already the introduction Grifoli has declared that point concerning sententiae mores that not treated

lapsed with diction there

“

,

82 )

p

,

of

:

is

”

(

“

with Transit alteram partem quae nominatur and the commentary line 280 starts thus léxiv redit supra quoque tulit eloquium insolitum But what the other four parts The fairly melody belonging simple spectacle answer and are dismissed thought poetry the instruments and character and are sense col

).

,

The same idea

is

(

or ,

“

if

requisities for character περί της λέξεως

,

Although the subject discussed

is

made even more explicit later

:

terms are hidden Aristotle's

it

, of

of

." 24

in

,

of

to

of

"

be

of

is

of

speaking this the indicator character decorum one has also spoken language the decorum the rest Without consideration hardly possible proprietas would know the officium similitudo constantia character are properly observed not under these four

nevertheless nature

normally

and

it

.

we

de

haec est morum index

,

,

."

124

&

in

be

he

quoniam oratio est interpres mentis reliquorum quoque decoro dixit )

., .p

Ibid decoro dicendo

(

12 : de “

24

,

,

be

,

character are here treated from which diction derives Otherwise appropriate and from the beginning will not have warned that whenever speaking the poet spoke about diction would the proper places about

illius

)

119–135 and

what follows.25

six

sententia and character , as he does here ( A.p.,

in

WITH ARISTOTLE

CONFUSION

:

11.

ARS POETICA

to

of

to .

as

,

to

,

,

.

as

his as

to

97 ),

, ( p

,

,

,

to

qualitative parts assign the these reasons when Grifoli comes object manner and means object the three belonging imita tion are identified diction thought and character the two belonging plot spectacle and melody and the one belonging means manner

For

to

he

is

in

."

26

in

be

“

”

“

:

of

let it

a

in

in

,

”

of

“

imitation

, it is

of

explanation apparent that gives this last assignment representation the meaning Since plot the composite tragedy the events imitated both that way and that sequence which the plot itself has been composed

From

.

if

,

of

all

if

“

to

"

“

to

,

of

,

is

it

in

,

in

of

"

—

,

,

Horace thus the last analysis reduces Aristotle the old res verba dichotomy and then turn reduces verba alone For the object imitation character thought and diction and diction

I

is ,

:

is

Unity

to

corresponds

of

Horace's natural sary and probable

"

1451a16

Aristotle's

“

Aristotle

1-23

"

Horace

.

shall indicate for the most signifi

,

of

parallel passages following the list passages true how this cant

In

.

to

of

a

,

in

of

,

contains the essence the other two then one treats the essential problems poetry when one speaks about language Grifoli's analysis linguistic problems fact largely reduction Horace's poetics

neces

,

.

Of

as

language

,

In

.

is

.

spectacle and melody

vices exist which imitate virtues

character

,

in

passing

,

MÉEis

;

none

)

(

24-31

in

,

of

.

,

a

.

"

action which does not single hero cannot possibly even result from having come from mixed subjects Unity and simplicity are re quired mixture styles and genres condemned the

in in

.

to

.

to

of

.

,

of

of

;

disposition

in

or

of

"

"

"

of

"

;

.

,

; in

tragedy produces admiration Lamb and daily speech quod decet Diction adapted the color the persons tragedy iamb adapted the quality to

)

(

none

avoid artistic error diction after beauty and elocution

subject

beauty

to

1449a23

86-92

,

plot Invention Epic verse

Rexis

.

1459632

the monster

.

return

to

proper choice

Then

.

73–85

monster comparable

First

,

1460616

,

32-45

11.

diction creates 1-23

plot of

a

.

to

,

is

treating the middle Cross three styles Horace here references rhetorical works Excess of ornament

,

In

etc.

cf.

,

situation

.

;

the audience the orator tragedy metus misericordia ,

pleasure

;

,

comedy

characters

passions

,

Arousal

,

1455a31

"

Language adapted

of

1449627

in in to

.

comedy 93-113

à

,

&

& , &

,

,

de

,

&

,

eo

&

in

."

)

(

125

,

."

sit

sit ,

.

ea

"

Quamuis enim tepi tñs AEEEwsdisputetur tamen natura mores expri principio emanare solet alioqui decorum suum non habebit nos Oratione dissereret poëta Sententia Moribus suis locis eum dic sequentibus cum dicit compositio rerum omnium tragoedia cum fabula modo quo composita ipsa fabula

97 : & “ in de

ab

,

.p

26

,

,

.

., ., vt , & p

Ibid muntur his monuimus cum turum hic Ibid ordine imitandum

sit

41 :

25

.'

horror

POETIC Horace

Aristotle

114-18

1454a16

THEORY

Language appropriate

to persons : Aristotle's TÓ ÓHolov , equivalents Horace's for Aristotle's four requisites of character : line 312 for Tà Xenota ; line 156 for to đPUÓTTOVTA ; line 114 for tò ouoiov ; line 119 for to

1454a33

duałóv . Differences in a &is from differences in character . new characters , TÒ duałóv .

In

119–35

Epic characters insofar as they resemble tragic ; mixture

153–78

179-83

1452619

of the

true and the false .

Decorum of age ; τα αρμόττοντα . tage action Parts of tragedy ; on- and off -s

1460a20

]

(

1448a25

.

136-52

1455624 145361

ex

1449627

189-201

1454a37

Deus

202–19

1447a22

220_43

145662

Spectacle and melody Horace's primitive audience The diction satire Cicero against the mixing genres Sententiae and appropriate verba

275-80

1450a13

to of

.

.

as

”

“

.

the rhetoricians as

.

to

.

reference

,

of

"

.

2 )

of of

"

(

,

delectatio

;

.

.

precepts Horace's double intention precepts for the end poetry i.e. for and utilitas

.

nature

,

poem

(1 )

for

:

Art

vs.

in

.

of

Spectacle and melody instruments imitation action and memory rhetoric XÉEis again

öyrs

cf. )

(

none

.

of

"

" ;

res

295–308

machina

145468

Imitation

319-22

1450a7

Six parts

1454a16

sion above

1450a25

tion

1451627

ingless without Pleasure from the fabula morata tragedy For affecting the audience from pity and fear necessity properly constituted plot and decorum

as

.

in

(

meaning from character

,

and mean

,

"

.

in

“

it .

deriving

,

its

).

as

discus indicated distributed Diction from character and thought Dic

tragedy

.

great Nature and Both diction and materials must art Utility and pleasure need brevitas for the first quae and natura verosimilia for the second Utility Appeal doceant corrigant moueant the young through pleasure the old through utility

Grifoli's

leading

“

”

:

of

to

source

utility

.

.

of

general interpretation

to

Pleasure

Imitation

utility

.

)

(

none

as

As

391-407

poetry

turn leads

of

which

to

pleasure

in

Two natural causes ,

144864

as

366–78

as . a

."

to ,

,

,

"

.

"

;

,

“

)

none

(

333-60

of

.

)

be

none

(

323–32

.

of

1453611

Platonic Ideas and Forms

.

309-18

of is

, it

is

.

its

all

,

of

126

)

(

.

of

an

as

,

is

to

to

to an

attempt

,

a

to is its

a

of

concerned then Horace imitator Horace read combination approaches Aristotle and reversion the rhetorical earlier years subject itself and rhetoric the rhetoricians made soon Aristotle study language problems reduced minimal term the and

far

strange

ARS POETICA

WITH ARISTOTLE

CONFUSION

:

That these were the ideas about poetry still most current is indicated by such a work as Lodovico Dolce's Osservationi nella volgar lingua ( 1550 ),

all

whose first three books are exclusively linguistic and grammatical but whose fourth book deals with poetry. Here again , a few ideas are borrowed from

.

: "

,

of

to

,

,

of

,

an

is

to

of

is

of

.

of

-

in

is

of

Aristotle : poetry is an imitation ; not writers verse are poets But the body main doctrine the old Horatian rhetorical tradition Imme diately after the statement that poetry imitation Dolce says for the poet function the imitate the actions men and his end under lovely veils delight the soul useful and moral inventions him who ,

,

is

,

of

:

not too distant from that of

so

make

it ,

of

by

his invention

the poet

marvelous

he

to

of

since verses and words are the brush and the paints

shades and colors the canvas

of

he

,

Nevertheless

with which portrait

to

to

in

in

is

of

. ,

passions The whole position Dolce which Grifoli contained the following passage

of

by

.

,

of

of

;

"

, "

is

,

,

,

27

. "

reads The poet must possess not only wisdom but also invention order artifice and words these the most important are the last two expressing the invented materials The real poetic gift that means delight the reader beauties and ornaments order arouse his

so

;

all

,

,

he in

of

poëtis nostrorum

temporum

1551

of . )

duo

(

Lilio Gregorio Giraldi's Dialogi

de

vain.28

of its

in

exerted and consumed

be

, to

so

to

a

nature that the minds men are ravished must devote his greatest attention and industry composing them this way and with words appropriate beautiful and the matter which treats that that end sought and desired by him who reads will achieved without which his labors are

an

to

,

.

is

is a

is

in

poetics even more backward looking few passages relevant Essentially the work catalogue contemporary poets recent and summary providing merely various European countries The listing

to of

.

So

at

,

“

;

"

gli

de

le

. "

,

29

"

. "

chi legge

& di i

di

e

da & ; un

de

gli

, e

darno

."

in

consumata

,

il

e le

)

attioni

colori del tauola della sua inuentione per fare glihuomini stupiscano intelletti comporgli tali con uoci cosi belle riesca quel fine ricercato desiderato

ne in

e

,

è

(

40 .

127

imitare

inuentioni dilettar l'animo parole sono pennello

ne la

i

,

e

e

di

,

),

.pp

,

; e

(

16–20

è

“

&

di

,

di

ua

diligenza dec porre ogni suo principale studio appartinenti alla materia che egli tratta che posta chi legge senza ilquale ogni sua fatica

Dialogi duo 1551

del Poeta

: “

), .p

(

: "

,

28

., : e .p il

huomini

29

,

",

,

,

,

is

”

"

,

percioche l'ufficio 1550 87v fine sotto leggiadri ueli morali utili Ibid 88v Non meno perche uersi dipingendo Poeta con che egli adombrando ritratto cotanto marauiglioso della natura che Osservationi

",

,

"

;

,

,

“

27

ingenium

elegans

“

as

“

doctus

,

praised

Pontano

is

;

"

is

doctrina for his facilitas absolutus enucleatus exquisitus grauitas Sadoleto has his qualities modestia Bembo's poems are ingenij exquisita dulcia mollia delicata Sannazaro has created Calcagnini noteworthy monumenta and for eruditio doctrina Mirandola

affectus

for his

in

in

;

or in

all

to by

he

.

,

,

,

, a

occasional fact and for each poet conventional bouquet complimentary phrases The that Giraldi accords the poets admires sound for the world like those used Pietro Ricci the beginning the century the epithets applied 1505 Latin poets are now applied writing vulgar poets tongues modern Latin the Pico della names

POETIC

THEORY

These epithets indicate no more than certain kinds of knowledge on the part of the poet and certain qualities of style in his writing ; they do not presuppose any poetic theory beyond the simplest rhetorical preconcep tions . DENORES ( 1553)

After Grifoli's fairly complex and experimental commentary , that of Giason Denores in his In epistolam Q. Horatij Flacci de arte poetica Interpretatio (

1553 ) seems

like a return to the patterns and the procedures

. Indeed , Denores takes frequent issue with the interpretations of both Maggi and Grifoli , claiming that he is reflecting instead the lectures of Trifon Gabriele on Horace , as he had heard them of an earlier

generation

.

to

and

Horace's aims

the

"

affirms that one

is

when

, of of

,

the Ars poetica

he

is

in

.

of —

states

to

-

of he

that lines

the precepts

he

returns also the preceptive are concerned with one the three terms The initial statement intends follow this pattern found connection with the first

Almost form

he

all

his

and as he had summarized them even before Gabriele's death in 1549 . Gabriele's ideas , if they are accurately represented here , are very close to those of Giovanni Britannico and Parrasio . For Denores organizes the whole of the Horatian text around the invention -disposition - elocution predecessors distinction , and in a way even more systematic than that of

,

,

.

,

he

30

of

"

“

of

or

the

in

in

,

"

“

of

,

, in

natural versus artificial order figures verba lines 46–72 lines 73–88 Lines 89-98 make special

32–41

.

, of

and the more particular problem lines 42-45 The second part elocution

).

"

(

"

" of or (

or

"

"

."

,

"

, "

"

or

"

“

of

),

of

: "

,

he

,

is

in

of

.” to

of

every rule formation our taste with respect invention disposition poetry every type says are concerned and elocution Lines 1-23 poetry To explain the subsequent with invention which the soul passages calls upon the rhetorical division into three parts elocution qua particular kind genus itself ratio dicendi character lity style verba and numeri meters verses Lines 24–31 treat disposition appear lines the first these character General notions

to

.

to

”

“

.

its

,

to

,

it

is

,

”

on “

,

in , on

.

in

”

,

“

of

,

and the third part numeri applications tragedy and comedy therules for character and verba Then after long sections other matters Horace returns the distinc disposition and elocution rather tion lines 220–50 pointing out that commonplace materials Lines 251– than invention that give quality

for the full text

.

25

and

n .

;

56

.p

II,

128

)

(

.

,

see above chap

of

fit

to

is

of is

to

of

"

of ( "

”

“

he

,

,

to

3v ;

), .p

1553

(

In

,

of

as

30

epistolam

of , of it

a

all ,

.

In

.

in

).

,

,

of

of

74 ,

tragedy and comedy treat rounding out numeri sapere and lines 89-98 Finally when Horace speaks returning Socratic philosophy lines 309–32 the problem invention somewhat over third the text made into this general scheme As for the rest Denores sees the long central section arousing the audience's emotions problems devoted primarily conventions for the stage but even here the major dis decorum and the verse

the materials

ARS POETICA

WITH ARISTOTLE

CONFUSION

:

)

he ;

,

,

to

,

in

.

of

to

of

be

to

as

of

)

of

the poet seems interest Denores mostly for the utility and pleasure poetry discussion the ends Throughout the Ars poetica although comparatively small number the behavior

11.

is

to

),

(

or ,

as ,

of

"

of

or

of

-

11.

of

—

to

“

as

of

,

no

.

Denores finds analogies the Aristotelian poetics Sometimes these are merely implied with direct reference Aristotle for example the poetry characterization invention the anima 1-23 the suggestion that the five act magnitude dramas related the proper ,

"

“

on

).

11.

"

“

:

on

poetry and history and veri

( by11.

in on

;

on

between

)

11.

(

the difference gestae 73–88 ”

“

,

to

(

words and figures 46–72 history relevant Horace's

res );

in 11.

of

,

is

(

by

to

(

be ),

size animals 189–90 the inclusion timor and misericordia among the passions poet aroused the 99–113 Elsewhere the references are explicit and the text cited Aristotle the pleasure derived from imitation connection with Horace's remarks on the choice

);

,

)

;

on

11.

)

;

11.

(

”

of , on

11.

"

(

-

of

as a

,

on

the necessity

of

,

of

by

of

apropos Horace's three types narrative 131-52 producing pity and fear plot rather than spectacle purga connection with Horace's precept off stage action 179-88 producing prodesse tion means Horace's 333-46 and similitude

of

For Denores reading

is

.

of

,

it

be

an

is

of

).

(

parallels artistic and nonartistic errors 347-60 The list not long readily seen that they merely indicate and will association Aristotle's text with Horace's without any important influence upon the interpretation the latter .

to

to

in

is

to

to

of

.

of

,

of

-d

a in

so

-

to

of

'

Horace remains essentially rhetorical This isposi applying the invention his persistence portion large tion elocution terminology the text but also because other rhetorical tendencies are evident The whole conception poet the relationship audience work and the Ciceronian tradi true not only because

of

of

of

,

a

).

,

as

to

a

in it

to

,

he ) as

11.

by

a

to

(

in

its is

so ,

do

,

To

of .)

(

(

11. in

:

his ,

admiration induce the audience tion the poet like the orator seeks part for passions own genius and awaken wide variety 46–113 must pay particularly close attention the persons just decorum the orator does and just Aristotle recom mends the Rhetoric 114-18 153–78 Such arousing the passions correcting and directing itself merely means further end that in

is

rhetorical devices

of

.

by

)

129

means

of

by

of

audiences (

produce stated effects

on

of

(

,

mind and the two together produce the desired moral effects 333-46 Many details poems are determined the construction this desire

to .)

11.

as

its

a

is

"

“

”

of

;

on

“

"

to

.

It

providing moral precepts and examples interesting lives this connection note that Denores insists that delectare does not mean oblectare but rather movere and that pleasure itself thus form utility concerns utility pleasure operates the audience the will

"

i

he

,

(

of

,

).

11.

(

if

he

11.

tinction is sometimes applicable . For example , if the poet wishes to arouse the passions, he must attend to “ ornaments " and " figures ” ( 99-113 uses old traditional characters exercises no invention but makes these characters his own through proper disposition and elocution 119-30 The last part the text aside from the recommendations for

POETIC

THEORY

LOVISINI ( 1554) As compared with Denores , the Aristotelian flavor of Francesco Lovisini's In librum Q. Horatii Flacci de arte poetica commentarius ( 1554 ) is much more considerable . This results in part from the generous citation of the Poetics to explain passages in the Ars poetica , in part from the numerous to various other works of Aristotle , especially the Nicomachean Ethics and the Rhetoric . Indeed , the whole impression of erudition is much greater ; Lovisini brings into his commentary on Horace every possible quotation from Greek and Latin literature that seems to him to have some

of

the

references

,

,

,

to

.

—

of to

—

of

.

in

of

in

to

of

an

as at

,

of

be or

question to words the lines Much this erudition turns out historical content very like that the expositors the beginning the century and adds little the meaning poetry For Lovisini's interpretation the text art Horace the most significant references are those rhetorical treatises primarily relevance

however

,

,

new words

)

)

(

)

diction

)

(

)

none

(

)

130

)

)

(

none

of

)

)

(

)

epic meter )

iamb

tragedy

daily speech

)

(

iamb

)

(

iamb

in in

1449a26

meters

poetic genres

1459634

1449a21

poetic styles

mixture

1447a15

(

1460al

(

(

meters for genres

)

none

usage

(

)

)

(

(

)

)

1456620

1448631

86-88

)

)

(

) )

of of

)

(

)

( ( (

(

none

elocution

(

73-85

none

epic

)

60_72

none

subject

)

52-59

(

46-51

order

(

42-45

choice

nity not from hero

none

total excellence

(

38-41

vices

style

(

32-37

in

1451a19

24-31

as

(

(p

1451633

soul

)

unity

)

(

,

simplicity

lot

poetry and painting episodic plot

( (

144804

14-23

poet from imitation

1447613 1450a38

(u

)

(

congruous subject

)

Aristotle

as

of

of

Horace 1-13

the texts cited from the Poetics

which follows

:

of

,

.

the majority

list

a

also true Horace

to is

text This parallels

of

of

;

,

,

as

as

,

he

,

all

,

,

.

to ,

Demetrius Hermogenes invokes enable him contest and correct the older commentators such Acron and Porphyrion Maggi Grifoli and Denores but these and the more recent ones such corrections concern points detail rather than any general reading the Aristotle's Rhetoric but also Cicero Quintilian and others These sources plus the others

ARS POETICA

:

93-95

WITH ARISTOTLE

Aristotle

Horace 89-92

CONFUSION

( trag . and comedy )

( style

com . )

of tr . ,

96-103 ( speech of tragedy )

( audience emotion

)

( trag .

1453a18

( Thyestes

145361 1453a21

( pity and fear ) ( tragic families )

145361

(pity and fear )

1455a30

( emotion of poet ) ( sources of emotion

145224 speech )

( none )

of speech

( none )

104-13

(action and

114-18

(decorum

119-27

(old , new heroes )

( improbabilities

1453622

( Từ đouỚTTOVTG )

1454a22

( TÓ Suolov )

14S4a25

( Tò đuaAO

(Homeric subjects )

1448b38

( epic beginning )

( none )

(

( none )

)

( “in medias res " )

( true ,

1451a36

( decorum

158-60

( child )

of

age )

(none

)

161-65

( youth )

(none )

(adult )

( none )

169–74

( old man )

175–78

( traits for

179-88

( on-, off - stage )

189–90

( five acts )

(none ) each )

( none ) 145361

( emotions from spectacle )

1450635

(magnitude ) ( time of tragedy , epic )

1449612 deus ex machina " )

193-201 ( chorus ) 202–7

( necessary , probable )

( none )

166-68

(“

)

false )

153-57

191-92

in Odyssey )

144a20

( old subjects )

)

plots )

(traditional

136–39 140-45

)

1460a35

128–35

146-52

and comedy )

1448a16

(melody , music )

1452a15

( “ deus ex machina ( parts of tragedy )

1456a29

(choral

1450a7

( qualitative parts ) (melody ) ( harmony , rhythm

145462

1450618 1447a23

208-19

( licence , vulgarity )

1447a26

220-24

( satyrs in tragedy

1449627

songs )

)

) and fear )

1451637

( satyric tragedy ) (dramatic contests

1462b11

( tr. superior to epic )

1449a19

225–33

( decorum of satyrs )

( none )

234–39

( satyric diction

(none )

240-43

( satyric invention )

)

( (pity

")

( none ) ( 131 )

)

THEORY

POETIC

Aristotle

)

,

) )

) )

of

'

" )

)

“

)

) )

)

of

,

( (

)

)

»

)

of

,

(

)

(

)

(

)

)

(

)

(

(

)

)

(

)

)

(

)

(

)

)

(

)

)

( ( (

)

) )

none

)

(

none

)

)

of

all

)

(

(

none

of

)

)

none

)

)

none

(

of

„ „

music and poetry

none

)

(

( (

(

463–69 470–76

(

453-63

none

none

critic mad poet role

painting

none

true critic

445–52

oetry

none

)

( (

434–37

(p

)

) )

)

poet

friends

438-44

1450a38

none

)

,

(

flatterers

426-33

145469

1447a24

art

to

(

419-25

advice

(

412–18

errors

Homer

none

)

of

(

nature

errors

none

correction civilizing role raise poetry

(p

408-11

two kinds

probable

none

ignorant poets

391-99

necessary

none

poetry for delight

386-90 400-7

,

( (

no mediocrity

(

379–85

painting

(

374–78

as

(

)

(

)

1460b15

)

poet

(

366-73

poetry

,

)

none

1451a36

1454a29

361-65

imitation

)

of

(

(

errors

oetry

qualitative parts

poetry

of

347–60

(p

( )

1447a15

Roman avarice ends

as

)

)

model

(

333-46

officium

none

144967

323-32

imitation

(

as

(

life

(

309-16 317–22

talent poetic furor

(

1447a13

knowledge

comedy

comedy

)

( )

)

(

1455a33

poetic problems

(

art and nature

(

301-8

definition chorus

additions

none

Latin poets

295–301

tragedy

)

1449a37

origins

Aeschylus

in

)

(

1449a31

of

)

(

)

1448a29

)

of

(

tragedy

old comedy

285–94

errors

none

1449a15

281–84

Euripides

'

1454a28

)

.

(

history

275–80

φθαρτικόν

)

(

Lat poets

Plautus censured

270–74

αισχρόν

none

( (

(Gk .

1449a35

(

260-69

satyrs )

(

( amb and spondee )

(

(speech of vs.

244-50 251-59

(

Horace

to

,

to

,

,

-

]

[

132

.

of

as

-

is

.

,

an

it is

I

in

Lovisini's divisions such detail respecting have given this list interesting what see the Horatian text for several reasons First sixty number divisions now subdivided Lovisini's extent the text each division the subject matter eight and what topics are indicated are brought passages many the Poetics from Second the list shows how

ARS POETICA

WITH ARISTOTLE

CONFUSION

:

into association with the text , and to what ideas in Horace they are said to be parallel . It is easy to see how commentators and critics , finding so many recurrences of ideas in the two documents, might be strengthened in their conviction that Horace was merely imitating or paraphrasing Aristotle and that the two theorists were saying essentially the same things . But a close study of the parallels in the above list shows that the resemblances are largely topical ; in some cases they concern purely historical matters , such as the identity of Thyestes or Aeschylus ' additions to the tragic form ; in others they show that the two theorists were writing about the same topics,

us , ,

; in

as

as

he

,

the soul

or

is

imitation and not because tragedy the third

of

of

that plot

or

the second

,

;

verse

in

writes

in

states that the poet is a poet by reason

his

but do not indicate conclusions by any means similar . For example , to take a case of “ multiple reference ,” three passages from Aristotle are cited as parallel to lines 1-13 of the Ars poetica. In the first of these Aristotle

,

,

”

;

at

to

,

of

in

is

, is

of it

,

"

,

“

,

;

to

in

to

as

do .

that poets represent characters better worse than we like just painters support Now the first cited the general idea attributed these lines Horace that the poet follows fantasy rather opinion proper for Horace than the second show that treat very beginning the the constitution the argument and the plot the pictoribus atque third because Horace had drawn the comparison

....

,

,

of

a

on

of

it

Or

,

of

or

of

of

"

of

passages neither indicates This juxtaposition clear con plot nor Aristotle's theory imitation his definition any light comprehension for that matter does throw additional the

poetis ception

:

be

to

,

be

in

be

in

,

to

.

Horace's lines for another such example five passages from Aristotle lines 119–27 which Horace says that when traditional keeping with the tradi characters are introduced they must handled tion and that when new ones are used they must made self are fitted

of

,

is

to

&

tà

,

;

as

...

;

"

of

of

"

the honoratum Achillem consistency identical with that they may for Lovisini's interpre be

.

,

Horace These parallels interesting

as

a

,

traditional character such dualov states principle

,

historical fifth that

,

;

to or

"

“

to

be

be ;

no

,

be

.

is

to

consistent Aristotle first quoted show that traditional materials must followed exactly matter how improbable they may second that equiv puÓTTOVTA traditional plots must not modified third that alent sibi conuenientia fourth that to ouoiov means similarity

be

it

—

.

as

,

be

,

of

to ,

poets which Aristotle's theoretical position

all

of

this elaborate commentary and this extensive juxtaposition called Lovisini's interpretation Erudition and the conventional explanations have taken the 133

)

(

Horace

.

of

,

texts there emerges very little that might

be

Out

of

.

and certain practical counsels did not admit

it

at

.

of

,

in

I

,

to

a

of

,

to

of

tation Aristotle add little the interpretation Horace unless certain number irrelevant and inappropriate considerations Finally have produced the complete list above demonstrate what scholarship were still regarded passages Horace this stage independent Aristotle These will seen largely concern Latin poetry

POETIC

THEORY

of independent reading. Lovisini assigns the usual passages to inven tion , disposition , and elocution , makes the usual comparisons between place

and rhetoric , insists as did his predecessors on the decisive role of in determining the nature of poems. A few points that he makes are , however, original enough to deserve special mention . For one , he seems to be more of a Platonist than many of his forerunners ; in the poetry

all

the audience

on

“

)

”

all (

1.

,

“

as he

;

a

in

first section of commentary , he quotes the Symposium to the effect that artisans and artificers are poets sense and the Apology the divine furor identifies Horace's exemplar vitae 317 with the Idea ,

,

as

of

:

,

he

in

at in

"

is

,

he

it

is

on

.

.

,

in

in

.”

the Parmenides contains

31

,

Plato says

separate from them

is

particular things and Moreover many passages are quoted from Plato connection with incidental matters For another Lovisini emphasizes certain ideas about the relationship between poetry and nature From his probability comments lines 14–23 clear that thinks natural probability for defends the Dido episode the Aeneid this way that episode not completely inconsistent with the matter hand but which

in

,

." 32

;

a

as

at

is

,

to

he

.

of

,

us in as

“

",

of

”

ut

,

of

,

ut

us

is

,

in

to

life

as

ut

,

of

,

24v

in of

of

).

( .p

in

”

“

to

,

“

33

us

.

mity

in

the Odyssey exhort bear adverse fortune with equani resulting from allegory plots He sees the prodesse which repre wisely thoroughly teach and what best and from the sentation character which teaches our duty.34 Utility and pleasure moueret delectaret doceret are expanded into the triple Cicero with the third member the trilogy making the other two effective

,

justice

:

on

by

.

a

in

a

in

,

by

of

rather produces pleasure through the variety materials frequently the outermost lands storms have arrived fact voyagers driven justification for The fact that thing may happen nature taken particular happening Lastly Lovisini expands Horace's specific poem poetry He quotes Theon notions about utility and pleasure the ends might inspire men the ends proposed Homer the Iliad that

in

of

'

,

,

1554. The next such formal discussion will not

be

Lovisini's

in

,

1553

in

:

in

of

a

of

five formal series 1554 was the last Lovisini's commentary space appeared poetica expositions six short the which the Ars Maggi's 1550 Denores years and Grifoli's 1548 Robortello's

pub "

.

Parmenide

,

Plato

no

by

in

ait

,

,

), à .p re est ." : “

res

(

., , & .p ab 7v : “ ijs

32

Idaea quae

ut

,

31

63v

Commentarius 1554 continet seiuncta

"

in

.

,

,

in

,

in

1561 when Pigna produces his Poetica Horatiana lished for many documents years intervening the Horatian mode But the published means interrupted and the tradition was were written and

seven years

singularia

omnia

,

."

)

(

134

prudenter

edocent

"

uita

sit ,

,

,

in

66 : “

., .p

Ibid fabularum allegoria quibus quid optimum officium poetae boni inflammant moribus etiam nos ad

and

“

34

."

, in

ad

. "

in

ad

ut :

4v : "

., .p

33

proposita non penitus abhorret quin potius rerum uarietate Ibid illa delectationem affert nauigantes enim saepe ultimas terras tempestate appulsi peruenerunt Odyssaea ferendam aequo animo iustitiam inflammct homines Ibid aduersam fortunam nos cohortatur

ARS POETICA

WITH ARISTOTLE

CONFUSION

six

:

In fact, during

the last two of these were being published Benedetto

,

he

a

In

.

”

(“

dal

of

he

,

“

as

to

in

of

;

of

but most the Lezzioni della poetica the direction Horace sense speaks ascribes the same movement Horace himself since the quale Poetics the text from which Horace drew his own art

of

specifically the text the Poetics move rapidly away from Aristotle

,

at a

,

of

,

we

As

.

,

, in

to

of

,

,

years while the formal com Varchi was delivering series part lectures the Accademia Fiorentina which reflected least the same Horatian ideas The lectures dated 1553 and 1554 were not published until 1590. departure was shall see later Varchi's point mentaries

.

,

of of

be is

or

,

; of to ,

of

a

in

close contact with that

.

of

,

Cicero whom Varchi cites and brings Varchi's position into the rhetoricians ,

in

authority

).

.p

,

of

",

la

cauò Horazio sua 677 With Horace also Varchi insists that the knowledge poetry ancient the art derived from arts modern insufficient without the poet's natural gifts both art and nature must added firm knowledge several languages and the poets who have written them This emphasis upon knowledge various kinds finds

.

he

,

an

As

,

be

,

to

.

if

of

:

in ,

as

,

is

Cicero the authority well for Varchi's declaration that the qualities requisite for the poet are three number eloquence goodness and know poetry are ledge All three are required the ends achieved produces Varchi explains the relationship between qualities and ends to

an

,

a

,

, of

,

is

It

,

or

of

we ,

,

are soon

the sensual kind which comes from the harmonies

of

a

kind combining the two

source

pleasure

for

the

:

.

,

be a

poetry but also the intellectual kind and utility itself will others For this reason soul ,

But pleasure

35

things

."

knowledge

of

,

behavior not only

of

, is

told

of of

ness

or

of

of

;

“

:

...

,

be

,

,

in

.

, in ,

.

as

,

in

extremely interesting statement one degree certain dis which tinctions are lost The ends Horace would wish them are utility and pleasure We discover the following sentence initial dependence ends from qualities which utility springs from goodness and knowledge and pleasure from eloquence therefore necessary that good and eloquent virtuous and erudite otherwise we could perfect poets should good never derive and learn from them either delightfulness words

,

all ),

),

in

or

in

so

of , ... or

(

in

all

of

(

of

,

of

(

of

),

is

... because pleasure three sorts the mind which we shall call intellectual pleasure the body which we shall call sensual pleasure and the soul and the body together which we shall call mixed common pleasure we must know surely more that the poets alone the poets than other writers pleasures are found together

)

,

si

, e

i

, o

poeti buoni perfetti siano imparare non potrebbe

."

cose

it be

of

.

;

be ;

ne scienza

135

che

loro trarre di

,

costumi

(

ne bontà

. . .

da

: “

Bisogna dunque

di

di

630

dottrinati altramente mai ,

, e

(

,

ne

1

od .) , .p

. . .

are

35

Lezzioni 1590 eloquenti virtuosi leggiadria

of

For the harmony the delights properly body words which heard the and the utility the things which are understood delights properly the mind but because words cannot separated from things expressed without words and things cannot these three kinds

THEORY

POETIC

comes to pass that the soul as well as the body , at the very same time , are delighted by words through things and by things through words.36 these passages , an additional distinction has been introduced . It is the distinction between " res " and " verba , " taken both as components of the poem and as causes of effects All some such schematism the following results as

all ,

in

Parts

or

the poet

Qualities

of

of

:

.

its

In

Ends

the poem

effects

pleasure

knowledge eloquence

things

utility

pleasure

words

pleasure

to

Much

to

utility

,

,

things

of

goodness

to is ,

or

of

,

of

:

all of of of

all

,

.

a

of

,

in

,

as

he

is

,

of

say what Varchi has this Horatian context relates the utility essentially teaching What end which sees form taught primarily lessons for ethics secondarily information pertaining knowledge the rewards branches virtue the punishments for vice

or to

be

to

: “

or

as

or

as

do

,

in

).

the sciences

this kind alone merit

(p .

576 On the basis their success failure teaching one will classify poets good bad Those praise who remove men from the vices and inspire them

the elements

or

,

,

to or

:

(

)

1

be

do

. "

all

“

,

37

,

, in

;

.

,

they then the others this more less are more praised less and held esteem Those who the opposite should punished Among them Varchi distinguishes four separate classes The plebeian poets judgment knowledge those who without art the virtues

.”

2 )

.

Examples

3

,

or

in

,

or

or be )

(

.

,

;

"

,

38 . ”

banished

.

be ill

of

,

or

(

, of it ,

mendation should .pp

,

:

as

4 )

,

The obscene poets such

.

,

Burchiello Antonio Alamanni Berni Ovid and Catullus these especially should through their wicked nature punished The satirical poets who through hatred paid merely for because they have been besought joy keeping with Plato's recom speak the others These

.”

words

of

all

,

“

on

of

plays

(

of

to

please the common people and write only make the crowd laugh Examples are the authors Morgante the and the Girone Cortese The ridiculous poets those poets who write for the sake nonsense and

,

o

ne i

,

il

, di il

di

...

, e

il

e

,

da '

gli

,

ė,

,

le ;

le

parole non l'animo ma perche parole sprimersi quinci senza medesimo tempo cosi l'animo come ,

vn

e le

, e

., ."

il

à

,

possono separarsi dalle cose che l'vne per l'altre l'altre per l'vne dilettano corpo quegli soli meritano tutte Ibid 585 37

ne '

; e ,

,

,

diletta propiamente cose non possono

l'vtilità delle cose che s'intendono

...

, e

,

è di

il

: “

, , si

,

in

gli

,

,

il

.,

;

di

36

perchè quale chiamaremo intel 631–32 diletto tre ragioni d'animo corpo quale chiamaremo sensuale corpo insieme quale lettuale d'anima poeti soli chiamaremo misto ouero comune deuemo sapere che certamente piu poeti che tutti altri scrittori ritrouano tutte tre queste maniere diletti insieme corpo mente percioche l'armonia delle parole che s'odono diletta propriamente Ibid

)

136

, o

, o

da

, e

, o

,

o

,

."

male d'Altrui

(

,

, o

i

,

o

,

, o ”; “

,

il

,

le

." ,

in

,

, e

: far “

" o

"

;

, e

.

,

.,

38

scriuono

gli

: "

.p

gl'accendono

o pp

,

o

lodi quali rimuouono huomini alle virtù altri poi12secondo che piu meno cio fanno deono pregio tenuti meno lodati essere piu giudizio Ibid 585–87 tutti quegli che senza arte dottrina scriuono solo per Volgo piacere alla Plebe ridere tutti quei poeti che scrivono per ciancia motteggio per loro cattiva Natura per odio per preghi per danari per sollazzo vizij

ARS POETICA

WITH ARISTOTLE

CONFUSION

:

There are , in Varchi's lengthy Lezzioni , a number of miscellaneous borrow for the proper use of specifically from Horace , as is the demand decorum ( p. 583 ) are derived ings from the Ars poetica . The recommendations

for the hexameter as the correct epic verse ( p. 616 ). But these , by 1553 , are completely commonplace and make very little contribution to the develop ment of the Horatian mode. The " Horatian mode ” is clearly present Dialogi della inventione poetica of 1554. The

of

,

of

“

to

its

of

in

is

.

a

,

a

of

it of a

of

set

in Alessandro Lionardi's two dialogues represents preceding years for instead kind converse the commentaries the introducing rhetorical distinctions into basically Horatian exposition basically rhetorical treatise The introduces Horatian elements into poetical spite treatise rhetorical the fact that title refers —

is

as

,

.

to

to

of

,

of

,

. "

a

of

Lionardi begins with consideration three associated arts rhetoric history and poetry which belong together not only because they are arts discourse but also because they serve the same practical ends teaching men how speak and act Of these arts poetry the most invention

it

:

in

of

is

it

;

is

;

If

all an

.

,

in

he

so

,

a

(

in

he

,

in

)

as or

historian

.

imposes

in , of

language ,

special kind

,

is

,

by

a

predominant

the historian

of

expresses them

in

,

an

artificial order

the historian and

here that invention

the poet takes the true materials provided

upon them

of

includes the arts

is

It ,

his information

the orator and goes beyond them

.

well

as

,

.

the orator

His art For

by

of

.

be

of

to

of

to

order

to

order describe nature and contrive plots write speeches and deliberations for his personages and may know the that historian his audience move the passions great men and the pertinent facts about virtuous and vicious actions astrology pre countries and peoples Moreover must erudite sumably because the relationships between the constellations and the myths about the gods and numerous other arts not needed the orator

in

and moral philosopher

of

,

be be ). a

to

be

of

a

else

it

of

which Aristotle had given primacy over other elements these above true about poetry and invention then the poet must knowledge He must man possessed various kinds natural

(

poetry things

,

is

,

of

,

it

.

of

,

it

because embraces the other two which serve auxiliaries and instruments All three make use invention disposition and elocu tion which invention the most important for various reasons requires the greatest and most special talent most directly responsible speaking and action imitation the equivalent for the teaching excellent

,

the passions

,

, of of

obtains his knowledge

to

necessity and probability

in of

.

.

in

and treats them verse His inventive powers are manifested besides the transformation of truth into verisimilitude From the rhetorician he actions and their causes

]

of

he

;

,

,

by

of

he

of

137

[

.

is

of

as

of

.

to

all

argue how various circumstances these are matters which pertain invention From the rhetorician also disposition and elocution learns such aspects the proper ordering speeches and the many figures speech various kinds which language made more ornate From both these obtains the means for achieving

POETIC

THEORY

his ends of teaching

men how to live and speak properly ; he will argue provide him , persuade with the truth , move with the they with the reasons passions, and delight with the eloquent diction . Into this context , many Horatian ideas are readily incorporated . This is done not so much by way of the citation of corroborating arguments as by the casual use of formulas borrowed directly from the Ars poetica . Thus at

of Dialogue I , Lionardi says that one of the main tasks poetic of the art is so to operate “ that common materials become one's p ; own ” ( . 7) later in the same dialogue he treats decorum and natural

the very beginning

( pp .

versus artificial order in terms which suggest Horace's

of

.

In

67 )

(p .

of

is

res ”

line 333 of the Ars poetica. In Dialogue II , the passing discussion of the “ beginning again reminiscent spite medias Horace

in

of

end

16–18 ); at the

it , the phrase “ it is proper to the poet to delight and profit ” reflects

of

on on

imita

plot without

on

,

51 )

of

as

on

15 ),

.p ( .p

(

on

,

,

tion

and harmony the possibility impossible probable the and

14 14 ), ),

.

( (p .p .

its

as

poetry deriving essence not from verse but from imitation the source on Nature the necessary and the probable rhythm

.

an

the direct textual reference

is

of of

on

of

cites the Poetics

of

perhaps current trends that there even larger the Poetics and other Aristotelian works Lionardi the distinction between poetry and history

is

It

in

,

the Horatian text than because

also significant number citations

of

attached

its ,

to of

such allusions however Lionardi's work belongs the present series rather because associations with the rhetorical tradition now currently

.

76 )

62 ),

:

of

of

( .p

of

of

)

80

to

of

.

I

of

by

as

an

of

a

in

.

(p

as

, "

imitation also for the division between the passions banned and those permitted —all this poetry connection with defence the utility cite these various borrowings not for their own sake but the extent indication “

and for the distinction between narration and

(p . on on

67 ),

( .p

(p .

58 ),

other subjects upon support He also calls various Platonic texts for his ideas the Republic and the Phaedo for the requisites the poet the Republic for the condemnation the arousing certain passions character

;

e

II

in

similar mixture found Book

a

of of

basically rhetorical analysis other elements into Matteo San Martino's Osservationi grammaticali

A is

.

to

of

a

of

,

is a

.

which the divers intellectual traditions are this time mixed and confused For Lionardi the essential approach rhetorical one but poetic elements formal character from Aristotle and moral elements from Plato are intermingled the discussion serve the purposes

II

an

.

is

in

a

of

is

),

(

It

:

an

by

.

of

,

of

;

it

that contains the Book for della lingua italiana 1555 poesy begins with the standard poetical observations defence expanded present here Then comes interest fashion nothing poetry which merits quotation definition

poetiche

to

so

to

)

(

,

138

;

,

as

so

be

I

...

,

.

of

is a on is

of

nothing else but human actions accompanied imitation say that might perhaps part bold the listener the wonder lovely fiction which restricted within harmonized rhythms imitating poetics that him who listens human actions brings profit along with delight Poetry

an

is

it

. . .

.

certain

that

he

is

do

he is

he of

(

in ,

he

;

a

be

as

,

be

,

is

they should such discord with the middle nor the middle

. 39

,

they were but

in

as so

),

of

of

in

,

profit and delight else such wise that they really not filling poet constantly the reader with joy and with the name may delight mixing ever feigning new things that with such novelty

wonder true things with false that not way that neither the beginning will with the end ,

part

principal

in

.

,

should tend and delight and

I

not

pre made unless the invention with which one imitates the poet and the end toward which for the function say that the poems must investigate things which can profit

imitation cannot pared first And

worthy

its

secondary

,

is

WITH ARISTOTLE

CONFUSION

:

as be

imitation

its

ARS POETICA

One begins

, .

of

-

in

in

on

.

of

a

in

all

,

,

,

,

a

in

on to ,

such definition with Aristotle continues with Cicero Horace encounters nameless rhetoricians and concludes with final statement which are lumped together the most helter skelter fashion The same kind confusion prevails other parts the work passes

,

,

(p .

the imitation

” .

"

"

is "

.p in or

"

to

the poets

, or

or

,

; a

In

.

final intention

the

“

to

be e

of

farther

“

);

133

on , of

of

is to ; " all

,

,

There are for example five statements the role the function the main concern the poet are different the passage just quoted the giovar function and end are dilettare few pages later the poetry principal part fittione inventione the said

,

in

,

of

“

to

a

,

);

(

or to

to

he

,

to

;

is , to in

of

is

in

of

in

almost direct contradiction the passage above 135 still later longer text considerable interest which the poet said need per suasion which consists the principal strength the intent the poet acquire belief for his incitements which for which purpose order profit through delight placate others under the strives move

As

an of .)

”

(

at

.p

,

clear subordination

of

;

is at

a

,

a

to

make

any one source document

.

another

)

”

all

,

is as ,

“

unwillingness to

;

, ( .p

of

finally his activities are directed toward veil his fictions 178 teaching delighting and profiting readers the same time 180 through There these texts certain concentration upon the end poetry instructing and giving pleasure but there the same time

1555

, is ,

is

pp

San Martino provides the usual suggestions

129–31

: “ la

Osservationi

However

,

133

).

.

,

.

no

;

of

39

(p

them

be of

he

in

the making

rhetorician

,

a

he

poems the poet for San Martino provided with precepts for invention must disposition and elocution precepts for the first But really there are subjects since the number infinite and the poet has free choice among operates

essentially

Poesia altro non

for

la

,

a

,

.

si

de

,

,

e

e

o

,

)

(

139

ne ,

le

;

."

,

si

la

si

in

di

, le

che con simil nouita diletti cose uere con false mescolando per maniera che ne'l principio dal mezzo

furono ma quali esser deucano discordino

, e

è

la

, di

, si

, al e il si

,

e

& ,

Si

far

;

a

a

lo

è

Et

è di

fingendo

... .

... temerario

,

.

chi l'ascolta

è

.

di ),

(

che imitatione delle humane forse mi mouero dire che Poetica sia una uaga fittione che fra harmonizzati numeri ristretta imitando l'humane attioni con diletto gioui chi l'ascolta che imitatione sua parte secondaria non principale prepari certo non potersi imitatione che prima non inuentione con cui imitti quanto inuestigar officio del Pocta fine oue tender debbia dico che nei Poemi cose che giouar possano dilettare che effecto giovino dilettino che degno non giocondita merauiglia nuoue cose sempre tal nome continuo riempiendo lettor

attioni con merauiglia

cioè non quali questo dal fine

POETIC what he calls

THEORY

parts of invention , " i.e.

“ the six

, exordium

, narration , divi

sion , confirmation , confutation , and conclusion ; the poet's invention is thus the same as the orator's ( p. 159 ). Disposition , or the “ ordinatione " the materials , largely concerns words ; Horace is called upon for many

,

and occasional borrowings from Aristotle and

-

the long quoted passage

in

-

in

.

of

in

be

all

of of the precepts here . As for elocution , the largest part of San Martino's treat ment is devoted to it ; for words constitute the “ materia " of poetry ( p. 159 ) and if they are properly chosen and arranged , “from them will result in the minds of the readers a most sweet harmony adorned with inconceivable loveliness " ( p . 179 ) . For these elements the counsels are those which might any found the standard rhetorics To them are added gener incorporated ous materials from the Ars poetica the way exemplified ,

in

,

.

in

,

,

is

in

his

:

it

is

,

10 ,

to

,

is

by

as

.

,

Plato These remain however auxiliary and subsidiary and they are intro they furnish additional authority for points duced only the rhetorical unchanged system their accretion which Giovambattista Giraldi Cintio's Letter Bernardo Tasso dated October scope 1557 more limited than the preceding document two ways first only poetry defending his epic deals with since Giraldi

"

“

is ;

of

is a as

—

.

is

in

it ,

of

if

.

,

,

it

to

it

to

to

so ,

,

of

be

me that this must

to

of

to

wit was granted me see that the whole the light the useful and the honest since seemed the end the poet and not pleasure alone For we

in

work was composed

do

as

:

strove insofar ,

I

passage

of

is

, it

.

of

;

no

—

,

of by of in

Ercole

the ends

in

and second Horatian almost solely the con departure the poetry Giraldi takes his point thesis means original that poetry kind first philosophy utility proposed utility pleasure hence the two ends and for indisputably the more important The theory expounded the following practice ception

to a we

,

chartae.40

41

,

usai quanto meglio

mi fu

ed .) , .p

."

of

“

to

,

di

In

Lettere XIII huomini illustri 1565 871 l'ingegno perche l'opera tutta fusse composta all'utile 40

to

.

to

is

represent

to

assigned goal

thus exclusively moral The poet must seek appropriate behavior which honest and honorable living praiseworthy actions and social procedures the whole scale is

The utility proposed

an

to

,

Rem tibi Socraticae poterunt ostendere

said

:

—

as

us

;

from the fountain that philosophy which life must direct our actions Horace showed when

he as

to a

of

of

,

of

a

us

,

is

it ,

to

say about poetry nothing else but believe what the ancient writers have working philosophy secretly proposes first which like schoolmistress life under poetic covering the image civilized and praiseworthy life drawn

,

le

,

a

,

&

,

gli

ne

,

,

,

:

& "

,

la

di

la

a

,

, ci

,

mostrò Horatio quando disse Rem tibi Socraticae poterunt ostendere chartae

140

)

(

."

attioni

&

alle lodeuoli

,

honorata

,

,

si

: “

., .p

Ibid 872 che conuiene alla uita honesta alla uarietà delle cose ciuili

et

41

."

.

,

che

ci

il

, di

,

attioni

.

il

,

&

,

è

La

;

il

,

.

(

concesso all'honesto parendomi che questo debba essere fine del Poeta non diletto solo Però che per quanto dicono auttori quale quasi occulta maestra della antichi Poesia non altro che una prima filosofia imagine propone lodeuole uita tratta dal una ciuile uita sotto uelame poetico proposto segno habbiamo drizzare nostre fonte essa filosofia alla qual uita quasi

ARS POETICA

WITH ARISTOTLE

CONFUSION

:

Applying this theory in his own poem , Giraldi has depicted the life of a man who was an example of praiseworthy and honorable actions ( p. 868 ) ; he has universalized the illustrious actions , making sure that honesty was respected ( p. 874 ) ; he has tried to arouse compassion and move morality by praising his audience ( ibid . ) ; above has attended condemning the vices and giving wherever necessary the the virtues instruct order the latter rewards the former and the punishments praiseworthy according persons the station their ranks various

,

"

to

, in in

,

to

42

.”

life

,

of to

to

,

,

to

he

all ,

everywhere

,

I

in

“

.

as

“

to

.

).

(p

it

to

I

,

by

at

is

to byI

,

to

43

a

by.”

by

, "

is ,

it

to

of

be

, to a

of

is a

to

of

means the achievement this utility saw that the reader with greater make this utility enter into the mind sought pleasure whence very wide pathway could efficacy made companion make the profit and did not wish take my primary object produced writing the work poetica Pleasure given places stopping intercalate ornaments and mente that devising entertaining digressions the These add beauty 873

Pleasure

order

an

,

in

it

of ,

.

an

)

as

(

be

of

is

it

if

.

it

composition and make the reader follow with greater attention Even the Aristotle and Horace have pointed out rendered beautiful treated with the proper decorum and then becomes additional Similarly the use pleasure source the pagan gods acceptable

ugly may

is

, an

of

,

).

(p .

of

,

it is

).

.

(p

its

,

as

ancient subject such the Ercole may increase the marvelous the poem possibilities for delight Finally verse itself and hence 882 additional ornament which when allied with appropriate diction 888 both utility and pleasure serves the purposes

,

by

it

—

is

of

).

(

.p

of

of

.

of

to

to

,

of

he

,

no of

Giraldi's conception the poem made conform these require clearly unity ments involves notion the artistic structure Indeed specifically rejects the need for unity unity action and replaces only unifying hero 868 The life Hercules the element unless

in of

of

.

,

or

one take into consideration the general moralizing intent the prevailing many gathered concern with decorum Around this life Giraldi has

of

of

( .pp

as

it

he

,

to

an

he

,

.

)

hold the interest his readers please and insists calculated is

order

does

,

he in

from one canto another Everything that 879–80

he to

to

,

of ,

is

”

.

by

“

,

actions some them taken from ancient poets some them invented himself Since the subject ancient has treated the manner the ancients except for the addition such modern devices transitions

, a

la

,

“ to

of

in

è

secondo

dare oue uarie qualità

&

di

,

i

,

stato bisogno

,

—

of it

or

,

le

,

. la "

, a : "

., .p

il

42

uitij Ibid 881 con lodare uirtù biasimare quelle premio queste pena per formare persone conditione alla lodeuole uita 43

is

.

in

of

"

“

to

of

instruct the specific audience that has mind This not audience vulgo praise ever wrote give the -10 poet worthy order pleasure this vulgar crowd made his judges but the best

loro

al

il

)

(

&

141

." ,

,

: "

, ui

., .p

,

a

Ibid 872 uidi ch'a fare che con maggiore efficacia questo utile entrasse nell'animo poteua fare assai ampia strada giouamento chi leggeua diletto onde cercai ch'egli fussi compagno no'l uolli prendere per primo oggetto

POETIC

THEORY

its

.pp

judges , " those who know why the poem pleases them and are capable

evaluating

of

in it

of

a

of

again falls into broadly the goal proposed patterns rhetorical But much the detailed treatment diction the figures and the styles present the more ambitious treatises absent here ,

of

,

is

an

of to of

of

in

is ,

,

—

in

to

de '

in

,

at

.

are the numerous cross references ancient theorists Similar ideas about the poetic art are work even briefer compass poeti illustri Girolamo Ruscelli's dedication his Fiori delle rime 1558 similar that the general application rhetorical criteria

,

as

to

,

in

.

of

as

effect upon that audience

is to

).

of

.

, of it

,

to

its

In

.

to

to

of

,

In

(

artistic excellences 876–78 poetry comes these ways the Horatian conception the ends poetic everything inform Giraldi's whole theory the art Almost subordinated the wish instruct and even the devices for pleasure are ancillary general supposition this the work and certain

in

of

,

in

of

,

of

,

in

.

a

poetry Ruscelli starts out with poetry general but defence not spite Italian poetry declaring that the prejudice favor Greek and

.

in

.

”

in

,

in

in

a

is

,

in

“

to

possibility that Italian will soon come equal Latin literature there profit Ariosto has already proved this delight and both the epic and Petrarch elegiac verse One may judge for the lyric others them

of of of

,

of

,

all

,

of of La

,

of

in

in

,

, in

in

to

be

: “

to be

oneself This may easily discovered by those who having the art and the judgment able know entirely the degrees and the places perfection disposition style and invention the other parts elocution will consider those compositions Bembo Guidiccioni be

,

a

,

in

of

,

of

, of

of

all

spiritual things

the sciences

are able

to ,

is

, of

of

philosophy

as

as

history and cases many other subjects

.”

to

and almost poetry furnish

45

of

there are subjects

in

.” : 44

,

a

of

,

of

"

,

,

all

of in

of

Molza Pescara The proof word will found poetry Ruscelli's anthology which one may see the true portrait poetry where one finds the examples every splendor the beauties capable receiving and where every ornament that language and Sannazaro

of

on

)

,

of

(

in

Although the passages Cristoforo Rufo's Antexegemata 1559 which interest for poetic theory largely concern the Poetics there are

are

;

, a

of

The work

he

,

as

13 ).

.p

(

the plot

is to a

,

of

refers rather

to

it

that 44

is

.

in

is

to

a

several commentaries lines Horace and few places where rhetorical interpretation applied Aristotle This not true everywhere however connection with Poetics 1452b11 for example takes issue with referring Robortello's interpretation Trátos the audience and insists

collection

isolated

...

,

,

si gli

.

,

,

,

,

di

e i

i

, & in

" is

,

,

, &

La

., .p * .” “ :vij "

45

: "

), .p * da

(

jijv possono ageuolmente conoscer coloro che 1558 Ilche giudicio poter conoscere interamente gradi luoghi perfettione nella dispositione nello stile tutte l'altre parti della clocutione haue ranno considerati quei componimenti del Bembo del Guidiccioni del Sannazaro del Molza della Pescara Pescara Vittoria Colonna

Fiori delle rime

hauendo arte nella inucntione

." , &

di

le

)

(

142

&

di ,

,

le

di

,

,

di

,

ne

,

&

&

il

si

Ibid oue vede vero ritratto tutte bellezze della Poesia oue sono essempi d'ogni candidezza d'ogni omamento che vna lingua possa riceuere oue quasi hanno soggetti occasioni d'istorie filosofia cose spirituali tanti altri possono somministrar tutte soggetti quanti alla Poesia scienze

ARS POETICA

ARISTOTLE

WITH

CONFUSION

:

remarks on passages selected by Rufo because he disagrees with previous commentators . On Poetics 1456b8 , disagreeing with Maggi's reading, he maintains that the writer of tragedy may derive arguments from the same topics as does the rhetorician , since both seek to arouse the emotions ; but the poet must do so in a hidden way , whereas the orator's devices are apparent . On 1456b3 , adding to “pity and fear ” the additional effects of " amplification , proof , and persuasion , ” he again points out that these must be sought in the appropriate topics . For the Ars poetica , he provides commentary on two lines , on line 1 (where he disagrees with Maggi's gloss )

three short Origine the first della satira comedy emphasizing above a

dis all he

of

, and Ars poetica of Horace of of

the satires , epistles

set

to insist that the initial passage does not refer to plot alone but to the combination of plot and episodes, and on line 132 ( rejecting Maggi again ) to clarify the proper manner of adapting borrowed materials. 46 On the whole , however, the document is more interesting as it relates to the history of the Poetics , and I shall discuss it again later in that context . In the same year , 1559, Lodovico Dolce appended to his translation of

of

In

. "

to

le

,

In ,

epistole Discorso sopra had complementary functions second

47

is

"

"

,

"

of

:

to

,

of

,

In

said that the satires and the epistles

,

.

traced

he to

,

one for each the works tragedy and also the origins purposes the moral for which they were invented tragedy demonstrate how much the condition human frailty different from that divine felicity and beatitude comedy scold men for their vices the courses

to

to

:

its

in

art

on

be

it

I

,

by

be

is

,

of

by

)

it

la

(

in

,

a

of

;

it

,

48

. ”

of

: "

was his intention remove plant epistles the vices from the breast men and these the there poetica the virtues The third the Discorso sopra far the most important since gives brief summa what Dolce considered the points entirety salient Horace's text translate below almost the satires

he

in

;

he

on

in

,

of

In

he

,

of

on

.

in

in

be

;

he

.

of

he

,

all

it,

be in to

;

or

.

in

it

anything dis such form that there will not conformity everything but that will and appropriate be

give

it

to ,

or

cordant

and contrary

it

order

to , to

of

.

of us

in

to

is

to

submitting them correct diligently their compositions the judgment those who know The reader will thus learn from the notes that Horace gives this brief but most useful work his consider first very carefully the dispose material that these poets have proposed write about then that to

poets

of

poetry may This little book composed Horace the divided into five parts For demonstrates first the vices that the poet must flee then speaks the appropriateness that must observed words the third place touches the quality materials and persons and the differences that are present them the fourth treats actions and the fifth counsels

)

(

143

to

humana ,

.”

huomini huomini

gli

uitij dal petto

gli

uitij

de

i

della fragilità de

leuare

i

di

"

fu la

."

: “

le

di

sua intentione

conditione

per riprendere

"

: "

(

e

In

1

., .p

in 48

&

316 Nelle Satire piantarui uirtù

la

.

and H8 respectively

dilettevoli sermoni 1559 313 quanto fosse differente dalla felicità beatitudine Diuina and Ibid queste

to

or

,

H ,

,

G6 GS GSv ), , .p -

.pp

1559

),

Antexegemata

(

47 46

,

to

it

promised From this results that when poets have begun write serious things they should not descend low ones describe others that are lovely

POETIC THEORY and delightful but not pertinent , to show that they are clever . And in this , as in every other aspect , Ariosto merits infinite praise . Also , when we need to pass from one subject to another , we should do it in such a way that the composition

will not resemble a monster . Nor, fleeing one vice , should we fall into another ; but taking upon ourselves a burden equal to our strength , we should see to it

,

,

,

as

,

as

49

our Ariosto

of

or

.

its

that the end corresponds to the beginning and the middle ; and although we may treat divers things , and although the parts be varied , it should be a single body parts And which is not discordant in any of for the order they should begin from the middle after the middle the subject Homer Vergil and

.

did

, to

It

.

it

in

as

be

in

of

be

of

,

to

a

a

as

Such summary this indicates what points the Ars poetica seemed vulgarizer like Dolce worthy emphasis will noted that invention and disposition are clearly intimated and that the dominant principle appropriateness appears again had the earliest Horatian .

exegesis

,

Girolamo Ruscelli who only the year before had published his Fiori delle :

a

;

is

all

.

of

. of its , of

problems the superiority poetry over other forms superiority verse over prose He regards forms persuading delighting and moving the function

expression speech

and the having

as

,

of on

, . In of

a in

di

a

of

a

,

a

;

,

in

comporre rime published 1559 work called Del modo versi nella lingua italiana this was really combination two works treatise on verse comprising also fairly complete poetics and very lengthy rhyming dictionary poetics Ruscelli the section most concerned with two

its

of

.

on ”

da

,

is )

it is

“

,

to be

.

a

as

.

in

as a

(

If

.

.pp

It

of it of is be a

be

it

so ,

if

;

of

49

by of

is of to

to

to

if

contemporaries eternal life and bring glory

.

—

,

appeal only

-

it to

,

But whereas other poetry has added author Hence respect the basic dichotomy excellence These beauties one his analysis are both material and words For the subject matter poetry must itself may well special kind false invented produce belief the poet must handled such way the part the reader true historical subject rendered more forms are written beauties which give

:

:

,

ui

da i

,

le .

i

, e

,

,

di :

lei

darle una cotal forma che non u'habbia corrispondente conforme Onde hauendo

,

Il

di

,

.

,

di

al

coloro che sanno lettore adunque apparerà ricordi che questa sua brieue ma utilissima fatica considerar primieramente molto materia che essi hanno proposto scriuere poi disponerla cioè ordinarla in

giudicio

,

bene tutta

la

Horatio

,

,

, si e a le

i

.

; e

, e

la

da

ci

rimettendole

il

: “ Si

in

.,

puo diuidere questo libricciolo composto Ibid 317–18 Horatio sopra l'arte uitij che dee fuggire cinque parti Percioche egli prima dimostra della Poetica Poeta dipoi fauella della conueneuolezza che conuien serbare nelle parole nel terzo luogo tocca qualità delle materie delle persone differenze che entrano Nel quarto tratta corregger diligentemente dell'attioni nel quinto conforta Poeti lor compositioni

,

in

, , ci

,

,

e

in

,

in

.

di ,

, e

, o

in

i

a

Et in

,

.

,

,

.

e

,

cosa discordante contraria ma tutto sia promesso Poeti cominciato scriuer cose graui non discendano alle basse ouero discriuere alcune uaghe diletteuoli ma imperti questa come ogni altra parte merita infinita lode nenti per dimostrarsi ingeniosi guisa che'l componi l'Ariosto Douendo anco passar d'uno altro soggetto facciano al

&

."

,

e'l ,

,

,

un

al

le

. E ,

]

[

il

;

144

:

in

un

,

.

,

se

, o

, : e

,

un

a

mento non sia simile Mostro Ne schifando uitio incorriamo un'altro ma pren principio dendo peso eguale alle nostre forze procuriamo che'l fine corrisponda solo membra siano diverse sia mezo ben trattiamo diverse cose quantunque quanto all'ordine debbono cominciar corpo ilquale punto nelle sue parti non discordi dopo nostro Ariosto mezo della materia come fece Homero Virgilio dal mezo

ARS POETICA

WITH ARISTOTLE

CONFUSION

:

In

.

,

,

or

,

,

beautiful dress

which all

of

, is

—

is

,

it of

to

, be

in

to

be

.

of

,

or

of

.

is

clothed Great attention must the purity lan style organizing guage the placing the words the qualities things which constitute the virtues elocution Disposition clear poet closely by words with both connection the watched element an

paid

in

,

,

The words are the

”

the same time

the subject

“

.” 50

at

delight

or ,

or “

is

be

in

it

,

of

all

perfect by the kind of selection and rearrangement which are the preroga reality are removed either the imperfections of the poet , and something lovely pleasing gay grave pleasant case must that profit and that the end will delight better still that will profit and

tive

all

in

,

,

of

as

of

of

of

.

of is

,

be

perfection followed however the ultimate harmony achieved unless verse added For verse adds and persuasion and additional source arousal the pas these precepts

an

will not harmony

is be

Even

if .

and things

:

is

of

,

.

is

is

,

in

as

;

of its

so

of in

;

of

a

;

to

of

all

to

verse

,

of

.

beauty

in

follows the the reader the soul events poetry gives increased added the other beauties delight this delight leads the reader higher estimate have the poet's genius the work thereby becomes more credible and more capable producing utilitarian effects the profit that results hence greater As many argument developed these texts the end term the that sions The sequence

:

be

...

" 51

,

of

”

“

a

to

is

.

in

is

of

the declaration that Italian

verse and that Petrarch and more

models

recent years

in in

the literati whose names had appeared

in

number

)

(

1560

of

A

which

.

be

is

for as

to

all

,

kind one feature

other languages recent Italian poets may used

PARTHENIO

a

if

a

of

of

of

most extravagant superior

by

,

of

by

“

, to

.

,

is

utility Indeed the same true for the argument about subject matter say nothing much greater utility the pleasure will obtained poet than from the same event narrated told historian and reality the point about the perfecting made substantiation This poetry and exaltation verse leads Ruscelli write defence the

.

of

,

,

,

,

,

as

connection with Horatian criticism appear again interlocutors Bernardino Parthenio's lengthy dialogue Della imitatione poetica 1560 Trifon Gabriele Giovan Giorgio Trissino Paolo Manuzio Francesco

,

,

be

in

of

.p

broader since they will treat

un

."

,

, ò

,

...

di da

,

et

,

,

:

,

, ò (

piaceuole 1559) xix cosa grata uaga leggiadra graue gioui ma molto più che ella gioui diletti unitamente ,

;

diletti

un xii : “

so

.

of

be

to

of

di

da xi -

.pp

their own concern will

comporre

o

Del modo

che finalmente

In

to

it

,

&

So

with those genres

51

, of

Lovisini and Parthenio himself gather together discuss the matter poetic imitation and how doing differs from rhetorical imitation supplementing the work they pretend Aristotle and Horace who plot and character spoke only tragedy and the epic and connection

il

.

,

)

145

&

,

(

, ò in

in

,

si , si

la

,

da

o

,

.”

,

& lo

lo

, è

.,

Ibid molto più utilità per tacer dilettatione trarrà fatto poeta che stesso narrato uno istorico percioche all'istorico conuiene narrarlo parte Là oue ucramento come sia seguito poeta bene male che sia stato tutto finge forma nelle parti non buone quale douerebbe essere stato per esser buono perfetto nell'esser suo

of words ,

speech , and sententiae

of

figures

THEORY all

POETIC

. is

of

(

as

a

of

by

such general subjects

by

In

)

and

as

, of

( which are common to invention and the universal topics adducing the custom his preface Parthenio defends poetry not only ary arguments but pointing out the multitude knowledge kinds poet which one may derive from such Homer the De Homeri poesi genres

,

"

, ,

,

he

,

,

,

,

us

,

,

,

,

?

in

,

“

in

morality—

in us

Besides

).

here

lessons

he

imparts Homer teaches the knowledge that What philosopher teaches better what prudence every slightest action what fortitude what discretion we should use than his poems He makes wise prudent modest strong patient constant just good religious and holy 52_and shows orators how echoed

so

he

.

of

to

is

by

It

he

“

,

,

to of

.

all ,

be

to .

us

of

6 ).

.p

he

(

”

of

of

our soul that they representing the ,

that we bear

in

to

of

faculty

,

or

that certain force

,

"

Horace

his title On Poetic Imitation the art not already who seems have kept his feet

the precepts

that same Aristotle But soon limits excluding one dis imitation which the two types will not here treat that kind imitation which seeks

by

tinguished represent

;

his scope

by

by

Aristotle and

the very footsteps

misled

present

he

fixed

means

33

in

exhausted

to

he

Parthenio does not wish and insists that

,

,

,

in

if

he

,

,

.

be

,

to

write expositions beginnings confirmations amplifications and These then will the ends that the poet must pursue But will not achieve them does not pay attention the delight that comes from excellence verse and elocution the latter these that consti tutes Parthenio's central subject forth

in

in

on

,

poetry which intends

to he

the end

,

of

and this

is

;

represent

"

undertakes

to

,

of

.

of

A

he

is

he

,

a

In

.

.

as

,

of

of

"

,

call Idea but rather that other kind which consists Ideas and the Forms others word interested the imitation poets appears other taken models further restriction when poetic imitation The poet may makes still another subdivision the one hand imitate the natures and the characters the persons whom

by

is

of

54

to

the poet may imitate the words other poets and the problem

the other hand

speech already used

,

On

by ,

of

.

Aristotle

and the figures

. "

its

is

to

,

Parthenio

its

,

to

express human actions and with that expression instruct and inform the subject soul which and matter Imitation this kind left

him

in

a

,

to

to

is

of ,

by

of

.

is

of

properly accomplished Parthenio addresses himself The how this major part suggestions about how the poet the dialogue devoted long practice may ultimately come way very express himself

quale portiamo

,

che

suoi

religiosi

nell'animo

,

,

buoni

,

,

giusti

,

costanti

ne i

,

ci

”

;

or

"

uero facultà

la

,

forti patienti

,

de '

insegna qual prudenza

ciascuna minima attione

,

,

quella certa forza

o

,

modesti

Filosofi meglio

in

Qual usare

,

), .p 3 : “ ,

,

fa

93 . : " 11 : " "

. ., " .p

Ibid chiamano

che

idea

."

,

le

,

,

)

è

;

(

146

&

il

è

,

&

., .p

Ibid Et questo fine della poesia laquale intende esprimer attioni humane materia informare bene l'animo che suo soggetto con quello amaestrare

54

&

saggi prudenti

Santi

53

&

?

pocmi Questo

ci

,

(

Della imitatione poetica 1560 qual fortezza qual discritione habbiamo

da

52

to

of

to

plagiarizing similar that the model without actually copying analysis distinguished topics and detailed the numerous rhetorical

ARS POETICA

WITH

CONFUSION

:

ARISTOTLE

by Giulio Camillo Delminio , proposed as devices to guide the poet in his imitation . Throughout Parthenio's treatise , the assumption is implicit that the really important thing about poetry is the diction that it uses . Poetic diction , in fact , is different from that of oratory in several respects . The words used

by the orator “must be such that they may be understood by the people and must be drawn from common usage , from that usage which the writers of comedy and the orators have established . Those ( used by the poets) must be highly ingenious — I almost said ' bizarre ' - and completely alien from

They must be selected for their qualities of sound as well as of sense ( full - sounding words containing " a " and " o " are to be pre ferred ), and compound or complicated words are better than simple ones ( p. 80 ) . As he proceeds with this analysis, Parthenio comes closer and closer to the kind of teaching that would be found in the section on diction habitual use . "

55

in

to

to

on

in

At

.

on

,

of

a

...

.

"

,

to

a

of

be

,

to

of

to

I

is

he

.

: “

,

agrees

,

pass judgment certain recent Italian poets now says about Sannazaro what have always prized him and has always seemed me grave and sonorous have had fine great and truly poetic nature selection words And

This

dead

he to

living poets

is

in

,

of

II

he

its

in almost any standard rhetoric . It is interesting to note that, in spite of the elaborateness of such a theory engage as the one just outlined , when author called upon practical criticism commonplaces talks ancient one point Book the dialogue Trifon Gabriele after having refused comment

as

,

."

of in

: “

of

;

”

,

,

on

( of

Petrus Crinitus

or

the poet they hark

Pietro Ricci

)

the days

of

,

a

the genius

characterize

.

of

to ;

in

but their effort much earlier time Lilio Gregorio Giraldi

to

diction back

to

as

. ”

56

,

"

,

is

is

: “

is

Pontano Pontano also very sublime and Fracastoro Most imagining fables ornate and most polished Fracastoro and excellent Navagero charming elegant and full light poetic polished new thoughts varied and versatile Such comments these are consistent they bear almost exclusively with the theory behind them insofar

of

is

(

in

of

,

,

,

of

'

., .p

., .p

34 : “

55 56

a

,

is a

It

di

)

its

its

A

to

document closely related the preceding one through the person author and through rhetorical associations Giulio Camillo Hermogene Delminio's Discorso sopra l'idee published posthumously 1560. brief treatise which after comparison Cicero's three styles oratory- the judicial the deliberative and the with Hermogenes types da

, . & .. .

,

Fracastoro eccellente pieno pensieri poetici

di

è

& il

,

&

,

."

.

&

&

,

)

,

&

,

(

&

politissimo Ornatissimo polito uago elegante

147

&

,

& , & gli

di ,

,

Nauaicro uersatile

."

uario

86 : “

.p

87 , : “ & Il ";

Pontano

, "; .p

&

,

è

il

sublime altresi nel finger fauole leggiadri noui

&

i

,

,

di

, 85 & : “ ,

,

Ibid Questi deono esser tali che dal popolo possano esser intesi esser tratti quello che Comici dalla communanza Oratori hanno fatto Quelli hanno essere ingeniosissimi quasi che non dissi bizarri del tutto estratti dalla consuetudine Ibid l'ho sempre prezzato emmi sempre paruto graue sonoro hauer parole esser havuta bella elettione natura grande ueramente poetica Molto

POETIC THEORY panegyric - goes on to a brief summation of the various “ senses " found in Hermogenes . Only one short section is of interest for poetic theory , a section entitled “ Panegirica in Metro , " which discusses poetry as a versi

it

. of

of

it of

of

,

Its ”,

.

it

,

Its ,

.

in

of all

fied type of panegyric oratory ; the classification itself is significant . Camillo's notions of poetry are simple and , at the same time , somewhat things that confused ; he says that it is an “ imitation of contains proper materials pleasure and greatness that involves the use verse are myths about the gods the supernatural and the superhuman impossible procedures are the narration and incredible actions events simply and

,

he ,

),

(

in

he ,

;

as

of

in

;

,

,

of

the muses and the use

57

special kinds words panegyric oratory general shares with Francesco Patrizi would have disagreed with Camillo's classification poetry panegyric for although his Della historia 1560 too

detail the invocation figures the latter and

of of

poetry but

in

of he

kind

,

these views history

,

to

According

prose

of

he is

,

history

.

to

is on a

.

,

it

,

to

poetry under oratory assigns the demonstrative and deliberative branches His dialogue concerns history and when classi expounding Pontano's views poetry fies poetry the relationship classifies

praise and blame their ,

,

,

do

of

.

,

to ,

."

,

,

,

: “

,

“

."

,

of

,

as

;

,

,

to

.

Both arts treat the same kind materials oratory parts oratory they actors belong the same branches employ similar procedures they arouse the passions they things with decorum Their ends are the same Both teach delight move profit adorn elevate lower Their differences are those between truth and probability prose and verse natural order and artificial order Patrizi does to

to

)

of

to

links

of

specific literary genre materia della satira

are

1560

).

Francesco Sansovino's Discorso

,

to in a

applied

. 58

the necessary

the same principles

(

, all

.

the two arts provide

Some operative

in of

ends

of

in

;

he

( or

identify his sources what kind indicate Pontano's not need belongs traces intellectual tradition both Horace and the rhetoricians are manifest his statements The verbs collected together define the

: “

;

;

it

is

to

of ,

in

,

an

,

,

so

a

it

is

of

of

in a

poetry then this statement The dedication presents brief defence the poetry consists nothing else than withdrawing men from vice gift whence God directing them according the good orders that that they will know their own minds hence nature His servant

end

of

,

119–21

.

) le , .pp

1560

(

M. Giulio Camillo Delminio gli

.pp

di

secondo tomo dell'opere

Il

In

58 57

:

-

.

,

59

. ”

it of

,

a

is

,

to

certain poets wishing achieve such end have written precepts human life under various forms verse Of these divers genres satire always scolds men for their evil doing The favored one since Discorso proper differentiates satire from the other forms on several bases

" ;

(

,

in

).

,

."

,

of

.

II

he

,

,

: “

,

),

è ), .p * 3 : la di “ il

(

59

,

“

,

,

(

Della historia 1560 5–5v muouono affetti fanno cose con decoro giouano Patrizi un abbassano insignano dilettano adornano inalzano muouono doubtedly knew Camillo's work since Camillo's Opere 1560 edited Vol altro ch'in ritrar gli huomini fin della Poesia non consiste Discorso 1560

148

)

(

. "

di

, ,

a è i

di

,

,

,

dal vitio ond'ella dono Dio indirizzandoli buoni ordini della natura sua ministra qui ch'alcuni volendo conseguir cotal fine mente loro accio ch'essi riconoschino versi hanno scritto precetti della vita humana sotto varie forme

ARS POETICA

WITH ARISTOTLE

CONFUSION

:

style ( satire uses the humble , low style , rather than the high or the middle ) , subject matter (which is humble and low , not high and magnificent ), the kinds of persons depicted ( who are humble , such as servants and sinners , not great ), the nature of the imitation ( in satire , nature is imitated directly, without adornment or artifice ). It will be readily seen that the opposite

of

subject matter

,

style

,

its

a literary genre by

its

its

of describing and delimiting

its

term in each case is tragedy or the epic , and Sansovino points up the contrast wherever possible. Once again , the insistence is upon diction ; this must not differ from the language of prose , must contain neither ornament nor grace , must be instead simple , sharp , witty, and direct . Such a method

( .pp

of

,

a

in

).

*

* 7

as

an

I

,

)

a

(

of

,

in

special sense falls imitation taken the tradition that have been tracing and epitome many tendencies Sansovino's little Discourse serves 6vAs final sample the present chapter we may examine those few

characters and form readily within the context

of

it

In

.

of

,

be

,

of

of

.p

he

a

In

,

),

( .pp

by

.

;

all

of

(

."

“

),

51 ),

( .p

notes

are verse

"

"

"

poeteggiare

in

“

he

that the two components language and certain kind present remarks 123 the second fauellare poeticamente eloquence that whereas other writers practice only one form the poet practices forms hence his divinity The third 219-20 more exten poetare

or

pertinent paragraphs

"

in

;

in

by

is

to

-

.

,

it

”

in

of

, is

,

,

of

.

in

paragraphs Benedetto Varchi's Hercolano which concern poetry The dialogue one question the important documents the the language almost wholly linguistic content although was published only 1570 posthumously was written around 1560 during the years anticipated Varchi's the Caro Castelvetro controversy As might approach poetics here colored this specific concern one the

( .p

,

:

is

in

.

,

to is

to

in

),

is

;

of

,

ticed them

it

of

distinguishes seven kinds poetry naming the authors who prac the basis the distinction not clear but would seem that classifying according merely Varchi verse forms The last passage declaring again necessary 269 poetry con addition that verse tains the following passage sive

,

,

if

,

,

a

uses

special kind

.

a

best they display

,

at

;

of

it

:

is

a

,

,

of

for imitation and

most natural for man.60

it

the Poetics

)

Aristotle shows

poetry These passages hardly constitute theory preconceptions poetry few common current verse language and seeks ethical and rhetorical ends 60

a

,

,

those who are naturally disposed

in

all

as

is (

,

noble and gentle and consequently poetry

in

in

of

,

,

-

to

in

a

,

The poet addition well composed and sententious verse has greatness majesty more divine than human and not only teaches delights and moves they are but engenders admiration and wonder the minds the listeners

]

149

e

in

e

il ,

,

all'huomo

."

naturalissimo

[

)

mostra Aristotile nella Poetica

, e

, e

, o

, e

,

ne

, o

,

, e

,

,

, e

il

: “ Il

, e

), .p

(

ha

come

(

,

Hercolano Florence 1570 269 Poeta oltra verso ben composto sentenzioso vna grandezza maestà più tosto diuina che humana non solo insegna diletta stupore negli animi generosi gentili muoue ma ingenera ammirazione tutti conseguentemente coloro che sono naturalmente disposti perche l'imitare poetare

POETIC

THEORY

CONCLUSIONS

of

, in .

on

, a

on

six

The materials contained in this chapter have covered a span of approxi mately fifteen years , from 1546 to 1560 , and have included , besides formal commentaries the Ars poetica wide variety shorter docu ments miscellaneous literary subjects The common basis for their inclu

By this period

,

a

to

or

,

.

,

;

to it

.

-

of

of

or

a

it

is

of

I

of

sion was the fact that they belonged one way another tradition poetic theory that have called the Horatian rhetorical tradition The center this tradition the text the Ars poetica but allied and mingled with are multitude ideas derived for the most part from classical treatises on oratory on style do

.

I

of

of

,

in

a

be

,

at

midcentury critics and theorists and commentators had might what termed standard reading Horace not everybody precisely mean that read him the same way but merely that certain interpretations recur with great frequency and that from the maze developed

a

,

no

is

all

of

be

"

"

to

of

be

its

.

,

to

in

suggestions and theories and precepts contained the Ars poetica certain number seem the favorites readers and cited most constantly Of these perhaps the most signally Horatian the is

in

of of

,

is

" )

(

as

"

or

be

,

, at

.

so .

is

”

as

(

to

“

of

a

it

"

delectare so

"

and

becomes

no

statement

"

poetry constitute the ends Indeed the probably has much commonplace that times really direct connections with the text Horace itself This may one readily expanded reason why the formula aut prodesse aut delectare include additional goals such the Ciceronian admiratio crossed with similar statements from other theorists such Cicero's

"

prodesse

,

of

as

of

.

to

as

profit and delight There notion that poetry has dual ends major commentator who does not emphasize this one the charac many cases shorter texts are teristic features the Horatian system and identified with this tradition basically because their insistence that

,

to is to the to

,

.

of

,

of

" ).

,

,

,

in

in

“

delectare mouere Such expansion and augmentation accounts part for the conflation Horace with the purely rhetorical treatises part explains the confusion attaching and the purposes the poetic regard the really import art Nevertheless the predominant tendency docere

by is

,

,

By

is

.

a

its

,

as to a or

to

he

and episodes retains full status utility but more usually reduced for the achievement that utility As it

of

a

or

of or

resulting from the imitation

the pleasure

of

, . or

Sometimes

from diction from ornaments accompaniment partner the the role means instrument device for stirring the emotions

;

proper living

,

,

all

by

,

to

of

.

be a

to

as

of

bringing some profit ant purpose that reader and that profit invariably said using sententiae and aphorisms moral one demonstrating the common fate man and the rewards and punishments presenting charming allegories which hide attached virtues and vices eternal truths the poem teaches man the lessons needs know for

)

150

are

according

to

poems

,

of

.

the internal components

(

Certain

of

of

,

to

of

the reader and persuading him through examples pleasure makes him amenable the moral teachings that are the real end the poet

this

ARS POETICA

ARISTOTLE

WITIL

CONFUSION

:

reading of Horace , in direct relationship to the ends proposed . The whole matter of decorum is extremely important if moral lessons are to be conveyed ; in fact, the observance of decorum is itself a form of teaching, since the proper behavior for persons of kinds should

be

all

standard

.

of

pleasure

; it

—

decorum for moral elements correctly accon but only recognized true

.

,

to

for artistic elements

,

sine qua non for the production

is a

-

the Horatians

the counterpart

,

is

of

.

,

,

of

the achievement

.

for

of

to

able

is a

positive contribu from the characters and their actions This the ends Most the components though operate indirectly through the pleasure which they afford Thus the central unity and appropriateness the two elements are indistinguish principle deducible

tion

."

,

"

"

,

in

of

,

of

of

"

be

is

if

in to it

is ,

of

is ,

as

of

.

,

.

of

a

of

by of

if

as

,

is a

of

Similarly imitation pleasure source represented plished and the object reading Horace consist The other habitual ways the application midcentury universally associated with the number distinctions text First and foremost these course the trilogy invention disposition and elocution Certain sections the Ars poetica are now regularly identified parts treatments these three and when ,

,

A

is

It

.

of

,

is

of

.

a

is

practical criticism singled out for comment that comment will work almost always revolve about the same three parts second trilogy that styles equally prominent the three almost connected with what

a

is ,

is

of

.

to to

"

"

as

to

,

of

,

Horace says about the vices diction becomes the main device for assuring the integrity the separate literary genres and often regarded auxiliary both appropriateness That given decorum and proper style speech persons given will entail the social status and in

to

,

.

of

its

of

seen some

con

the Ciceronian ends

of

for

if

;

.

have already ends

, of

in

or to

of

the criticism rhetorical doctrine that was

kind

to

an

be

,

the earliest Horatian criticism

for understanding

of

as

be

A

“

.

all

to

it to

,

as

”

to

applied just had been parallel inquiry equal usefulness inquiry into the the period would ordinarily associated with Horace We stituents especially with respect the tinues

,

it

of

,

to

their actions and characters and will require figures and ornaments keeping with the general nature the subject matter Finally the res according poetry verba distinction which considerations relevant belonging are classified the subject matter the expression con

,

of

in

,

be

It

.

of

a

,

"

"

"

"

admiratio directed toward the orator himself and docere delectare and mouere directed toward the audience are the ones proposed then special brand rhetoric results can seen strictly terms the

151

, in

is

the ends

often

, a

.

In

an

as "

(

of

is

of

all

of

of

him of .

of

frequently the basis for calling

primary reason for developing extended )

the

the ends

the specific nature

(

,

critics

,

of

the

of of

so

the conception

document Horatian

so

just

as

)

"

in

to

,

of

moral bias Horace's interpreters and the construction which they put upon his text why this type rhetoric rather than variant possibilities Cognate ends are the arousing should have been related the passions found many the critics sometimes intermediate end and the imparting kinds miscellaneous information fact the minds

rhetorical

POETIC

THEORY

parallels. As for the rest of the rhetorical system involved , it is usually of a linguistic character , with the main stress on diction , on figures and styles , and on the “ topics ” which are curiously transformed into stylistic pro cedures . Thus of the three traditional parts , elocution is the one accorded the greatest amount of attention and importance - a tendency also notable in the late - classical rhetoricians . When one compares the set of ideas belonging to the reading of Horace with those composing the rhetorical tradition , one finds very close resemblances if not complete identity ; one

may begin within the text of Horace , as critics of this period did , and end within the context of a standard rhetoric ; or one may reverse the process and pass from the Rhetorica ad Herennium or from the De oratore or from the Institutes into the Ars poetica. The two traditions are in many very real senses indistinguishable .

But what of Aristotle ? This is the period , as I have indicated , when the first persistent attempts are made to connect the Ars poetica with the Poetics . Especially in the formal commentaries , Aristotle tends to replace

of illumination and elucidation of the

the older authorities as a source

text .

The belief becomes current that Horace knew Aristotle's work , used it as his source and guide , meant to do no more than paraphrase it in verse . Of necessity , the ideas in the two works must be the same . This is the basis for the increasing vogue of citing parallels between the two texts ; from modest

we

in

,

of

By

we

.

If

of

,

by

or

of

of

art

in

.

,

,

as

its

beginnings in Pedemonte , this fashion attains full expression such Maggi commentators Grifoli and Lovisini the time Lovisini parallels are available for almost every passage Horace that specifically poetry composition poems compare the concerns the the parallel passages suggested various lists the successive commentators in

.

to

of

as

, in ,

.

to

a

of

revealing facts First certain passages discover number Aristotle permanently given lines assigned become Horace each expounder borrows from his predecessors For example the opening lines the

,

to

);

),

of

of

(

),

on

)

of

as

on

(

(

( Il .

1-23 three passages from the Poetics are equated 1450a38 Ars poetica plot episodic plots and 1451a19 the soul the poem 1451633 unity plot on the fact that does not result from unity hero lines

of

of

a

in

of

,

to

;

be a

to

of

.

;

in

.

on

,

in on

,

suggesting

1459631

,

styles and meters for various genres three passages again epic meter and 1448631 and 1449a21 iambic verse The same lines Horace will sometimes suggest other parallels Aristotle but large number the the glosses certain basic comparisons recur body writers There thus comes traditional cross references for each section the Horatian text this body each commentator adds 73–88

as

,

.

of

,

,

as

his ingenuity can devise and indeed one has the such other parallels impression occasionally that the parallels have their only merit this display ingenuity in of

to

as a

an

,

of

we

.

If

in

of

152

)

(

of

.

of

of

parallelism certain advantages accrue From this cultivation the interpretation enrichment the form Horace These are mostly the understanding isolated sections the text take case

WITH ARISTOTLE )

1-13

of

point , the first section of Horace's text (

and compare the glosses may estimate what we

CONFUSION

:

11.

ARS POETICA

,

,

.

as -y

in

,

Badius Ascensius and Francesco Lovisini interpretation has been made during the fifty ear period separating the two commentaries Badius takes the passage being first

advance

is ,

“

,

"

,

"

:

”

regula

“

to

the following

so

be

.

Badius reduces the meaning

,

“

"

,

,

,

of

each genre

,

is ,

",

it

. ”

"

,

of “

“

a

of

mala accumulatione warning against the errors that soresmos vitiosa communicatione coinismos that and Positively seu commixtione sermonis recommends symmetry measure and the integrity economy decorum insistence upon the proper color seu aggregatione

,

is

be

all

,

or

,

is

a

be

,

it

in

so

is

so

or

composed invent the any work that written the poet must dispose what disposed that invented decorate what things will incongruous but similar like monster

For

whole subject nothing will

in to

be

in

elegance and decorum.61

the text the problem

limiting the free play

of

to

be

had

of

in

which regard must

,

,

;

seeing

:

to

,

in in a

Lovisini

a

arrangement

be

or

an

;

of

at

.

in

agreement among themselves first The careful consideration and inven Three things thus are necessary economy disposition fitted with deliberation tion the whole matter placed differently the materials invented for the things narrated will history poem and accordance with their and their embellishment

and

the )

,

62

to

of

. "

in

,

of

"

,

he

as

,

,

he

on to

,

of

of

,

;

,

( in

imagination begins with Aristotle's distinction the De anima fantasy opinion poet says fantasy between and the follows for the poet not because poets adopt for themselves the name the verse but because the plot and the fiction Aristotle testified the Poetics goes say permits the use figments only Horace the extent

poet's

all

. “

“

a

is

to

,

let

;

,

be

in let

a ”

“

on

of

to

a

,

63

of

a

.

in

all

is

;

,

a

it

"

,

so

;

”

is

;

is

"

"

prudence

in

all to

observed the monstrous never tolerated Let poem therefore harmonize agree correspond them nothing regard the aim and the end inconsistent nothing unsuit unfitting able that nothing the Aeneid summus Imperator things and the Iliad and the Odyssey serve the moral purposes envisaged Then after referring Quintilian coinismos comparison between and drawing mixture Greek dialects and

which things

Ed .

61

as

,

be , he

by

is it

of

:

“

as

,

mixture sublime and humble styles Lovisini compliments Horace for having chosen this taught his first precept Nor chance that first what the construction the argument and the plot should for

sic

se )

,

,

sed

."

scopum

,

respondeant

,

consentiant

, sit . ”

153

)

(

,

,

poemate sibi conueniant Ibid omnia igitur finem omnia spectent nihil abhorreat nihil alienum ., .p

in

.”

&

decori habenda est ratio

quia poetae nomen sibi asciscunt non propter carmen poetice testatum relinquit Aristoteles ,

fictionem

qua elegantie

:

in

.

.

(

,

.

1554

& (

:4v “ ,

Commentarius propter fabulum 63

), .p , 4 in ut ": : . in in

&

disposite exornatio

62

narrande

ac

vt

: “

, .p

sit

eo

“

in

,

,

,

Compositurus seu cumscripturus quodlibet opus Paris Gerlier 1500 IIllv rem omnem excogitabit excogitatam disponet dispositam ornabit nihil monstri simile quadrantia aut repugnans sed omnia sui similia atque inter Tria ergo primum sunt necessaria Materiae totius excogitatio atque inuentio Excogitate apta oeconomia seu dispositio poemate aliter aliter enim historia locabuntur res

POETIC

THEORY

is

.

It

of

is for -

Aristotle established in the Poetics , the plot is the soul of the poem ." 64 He then proceeds to the word word explanation the passage clear ,

in

,

of

on

.

of

of

of

we

the total poetic structure

As

in to

of

'

,

purely linguistic and rhetorical that whereas Badius gloss character speaking only matters diction and invention Lovisini's passes beyond considerations the poetic imagination and plot the importance

of

of

it

to is

of

of

a

is

ages

so

personages

,

,

,

a .

of

;

be

to in

may juxtapose the readings another case Badius and Grifoli Ars poetica 114–18 Badius largely concerned with textual problems sees these lines only formulation the principle decorum and how solely question fitting the proper speech observed this .

.

to

in

).

.p

"

;

in

be

.

is

of

or

over

the

necessity and probability

be of

of

of

all

the passage carries with

it

Grifoli's remarks

one who reads the Horatian passage

Aristotle's theories character and and hence whether not these associations tones

is (

as

of

For ,

by

.

cites Poetics 1454a32

accompanied

as

,

to

in

in all by

,

,

them

he

of

respect

all

cites the passages he to

,

which Horace treats the Ars poetica which each the four adumbrated With says necessity and verisimilitude must observed

Grifoli

-and

as ac

,

,

of

he

for character

requisites

,

,

,

brief

: “

,

different

the rule

is

of

stations countries sexes and forth The Seruandum est igitur studiose decorum personarum pro sua cuiusque fortuna aetate patria XXv Grifoli always starts with this point stating that Horace here interested the fitting things persons people decorum and words well But bringing into consideration Aristotle's four expands these ideas statement

.

to

,

of

a

a

of

to

be

it

) is

(

correct for the text here richer and more suggestive than was for Badius exemplify the claim that through the cited Other passages might parallelism with the Poetics cultivation Aristotle critics gave those passages more complex meaning than they had had more extensive and studied

at

it

is

, to

of

I

,

,

be

It

the

to

in

.

of

.

of

for commentators the preceding generation But the enrichment stops possible the level the individual passage would not believe any interpretation general change state that Horace takes place any different from what that the total approach the Ars poetica was

later approach ,

of

.

the

as

,

the earliest commentators and the fundamental nature text itself prevented any such change from taking place Moreover the text

of

by

,

of

.

,

of

previously The close ties with the rhetorical tradition the persistence basically rhetorical distinctions the survival the construction put upon

to

,

)

154

:

intima

the fact that ,

qualis esse debeat argumenti fabula poematis anima est

&

no

slightest

these two texts

.

poetice auctor est Aristoteles

,

,

nec temere primum docuit

(

quia

there was

to

of

, 4v ut 5 : in "

.pp

.,

Ibid

constitutio

,

the Poetics and the Ars poetica affairs with respect the true state

,

64

tion

of

,

all

.

of

of

of

equation

of

certain modes this study will demonstrate problems habits method practically assured the and certain intellectual approaches These same modes and habits were the older continuation responsible for the fact that throughout this extensive comparison and chapters

fabulae

ARS POETICA

:

CONFUSION

WITII

ARISTOTLE

different problems , that they use produce statements of a completely different nature about poetry . For theorists of this period , only the acci dental — and sometimes the forced - resemblances between the two were discovered ; their real opposition was not even suspected . So it was that they address

themselves

widely different methods

to essentially

, and that they

of

his

text could be identified with Aristotle , and at the same time the whole

of

Horace could

be said to be an

imitator of Aristotle

the text could be read much as it had been before

into the discussion .

( 155 )

, that many

lines

Aristotle was brought

CHAPTER FIVE . THE TRADITION OF HORACE'S ARS POETICA : III . THE APPLICATION TO PRACTICAL CRITI CISM FIRMLY ENTRENCHED

O

SH

an intellectual tradition as the tradition of

Horace's would not be apt to change with the change of the decades . The habits of interpretation were by 1560 so firmly estab lished that little modification could be expected . Even the way of coupling Aristotle's text with Horace's was a fairly unimaginative procedure . Yet Ars poetica

we are not to suppose that the succeeding decades add nothing and modify nothing , nor that the remaining documents to be considered are merely repetitions of the earlier ones . For one thing , the major effort of the

century to provide formal commentaries to the Ars poetica seems , from this date on , to taper off; and although there will still be some important glosses to the text, they will occur less frequently from now until 1600 than they had in the decade of the fifties. In their place , we shall have to deal

usually with shorter treatises , many of which will apply Horatian principles to literary works of current interest . As a matter of fact , the first two works to be discussed in this chapter on the Ars poetica . One of them is undated , and include it at this point merely because author's literary activity fell approximately around 1560. unpublished manuscript MS BNF Quintij Horatij II.IV.192 fols 1532–161v entitled Petri Angelii arte poetica librum annotationes author was Pietro Angeli who also called are formal commentaries

in

1456a9 1460615

42

1451a34

82

1449a27

105

1455a23

146

1459a33

150

1451a36

179

1460all

259

1460al

333

1449626

338

145161

347

1460616

465 156

)

(

be ,

complete ,

these notations

Angeli

had done

:

his predecessors

to

pretends a

it

is

,

1451a22

38

number

of

a

In

just

Aristotle

34

de

,

an

is

it .

of

,

14 1

Horace

exactly what

Horace's work rather than as

miscellaneous notations and thoroughgoing treatment indicates parallels with Aristotle

a

on

The manuscript

of

set

.

himself Petrus Bargaeus

its

,

;

.

,

It

its

I

ARS POETICA

CRITICISM

PRACTICAL

:

The briefness of the list is explained not only by the fragmentary character of Angeli's notes , but also by the fact that he seeks such parallels only incidentally , not as a major intention . In fact, he takes pains to point out how Aristotle differs from Horace on such matters as the history of to

as

(

on

,

,

is

,

,

as

an

to

of

;

is

)

1.

(

.

by

,

by

is

drama

audience He also declares

on a

,

-

we ")

, or to

ex

“

a

.

TÒ

)

and Daữua five act division

produced

what shown the stage and his insistence that the what narrated means the resting and refreshing the 318 that the poet imitator must

Trádos

produced

of

re TÒ 1.

in

(

between

179

sim

,

of up

,

to

or

of

).

fol .

tragedy and comedy and how superior Aristotle is on such subjects as para verisimilitude ( 160 For the rest his annotations are limited unity major pointing phrasing the text and ideas such the deriving the denouement from internal plot plicity the necessity emphasizing certain elements rather than from deus machina might note his distinction original interpretations Among these latter

of

“

of

.

. ” 1

is

1561

)

(

PIGNA

by )

(

1.

a

of

to

direct his attention the general rather than the particular and that this profit involves close observance decorum He equates Horace's ends delight mitigating perturbations and 333 with Aristotle's end the violently affected which the soul and movements

,

of

is

;

it

such

as

those who had

disposition and elocution

invention

(

fact

,

In

, it .

of

a

of

Its

them had found

one

,

used the rhetorical terms

of

the Horatian text

,

for

no

of

his .

of

-

a

is

,

of

The second work Giovanni Battista Pigna's Poetica Horatiana 1561 not only full scale commentary one the lengthiest and most detailed the century author apparently starts from the premise that although various organization predecessors had sought principle

of

:

on

of

,

),

.

(

(

the matter belong invention the composition belong the

2

...

..

the poet

ac

fol .

To

.

of .

to

,

of

MS BNF II.IV.192

To

to

).

compositionem

(

the two

and disposition and the same two also words whole form the poem and the entire power

remas ),

,

of

,

;

be

of

,

it

and the combination

to

it ,

to

a

in

;

to as

,

be its ,

to

it of

poetry

as

way expound first the whole Horace was written such treated still unknown then continue with after having divided species into the point where the necessary parts these same species completely analyzed finally collecting together these separate elements would fully known As poetry but treated now touch again upon the whole not yet known must considered according matter words verba

of

The poetics

as

.

of

,

to

-

)

had explained successfully the first seventy two lines the Ars poetica but then had been obliged start again with some other organized system Pigna sees the whole the work another basis Pedemonte

: "

,

,

vt

,

ex

,

Vt

.

)

(

157

&

:

&

,

dispositio Rei sunt inuentio integra forma poetae integrae ,

compositionem sunt poematis

.

,

,

rem verba compositionis

"

....

est secundum idem pariter

.

sideranda verborum vires

&

,

:

:

in

eo

,

1 : “

), .p

,

(

2

."

,

1

poëticae finem uidetur statuisse perturbationum motuum quibus animi uehementer afficiuntur mitigationem Poetica Horatiana 1561 poesim totam Poetica Horatij ita est conscripta prout est ignota primo suscipiat deinde illam vsque perducat sua genera partitam quousque ipsorum generum necessariae particulae sint absolutae postremò singulis collectis totam rursus poesim perstringat sed prout iam cognoscitur tota ignota con 159v

POETIC

THEORY

“

,

,

II .

the second

.

divisions has each section

(

of of

.

"

-

inventio

;

the

rei ”

in

a

)

concerns

summary

14

to

of

” )

;

ac

,

,

),

( II .

the third 25–28 the invention and disposition disponendo uerbis agit eodem modo inueniendo ” ;

de

(“

the words

the number

“

( 11.

—

to

a

it

1-13

dispositio rei

“

,

of 24 )

the

—

"

of of

,

to it .

;

of

as

divides into sections few lines each eighty precept now grown and states

The first precept

.

( as

all

of

an

)

,

”

fit a

of

The first half of the preceding paragraph gives the general outline of the Ars poetica as Pigna analyzes it ; the second half establishes the methodo logical framework into which he will large part the text The res verba distinction which had been for commentators for Horace himself incidental aspect the total structure becomes for Pigna the methodology central element Horace's even invention and disposition quotation the shows are made subordinate Pigna organizes most the text around this res verba distinction He

all

.

-

),

)

(e

in to

so

as

(

of

a

,

is

It

.

of

to

to

”

“

of

)

11.

est

it

,

we

(

a

of

set

).

to

prudence The analysis continues equivalent this fashion consistent application the same terms not until the composition twelfth precept 73-76 that the element enters into play and any discover then that refers metrical form rather than with

(

disposition

cf.

;

an

of

of

on

-

of

"

),

(

the

“

),

1l .

32–37

,

the same with respect

29–31

( ll .

fifth precept

on

styles The the mixture poematis forma integra combines things and words these elements invention and disposition and pro analogy with life just ceeds the basis the happy life results from the proper admixture reason and prudence the Ethics the perfect poem effects proper combination quivalent invention reason and the fourth

;

on

"

“

res ”

“

11.

to

),

,

of

”

.

do “

(

fifty four 309–10 moral poetry obviously belongs the -

satyric drama Precept supplying the materia

to as

.

to

-

to

-

,

set

with respect philosophy

ab

32 )

( .p

”

of

,

est

" : "

“

of

composition quae non other kind elocutio Oratore con sideranda sed carmen this element accounts for Horace's treatment the verse forms appropriate the various genres For lines precepts forty forty and verba treat both f ifth first 220–50 the

.

is

of

If

of

.

of

to a

,

be

to

,

,

as

of

of

all

of

,

of

many other precepts throughout the analysis distinctions Pigna's One result consistent application this method the reduc theory tion almost Horace's poetics the genres material fittingness must words and verse are fitted together some principle same

of

it

”

,

be

,

as to

.

,

as

“

of

.

of

the vague notion

or

be

;

this may

in

many

of

so

by be

appropriateness employed appro the more restricted notion the commentators appropriateness Pigna priateness involved genre uses the latter early principle This becomes apparent the first precept which insists poetry should not joined together that the different forms and established

of to a

in

)

(

."

("

'

"

and

ad

,

debeant

"

“

by

”

“

,

2 : "

., .p

vt

158

non

“

3

."

it

diuersę poeseos formae simul coniungi Ibid poescos genus eligendum refertur 3

to

the second

,

in

length

,

at

of

is

single the choice which refers make Pigna order text poetry forces the Horatian genus Indeed caput distinguished humanum Aristotle include the four genres tragedy equinam representing collatas plumas ceruicem the epic developed

solum

ARS POETICA

CRITICISM

PRACTICAL

:

to

in

the individual tragedy and

77 ,

to so

to

42 ,

to

:

. " 4

in to of

,

first lines genres

treatment his epistle and then passes rapidly the lyric with line the epic with line

of

it is ,

he

all

of

dithyrambic and lyric poetry, and “ atrum piscem ” comedy ) and to justify this statement of principle : “ it is to be understood that those four kinds of poetry can never be brought together in one poem and , in fact, that there Hence them is no different method that would be appropriate to general the says that Horace lays the groundwork for poetry

in

),

ll .

(

-

at

.

of

of

of

A

,

all .

"

in

"

“

in

,

to

“

“

and

be a

89 res , ”

satyric drama with line 220 and each forth invention and their relationships verba compositio disposition and then connection with theory necessity this general approach will concomitant Pigna makes and precept twenty one Arriving 114-18 decorum

comedy with line case considering

we

:

explains the transition

;

-

,

so

,

so

in

,

.

as

is

...

to

,

I

,

to

Up this point think have discussed plot and diction now comes make the plot one order which not expressed for itself but character which has character And just mores are derived from the plot are the passions because when the diction contains character and passion too does the subject matter.5

be a

in

,

of

,

it is et a

in

be

to )

to

(

,

of

be

reasoning may not very clear here but Pigna apparently thought means that character and the Aristotelian qualitative parts are the plot and that when referred here must depend upon the nature sign that they are correct proper they are seen the diction The line

."

he

res

”

"

"

“

,

of

.

he

,

a

-

”

et “

.

"

of

tion

is ,

perturbata oratio morata will reflec perturbata fabula morata verba When fairly original and interesting theory discusses character Pigna develops

the material itself That

,

"

,

"

he

,

-

to

)

: (1

of

),

is

(

it

,

is

.

of

a

of to

,

proceeds He starts with Aristotle's four requisites for character which system requisites says rebuild into his own All four are forms easy the verisimilar which itself two types the verisimilar applicable easily believed because well known persons and for

"

“

by

be

:

,

to

;

a

,

or in .

is

,

of

”

“

;

( 2 )

,

”

-

to

“

quod decet

is

sufficient the difficult verisimilar applicable persons less well known and for which some kind similitudo may required personage Under each type considered him comparison with others and the four resulting kinds correspond self the four requisites thus which

verisimile

facile τα

χρηστά

difficile

per se

collatione

in

in

per se

το ομαλόν

τα αρμόττοντα

collatione

το όμοιον in

)

(

159

:

est morata

&

oratio

,

quia

vt

,

."

ita

ita etiam perturbationes

:

vt

....

ipsa suscepti sunt mores quoque materia

& . & de

de

: "

.pp

,

modum perturbata

,

.”

,

., .p 3 : " .,

ex

de

s

:

4

Ibid sciendum est quatuor illa Poeseos genera nunquam vnum poema posse reduci etenim nulla esset diuersa ratio illis consentanea Ibid 42-45 Mea est interpretatio hucusque actum esse fabula dictione qui non absolute traduntur sed quemad nunc moribus fabulam moratam efficiunt

THEORY

POETIC

show that Tà Xpnotá is merely a theoretical type of

Further statements

mores and is never really considered in a poem , since no person's actions are of interest of and by themselves ; that tà áp ÓTTOVTA refers to type

characteristics , differentiating persons according to station , age , profession , nation ; that TÒ dualov or “ conuenientia ” is essentially a principle of self

completely faithful to

for

mores

theory

literary genres when

of

,

separate kinds

the separate genres

.

conceives

of

of

he

Pigna is , of course

his

consistency and is useful especially in comedy ; that TÒ Õuolov is a matter of opinion or " fama , " demanding that known persons be presented in keeping with their reputations , and is proper to both epic and tragedy.

the

( on

a

to

,

is

on ,

of

of

philosophy poetry had approved poetry rests upon mores But he

of

.

,

of

)

(

of

closely allied for To the question mores character and decorum Pigna the question poetry and this leads him the moral ends seemingly contradictory position Commenting lines 311-18 the uses

of “

,

he

,

of

,

a

is

in of

,

of

,

,

be is

of

I

,

is

.

is

no

“

if

,

in

of

In

.

be

is

by

“

.”

.

pleasure

it of

,

, of

,

to

poetry prove contrariwise that the real end The reconciliation this conflict found believe the notion poetry pleasure the verisimile For Pigna the primary end but accompanied utility pleasure order that there may the audience must convinced the credibility the persons and actions assured by moral verisimilitude and this credibility involved the poem things were treated which were completely alien from truth and For

a

long argument

he a

."

of

is

”

"

"

‘

.

of

),

in

Horace's insistence that little later speaking the prodesse argues against the frequent and delectare line 333 assumption that delight merely handmaiden utility and presents whole

is

of

in to

" ;?

.

74 ).

.p

fabula morata

(

the

”

guaranteed

“

by

is

on

be

by

,

credibility would attach which could not really happen them nor support would they followed that pleasurable remembrance which Aristotle cited the impossible probable Such credibility

:

I

;

of

.

,

of in

is ,

an .

,

as

to

,

, in

in of

various places Pigna calls upon the authority general Aristotle's role That sustain his arguments Aristotle inspirer the whole Horatian theory his commentary rather than citing parallels give the But Pigna does not resist the current fashion list for the record We have seen that

Aristotle 1447al4

Aristotelis poetica illis competunt tum subiecta materia consistant tum nexu congruenti con ,

,

,

ex

Duo sunt quae

ex

vt .: “

(

gen

”

,

iungantur

vt

,

1448a4

14-23

5. ]

1-13

.p

Horace

ab

Aristo

:

."

]

[

160

,

&. "

:

si à

in

poesim totam positam moribus quae accidere non possint tractarentur Quòd uerò prorsus aliena fides adhiberetur neque subsequeretur iucunda illa recordatio

eis ., ., .p .p

7 6

Ibid Ibid nulla

72 79 : : “ “

,

, "

tele reponitur 1453a12 1451b15

8. ]

"

neque enim Hesiodus sub aliquo poeseos genere .p

gen

.:

[

1456a30

ARS POETICA Horace

:

PRACTICAL

CRITICISM

Aristotle

24-28

1458a18

29-31

146063 , 1458a18 , 1458a21

32–37

1450b34 , 1460b17 , 1456a18

38-41

( gen .: “Homerum ab Aristotele 146062

excusatum

42-45

1447a14 , 1449b23 , 1448a19 ( ?), 1454a26 ( ?)

46-50

145761

52-59

145762

73-76

1449a21 , 1448a21

79-82

1449a25

83-85

1447a15

89-92

1448a16 , 1453a20

93-98

1455625 , 1453a12

104-13

1462a4

114-18

1450a8

119-27

1454a16

,

128–30

1454a16

136-45

1451a22

149-50

1451a24 1454a21 , 1453a33

179–88

1452b12 , 145362

189–90

1450637

191

1452b17 , 1454b19 , 145462

192

1449a16

202–19 220-24

144967 1449a19

244-50

[ ? : “ Aristoteles

vulgarium prudentum 1458620

p . 18 )

1454a16

153-60

260_74

,”

enim Agathonem hominum ," p . 67 )

reprehendit , quòd eius fabulae potius satisfacerent , quam

sententiae

275-80

1448a29 , 1449a16

295–301

1455a34

333-34 338-42

1449b26 , 145165 , 146066 , 1460a18 1460a26 , 1451a38

347–50

1460616

351-60 361-65

[ ? : A. on Homer : many virtues , few faults , pp . 80–81 ) 1448a4

453-69

1455a34

Although

of Aristotle is considerable (less considerable , might it seem , since many of the passages are quoted several times ), it has little effect upon the total view of the Ars poetica . Pigna seems rather to build his interpretation about the “ verba distinction about theory the genres and about the standard rhetorical notion the the presence

, of

"

-

of

to

,

(

161

)

,

,

."

,

another rhetorical approach via discovering the order means

as a

he

,

of

a "

objects verisimile However invention disposition and elocution

,

, than

res

perhaps

POETIC

THEORY

text . His own proposed order is more consistent

of Horace's

with his own

does not prevent him , nevertheless , from effecting a fragmenta tion of the text into a number of passages and precepts even greater than that proposed by earlier commentators .

It

system .

BARTOLOMEO MARANTA ( 1561)

in of

)

of

.8

R.

precepts

,

”

Horace the materials discussion and one Maranta admits that did and

its

it

very extended give

a

obviously

which could not help but bore listeners that has rewritten the last two lectures In he

in

, six

A

.

the first two

to

1-24

;

lines

a “

to

lectures

-

in his

,

R.

(

in

,

in

to

a

of

in

of

six

all

contained

by

These positions of Pigna and the even more traditional ones of Robor tello and Maggi are attacked openly in a set of lectures delivered Bartolomeo Maranta the Accademia Napoletana meeting the con vent San Pietro Maiella 1561. Latin summary the first lecture and the actual notes for the other five Italian are now the Ambrosian Library Sup Sup Milan MSS 118. and 126. Maranta devotes

presenta

more succinct

,

,

,

is

its

-

of

of

by

. " 9

or

to

be

it

necessary that who proper basis division which science He finds this proper

believe

a

to

.

, "

brought into consideration Instead analyze poetics should seek wishes applicable any other art would not

he

we

be

on

to by

no

in so

,

is

,

:

of

.

,

.

long winded and repetitious but tion fact the discourses they are not without merit Their initial premiss itself noteworthy for time Maranta declares that the distinction invention disposition and universally applied elocution earlier commentators the Ars poetica wise appropriate the poetic art and should not are hopelessly

poems are differentiated Aristotle's Poetics where kinds poem their means imitation and where each divided into qualitative parts quantitative others had before him believes Moreover and he

and especially those which are

of

,

the precepts

"

,

a

)

( as is

six

qualitative parts that Aristotle had borrowed from different order and that

treat the same

greatest

10

Aristotle almost

to

out albeit all

,

that Horace distinguished

in

set

.

he

,

of

,

in

division

,

of

of

:

to

his

as

he

to

.”

importance These distinctions from Aristotle enable Maranta make the point original contribution regards which Horatian exegesis the first plot and the second plot and the unifying precept concerns the choice

:

,

a

of

,

to

of of

,

,

of in of

,

as

(

.

,

of

so

),

is

of to

precept episodes Just devoted Aristotle according Maranta had person unity named three kinds false unity unity time unity single war false unity the three kinds Horace gives examples multiplex monster the vision fevered sleep and the mixture the man

,

.

(

),

di

a

to

of

II,

,

)

162

et

fere omnia

,

ipsa tamen praecepta est

mutuatus

(

Aristotele

."

: "

fol 118v .

.,

Ibid momentj

ab

10

,

."

: "

.

.,

et

9

R.

",

di

:

“

,

of

.

8

general The manuscripts are anonymous For my attribution them Maranta and Critica Lette Nuovi Manoscritti discussion the problem see Bartolomeo Maranta XXIV 1955 115-25 Pisa Serie raria Annali della Scuola Norinale Superiore MS 118. Sup fol 117v Oportere autem eum qui poeticam partiri cupiat propriam quae nulli praeterea arti aut scientiae conueniat diuisionem quaerere existimauimus praesertim quae maioris

sunt

ARS POETICA

of wild

CRITICISM

PRACTICAL

:

and tame beasts . The first

these corresponds to the manifold

of

actions of a single man , which do not constitute unity ; the second , to successive but disconnected events , which do not constitute unity ; the third , to contemporary but unrelated events , equally without unity . in Horace ( fols . 120 The second precept , on episodes , demands the major part of the treat ment after the first lecture . Maranta decides , on the basis of Aristotle , that the episode must be a quantitative part whose function is to give greater volume to the poem . It is thus never a part of the unified plot , but some Aristotle's three kinds are thus found exemplified 23 ) .

thing added to it and integrated with it . Certain difficult problems arise as How can a quantitative part be integrated with a “ formal ” or qualitative part ? Can extraneous elements appear in the prologue and a result :

How

as well as in the “ episodes ” ?

from plot itself in

of

these Maranta devoted most

To such considerations as his time before the Accademia Napoletana .

seem that the debate is trivial , and it is certain that the discussion

all

for Maranta the subject warranted the time and reflec any theory could give since was the central problem in

it

tion that

it,

he

is too long . But

of

It may

does one distinguish episode

genres as the epic ?

such

-

exode

in

to it .

of

,

, an he in

.

of

he

to

,

he

to

if

—

of

:

of

poetics the constitution the central unifying element the poem the and the relationship other parts the action Maranta apparently believed that could decipher Horace's meaning with respect this problem would have the key the rest the text The way

plot

of

,

do a

,

to

be

as

unpublished manuscript

of

I

de

at

is

,

,

,

a

as

of

;

it

of

,

.

of

is

.

It

to

an

of

as

)

an

it

(

is

in

is

,

this one undated well has both practical perhaps pertinence theoretical and the Horatian mode early Torquato greater even interest estimate Tasso's Rinaldo Perugia and This MS 985 M.8 the Biblioteca Comunale have approximate date assigned tragoedia 1561 entitled Tractatus dialogue involving such celebrated interlocutors and the form Cardinal Ranuzio Farnese Jacopo Sadoleto Pietro Bembo Bernardo ,

Another

.

a

of

a

to

.

it ,

he

as

;

he

,

, to he

a

,

is in

in

he

seeking the solution which uses Aristotle sense original for does not merely cite parallel passages does not merely call upon apply the method attempts rather additional authority Aristotle understood the Horatian text and this constitutes considerable innovation The recognition that rhetorical distinctions not supply poetic questions and that specifically poetic method must answers used marks notable departure from the thinking his contemporaries

11

,

:

in

,

. 11

Tasso and Annibale Caro On the theoretical side the prologue and the dialogue itself touch upon four points connection with tragedy the :

.

of

)

(

163

at of a

,

by

.

,

at

in

in

of

The list names raises some question about anachronism the text both Sadoleto and Bembo died 1547 which time Torquato Tasso was only three years old Such anachronism suggests the possibility that the treatise may have been written much later somebody whose knowledge date than that assigned the earlier years the century was very imperfect

POETIC

THEORY

effect produced , the ends , the pleasure

derived from imitation , and the following passage demonstrates the atti educative function of poets . The tude with respect to the effect and , to some extent , with respect to the ends :

For what

of the fact that we very willingly give applause to a mournful ? that we follow with a pleasant sense of grief the horrible des truction of the most prosperous of princes ? that we behold without satiety their unexpected vicissitudes and reversals of fortune ? that we are reduced to pity by the pretended complaint of the actors , very pleasurably albeit with pain ? that we fill up our eyes with gloomy images ? that we cannot satisfy our grief with else are we to say

poem

weeping ? that , lastly , we are so regaled by fictional deaths , bereavements , grief , wailing , ruin ? if not that we have already accustomed ourselves to wretched ness and failings in the most catastrophic way in the natural course of events , and we have grown so hardened to the sensation of our own calamity , after the pain has healed , that to have the wound now aggravated by one's own hand when it is rough to the touch produces a very agreeable sensation , ameliorated by habit itself . Last of all, so you may not fail to be aware of the ultimate state of the most calamitous exile , there is great pleasure in weeping when a moral man has been overwhelmed by misfortunes that inspire tears . 12

The effect is here a pleasurable participation in the woes of others ( a thesis , incidentally , that explains much of the characteristic quality of Renaissance tragedy ), the end is to harden the soul to misfortune and suffering. But the pleasure results also from the artifice of the poet and even more from the fact that the poem is an imitation ; things which are disagreeable in life through imitation ( fols . 103y - 104v ). “Quanto sunt illa quam iucundiora ficta facta ? ” (fol. 104v ). Because of the presence of such pleasure , the lessons taught by poetry are willingly received compare the sugar - coated pill - and the utility results , in an almost automatic fashion . become

agreeable

Hence the author of the Tractatus takes issue with Plato's banishment of the poets and with the severe condemnations of Proclus and of Maximus of Tyre and prefers to adopt instead the opinion of Plato in Book II of the Laws. His arguments on the role of poets as educators are the ones commonly used in the defences of poetry . On the practical side , the author gives extravagant praise to the adoles cent Torquato Tasso's Rinaldo , of which he has heard a reading. His 12 Perugia , Bibl . com . , MS 985 ( M.8 .) , fol . 96v : “Quid enim aliud dicamus esse, quod lamentabili carmini libentissime plausum damus . quod horribiles exitus Principum florentis rerumque simorum iucunda conquestione prosequimur ? quod inopinatas uicissitudines conuersiones sine satietate spectamus ? quod ad misericordiam actorum ficta querimonia

ob

sit ,

, ,

this MS after that

,

99 " ;

"

In

at “

,

164

)

(

.

I I

...

referring flebilibus aerumnis obruto flere magna uoluptas use the new folio numbers penciled into the codex which numbers stop have supplied numbers myself

mortali

to

est .

vt

?

ut

,

sic

iucundissime quamuis dolenter incondimur ? quod oculos moestis imaginibus explere ? quod dolorem lacrymis satiare non possumus ? Quod denique simulatis funeribus , orbitatibus , luctibus , eiulationibus , vastitatibus tantopere delectamur ? nisi quod aerumnosissime natura miserijs ac uitijs iam insueuimus , et ad sensum nostrae calamitatis obducto dolore ipsa con sua manu vulnus asperum tactu iam exulcerari iucundissimum duruimus exilij calamitosissimi conditionem ultimam non ignores Demum suetudine mitigatum

ARS POETICA

PRACTICAL

CRITICISM his

:

of

all

he as

;

unhampered

gives

copi

“

,

and

such epithets and descriptions elegant grave will sententious

Tasso's style

to

what will teach

discerns

”

he

“

how acutely

special attention

he

all

his

he

please

,

will

ever

.

,

his

remarks center largely around the genius of the young poet , faculties knowledge familiarity with poetry and and branches philosophy But seeks out what how diligently also comments on

sound tracing have been ,

;

—

to

.

”

we

,

,

,

,

in of

to

,

,

free ous varied familiar the reader who knows the tradition that Some modicum the theory the reference the ends for example practical pierces through the criticism but for the most part the latter

di

tre

speak later

of

he

between theory and practice Since

close relationship

,

his case there really

is a

except that

in

(

),

1562

in

Petrarca

to

in

his

a

of

.

in

is

so

satisfied with the facile adjectives for genius and style that had for long been vogue Sebastiano Erizzo likewise effects combination theoretical and practical criticism Espositione nelle canzoni M. Francesco

-

a

be a he

,

is

;

in a

.

,

is

of

of in

of

-

as

his

in all

wishes

having achieved such and such effects

he

.

Petrarch the his poems states theoretical ideas terms the requisites for the poet rather than terms the nature the poem His starting point the statement from poet rather must Horace that mediocrity not sufferable have poet

on

of

;

of

within the latter

,

,

is

It

.

to

no

of

be

in

“

is

if

to

,

philosophy and

moral

all

...

he

:

the natural sciences and philosophy

to to

,

all

13

of

.”

,

,

.

in

,

a

of

,

of

divine and superhuman genius the components which will natural many things and the ability gift knowledge combine the right words verse These are needed the poet teach and move the him admiration with his listener and then give pleasure and awaken precepts given but poem For the natural gift there are the knowledge Erizzo has much say essentially knowledge score

, of

of

,

,

of

,

of all of of

,

of

,

of all

,

of

in

to

he

,

of

he

,

, of

of all

,

of

of

,

of

of ,

it

of is

necessary that learn the precepts the best arts for since has any subject whatsoever should show himself most well versed that things art which treats the causes the vices men the pleasures pain death the passions and the perturbations the soul the honest the true good the virtues life mores which things are con treat

of

Its

tained under moral science.14

13

Espositione

,

of

.

to

“

&

,

,

&

&

,

."

)

,

le

tutte

de i

perturba

costumi

, le

,

&

,

,

è le

affetti

della uita

de di i

,

uirtù

gli

,

di

,

,

,

si

(

165

de ,

della morte le

dolore

,

del

si

i

di

.”

"

del ,

,

de i

piaceri

dell'onesto uero bene tutte contengono scientia morale

la

cose tutte sotto

, , in

fa

gli

huomini

tioni dell'animo

lv :

(

., à .p 2 : “

14

de

uitij

), .p

insegnare appresso dilettare 1561 commouere l'uditore marauiglia col suo poema Ibid mestieri che egli apprenda precetti tutte ottime arti perche douendo qualunque cosa trattare quella peritissimo dimostri cio delle cagioni delle cose

indurlo di

.

”

,

of

“

is

in

, its ”

all

content moral wisdom makes poetry excellent among the arts capacity and the same excellence give pleasure found also beauty Pleasure results from the various ornaments from the the diction from the harmony verse Nor does Erizzo neglect the standard

quai

POETIC

its

THEORY

of

.

a

,

.

,

is

he

in

of

to

of

a

of

;

be

distinctions in his enumeration of sources the poem must rare delightful words and exquisite invention and must have choice Before passing on theory the discussion Petrarch Erizzo attempts specifically interested lyric poetry Distinguish the genre which

to

of

,

,

of

a

an of

.

,

of

in

Aristotelian ring Of the lyric action and sometimes

he

I

(

,

),

in

in

it

he

,

,

of

ing first three general kinds poetry the expository and narrative take that has didactic poetry mind the fictional and the mixed places lyric poetry the third category He then proceeds definitions general and decidedly the lyric the elegy both which have

,

of ,

of

”

;

at

it

its

is

“ it

so

,

in

a

is

it

a

times

,

,

of at

.

, “

grave and imitation joyous and light one composed verses which are not bare but adorned with rhythm and harmony that may with sweetness the same time profit and delight the elegy for the most part love poetry which revolves about the passions honest

a

all

.

,

of

.

of

its

of

its

to

be

,

,

or at in

,

a

of

]

is

it

of

is

. "

15

,

in an

complete lamentable action which the soul and imitation feigning the action the poet himself another expresses melan choly effect The Aristotelian ring has times Horatian overtones Lyric poetry said the most pleasing and delightful the types qualities elegance special because the diction and musical Petrarch belongs among the lyric and elegiac poets because his treat

at

,

an

Petrarch's ideas are

style easy and full

of

grave

sentiments

)

his . (1

,

his

,

wisdom

of

noble and full

.

of

,

it

;

,

rhetorical criteria and Horatian elements

of

,

epithets

an

.

of

modest

,

a

of in

style amorous subjects The weeping and lamenting poems elegiac After the tone his the tears and sighs make him many praise classification the and contains once the traditional ment

in ,

is

of

,

,

so

in

,

,

of

so

.

in ( 3 )

,

of

,

in

2 )

(

of

so

, “

so

,

of

of of

,

of

nobility

.

greatness gravity ornate words He equals Pindar spirit choice splendor unique style words and and the imitation the passions love His invention shows the workings nature and art abundant his style was the natural facility figures like gayety and loveliness rich sweet and full rich abundance

of

in

.

( 5 )

is

.

to

,

of

his

(

4 )

.” 16

,

of

precious jewels and poems the most beautiful and most necessary rhythmical and harmonious this kind His verse The moral poems show his mastery sententiae throughout moral philosophy Plato and the natural philosophy shows his indebtedness

.

is

to

,

of

is

as

as

Such practical criticism this shows some progress over the earlier bring into operation the con insofar some attempt made clusions the antecedent theoretical thinking But the progress still not varieties

&

onesta

,

,

attione graue

&

una imitatione

di

alle uolte

è

3v 4 : “

.,

Ibid giocosa

& .pp

15

.

very great

alcune uolte

)

(

166

à sì

necessarie

,

di

&

,

delle più belle

&

,

,

& ."

di

,

,

di

,

&

" è di in

,

,

,

care gioie

&

è

la

di

à

guisa

"

& ,

P.

il

se

in

fu

4v : " è

di

,

figure

."

copiosa

&

,

si

, ., la .p

16

uaghezza poemi

, in

di

si

,

,

di

compone lieue che uersi non nudi ma numero armonia ornati gran parte poesia amorosa accioche colla sua dolcezza gioui parimente diletti and riuolge intorno alle passioni dell'animo perfetta attione lamen che una imitatione fingendola quale effetto ouero altrui esprime malinconioso stesso teuole leggiadria piena larga del suo stile uena ricca dolce Ibid tanto fatti

ARS POETICA

PRACTICAL

:

CRITICISM

ORAZIO TOSCANELLA ( 1562) In the

of the purely theoretical, again

realm

document of some interest

, a

sopra diverse cose pertinenti alla grammatica , poetica , retorica , historia, loica , et ad altre facoltà ( 1562 ) . And is Orazio Toscanella's Precetti necessarii

he

of

his

the interest does not derive from the author's originality ; quite the con trary. For Toscanella aims only to simplify other works for beginners and

he

for does not much material

,

example

,

For

.

the text that

treating

.

of

,

,

a

,

not completely accurate he is

,

though

is

,

,

;

stick very closely

to so of ,

do

to

His claim

in

poetics therefore gives reductions students of time the field Minturno section paraphrases and Aristotle Horace Donatus and

a

a

,

or

all at

of

.

the time

his ideas about comedy

of

of

,

is

as

a

he .

,

significant for estimating the state criticism the Donatus section Toscanella collects —and comedy taken the broadest sense

In

it

in

is

of

of

of

to

of

.”

,

such

“

,

not identified

da is

as

incorporated into the section schoolboy's entitled Auertimenti della Comedia Donato Such interesting represents version the classics criticism that kind popularizer vulgate Toscanella critical thinking What such expansion emphasize singles out for quotation chooses what from Horace

.

so

“

as

such headings

comedy the subject Why they are called acts

of

Toscanella goes comedy What

to

better

become

persons are introduced

on

might

", 17

of

"

a

is

in

dramatic representation comedy was first discovered preliminary statement that that people might moderate their desires through the examples others and After

What

,

” “

of

,

of

he

to

of

the development

sus

he

of

”

in

“

beginning and the medias res the spectator When speaking acts

in on

, in

on .

a

note

"

of

. ”

of

“

in

" "

,

,

is

,

” “

in

” “

),

(

or

On music On vocal sections and these concern the Most each scene How many persons may speak kind mechanics with which Donatus was occupied but there are digres sions and excursions which add considerably the richness the comedy materials For example connection with the subject adds sounds

is

it

,

,

in

,

,

,

with egualità

"

"

, "

18 a

of

in

. "

in

)

is

of

.

A

(

he

as be

to

,

,

is

all

,

.

in

.

observed

imita uno

,

,

innamorato

,

fa la

.”

si

&

,

fù

]

[

167

,

,

Vno che rappresenta

lo

;

;

&

lo

di

: “

(

), .p

del seruo

."

: " gli la

Ibid 15v imita quanto può andamenti che sia ueramente innamorato ., .p

persons

and

12v La Comcdia primieramente ritrouata accioche 91 essempio loro desiderij con altri facessero migliori parte del seruo Comedia consiste nella Imitatione uno che 1562

i

le

17 18

Precetti Necessarii persone moderassero

decorum similitudine

the

narration Here again parallel Clearly very far this obvious that the latter has merely been used

the verisimilitude

several texts from Aristotle are cited

from Donatus's text and

, to

devoted

convenevolezza

" "

is

,

"

-s

on

,

of

to

and another

on

of

Donatus

passages

he

a

as

a

a

,

to

paraphrase extended

,

as in

.

: “

of of

in

gives his con drama Comedy consists ception imitation imitation and one who plays the part servant imitates much can the comportment really love lover imitates man who servant one who represents Like the expositors the Ars poetica cites Aristotle 145361 refer long section still ence Horace's lines off tage action this pense

THEORY

POETIC as a starting point

for the development of a complete collection , poetics ments on with special reference to the dramatic forms.

of state

on poetics in general ( “ Che cosa sia poetica ,” pp . , way which reveals the eclecticism 57v ff .) Toscanella defines the feigned his method Poetics structure art and true narration com fitting rhythm posed rather metric feet Then after the division poems into the narrative the dramatic and the mixed defines

In

he

,

,

,

." 19

,

of a

embracing

of

Tragedy

of

tragedy

an

,

in

, is or a

: “

in

of

of

art in

a later section

a

in

“

)

."

of

“

in

'

in

is

is

(

. ”

“

:

the heroic condition state having difficulty translating Diomedes misfortune Toscanella Tragoedia est heroicae fortunae adversis conprehensio The subject

,

,

,

to

,

,

theory

of

to

pretends

be a

in

What

compendium

the commonplaces on the

in

.

I

a

so

,

of

to :

the poet

is

.

poet

brief and treat only he knows will suffice make the listen

,

er

,

.

things

etc.

168

]

[

.

,

ing treated.21

in

,

persons

delight the young who pleasant take delight ,

.

as

grave

mature men old etc. who take de men light utility

The sweet

So that the poem may

understand what

is

much The useful So that the poem may

profit

his poem must

as be

He who wishes with

to as

:

he

,

a

In

.

of

,

to

delight must not depart too much from the truth but must stand firm within the limits verisimilitude word must mix together

to

Profit

He who wishes

in

he

.

,

"

of

of the

Delight

,

a a

of of

on

of

A

.

,

he

“

at

poetry Toscanella must discuss the ends of which he was fond and reductions tabular the prominently throughout his little manual reproduce which

The function

delight

to

by

a

as

be

to

.

paragraph style contains Horace's epistle disposition and elocution When

invention

On the functions

such

make

brief statement five the the salient aspects composition contained

:

it

of

so

one which figure part here presents

of

recommendations reaches the point

on of to

all

,

;

the first few lines

preceded

taken principles

the general

refer

merely

is

the section on Horace selected lines from the Ars poetica strung together

fairly continuous exposition This precepts which apparently are text they

in

what Toscanella gives

is

Most

translation

of

of

.

of

be

merely

an

;

.

the other genres

a

So

.

for to

of

the genre

In

20

”

,

from Diomedes and the subjects listed the medieval descriptions

translated

are those which had appeared traditionally

poetics turns out art

,

,

,

,

of

,

is

comedy

of

,

,

,

,

definition

,

,

of ,

,

tragedy are sufferings and the material tears hate murders poisonings burnings bitternesses poverty heartaches sobbings sighs dismember great houses movements ments small children downfalls madness betrayals arms violence fury wrath etc. identical fashion the

be

ARS POETICA

Aristotle's Poetics

a

I

shall discuss his treatment

in

of

basic text ; he summarizes, codifies, simplifies, outlines , but

later

.

)

that is chapter

be said that here or elsewhere Toscanella offers any interpre

(

all .

It can hardly tation of his

CRITICISM

PRACTICAL

:

practical criticism that involves incidental pronouncements theory was made Sperone Speroni his Discorsi sopra Virgilio most probably which wrote around 1563-64 but which was still incomplete ,

in

by

at

he

in of on

An effort

Speroni’s central inten and was published only posthumously.22 Vergil and prove inferiority attack the reputation comparison with Homer both absolutely and examines Vergil's performance the areas invention disposition and

as he a

,

so ,

do

,

of

.

To

his

to

of

on

in

,

in

to

is

,

1581

tion poet

:

.

he

as

of

,

of

of

on

he

in

,

of of

;

its

in

at

all ,

at

he

,

he

.

elocution Speroni insists first the importance the first these which plot identifies with plot and cites Aristotle the soul the poem Here finds Vergil fault several ways does not invent anything disposition from Homer there but borrows both the plot and plot and character are many errors and insufficiencies the handling he

La

19

In

."

:

of

,

on

"

of

in

of

so

is

.

of

at

length and for some suggests which Speroni points out which slight that one wonders corrections The matter the poem itself whether Vergil might not have foregone imitation entirely favor the cultivation beauties which were essentially extra fabulam this plot connection Speroni proposes his theory the unity

,

;

di

&

,

gli di ,

,

,

,

,

, le

,

,

,

i

,

a

,

,

di

,

in

."

la

,

& ,

,

,

Ibid

De gli uffici del poeta Vfficio del poeta è

.

21

è

:

Il

., ira , .p & c di . , 76 : "

. .

20

di

furore

:

: “ : “

di è

., .p

di

., .p

Ibid 57v Poetica una struttura d'arte finta uera narratione composta piede metrico numero conueneuole ouero Ibid 58v La Tragedia uno abbracciamento della conditione heroica stato soggetto lagrime l'odio disauentura materia della Tragedia sono dolori ammazzamenti ueleni incendij amaritudini pouertà cordogli singulti sospiri sbranamenti figliuoli disgratie pazzia tradimenti membra case mouimenti arme uiolenza

Di

Giouare Bisogna

.

,

& ,

,

.

,

di

ne i

,

che sia breve colui che intenda giouare col suo poema tanto tratti quanto conosca che basti per fare intendere allo ascoltante cio che tratta

,

Il

L'utile

In :

.

si

,

,

Dilettare Bisogna che colui che uuol dilettare non parta troppo dal uero ma stia saldo termini del uerisimile somma bisogna che mescoli insieme .

,

il

i

c .

&

i

,

c .

&

,

che

prendono by

di ca.

22

.

dell'utilità diletto

dilettano

,

fatti

huomini uecchi

persone gli

di

come

poema Accioche giouani diletti che cose dolci si

graui

il

diletti

:

le

.

dolce

Accioche poema

169

)

(

.

IV ,

,

of

in

ed .

V , to ,

),

(O

(

of

,

; a

), .p

,

(

is

,

of

,

e le

).

La

suggested Speroni's biographer Francesco Cammarosano The date 1563–64 opere Sperone Speroni Empoli vita 1920 164 letter 1581 from Speroni pere 1740 Felice Paciotto dated 1581 states that the discourses are still incomplete 280–81 The Discorsi were first published the Venice 1740 419-579

POETIC

TILEORY

Hence it is that the poem must consist of one single action , as Aristotle said , not only because any imitation must imitate one single thing just as any science concerns one subject , but also because if a poem consists essentially in redundant ord and superfluous ornament , if a poet were to undertake to imitate poetically than one action , the poem in order to be complete would grow to infinite size.23

for Vergil, Speroni concludes that

As

Vergil did not possess the poetic

“

art ; because with respect to invention , in which the art consists , he does

not poetry

is

it

.

an

.

in in

of

: "

even

of ,

by

or

of

in

verse

the art

the restrictions which

it

in

its

,

be be

historians

the sweetness

But

confirmation That poetry figurative modes speech

,

in

orators

or

by

of

is

;

it

which are not used grammar seen

cited

seen

of by

ornament Another passage may ornament may

consists entirely

elocution

places the whole essence in

, we is

,

.

exclusively

have seen

.

in

as

,

Vergil's merit therefore absolute merit Speroni

in

all

not dare to break away from Homer ; for just as the art of oratory resides in invention , so does that of poetry . "24 Without Homer , he says , Vergil plot and disposition would have been nothing at

“

to

if

no

he he

,

in

of ,

on

a

he

in

.

is

,

:

is

. "

for brevity cannot ornate and consequently not pleasur The comparison between the two poets concluded thus be

26

;

reader able

of to

,

”

."

“

, in in

”

25

premium place This leads him two qualities ornate floridity ness and both which finds Homer both which are Vergil Vergil's error lies lacking the fact that was concerned with brevity delight delight the which the poet should take wishes imposes

,

.

of

of

,

;

so

of

.

,

IV ,

to ,

is

of

to is

23

is

he

does with much brevity and precision and without affectation But from the delightfulness Homer born joyfulness and gaiety from that Vergil born astonishment and melancholy which not proper the poet but the historian.27 rather as

speaking

in

he

,

I

to

of

Vergil and the floridity speak again return the brevity Homer The pleasantly ornamenting and amplifying his subjects latter delights properly always abounds epithets but Vergil delights through the marvelous whence

,

,

,

è

nella invenzione

così

è la

,

.

on .p

is

:

, sia e

.

a

il

di

che come l'arte oratoria

in

."

da

,

. ., ” .p

e

è

,

di

;

a

in

Omero

: "

., .p

24

consiste non osa scostarsi 99 poetica 25

di

di

: "

,

un

,

di

,

(

In

Opere 1740) qui nasce che'l poema dee essere 438–39 una azione sola come disse Aristotile non solo perchè una imitazione debba essere una cosa sola imitata soggetto una scienzia ma anche perchè se'l poema come ornamento redundante superfluo se'l poeta togliesse poema imitar più una azione poeticamente volere repeated esser perfetto cresceria infinito The argument 534 Virgilio però quanto all'invenzione ove l'arte Ibid 571 L'arte poetica non era

di

: si

la

li

, si

."

se

,

è

il

de '

, e

la

,

di

si

."

Fu

: “

;

i

26

., , .p

li

, e

: "

la

poesia Ibid 534 Che tutta ornamento vede per suoi modi figurati dire non usati dalli oratori dalli istorici dall'arte istessa della gramatica vede per soavità suoi obblighi del verso per poeta Ibid 438 studioso brevità della quale non dilettare vuol per conseguente non dilettar lettori perchè brevità non può essere ornata dilettevole .

;

ed

,

è

di

: il

)

(

170

di

, e

;

le

,

la

,

e

fa ,

." di

, e

di

ed

: “

., .p

,

:

di

da

dell'istorico

a

27

Virgilio parlar della brevità 439 Torna foridità Omero Costui amplificando gentilmente diletta ornando cose sue onde sempre abbonde epiteti ma Virgilio diletta con meraviglia parlando con tanta brevità cosi assegnata mente come senza affettazione ma dalla dilettazion Omero nasce allegria ilarità Virgilio nasce stupore quella proprio del poeta ma anzi melanconia che non Ibid propriamente

ARS POETICA

:

PRACTICAL

CRITICISM

So that whereas Vergil may be praised for his brevity and his diction for certain rhetorical effects , these are not qualities which necessarily make of him a great poet. He is likened , indeed , to the “ Asiatic " poets whose decoration is not appropriate to their subject matter . From this process of applying a method of invention , disposition , and elocution there results a fairly consistent poetic. The plot , from invention , must be single and simple ( but not too brief ) so that a proper amount

ornamentation may be added

of

The diction must be ornate , but not too much so , lest it be in excess of what is demanded by the materials . If the poet strikes a proper balance between invention and elocution , as Homer did , then he is a great poet and worthy of the highest praise; if he fails in .

of these aspects , much as he may be admired for other qualities , he ranks as an inferior poet , as Vergil did . Speroni's insistence upon ornament , upon the florid style , shows that his total approach is rhetorical in con tripartite division ception elements well diction

,

.

of

its

his

in

is

near Naples

,

Lucullo

the

the work

we find nothing but the most fulsome praise

,

(

.

of

)

by of

,

villa

,

Caracciolo's

discourses

Vergil's work The interlocutors they include Scipione Cambi Girolamo Colonna Giovanni Villani Gian and other members the Accademia Napoletana talk

Alfonso

Pietro Ciccarello

the five dialogues contained

,

,

every aspect

Ammirato

set )

called after Colantonio

where the dialogues are

Maranta's

For Maranta's position at

,

Speroni's and

Maranta

.

reply

in to we

1564

that Speroni knew Bartolomeo might almost think that

,

so

(

exact opposite

of

on

Lucullianae quaestiones Vergil were written

for

in

as

)

(

any evidence

had

),

we

1564

in (

If

MARANTA

as

of

its

either

is

of

,

to

.

of

,

of

of

Vergil's studied assortments about the beauties produced sounds about the appropriateness certain sounds certain ideas about onomatopoeia Their second major concern effects with figures most

;

,

all

.

as

or

figures

sounds

.

.

,

,

,

in

is

of

of

uses

;

of

on

to

an

is

in

of

general Girolamo Colonna's original and the use words proposal defend Vergil the basis his diction For these matters presented elaborate theory the conversations develop the classical authority especially Cicero Hermogenes rhetoricians are cited and Dionysius Halicarnassus Other classical writers are quoted for parallel speech

so

to to

of

At

.

by

is

to

-

of

,

, ,

of

of

a

is

the five dialogues however

of

In

paid some attention theoreti develop broader import since Maranta apparently wishes though complete theory epic generalized the even much the Vergil material never applied specifically least some the conclu presented are reached comparing the epic with tragedy and sions each

cal matters

,

is

of

as a

171

)

(

times

,

.

upon the comparison between the poet and the orator

At

.

is

in

.

,

comedy and result the theoretical scope the Quaestiones consider ably widened Aristotle and Horace are the main authorities here with large part Plato being used incidentally The theory evolved based Maranta

POETIC

THEORY

states the comparison explicitly , as in Book V : “ We are

not now comparing

oratorical matters with poetic ones ; but observing certain rules in the former , as in the very fountainhead , we then apply them to poetic matters , with due respect to the differences . ” 28 But more usually it is implicit in statements

exclusively about poetics, as in this sentence praising

made

his

Vergil :

he

—

if

less

”

“

as -

all

res verba

such

would

.

a

the

he

as

in we to

,

,

,

all

be

verbs describing the effect upon the audience

,

of

wholly faulty and

praise for the style are distinction the general terms properly belong conventional rhetorical estimate

The poet

ever you

diction.29

of

of

The string

and how also without adapts things that

would

to

,

or

,

or

,

to

expression

both matter and form change add remove anything shall address myself the discussion

I

;

were perfect

content and

it he

neglecting brevity

to

to to

with respect both

so ;

,

he

,

,

,

,

,

,

,

of

;

—

he

Indeed , to say nothing about the vehemence and the greatness that we see in and how variedly and always wherever wishes draws away men inflames calms teaches impels excites diverts discourages them and how distinctly and clearly and abundantly and luminously writes sententiae the souls

.

to

,

,

.

or

the things which are common

he

as

: “

of of

...

,

both

have

30

achieve the goal

,

Furthermore although this most .”

to

order

of

the same devices

in in

.

,

must thus

them

,

to of

is

as

in

to

to as

... Each recourse

his

in

is

,

III

,

like the orator the ends seeks Maranta principal goal Book also The poet proposes arouse the different passions the soul and whichever ones wishes generate them and the souls those who listen read Therefore far this concerned the poet and the orator are very close together have seen

insists upon this

to

is

,

.

of

to

, is

as

,

Nos nunc non conferimus proprio fonte proportione seruata

364

,

: “

in

."

ad

"

,

of

1564 quasi

,

in

oratoria poeticis sed regulas illis obseruantes res poeticas deinde accommodamus :

to

is

quaestionum libri quinque

Lucullianarum

is

“

:

it

;

.” 31

delectare

these statements

), .p

”

and

...

pro the ends the familiar notably are absent Maranta here elsewhere

From

(

28

desse

can “

source

"

he

of

,

to

to

the poet shares with the orator the end admiration properly attributed the epic poet the marvelous more proper the epic than tragedy but nevertheless belongs poems both kinds Among the principal aims arouse admiration from whatever the poet

ac

,

,

,

."

ad

:

,

his

&

ac

,

&

:

:

,

,

&

ut

,

in

& ,

,

sit

., & , .p

,

,

&

,

,

&

,

,

,

&

ac

uideamus

ut

15 : “

., .p

29

magni quantam Nam omittam eius sententijs uehementiam quàm uariè semper quocunque uult animos hominum distrahat quàm distinctè explicatė incendat leniat doceat impellat concitet reflectat deterreat quoque breuitatis haud abundanter illuminatè rebus uerbis scribat cum quicquid aut addideris aut mutaueris aut detraxeris immemor ita res omnes temperet uitiosius deterius omnino futurum orationem meipsum conuertam Ibid

tudinem

&

in . re . . .

,

,

ut

...

." .

ut

,

& in

,

se

,

: “

88 : “ ut

, ., ad ad p .

31

,

30

quas uult affectiones Ibid 179 Poeta precipuum scopum sibi proponit uarias Igitur uel audiunt uel legunt animis eorum qui animi concitet atque generet communi quantum Debet igitur Poeta maximè conueniunt hoc attinet Orator scopum attingant utrisque eadem uterque confugere

)

(

172

:

ut

est ,

...

.”

.

,

Ibid admirabilitas magis Epopoeiae conueniat quàm Tragoediae tametsi admirationem utriusque poematis propria est Inter praecipuos poetae scopos illud undique pariat

ARS POETICA

PRACTICAL

:

CRITICISM

closer to the rhetoricians themselves than to Horace . For similar ends , similar means . The poet will have to pay particular attention to the “ propo " of his poem , which must be simple and unornate and must stand proper relationship to the plot , just as the orator will use poetic diction in in his exordium ( p . 179 ) . Both must study the proper handling of “

he

res ”

sition

,

"

“

),

“

,

:

is

It

he

.

he

in

of

of

,

he is

,

;

of

of

,

in

of

an

in

,

. ”

;

but the words can exist without sententiae primarily interested and these indeed which sacrifices the other parts favor abundant discussion the multiple aspects words any given poem works within the frame Like the orator again the poet work one the three styles chooses the proper style for the genre is

without words

,

that

32

.

"

"

in

res "

"

(

.”

verba

of

“

may have Maranta equates two rhetorical elements and qualitative parts mind two Aristotle's sententiae and oratio with and verba respectively The words produce the diction and the things themselves the sententiae The latter cannot exist without language

and

,

.

,

of

,

to

96 ).

,

is

we

to

plots proper

as

,

to to

,

in

is

of

germane

in

an

specifically the work however which truth and verisimilitude and the the poet and that relates

one lengthy discussion

to

There

(p .

to

,

,

,

as

a

(

V )

Finally one and then the proper words and figures for that style Book may analyze poet's work one does orator's terms invention disposition and elocution and Maranta does not fail pay passing Vergil's invention and disposition tribute

,

to

to .

is

.

of

to

be

here that

a

is

.

between the marvelous and the verisimilar

It

a

;

,

be

,

of ,

“

,

of

33

."

is

At by

is

,

of

of

tragedy Maranta assumes the epic and that one the ends the poet stir the reader admira tion and that this done through the use the marvelous The marvelous produced actions which are unheard new and completely unex pected the same time however the poet must sure never tax the credulity his audience delicate balance must maintained

kinds

have seen

difference

arises

it is

by

,

is

be

by

be

by

.

as

between tragedy and the epic For the reader will accept certain things rejected credible which will the spectator and the spectator will sometimes more deeply moved what narrated than what

no

is

in

,

be

,

is

it

“

in

." 34

of

in

attaches

to

.

,

Therefore certain that the marvelous especially when represented those things which cannot really happen cannot simple discourse where there repre the same way drama and sentation actions The epic poet may thus cultivate the extraordinary enacted

”

to

Hae sine oratione

."

.”

.

,

35 )

,

,

of

,

: “

, : & at

91 89 : : “ "

90 : "

ac

, ., ., .p .p

., .p

,

34 33 35

.,

Ibid 17–18 Verba orationem conflant res ipsae sententias hoc est sine uerbis esse non possunt uerba sine sententijs possunt praeter expectationem Ibid inaudita noua

,

.pp

32

of

(“

to

,

and incredible more freely than the tragic poet and the latter must take relegate certain violent actions care death itself massacres the cook ing and eating human flesh and others this kind narrative

est

:

in

)

(

173

id

&

,

,

,

."

,

. "

,

in

,

praesertim uerò earum rerum quae fieri Constat igitur admirabilitatem non aequè posse dramatibus effingi atque sermone nudo ubi nulla actionum repraesentatio Ibid Mors ipsa trucidatio membrorum humanorum coctio comestio genus caetera Ibid nequeunt

POETIC

THEORY

of

the explanation

“

viri

of of

,

be

a

is

of

vulgus

It

the

."

selectissimi

credibility and verisimilitude actions and through whose ears

this audience that sets the standards whose eyes will believe limited number the proper emotions

"

as

be

,

in

,

is

being made defined this connection whose judgment would more discerning than that

"

.

ideas about the nature the rhetorical theories The audience

up

to

involves certain audience which bring the analysis close

of

--but

of

an

is

scaenis aut acta refertur

of

Aut agitur res

in

% .

,

all

,

his

passages ; in these , however , the “ imitative " actions of the messenger or gestures and pronunciation may considerably enhance other narrator , expansion and explanation the emotional effect Clearly this Horace's line 179

.

in

all

in

;

,

e

treatise

all ,

mutamenti at

discorso sopra

really not

of

).

(

con

This

1564

of

of

dell'Ariosto

a

,

eleganti della volgar lingua

diuersi ornamenti

with Ariosto Dolce's Modi affigurati

Lodovico

a

presented

the same principles is un

by

,

is

studied

et

the poet

of

.

to

of

an

of

to

a

, it be

.

,

,

of

the trilogy

to the of

in

of

is

of

is

as

application

even more restricted

voci scelte

In all

,

,

.

to

theory the direction found left without application just such expansion that leads poet name

An

poetic worth and Maranta whatever more complete poetics may Vergil itself Speroni text Vergil's right the denial the

the diction but refused

the other two elements

expansion

e

.

as a its

so

,

general way the merit

quality

of

in to a

of

of

he

,

tragedy may aroused and purged On the whole then Maranta's position remains rhetorical one The Vergil which object the various praise generously bestows has Vergil's diction although compliments are offered passing excellences Speroni also admitted his invention and disposition Curiously enough

"

.

,

”

he

to

in

be

to

I

“

in

his

by

, “

A

as

of

"

" )

(“

a

examples but collection selected and elegant words and meta phors modi affigurati cited demonstrations Ariosto's artistry The only theoretical statements appear the preface Lettori where Everybody who wishes compositions Dolce says read willingly judicious and learned men must without fail try write and praised

,

”

,

,

of

of

,

of

di

i

,

."

&

e

,

,

Ciascuno che disidera che suoi componimenti siano huomini giudiciosi dotti dee senza fallo procacciar scriuer figuratamente artificiosamente 174

)

(

,

e

uolentieri letti lodati regolctamente ornatamente ,

comedy Lodovico Castelvetro's Giuditio delle

), gli .p 1 : “

1564 da

Modi affigurati

(

36

may add two discussions

we

36

.

as

in

.

of

a

,

insists regulated and where ornate figurative and artful manner following the rules He admits that both ornate and upon the necessity figurative writing find their rules rhetoric and cites Bartolomeo Caval providing examples and sugges canti's Retorica and the Modi affigurati tions practical criticism the epic and the romance To these specimens

ARS POETICA

all

in

,

the true and the verisimilar

and

.

of

cases these terms refer

to to

is or

on

of of

.

of

present

his Parere sopra ciascuna comedia di Plauto . 37 , and I have assigned them arbitrarily to 1565 specific words scattered remarks lines Terence Castelvetro's main concern with the He reproaches Terence with having neglected ca.

and

Both of these are undated The Giuditio consists the various comedies problem verisimilitude

CRITICISM

.

di Terentio

comedie

PRACTICAL

:

”

“

in

,

,

is

it

38

to

he

”

as

to

in

,

to

"

is

his

,

.

it is

natural rather than artistic probability For example not verisimile that Pamphilus the Andria should walk from the forum house complete silence and then begin approaches the house shout acceptable since nor the line Ex ara hinc sume verbenas not common find on the public streets altars covered with sacred boughs

of

;

in

-

"

of

.

in ,

set

to

guides

to up

art

-

of

these remarks

and the strict rules

as is

or to

in

as

as

all

The tendency ,

,

nature

).

decorum

( .p

174

three criteria

of

of

spendthrift soldiers -

;

to

“

at

;

be

,

a

to in is

be

or

or

need

persons

;

committing sconvenevolezze assigning them actions not appropriate situations speeches narrating briefly what should length and vice versa Rarely told proper solution applauded for the his introduction Terence parasite comedy only the Eunuch such persons may used com good family whose fathers are far away panions vain and sons

of

prior explanation

by

to no

,

be

:

to

,

I

be ,

).

.

(p

presume sins against nature the remainder 170 These would Castelvetro's strictures apply sins against art telling the story the completely self contained and have prologue since the comedy should

.

the practicing poet

of ex

“

.

9 ) ;

:

(p

8 to is );

(p .

.

an

in

much the same

by

is

the Parere concerning the comedies implication Plautus More rules are added actor must not address the audience the stage must not remain empty the deus

The situation

p

.

(

.

of

:

39 —

,

"

the

is

it

;

a

is

, in it

;

or

"

,

,

.

the Amphytrion Castelvetro says kings gods Next this action involves and but not known through implica history through legend hence poetic subject not being poems kings gods may figure only tion the familiar one that and score

several new points are made

Of

in

,

of

,

of

14 .)

,

is

to

,

9 )

.

p

(

"

machina ending not desirable nor the double ending which brings happiness unhappiness some and others For the most part Castelvetro talks about the plots the comedies and criticizes details construction again usually terms natural probability On this

,

.

,

in

I

)

for

.

.

),

divina

nè

(

,

of

(

in

,

is

the manuscript Vat Lat 5337 only Bologna 1868 argues the attri

appare per historia

.

of

of

identified the title the text Giuseppe Spezi

)

175

,

,

reale

e

è

.

."

(

dunque non

), .p

1727 168 Appresso questa azione soggetto poetico

(

Parere per fama

cit ., .p 8 : è "

In

the Parere

but the editor Castelvetro Opere varie critiche ; , ed .

o,

39 38

bution

to C. ” ;

The author

L.

as “ 37

to

.

of

to

of

in

to

actions already known the audience Moreover Castelvetro raises moral objections certain the actions the Asinaria indicates the possibility sad endings for comedy and happy endings for tragedy All these criticisms belong strictly the Horatian tradition which have been

POETIC

THEORY

tracing, and there are only the slightest reflections of the Aristotelian Poetics. This is surprising indeed for one of the century's principal com mentators on Aristotle . It may be explained either by assuming that these criticisms were

written before

Castelvetro began

of textual

his work

exegesis , or by concluding that even a professional Aristotelian theorist could operate , in the domain of practical criticism , in complete independ ence

of the Poetics .

Torquato Tasso , himself a sonneteer , provides us with an example of criticism of the sonnet in the same mode . It is his Lezione sopra un sonetto di Monsignor Della Casa , written in his youth and recited before the

Accademia Ferrarese ; I have assigned to it a tentative date of 1565.40 After a preliminary discussion of nature and art in the poet ( Tasso gives pre cedence to art and indicates how the poet must combine the imitation of models with the following of precepts ), he chides the imitators of Casa with having failed to reflect his greatest qualities . “What is marvelous in him , the choice of words and of sententiae , the novelty of the figures and especially of the metaphors, his strength , greatness and majesty , they either do not try to express or are unable to do so in any degree . " 41 Tasso will attempt to explain these elements in his lecture . Since they refer exclusively to matters of style , he prefaces his remarks by a distinction of the various styles as seen by Demetrius , by Hermogenes , and by Cicero ; then , placing magnificent, grand , and sublime ” style , he defends Casa's use of this style in the sonnet . Dante's objections are overridden , since if grave and magnificent matters may be used in the sonnet , why not this sonnet in the

“

III

words of the same kind ? Tasso here applies the rhetorical distinction between concepts and words : “ It is clear that the concepts are the end and consequently the form of discourse , and the words and the composition of the verse are the material or the instrument. " 42 Casa's concepts are then analyzed in terms of Demetrius ' criteria - with passing reference to Book

of

of

.

in

to

.

the reader Two basic conceptions relative

the

no

40

were comprehensible

to

to

,

in

,

.

a

at

.

is

-

to

of

the Rhetoric and Cicero's Orator and the general question the proper subjects for poetry raised This was moot question the time Tasso shares the position those profound philosophical concepts especially who held that and scientific proper philosophical terms are not acceptable poetry when expressed He praises Petrarch for having reduced Plato's philosophy terms that

).

(

in

lui

,

in

di

,

II,

),

(

in

,

,

.pp

),

.

to

,

ed .

41

(

,

its

of

the Prose diverse 1875 111-34 gives indication Torquato Tasso date According Solerti Bibliografia delle opere minori versi Bologna 1893 12–13 the lecture was first published Delle rime Venice 1582

Guasti who edited the Lezione

,

la

."

."

o

e

il

, la

)

(

176

la

,

il

de '

, la

è in

, e : “

in

, è, o

, e la

i

II,

,

In

,

; e , , le : o la “

., .p

42 la

e e

quel che maraviglioso Guasti 117 scelta delle voci particolarmente grandezza novità delle figure traslati nerbo qualche parte esprimere maestà sua non tentano non possono pur conseguentemente Ibid 119 chiara cosa che concetti siano fine forma parole composizione del verso dell'orazione materia l'instromento Prose diverse

delle sentenze

ARS POETICA

PRACTICAL

CRITICISM his

:

a or

... since

:

to

.

of

is

up

poetic art are present here : first, the poet must delight ; second , audience primarily people respect made the common With the first he is

,

in

his

,

to

. 43

be

in

poet speaks not only

to

The

pleasure

to

, to

to

is

is

no

,

to

contrary understand them and since fatigue human nature and present pleasure can any way wherever fatigue found

And

,

I

,

as

as

,

he

;

a

,

it is a

to

,

is

the poet must delight either because pleasure his end believe necessary means bring about utility because others judge not good poet who does not delight nor can delight with those concepts which bring with them difficulty and obscurity for man must weary mind order

as

I

;

and therefore

be

let

,

the orator does

a

of

,

,

is

an

,

an

on is to

,

“

,

by

44

a

is

a

;

, in

.”

to

,

by

as

the second

: “

the learned but the popular his concepts popular not those which the people uses ordinarily but such mean Judged are intelligible the people these standards Casa receives high rating the concepts this sonnet are clear pure easy but purity that clearness that not ordinary not low ease that not

people

.

of

to

of

of

of

of

,

he

of

to

,

,

.” 45

ignoble appreciation From these bases Tasso goes Casa's speech and their versification the sounds uses the figures appropriateness style employed The approach remains the kind

in

judgment

.

or

interpretation

)

,

(

Grasso's Oratione contra Terentiani 1566 Terence Like Castelvetro's criticism Grasso's

is we

”

-

,

of

to

to

"

"

is

it

no

other kind

of gli

return

nega

on

Benedetto

comedy and

to

to

With

could produce

.

)

are lacking

"

(

in

.

,

of

—

language various levels elocution and versification inquires possibility poetic structure and and never into the other types excellence For this reason related the Horatian rhetorical trend plot and characters which the sonnet where the strictest sense restricted

...

.

of

:

.

as

is

is

it

is

;

it

essentially different grounds tive but more severe and based Perhaps the starting point for Grasso his comparison the poet and having the orator He sees them different ends and different procedures

he

at

so

he

so

,

.

to

,

of

he

,

of

as

just the orator follows the wide road and goes wandering through the spacious fields eloquence never departing from common usage that the may show the happy abundance same time his speech also tries with every art and diligence obtain the desired victory The poet since moves

43

of

in

of

,

of

such wise that with the happy representation

of

,

in

the figures

of

floridity

,

of

,

he

,

a

toward different end issues forth from the common usage men and this way becomes admirable giving pleasure and attracting the souls the listen ers with the beauty the words the sweetness the rhymes the variety and the

charac ,

io

,

il

44

;

ivi

, di

si

.'

,

ed al

a

la

si

ed

;

il

, il

, o

il

è

la

a la

:

ed

nè

,

è o

ad

: "

., .p

poeta dilettare perchè Ibid 124 dovendo diletto sia suo fine come credo perchè sia mezzo necessario giovamento come altri giudica buon poeta non indurre può con quei concetti che recano seco difficoltà colui che non diletta dilettar l'intelligenza quelli oscurità perchè necessario che l'uomo affatichi mente intorno per essendo fatica contraria natura degli uomini diletto ove fatica trovi alcun modo non può diletto ritrovarsi ; e

,

gli

,

,

,

,

. "

il al

,

a i

il

,

al

177

]

[

. "

,

., .p

45

,

i

:

: “

., .p

Ibid

: "

poeta non popolo come l'oratore però 124 Parla dotti solo ma popolo suoi concetti popolari popolari chiamo non quai usa ordinariamente popolo siano intelligibili ma tali che Ibid 125 chiari puri facili ma d'una chiarezza non plebea d'una purità non umile d'una facilità non ignoble siano

POETIC

THEORY

ters , gestures , and actions at one and the same time he gives us pleasure , and giving us pleasure he so attracts us that , as if beside ourselves , we are intent upon nothing else but considering the loveliness and perfection of that poem.46

According to this statement , the poet produces a kind of Platonic rapture , largely by means of extraordinary diction but also through the proper imitation of actions and characters . The statement is incomplete, however , ; for elsewhere Grasso expands it by intro ducing the formula “insegna , deletta , e moue ” ( p . 6 ) and by citing Plutarch on the uses of poetry in curbing violent passions and in teaching men to bear with equanimity the excesses of adverse or propitious fortune ( p . 35 ) .

as far as the ends are concerned

.

a

to

,

it of

he

,

on

his

But his real meaning becomes apparent only when he proceeds to condemn Terence for the immorality and the obscenity of comedies Quoting Horace the civilizing function the earliest poets who were priests please the and philosophers declares that was through desire

of

and that the reading such can produce only blushes and contempt Terence one these poets such this with the sweetness their rhymes and the beauty and smoothness their words first delight but they leave our souls

:

is

of

by

,

at

us ;

,

of

"

as

.

poets

of

masses that later poets fell into decadence

is

in

of

,

in ,

:

of

of

.

to

of

.' "

of

infected and poisoned the corruption their enormous vices and their immoral stories 47 again On the basis the quality the imitation says Grasso Terence open originality and criticism His deficiencies are dual the lack

.

of

)

1

(

:

,

of

.

of

,

)

;

(b

,

(

in )c

,

and words only , , , a e e ua

,

,

as ;

,

topics sententiae

of

form

,

a

,

changed

of

of

,

of

of

,

(

:

in

as

in

the use but 46

a )

the use other names general outline means Vergil's use Homer and Cicero's Demosthenes the same argument but with different words sententiae and Vergil's descriptions Horace's imitation rustic life

in

of

figures

as

,

and ends

; ( 3 )

,

,

in ;

( 2 )

entirely new treatment the use different words subject words and other ornaments The last these itself

has three subdivisions the use

an of an

”

he

“

of

,

,

on

as

.

of

in

of

translation different

,

,

the imitation itself Grasso equates imitation with invention only borrowing from other poets but the narrow sense imitation justify develops To his attack Terence elaborate theory this may any simple kind imitation which take one three forms the nature

un '

li

, e

,

'

,

ad

.

: el

&

,

ad

la

), .p 7 : " si

(

di

la

la

li

uagando per come l'Oratore abbracia strada larga tempo non partendosi dalla consuetudine ciuile ciò dimostri felice copia del suo fauelare Così ancora tenta con ogni arte studio acquistare poeta come tende desiderata vittoria un'altro fine cosi esce fuori della consuetudine per questo admirabil delli huomini resta dilettando tirando animi delli ascoltanti Orarione 1566 spaciosi campi eloquentia

a

17

.p

ad

."

, ci in

in

tal

,

e la

&

,

, la

di da

&

' la ,

,

)

(

178

&

parole delli

al

di

,

la

,

."

enormi

&

questi tali poeti con dolcezza delle rime vaghezza lisci dilettano ma lasciano gl'animi infettati auelenati dalla corruttela dishoneste suoe narrationi

, ci . e , .p

Ibid primo

38 : "

47

.

a

, e

ci

,

la

, la

la

vaghezza delle parole con dolceza delle rime varietà floridezza delle figure modo che con felice representatione delli costumi gesti attioni alle volte modo diletta dilettando tira che come alienati noi medesimi altro non siamo intenti quanto che legiadria quel poema considerar felicità Cf. also for restate ment

vitij

ARS POETICA

PRACTICAL

:

CRITICISM

Vergil's borrowings from Lucretius and Ariosto's and Petrarch's borrow ings from ancient authors . All the latter forms constitute the perfect art of imitation , but Terence did not possess this art , being a mere translator or at best a borrower of plots without the beauty and excellence that should accompany them . He can thus be credited with no talent for invention . ( We may remember Speroni's similar strictures on Vergil .) This deficiency is related to Terence's failings in the other kind of imitation , that which consists in the representation of the actions , lives, and characters of men . The criterion here is resemblance

66

one

poet

comes to be called more than another insofar as he comes closer to what is natural , and this talent of expressing actions and characters and , in describing them , of representing faithfully the nature of things and their decorum , gives life, soul, and eloquence to the poet . " 48 But Terence's imitations do not :

excellent

nature , largely because

resemble

of their immorality and obscenity.

These failures in invention are accompanied by unsatisfactory per formance in elocution . Grasso concedes that Terence's diction is familiar and in the low style proper to comedy , that the words and sentences are good ( albeit somewhat licentious ), but not that he is a truly eloquent writer . For true eloquence demands a diction above and beyond that of the people : “ It must use more choice and more beautiful words so that, by delighting with the diction , it will hold with wonder the minds of the listeners ; and this thing simple and plebeian speech , because it is lacking in ornament and grace , cannot do . " 49 One may wonder how Grasso would

.

its

exclu a

da

of

plete commentary

on

,

,

to

devoting themselves Fighine published

)

when most Horatians seemed practical criticism Giovanni Fabrini

1566

sively

various senses

1566

to

In

GIOVANNI FABRINI

(

the current notions about imitation taken in

be

reconcile his requirement of florid and eloquent language with his notions about the proper style for comedy ; but the problem is neither suggested nor solved . One sees at work , throughout Grasso's analysis , the traditional categories of invention and disposition , the rhetorical ends of teaching, delighting , and moving ( accompanied by pleasure , admiration , and a kind of rapture ), the moral goals of proper instruction and exemplification , and

com

in on

.

is

il '

."

parlar

'

la

qual cosa non puo operare

."

.

&

,

)

,

(

179

, La

,

&

,

,

&

&

,

,

i

,

,

da

Ibid tando tienni ancora con marauiglia gl'animi dell'ascoltanti plebeio semplice per esser priuo d'ornamento legg adria ., .p

is

"

to

he

,

poeta viene esser chiamato piu eccellente del altro quanto che piu questa virtu d'esprimer gesti costumi descriuendo accostarsi decoro vita anima eloquenza del poeta parole piu scielte leggiadre aciò con dolcezza del dir delet

il

"

16 : “ &

s'accosta naturale alla Natura delle cose 49

”

. in

is

it

be

, vn ' , vsi e &

Ibid

., al p . 6 :

48

in

to

:

“

in

Italian the Opere Horace The final section poetica contained the Ars col comento vulgare and remarkable two scores the first commentary written Italian and the only one published during the Cinquecento Since Fabrini writing his Italian vulgar tongue gloss the and since wishes make the two languages

POETIC

THEORY

explain each other , " he spends much of his time on simple translation or paraphrase of the original ; by piecing together the equivalents suggested

for

each word , one would have a continuous translation of the epistle . Otherwise , he provides the usual identification of historical persons, cita tion of authorities , and quotation of illustrative examples. Fabrini states at the outset what he thinks to be the content of Horace's treatise : “first it

or

It

11.

seems to me that in this epistle ... he teaches the laws of poetry , second that he treats of poetry itself, and finally that he blames and scoffs at those who do not observe in poetry what should be observed by good and true poets . " 50 The laws of poetry , he insists , are the same as those taught by Aristotle : ,

)

it is to

at

,

51

and with the same arrangement

.

,

,

pace with the same order

of , in it

;

,

to

it,

it

in

he

is

,

to

,

that Horace in this passage ( 1-13 imitated Aristotle rather one single art which has only one single path from the beginning wishing the end and that who has perfect knowledge discourse only about can discourse about one way for truth seen that Aristotle and Horace have from the beginning the end proceeded the same seems

that poetics

),

[

his

. "

52

,

be

to

is

of

his

of

,

he

to

it is

in

: "

If

repeated

to

that Horace imitated Aristotle

is

you later proceed wish see how Horace means that one should imitation place before yourself this poetics and the poetics Aristotle which clear see that imitated and you will know what done The statement

Aristotle

1-13

1450a38

1455612

14-23

1451b33

1451a16

24-31

1456a25

,

,

Horace

1450635 1459a29

1460a1

1459b34

1460al

1448a14

96–103

1455a30

SO

,

90-95

-a23

1456a33 mi

,

,

38-41 42-45 60–76

,

:

,

to

,

of

so

as

,

many predecessors Convinced had been that Horace was copying directly the Poetics Fabrini could not fail point out numerous parallels between the two texts

...

in

,

, , e e

.

I

,

is

questa diuisione

,

:

un

, in e

se al

,

ne

un

,

habbia imitato Aristotile ouero solo camino dal principio fine che ragio possa ragionar non non modo se

da

la

quale habbia Poetica sia un'arte nandosene chi n'ha perfetta cognitione che

,

che Oratio

in

Pare

, , la

355v

: “

Ibid

., .p

51

as

,

,

in

de , da la

: "

;

ne le

di le

.”

e si

, de la of

(

), .p

L'Opere d'Oratio 1566 primieramente pare che questa epistola egli 355 leggi poesia secondariamente che tratti poesia finalmente biasima poesie non osseruano quello che ride coloro che buoni ueri poeti dee essere osseruato Much the pagination this edition erroneous and where errors occur printed and then the correct number give first the wrong number insegni

al

)

(

180

ha

;

,

si

,

si

."

,

,

dee fare

."

come

la &

,

,

( =

conoscerà

, ): si e “ la chi , e

, e

imitato

,

52

., , .p

si

perche inuerità uede che Aristotile Oratio hanno dal principio fine proceduto con pari passo col medesimo ordine medesima dispositione con Ibid 372v 368v ben uuol uedere come Oratio intende che faccia mettasi poetica d'Aristotile che manifestamente uede che egli innanzi questa sua poetica

ARS POETICA

PRACTICAL

:

CRITICISM

Aristotle

Horace 104-13

1457a31 ( ?)

119-27

1453b22

146–52

1459a29

153-65

1454a33

,

1454a15

179-92

1460a11 , 1453b1 , 1450635 , 1454a33

193-201

1456425

347-60

1460613

361-65

145468

some of the commentators of the preceding decade , this is a modest list indeed , and it is more significant for the general state ment that it seeks to prove than for own size Fabrini's ideas on the Horatian text itself show the curious eclecticism .

these ideas are merely

his

Italy Some

of

commonplace

.

this date

in

which

is

by

its

In comparison with

by

is a in

,

;

be

.

the part

more recent emphases

of

is

to

;

in

on by

resemblance he

a

Others show

to

,

be

,

is

if

of

he

)

(

he

.

of

preliminary reflections the old rhetorical tradition For example points out quoting Aristotle that the poet poet remarks reason invention rather than because uses rhyme connection with lines imperative pleased 42-45 that proper disposition the audience on lines 46-59 that elocution may made more striking certain devices

the

).

.p

(

is

of

,

in

)

as

;

is

holds

(

Maranta had done that Horace's main con cern with the distinction between plot and episodes that fact this division the basis for Horace's organization his Ars poetica 355v commentators

In

.

of

he

of

he

is

;

he

a

to

is

...

on

it is

no

.

or

of

be ,

a

prince should how that way.53

mind

prince and that should write how that Idea rather that example his end write even though found that real prince has ever been

of

the true prince

to

be

to

the example the Idea ought according

,

or

.

a

derive the precepts that that he does not have some fault But Horace wishes that he should have

in so

no

as

set before his eyes any individual

,

a

to

,

prince write about the duties should not prince the example from which would prince should observe for single prince good

one wishes

if

For example

:

a

in

of

a

in

,

,

Horace

of

finds solutions

where

is in

,

he

the ancient philosophers his gloss on speaking the poet's wisdom Fabrini knowledge develops the thesis that this wisdom will consist rather knowledge Ideas than realities Elsewhere

lines 309–22

of ,

,

,

as

on

de

.pp

53

.

is

,

ideas

on

is a

strange mixture here Horace's ideas decorum Aristotle's probably on the universal and Plato's ideas Ideas seen through Cicero's Orator Cicero's Brutus quoted the subject

There

181

i

: fin e

...

il

.

troua

,

si

bene non

)

,

se

,

,

la

,

è

,

gli

a

come principe dee essere

(

,

scriuere

, si

:

,

:

di

,

." è

suo tale

, .

“

:

]

( =

si

.,

Ibid 384v 380v –381 Vno uerbigratia vuole scriuere l'uffitio d'un Principe questo tale non precetti dee proporre innanzi occhi per essempio donde egli caui che dee osseruare un principe perche nessun principe tanto buono che non habbia qualche proponga l'essempio ouero mancamento ma uuole che egli idea del uero principe scriua come dec essere un principe secondo quella idea ouero quello essempio

che nessuno mai sia stato

POETIC decorum , and Fabrini expands

THEORY

of topics to include " fortune , and place ” ( p. 371 [ = 367 ] ) ; he

the usual list

age , sex , profession , parentage , nation ,

decorum an equivalent of Aristotle's necessity and probability

also makes

( p . 375 [ = 371 ] ) . Here and there , Fabrini expresses fairly original ideas , as when he finds that tragedy and comedy are comparable in their use of

iambus and in their interchange of styles in certain circumstances p ( . 368 [ = 364 ]); or when , in the perennial controversy on nature versus art, he decides unhesitatingly for the primacy of nature ( pp . 383v [ = 379v ], 386 ) ; the

or when he interprets line 128 the following way :

est proprie communia dicere ') in

( “ Difficile

Those matters are called “ common ” which have never been written down by anybody , for they are in the common domain and anybody can help himself to them . and he speaks the truth , for common material is material without any

...

form whatsoever , in which it is much more difficult to introduce an artificial form than it is to introduce it in a matter which already has some arti ficial form . 54 artificial

The conception of form and matter provides an illumination ( although a questionable one ) of this particular passage .

of poems to their

to

poetry

this audience

"

"

in of

"

“

is

composed both dotti and indotti following Horace very closely both old mind the still another that the poet has -

another

it

says that

-

at he

370

]) ,

at

374

[ =

( .p

one place

for

whole approach

the nature

, .

no

makes numerous statements which delimit specific conception He apparently has

audience , Fabrini

of

the relationship

of of his

On one subject,

It

.

it

be by

by

as be

he

at

),

.

he

of

"

“

( .p

381v and young persons popolo when writes But does have definite ideas about the kinds things that will affect the audience and what will believe will

it

.

a

),

a

to

it

on ,

it

, to

,

.

( If ,

it

is

of

more moved what sees than what hears but will reject incredible certain actions that might shown the stage The basis credibility again dubious poet wished for example show mother murdering her children Medea obviously the audience would

a a

If

and hence the delight and profit for

the audience

is

It

.

,

for

prerequisite

.

it

.

pleasure

to

”

be is a no

,

verisimile

,

(1 )

,

no

it

)

an

)

(

to

,

,

“

or

"

the

(2

;

of

on

to

] ).

[

=

so

.p

(

of

54

"

out such belief there can vero

2

( 1 )

:

it

for two reasons would not accept the possibility that mother could actually commit this crime and would know that the paper and children murdered the stage were belief would ensue 372 368 These objections presuppose certain fixed ex pectations with respect incapacity through human behavior and imagination accept representation for reality lack the same event credence With however the audience would readily give were narrated refuse belief

in

la

è e

...

,

, .

se le

182

)

(

."

,

è

è

&

,

,

si

): "

( =

:

.p

la

:

da .,

Ibid 372 368 Comuni chiamano quelle materie che non sono mai state puo appropriare scritte nessuno perche sono del comune ciascuno dice molto una materia senza alcuna forma artifitiale doue materia comune uerità perche piu difficile introdurre una forma artifitiale che non introdurla una materia che hauesse qualche forma artifitiale

ARS POETICA

PRACTICAL

:

CRITICISM

this reason especially that the poet must observe decorum with the greatest care ; if he does , he will please “ the educated , because they will recognize the artistry

of

because even

the writer and will derive pleasure

if

from it ; the uneducated , of the composition ,

these latter do not know the artistry

nevertheless they will have pleasure from it because nature in itself , without sees them whenever they are done with

art , causes things to please whoever

decorum and appropriately . "

55 The audience will also find pleasure in the kind of decorations which episodes add to a plot ( p . 3611 [ = 357v ] ) and generally in anything that gives variety to the work : “Variety is a necessary thing and is a great virtue in a poet ; for with variety , great delight is given

to the listener , and he is made attentive , and he is prevented

from being Thus , like Horace , although to a greater extent , Fabrini makes much of what may happen within a poem depend upon the likes and the capacity for belief of the audience .

.”

annoyed

56

In 1557 , Luca Antonio Ridolfi had published at Lyons a Ragionamento sopra alcuni luoghi del Cento novelle del Boccaccio , in which Alessandro degli Uberti discussed with Claude d'Herberé various linguistic problems con of Boccaccio . Some years later ( probably around 1567 ) Lodovico Castelvetro and Francesco Giuntini exchanged letters relating to this Ragionamento , which have some bearing on the critical tradition we are here discussing. Castelvetro's Lettera del Dubioso Academico answered nected with the text

of Ridolli's linguistic objections before passing on to more general remarks on Boccaccio ; in these , Castelvetro considerably broadened the whole basis of discussion , making it include both literary and moral issues . On the literary side , his strictures are of two kinds . He objects to a certain some

number of Boccaccio's stories

because

in

verisimilitude

them

-- and

he

natural verisimilitude — is not properly observed . Every body knows , for example , that young ladies of good family are carefully guarded by their parents ; yet Boccaccio frequently has them meeting with men and he does not tell how this surveillance had been circumvented . might Next , Boccaccio does not do that order arouse greater to

“

in

he he

” ; 57

to

is

a

,

.

of .

in

other sacraments various priests actions unbecoming their office and de lo

,

to

,

.pp

for attributing

to

He criticizes Boccaccio for his neglect the stories

rather religious grounds ,

,

moral

or

raises

of

on

the one which

he

related

55

as

he

in

the minds the readers should have treated the sacrament awakening confession when was discussing the plague means compassion objection greater closely the readers for the victims This

to

in

of

pity

of

all

means exclusively

183

)

(

,

." ."

rincresce

Lettori

."

gli :

animi

de

gli

che non

ne

stare attento muouere compassione maggiore

le

de fa , la

&

in , lei

da

, e si fa ,

è

, e si , fa

&

le

è

l'uditore

12 : " a &

ed ., .p

dà

: " il

a

:

la

se

:

;

., .p si

gran dilettatione

Lettera undated ,

la

56

57

uarietà

:

); " a

( =

; a

e

.,

Ibid 374–74v 370–70v dotti perche conosceranno l'artifitio scrittore gl'indotti perche n'haranno piacere bene essi non conoscono l'artifitio com positione nondimeno n'haranno piacere perche per natura senza l'arte che cose piacciono sempre chi uede quando elle son fatte con decoro conueneuolmente Ibid 358v uariare cosa necessaria una gran uirtu un poeta perche con

POETIC

THEORY

offences . These criticisms are essentially outside

for similar

the Horatian

mode as we have defined

the limits of his Risposta to Castelvetro ,

In

it .

asserts that although Boccaccio's style has many faults, it may

Giuntini

be defended against some of Castelvetro's attacks . Then he adds objections of his own , based again on violations natural veri

be

of

he

,

5,

indicates how

met and how solutions favorable

to

be

of

Decameron

I,

lengthy discussion

the objections may

some

of ,

.

similitude

a

In

all

nevertheless

Boccac , its

on

,

by

,

in

,

found.58

in

Both these critics present their practical criticism contacts with the Horatian tradition their concern with style with natural probability and with effects produced the work cio may

Tasso returns

of

Torquato

to

.

readers

this series

practical criticisms with his

on

of

,

in

.

in

Pigna's canzoni But

At

as an a

love found

"

“

of

of

so

as

,

is

,

to

to

of

,

.

di

Considerazioni sopra tre canzoni M. Gio Battista Pigna intitolate Le tre sorelle which Pier Antonio Serassi assigned the date 1568.59 The largely many little treatise devoted these lezioni sonnets were the philosophical content the work studied here the conception several excursions Tasso manifests

point

,

of

.

"

"

;

a

.

he

superior an

Petrarch may seem

, to is be

.”

concetti

“

,

,

versification and

,

of

,

.

language

on

In

"

, "

at an

is

of

"

“

a

,

to

of

;

its

in

it

of

he

,

one

is

theoretical matters

.

in

compares the canzone form with the epic the shorter poem less perfect than the longer but has own parts corresponding those the epic Both them having proposition are alike invocation and narration the rhetorical source these terms once apparent his comparison again applies criteria derived from the same Petrarch and Pigna subject matter source The comparison revolves around the topics interest

,

a

” ;

“

to

,

of

in

is

).

of

(

of

subject matter

,

of

variety

of

of

merely but this says Tasso accident fortune the death Laura having provided him with new body materials Petrarch more prudent the choice his subjects selecting only those which will clearly lend themselves ornament and poetic splendor whereas Pigna sometimes chooses sterile subjects and the basis

,

is

he

,

is

to

,

is

;

majesty

. In

of

language their difficulties through the strength his genius striving for grandeur and more sparing Pigna bolder since expand and dilate his ideas while the older poet more apt

overcomes

Petrarch

,

is

.

,

,

a

in

—

so .

a

to

of

Pigna usually confines his phrase Petrarch brief turn clear Pigna sometimes obscure but gracefully The former puts his words together and organizes his rhythms delicate fashion the latter more roundly all in

;

,

. 60

)

(

184

73 .

23-30

.

(

II,

,

),

undated

.pp

,

,

a

109–110

.

,

81-82

all ,

"

,

to

,

Castelvetro Lettera del Dubioso Prose diverse prefatory note this treatise , in

,

.pp

.,

in

or

,

of

60 59 58

Risposta del Giuntino See Guasti Ibid

"

,

“

to

at

,

at

,

”

Pigna

, is

. In

of

the variety

the sciences

of

concetti drawn from the innermost foun definitely superior his poems are paintings range give like Horace's which when seen close even more pleasure the viewer than when seen distance Choice and variety subject matter paucity richness diction clarity and obscurity the and fully

tains

ARS POETICA

CRITICISM

PRACTICAL

:

is

is

by

of

of

an

The epigram serves brings praise and glory

to

it it .

concerned with

at ,

it .

he

,

in

its

to

its

influence

charac

relationship

whom composes mind these goals when Second way persons subjects and some the who are

in

he

,

,

19 ),

is

.

it (p

meant

must keep

the peculiar

types

three different

sees

the poet

to

first with respect and

,

is

and perhaps because

between the poem and persons end

to

in

in

genre

At

the epigram

,

ter

as a

of

and the effects produced

he

.

is

.

,

general but the minor one relation partial implicit theory what said but total preoccupied much with the ends served the poem

by it ;

to

poetry

the epigram specific and Correa

A

not with respect genres

of

its

general effect of the versification , these are problems and solutions familiar to the practicing rhetorician . On the purely theoretical side , Tommaso Correa's De toto eo poematis genere , quod epigramma vulgo dicitur Libellus ( 1569 ) is different from most theory of the documents that we have seen thus far in that it develops

it

,

”

: “

of

its “

of

or

The

of

expres

this

: "

series

22 ). ad

an

,

such

as

or

is a

it

something a

in

;

which

very definition

straightforward mention either declaration drawn in of

an

.

it

vituperatio

a

is a ”

(

“

in

22 );

.p of .

is

in

,

61

. "

the

part

action commendation The formula appears again a

,

of

censure

laus

treats This short poem which makes

person something whether from what has been stated

sion

the

or

simply

is

consists

the persons a

metes out

epigram

way

,

general

to

a

in

be

,

of

or

praise whom blame directed this point more general principles poetry intervene the form the Horatian idea that the poem must both useful and give pleasure the utility the epigram stated

( .p

”

,

,

it

in

great baseness present

with one single effort

,

the vices

almost

must both moderate the

it

;

in

“

is a

must show that there divine glory the virtues

an

,

to

In

,

,

laudem uituperationem irrisionem cauillationem criminationem provide the specific utility for which order exists the epigram

,

in

of

,

an

it

,

.

of

its ” 62

the soul and render the mores more honest Third and per produces haps most prominently general audience effect upon those who merely read about the actions others but are not involved feelings

or

as

",

("

so

of

63

.”

delectatio

of

“

.

of do on ,

.

,

he

repeats them For this effect Correa has many descriptions and any speech any poem would presumably various occasions Just the epigram affects and almost seizes upon the most intimate feelings voluptas pleasure the soul The feelings aroused are ones

them

, , "

(“

of

64

).

"

,

is

" ),

(“

est

“

,

”

,

" "

.pp

(“

"

" ),

"

" ),

joy gaudio wonder and admiration admiratio pleasant delightful and the poem which produces them praiseworthy iucundus dulcis laudabilis All these effects are laetitia

,

."

,

ac

)

(

39 ,

32 ,

98 .

185

pene capiat

&

,

&

,

intimos animi sensus afficiat 23 ,

.

.

See esp pp

21 ,

19 : "

., .p

64 63

."

nestet

Ibid

ex

est

;

in

."

,

rei

,

: “

),

23 : “

:

in

62

., rei .p in

(

61

Epigramma enim nihil Libellus 1569 25–26 aliud quam breue poema cum simplici cuiuspiam indicatione uel personae uel facti seu contestatio deducta propositis commendationem alicuius seu detestationem uitijs summam inesse turpitudinem prope diuinam gloriam Ibid demonstret uirtutibus una denique eademque opera sensus animi leniter afficiat mores coho

POETIC

THEORY

such as might result from any form

its

of poetry . But they are produced in a qualities of the epigram ; universal and par passage ticular qualities are combined such the following :

as

a

in

special way by the specific

to ,

as

a

of

,

,

certain dexterity and discernment.65

a

,

,

and

it

,

becoming brevity

talent

It

.

an

,

,

in

,

,

is

if

its ,

so

it

In

beautiful well proportioned and unified polished and perfect parts cohere and harmonize among themselves way such express clearly briefly sharply and elegantly any thought arouses admiration extraordinary pleasure requires great art wit sharpness and produces fact that

,

in

us ,

to it,

the epigram such

elogium

for the

aenus

as

,

,

,

to

,

,

incredible as ;

of

with

all

as

these apply

an

us ,

:

a

,

,

naenia

“

,

the

palinodia another

our mind

forms but has many subforms related epicedium monodia threnus

single genre

a

it is

epitaph

pervades

humor

the

“

,

us ,

the sharpness

Such broad descriptions not

of

,

us ,

with

."

remains pleasure

66

and expanded

delights

combination with the effects they produce are little later But the epigram the brevity harmony arouses the seizes the thought

The latter

in

the second

repeated

.

in

in

Horace's vague recommendations for cohesion and appropriateness are contained the first sentence the peculiar characteristics the epigram

as

of

to

, ,

a

.

In

45 )

,

as ( .p

;

of

of

.”

or

is ,

in

they conform turn fall into three categories one oratory that the three kinds there are judicial epigrams general way deliberative epigrams and epideictic epigrams many epigrams subject there are different kinds there are matters These

a

,

his

of

).

)

of

include along with ,

Correa does not fail

by

,

,

et

of

,

(

the genre

verses are admissible

to in

all

verse form

(

special

true Renaissance fashion

of

In

and

a

:

a

is

an

,

50 ).

.p

(

of

”

de

: “

in

the form Tot enim epigrammatum sunt genera quot rerum quibus texitur Correa establishes for each the kinds principle appropriateness that merely application general theory special style one each subject matter will demand the three treated

the epigram and the means which they are indications about the particular genius the poet necessary produce poems Horatian the poet the genre His initial assumption produce the perfect poem This needs both nature and art translated into two substitute terms which reveal his meaning iudicium and "

.

,

"

.

is

;

to

he

,

he

,

,

say about About the first naturally acquired has little artificially developed has many suggestions Imitation the

,

. ”

it is

It

sit ,

19 : “

05

:

it .

,

for moderns and this manner

in

,

;

of

indispensable ancient poets unnecessary for the ancients contemporary poet can succeed without operates

imitation

no

“

imitatio

the second

is

:

is

to

.

in

,

achieved

to

of

his dicta on the ends

,

&

et ,

ut ,

,

."

,

." .

,

,

&

,

,

,

186

)

(

49 .

39 ,

32 ,

25 ,

,

24 ,

23 ,

.

see pp

,

ut

,

,

21 : “

&

,

,

& si

,

in ,

,

., .p

,

66 ;

&

. ita , .p

se

Ibid Nam illud uenustum aptum connexumque teres rotundum partes cohaereant congruant inter distincte breuiter acute ornate sententia exprimatur uoluptatem affert non uulgarem Multa arte opus admirationem mouet iudicio est sale ingenij acumine brcuitate decora dexteritate quadam epigrammate breuitas delectat acumen excitat concinnitas capit Ibid Sed For other similar statements haeret sententia lepor uoluptate incredibili animum perfundil

ARS POETICA

PRACTICAL

CRITICISM the

:

be

,

,

to

be

.

...

In

to

,

in

,

,

,

we

,

;

in of

We must therefore consider carefully in what way old poets expressed the feelings poetic and what they judged not the soul what they judged poetic accordance with what order ornaments and figures what rhythms length method even particulars we should adapt our own epigram to

so

us

be

which other poets treated the same subject that we may understand what way these poets achieved proper form and what respect another failed thus we shall become more prudent through the errors others and the trials others we may make trial our own talent.67

of

of

;

of

by

in

,

in

,

in

ways

, it

it to

a

may more easily and properly compose perfect epigram and more order that diligently polish perfection very useful for compare the various will

of

.

so

:

to

,

poetic talent thus and prosodic

style

,

matter

.

form

of

becomes the basis for the correct assorting

,

A

23 ).

the subject matter

nature

(p , .

,

of

,

in

;

in

to

be

particular kind

as

of

assigned poets Such qualities and procedures these might course epigram general any genre the argument practicing The far remains matist must possess addition the peculiar capacities necessary for his art cleverness wittiness artistry judgment and the ability estimate the

of

, of

of

of

of

Its

.

a

of

,

of

to

is

an

interesting example Correa's little treatise the adaptation the literary type conceptions specific Horatian mode the ends poetry the principles internal organization the poet's talent and

,

it

,

by

"

-

, ,

at

.

res

“

,

of

in

all in

its

to

every point and above method are closely related the Ars poetica But styles relationship notions the three the verba the effects produced the audience and the personal glory sought the poet extends beyond the basic text and makes contact with the broader rhetori .

cal tradition

an

is

.

a

As is

He

,

of

'

),

he

by

it

, a it

finds that the action accompanied passions

poem

is

action and the classification the simple one since

one but not

begins with the customary state Euripides Hippolytus about the the muses about the nature the

.

of

(

or ,

.

words and figures But about the poet's model here reasons why poets invoke the gods ments

to

,

on

by

a

produced

to

I

to

,

),

of

(

an in

il

in

The latter tradition far outweighs the purely Horatian elements Pietro Pagano's Discorso sopra secondo sonetto del Petrarca undated manu script the British Museum Additional MS 33,470 which have pro arbitrary date given about 1570. Pagano's main intention running commentary vide the text with special attention the effects

single

for

the

,

,

judicial

we

or

deliberative

,

to

,

demonstrative

or

,

82 ,

,

the three types .pp

of

67

one

of

: "

is

derived from Aristotle's Rhetoric And since every dis course and composition falls according the opinion Aristotle under classification

shall

,

&

,

,

&

,

in

,

&

,

,

:

,

,

: “

&

"

"

,

,

.,

Ibid 85–86 Videndum igitur diligenter est quomodo ueteres animi sensa exposuerint quae poetica iudicarint quae non quo ordine quibus luminibus figuris quibus numeris qua longitudine qua ratione singulis accommodemus epigramma nostrum and Quo facilius commodius perfectum epigramma componere queamus

)

187

in

ut

:

,

de

re

in

,

(

et

,

,

ut

a

diligentiam expoliendi adhibere erit utilissimum conferre rem eandem diuersis poetis explica quomodo his assequatur decorum qua tam ille fuerit mancus intelligamus alienis erroribus cautiores efficiamur aliorum periculis faciamus nostro ingenio peri

POETIC

THEORY

say that this sonnet belongs to the judicial kind , and in that part of the assumptive juridical constitution which is called translation of the fault , where guilt is transferred to another person .” 68 In the treatment of this

fol .

to

an

.

a

of

of

on

to

of

,

.

indicates how Petrarch achieves

the

ends

:

poetry

he

Finally

rhetoricians

of

to

of

of

II

,

he

.

of

passages

of

,

style When Pagano passes from generalities the individual Petrarch's sonnet cites Book the Rhetoric the figures speech and points out Petrarch's conformity the teachings the 6v )

(

is

it

of

his

kind of subject matter , Petrarch uses the form of expression called by Hermogenes DEUVÓTns , or the “ grave , " and sonnet belongs the highest level powerful god speaks this form since the action unexpected event The effect produced admiration resulting from

a

if

to

be ;

to a

an

allegorical and

for man can never disentagle him

much better shown Christian explanation.69

.

to

happen him what happened Petrarch self from that knot But the profit would give the poem

he

he

,

by he

be

,

,

to

to

;

he

,

a

,

he

delights with And since poets must delight and profit we might say that the poetic fiction supposing that powerful god has wounded him with mortal profits next because blow that teaches man that should take heed not vanquished allow himself vain and carnal love lest should have one were

it is

.

of

as

,

68

is

,

a

,

it

as

more recent years we have seen the ,

the styles

;

of

and this conception

in

of

of

an

.

we

,

it

is

to

,

in

Longinum another contemporary document the Commentarius attributed Franciscus Portus and probably dating from around 1570.70 important since brings The commentary were new dimension into the critical tradition that are here discussing We have seen through emphasis upon the three styles out the development this tradition relationship established between Horace's theories and various kinds

in

fully

”

“

of

by

.

in

an

,

is

of

to

an

Whereupon Pagano proceeds interpretation offer such the sonnet Pagano's approach The rhetorical tone whole evident and crossed interesting fashion with certain medieval practices such this closing allegorical interpretation explained What Pagano meant the highest level the grave form

, et

, in ó

,

et

, ó

,

Et

, : "

.

che

chiama translatione

del mancamento

,

assontiua

si

di

si

,

lui è

á

che

mortale

;

,

et

,

."

un

,

,

tal

dire

d'Amore non puo

]

[

188

This MS

of

.

.

,

1-87

.

,

II °

the Commentarius

of ,

I

in

”,

“

to it,

A

:

,

fols

to

the

Parte

On

,

of

),

(

Modena Estense MS y.S.3.18 Portus name '

si

,

il

."

, . et

si

giouamento quando nodo Ma molto piu mostrarebbe uolesse christianamente dichiarare see Translations and and the objections On the reasons for the attribution Longinus Bibliography Commentaries Sublime 1600 Modern Philology the existence XLVII 1950 149. have since found confirmation for the attribution 70

mai suilupparsi allegoricamente

da

,

et

,

,

,

,

li in

la

Et

15 : “

.

la

69

., si

altra persona giouare potressimo Ibid fol Poeti deuono dilettare colpo diletta con fictione poetica con fingere che Dio potente l'habbia ferito lascia uincere che auertisca che non che gioua poi perche insegna all'huomo auenuto che l'huomo uano lasciuo che non gli intrauenga quello che

,

giuridiciale colpa perche

,

parte della constitutione quando transferisce

,

,

, ó

,

.

,

perche ogni ragionamento componimento MS BM Add 33,470 fols 5-5v casca secondo l'opinione d'Aristotele sotto uno delli tre genere Demonstratiuo Deli quella beratiuo Giudiciale diremo che questo sonetto uersa nel genere Giudiciale

bears

ARS POETICA

PRACTICAL

:

CRITICISM

four forms or Ideas of Hermogenes associated with the same theories , giving somewhat more variety and flexibility to critical discussion . What Portus does is to interpret Longinus , now , as a treatise on Hermogenes ' sublime, magnificent, and grave form of expression ." Longinus ' On the emphasis Sublime lends itself , of course , to such an interpretation, given produced speech Thus Portus the effects diction and figures

of '

,

.

of

is a

distinction

the four subtypes

the one that speaks truly

,

as

as

a

to

of

The significant consideration everywhere the nature the Portus also distinguishes three methods for handling sublime style clearly and unambiguously allegorically and is

Horace

.

or

or

of

,

he

.

as

is

God the gods Just Longinus himself had done selects examples indiscrimin philosophy and ately from the sciences and the various branches exemplify given style Aristotle Cicero may serve well Homer ,

which

or

highest

of

the grave style

the commentary

of

in

initial statement

of

on

by

its

"

,

,

the grave

:

or

.

subject matter treated

to

to

,

,

to

is

:

,

in

.

or ,

on

states his ideas

,

he

.

or

mysteriously He comes closest poetic theory however when belong words which come the sublime form either through their sound because they are used metaphorically The poet who otherwise has much distinguished common with the orator from him on this basis secretly

,

,

be ,

;

to

.

all

,

in

be

;

be

)

(

They the poets may doubtless using words freer and more audacious figuratively orators must much more diffident Among poets the tragic lyric and dithyrambic poets are more daring than the others sure they seem

,

. 71

,

elevated and more sublime

293

on

the

sive

(“

or in it in he

(

.p

of

7

in

.

of

in

,

as

Longinus other places the remarks section comparison poets Portus extends his and orators This does assumption that the sublime may appear either poetry prose

),

be

the verse must

on

At

,

persons into account

so

on

,

;

of

in

.

to

to

aim and strive make their verse inflated and turgid Tragic poets achieve this most easily because the persons they introduce are above the ordinary station course they present the stage kings and princes that taking the

&

Perhaps Portus

passages

.

of

since nowhere

assemblages

),

.

the work

in

of

, "

, " as

.p

(“

of

the defects

of

“

Ed .

is

a

it

do

of &

ut

the virtues rather than

one should say rather the defects the passage any there consideration works other than 71

as

a

is

to

as

do

,

of

in

is ,

terms

.

in

”

)

in

of

of

,

in

poësi and that soluta oratione sive represents either case certain kind state soul and produces similar effect the audience His contention with respect audience that should judge not the ignorant masses plebeiorum but serious and wise men non imperitorum more sed sapientes homines solent graves 339 that

in

&

sit

, ut

,

ut

,

,

&

,

."

,

in

,

)

,

&

fiat sublimius

189

(

narum ratione necessario tollatur carmen

ita

,

.

& ,

id

:

.

.

&

,

: "

), .p

:

(

,

Pearce Amsterdam 1733 282 Sunt nimirum liberiores audaciores Dithy Lyrici verbis transferendis Oratores multo verecundiores Inter Poëtas Tragici rambici audent prae caeteris illud nimirum spectare affectareque videntur carmen turgidum Tragici facilius inflatum obtinent quòd personae quas inducunt habent non principes mediocrem dignitatem inducunt nimirum reges scenam habita perso

THEORY his

poetic theory

.

,

,

a

to

of

He remains close to the text he is explaining , and theory styles diction and effects limited

is

POETIC

,

by

.

is

of

,

its

of

His premisses for the discussion

be

some end

,

other things

,

are

,

or

of ,

or

be

it

to

to

or is to

to

to

do

no

a be

a

...

as

in

.

be

be

those which will which they are directed will

in

way that they achieve the such end the only ones worthy called plots and the others will not even taken into account And certain thing composing plots have profit delight and that poets their end either they put themselves that for other reason this trouble than some to

organized

to

,

as

Plots having been ordered and composed undoubtedly

all

:

of

a

by

to

be

,

it

.

Horatian point view Neroni the two authorities mixture

a

from are

it .

to

,

,

;

it

is

]

in in an a to

The Lettione sulla favola which Baccio Neroni prepared for delivery the Accademia degli Alterati around 1571 also restricted but different way attacks the proposition defended Carlo Rucellai comprise recognition and earlier lecture that every plot does not need plot solely aspects reversal Hence deals with Aristotelian though the problem would seem from statement nevertheless attacked

it

,

the other parts that are found these poems since they are those which are more apt than the others move the passions and they seize upon the souls persons either delighting them moving them disdain compassion according being represented the action that

of

.

72

to

or

,

or

is

to

to

,

of

to

powerful above

to

in , in

all

to it .

do

,

on

.

to

usefulness men Wherefore when they compose either tragedies comedies epic poems they have their eye they use this end and order achieve those means which best lead them To this reversal and recognition are

in

is ,

of

.

,

an

to

of

.

of

of

to

an

.

,

by

,

,

,

all

in

is

all

,

as

he

;

,

In

pursuing his argument Neroni cites Aristotle's definitions the two parts but for the rest citing examples from argues almost exclusively such poets Homer Vergil Sophocles Euripides and Terence His con recognition and reversal genres display the use clusion that since genres Neroni's Horatianism this lecture they are necessary poetry limited his conception the ends adjunct As Lodovico Dolce's translations Homer and Vergil

,

the later pages where

It it

practical criticism

in

it

as

.

in

-

,

the art

to

by

the ends served 72

of

,

a

,

of di

et

to

,

in

Andrea Menechini published 1572 oration Delle lodi della poesia Virgilio highly inflated and bombastic discourse which d'Omero repeats most praise poetry the sixteenth century commonplaces belongs theoretical criticism insofar makes general statements about

, si

et

,

,

, ò

le il

,

,

tal

à

ad

i

si

,

,

da

, è et

Et

,

, o . . . .

di

, o

in di

, ò se

tal

in

,

al

,

da

le

et

ò

le

. 1 : “

,

.

, à

le

.

composte MS Laur Ashb 559 fol Essendo fauole state ordinate come qualche fine quelle senza dubbio che tutte altre cose modo saranno disposte che quale son indiritte saranno solamente quel fine conseguitino essere chiamate fauole dell'altre non sara tenerne conto alcuno cosa per certa che poeti nel com porre giouare fauole hanno per fine dilettare che per altro non muouono qualche utilita agli huomini Onde componendo essi tragedie affaticarsi non per essere poemi Heroici tuttj hanno l'occhio quale conseguire adoperano comedie fine per

)

190

in

si

."

a

, ò

, ò

,

si

.

(

,

et

gli

. et , gli la

il

, ò à

à

la

,

que mezzi che meglio uegli conducono parti che alche fare sopra tutte trovano tali poemi sono potentissime Peripetia recognitione come quelle che sono piu che altro pigliano mouendo dilettando animi delle persone affetti atte muouere sdegno compassione secondo rappresenta fatto che allora

ARS POETICA

PRACTICAL

:

CRITICISM

gives appreciations of Homer and Vergil . The ends , as we might expect, are utility and pleasure . Concerning utility , rather than develop a reasoned

(since that is neither his method nor his tone ) , Menechini accu mulates in a haphazard fashion as many kinds of usefulness as he can think

argument

(

or .p

religion use the everlasting fame

a iv );

by

these are historical , such as the civilizing function

of

Some

early days and

its

its

of.

of poetry

in

some are remote from every

,

of

we

of

,

of

us

of

,

of of

we

us

to

?

to

to

of

its

? to 73

in ?

of

?

to

to

accompanied

superior capacity

persuade and

pleasure

.

it is

because

does because by

these things

it

?

us

All

?

ever taught more graceful behavior what orator ever more ardently follow the road the virtues what jurist ever regulate with ordered treat with greater prudence the affairs state greater wisdom our magistrates high matters take more holy counsel help the fatherland with hotter zeal persuaded

to us

What philosopher

so

.

will Vergil's excellence

,

of

in

every phase man and woman into paths virtue making chaste and any discipline may better than other And

us

of

dross and imperfection poetry will teach the

:

it

do

,

,

and this

thinking

every kind

will lead

it

.

,

life Especially

us

of

its

ij

).

b

( .p

duties and functions simple

or

( .p a

”

.

by

by

the historian since they are relieved Through delineations characters

those told

ask

ijv ),

a

In

.

b )

.p

(

more immediate

we

us

“

it is

the poet

of of

such

by

,

as

infamy bestowed upon the good and more present way poetry the largely through the examples corrector our life which furnishes monstrous things that must avoid and Examples desirable things that must follow these kinds are deduced from the actions narrated the poet which are much more effective than day life

the wicked

he

or

,

(

and maxims poetry

Menechini

collects

:

the following apostrophe

to

;

diction

,

,

,

rhyme

is

,

,

us

,

we

,

harmony

be

these sources

in

elements

as

).

do

in

.

its

of

Menechini does not specify the nature this pleasure but does point out manifold sources Principal among them perhaps the imitation poetry which fills why we contained with incredible delight how not know More directly derive pleasure from such technical

is

a

be

?

,

,

is

I

Shall silent about the delight that derived from you when there no harmony that more sweetly strikes our minds For what ordered discourse what eloquent language can lovely sound and more sweet and more pleasant than

of

?

?

is

as a

as

us

)

?

di

'

Magistrati

? i "

la

regger con più rara Sapienza Patria con più caldo zelo

aiutar

191

ci

?

?

ci

? di

'

? di

cose publiche

alti affari

(

gli le

trattar con maggior prudenza consigliar più santamente di

all

ivo : “

), .p e

(

qual Orator insegnò più gratiosi costumi Delle lodi 1572 Qual Filosofo persuase più ardentemente d'incaminar alle Virtù qual Giureconsulto diede ordine

73 ci

a

of

,

in

a

of

pure concord harmonious verses felicitously unrolled What more elegant high composition and adorned speech can generate much joy beautiful and chosen rhymes full and resounding What more ingenious greater marvel than very beautiful subject developed with very ornate and full

POETIC

THEORY

and very lovely words , adorned with the splendor of wise and most grave maxims . sung according to the perfect rule of Music ? 74

be

of

.

,

,

,

of

all

Finally , we presumably are pleased at the discovery , within a good poem , of the riches and the treasures of the arts sciences and disciplines practical criticism the same considerations will On the side course prominent Vergil the felicity

of

,

,

I he

do .

as

, to

,

small number

in

.

of

of

to

to

as

every other aspect any man may These character making parts texts them They come from the application topics which belong almost entirely the tradition

or

,

of

. In

of

he

is

a

of of

specific reference

his

.

the lessons that the good poet should teach and since

no

teaches

displays every imaginable kind knowledge perfection excellent approaching close judgments Menechini's are vague and general

,

since

all

he

of

of

be

;

,

to

,

his diction

.

is

of

.

,

praised

,

for example for the vehemence the care for his abundance words and their correctness from these one obtains the pleasures proper poetry suppose that the same would true for the gravity maxims and the artful disposition his materials He would also make profitable reading fulness

to

.

the Horatians

( in

of

section

pertinent

of

the Prolegomena announces that the tragedy and comedy the comparison

of

on

-

well

on

work contains

as

.

The title page

to

;

I

in '

to ) a

have been written about 1575. Both contain materials

the present analysis

a

them

to

,

by

,

.

of

in

,

,

in

Franciscus Portus who died 1581 left behind him addition the Longinum already discussed number other unpub Sophocles tragedies and the lished works Two these the Prolegomena presume Orationes were published together his son Aemilius 1584 Commentarius

to

is

,

subject But the hope

on

'

.

of

Sophocles and Euripides And from the relative merits Portus early statement that tragedy and comedy both derive from nature through imitation one expect some fairly original ideas led the and another

it

life " ;

of

or

on ,

or

.

in

Diomedes

any

their

their safety the other hand

, ]

their fears tragedy

; , in

of

,

,

,

in

comedy the fortunes men are moderate are small the dangers small the endings are happy

on ( for

:

Donatus

,

...

"

is

,

as

might have been found continuators

are such medieval

of

of

on

,

of

to

,

is

no

.

in

.

soon dashed for becomes clear that Portus has poetry mimetic theory but wishes merely differentiate between tragedy and comedy the basis the different kinds they represent Man's life divided into fortunate and unfortunate events comedy treats the first tragedy the second From then the distinctions mind

da

74

;

,

; in

,

in

,

,

of

great importance their fears are great the endings are fatal the persons are tragedy contrari the former the first events are agitated the last ones calm ,

ui

,

?

'

&

,

, et

in

di

'

,

,

di

,

un ,

&

)

? ”

,

di

& , &

,

,

(

di

192

di

&

&

,

te si

'

un

'

?

un '

,

è ,

,

, ? il

iij : “

, ò

., .p e

prende non Ibid Tacerò diletto che essendo armonia che più perciò che qual ordinato parlare qual eloquente lingua può addolcisca l'intelletto nostro più soaue che leggiadro suono puro concento esser più dolce armoniosi uersi più adorna può generar felicissimamente spiegati Qual oratione più culta noi tanta gioia che uaghe alto componimento scielte rime tutte piene risuonanti Qual più ingeniosa piena maggiore stupore che cosa bellissimo soggetto spiegato con leggiadrissime parole illustrato con splendor saggie grauissime sentenze ornatissime Musica cantato con perfetta ragion

ARS POETICA

PRACTICAL

:

CRITICISM

,

its

wise , the beginnings are joyous and peaceful , the endings disturbed and fateful ; and in tragedy the life to be avoided is expressed , in comedy the life to be sought . Finally , comedy invents subjects tragedy frequently borrows them from historical truth.75

to

.

In

to

,

is

of

he he is , is to

.

He

to

is

as a he

;

,

,

13 ).

tragedy

is ( .p

to

the two feelings proper

,

of

,

,

,

is

all .

of

,

quote Aristotle the most tragic poet the emotions Sophocles always grave tragic sublime grandiloquent but tempers gravity with joy tragic severity with poetic sweetness and pity and admiration result produces great delight through the arousing

of

the arousing

,

to

to

to

.

be

,

In

the comparison between Euripides and Sophocles the criteria are largely oratory rhetorical Euripides said less pretentious hence close and more acceptable the popular ear more useful those who wish learn how act since full maxims and commonplaces

,

&

"

"

of

an

as

on

"

"

be

.

to

in

of

it

in

,

it

,

of

a

,

I

."

it

the Orationes

"

of

subtitled Qua Historia Historici laudantur cite here not only because contains along toward the comparison history and poetry but because the terms end which praises history are almost identical with those familiar the defences poetry Were one poetry substitute the word for the word history The second

,

of

all us

set

we

in

in

76

we

. "

,

its

of

,

,

,

so its

at

if

as

,

deliberations and events upon which posterity certain pictures may easily take counsel for both private affairs All things life and nature are recorded

it

public and history

“

,

.

exploits characters gazes when by

us ,

,

in

acceptable the discussion the rest would oration the uses poetry examples The historians Portus tells before lives

of

"

.

of

: “

,

we

;

is

by ,

of

?

of of

by

is

of

? ” 77

59 : "

76

,

,

,

,

,

.

ab

, in

:

in

in

&

."

.

:

, &

,

,

in

,

&

:

.

,

parua pericula

In

), .p

1584 Comoedia mediocres fortunae hominum parui metus Tragoedia contrà ingentes personae magni metus exitus laeti sunt Tragoedia contrà funesti sunt exitus illa turbulenta prima tranquilla postrema principia laeta pacata exitus turbulenti Tragoedia vita fugienda funesti Co Denique Comoedia fingit argumenta Tragoedia saepe moedia vita expetenda exprimitur historica fide petit (

Prolegomena

12 : “ in

75

of

by

,

reading

in

places and regions the skilful descriptions Who kept variety epochs not attentive the the vicissitudes fortune the great and important deeds accomplished various illustrious heroes and placed the historian almost under the eyes and before the everybody face Aware the argument that the same things might

in

does not take delight

in

,

by

in

,

in

,

we

so

we

60 ).

to

.

"

(p

,

that have before our eyes the things that must avoid and those that we must follow We also learn from the reading history how may ultimately become form our own characters that men shunning the vices that see some imitating the virtues others purely origins swayed These effects are not intellectual their are moved impressed the way which the history written Who indeed

,

& ,

,

&

,

,

,

in

,

]

[

193

res

,

sub oculos

,

viris gestae

ac

,

quibúsque

,

clarissimis subiectae

? "

à

grauissimaeque penè historico ab

?

ac

62 : “

., .p

in

77

."

in

., .p

exempla vitae morum factorum consiliorum atque euentuum proponunt Ibid quae omnis posteritas tanquam publicis rationibus tabulas quasdam inspiciens priuatis rebus facilè consulat regionum Ibid Quem enim non delectent locorum scitae descriptiones quem legendo non retineant temporum varietates fortunae vicissitudines maximae aspectúmque

omnium

POETIC

THEORY

of

by

awaken

.

it

,

Philosophy

individual character supporting examples

.

a

,

have previously pointed out

of of to

to

it

,

on

it

of

any one the numerous passions which seeks argue effectively when wishes matters and public affairs must borrow from history host itself

or

,

its

be said about poetry or oratory , Portus answers it by declaring the superi ority of history to both arts . Poetry is less effective since it relates false hoods or incredible actions and hence loses the confidence of the reader ; the more closely it resembles true history , the better it is . Oratory exag gerates effects thereby alienating certain listeners sins excess

a

)

I,

(

.

of

,

as a

of

I

Chapter pages 13–16 that large group theorists associated history with poetry sister art and the reader may remember that the points contact indicated were precisely those which Portus here claims for history alone

da

Fabrini formal com Aldo Manuzio

and the work

on

a

of of to

Giovanni

come again

in

,

date

we (

,

to

,

on

)

a

lapse After ten years from 1566 Fighine's Italian commentary 1576 mentary Latin the Ars poetica this one the Younger does not have much new

of

)

(

1576

of

ALDO MANUZIO

.

1454a15

1451627

1456a2

1454a37

1452616

1449a19

1453a4

234–43

1449a19

,

,

191-219 220-33 275-94

1449a15

295–308 347-65

1455a33

,

1459b8

194

)

(

.

Horace

be

to

).

all :

of

;

all

They are poet

very

by

all .

in of

poet

a

" )

a

is a

virtue and show neither him source make

of

intention

the texts appear twice

to

The

uses verse

an

of

of

counterpart

” “

,

imitation he

,

(“

is

,

used three times

of

in

,

this short list several

Poetics 1451627 Poetry nature

them

an is

noted that even

in

be

1454a30

the imitation and not because thorough knowledge Aristotle nor a

,

,

1454a30

113-27 128–52

,

,

1455a27

,

1455a31

,

1459a11

89–113

or

list

-as

1451627

of

.

1460al

the commentary

below gives them

Aristotle

1449a24

It

in

the

73-88

general

the body

Aristotle are slight

1-23

will

; In

to

,

of

the references

,

itself

Horace

of

poetry

roles

one

,

,

truth and falsehood

,

,

,

(

,

of

,

an

In

.

",

“

do

go

,

as

.

It

to

offer Most the remarks individual passages are the same the ones made earlier and frequently beyond simple paraphrase introductory section they not Prolegomena poetry called the Manuzio gives initial definitions deriving his materials largely from Aristotle four different texts from the He seems Poetics are quoted 1447a13 1451627 1447a29 1447b26 verisimilitude and the most intent here upon establishing the nature

ARS POETICA

PRACTICAL

:

CRITICISM

all

On the other hand , there are almost as many references to the rhetorical works of Cicero . But here again they are miscellaneous in character and do not go together to make up a rhetorical theory . Manuzio follows the ,

,

res ', he :

the first place

in

;

"

in

,

in

for

gave

. "

;

so

is

,

,

of

an

,

,

78

: “

invention when said Cui lecta potenter erit then The sixth this the rhetoricians also do on order finally on elocution precept deduced from lines 46–72 the last named for although orderly begun stating precepts Manuzio had with enumeration and ;

precepts

diction

he

eloquence

on

his

sixth precept treats

in

so

of

;

he

of

a

in

pointing out parallel between lead of almost his predecessors Horace's theories and the oratorical divisions invention disposition and only passing clocution yet does the following sentence The

to

be

,

;

a

for it

to

in

is

in

no as

is

.

a

to

.

in he

after this one abandons the method We shall probably forced imperfect and conclude that this other aspects his commentary haphazard There distinguish any plan attempt Horace's work impose general interpretation upon the commentary remains col

,

be

.

;

at

,

of

,

the first

,

:

contain two precepts

the poet

his he

the subject that

.

is

are said

he

to

to

three lines

-

twenty

to

,

,

of

is

an

of

.

of

very simple lection isolated glosses These tend the most part much simpler than those the preceding generation scholars Some advantage since unwarranted subtleties are avoided times this but other times the meat Horace's meaning missed For example the first

,

in

,

a

in (

,

he

he

,

a

,

.

the earlier commentaries

.

of

of

;

connection

where would the

becomes historian and These few passages relieve one misses here the enthusiasm

only slightly the mediocrity the text the scholarship and the imagination some

of

insists

else

(

when

the poet

treats only the truth tempered falsehood

,

)

of

as

or

is

for

);

of

to

comers

necessary by

? ),

that

that hence truth must

all

"

open

that truth be he

imitation

,

151

be

unused materials

with line

if

by

used

(

he

declares against the major part the antecedent tradition communia line 128 means materials which have already been another poet and are hence available for imitation rather than

when

that the

“

as

.

In

be

;

should stick has undertaken the second should keeping with avoid descriptions since they would not serious only few cases does Manuzio offer interesting readings subject matter

an

perhaps Manuzio's commentary chapter for leaves

on

CONCLUSIONS to

.

in

its

in

of

theory has

."

,

10 : "

), .p

,

(

195

]

[

:

,

de

dc

.

,

de

tum

facundia nam ordine postremo

the progress

arte poetica Commentarius 1576 Sextum prae inuentione primo loco cum dixit Cui lecta potenter erit res clocutione praecipit quod etiam rhetores faciunt

Horatii Flacci librum

ceptum

de

, In Q. de

78

,

been three extensive commentaries the bulk

.

of

of

its

of

-

.

is

a

of

an

a

of

of

,

it

is

unfortunate work which end impression disappointment and sense the decadence tradition Perhaps this itself significant For the fifteen year period under consideration has been distinguished less expansion and applica for illuminations the Horatian text than for tion the Horatian mode independent the text itself While there have the present

POETIC

THEORY

in the shorter theoretical articles or incidentally to practical criticism . In the field of practical criticism , this period has contained the first sizable body of pertinent materials and has permitted us to see in what way contemporary critics translated their theory into actual apprecia tions of works . been made

Of

the specifically Horatian ideas , the one most , and modified by the theorists is the notion

developed

constantly repeated , of utility and pleasure

of poetry . In a sense , this becomes the hallmark of the mode . Many writers who seem to know little else of the Ars poetica emphasize the importance of “ prodesse " and " delectare , " of the “ utile dulci ," as the ends to be sought . In these particular years , the stress is probably stronger on utility ; writers are concerned with the moral implications of poems and as the ends

of the individual They relate to this their preoccupations with truth and veri similitude ; for the general assumption is that moral effects will be properly accomplished only if the audience believes what it sees or reads , and that this belief depends upon the correct admixture of the true or the seeming true into the ingredients of the poem . The need for the marvelous , the are insistent that they must contribute to the betterment

or of society

.

( both to capture

strange , the extraordinary

the attention

of

the audience

and to give it pleasure ) is a complicating factor , and many critics debate the relationship between truth and falsehood , the credible and the incred ible . In these debates , the character of the audience enters as a considera tion , since the capacity for believing is recognized as varying from group to group . Here , the ground has shifted somewhat from Horace's old man or young man , senator or nut - eating farmer, to the wise against the ignorant , the elite against the masses .

is difficult to see a preference , for Tasso will

It

declare just as loudly in favor

of

the common people as Maranta does for

the most part , though , critics at this time seem to have in mind an audience educated at least in two special fields, the rules decorum

.

poetry and the eternal laws

of

and requirements of the

of

viri . " For

art

the “selectissimi

is

it

as a ,

in ;

a

of

.

an

by

of

us

of

away from the Horatian text Considerations the audience lead strictly interpreted and into the broader rhetorical tradition which integral part The explicit comparison between the poet and this time starting point for develop the orator still serves number theorists ing their ideas about the poetic art for some the historian replaces the

)

(

196

.

of

,

;

such

a

of in

,

does anybody warn against the basic impropriety

as " ;

“

"

.

of

on

"

,

,

of

of

.

is

,

a

on

.

a

or

orator becomes third writer the comparison The more complete comparisons nearly these are the more the theories propounded take special flavor Thus for many writers there little perceptible difference poetry the rhetorics usual doctrine and the theories between their They talk constantly about invention disposition and elocution they they construct elabor organize their materials around res and verba rarely Only systems Maranta the case decorum the basis ate

procedure for

ARS POETICA

PRACTICAL

:

CRITICISM

discussion of poetry . One of the most persistent forms of rhetorical pproach is via the notion of the effects produced in the audience , and in he years from 1560 to 1567 an even wider variety than had previously xisted is introduced into the conception of these effects . Poetry, of course , he

of the audience ; but it must also arouse admira rapture kind must inspire virtue and create abhorrence vice Thinking this sort terms rhetorical ends was thinking ound lead terms rhetorical means and hence have growing desire speak poem such parts the proposition the classify poems belonging arration the exordium and one to

,

or

to

as

to

a

as

of

,

we

in

of

,

of

of

of in

.

ideas the

of

sets

,

of

two

the fixed genres

The first

by

of

to

.

of

be

to

of

it

.

,

,

or

of

or

certain

corres

and

the four

Hermogenes

)

poetic genre falls within one

the traditional Ciceronian three by it

personages

maxims

of of

Any

or

.

“

or

listener

”

of

a

the reader

(

the styles

in

onding effects

or

of

a

no

is

as "

"

involves well certain kinds actors special variety thoughts actions ,

inds

,

;

of

, a

of

;

purse

it

a

s

the attention paid

medieval was enriched ancient rhetoric but poetry then these Cinquecento critics add certain refinements longer merely style result now form diction dis

neorists

f

taken

the fixed styles and the theory

nese goes back

nd

oratory

the known types

Special note must

otion

of

nother

it

of

a

of

,

,

to

to

.

to of

it

must produce

n

ion ,

nust move the passions

the works

,

,

.

he

as

of

the poet

operates within

the same time practice the form only

his model

.

at

must

of

exploited

he

especially

in

it

;

he

,

given genre

if

ese more and more restrict the freedom finds

of

.

in ,

,

,

ve

f

,

of

,

of

,

is

circumscribed from the outset To the ideas Donatus and iomedes concerning the subject matter the meter and some the echanics individual genres critics now bring more subtle conceptions figures the sententiae the qualitative and quantita the style the kind parts and the specific reactions aroused the audience Consequently

—

his

to

.

—

as

ho

.

in

he

,

as a

Throughout this theorizing Aristotle enters much less prominently urce than had done the earlier years There are still commentators exemplar Maranta and insist that Horace used Aristotle examples abrini are but there are fewer than previously For the most

of

is

,

.

of

A

-

,

in

be

to

of

almost faddish use

Hermogenes

.

an

a

of

,

'

of

Demetrius On Style and confirm this supposition to

ould tend

.

we

),

if

en

tations

(

of

of

,

,

,

the Poetics are scattered and incidental centering about parallels andard and obvious resemblances and the main body contrary probably eory proceeds independently them On the there greater investigated mewhat use Plato this matter will later apters and Longinus have even seen one reference indications broadening inconsiderable ones the critical horizon few art references

,

of

of

a

)

(

197

in

of

,

of

an

of

a

to

us

In

of

practical criticism the domain the proliferation documents opinion estimating the state opportunity years affords ese literary types and number authors both number ith respect

POETIC THEORY ancient and modern . We have evaluations not only of the epic , tragedy , and comedy ( represented by Homer and Vergil, Sophocles and Euripides , and Terence ), but also of such newer forms as the sonnet ( Petrarch and

it

as

to

of

Lilio Gregorio Giraldi Most

a

a

or

of

-

of

,

,

on

;

to

his

Giovanni della Casa ) and the verse “ romanzo ” ( Ariosto ). It must be said immediately that some of this criticism represents no advance over earlier periods and might have been written at any time during the previous one hundred years ; I mean here on the one hand the compliments to the poet's genius, to operates faculties and knowledge the divine furor within him the other hand the repetition those time worn epithets that had constituted the only evaluative apparatus Pietro Ricci .

,

example

of

,

a

of

an

to

;

Grasso affords

Benedetto

.

an

or as

,

.

of

judgments from the comparison approach such

-

or

;

a

is

—

"

"

by

.

style But this these epithets refer epithets criticism now secondary tendency primarily writers are making some application through intention habit the theoretical positions evolved Frequently they begin the theorists did with comparison their author the orator the historian and derive

as

,

of

in

(

as

or

.

is

of

)

of

(

it

With even greater frequency undoubtedly because they regard poets more important they speak terms the ends achieved remark ing upon the peculiar qualities the delight procured the effectiveness with which the utility achieved This leads some critics such Grasso .

.

be

I

,

I

;

on

to

At

”

"

,

or

)

negative

,

a

to

make severe moral judgments the utility here being unacceptable moral lessons one and involving improper religious grounds but times the objections are believe that these belong rather discussing later For the Platonic mode which shall and Castelvetro

of

as

;

of

an

to

allegorical interpretation

.

of

an

means

of

to

by

them

,

by

in

.

its

of

its as

judges Menechini the chief value the poetry they considering positive were was contribution the moral improvement allegory still serves readers The old medieval justification auxiliary poetry certain poems the discussion the utilitarian ends whose moral lessons are not immediately discernible are endowed with such enthusiastic

of

of

.

,

as

primary Just for the theorists the problem verisimilitude was importance for the practical critics They asked constantly whether the ;

of

of

in an

by

as

;

,

of

is ,

as

,

,

it

,

"

,

;

:

,

be

It

.

to

"

a

in

poem were true life the answer for actions upon their conceptions Aristotle's necessity and probability for persons upon the laws de pointed out again that for such men corum should Castelvetro and Giuntini probability was always natural never artistic that producing actions life action was probable because they thought probable way the prior condi been made had not because the same actions and persons represented upon several criteria

depended

,

a

,

,

of

a

198

)

(

to

he

,

to

to

.

of

tions and preparations the poem itself As for decorum the requirements year until one wonders how grow stringent from year more seem given could have poet once character kind treat had elected

done otherwise than to copy in detail the treatments

on

of

predecessors

as .

CRITICISM

PRACTICAL

:

his

ARS POETICA

Speroni and Bartolomeo Maranta Vergil may serve practical criticism examples another typically rhetorical procedure that the inquiry into the invention disposition and elocution their making judgments upon subject poet Others course did the same the

,

of

,

an ,

,

his

,

the

.

(

of

to

of

of

a

to

in

plot construction half hearted approval his -

a

and giving

a

,

.

detail Vergil's deficiencies

character development diction

of

.

and handling in

examining

in

,

here

us

,

of

the two sets

,

);

(

conflation and practical critics alike effected typical dis terms Once again Speroni supplies with

have seen theorists

cussion

,

of

of

is

It

(

)

we

as

,

.

as

of

,

of

of

),

to

related

as

upon poet skill imitator other poets both invention upon his arrangement the parts his poem and dis especially upon his handling sometimes difficult diction tinguish treatments disposition invention and elocution from treat plot and character associated with ments such qualitative parts invention and thought and diction associated usually with elocution for

of

originality

of or

,

is ,

in

of

Sperone

style

.

of

to

aspects

of

.

analysis and praise

all

extreme case

but there were many others

of

quaestiones presents

of

an

of

of

to

all

,

an

of

the extent

of of of

to

of I

sententiae and which considerations practical period diction dominate the criticism this The use epithets describing style was not the tendencies accident for one questions rhetorical approaches was reduce critical questions long figures speech and ornaments Lucullianae Maranta's diction must emphasize

these maxims one

a

of

.

Hence the praise given the truth equally course have been

in of

,

,

so of ,

,

.

as

"

in

of

.

,

of

of

"

pearls the little wisdom contained satisfying parts the most the poems they read frequently bestowed upon the gravity the variety

found

of

,

of

.

of

in

is a

,

a

of

to

as

in of

,

of

all

so

not

were

is

if

,

which the intention was the same even prosodic monumental The whole matter excellence linked this same brand criticism since the sounds investigation subject words become much their sense The posi special one The seeker after moral usefulness tion sententiae again philosophical the lover wisdom the student mores and character the results

,

in

,

,

,

in

or

separate from them this the rest

.

it

to

,

in

;

works art the main they were content judge independently that component and

of

to

of

.

as

;

or

,

to

.

,

author's sententiae Such statements would appropriate philosophical maxims found orations histories writings anywhere else this the critics realized and admitted but the complete realization did not deter them Poems rarely existed for them

set

of

on

to

of

on

styles

)

199

,

find

a

we

of

writer like Castelvetro (

a

."

ex

-

of

.

)

( or

and

in

oped and expanded

“

,

interlocutors

it ,

for the habit

four

Horace himself had the pattern his remarks on the five act division drama on the three the deus machina Critics the Cinquecento devel

the three

on by

the basis

of

of

A

of

practical criti final result the application rhetorical theories judging cism was the habit the basis rules and conventions and

multiplicity

POETIC

THEORY

rules applied to the comedies of Plautus and Terence . It should not be thought , however , that anywhere nearly so elaborate a procedure is in volved here as was later to flourish in French neo - classical criticism ; but this is certainly a formative period for that later development . Judgment

of

200

]

[

.

his

fit

by asking whether the appropriate style was practiced and exploited in the right way was also popular , and it furnished another compartment into which the practicing critic could neatly remarks and asseverations

CHAPTER SIX . THE TRADITION OF HORACE'S ARS : IV . THE RETURN TO THEORY

POETICA

T

HE

LAST GENERATION of critics working in the Horatian mode , cover ing approximately the last twenty years of the sixteenth century , reverses the tendency of the preceding generation and returns largely

of poetic theory. The materials for the present chapter include only a few documents in the field of practical criticism , and these concern themselves with the sonnet The theoretical materials moreover commentary only are still only secondarily devoted the Ars poetica

,

,

;

to

on

.

all

to the cultivation

—

to

of

be

practical criticism may the period was being

of

in

on

,

in

-

,

;

on

the decline

the critical energy

BONCIANI AND PINO DA CAGLI

1578

,

of

problems that

poetic

the miscellaneous

prosopopeia

or

)

(

of

One

is

one sided

.

seem

-

this chapter

so

I

to

,

turned

it

the fact that much only toward the major literary quarrels then raging and quarrels separately because have chosen treat those that materials for

in

found

of of

partial explanation

A

.

arts

,

.

in

to

,

,

, of

a

,

on

-

-

possibly four three treatises belong this category Instead theorists produce large number particular genres short treatises the madri gal the sonnet the elegy comedy the verse romance which they apply Horatian principles these special forms they write besides poetic problems and miscellaneous the relationship the art other

per

of

his

of

as

of

prosopopeia

is

(

(

of

.

249–50

to

is

the

one ask how manoscritti

di

di

.

by

Nuove Attribuzioni 1952

),

“ (

III

,

201

)

(

.

.

,

.

",

,

1

On the attribution and the MSS see my article critica letteraria del Cinquecento Rinascimento MS Ricc 1539 fols 132–34v

added

If

of

,

,

) .2

,

—

is

it

that the special effect admiration speech and the moving ordinarily produced

hence

persuasion

2

in

of

,

in

so is

be

;

possible

is

); ( 2 )

here being applied

,

is

is

he

his own person Plato's imitation occurs whenever one repre any thing whatsoever sents the form habit and action Aristotle's justification objects which Rhetoric cited of the four categories may imitated the true the false the verisimilar and the impossible -prosopopeia imitates those false objects that are neither verisimilar nor distinction

not speaking

,

as

,

as

:

( 1 )

an

.

,

;

the last

or

inanimate objects imitating because poet ,

,

by

.

in a

of

an of

is

is

in

it

.

gives several ways

speech

one imitation and hence marvelous Bonciani which this figure imitation insofar animals incorporeal beings are represented speaking the

For

the most effective

is

it

,

harmony and figures

,

,

verse

in

poetics make lecture little which principles simple the fundamental are and few number All speech per accompanied suades and moves especially when such ornaments the treatment

to

expands

as

,

in

so

of

,

sonification Francesco Bonciani's Lettione della proso popea read before the Accademia Fiorentina 1578.1 But Bonciani forms the object

POETIC

THEORY

."

3

in

,

and because this marvel ,

had not known before

accompanied

by a be ,

it ;

is

at

it

of

learning what

experiences

the audience

extreme pleasure

.

an

process

thus something which has never been and cannot

marvels

is

as

imitation

the audience

is

as

object

of

all

it is feasible to imitate things which do not exist , the answer is that we assemble into a nonexistent whole parts which we know from nature : “ since we have known various things, our fancy sometimes confuses the natures of these things , making of them a new nature different from the others far the whole concerned but similar the parts Since the

,

.

in

,

as it

,

to ,

do

,

to

to

of to

is

graces

.

in

,

to

be

transmits the ignorant lessons which they need but would understanding any more recondite form Pleasure insofar merely

an

as

incapable

of

,

Aesop

it

of

of

an

;

he is

is

he

quoting Aristotle when Bonciani mentions the pleasure which accompanies learning but really preparing the way for the develop ment idea that has nothing with Aristotle namely that the triple end prosopopeia delight and persuade When instruct figure apologues the takes the form animal did Hesiod and

no

art

.

it

of

to

in

a

:

to

This above

in

be is

. “

character

all

it

,

a

conformity with

every one

;

of

to

—

in

of

is

imagined for person must each person only such speeches and actions his

are

in

as

be

given

and

be to

be

may

to

dwelling

,

keeping with his station

of

a

if

;

place

or

to

all

assigned

of

,

,

it .

of

of

of

the

are

in

,

whereas

so

doing they incompletely fulfil the purposes their persuade orators who exploit prosopopeia order through apologues and the invention making supposed persons much more proper use Poet orator and philosopher alike must appropriateness prosopopeia follow the prime rule their handling attributes must conform the nature the object which they are in

delight but

,

,

.

A

the utilitarian ends

achievement

a

is

,

of

it

means and instrument for the more philosophical poet like Dante proper express abstract and divine ideas for which will use the figure language poets employ solely words exist the Some for purposes these stories

. ” 4 ,

to

it

(

he is

.

is

of

,

In

to

so

us

,

of

,

in

our discourses that evil mores shall not things belong introduced and that we should speak with due reverence ing religion with matter for ridicule that these will not supply general the verisimilitude prosopopeia comparable any other once the initial impossibility has been granted treating and Concerning the figure which has been seen that this observed

,

of

to

on

,

la

fantasia nostra confonde talhora hauendo noi uarie cose conosciute ogni altra differente ma simile nelle tutto una quanto

]

202

."

il

da

la

,

in

è

ogni nostro parlare che osseruarsi cosa debita riuerenza delle cose alla religione pertinenti con ridicolo cauarne somministrino materia

si rei

da

questo sopr'ogni

: “

139

[

, in

fauelli

fol

non s'introducano guisa che elle non

, ci e

costumi

.

Ibid

.,

4

. "

,

nature d'esse formandone

parti

to

,

nature indicates the ends and offers recommendations for the da

: “

fol 135v .

.,

3 le

Ibid

the imitation

made

,

the relationships

is

establishes

for which the imitation

of

a

of

a

),

Bonciani thus figure may sometimes provide the basis for whole poem general theory starts from diction passes one imitation

ARS POETICA

TO THEORY

RETURN

:

internal organization of the work or the part of the work involved . At almost every one of these points , except perhaps the theory of diction , we find him in complete agreement with the many theorists who preceded him in the Horatian - rhetorical tradition . That popular literary exercise , the defence of poetry, takes the special form of defence of comedy in the Discorso intorno al componimento de la comedia de ' nostri tempi, which , in 1578 , Bernardo Pino da Cagli published as an adjunct to Sforza d'Oddo's Erofilomachia ; the discourse itself is dated 1572. Pino feels that he must justify comedy against the opinion currently held : Today, this composition should either be abandoned altogether or else treated with much care and diligence , for it has come to such a state in the opinion of the masses that for the most part they regard it as a simple tale , vain and without profit, and as the work of a low mind , considering not the true artifice present in it and the utility that is had from it , when it is prudently written and treated , but the baseness of certain authors . . . . This results from no other thing than from the false opinion that is held with respect to the end of that type of work ; whereas this should be to profit by means of the ridiculous , on the contrary the ridiculous is proposed as the end , to give pleasure alone by means of obscenity and ugliness .

If the

masses err in this way , erudite men and certain poets err in another , by a faulty interpretation of Aristotle's remarks on comedy ; for the scholars read the Poetics as justifying the imitation of low and vile persons, the poets take it as permitting the imitation of vice . The antidote to these

positions is obviously the restatement of the proper ends and the correct construction of the Aristotelian text . The ends are Horatian : to give pleasure and profit by means of laughter and without harm to the specta tors ( p . al0v ) . These ends require a reinterpretation of Aristotle , for vice could under no circumstances generate pleasure , and abject and immoral could not possibly provide acceptable moral lessons . Instead , Aristotle meant that the personages of comedy are less noble and less exalted than those of tragedy , being gentlemen and private citizens rather than kings and princes (we return to the medieval differentiation of genres persons

by the station of the actors ) ; and the ugliness he spoke of excluded im morality , dishonesty , and obscenity and referred only to deformity and disproportion . In fact, the vices , sins , and actions of comedy are less repre hensible

than those

wickedness

of

tragedy , where

the

really monstrous deeds of

occur . , tal

-

,

,

&

,

ne

Il

se

&

tal

ò a

si

il .

,

,

il

si

."

)

203

si

di

&

,

in

&

è

,

ha la

, o

il

,

si

,

...

quale del fine cotal opera come douerebbe cosi per contrario mette per fine ridiculo per della brutezza

(

da la ,

,

&

,

il

altro che falsa opinione che giouare col mezzo del ridiculo essere piacer solo col mezzo della dishonestade

:

,

di

,

;

da

è

da

&

, ò

componimento 5 Discorso ( 1578) , pp . a6 a6v : " al di d'oggi douerebbe fatto diligenza trattare poiche lasciare con molto studio venuto conditione opinione del volgo che piu l'hanno per simplice fauola vana per opera infruttuosa prende quando vile ingegno considerando non vero artifitio d'esso l'utile che prudentemente scritto trattato ma bassezza d'alcuni autori che non prouiene

POETIC THEORY

his subjects

But composi

of

kind

: "

at

Comedy

times remain the same

.

.

the comic poet new mores and new actions

the form will

all

present

is a as is ,

to

its

Since it is an imitation of life, says Pino , comedy will change as life changes , but only with respect to materials That new times will

to

its

,

:

of of

Its

"

,

“

.

,

,

,

in

.”

be

to

,

it

in

;

so ,

it

, its its

tion which retaining always the same form changes from time time always had five acts always complication and that good denouement order immutable rules for form are found entirely would seem almost Horace rules for the handling the chorus rules for diction rules for decorum The latter are really two kinds since they involve the proper circumstances for any given action matter

,

In

.

both the spectator must impression seeing represented have the nature herself and the principal wisdom the poet will consist his knowledge decorum and circum stances Indeed Pino's generalization upon them almost constitutes comedy comedy definition the whole body we wish consider

a

“

of

on ,

,

,

all

, to

of

.

,

in

a

“

,

be

to

to

”

of

an

.

metaphorical turn An Aristotelian

of

to

,

of

." 7

expressed

in

must

his condition

of of

these matters

be

condition

if

of

: "

speaking and ways person the addressed and ,

of

,

maxims sayings

divers passions thoughts and Each person presented the

with proverbs apposite that will both the the circumstances Finally preferably beautiful language noted this dis would have 1578 qualitative comedy parts the four

of

stage must

nothing else but the matter familiar conversations speak according made to

be

actions treated

in

is

carefully

,

it

of

,

.”

in

of

;

of

and the proper behavior for any given person

he

,

is a

is

,

the utilitarian value

.

Giason Denores published short treatise which that have been discussing was

It

.

,

the tendencies

I

sense reversed

a

the same year 1578

tre

is

which the most important thing

said

,

a In

in

of what

in

comedy

of

theory

is

of

of

;

,

,

,

the rules

plot character

,

enumeration thought and diction but also would have noted that thought that the the other three are really transformed into functions destroyed parts hierarchy moralistic what remains and that the cussion

of

to

,

, it di

of

in

,

to

of

I

an

.

a

of

all in

at

it

i

entitled Introduttione sopra libri della Rhetorica Aristotile and since might seem not dealt with the Rhetoric rather than the Poetics history poetic theory But whereas most belong the theorists poetics have analyzed heretofore had effected assimilation rhetoric the present work detaches one whole part rhetoric Denores

as

is

at

.

),

,

,

,

si

,

."

)

(

204

attioni

,

&

pensieri

famigliari

se

." :

il

affetti

di

diuersi

,

di

che materia

la

,

di

la

in

: “ di E la : “

., .p , ,

e'l

., .p

6

il

7

Ibid

siderarla

to

componimento comedia vna sorte che ritenendo sempre mede tempo tempo materia che haueua sempre cinque atti sempre suo scioglimento per essere bona corpo della Comedia vogliamo bene con b7v non essendo altro tutto

Ibid a7v sima forma muta suo nodo

he

by

(

in

of

it

poetics The part from that science and attaches issue the materials contained Book III the Rhetoric which Denores summarizes including action which means histrionics elocution and disposi

trattata

con ragionamenti

ARS POETICA

RETURN

:

THEORY

TO

-

tion . He maintains that , according to Aristotle's conception , only those namely , proper and which contribute directly to persuasion common propositions , examples , and enthymemes - belong to rhetoric ; elements

III

treated in Book

the elements

are hence not substantial , and the book

in the Aristotelian corpus . Why with the Poetics ? Since action , elocution , and disposition contribute nothing to rhetorical proof , be it demonstrative , ethical , or pathetic , and since they have as their sole purpose to give pleasure , to add beauty , to beguile the listener , their affiliation is clearly much closer with poetics and poetics than with sister art fact they belong primarily really should have been placed elsewhere

,

to

,

;

in

is

,

,

it

is

The implication that the specific domain amusing the the idle and that not con

accidental

the pleasurable

,

rhetoric

is

of

poetry

is

in

their use

.

its

not , then , placed

an

cerned with more serious purposes.8 dis La

is

to

by

is

to

its

,

In

.

of

IV

in ,

of

),

(

of

to a

of

,

.

figures

I,

In

of

.

to

,

be

,

;

,

"

it by be is

,

by

,

,

.”

9

to

"

,

,

a

is in

,

is ,

he

;

of

. "

of

so

he

,

be

to

take before beginning the task

,

is ,

however one prior step that the poet must expression must discover the materials through invention way the expressed and does which poetry most important aspect And when the invention beautiful .

and possibly thought There

“

of

no

,

is

is

he

,

by

,

,

.

to

figures topical passages beautiful and the other parts appropriate well regulated poetry any parts consideration above and beyond diction

ornamented

graceful style and

Clearly there

to It of

,

by

beautiful

he

;

if

in

to

,

to

,

discourse the consultative delibera and the judicial these the first two are more proper well for would therefore the orator the poet the third going the poet know which type write but not absolutely lovely and necessary even does not his compositions may several

the three kinds

or

of

the demonstrative

:

is

tive

in

,

in

is

,

of

or

of

one

no

,

In a

this approach appear the dedication and commonplaces poetry are once Book the former the the defence again collected together and there need retail them Book the whole principle the work stated Everything that one says falls under I.

justification

,

of of

of

and

including

listing topics are devoted passions bases figures demonstration thought respectively More general materials and

,

II,

III ,

in

art

;

of

:

speech

,

of

Books

means arguments

he

of

the work

which

in

of

of

,

of

inverse method we return what almost perfect poetry rhetoricizing Giovanni Andrea Gilio's the topica poetica author wishes 1580 the title itself shows that topics poetry cover rhetorical the fact this the main endeavor

After this case

example

10 ,

'

."

in

,

a

,

), be di .p . 1 bv la : , “ , 64 c, di a , e è .gt , , , e e

to

be

it

,

,

,

well ordered and well clothed and well ornamented with words with figures with topical passages and with beautiful style may said not only perfect but perfect the highest degree and well conceived

205

)

(

."

perfetta ma perfettissima

e

,

, e

Si

:

,

di

di

di

."

,

di

-

),

,

(

., , .p e

4v di : " E

e

10

9

(

8

g3v Introduttione 1578 pp Topica poetica 1580 vaghi figure luoghi topici belli ornati bello vago stile d'altre parti conueneuoli ben regolata poesia quando Ibid inuentione bella bene intesa ben ordinata ben vestita parole figure luoghi Topici potrà dire non solo bene ornata bello stile

POETIC

THEORY

Invention itself is a product of imitation , either of nature

art , or fortune .

,

or of earlier poets taken as models ; imitation , in turn , applies to disposition and elocution as well as to invention . Throughout Gilio's treatise , the Horatian references are numerous , but they are always altered in the direction of a more purely rhetorical ap proach . For example , Horace's statement of the ends of poetry is expanded from two to four : to delight, to profit , to move or persuade , and to be sweet or agreeable ( referring to the " dulcia sunto " of line 99 ) . All would seem to be achieved when words are correctly suited to matter . The subject

of variety leads to a discussion of the mixture of styles and of the three styles in general. The quantitative parts distinguished are the proem , the narration , and the invocation . Decorum boils down to the “ proportion , correspondence , or conformity that style has with subject matter . " 11 All roads thus lead to diction and to the specific topics which Gilio is treating. He shows how the demonstrative , deliberative, and judicial types are used by Dante and Petrarch , how Petrarch and Ariosto may be used as models

of style , how native and foreign words may be properly mixed . This limita tion of the examples to Italian poets is an interesting feature of the work . From the dual ends of pleasure and instruction , Torquato Tasso derives as much of the theory of epic poetry as he presents in the Allegoria del poema printed with the 1581 edition of the Gerusalemme Liberata . The whole passage merits quotation : Heroic poetry , like an animal in which two natures are conjoined , is composed of imitation and of allegory . With the former it attracts the minds and the ears of men to itself and delights them in a wonderful way ; with the latter it instructs them in the virtues or in knowledge , or in both together . And just as epic imi tation is never anything else but a resemblance and image of human action , so the allegory of the epic poets is wont to be for us a figuration of human life. But imitation concerns the actions of man which are subject to the external senses , and laboring mainly over these, it tries to represent them with effective and ex

deeds . Allegory , on

the

pressive words and ones apt to place clearly before the physical represented ; nor does it consider characters or passions or the the mind insofar as these are intrinsic , but only insofar as they accompany action by manifesting themselves in speech and in

eyes the things discoursings of

issue forth and actions and in

of

it

stile co'l sog

.

c'ha

lo

conformità

, . 12

;

in

corrispondenza

et si gli

,

à in

,

è

,

“

lv :

**

L'Heroica Poesia Quasi Animale d'Allegoria composta con quella alletta

& , ** & 1 -

.pp

1581 d'imitatione ),

(

,

gli

gli

se

Perchacino coniungano

de

,

Allegoria

cui due Nature

gli si ed .

12

.”

getto

o

quella proportione

,

10 : "

Ibid

., .p

11

be

by

,

,

as

,

contrary concerns passions and opinions and characters their intrinsic being and these are apparent but mainly not only insofar signifies them more obscurely with what one might call mysterious notes and fully understood only things which can those who know the nature

de

,

,

,

,

gli

,

206

)

(

, è

,

,

&

.

,

è,

, è

gli

, ( e )

&

,

marauigliosamente animi orecchi huomini diletta con questa nella nella scienza nell'una nell'altra amaestra come l'Epica imitatione imagine d'attione humana cosi suole l'Allegoria altro giamai non che somiglianza Epici dell'humana Vita esserci figura Ma l'imitatione riguarda l'attioni dell'huomo che Virtù

TO THEORY

RETURN

:

all

ARS POETICA

:

in

.

of

;

,

,

or

of

be

,

of

,

or

of

its

of

,

, Tasso states that since the epic wishes to represent life works will depict the life the soul the contemplative life others the life the body the civil life the Odyssey and the Divina the latter the former the Iliad and the Aeneid Commedia are examples figured graphically The whole dichotomy may the following way

Furthermore

some

Epic poetry imitation

allegory

delights

teaches virtue passions opinions characters

(b

)

of

obscure presentation things those who know nature ody soul (

(

men

)

all

,

,

,

external actions appearance clear presentation

)

,

attracts

contemplative life Odyssey

civil life Iliad

Dante

Aeneid

in

to

its

,

,

;

of

,

of

,

;

a

of to

,

of

:

in

Several points are significant this analysis first the importance placed upon the allegorical interpretation importance literature equal the Middle Ages second the restricted conception imitation which comes external actions third the division mean literal and simple portrayal he

it ),

as

( as

all .

of

of

.

a

of

of

poem providing pleasure and utility the functions the two parts writing When Tasso was speaking the epic well was occupying himself with the genre that many Renaissance theorists con When Filippo Massini delivered his sidered the most important in

to

of

.

to

,

to

as

as

by

;

,

,

”

,

it

. “

,

style

of

,

subject matter

of

be

”

”

of

“

of

might thought belonging Regulation for Massini involves metrical pattern for the madrigal this

indicate how poems free

of

of

fixity

,

form them and the other category

to

by

“

a

to

of

of

all

,

he

,

he

,

to

,

Del madrigale

at

Perugia the Accademia degli Insensati the was about admitted with becoming modesty that treat the smallest and weakest Tuscan verse forms The object his lecture was contest the assertions Ruscelli and Minturno that the madrigal was regulated deny the limitations placed upon the poem lecture

same year 1581

in in a

in all

.

a

,

is

,

is

or

, in

, on in

.

,

),

a

in

use

(

rustic materials recommended Bembo and Minturno treated low style eleven twelve lines rhyming set way Massini contends the contrary that the madrigal free general fashion these respects His authority Aristotle's statement means exclusive

ad

;

its

of

: “

, to

,

he

paraphrases thus Poetics 1447b13 which the quality the verse does distinguish poem substantially poem not the use this term the takes

&

,

&

,

à

)

;

207

)

(

di

à , gli

gli

, ò i

.

(

le

,

&& i

[

se

, à ò

,

in i

&

,

&

nè

,

da i

, ,

le

,

."

&

,

&

&

le

,

ne

;

;

le

&

à i

sono sensi esteriori sottoposte intorno esse principalmente affaticandosi cerca por chiaramente dinanzi rappresentarle con parole efficaci espressiue atte occhi corporali rappresentate affetti discorsi dell'animo costumi considera cose inquanto essi sono intrinseci quanto parlare ma solamente fuori n'escono nel gli atti L'Allegoria all'incontro nell'opere manifestandosi accompagnano ll'attione passioni opinioni rimira costumi non solo inquanto essi apparino ma principal piu oscuramente significa con note per cosi dire mente nel lor essere intrinseco pieno com misteriose che solo conoscitori della Natura delle cose possono essere prese

POETIC

THEORY

of

or

,

,

.

all

be ,

of

is

of

it

all

may

all

at

no is

,

as

of

of

proper and more fitting which however not distinguished matter which one ,

practices

since pleasantness

"

to ,

along the line The best without any doubt more the very agreeable nature this composition incapable gravity The style should preferable

.” 14

,

,

subjects

be :

,

it

low There are however are the light ones .

or

he

. "' 13

to

of

its

quality from the quality the plot the thought that one admitting write about Since thinks the madrigal any subject matter may thus admit any one the styles high middle form and undertakes

,

in

,

,

,

,

,

be

,

be

in its

,

,

,

the poem

to

In

,

,

,

I

else that the madrigal should contain some rare ingenious thought very pure and artful and and and that elocution should thought graver madrigals that both and elocution the should such that they would produce honesty dignity majesty magnificence and greatness and the more amusing ones grace suavity loveliness sweetness jokes and playful expressions.15

should wish then above

.”

be

it

he ;

By

:

“

be ,

,

a

it

”

“

,

of

up”

“

fixed number

is

free the extent that does not have lines that some unrhymed lines are permitted and that intermingled with versi interi But Massini never mezzi versi may theless sets certain rules must not contain fewer than five lines and preferably should not have more than twenty rhymes should not more the verse form

,

by

in

be ,

,

it

,

of

a

185

).

by

by

evolving one's own rules and then following them

173–74

,

(

)

,

other poet consistently

2

:

)

or ( 1 .pp (

of

is

.

way than five lines apart conclusion states that like the canzone essentially may regulated the madrigal free form but that one accepting and following the form practiced two ways some

.

,

a

In

reaction against some Horace's specific prescriptions join the But one breaks away from Horace here only ranks the rhetoricians associated with him current thinking The three appropriateness thought styles invention and elocution the principle produced and diction specific effects the diction these are part

of

to

for

be a

attempt may

.

it

as

of

)

a

go of

(

,

a

it

to

-

to at

in

;

an

attempt liberation from the rule of Massini's analysis represents thumb poetizing which had given substance the late medieval and early belongs Renaissance prosodic treatises broader sense the general contention over freedom and regulation extending far beyond prosodic permanent concern Cinquecento theory We shall matters which was along meet many other examples we minor way this

,

all

of

.

of in

by

,

be

La

il pp .

.

the contemporary tradition

13

of

,

to

,

of

.

the drama

,

, e

la

, e

..

,

)

(

208

gli

,

, e e i la

la ,

,

, la

,

la

, e

'l

,

,

."

giochi

,

,

, la

la , , , e la

'l

, &

,

, la

,

, e

,

, e

&

15

di

di

,

."

à

),

, il : “

la

: “

: “

,

., .p ., ." .p

14

, e ,

(

In

qualità del verso non qualifica per vsar questo Lensioni 1588 168-69 quale prende qualità sua dalla qualità della termine sostantialmente Poema forma fauola del concetto che s'imprende scriuere piaceuolezza senz'alcun dubbio più propria più propor Ibid 173 essendo questo componimento tionata alla natura piaceuolissima non incapace però affatto grauità Ibid 181 Desidererei poi sopra tutto che'l Madrigale hauesse concetto raro ingegnoso quello nei Madrigali più l'elocution purissima artifitiosa che questa graui fossero tali che producessero l'honestà dignità magnificenza maestà vaghezza gratia grandezza scherzi dolcezza suauità nei più piaceuoli

ARS POETICA

TO THEORY

RETURN

:

1581 , the Plantin press published an edition of Cicero's genere optimo oratorum , with a commentary containing several pages De of remarks specifically devoted to poetics; it was written by Giovanni

by

at

of

.

poetica just two years before the beginning Cicero's

to

It

be

Antonio Viperano , who had published pointed out that the passage should

De

his

In the same year ,

which these remarks refer had been used repeatedly writers those who were intent upon establishing airtight divi sions between the genres and scholars working the text Horace genres but system Viperano also uses somewhat incorrectly estab different way indeed attacks previous divisions

.

a

in

of

on

strange

an

as

,

of

set

a

between Aristotle and the human actions and human actions are two sorts Either they are good and virtuous and merit praise they are bad and vicious and merit blame Hence one may vituperatio provide they for classify poems for the former laus ,

,

cross

imitation

“

”

or .

”

of

an

of

“

is , as

,

or

.

of

.

,

he

.

is

lished

of

His own solution says rhetoricians Poetry

is

it

,

;

up by a

especially

he to ,

poetry

,

on

treatise

.

'

,

,

its

)

of

(

its

for

.

,

to

;

or

accurate (

.

course

,

reflection Averroës system To lyric and the laudative poems belong the melic derivatives the epic the vituperative comedy Having thus classified the genres and tragedy Viperano then indicates subject matter usually persons each one the latter This

).

)

of

style

,

, of at

(

( of a

its

its

kind

,

),

),

life

(

its

,

at a

so in

action happy the beginning unhappy the end and forth combination sententiae and diction Unfortunately most and meter iambic hexameter the materials given station

to

is

learned from

study

circumstances

mixed

all

,

argues that although distinct one from another

:

,

no

of

so

.”

comoedia turpe tragicum

they are

in

to

Viperano takes occasion insist tragoedia comicum Itaque He &

,

,

“

on

his

Cicero

the sentence

the genus poetry

that they can under

...

gloss

be

in

&

uitiosum belong

poems

to

est ,

continues upon the meaning

of

he

As

.

,

nothing new

be

-

,

here are the time worn ones from Donatus and Diomedes with occasional

additions from Horace and there ing them

is

it

if

,

of

in a of

or

up in a

to

of

.

,

,

be

,

a

of

poetry one cannot the forms associated with another given the fact separate and distinct nature Since then tragedy imitates the that they have improper and actions illustrious men and comedy those humble men faulty and contrary the nature either one comic and humorous matters . .

.

of

a

12 : “

. 16

of

.

de

16

,

to

,

in

in

do

,

tragedy comedy tragic upheavals are employed are brought comedy and tragedy differ only Nor the diverse imitation illustrious and ordinary actions but also grave and sublime dic diction For tragedy uses tion comedy instead descends the familiar usage almost pure talk ), .p

(

&

&

."

oratione

)

209

vtitur

,

&

.

(

ad

verò

res

&

,

, si

&

sed etiam oratione Nam tragoedia graui sublimi vsitatam ferè puri sermonis consuetudinem sese dimittit

,

differunt

...

in

,

,

ac

est ,

in

,

vt

,

. in

In

optimo genere oratorum commentarius 1381 poëticae formarum Ciceronis quae propriam habcant distinctamque altera alterius consociationem venire non potest naturam Quando igitur virorum illustrium actioncs tragoedia imitatur comoedia humi lium indecorum vitiosum repugnansque cuiusque naturae aut comicae tragoedia excitentur aut iocosae comoedia tragicae perturbationes adhibeantur neque solùm diuersa actionum illustrium tragoedia humilium imitatione comoedia comoedia

is

is

;

on

he .

a

certain kind

of

-

subject earlier distinguished the basis having specific separate words and tonal effect

of

a

each

,

in

"

"

"

to

,

the genres

"

he

has added

of

by

to

assigns

matter

THEORY

thinking Viperano does not feel that the distinction verba res this conclusion borne the commentary on the following sentence Cicero where

As elsewhere in complete until out

his

POETIC

With Roberto Titi's Locorum

a

)

to

poetica

an

,

,

”

.

of

to

“

of

(

controversorum 1583 we return briefly fragmentarily large number and the text Horace Titi's work treats many pretending improve disputed points from ancient authors upon earlier interpretations and included are two texts from the Ars

,

of

17

."

,

,

,

est ,

“

is

is

of

.

in

"

,

of

.

...

“

is

ff .,

The first lines 408 Natura fieret laudabile carmen which treats the general question art and nature the poet Titi's original contribution his insistence that even the combination art and nature not sufficient and that the poet must possess also effort opportunity love exercise time judgment The second remark concerns arte

,

a

of

on

"

“

.

as

,

of

"

a

to .

Difficile

.

128

“

ff .,

proprie communia dicere on the use general theory new and borrowed materials Titi extends the meaning imitation with special emphasis the parts model which the poet concerning both should imitate He sees imitation materia and lines

"

"

to

in

is "

“

illustrate

low

as

all

to

he

,

is

chosen

suspect that the criterion being applied

by

.

a

again

The fact that the example

Catullus leads one moral one

to

.

and nondescript passages

on

;

to

be

,

)

to

."

(a

"

The particular passage Horace refers materia only and ccording point poet Titi makes the that the should select those passages for imitation which are splendid and noble which will enable the poet brilliant the other hand should avoid such are low verba

"

“

to

,

.

to

,

a

to

be

to

of (P

a

be

of

.

his )

pp

.

,

to

,

of

,

,

: (1 )

of

is

them

,

poetic theory the doctrine consistent and unified and may reduced few major poetry are not immutable but change with the The laws times with audiences with the wishes the patrons who order them and rologue age with the subject matters that are different from age prologue Altile 7–8 An example such change would his use found points

in

are five prologues containing reflections

on

,

it is

to

.

,

,

,

In

1583 also Giraldi Cintio's tragedies were collected and published Prologues his son Celso and thus the verse the various tragedies were printed for the first time They had probably been written many years impossible Although there assign exact dates earlier but them

,

a

is

on

to

of .

a

,

.) ( 3 )

.

a

to

,

to

)

pp

,

(

his

,

be ;

,

.

comedy

( 2

,

a

tragedies

in

of

in

practice unknown the ancients who used tragic Tragedy does not need have ending but may end happily when after turmoil and sadness happy the case with ending ensues the play may called tragicomedy This tragedy are give own Altile Prologue 8-9 The ends each

prologues only

]

[

210

.

, .

.

,

,

Amor exercitium xxii pp 219-20 ,

VIII

ch .

,

sumptus ,

,

, .p

II,

),

."

,

,

(

Locorum controversorum 1583 xxiii tempus Iudicium opportunitas For the second passage

: cf. 56 “ bk .

ch .

bk .

17

is

in

,

to

provide utility with the emphasis decidedly pleasure and the latter This the one point most insistently repeated the various prologues

ARS POETICA the

RETURN

:

THEORY

TO

kind of utility varying from prologue to prologue . In Aliile, for

example : Vedrete adunque in questa nostra Altile Quanta inconstanza è ne l'humane cose . che per mal oprar mai non gioisce Vn animo maluagio , e che conuiene

E

Ch'auenga quel , ch'è statuito in Cielo Dal supremo Motor , che il tutto regge , Con quella sua ineffabil prouidenza ( p . 9 ) .

The lessons

: the

inconstancy of human affairs ; the wicked are never happy ; expressed through Providence , will be done .

will of God , In Didone , the

the

gli

same moral as the one taught by the ancient poets who borrowed subjects from Homer :

E

,

lead men

to a

pity and terror

7 ).

( .p

,

gli

miglior vita

to

through purgation

of

:

The utility

vana ridurle

à

Da

la

E,

de

,

,

l'esposero in scena , a occhi altrui Per purgar l'humane alme col terrore altrui casi con compassion

better

statement

first about the dual end

of

to

Cleopatra

gli

da

:

In

the Prologue dramatic poetry

a

.

life

,

,

,

,

( .p 7 ).

il

di

that wealth and power are nothing

:

.

by

Then the specific moral this tragedy unless accompanied virtue

primo luoco

:

Tragedia

of

la

Ottiene

In

sorti maggior loda le

E

Fra quelle nondimen

Arrenopia

scena

,

,

le

Che fauole ben condutte benche d'esse sian varie

in , e

,

ue

i

al

le

Fra cose trouate antichi Per insegnare buon costumi Mondo gioui Nulla n'hà che piu diletti

,

,

Hor qui vedrete spettatori

quanto ,

il

,

a

)

1211

9-10

appetite

,

resist the promptings

of

).

( .pp

,

,

,

the truth

.

see

The conclusions one must obey one's superiors

ch'à guerra piu potenti Regi

scandali i

di

il

cagione

Inducon spesso :

in

il

à

il

E E Et Ci

apporti danno non vedere vero l'appetito preda lasciarsi che non vbedire suoi maggiori

POETIC From the Prologue to Selene

THEORY

gli

:

,

di

,

,

& &

di

,

&

E Di

, e

spettatori Perche ueggendo indi Varie sembianze d'huomini donne uarij vffici qualità diuerse varij costumi varie leggi in

se

da

tanta ,

il

,

costumi ischiuare biasmo

,

loda

di

of

,

à

men and women

to

via the divers kinds

reo

in

&

,

demonstrate

,

:

The purpose

to

à

,

ueder che chiunque uirtù segue Giunge buon fine chi'l mal segue

( .p 9 ).

,

& , &

la

Et

genti

di

Varietà Seguir

;

uarie sorti

,

,

Sortir diuersi fini Fatti acuti sapesser

,

the dignity

the persons

,

,

decorum

the audience which

in ,

single day

of

on

,

gives some

brief remarks be on

to —

these examples

,

a

the action within

—

be

to

-

he

enumerates be

of

of to

the inclusion

in

of

to

as

is a

of ,

Giraldi

presented how they should actions and the general tone

to up it . of

on on

indications the fitting

.

shunned as

-to

as

be ,

of

.

is

it

be

.

,

to

;

to

to ,

happiness and the world and the ends they come that virtue leads unhappiness and through the demonstration vice make the specta tors wary and wise utility involved and how There can little doubt here the kind place for examples achieved The stage both characters and proper kinds actions behavior followed and improper kinds

to

he

.

to

)

of

in

a

to (

of

it

)

(

1584

to

to

;

is

18

,

in

),

,

of

an

(

in

poesia toscana written illuminating treatment

in

the subtitle

,

Torquato Tasso's dialogue La Cavaletta overo della expect 1584 published 1587 one led poetry expectation the vernacular and this

of

TORQUATO TASSO

From

"

"

is

of

spoken thousands and must terms precepts accessible Giraldi's own are accessible this way and show smattering what elements Horatian theory with Aristotle possible deemed and worth while address the pit and the boxes made

people

,

by

, .

of

,

Tempo supplemented two medieval theorists Dante and Antonio Hermogenes Ideas and the truisms classical rhetoric

'

a

in

by

.

da

,

of

is a

it

.

, is

by

,

by

is

proceed further aroused when one discovers that Tasso means practical and deductive fashion comparing two sonnets one Fran Giovanni della Casa Some illumination cesco Coppetta and one provided But light out indeed the past coming largely from

" )

,

19

“ a

as

in

]

(

212

.

: "

fictio una fizione

, .p c : "

1529

396 129

), ), I, .p

,

of

Trissino translation

musica

,

Roma 1895 Florence 1896

(

,

Torino Rajna

P. (

of

the

.”

In

.

,

In di

in

posta

musicaque posita

Torquato Tasso the edition

."

, e

rettorica

...

in

rethorica

,

,

On the date see Solerti Vita De vulgari eloquentia Il.iv.2 in

19 18

he

”

(“

to

is

of

poetry Tasso's starting point Dante's definition rhetorical posta fiction set music una fintione Retorica musica for which finds corroboration Plato's statement from the Gorgias that

ARS POETICA

RETURN

:

are better than those who do

is “ a deceit in which the deceivers

tragedy

THEORY

TO

not and the deceived are wiser than those who are not deceived . " Poets , rhetoricians , musicians , actors are all “ dissimulators . " Aristotle deceive ,

would

have

called

( except

imitators

them

for the

rhetorician ) , but art

it is clear that Tasso does not mean to speak in the same way as Aristotle .

of

to

so

,

,

of

as

his

.

of

.

at

” 20

,

,

: " is

,

to

Dissimulation involves , among other things , the hiding of the effects of speak the dissimulation the hide the deceit and itself Thus artistry compari highest develops length art the Tasso some the sons the poet with the orator and the musician Unlike the logician argument who uses induction and the syllogism forms the orator ,

is

in

;

,

.

exists

,

"

even though the argument may poetry the argument concealed

sense argues

In

and hence formally stated

it in a

be

“

example

not

.

by

,

and these are the same forms and the example uses the enthymeme the poet Generally anybody who imitates imitates some

employed

cer "

is

their weakness able

Dante's

conclude with be

as it is

and Tasso

.

of

“

,

of

;

is a

the highest

some

the lower ones must

it

poetry

,

respect

sign

of

only accidentally with

all ,

at

it

an

as

additional ornament

thus now fully explained

is

it

have

the more

,

which the latter

associated

since the latter may dispense with indeed genres do not need and the fact that some

definition

as

by

,

it is

,

).

“

of

of

is ” a ( .p

;

of

.

As

of

,

in

for music

,

poetry

poetry

poems are parallel with

reflection the divisive 36v Finally both arts are

its to

kinds

of

of

,

,

certain

arguments tain kinds the canzone argument the sonnet compositive the compounded sententiae and elocution

important

to ;

,

I

of

to

,

Furthermore

of

themselves

to as

it

,

,

.

is

to

." 21

,

,

in

"

and this makes

all

per the more effective far poet persuade suasion concerned For the like the orator wishes truth through reading the poets have been greatly persuaded glory and honor virtue and almost more than the philosophers

some fictional form

its

“

in

. ” 22

excessive and intemperate

it

Tasso holds that

in

has various

of

he

the sonnet

means various rhyme schemes

.

.

”

.

In

“

a

,

one dominant style

31 : ." " Il

,

be

of

"

or

"

be

, . è VI (

mixed but there will

which

)

(

213

,

,

, e

e

la

la

."

da

e

."

37 : " , il e

i

,

), .p

,

36 : “

e

&

,

22

. & ., , , .p .p

21

In

per cosi dire 1587 nasconder dunque l'inganno 11 sommo artificio Ibid Veramente leggendo Poeti molto sono stato persuaso all'honore alla gloria quasi piu che alla virtù filosofi stessi genere suo quasi Ibid materia sarà fintione sue forme aranno Rethorica Musica la

prose Vol Rime dissimulatione dell'arte

of

)

"

of

"

or

“

"

,

sonnet the style may 20

"

is “

a

in of

,

is

of

and that each these the Ideas characters diction The determin ing factor every case the nature the subject matter Thus Coppetta's very noble subject and very grave texture sonnet which has will require the most noble form any given character discourse (

forms which capable any

,

to

.

musical ornament

reference

by

With special

,

,

to

in

he

,

,

a

its

to

general that genus and were matter will forms will have rhetoric and music The practicing poet poet though and sophistic still remains must avoid indulging both subtleties which would bring him too close the rhetoricians and the fiction and

.

is

.

should

,

The poem must end the dominant toward which there steady progression throughout The musical terminology not

the tone be

will

THEORY on

set

POETIC

"

-s

to

is

of of

he

he is

,

of

he

,

.

difference

the

“

title

Guido exposi

di

the

canzone ,

spite

of

its la

of

1585

In

prega

).

as , a & in c . ( his to

mi

of ,

within the art

remains

directly the problem Spositione sopra

Girolamo Frachetta attacks poetry and prosody Donna

and when rhetoric

;

of

also astride the art

between

Cavalcanti

it

—

,

poetry

of

the art

at

to

,

of

he is

,

to

In

prosody than poetry

“

in

to

,

of

In

of

,

"

so

,

-

low

.

“

he

.

of

ounding and high since Tasso has mind effects tone— sounding words and development through the forth and their comparison largely sonnet his the two sonnets these effects that discusses the advantage Casa because builds properly toward Coppetta because the concluding sonorities the discredit does part not this the discussion least Tasso closer the art amiss here

,

so

;

as a

content and with detailed speculations

be on

,

of

"

is

practical document greater interest tion theoretical than many for the sections referring directly Cavalcanti's poem are like similar works the century concerned exclusively with the philosophical the meaning

.

,

is

" :

“

of

of

,

,

to

on

so it

he

.

When

raises

,

these arts can exist without the other

of

finds himself variance with the opinion they maintained that cannot Frachetta's own stand he

,

,

as

its

is

of

is

pleasure

is

external end

of

as

internal end whether either ;

to its

.

to

and constitutes the question

;

, of

,

of

of

things which have happened which can happen sometimes prosody syllables vowels and consonants com make verse Verse the form the work viewed prosodically

things

whereas the matter bined

up he He

at

all ,

.

as a

rated

of

is

Frachetta's thesis poem and the demonstration this thesis leads him into various theoretical questions distinguish first between poetry and prosody and necessary finds poetry does the basis their materia the matter made that Cavalcanti's canzone should not

of

,

,

.

: “

no

,

of

con

quella dar

le

in

si

."

la

)

(

,

gli

in

&

,

&

è

214

la

.

an

,

), , .p 3 : “ il :

gli gli è

he

In

to is

of

be

it

poeta che uuvle essere stiinato dal popolo trapassar 1585 huomini come massimamente uoleuan antichi dee fauellare piu isquisita dell'altre quella appunto nella qual soleuano questa Oracoli senza fallo niuno maniera del uerso

(

,

,

de da

of

23

its

che

and this

is

23

other forms besides poetry

;

to . ”

declares that since versification may own attached

in

give their answers

ditione maniera risposte

the one

without any support the second statement instrumental science having essence

which the oracles used doubt the manner verse

Spositivne

in

),

be

to

,

than

in of ,

the rest and precisely

the poet and

the masses especially wished

more exquisite

his

as

ends the poet who surpassing the condition other him must speak that

all

of

is

—

as

)

of

the ancients

manner which

is a he

of

To

considered

by

be

keeping with the nature

is

men

( as

wishes

to in

This

is

of

by

(

.

,

of

is

.

at

Castelvetro who had poetry that the art prosody cannot exist without versification but that the art can exist justify the first interprets without poetry these statements meaning that the poet poet more Aristotle's text Poetics 1451b27 virtue than imitation verse but that verse nevertheless necessary

ARS POETICA

RETURN

:

TO THEORY

The upshot of this argument is that there may be compositions in verse that are not poems , even whole verse genres that are not poetry . The canzone as practiced by early poets was of this kind . How , then , would poem from another that was not ? The one distinguish a canzone that wa

Lyric

poems contain

or

of various kinds, but above

of

all

answer is double : from the style and from the matter .

of

,

or

to in

give recreation

,

,

men's minds and not compared with these nonpoetic forms style they are distinguished mainly the

by

Moreover

,

them

24

weary

. ”

to

“

because poems were invented

as to

or

on

.

matters commendations one sort another and amorous themes But they must not approach commendatory philosophical disquisitions difficulty subtlety orations love

by

is

is

not because an

to

to

a

,

a

it its , it

by

,

is

if

explain

shed light upon

obscure

(

.p 7 ).

work

and Frachetta has undertaken expound poem but merely

to ,

he

too obscure wished

;

: “

,

by

,

." 25

,

by

of

a

poems have special kind transformation the material which depends upon additions meta phors allegories hyperboles and similar colorings and embellish subject matter ments Cavalcanti's canzone not poem because

TOMMASO CORREA

to

,

in

as

,

of

.

,

in

of

of

of

of

more closely knit and the promiscuous citing

sense

some

of

,

.

Besides

,

:

to

,

;

a

eliminated Plato and Cicero are cited few times each Donatus with some frequency and the parallels with Aristotle are whittled down the following modest list is

authorities

;

,

The consequence

better organized exposition

is a

he

,

one again

.

,

part from the accompanying

Horace Correa Pigna's four separate sections instead gives only one and instead the six for lines five

-

.

precepts for lines 73–85 275–308

of

in

of of

with the great complexity earlier exegeses This results reduction the number divisions the text and precepts Whereas Pigna had seen eighty separate rules subdivides into only twenty

appear

The immediate impres compared the text

to

.

Horace

in

of

”

of

Horatian criticism the whole approach

explanationes

.

Horatij Flacci on

Q.

In ,

of

of

“

is

arte poetica

the three complete commentaries

was the first during this last generation simplification sion one

It

through his treatise on the epigram

us

de to

)

(

1587

Tommaso Correa known 1587 published his librum

Aristotle

1447a16 7 : "

., .p

91

percioche

., .p ." ; 6 : " si le

25

Ibid affaticargli

le

,

309-32

,

1450a12

24

1449a24

pocsie sono state trouate per ricrear

animi

&

1459631

73-85 275-308

1450624

,

1451a16 1449612

,

1450a38 1450a38

,

1-23 42-45

gli

Horace

non per

;

&

,

)

(

215

le

;

le

;

."

, &

seperano principalmente per l'alteratione della materia laqual depende Ibid per allegorie per hiperboli per somiglianti colora dalle aggiunte per tralationi abbeglimenti menti

POETIC

If

THEORY that they contain only the

these passages be consulted , it will be noted

most familiar commonplaces of the Aristotelian text : “ The poet is an 9 imitator , “ The plot is the soul of the poem ,” “The plot must be one, ” and so forth . But these changes do not mean that Correa wishes to make wide departures from the antecedent tradition ; rather , he preserves much of the rhetorical machinery which had for so long been a standard feature of the interpretations of the text .

In part , at least , Correa organizes the Ars poetica according to the ele of invention , disposition , and elocution . He thinks that the first

ments

,

,

is

is

its

11.

,

at

in in

he

explicitly stated

,

terms appears not only

as

the group

For

of

.

more original

)

( 11.

,

.

;

"

"

-

).

of

of

.

to

)

11.

precept ( 1l. 1-23 ) concerns invention and disposition and that the second one ( 24–31 treats elocution Later the fourth precept 42–45 returns disposition To these three elements adds least one passage pronunciation and action the rhetorical parts connection with 99 111 Crossed with this set distinctions constant concomitant the res verba distinction but here the treatment more interesting and

in

to

,

a

,

a

the opposition had

elocution

),

“

“

speech poem like connection with the second

since

“

.” 26

as res

belonging

of

(

precept already identified taken the various forms

, ”,

to

verba

Earlier

res

words as

of

of

the text here passes from things and

consists

,

of

.

,

he is

discussing lines 46–72 where When upon Horace touches the invention new words Correa indicates that but also under various disguises

”

"

,

.

in

.

of

"

to

,

.”

:

”

;

,

“

"

of

“

dictio

res : :

",

to ‘

to

of ,

as

res

is a

in

,

it

:

“

res oratio Clearly what later the sixth precept states modified versus major juxtaposition Correa has mind matter form and suiting the latter the problem the former The question decorum we shall see arises connection with both matter and form verba

by

as

.

to

of

,

of

,

to a

Alongside these fairly conventional approaches Correa presents cer personal tain number ideas which constitute modifications the poetry regard the materials standard theory He seems circum

,

in

,

as

a

27

. ”

to

must not say things which are contrary

society

the institutions

)

216

as

:

is

;

to

,

pugnantibus

and

...

"

verbis

.

,

constat rebus

diuersis inter

actions

&

oratio

persons

se

,

vt

,

Quoniam poema

non videatur monstrum aliquod

ex

28 : "

certain types

of

,

be

”

“

in

of

6 ) ;

by (p .

.

1587

action

(

., ." p . 3 : "

inverse ), .p

Explanationes

Ibid conflatum

of

by

kind vt (

27 26

but

a

as

of

a

to ,

for this restriction Correa uses the term writing conuenientia Third the rules the style which the poet equivalent these are second nature whose requirements are strict adapted those the first Basically the style should the materials

'

and customs

:

of

he

." of

invention since

of by up

,

in

as

,

.

of

so

in

of

, “

in

:

in

a

in

ways First and determined number Horace parts and elements which are poem may poet his not mix nature the separate monster made that his poem will not resemble nature various natures conflict with one another Second Plato society the conventions the poet does not have complete freedom scribed

naturis

ARS POETICA

TO THEORY

RETURN

:

thoughts come to be associated the sublime style :

invariably with each style

For example,

.

The highest style contains important personages and excellent actions , to which are to be fitted choice sententiae , which must be expressed with choice words and adorned by rhythmic grouping , as if you were to speak of God or describe heroes , kings , military leaders , governments ; but if others are mixed in , such as chariot eers , sailors , merchants , artisans and others of that kind , it is done so that hu man society may constitute a kind of complete body . Excellent matters are such things as wars for peace , deliberative councils , trials for selection , the virtues useful for the regulation of life , and great actions . Choice sententiae are those

,

its

which are remote from common usage , choice words those which are not trite ; a rhythmic grouping is one which , through sounds almost depicts the thing the fixed subjects prescribed for the individual genres each genre

tragedy

is

Not only

is ,

this

;

.

the preceding In

for

action recommended

of

and specification

refinement

(“

type

,

sense

of

a

in

,

Fourth

a

by

itself.28

the

incredible and

,

.

is

,

,

well

action

kind

super law

-

of

,

Indeed the whole

a

to

.

of

as

characters

is

of

”

as

decorum

,

of

the laws

“

in

:

"

,

their father their mother their

these limitations one adds the typification

and almost invariable parts the work poetry equivalent the matter

of

30

,

,

by

,

all

to

. "

decorum

girls sold into slavery who are later

.

of

in set

of

become

byIf

31

be

to

,

brother their nurse personages imposed hemming

,

“

,

New Comedy about loves marriages free and are recognized

found

,

,

,

,

,

,

,

of

“

in

,

-

—

” 29 ),

of

,

in

comedy actions from the average and most horrible actions are related common life men and from their usual behavior but for some proposed genres very definite content largely from traditional sources tragedy the plots will revolve about great and horrible actions Thus kings hopeless situations exiles parricides burnings armed the murders contests weepings wailings laments funerals burial hymns the

it .

of

If

,

to

he

res

his

.pp

28

,

to

in

of

,

in

The poet circumscribed these ways with respect his subject matter activity finds his great field imposes upon the form which poetry one were ask Correa what the distinguishing characteristics undoubtedly primarily were answer would include those elements ,

fit , ,

,

id

,

,

,

,

,

&

ad

ad

ad

.

,

&

&

,

&

,

,

,

de

;

,

si

vt vt si

,

: "

.,

Ibid 14–15 Genus summum personas graues excellentes continet quibus lectę sententie accommodandae sunt illae proferendae verbis lectis numerosa collo catione illustrandae Deo loquaris Heroas describas Reges Duces Ciuitates quòd Aurigae Nautae Mercatores fabri alia admisceantur quòd huiusmodi adeo Hominum societas quasi quoddam corpus efficiat Res excellentes sunt bella propter pacem

,

.

&

,

.”

virgines venditae quae ,

,

."

,

,

,

,

,

)

,

,

vt

,

217

in

&

,

,

."

,

&

)

,

,

,

,

plurimum amores nuptiae Comoedia noua cognoscuntur patre matre fratre nutricę (

Ibid liberae inueniantur

a

31

30

&

., , ., ., p .p .p de . 95 41 : 93 : : " " , , " In In

29

."

:

,

,

,

,

ab

,

,

eligendum virtutes deliberandum Iudicia vitam constituendam actiones Sententiae lectae vsu remote communi lecta verba quae non sunt trita numerosa collo quae quasi rem ipsam suo sono depingit catio Tragedijs atrocissimlę Ibid Comoedijs res exponuntur incredibiles res sumpte media communi hominum vita moribus Ibid Res Tragicae grandes atroces cedes Regum desperationes exsilia parricidia incendia pugnae fletus vlulatus conquestiones funera Epicedia Concilia

POETIC THEORY which he regarded as belonging to the form . Verse would be one of them , inseparably and inescapably connected with any conception of poetry . Therefore , to each type of subject matter the proper verse must be matched . Some genres have verse as their only poetic property ;

if one were

to remove

verse from the satire ,

,

in

of ).

( .pp

place

the orator

.

of

an

artificial order

the narrations he

in

an

the use

history and

in

distinguished

the natural order found

of

or in

so

to

by

poetry

,

Again

is

he

do

,

.

is

everyday usage The real poet not different from that one metaphorically who writes who cultivates the figures and the tropes even though inappropriate way must not excess 28–29 is

language

of

its

for example , one would no longer have a poem ( p. 79 ). required Another feature would be a special kind of language or diction . , In fact one reason why the satire is so unstable a poetic genre is that

,

if

he

;

is

,

of

all

.

in

of

he

,

of

.

,

of

in

an

a

it

to

be

,

it

provides places else the natural order pursues those things which where those which seemed ought said the present Nor that law imposed upon him which would make him write history and collect kind things orderly fashion He may course choose the events express and pass over others which embellish some them does not deem worthy scribed

to

In

all

mention.32

,

this answer

,

say about imitation except Correa would have little remark about the requirement that the imitation should follow the thing imitated and another indicating that the poet imitates when introduces other persons who speak for themselves

it (p . is 35 an .)

he

.

(p

18 )

passing

a

for

,

critical parlance

and

he

by

is

in

common

to

of

.

or

of

to

, "

"

"

stilus

so

.

,

"

character

does

follows

, it , as or

:

as

",

Idea

so

“

of

,

In

;

a

it is

is

to

poetry through the fact that No special essence contributed merely particular kind history imitation rhetoric keeping with this conception Correa devotes much his time style He takes pains matters define what meant the terms

,

is

23 : “

diction

to a

refer

of

is a to

is

used

plain

,

a

,

and therefore the form

phrasis

”

"

; of

to

speech

for the word est à

”

,

stilus

in

is

expressed

to

,

of

as

.

“

or

”

of

the thing

genus

it

to

, is a

, "

do in in

called

"

so an

the Idea

32

is

it “ is

A

designates character then diction similar the thing which the effigy and image the thing for speech expresses the thing just painting Just applied colors one obtains from wax when seal representation image every respect similar the thing which the seal else

,

,

in

,

in

,

,

)

(

&

,

ea

&

.

."

218

,

,

, ac vt

,

,

,

,

si

., .p

ordinem

&

legibus Historię longe abscedere Poetę summa laus naturalem negligere quę naturalis ordo pre series rerum spectetur quoniam quae presentia dicenda videbantur scribit interdum negligit quę fert prosequitur quasi Historiam scribat omnia ordine lex imponitur alium locum traducit neque illi colligat Habeat sanè delectum rerum alia dicat ornet alia pretereat que non esse dicenda iudicauerit Ibid

narrandi

?

by

of

of

of

in

of

departs considerably The greatest merit the poet consists the fact that history and disregards the natural order from the laws narration one passes over the things pre consider the succession events for sometimes

ARS POETICA

TO THEORY

RETURN

:

or elegant , or a strange and foreign diction

or

, whereas “ stilus "

" forma dicendi ” indicates the general conformation

of the

" character ”

or

diction.33

of

,

of

,

of

compounded

he

.

,

all

Correa then proceeds to a description of each of the three styles , to an indication of the subject matters to which each is appropriate , and to a statement of the general principle of decorum operative in matters comedy and tragedy they are style When later gives his definitions

,

in by

of to

,

Tragedy

is

,

of

,

is a

,

,

.”

in

is

of

may relate what Correa has these questions matter and form say about the audience for which the poem intended and about the

Audience considerations are not prominent but they beyond their number The ends poetry are stated

of in

,

the instruction and pleasure as

several ways

.p as

.

the audience

:

terms

, in

of

are important

of

poet who writes

it .

to

To

we

of

.

of

of

36

,

,

: “

with

,

,

to

then

an

: “

an

a

;

illustrious destiny comedy this and

,

”

35

of

imitation means unhappy ending and the grave Comedy then style dramatic poem full happy ending and activity with The elaborate the humble style apparatus distinctions thus produces definitions which are not notably Diomedes and the whole medieval than those more sophisticated school action

definition

an ,

to

34

.”

: “

."

he

,

in

,

in a

,

the following

of

in

;

of

“

in

,

he

three himself says that they differ ways the social status the personages the manner and quality the affairs and destinies and finally the ending And then adds immediately fourth difference This being the case they must neces sarily differ Applied tragedy these distinctions lead style also these elements

,

.

of

,

of

,

vt

...

,

)18 ;

",

&

93 ( ). “ vt

of

.p

,

",

,

,

“

(

,

voluptas hominum institutio admiration admonish spectator admiretur ment delight teaching admoneatur delec tetur doceatur The nature these ends determines certain characteristics both matter and form Of the many available subjects men

;

he

24 )

(

.p

to

of

by

be

,

the poet chooses those which are most outstanding and excellent since greatest interest these will his audience will retain this

,

rei

est

rei ,

illi

40 ).

(

be .p

so

be

no

,

,

,

be

to

is

"

13 : "

33

"

if

to in

.

introducing the greatest possible variety into the materials No besieged and two deaths will occur the same way two cities will conquered according pattern the same and forth Moreover accomplished materials must the institutio verisimilar and interest

91 : “

34

,

,

. "

,

,

,

ad

,

& ,

, vt :

Ex

.

rei

sic

;

vt in

,

rei ,

;

& ,

,

,

ei

, ., .p

&

quam notat siue effigies Est autem character dictio similis quoniam oratio rem exprimit pictura colores cera addita nota expri mitur effigies persimilis cuius nota est oratione Idea exprimitur ideo dicend forma aut genus aut stilus dicitur quoniam phrasis elocutionem planam elegantem aut peregrinam barbaram refertur stillus siue character aut forma dicendi conforma tionem orationis indicat Ibid imago

ita

.

,

&

,

,

a

]

[

219

exitu laeto

,

negotiosum

,

[ m ]

poema dragmaticum

,

autem Comoedia

,

Est

."

humili

."

,

&

92 : “

94 ." : "

., .p

Ibid

., .p

36

35

,

,

., .p

Ibid Differt Tragedia comoedia tribus potissimum rebus personarum con qualitate atque tandem exitu Haec cum dicione negotiorum fortunarum modo sint stilo etiam differant necesse est Ibid Est autem Tragedia imitatio Illustris fortunae per actione exitu infoelici oratione graui stylo

POETIC

THEORY

self - consistent ( note the references to nature and to decorum ) ; and if the " voluptas " is to accompany it , variety must be cultivated ( p . 18 ) . As for form , the great reason for the necessity of artificial order is that by means

of it the poet creates suspense . The passage cited previously on artificial order continues thus : “ In fact, since the poet makes an effort to detain the auditor as it were against his will and in suspense , he makes his poem

...

varied throughout by the arrangement of the events . For the highest praise of the poet is to hold the listener as if he were a captive . " 37 Finally , the pleasure so provided is itself an aid to the achieving of the utility , and the utility involved makes the pleasure more acceptable and more memor able ( p. 107 ). That Correa is independent of certain parts of the current tradition is attested by his discarding

the notion , in connection with the poet ,

of

of is

, “

.

is

he he

",

” .) “

et

,

,

to

.

.

of

("

of

must express the essence nature exprimit both Plato and Aristotle For the opinion by

this

is

,

);

103

he

imitator

.p

"

, an

uim is

the poet naturae

of

question concerns for the poet the rules character and human nature Since

especially with reference

decorum

—

The knowledge

in

."

of

things

38

,

et

when he is discussing lines 309 ff. principium says ( " Scribendi recte sapere fons So far the poet from being mad that nobody can write well unless wise Indeed every good and proper discourse must derive from the knowledge est

the poetic furor . He treats the subject

or as

"

"

,

,

"

,

to

do

,

varietas efficacia suauitas activity have largely with ,

his

of

translated into terms

,

to

prudentia

“

have such virtues

These

an

of

of

he

.

to

as

)18 .

he ”

so

(

must

.p

“

a

of

,

is

study Correa this knowledge obtained rules and does not come inspiration The poet must ingenium form course have practice genre facultas suited the which means but even more

all

”

in

“

res ”

so

“

of

,

in

.

—

of

disposition and elocution with the proper handling the elements con stituting form Thus the major orientations Correa's commentary are probably more definitely toward the internal relationships than and verba specifically present toward the more rhetorical factors common the in

on

,

,

its

of

.

,

a

is ,

;

.

way only slightly divergent developed and tradition These latter are ordinary emphasis from the but the elsewhere One feels after studying preoccupations commentary matter are with problems main that the and form rather than with the devices and expedients for swaying influ , it

,

to

,

a

eo

in

,

.

it

-

,

,

all

in

is a

it

.

of ,

encing and arousing the audience Since commentary Horace centrifugal the necessity make movements that are found the must text itself toward nature toward conventions toward the poet toward fairly consistent way manages reverse the But the audience

. . . .

,

vt

,

in

in

: “

. ,

.,

23-24

]

[

220

.”

,

vt

sit ,

ex

& , vt

: “

,

.

., .p

."

vt

38 ,

&

37

vel inuitum detineat auditorem elaboret Nam cum poeta Nam poetę illa summa finem vsque variat poema collocatione rerum laus auditorem quasi captiuum detineat bene scribere nemo possit furiosus poeta Tantum verò abest Ibid 102 cognitione rerum promanet necesse est apta nisi sapiens Omnis enim oratio bona pp Ibid suspensum

ARS POETICA

these and bring them into contact with the central

in

it

he

of

claim that method

“

the true order

”

is

this last period

Nicola Colonio's

is

,

It

Correa's 1587. principal distinction —

In

appear

or its

to

)

(

,

and

had never been done before

to

—

perceives

commentaries

the same year

Arte poetica

.

Methodus

the complete

is

as de

The second was published

1587

its

in of

NICOLA COLONIO

problem

it .

Correa interprets

his

the text

as

as all

of

motion of

TO THEORY

RETURN

:

he

:

is

it

an

is by

to

I

of —

with the whole army most an

in

,

to

up in

learning

an

as

held contained

the art but

the poetic

terms

of

of

universal nature

in

the general nature

,

“

that Horace treats the

of

terms

of

”

is

discovers

faculty not

in

What

he

.

39

,

with the greatest

,

),

he

,

of

I

it

,

to

of

insofar especially great poet and adorned within his own mind

(

what order

the fashion

order seems me that have seen that Horace wanted this Epistle the Pisos the universal nature the poetic faculty the law metrical expression would permit which himself in

as ,

explain

in

teaches and what way and and thoroughly examined in

what

,

he

,

,

namely

method frequently beautifully drawn to

presented

confess that was first impelled this consider more attentively the sub then pondering the particular matters not only carefully but fastidiously

;

ject

and how

of

, to ",

“

he

by

,

.

I

Horace's principal subject matter

in

),

( .p

the Ars poetica dedication iiiv Colonio boasts that has for analytic method long years studied Aristotle's the and his intention apply what present work has learned the analysis Horace's epistle He believes that application such has discovered what

the

,

,

.

to

:

to

of

as is

of

.

,

,

to

:

,

four main genres epic tragic comic and satiric Moreover since the plot Colonio any genre major problem with respect the handling sees the largest section the Ars poetica devoted this problem His summary the first two hundred and fifty lines makes this clear of

in

,

,

of

in of

of

be

to

.

its

is

is

, is

is

,

worked plot

in a

is

to in

,

he

it

all

plot which any plot common what Along with the fact that what required especially taught briefly both about language order and its

,

one

the constitution the epic plot composed many episodes con that plot which one may most

...

he

.

else

of

,

all be

it

on

that

; 39

is

above

so

.

by is

of

.

,

satiric plots He treated these singly and first which the most difficult because taught trived the poet's genius And easily fail that unity

,

,

,

, it

of

:

be ,

,

of

poetics adopted have been To this point the principal matters the method explained expressing man's life whatever the imitation may invented plot and these are the epic tragic comic and fables has four fixed species

... Just ,

,

vt

221

]

[

."

,

,

, in

,

,

&

,

,

in

,

,

,

,

), .p 2 : “

(

,

ad

&

Methodus 1587 Hac me fateor primo compulsum rem attentius considera rem deinde singulis rebus non diligenter modo sed fastidiose expendendis quidnam scilicet quomodo quoue ordine doceret tota Methodo instar exercitus pulcherrime instructi saepius perlustrata vidisse mihi videor Horatium vniuersam vim Poeticae facultatis quam ipse magnus primis Poeta magnis excultus doctrinis animo comprehensam tenebat hoc libello Pisones quantum lex carminis pateretur explicare voluisse

POETIC

THEORY

as he did for the epic plot , so he treated with respect to the comic and the tragic in what way they differ in matter , diction , and style.40

Consistent with this discovery of the general lines of Horace's develop ment , Colonio gives a detailed interpretation of the first part of the Ars poetica as a treatise on epic plot . Lines 1-9 treat of plot and episodes , 9-18 the objects of epic imitation ( with the indication , in 14–18 , that digres sions are a vice and that when they appear, as in the Orlando Furioso , they

of

must be condemned ). Line 23 is devoted to epic unity , 24–31 to excessive variety as a source of error , 32–37 to knowledge as the source of epic plot .

.

;

in

, its

of

of in

is

to

of

After pausing, in 38-40, to make the essential division into invention , dis position , and elocution , Horace goes on ( in 42-45 ) to discuss epic disposi tion and the artificial order and then ( in 46-56 ) elocution The relation ship epic plot epic meter epic diction outlined 73-82 83-92

to

is

of

,

.

in

to

;

he

of

,

, of

of

of

),

,

( in ll .

applied the latter problem involves the principle decorum and this elocution 93–109 character 114–18 Horace then speaks the epic hero 119–30 the distinction between old and new epic plots epic order concludes with the objects imitation and once again

,

",

of

of

similar sections

albeit

,

—

Colonio

and

satire

.

tragedy

on

to ,

[

on

according

.

is

is

is

,

: “

,

of

terms

, it

thinking largely these sections clear that Colonio explicit invention disposition and elocution The reference his remark on lines 38-40 He makes the transition from invention and Within each

in in

,

—

of on

,

There then follow comedy

]

, he

,

"

,

of

.” 41

plot

abbreviated

. “

of

on

episodes further remarks the juncture To this point says Colonio after expounding line 152 has treated the whole circle the epic composing distributing treating and writing the epic matter and and

is

.

he

At

de

"

.

a

in

,

So

of

,

of

all

? ” 42

43

. "

,

to

a

, of

.pp

40

: “

to

of

more consequent in

be

the plot

to

poetic elocution What could order and than these things and indicate better that they are propounded the This adds lines 55–56 methodical way poetic invention first part the method common those who write disposition and elocution the familiar rhetorical distinc But others striking way tions are also present sometimes for the res from composition

& .

,

vt

,

& , &

,

de

, in de

,

de

est

,

.

,

,

,

sit

ea

.

in

vt

...

ordine Tragica quomodo

Epica componenda

distri

.”

materia fabulaque

,

."

de

,

&

31 13 : , : " , “

oratione Ibid Hactenus orbe Epico scribenda buenda tractanda ., .p

quod commune omni fabulae qua facilius peccari possit

fabula

vna docuit breuiter fabula Epica sic tractauit Comica stylo

&

Sicut fecit

differant materia ,

Itaque

,

. . . .

clocutione

& de

in

, eo ,

,

ingenio poetae excogitatis multis Episodijs vna hoc praecipue elaborandum esse docuit quod Cum fabula maxime postulatur

41

,

,

,

,

de

sit ex ac

;

,

,

: & sit “

:

.,

Ibid 39-40 Hactenus exposita sunt quae sunt praecipua susceptae Methodi Poetica quae cum imitatio exprimens hominum vitam fictis fabulis certas habet species fabularum quatuor sunt fabula Epica Tragica Comica Satyrica De singulis tractauit primum constitutione Epicae fabulae que est omnium difficillima quoniam constat

pars communis

]

(

222

&

ad

omni

Scribonti

de

prima

&

,

,

&

ab

est

Methodi elocutione

."

&

,

,

Haec dispositione

., .p

Ibid inuentione

18 : “

43

? ” :

., .p

42

parit transitum compositione fabulae Ibid inuentione ordinem quibus rebus quid potest esse magis consequens magis indicare elocutionem Poeticam haec methodice tradi Poetica

ARS POETICA verba " distinction . Colonio

RETURN

:

it as equivalent to Aristotle's object and and the " quibus imitantur " ; the three

sees

means , as the " quas

TO THEORY

in

an

is

if

,

the words

or

in

a

wishes

designate

the language

. " 44

,

,

if

: "

to

;

of

,

splendor

certain to

use when

he

the things even

,

to

fail

of

in

,

is

nature

So

).

on

by Il .

21

.p

is see

”

res

“

of

”

"

imitantur kinds of things which poets imitate are expressed in the three kinds of language or style ( 83–85 The close relationship between supplied easily verba and Nature herself abund anybody only she subjects ance Nature herself without lead her practiced will glide into the ornaments speech moreover there decency the things themselves that are written there emerges from the "

He does not

style appropriate

of

in

he

:

Aristotle

23

1451a29

24-31

1459634

73–74

1448634

79

1448631

80-82

1455634

1456a12

,

1451627

,

1451a4

,

1450a38

,

1450a34 1448a5

,

1-9

9-10

,

Horace

.

in

of

;

,

of

,

us

an

."

“

the rhetorical term

of

,

to a

character early The statement Aristotelian intention prepares for the discovery throughout the treatise parallels with the the same kinds Poetics which Colonio's predecessors had used but cites them the moderate way current this latter part the century The list follows given matter

1459b28

1449a22 1455615

132 134

1451627

140

1451a22 1451a20 1450b25

193-95

1456a26

,

146

189-90 202-3

1449628

241-43 275-77

1448634

278-80

1449a15

338-40

1461611

1449612

145766

of

-

in

do

.

"

as

of

of

we

as

are ,

-

,

in

on

of

on .

"

in

)

(

."

,

,

,

,

si

,

,

in

223

ornamenta sine duce natura rebus ipsis quae scribuntur

in

ad

.

of

Ita

., .p

facile rerum abundantia orationis modo est exercitata labetur praeterea est honestas rerum natura quidam etiam splendor verbis

ex

existit

48 : “

, 44 si

Ibid

ipsa

or

or

of

of

,

of

ity

of

,

to

its

in

,

to of

Except for repeated praise Homer and certain details the histories plot unity the genres Colonio refers Aristotle mostly matters relationship episodes and imitation rather than verse constituting the essence poetry These have seen earlier commentators the stock topics which the Horatians sought the author the Aristotelians Aristotle himself They not show any special command any particular penetration Aristotle's method into the essence the Poetics

POETIC

THEORY

Colonio's claims to having made original discoveries with to the “ method ” of the Ars poetica substantiated by his com mentary . In reality , that does declare that Horace treated four poctic genres separately rather than poetry general and find order

Nor

are

to

,

in

an

to

is

all

he

respect

of

to

in

no

in

of

of

.

of

in

.

In

of

,

.

he

,

in

of

the succession these four treatments Otherwise when talking about gives interpretations very similar individual passages those his predecessors His finding the basic analogies rhetorical theory and way distinguishes him from the occasional parallels Aristotle Horatians common breed

,

in

in

to

to

,

it

,

of

It

.

-

to

.

so

of

,

13 ,

on

,

is

It

.

,

at

,

the year these two commentaries on Horace we find this period the first real effort practical criticism Giovanni Talentoni's Lettione sopra'l principio del Canzoniere del Petrarca read before the September Accademia Fiorentina 1587 and published the same many other practical essays apply year Like attempts the time well stated theoretical criteria an individual work and derive evalua goes beyond the implications tive conclusions the short title for the

,

,

,

a

an

of

an

:

.

at

in

all

it

,

of

all

of

it

complete title indicates that will treat the beginning narration and con poems dealing with clusion kinds and touches upon these approach general Petrarch This same title demonstrates once the and approach via the traditional parts the general method oration

of of

) a

3

(

;

and

to

to

an

as

of

; ( 2 )

Greek and Latin poets or

these parts

by

the treatment

,

,

of

tion study

of

of

,

,

: ( 1 ) a

of

.

a

of

of

judg deducing from the practice the ancients standard investigation ment for moderns Talentoni's will therefore consist three discovery steps the principles underlying the use such parts prologue invocation proposition narrative and epilogue examina method

“

them and aware and ,

to

,

make him attentive

a

in

is in

,

of

. ” : 45

so

of

a

or

,

to

,

-

.

to

understand what they say the way cited taught Aristotle's Rhetoric Book III the rhetoricians slightly prologues dif support Epic tragic and comic poets used for spectator give the reader the plot foretaste ferent purpose by to

make him well disposed

to

a

to

,

,

make the listener favorable

finally

to

.

In

in

of

.

,

it

Petrarch's Canzoniere see whether not conforms their usage Since the parts distinguished are rhetorical parts Talentoni will naturally think prospective them reference their effects upon prologue example poets audience their for the ancient strove

.

”

“

of

,

Petrarch's

,

,

, in

a

)

(

.”

224

il

in

: “

),

in -

i

,

maniera

that genre before determining the correctness

farselo attento farsi l'uditor fauoreuole s'allaticauano Av A2 1587 comprendere lor parlare con quella farselo ben disposto finalmente Retori che c'insegnano

Lellione auuertito

, e (

&

45

examples

.pp

of

is a

.

as

of

to

to

,

he

might anticipate what was coming whereas philosophers used them give Similar prepare their readers for the instruction that they meant parts preliminary such other reasons are adduced for the cultivation the invocation and the proposition lyric poet Talentoni must analyze some ancient Since Petrarch that

ARS POETICA

RETURN

:

THEORY

TO

procedures

; the cases he chooses are Pindar and Horace . He finds that Pindar wrote merely a “ gay procm , " and that this was justified by the “demonstrative kind " in which he was writing ; Horace sometimes used invocation , dedication , and proposition , sometimes omitted them . As

sometimes

for

...

Petrarch , he " did not depart from this practice of the lyric poets , since once in his canzoni he also merely proposed the subject ; some

...

is

(

,

" )

he ,

as a ,

is

of

,

he

its

,

, ,

where

"

to

,

of

bella

his love

and name

.

of

Vergine

place

his life

by

.

of

,

by

“

to

in

)

is

,

48 as

he

,

,

of

time

,

discussion

and for Petrarch's poems

(

the efficient cause

being

treated

single narra

Talentoni seeks justification for his more general principles the art profit the audience says essentially intro withdrawing Aristotle taught good mores and

this

remarks poetry The end ducing into our souls

what

understand

considered

the canzone

follow the example

the course

of

state

in

,

is

not

of

In

warns

to

us

.

Its

F3 )

( .p

,

the final cause the manner epilogue found

its

of

later

be

." 47

of

,

the reader

:

himself known

disposed docile that The whole series sonnets may tion having the following order materials makes

"

of

error and his apology for his varied style good man high morals and thus

as a is ,

“

he

since through his confession makes

...

, "

of

his

times , he both proposed and invoked ; at other times he did neither the one beginning Talentoni nor the other .”' :46 The content and the effect of speaking the first sonnet Voi ch'ascoltate are also acceptable

;

to

be

to

is

utility

.

of

,

the working

he

to

be

to

,

instrument

his

.

to

an

but only

as

the poet

,

by

of

,

he

to

of

. ”

is

them from bad ones Plato the second authority for this end his apply only banishment the poets was meant those who sought pleasure alone and gave highest praise those who taught good sought behavior and the proper ways life Pleasure sure On this to

“

in

,

we

,

,

is

in

us

,

epilogue score also Petrarch merits praise for makes clear enjoy only rhymes that his should the sweetness and take from them that utility which taken from lyric poems but that we should

it ,

he

,

of

.

his

onestà

" )

"

(

in

be

It

.

,

as a

;

his

actions

his errors

the decency

Christian poet avowing shame proper the most terms will noted that speaks

de '

.pp E -

46

words and and confessing

Greek and Latin lyricists

Ev : “

his

Italian surpasses

in he

all

—

of

a

of

,

In

49

. ”

to

as

him

to

of

attaching ourselves passed through that life which write them fact the moral lessons taught and the superiority subject matter from which they arise constitute Petrarch over his compeers the superiority the Christian over pagans The beware

caused

,

.

."

si

, e ne

come uolle Aristotile

costumi

buoni

, e

,

si

,

ne

il

,

il

si

." e

.

negli animi nostri

)

(

225

, e

di

."

a :

si

,

,

la

,

a

la

significare che dobbiamo delle rime sue sol goder Ibid viene dolcezza quelle prendere quell'vtilità prende dalle poesie liriche ma che guardiamo che non appigliare quella vita per quale camminando egli hebbe comporle

ci da

49

l'introdur

,

E4v

ritrargli da rei

,

Ibid

...

Fv : “ si

.,

,

., ., “ ' p , . ci ." : “ a a

., .p

47

48

, da e a

Da questa vsanza Lirici non scostò Petrarca come uero Lirico soggetto alcuna volta anch'egli nelle sue canzoni solamente propose Alcuna volta propose inuocò Alcuna volta ancora non fece l'vn l'altro perciò Ibid conoscere per huomo costumato buono rende l'auditor comprender quel che poi docile cioè disposto tratta Ibid impercioche

POETIC

to

,

and

forth

.

the canzone

matter (Petrarch's emotions and experiences ) prosodic larger sense the latter also refers so

a

in

) ;

the sonnet

of

,

words

,

,

form

his

honesty " is one both

this

and of form (

THEORY

to

,

,

as

.

be

?

by

:

,

,

In

tragedy comedy and the connection with the larger genres such epic Talentoni raises another general question what extent are veri similitude and credibility observed the poet The conditions governing widely different for these change with the subject matter They would comedy

,

" )

“

we

of

a

,

,

.

an

is

to

be

,

a

.

of

an

be

(

in

,

and

a

separate prologue and thus the latter admits prologue whereas the former the which should call the exposition integral part must made the drama Credibility involves believing audience and Talentoni points out that three matters are considered here First even the popular audience omedy recognizes that the play representation imitation and and tragedy

on

these latter considera ,

Horace and the

rhictoricians

.

of

the purest strain

,

,

.

by

.

In

of

respected

the commentators

1588

as )

(

FEDERICO CERUTI

be

the genres must to

each

tions Talentoni comes very close former ones relate him directly

to

decorum

of

of of

up

to

or

it

.

,

that the actors are not real people Second lends credence more readily tragedy because the events are known through history legend whereas comedy are made the plots whole cloth the poet Third the

Q.

,

,

its

a

of

.

is

a

be

,

,

in

in

to

on

"

“

de

is a

question There whether Federico Ceruti's Paraphrasis Horatii Flacci librum arte poetica published 1588 should called very major commentary the Horatian text For the volume itself plan somewhat different from that slight and follows predecessors printing the complete text first and then adding the Paraphrase which

, be

is ,

in

of

or

at

of

an

.

in

a

of

Is

Is

?

if

,

.

—

of

no

of

actuality the material about twenty pages Besides much paraphrase original questions more than the Yet the crucial original interpretation asked there something here the way theory poetry that goes beyond Horace Horace there least occupies

a

.

to

a

good poem will appealing of

,

,

.

,

of of

an

,

kept interested pleased Essentially then cultivate those ornaments and those devices susceptible

entertained

,

to be a

as

.

all

at

it

,

is

it

if

of on

,

of

at

?

a

special orientation —the affirmative answers indicate that the shows theory little work least merits careful consideration Ceruti does have poetry and least contains fairly substantial not complete concep ideas what makes good poetry These ideas are related ignorant populace tion the audience the which must amused

by

,

as

,

an

a

in

can

be

all ,

of

the disposal on

subject placed

at

:

of

as

of

like

a

which

is

,

The epic material

these will

,

to

.

.

audience First

be ,

genre such the epic the plot provided history epic Ceruti thinks the central long importance and familiar the reader minimum such

episodes

)

(

226

of

he

,

,

be

to

;

in

in

is

,

no

if

made the writer's own the epic poet does not dwell the exact history the subject proposed which has practically importance the poem but dis regarding that historical cycle containing what true the plot treated

ARS POETICA

TO THEORY

RETURN

:

for the poem in those fictitious things called

will seek grandeur and dignity episodes . 50

What is really important , then , is the unreal material added to the basic story by way of amplification and decoration ; this comes from the poet's inventiveness and is a sign of his genius. But if the episodes constitute the " laus Epicae fabulae " ( p . 17 ) , they also introduce the primary danger : for the poet, in his eagerness to provide that delight which episodes afford , may invent too many or ones which are not fitting. The monstrous product

results .

An ornament of another kind

is found in the inverted , unnatural ,

unhistorical order in which the poet narrates his materials ; the " exordium , " especially , consisting of something which should be said much later but is transferred to the beginning, gives light and luster to the order ( p . 18 ) . Still another ornament is contributed by meter and diction . The criterion

examined

,

re

,

if

to

be

proprio cum decoro tractetur ” ( p . 20 ) . these ornaments will found distribute themselves among the three parts

of -

All

for the former is appropriateness to the specific genre for which it is used , and hence to the kind of subject matter typical of the genre ; for the latter, the same appropriateness to genre and subject. Both , in fact, are regulated by a special kind of decorum : “ Materia igitur queque suo carmine , & composi ,

,

on .

is

-

,

plot and episodes under invention artificial order under disposition tion meter and style under elocution This intentional with Ceruti who writes “

,

38 ff .,

its

is

of

to

“

also

,

,

.

“

con ex

be

is

in

In

,

heroes

man some genres the plot itself This may

which was written above for although Ceruti does not specifically

,

also

usefulness

the

in

case with Old Comedy

virtue

since the poet

all

the ideal essence the perfect utility may derive from the development

si

presses

be

to of

perfect

. "

presented

of

the examples

and long

easily learned

some instruction by

(

,

29 ).

Presumably

of

tained

.p

,

in

remembered

be

.

be

of

ones which are brief enough

into the work

its

,

;

-

,

A

."

,

in

of

the margin his remarks lines Inuentio fabulae Dispositio fabulae Elocutio fabulae good poem popular however not one which merely pleases utility must audience the other end served simultaneously Ceruti leading men believes that the utilitarian purpose virtue will most directly achieved through the introduction the right kind sententiae

,

,

.

to

or

of

-c

in ,

is

22 ; :“ in si

50

,

in

,

of

of

.

he

52

of

, "

correcting mores identify the instrumentality moral correction Nor does indicate with precision unity self onsistency whether the primordial qualities verisimilitude credibility and each which treated connection with the usual pas poetica sage the Ars are related either both these ends He seems

;

,

in

."

."

)

(

227

,

,

."

quaesierit

in

:

,

&

,

poematis dignitatem

perfecti hominis ideam exprimere mores emendandos adprime utilem ad

27 29 : : “ “

amplitudinem

., , .p

Ibid Ibid

., .p

52 51

uocantur

rei

,

), .p

,

(

Paraphrasis 1588 Materies epica quae quasi res omnium usui exposita est Epicus poeta non immorabitur propria propositae effici propria scribentis poterit poemate dignitatem sed circulo illo historiae continente historia quae nullam ferè habet quod uerum est tractandae fabulae tamquàm uili neglecto rebus fictis quae Episodia

TIIEORY

POETIC

rather to accept them as a part of the standard doctrine , without attempting to integrate them with his own notions on good poetry . In the same way he accepts the dogma of the decorum of character and the idea that plot is primary in a work as concepts necessarily present in any Horatian com mentary, regardless of their pertinence to the commentator's own philos ophy of poetry .

Like Massini's

on the madrigal earlier in the same decade

lecture

,

Il

by

(

a

of

“

an

.

by ,

to

he

”

,

his

is all a

Vicenzo Toralto's La Veronica , o del sonetto of 1589 deals with one of the shorter , lyric genres . But Toralto would be the last to admit that he was discussing a minor form ; rather , he declares that the sonnet is the most difficult of forms write surpassing even the tragedy The occasion for treatise sonnet academician whose pseudonym was Risvegliato portion spends and his time and the whole center ,

is

,

is

.

of

it

,

in

be

.

to ,

in

)

of

interpreting this sonnet and others his work the same author The practical criticism involved however concerned exclusively with expounding the hidden meanings found the sonnets and the treatise remains interesting only for the theoretical positions which important for Toralto espouses The matter hidden meanings section

),

,

of

).

restric of

.

so

,

"

of

.

in

be

no

"

of

an

,

to

,

to

Toralto would include the verisimilitude such the person speaking might as

he

by

,

to

which

,

is

to

,

in

:

other criteria for the sonnet language

the prosodic

fourteen lines fixed rhyme schemes and forth choosing subject necessity easy the since the aim pleasure please and there can grave matters Among

tions limitation The third poetry

The second one consists

in

.

haps the major difficulty

,

a

in

of

(

a

(

an

as

he

having two sets meanings one regards every good sonnet person superficial easy for the addressed this and one another for the learned and wise reader this secret and recondite one The necessity combining the two single brief sonnet constitutes the first and per since

means language .

,

"

it

to

“

.

,

, ,

a

of

its

in

a

way

soul

;

of

states

in

to ,

in

to

and

)

[

228

fece doloroso

,

il

stile hora ,

hora abbassò

lo

:

,

19 : "

or

a

,

on

), .p

hora egli inalzó

."

(

is

La

1589

it

to it ,

,

of

,

.

53

Veronica hora piaceuole

sorrowful poet

presence demonstrates represents which different

One prosodic matter comes for special attention which illustrates curious effort relate versification enjambment this the run line style

be

of

, it is

,

53

as a

"

individual sonnet and Toralto citing selected sonnets each

by

an

to

.”

:

in

not Petrarch

now made

the total work

a

he

to

to

of

,

In

linguistic fact most Toralto's preoccupations seem praise variety metes out Petrarch because his and this

now raised his style then lowered pleasant Variety then criterion applies

is

style

a

in

;

,

in

his

,

in

to

When

he

.

speech

a

express the emotion involved

is ,

very sorrowful man should That proper terms not figurative ones since the latter would not grave occur him sorrow but sonnet would require meta phorical language precisely order differentiate from everyday use

speak only

ARS POETICA

RETURN

:

THEORY

TO

our nature abhors corruption , and on the contrary loves and desires eternity . a sonnet in which every verse represents for us an end [ by

Thus when we read

,

it

54

of

.

of

of

the plot and

;

the invention

other kinds Mostly they concern disposition from the extent the treat

the tragedy are

to its

of

The difficulties

by

of

,

it

an

its

on

being end - stopped ), that is , corruption , our intellect suffers ; and on the contrary , when we read another which has verses running into one another takes pleasure for from them eternity derives indefinable promise

it

.

in ,

of

his

be

,

be

.

to ;

do .

so

be in

be

is

by

,

the former would seem

be

far the more important Invention many factors The plot must circumscribed true and must origin but the history must itself incomplete therefore historical that the poet may free add episodes own contriving and ment

is

It

.

.

its

to

be

be

he

only must without contradicting the history itself this more difficult than the sonnet said one respect that tragedy might this

,

an

a

in

”

“

— ”

,

its

.

a

its

“

in

"

"

"

of of

"

,

,

be

magnificent and royal personages The plot again should sorrowful and fearful effect the latter apparently counter part impres tragedy must achieve Aristotle's pity and fear Finally

of

.

He

.

,

of

finding his

discusses Tasso's works

since they

as

,

,

passing

do

to

.

In

knowledge for the poet

;

in

, is

of

,

is

on

)

(

in

).

(

his

,

,

55

.

of

in

not imitate

to in

well Tasso's heroic poem the principal qualities are the diction used express the borrowed materials Another the shorter lyric genres the elegy the object Tommaso Correa's inquiry De elegia 1590 His approach here however broader and more general than his earlier treatise on the epigram 1569 the Gerusalemme ,

sonnets inferior

he

,

of

as

”

“

to

,

extreme gravity and this too has difficulties say about more general poetic matters Toralto has little uses the only for the imitation term imitation models sees the use meta phors and other figures poetry from the feature which distinguishes prose and insists upon the necessity both divine inspiration and acquired

sion

Before actually beginning the generalizations about number and these concern almost equally the poet the poem and the of

a

in

.

a

basis

,

of

so

,

,

poetry

somewhat different indulges the elegy he

discussion

,

of

and proceeds

to

:

in

its

set

of

,

,

-

,

,

in

Since this

,

its

.

in

.

its

praise and admiration

relation

."

i

,

il

78 .

,

37 , di

sò

.pp

,

)

on

be si

to

(

229

è la

, e

lo

; e

ci

,

ed

,

da

in ,

55

,

,

;

vn

la

la

per natura nostra abborrisce corruttione contrario ama desi rappresenti dera l'eternità leggendo adunque sonetto ch'in ogni verso fine ciò leggendone vn'altro c'habbia corruttione l'intelletto nostro patisce all'incontro versi quelli promette non entranti l'vno nell'altro gode perche che eternità The principal passages Toralto are found 10–30 and ., .p

Ibid

23 : “

54

will accord

all .

,

to

-

by

.

,

in

.

is

to a

it

the poet

is

at

to

.

,

is

passage from one Indeed there free another these topics that being treated times difficult discover which One might state the nearly circular relationship this way The poet seeks admiration and praise He must have obtain them qualities supplied both art and nature genius and judgment precepts and prudence These qualities will manifest themselves the poem both over structure and the details And the poem when properly constructed will produce the proper effect upon erudite and elite audience which audience

THEORY

all

may be discussed

on

example

alternately

the good poet may serve

:

.

simultaneously The following passage

in itself or with

three

,

reference to the poet or the audience . Correa does

an or

obtains , any aspect of a poem

ships

as

POETIC

;

,

is

,

,

it

,

,

imperita

,

the ignorant crowd

of

the direct opposite

of

,

turba

up

plebecula

is

,

this analysis

in

The audience

. 56

of

,

a

in

,

of

may words and rhythms extols the wit whatever features thoughts expressed proper admires the and harmonious manner appreciate fully the greatness and excellence the artifice

to

;

his

,

he

it,

he

set

mends the joining forth and learns

to it

,

is

to

he

Since indeed the poet seeks admiration and that praise which derives from poem must certainly strive see that admirable extraordinary the composition elegant and praiseworthy and approves the devices praises the invention com when the reader examines admiration itself that the artifice

is

be

,

It

.”

in et

,

In

.

is

,

in

,

57

made according

to

, to it is be

the poem itself

Horace's prescrip

successfully

,

”

"

,

it

: “

It

"

on -

in

words

of of

“

."

is

to

the necessity

and on the other

everywhere

insists

,

,

actions

in

he

”

,

in

in

-

the one hand

character

58

,

,

is

of

“

on

”

.

For

decorum

by

is

,

"

"

poetry

",

combined are res verba taught and numeri and their correct handling art teaches appropriate what words what rhythms and what subject matter sees appro required what connection words and rhythms The terms priate and connection give the key Correa's whole conception .

tions The three elements

be

to

."

a

,

“

:

of

in

of

men who would

As for

inscia

be

“

,

the

"

“

made rather like the ancients sound judgment like the poet him knowledge composed self the art fact the best audience would poets That man cannot judge appropriately nor react properly who poetry and who does not have genius art practice and familiarity not himself good poet the

rhythms

of

,

be in

”

of

but only part

-

part

—

of

“

is

action

”

no "

"

“

lamentable

he

a

to

a

59

. "

"

,

The

“

clause

.pp .

"

to

no

)

(

,

“

or

De

56

(

effect

he

,

a

In

of

an

is

: "

he

.

.

,

of

by

emphasizes

by

he

conjoining things which are com the importance achieving uniform tone their combination nature and and effect When after these preliminary matters comes the elegy applies the principles enunciated earlier definition which apes Aristotle says The elegy imitation lamentable action expressed But the definition would verses with unequal rhythmic intervals incomplete for Aristotle since only object and means are touched equivalent upon with reference manner and the purgation

hand patible

,

,

,

,

,

."

]

[

230

sit

in

,

,

."

sit

."

,

,

,

,

&

,

is ,

."

,

&

,

&

,

,

,

,

sit

vt

,

;

;

22 : & "

,

,

., & ., , .p .p 6 : 25 : " , “

., .p

57 58

59

&

; : “

,

,

&

ex

),

elegia 1590 20-21 Cum enim poeta admirationem quaerat laudem quae ipsa admiratione comparatur eniti certe debet admirabile eius carmen singulare quam cum introspicit lector probat consilia artificium laudabilis ornata coagmentatio laudat inuentionem commendat connexionem verborum numerorum extollit acumen quaecumque lineamenta praedicat sententias apte concinne conclusas admiratur artificij magnitudinem praestantiam penitus cognoscit quo non Ibid Iudicare congrue non potest neque honeste sentire ingenium non ars non exercitatio poetica vsus non bonus ipse poeta quae verba qui numeri quae ver Ibid Docet quod argumentum conueniat videt borum numerorum coagmentatio requiratur Elegia quidem est querebundae actionis imitatio Ibid versibus numerorum disparibus interuallis expressa

ARS POETICA

RETURN

:

TO THEORY

their characteristics

and nonpersonal

and attributes

—

the actions — with

all

the “ res ” ; it comprises such things as the commiserations of lovers , funeral lamentations, and letters . “ Res ” includes as well the persons concerned in it

of

.

, a

,

of

of

style

decorum

.

,

,

simple

its

,

divers kinds

,

or

"

low

the rustic

life the urbane

diction must

"

"

,

to

“

Since the elegy belongs the be most tender and delicate

knowledge

a

essentially

,

of

of of

to

the various kinds

to

attributed

This

of

on

be so

to ,

.

the military

is ,

to

be

of

activities

he

,

of

by

I

;

or as

suspect that divine providence and fate also includes thoughts uttered the sententiae the characters Correct development knowledge these matters demands the part the poet eco politics may distinguish public private nomics and that from affairs assigned persons and the characters various types the elements such

of

. 60

the readers

all

of

which will flow easily into the souls

,

,

be

,

,

,

,

,

of

by

a

fit

be

we

,

,

In

.

set

,

so

... that the reader may take delight and admire and may judge that the most may caught essential feelings have been forth and that bright and pure simplicity propriety the words one must strive for sure and dic arousing tion and the words themselves should varied and elegant capable grave magnificent noble distinguished new and agreeable feelings and ones in

a

,

of

it

of

,

be

is

all

his

.

its

of

,

it

to

; it

is

it

,

, is

an

poetry and Verse for Correa essential accompaniment the necessary elegy endows the poem with than elsewhere even more special essence makes admirable and worthy read gives honor glory Rhythm poetry and the assurance for author the soul

of

,

rectam

concinnam ingenuam

,

,

:

,

venustam perfectam

“

of

of

,

puram

,

lepidam

mollem perspicuam ,

tersam

,

,

,

dulcem

,

,

,

,

“

:

of

;

”

,

an

rotundam

aequabilem

,

plenam

laeuem

,

, be

elegantem ,

dam

,

,

a

,

.

54 )

(

in .p

poetry and for the elegy requirements for Correa summarizes particular with string nouns Varietas Perspicuitas Cultus Proprietas Venustas Numerus the what the effect and his estimate elegy should adjectives with even more formidable string candi

approach

,

of

.

.

of

or

its

in an

is

it to "

as

,

so

,

,

be

et

,

43 ).

29 , ,

a

.pp

(

floridam

filo

simplicissimo tenui ... ... combined Matter diction and versification must produce work answering these requirements From both sets terms really more concerned with the poem itself than would seem that Correa with effect upon audience with the faculties the poet His variam

on

,

.

of

is

the broadest sense with the rhetoricians called Horatian styles and for their teachings upon mostly for their distinction diction and versification )

(

the first

,

them concerned Horace's Ars poetica

In

three separate works dealing with

.

two

of

poetry

.pp

60

the art

1597

Antonio Riccoboni published ;

,

1591

of

In

RICCOBONI

]

[

231

,

In

in

,

,

& , & .

,

,

,

,

.”

,

,

&

&

&

,

&

: " vt

& ,

,

,

.,

simplicissime exposita sensa Ibid 29–30 oblectetur lector admiretur mentis esse iudicet atque illa simplicitate candida munda capiatur verbis spectetur legitima proprietas atque verba ipsa sint varia dictionis secura ornata quae sensus gignant graues magnificos qui facile influant nobiles praeclaros nouos suaues 32 animos lectorum

POETIC

THEORY

Dissensio de epistola Horatii ad Pisones, Riccoboni takes issue with an anonymous “vir doctus ” who had declared that Horace's work displayed a complete confusion of subject matters, with no organization or order . Riccoboni counters with the thesis that although the epistle may not show a clear order (it need not , since the epistolary form permits of passage in a random way from one topic to another ), it does have a method and

Its

entitled

...

a

:

as .

,

,

of

art

,

on if

complete and rearranged ideas would compose thoroughgoing dissertation poetry Ideally Riccoboni believes the that such art should have been organized follows an

an organization .

is

an

.

of

be

be

,

to

be

,

or

at ,

or

by ;

be

,

;

in ,

,

in

of

,

be

it

,

.

the poem

excel

be

to

to

to

Next

must made clear that the work the poet and his poetry something excellent and that the poet himself should not must one single part the poem but the whole work and that excellence

counted

or

as

,

as

its

to

be

praised just first poetry had Aristotle praised rhetoric before giving precepts and many others have similarly done And since praise for the poet can derive either from nature art from both this the reason why such inquiry had reproved who broached and the same time those should wish seem struck madness among whom Horace did not wish

be

in

of

,

,

of

,

in

.

.

of of

,

be

to

in

,

;

in

in

of

poetic decorum must sought this kind invention elocution and achieving from philosophy moreover that the Greeks were more capable poetic matters than the Romans Further the end excellence the poet had poems having explained revealed the kinds listed After these latter

if

,

,

to

,

it

all in of

at

,

,

general following the lead Aristotle was necessary not for each and every poetic genre least for some the major ones examine carefully now the ,

.

at

,

,

as

,

.

all

,

,

all

,

to

:

of

of

to

for

the censures brought against poets and the excuses would have been necessary show which errors the

his book treated

so be at

the end

of

,

to

:

in

,

,

,

,

constituent parts which are six number plot characters sententia diction melody spectacle even though poetic genres Next the are not proper quantitative parts which are four number prologue episode exode choral song which similarly are not appropriate genres And just Aristotle

of

be

by

a

in

it

,

Etenim primum Poetica erat laudanda quoniamque aliis multis

ab

61

be

,

them the end poets should pardoned and which not and what way sincere judgment poetic works should sought and how the bad poets should avoided the wise ones.61

.

:

, in

:

in

,

&

,

:

in

,

,

.

in ,

,

,

sexat ,

.

in

,

si

ad

:

.

,

à

in

,

,

in

rc

in

excellentiam

in

philosophia inuentione elocutione decoro poctico quam Romanos excellere potuisse autem poetica magis Graecos practerea erat aperiendus finis poetae enumerandaque poematum genera Quibus uniuerse explicatis singulis poematum generibus imitationem Aristotelis non certe praecipuis quibusdam oportebat perpendere tum partes conformantes quae sunt fabula :

atque huiusmodi petcndam esse

ut

,

,

ab

:

ab

fit

,

& :

ab

similiter

illi ,

,

à

,

(

), .p

1591 D4v ante praecepta

“

Arist laudatur laus poetae potest utraque idcirco talis quaestio erat aperienda aut natura aut arte aut simulque reprehendendi qui uolunt uideri furore perciti quorum esse numero Horatius poesim seu poema rem quandam excellentem nolebat Deinde ostendendum poetae opus toto opere excellere debere una parte poematis sed esse oportere ipsumque poetam non Dissensio

Rhetorica prouenire

:

,

,

.

,

ac

." de

à

]

232

[

,

,

&

,

quibus non ignoscendum quomodo esset ignoscendum requirendum malique poetae prudentibus fugiantur iudicium sit

de

,

sui

,

in

sic

,

&

;

&

,

,

,

,

,

,

,

,

mores sententia dictio melopoeia apparatus quamuis non omnes omnibus conuenientes episodium prologus quae sunt quattuor non exodus choricum tum partes quantitatis quemadmodum reprehensioni omnibus itidem congruentes fine libri Arist egit denique ostendendum erat quibus poetarum erroribus bus excusationibus poetarum poematibus

syncerum

ARS POETICA : RETURN

TO THEORY

This program for an art of poetry in part follows Aristotle's order in the Poetics , in part adds sections from other works and from the popular defences of poetry . Riccoboni then proceeds to cut the Horatian text into small pieces and to rearrange the pieces according to the topics outlined in the above plan . For each topic , he indicates parallels with Aristotle wherever warranted .

By the time he finishes , every line of the Horatian epistle has been accounted and the parallelism with Aristotle is complete. Since this rearrange

for,

ment itself constitutes outline form :

a valuable interpretation

, I

Horace

I.

The praise of poetry

39

418

295–308

art and nature

give it below in brief Aristotle 1455a33 , 144864 , 1451a22

divinity of poet natural causes

II .

The necessity of excellence

361-385

moral philosophy

32-41

1456a3 , 1456a9 , 145468

309_332 285–294

III .

The ends of poetry “ delectare ” primarily

333-334

1448a25

341-346 73-85

" prodesse ” accidentally

the genres

IV .

The plot in various genres

275-280 220-233 281-284

Aristotle's requirements for plot

:

42-45

( 1) order

146-152

( 2) magnitude ( 3) unity

1-13

( 4) possible

338-340

(General ) 1460a26

128-135 14-23

( 5 ) not episodic (6 ) admirable , marvelous ( 7 ) simple or complex

( none )

(8 ) pathetic

( none )

136-145 1452a12 1452630

V.

119–127

Character

1453622

114-118 153-178

VI .

333-337

Sententia

96–113 [ 233 ]

1456a34

POETIC

THEORY Horace

VII .

Diction

Aristotle

86-95 270–274 234-250 251-269 24-31 46_72

VIII . IX .

Melody

202-219

Spectacle

179-188

X.

Quantitative

XI .

Errors of the poets

parts

189–201

1452619

347–360

( 146066 ]

386–390 419-476

Aside from the mechanical redistribution of segments , little of interest to offer on the Ars poetica . In a preliminary poetry , he controverts Aristotle's assertion that tragedy is epic , maintaining instead that since the epic plot is longer

Riccoboni

has

section on epic

superior to the and more diffi

of

by

or

wish infrequently entertained

exploited

the

.

parallels with Horace Horatian critics

— a

set

cult , it may be considered preferable ( p . D2 ) . His insistence that the primary end of poetry is to give pleasure is exceptional , especially in this last decade of the century . So , too , is his wish to find in Aristotle a basis for the organization of ideas about poetry , rather than merely a isolated

,

he

in

to

. In

,

.

of at

his

.

a

he

of

The dialogue does little more than reiterate the positions brief and general way Riccoboni states stand thus

of in

);

(

or

ad

of

,

in

,

de

his

he

of

it

to

is a

to

de

,

of

July Riccoboni's second work 1591 published three months later reply Nicola Colonio's Methodus Arte poetica 1587 had only after publishing the first preferred either come know with hold his rebuttal Colonio until after had stated his own position Horatij epistola Defensor seu pro eius opinione Pisones discusses dialogue form the question with Colonio the order the Ars poetica the Dissensio

the beginning

as

all ),

Horace

(

have demonstrated that from him all

I

:

the dialogue

from the inexhaustible foun ,

to

I

.

in

,

it

general but ,

in

plot

, ex

eo ac ,

ex

.pp

62

Colonio's contention that Horace had not treated

of

. 62

,

..

if

,

in a

is

in

,

at

is

so to in a

of

poetry doctrine one may draw not the things that pertain say that not which are transmitted methodical fashion everything contained the Epistle the Pisos part for part but that everything present there general sense that seems that Horace some way touched upon everything that Aristotle treated tainhead least many

in

,

,

,

ut

ad

: "

ad

,

234

)

(

."

,

. . . .

, si

, ) ,

(

tamquam Defensor 1591 11-12 ostendi uberrimo omnis doctrinae non omnia quae attinent Poeticam certe multa quae Methodice traduntur Epistola hauriri posse dico non omnia quidem comprehendi Pisones secundum partem scd omnia contineri vniuersè omnia quaecunque egerit Aristoteles quodammodo altigisse Horatius videatur fonte

ARS POETICA : RETURN TO THEORY

by

only of the plot in specific genres , leads episodes and their interrelationship , in are cited . A long section near the end interpretation of line 128 , “ Difficile Riccoboni recommends that the poet

of

est

the Defensor

is devoted

to an

",

proprie communia dicere and should not only prefer materials a

of

,

in

he

,

in

in

,

so

on

by

).

.pp

.

(

to

--

be

—

that

in

he

way others but that should treat them such their universal applications causes effects modalities doing action will manifest By will give the greatest possible pleasure the audience 31-32 ,

already exploited

to a long argument over plots and which the opinions of Castelvetro

,

of

.

,

,

,

e

.

in

)

(

or

of

;

in

,

i

),

(

all

, a

literary problems Five short treatises Giulio Cortese Neapolitan poet and academician were published 1591 and 1592 they are now usually found with the 1588 1592 editions his Rime Two them the Regole per fuggire vitii dell'elocutione 1592 and the Regole per formare epitafii 1591 are exclusively rhetorical content But the other three Avertimenti nel poetare Dell'imitatione dell'inventione and Delle figure

a

,

." 63

write about the general is

—

of

poetry

permit expression

In

to

as

way

of

the soul

whereas the this subject

in ,

means

the subject

,

,

a

such

as in

,

in

,

its

so

,

"

it

" ;

to

"

as

“

,

cogitation

the conceit

in

or

what

arms love beauty madness some particular aspect

, of

-

is a

of

to it,

is

"

”

So

through meditation words

"

,

of

is

of

in

.

“ *

development

concetto the words and the that meditation which the spirit

subject

from

thus different

material chosen for treatment concetto

be

to

,

.

of

important any kind poetry the sounds The first these defined makes upon some object offered Concetto

in

is ,

prominent and euphuism which were the century Cortese distinguishes three elements

gongorism

these last years

us

of it

.

a

,

,

of

Marinism

to

of

.

of

),

of

(

poetry and advice for their application contain theories the art The Avertimenti nel poetare own way very significant document For affords our first encounter the theory present tradition with the literary conceit and with the notions 1591

the practice

,

.

”

“

or

as

,

,

2 ).

(p .

in

But two dangers understood

of

be

to

.

enrich and embellish his poetry making his conceit too obscure

be

,

by

:

by

order

that

,

.

narratives

to

erudite

of

in

be

must

attend him here

of

such

as

,

at

be

do to

,

is

,

not contain conceits

be

genres which

all ,

do

.

fact certain verse events should not called poetry but rather historical casual verse Even some lyrics are denied the title such Petrarch's second and third Basically sonnets which not engender any conceit the mind the materials for conceits are furnished the sciences and hence the poet considered

so

to

.

,

as

]

spirito

fa

to

."

[

235

che

lo

it

quella meditatione scriuere

, ), .p 1 : " da

(

di

c'ha

at

to

,

of

so

be

in

of

),

, “

or

63

gli

se

Avertimenti 1591 quello offerisce

, it it

(

examples Giulio Camillo's cabalistic poems would such presenting scientific materials and that bare proper terms Rather the conceit will drawn from the sciences not obfuscate confuse the eye the soul but instruct and illuminate that the guess reader will know what said and not have what was trying the reader

obscurity

sopra alcuno obietto che

POETIC

THEORY

to say . " 64 The principle for the other two elements is a simple one . The words must be appropriate to the conceit and the sounds to both . The poet must take particular care to see that the words are adapted to the style in which he is writing and that the sounds are at once fitting to the thought and harmonious among themselves .

In the second treatise , Dell'imitatione e dell'inventione , the conceit comes to be, by implication at least , synonymous with imitation . Cortese dis tinguishes in general two ways of writing , by words which signify directly meaning and by phrases or paraphrases which describe , the intended instead , the action . The first of these he calls simple narration (note the parallelism with the distinction concerning “ concetti ” ) and the second , imitation . It is imitation in the sense that the description of an action follows , somehow , the procedure of nature herself in establishing the law governing the action . Simple narration may be used to signify an action which is not

immediate to the end of the poet ; imitation will be used for one which is proximate to that end . Invention , also , has two meanings , since it refers on the one hand to the discovery of new things, new ways, new usages , on the

to

,

For

",

.

“

as

(

to ), all

all

other hand to the production of artificial things in semblance of natural things. In the latter category Cortese places epic and dramatic plots lyric discoursings with respect not only which resemble history the subject matter but also episodes and epithets such ornaments

it ,

a

65

."

of

-

a

in

,

and rules for their

to

,

of

a

,

an

or

a

or

a

to

a

, “

he

invest substance with new accident congruous with containing explanation very reason cause will constitute poetic compositions noble invention and herein reside the riches high flown theory figures The very brief Delle figure addition says

makes some statements about the reasons for the invention and use these same figures Cortese believes that they were necessity give pleasure the necessity being invented out and make certain ideas understandable the pleasure being that which the human to

all

,

,

to

of

.

of

,

use

,

In

,

a

in

,

in

,

a

of

of

or

it

to

its of

is a

of

is

.

spirit customarily derives from literary works three treatises what philosophy linguistics that goes far beyond the usual notable theory theories the styles diction the conceit which attempts distinguish general from materials nature and curious

of

.

of

is a

.

of in

to .

in

,

amalgam kind the his definition

,

il

."

,

&

&

,

;

il

., .p 7 : "

, ò

ingar Sarà dunque concetto tirato dalle scienze tale che non offuschi dell'anima ma che l'erudisca l'illumini accioche lettore conosca quello detto non quello c'habbia uoluto dire

Ibid bugli l'occhio c'habbia

that city His lecture others He derives ,

64

materials

earlier developed

by

the Biblioteca Comunale

of

of

his

,

as

of

in

of

wrestling with the problem the difference between objects nature and objects literary expression those same the substance Some time after 1592 Cesare Crispolti delivered the Accademia Perugia manuscript Insensata Lettione del sonetto now found

,

&

,

)

(

236

,

di

), .p 5 : , " ò

,

le

.” ò

(

65

poiche uestire una sostanza Dell'imitatione 1591 accidente nuouo congruente qui stanno esplicatione sarà assai nobile inuentione cagionc che contenga ragione ricchezze delle poesie

ARS POETICA

TO THEORY

RETURN

:

its

style from Arte poetica Thoscana , his ideas on fitting style Bernardino Tomitano notions on the matter from Aristotle's Rhetoric Bembo's Prose and Patrizi's Retorica He also lyric poetry under the low considers and rejects Dante's classification

to

of

on

of

.

,

general ,

,

sonnet from Minturno's

no

:

is

.

-

be its

,

a

in

In

—

as

;

its

,

.

of

, in

is

a

,

a

maintaining that sonnet grave matter would demand the grave the most beautiful and the most difficult The sonnet for Crispolti difficulty results primarily from the Tuscan poetic genres small painting every slightest defect can size which small seen long poems the situation otherwise style

style

be ,

if if

as ,

of

a

,

,

of

If

,

moves arouses and ravishes the reader with secret other compositions must have many parts this one seeks clarity join together gravity and pleasantness diction.66

to

.

miracle style and

In

,

happily developed

, it

is

.

,

,

In

long compositions the poets usually matter how mediocre they may put many things which with their beauty and their grace compensate for other things which are less beautiful and less grave this composition the thought

It

.

to

,

digressions

and ornaments which give the the other lyric genres

shares the subject matter

as

-gods

the absence

epic majesty

an

latter

of

the canzone

of

in

in

.

of

This description the effect upon the reader has Longinian overtones The sonnet differs from the epigram the general tone achieved and from

to

of

of

.

is

as ,

be all

to

is

,

is

an

.

.

of

to

of

of

,

matter and the styles ,

in

subject traditional He thinks the sonnet terms prosodic form and the ends with respect the reader diction and sounds His solutions for many these problems come from the rhetoricians .

thus essentially

.

to

,

as

as

,

to

his

,

to

—

,

pray

,

,

to

,

heroes

:

and loves and has the same ends the canzone praise and matters For blame comfort internal construction well external effects Petrarch taken usage everywhere marvelous Crispolti's approach the model for narrate

is

).

(

de

definition and the distinc

a

he

,

plot will then imitate )

the

(

It

: “

, fol .

10 ),

N.

la Ne i

.

a

of

,

,

is

,

to

,

he

of

comic protagonist and the comic action 66

,

,

of

.

, .

of

, is

dramatic

of

a

borrowed

and mixed manners His use Aristotle quali however some interest From him Ceruti takes the division tative and quantitative parts and although desists from full treatment the former does point out that not only the poet concerned with supplying them the poem but also the actor the musician and the architect Aristotle also furnishes model for Ceruti's description the ,

narrative

of

to

he

Donatus From him .

,

the genre

tion

of

on

,

to

to

in

his

,

of

again For Frederico Ceruti the problem the available sources important one Dialogus comoedia 1593 Since Horace had had say specifically about comedy and since Aristotle gave only sug little gestions Ceruti was obliged turn the perennial source information

)

(

237

,

,

, i

,

grauità

, e

,

che siano insieme accoppiate

la

. , e Se

chiarezza dello stile

, e

: “

il

se

In

.

." la

la

.

hauere Questo ricerca piaceuolezza del dire

è

(

.

,

e

, e

,

.

longhi componimenti MS Bibl Com Perugia 1058 64v Poeti per vaghezza gratia loro l'altre men mezzani che siano sogliono porre molte cose che con graui ricompensano questo belle concetto felicemente spiegato muoue risueglia rapisce altrui quasi con occulto miracolo gl'altri componimenti deuono molte parti

POETIC

THEORY

only a single action , very agreeable in tone , suitably amusing, concerning private citizens who are neither entirely good nor entirely bad , but who through some imprudence or error ( such as happen to men in private life ) not unproductive of laughter , pass from a troublesome situation into one they achieve

where

happiness . " 67 Other passages , such as a hint on the

of

the ridiculous ( p. 27) and a reference to the dance as a form of imitation ( p . 33 ) , may also be traced to Aristotle . For the rest , such recent nature

writers as Pontano , Maggi , and Riccoboni are called upon to authorize and illustrate an essentially rhetorical point of view . The tastes and the pleasure of the audience and the effect which the comedy will have upon it are paramount for Ceruti . He states as the end “ to profit through delight and laughter ” ( p . 15 ) and sees comedy as a great school for providing examples of ways of life to be followed or to be eschewed . With those who

hold that comedy might exert a corrupting influence on the young he dis agrees heartily , especially since he sees in his century actors capable of expurgating obscene passages and of pointing up the moral . Many struc

The handling of

aspects

the plot must make

it

.

of

spoil the suspense

all

tural features of comedy are determined by the audience . The prologue , peculiar to comedy , exists as a means of obtaining the attention and the good will of the spectators ; yet it must not reveal the denouement lest it

to

.

by

,

it

seem credible even though the audience knows that has been invented help the playgoer's memory the poet Comedies are divided into acts

so

in

of

of

,

be

-

,

on no

of

-

,

to

naturally adapted

be

to

to

provide intervening periods

.

seems

of

relaxation and the five act length the faculties and the capabilities the Songs and dances are provided audience the entr'actes that spectator even the most ignorant who would not understand the goings during the deprived on the stage will some form entertainment and

of

by

.

be

to

as

tion

"

of

the epic

in

general and

of

in

,

by

in

had indicated the marvelous

solve

a

problem that had long poetic theory Many them produced one the effects the art particular and had spoken the admira

1597 Giovanni Talentoni attempted been puzzling his predecessors the field

of to

In

.

performance

.

of

at

only incidentally by in

poetry

“

initial statement that the end

of

one the passions constantly present is

so

the rhetorical tradition

After

is

The approach

analyze the effect

as

.

to

seeks

of

.

67

to it of

belongs

.pp

,

it

;

of

the soul

the Cinquecento

the Purgatorio

an

but insofar

of

its

;

it

IV

of

Horatian

as

beginning

Canto

its

as a

,

of

,

la

”

in

which the poem must arouse audience Talentoni's Discorso maraviglia delivered lecture before the Accademia degli Inquieti Milan inquired into the nature the marvelous and the con point departure was the passage ditions for achieving the sopra

,

,

238

)

(

."

)

( vt

&

,

: "

),

ex

,

;

,

&

(

In

Dialogi duo 1593 imitabiturque duntaxat actionem vnam perplacidam 24–25 eorumdem.que nec prorsus bonorum risu dignam hominum priuatorum nec prorsus malorum sed eorum qui imprudentia aliqua errore hominibus priuatis solet accidere non sine risu molestia aliqua foelicem statum consequuntur

ARS POETICA

of

means

living

RETURN

:

TO THEORY

to lead them into ways of good do this ( according to Strabo ) solely by the use of Talentoni indicates that his treatment of the subject will

pleasure

to attract men and

" and that the poets

the marvelous , 68 have three parts ,

of

;

we

,

we

on its

,

its

it is

,

it

,

its

.. in the first of which we shall show that admiration is a passion , and to what kind of passion and appetite it should be reduced ; in the second , coming much closer to nature we shall discover form and the subject and the cause from springs and from these things we shall assemble which definition shall show that the species into which divided are five and the occasion the

a

is ,

,

its

it

in its

it .

its

,

to to

of

in

in

it

or

a

...

,

in

,

be

it

good

of

.

of

of

of

laughter and third we shall treat ridiculous things Since shall classify Having astonishment under some these species we shall also speak sufficiently explained this way the aforesaid two parts nature and speak produces essence the third we shall come the effects which inquire into qualities that those who receive and finally whether bad thing.69

its ,

of no its

,

,

In

,

of .

.

it : ( 1 )

physiological

,

them

of

some

sees

as

Talentoni

the animate and rational and rational operating with

3 )

the animate

of

, (

,

for the effects

( 4 )

,

and

of

As

.

intent

but nonrational

the animate

operating through chance

but exclude

of

to by ,

be

, (

inanimate

2 )

the marvelous are related

ignorant

tragedy and comedy accidental events for which the reader the spectator The four kinds objects producing the four kinds the is

from whatever the patient sources include peripeteia cause may discovered

or

,

it

,

,

is a

in

passion which After having established the first part that admiration like others dominates and tyrannizes the soul Talentoni examines springs basically from the unexpected the unknown causes finding that

both soul which the functions kind body important poetics and are arrested note for that this sensation accompanied pleasure and that hence the poem capable effecting goal final moral admonition is

of

to

is

It

by

.

un

“

to

Horatian

practical criticism performed this last critics was Pietro Cresci's Discorso sopra in

the few exercises

of

One

generation

"

of

of

its is

by

.

in

helpless amazement

a

especially

,

to

ben viuere

,

tirargli

al

,

a

so

huomini

, e

col piacer allettar

as a by

of in (

di

gli

1597

., . , , .p " e 6 ( , : “ e ), la .p

69

Discorso Sauole sue

5 : "

08

.

in in

.

in

in

lode del celebre

),

luogo Valchiusa 1599 delivered the degli question was Accademia Uranici Venice The sonnet Marco praise genre Cavallo After preliminary remarks the sonnet emphasizing the perfection achieved brief form Cresci proceeds Sonetto

nelle

, & à

è

si da

,

, e

,

, e la

, il

la

:

si

,

la

marauiglia quale Ibid nella prima delle quali mostreremo che affetto specie d'affetto d'appetito debba ridurre nella seconda accostandoci molto più alla soggetto cagione ond'ella nasce queste natura sua scuopriremo forma sua

, de in

le

; e

.

)

à

,

à

à

.

.

,

, le e

lui

&

,

di

,

;

la

...

239

(

,

cioè s'ella sia cosa buona

ria ". ,

, in ò

,

gli

la

,

lo

,

di

cose raccoglieremo sua diffinitione mostreremo che sue specie nelle quali ella diuide per cagion della terza tratteremo del riso son cinque delle cose ridicolose Ad alcune quelle perche ridurremo stupore parimente fauelleremo Spiegata bastanza questa guisa nelle dette due parti parlar natura essenza sua verremo nella terza quei che finalmente ricercar sue qualitadi effetti ch'ella produce riceuono

a full analysis of Cavallo's

in order by

he

What

means

these

under each heading Under inven

statements

.

his essential

elocution

.

,

by

,

and

of

...

an

:

made clear tion

sonnet . He does so by discussing its

disposition

its

invention

THEORY is its

POETIC

is

,

.

or

,

,

or

is ,

as

,

of

,

or

—

,

if

its it is

of

of

,

or

,

is

nothing other than imagination things which are invention which either true verisimilar we might say possible and which the main pillar great the structure imitation the base and foundation the whole poetic art since concerned with those same three objects upon which imitation upon proper seat rests imitating nature that art fortune

at , so

all

:

Under disposition

in

in he

of

of

)

of

of

of

its

of (

so

,

,

,

,

]

[

a

,

, of

things appropriately well disposed the right time developed the thoughts beautiful order scattered the ornaments and the figures with moderation and disposition has well observed variety and decorum essential parts that designated end giving pleasure and renewing has certainly achieved the minds the listeners and the readers the graceful memories those The author the sonnet has then placed the words used the attributes

.

delightful places

:

Under elocution

,

,

,

,

, .

on

way

is

about these three topics general commentary the procedure

the sonnet revolves

It

. 70

,

by of

to

The total critique interesting note

of

,

,

at

he

...

,

,

in

he

And has similarly succeeded with much felicity elocution having judici ously chosen words which are sonorous grave clear proper circumscribed and figurative and has the same time elegantly filled the whole sonnet with gravity with clarity with purity and with sweetness

,

, B5 ò

.pp

at

1599

of

an

expositor

very end with

the work may

,

collatus

its

as

prominently again

appears

;

his De Poetica Aristoteles cum Horatio 70

of ,

.

the decade

of

of

had figured

,

,

in

the early years

so

)

Antonio Riccoboni who Horace

be

to

is a

1599

(

RICCOBONI

in

of

.

;

statements only the examples

or

of

set

that might have been made about almost any other changed work the citations would need the judgments would remain the same This the characteristic feature analysis rhetorical method the sixteenth century the same

è,

&

,

si

,

i

....

in

;

di

,

,

la

: “

, e

,

tre

,

, ( ò ),

, ò

di

quale altro non Discorso 1599 B5v l'inuentione ch'vna imaginatione vogliam dir possibili ch'è colonna principale della gran verisimili cose vere machina dell'immitatione base fondamento tutta l'arte Poetica versando ella intorno quei oggetti medesimi sopra quali l'immitatione riposa come suoi proprij seggi

,

)

(

240

tutto

elegantemente

há

...

Sonetto

e

, e

dolcezza

il

,

di ,

,

, e

,

purità

, ,

di di

,

&i il

la

de '

, ò

de

,

è

chiarezza

di

,

di

di

grauità

."

insieme ripieno

,

le

il la

hà

,

gli

&

,

, e le à

ne

Et

. . . .

di

&

,

,

,

le

, ò

, è

, ò

Natura Arte Caso immitando Ha poi cosi ben disposto cose collocato parole vsato tempo conueneuolmente attributi disteso con bell'ordine concetti figure decoro sparso con misura gli ornamenti variatione cosi ben seruata parti essentiali della dispositione dissegnato fine che certamente n'hà conseguito dilet quei gratiosa memoria gli vditori gli animi lettori tare rinouellar hauendo con molta felicità parimente riuscito nell'elocutione diletteuoli luoghi giuditiosamente scelto voci sonore graui chiare proprie circonscritte traslate cioè

ARS POETICA

:

RETURN

TO THEORY

indeed , be contemporary

with the ones already discussed . 71 In these , Riccoboni had suggested the possibility of reordering the Ars poetica according to a more scientific arrangement . In the new work he does just that. Under a number of section headings , which are those of the major divisions of the poetic art , he first places prose passages which are pre sumably summations of Aristotle's positions , then he quotes in extenso the passages from Horace which he deems pertinent. Once again , the whole of the Horatian text passes into the rearrangement. The kind of order which Riccoboni proposes for a scientific treatise on the art of poetry is perhaps of greater significance than the parallelisms between Aristotle and Horace , most of which were by this time completely conventional . I give below the section headings in Latin , a summation of the “ Aristotelian ” doctrine stated in the prose passages , and the numbers of the lines quoted from the Ars poetica : De Natura Poesis

Horace

Poetry as imitation ; object , manner , and means . The poet must excel in all parts of the poem . Poetry and history , the universal and the particular ; tation through embellishment .

361-85

imi

Ends : profit and pleasure ; purgation of pity and fear the proper pleasure of tragedy .

309–32 as 333–34 , 341-46

De Caussis Poesia

Divine cause : the divine furor .

391-407

Human cause : art and nature . Natural cause : imitation and harmony . Historical origins and development of tragedy and comedy

408–18 , 295–308

Origins

of comedy ,

De Generibus Imitationum , & Poesium The arts as imitations ; definitions comedy .

275–80 , 220_33 281-94

of epic, tragedy , 73-85

De Partibus Qualitatis De Fabula . Eight requirements for plot : 32-45

( 1) completeness ( 2) magnitude ( 3) unity

146-52 1-13

( 4) possible ( necessity , verisimilitude ) ( 5 ) non -episodic ( 6) marvelous ( 7) simple , complex

338-40

( 8 ) pathetic

(none )

De fabulis non immutandis , aut conuenienter fingendis . Traditional plots .

119-35

14-23 136-45 (none )

71 R. C. Williams , “ Italian Critical Treatises of the Sixteenth Century , " Modern Language XXXV ( 1920), 506–7 , lists a Praecepta Aristotelis cum praeceptis Horatii collata under the date of 1592, but I have been unable to find a copy of this work . Notes ,

[ 241 ]

POETIC

THEORY Horace

De Partibus Qualitatis De Moribus . Characters for the main genres ; decorum . De Sententia . Cf. the Rhetoric . The parts of thought . Persuasion . De Dictione . Kinds of words ; two qualities

114-18 , 153–78 335–37 , 96_113

of style ; 24-31 , 46–72 , 86-95 , 234-74

words for each genre .

De Melopoeia . De Apparatu . Not part of the poetic

,

art .

202-19 Effect from plot

not apparatus

.

178-88

De Partibus Quantitatis ,

,

tragedy comedy

epic

189–201

,

346-60 386–90 419–76 ,

of

,

of ,

&

De reprehensionibus excusationibus poetaruni Five sources blame three types excuse

.

Of

be

,

.

in

to

to

in

of

theory contained Elements Riccoboni's prose passages are more specifically pertinent Aristotle than Horace and they will treated subsequently the appropriate chapter

,

a

,

,

.

by

,

to

,

,

as

as

In

early perhaps even 1598 Camillo Pellegrino subject which Del concetto poetico returning thus had been treated only recently Giulio Cortese The latter's discussion however seems more philosophical and more sophisticated even though the same year

wrote his treatise

he

.

of

,

a

is

in

of

Pellegrino's dialogue one the interlocutors Giambattista Marino Pellegrino begins with conventional position the distinction the three ;

in

,

.

,

72

."

of

,

“

,

he

of

,

to

'

at

,

styles which equates various places with Hermogenes Ideas the different styles are appropriate different poetic genres Differences style says depend upon subject matter conceits words the disposi tion the latter and the colors the figures Since this might sound

is

“

:

the

, of of

,

is a

of

"

73 )

to

of

(

“ a

to

he

,

a

of

like description diction finds himself obliged first define style quality which results from the putting together the words and the thoughts distinguish between diction and style and former nothing but the choice and the placing the words which are images quality which results from the combination the thoughts the latter it

“

1898

cagiona dalla 328 colori delle figure

."

: " si

da ' ) , .p

,

quelle

e

di

(

be

“

or

"

;

an ,

as

75

."

by

,

,

of

its

in

,

by “

is

,

,

Naples

."

)

(

242

somiglianza

di

imagine

. "

e

dall'Intelletto

."

formato

e

331 un pensamento quelle : "

e

,

è

: "

è

: "

, e

328 una qualità che risalta dalla composizione delle voci dai concetti 329 quella altro non che scelta collocazione delle voci che sono immagini questa una qualità che risulta dal Composto delle voci dai concetti insieme

da

., .p

Ibid reale intesa ,

Cavalier Giovanbattista Marino dalle voci dalla disposizione

concetti

Ibid Ibid Concetti

78

de '

74 73

materia

Il

In

Borzelli

, ., ., da p p ' , . . e

72

a

of

“ a

as

"

“

concetto

74

thought Taken broadest sense synonymous with senso sentimento sentenza may thought image defined formed the intellect resemblance real thing signified these latter The specifically poetic con

."

the words and the thoughts

cosa

ARS POETICA

TO THEORY

RETURN

:

cetto " is defined in significantly altered terms : " a thought of the intellect , an image or resemblance of true things and of things which resemble the truth , formed in the fantasy . " 76 The poetic " concetto " is defined in this way in order to include the

peculiar characteristics of the art . The image produced may be of veri similar things, since verisimilitude is the proper field of operation of the poet , as compared with the orator , whose province is the true . Besides , the fantasy rather than the intellect is the productive faculty since the poet wishes to give pleasure , not to persuade, and the same imaginative powers involved in the invention of plot are concerned with the formation of “ concetti .” Indeed , there is a kind of analogy between plot -making and

-making : just as in tragedy , comedy , and the epic the digres sions must bear a necessary and probable relationship to the plot , so in the preferred genre the lyric (which is roots must have concetto the poem This same imagination differentiates the the main argument

in

its

"

“

.

of

)

its

“ concetto "

in

its ,

;

it

,

it

: “

of

,

of

of

poetry from that prose expressing conceits uses conceit Prose pure forms proper words and when expression uses metaphors and figurative language uses them rarely and with moderation whereas verse 77

superior

to

this respect

is

and

in

ordinary diction

)

the basis

of

at

(

which

is

of

.”

with greater liberty and sometimes with excessive boldness expresses conceits with figures and metaphors distant from literal meanings The faculty inventing such conceits springs from nature rather than from art

to

is is

)

“

,

,

” “

.

;

(

to

respon for prose and continue the same analogy nature sible also for the invention which makes plots Thus Pellegrino able say adapting Aristotle's dictum that the concetti are the soul and the the talent

to to :

of

in

poetry has

images

,

of

maker

by

as a

,

its

as

the civil faculty will have any case must make itself felt

it

;

as

in

no

“

he

;

in

an

as

a

itself imitation and delight qualified other end than but utility profit besides end and which considered

is

of

78

at

.

he

,

, .”

a

of

composition form poetry We have seen earlier Pellegrino's statement that the end give pleasure This reiterates various points but does not fail make concession which was current these last years the century

Ibid cose simili

of

,

In

.

,

a

, ”

, a in

." 79

“

it

if

as

un

76

or

is

by

of

through the intermediary pleasure the pleasure The immediate end best served depict the diction and the poem concetti which practical way the object the action were before our eyes

di

e

di

e

,

un

i

e

il

,

la di

,

e

fa

il

ed i

,

di

de

."

: '

: “ la

., ., p le . al .p

., ., p .p . ".

79 78

ed

ed

77

pensamento dell'Intelletto imagine simiglianza 332 cose vere vero formato nella fantasia prosa nello esprimer Ibid 336 concetti usa modi dir puri voci proprie usando metafore traslati con riguardo rado dove verso con più libertà alle volte con troppo ardire spiega suoi concetti con traslati metafore lontane dal proprio e

".

se

)

(

243

del

si

in

,

,

di

e

, il

."

e il

il

: “ la

: “

componimento 340 sono anima forma Ibid 340 Poesia considerata per stessa come Imitazione facitrice degli Idoli non abbia altro fine che diletto ma qualificata dalla Civile facoltà avrà eziandio per giovamento quale ogni modo converrà che suo fine l'utile senta per mezzo diletto Ibid

POETIC

THEORY

these “ concetti ” seem to be no more than figures of speech ; in a series of examples taken from Petrarch , Pellegrino points out how they belong to the general argument of the sonnet, how appropriate they are and how in

keeping with decorum , how they correspond to the various Ideas of Hermo genes , and to what extent they contribute beautiful and splendid orna mentation to the poem . The concluding year of the century presents two works pertinent to the Horation tradition , one of them on a general topic and the other more specific , and both of them by the same writer , Paolo Beni . The first , his De with the broad problem of literary only incidentally studies and discusses the work and the role of the poet . In addition to a conventional praise of the art , he indicates that useful studiis oratio , is concerned

ness resides

the various precepts and meanings

hidden under the fictional

.

about how

the greatest

,

of

be

to is be to

.

he

says nothing about the nature veil But these precepts the fiction containing them constructed For Beni

or

in

its

humanitatis

to

—

—

of

,

of

, is

of

he

,

—

be

:

.

to of it

so

of

problem for the poet seems provide the just style that how style measure ornamentation that the neither unadorned nor over wrought Three arts history poetry are involved here rhetoric poet and the must see that cultivates his own proper style and not those of the other two

is

,

it

of

of

at

be

one

of

,

of

in

. 80

of

,

1600

he

sustain

it

such that prose

its

order

in

,

of

and

in to

.

for the dramatic genres fully realized theory poetry

is

the quarrel over verse which achieved

better than verse

develops

also

the century Beni's contention

the last years

praestare

qua ostenditur

vinculis soluere

of

in

Beni's Disputatio metrorum

in

the principal documents is

,

of

is

treatise atque tragoediam

prominence

of

in

that the poem does not reproduce the popular exuberance history and the speech will not the restraint colored times stylistic the colors and pigments the poets

The less general comoediam

all

a

,

by or ,

so

a

to

and vigilance the orators excessively

in

Since indeed many things must frequently taken over into poetry from history and oratory and not certainly few fact from poetry into oratory difficult retain just measure them without the utmost degree care

,

as

.

a

of

a

in

it

it

,

to

of

,

it

to

a

is

of

,

This theory broadest aspects Horatian the extent that insists upon pleasure and utility determining position poetry that places the audience the ends with respect works art and that establishes central principle

Of

.

decorum

ad

ex

to

is

ad

.

“

of

.

of

,

as

he

,

80

is

the two Horatian ends Beni declares that the really important one utility and consisting sees utility moral instruction The statements unequivocal prescribe for man certain are The function the poets

)

(

244

,

&

est

ac

,

ita ut

,

."

,

,

in

;

5 : “

), ex .p

&

(

eloquentia 1600 Cum enim multa saepè Poesim historia verò Poesi non pauca sint referenda difficile profecto sine summa quadam vigilantia modum seruare industria omnibus nec popularem Oratorum vbertatem pigmentis siue etiam historiae verecundiam referat poema nec Poetarum coloribus nimis interdum coloretur oratio Oratio eloquentiam

1 ARS POETICA

RETURN

:

TO THEORY

ideal forms and models in relation to the variety of life itself and in a sense place them before his eyes , from which he may regulate his behavior and arrange

again : " In fact, this is the end proposed by tragedy

life . "81 Or

his

may leave them more circumspect, and , learning thoroughly the duties of life , may order their own conduct and may be capable of rendering themselves useful to themselves , to their friends, and finally to the whole country . " 82 To such instruction , pleasure serves only as an instrument , the honeyed glass with which the skilful physician makes the bitter potion palatable ( p . 4v ) . In order that the end and comedy , that the spectators

,

no

;

be ,

credible

,

,

decorum

if

the laws

certain and verisimilar does not the audience will

completely clear no

be

must

of

must observe

it

and

be achieved , the poem must possess

may

it

all ,

of moral instruction qualities. Above

.

in

an

of

.

its

is .

as

it in

to

he ,

of

of

do

,

,

a

,

: "

),

his

.

(

or

(

is

),

,

is

:

so to

.

if

of

in

,

in

,

them

,

.

in

to

,

it

,

or

&

,

&

Poetarum munus homini pro vitae varietate certas quasdam tanquam ante oculos ponere vnde mores componere

. "

), .p

(

does not even

est ac ,

., .p ., .p

but

3v : "

82

83

1600 formas praescribere vitam instituere

the reversal

est

fictitious characters 1v : , "

even

its

or

in

of

of

is

,

its

of

to

be

so

of be ,

Disputatio

& ac

hearing

then the audience

the drama

: “

the use

readily

the plot

which

which they appear Moreover verse will obscure the meaning that the proper lessons will not very difficult learned since verse may understand both unfamiliarity and because the result course that the not only does not take the total structure and composition

converse will deny credence

itself

to

of

speaking among themselves

audience

reality

external

utility and pleasure that Beni makes comedy We have already tragedy and utility the score verse unnatural

both ends

of

of

the light

nature

and verisimilitude significant nature

poem

),

of

internal features the comparison the poem

case against the use verse seen the essential argument people

to

of

.

in

do

The close relationship

a

or

,

guide they not observe the law decorum and they depart from nature and disturb both decorum and but

of

;

is

in

(

decorum results from

Ideas possit

,

is

of

as a

verse would

verisimilitude.'83

It

naturally speak poet who made them prose departing from nature These therefore not

since people

follow nature verisimilitude

in

create

be

speak

on

a

example

an as

opposite effect The question related for Beni the peculiar nature imitations human actions This takes narrowest really direct and unaltered representation life For

as

in , of

poems

sense

81

to an

or to

to his

of of

overshadow the utility even credibility and verisimilitude

, of , to

is

of

to

or

,

and where there

of

persuasion belief there can presented pleasure avoidance the actions On the side pleasurable poet aspects the must make sure that attractiveness the poem does not grow such extent constitute end itself not believe emulation

)

(

245

,

,

ut

:

ac

."

ac

:

2v : "

:

a

."

,

,

ac

,

propositus ille Ibid Finis enim Tragoediae Comocdiacyue Auditores inde euadant cautiores vitae officia perdiscentes componant mores sibi amicis Patriae deniquc vniucrsae prodesse valeant Ibid non Naturam Ducem sequantur isti non decorum verisimile tueantur scd Natura discedant decorum perturbent verisimile

POETIC

THEORY

so its

it

of

;

rhythm and song and

of

he

Republic

of

in

,

to

these ideas

.

the audience that they become immoral and effeminate Beni comes very close Plato certain passages the

softens the souls

In

of

ignorant audience through the constant use

,

of

all

understand the thought and the diction . ”84 On the score of pleasure , verse thought utility swaying is undesirable in two ways : it dispels

is

it

to

,

in

in

of

a

.pit as

to

of

.

as

of

because

— is

to

,

he is

If

,

of

to ,

which indeed cites The whole condemnation verse with poetry conception the ends related the audience ignorant weak and uncouth the audience the vulgar crowd the willing Beni admit verse precisely the nondramatic genres

respect

different audience The epic for himself and the Muses for those who have been exceptionally well educated the liberal arts 11v For such these the verse not only source refined enjoyment but also helps the reader remember the poem The case the lyric similar Composed not for the crowd tumultuous performance but resulting may without violating either decorum rather from careful meditation .

,

,

or

,

.

is

of

.

an it or

it

,

"

a

of

a

is

,

as

).

addressed

( or .p "

them

writes essentially

in

,

says

a

conceives

he

,

poet

.

of of

.

:

of

All

of

by

an

is

,

,

...

as

verisimilitude cultivate such additional grace verse But for the dramatic genres given the nature the audience and the circumstances performance only prose acceptable medium the best features the dramatic art are enhanced prose the use .

of

an

is

,

as

an

in

comedy and tragedy through

imitation

will understand the events and the thoughts appropriate will derive the lessons from them and will experi pleasure suitable and moderate Beni's position the dispute over entirely thus determined broader considerations the poetic art ,

in

.

a

.

of

by

verse

the audience

is a

ence

used

,

is

prose

presented

,

If

.

neither which can achieved bound down by verse 85

or

,

,

of

be

as

...

of

by

—

,

be

to -

is

,

in

in

comedy and tragedy we imitate human actions properly with prose less nay even absurdly when bound the limits verse Therefore prose practiced verse rejected since poetry imitation human they actually were done they should have been done actions either properly

by

CONCLUSIONS

of “

ad

sit

.

in be

by

in

.

se

., .p

., ." .p

in

84 85

,

of

,

of

,

to

in

-

"

It

be

way concluding this chapter the futile reiterate which the theorists and the practicing critics the last generation the their writings the standard features manifested Horatian rhetorical tradition These features should now clear and pointed case appearance out each been writers has the individual their would various ways

&

,

,

ne

&

2 : “ in

,

vt

,

fit 4 : “

intelligendum cum enim carmen tum per tum propter insolentiam populus non modò vniuersam fabulae structuram constitutionem sanè aut etiam effictos mores peripetiamue non percipiat animo sed sententiam quidem atque dictionem Tragoedia humanas actiones oratione soluta rectè car Ibid Comoedia Ibid perdifficile

,

.

,

in

."

:

,

. . . .

,

minibus adstricta minùs rectè immo praeposterè imitamur Soluta itaque oratio retinenda Siquidem Poesis est imitatio humanarum actionum vel prout adstricta repudianda est gestae sunt vel certè prout geri debuerunt quorum neutrum Comoedia aut Tragoedia efficere potest imitatio adstricta numeris )

(

246

ARS POETICA

RETURN

:

TO THEORY

It would perhaps be more useful to study in what ways these last years of the century differ from earlier periods, what new directions and what new tendencies may be discerned , what innovations seem to bear the promise of of critical thinking . The existence , in this period , of so many new treatises on individual genres - Pino and Ceruti on comedy , Tasso on the epic , Massini on the madrigal , Correa on the elegy , Talentoni , Toralto , and Crispolti on the a reorientation

sonnet - would seem to indicate the nature of one of these new tendencies . Theorists apparently now feel that what needed to be said about the text of Horace had already been said by earlier generations , that the exegesis and explication of the Ars poetica had reached a satisfactory stage ; hence

of such formal commentaries during these years . But what now needed to be done was to discover how the general principles of poetics contained in Horace could be applied to other genres not treated the very limited number

If poetics

was to be made practical ,

be

its

by him or treated only incompletely .

at a

,

be

of

,

so

be

.

of

theoretical basis must transformed into clear precepts for the compo sition the currently popular genres To sure not only Horatian principles would transferred and we shall see later time that many strongly Aristotelian treatises were written during this part the

of

.

century

of

.

in

,

of

Under the stimulus this necessity the conception the various genres grows and develops considerably Thinking about literature the terms a

of it

its

,

of

in

"

,

of

"

as

,

,

it

of

in

.

in

,

precepts

is

or

for specific genres had course long been standard already found Horace tendencies are accentu produces ated the earliest commentators and during the Middle Ages Vergil such schematizations the wheel which each the genres rules

approach Some

of

as it a

of

,

of of

-

in

to

and the ends which to

intended

If

say the epic

by

"

all

a

“

it to

as

a

theorist thinks

.

hark back earlier and exploited the

the tendencies

-

it

is

is

for which again

,

.

to

Here

theorizing about the genres the last the attempt relate the rules for the

but they are now more fully realized type grave audience addressed

of

;

is

it

approaches

the audience

serve

,

to

of

What particularly characterizes quarter the sixteenth century meant

theories

the age old

.

to

be a

.

in

notion central the whole Horatian doctrine Development the genres along these lines will thus natural outcome approaches the Horatian text

specific genre

a a

,

.

of of

,

of

,

a

to

of

it of

,

as

,

in

is ,

of

in

all

a

of

style subject matter type personage and involved specific kind style Such way with the ramifications inherent the conception thinking course closely related the notion decorum not types personages compared with their counter concerns the behavior parts reality but involves internal relationships within the poem

(

)

(

247

of

a

of

as

.

"

,

,

of

,

,

“

he

-

of

or

will associate with the multiple qualities now automatically grave style they linked almost with the And will consist subject matter persons and style but not only well host rules prosodic recommendations the late medieval prescrip and conventions the sonnet

THEORY

POETIC

tions for verse are now aggregated to the other rules for the genre ) , of descriptions of the general effect to be achieved , and of statements of the

For the ends , also , will be adapted to the character of the audience . major The ends of pleasure and instruction are still predominant in the minds of the theorists, with persuasion sometimes added as an auxiliary or ends .

That

both

,

delight

or

or

demand utility

acceptable

is ,

of of

these will

either

to as it .

as

such

is

audience

to

its

and what brand

be

decide whether

of

a means . Perhaps in these later years the preoccupation with moral instruc tion is greater than previously . For each genre , now , the problem will be to the general

,

the

as a

.

in

is

,

-

we

If

”

of

“

as

.

comedy

the

"

art

of

“

the

of

becomes

so

poetry are particularized poetry the art and forth Insofar the internal workings the poem are thus brought into relationship with audience and with audience oriented ends this Horatianism the best tradition consider theorizing about the genres refinement upon ante theories about the ends

,

be

cedent approaches then other new directions during these years will

seen

,

in

of

to it ,

"

"

of

.

a

of

a

of

,

to it .

be

of

of

to

closely related Throughout the century for example the prob style and language had been lem central one this rhetorical mode genre involved extensive treat criticism Not only had each theory appropriate style ment the particular but whole theories

of

of

of

all

,

,

, in

,

.

or of

to .

of

or

in

as

or

poetry had been constructed about differentiations among the three four they had been found Cicero the analogous rhetorical treatises Hermogenes Now Demetrius these late years further refine ments take place We have already seen for example how Giason Denores styles

his

of

its

as

of , in

;

, do

to

poetics would transfer the realm those aspects rhetoric which specifically with diction had this resulted from conviction that differing language this from the other rhetorical elements whose func peculiar domain the arousing tion was persuasion had the passions

of

to

to

res ”

an of

of

as

be

it

say that ,

”

“

to

“

,

that concern themselves with linguistic aspects verba

in

"

soul

of a

plot

or

the

"

as

from the Aristotelian

"

it

of

.

of

conceives

of

he

"

as as

.

Insofar

the emphasis

displaces

is

of

this tendency

as a

"

discernible the preoccupa peculiarly poetic form expression Giulio concetto the central organizing element

the best example he

is

,

”

“

of

"

tion with the concetto Cortese's theory the poem

exaggeration

art

special manifestation

poetry

to

tend more and more

the poetic

as a

a

is

of

Perhaps would not during this period from

.

theorists

of

.

fit an to

,

.

to

.

of to to

style being cultivated the emphasis shifts

A

of

symptomatic growing tendency pleasure This and the providing regard the distinctive features poetry special kind verse and language Thus Correa saw style reverse the usual subordination adaptation materials and see instead materials the kind

the

to ,

.

,

in

]

[

248

their approach

,

,

But others less philosophical

in

all

as a .

idea

of

”

“

a

is

or

of

”

,

given feeling

or of it

a

,

be

“

thought character the moralists the the pure rhetoricians To poetry and Cortese sure the conceit not purely linguistic element for one thinks device for organizing the materials pertinent see

ARS POETICA it only

:

RETURN

TO THEORY

of speech and consider it frankly at the level of diction . of the stress upon matters of diction may spring from the fact believe that the larger matters of poetic form have been satis

as a figure

Indeed , some

that theorists factorily solved

- or on the other hand that they are insoluble , and hence the poet can do no better than to attend to the virtuoso handling of his medium . I should point out that there is no single statement to this effect

and that the tendency is not even implicit in very many documents . But directions and occasional signs in critical thinking lead one to believe that such a hypothesis is tenable . Such thinking may account for the raising of the question , this time overtly, as to whether the poetic genres are " regulated " or " free .” The thesis of regulation , predominant in the early years of the century , when critics were eager to discover exact rules for the composition of each literary type , seems now to be under attack , in part because of the current literary quarrels , which had introduced doubts about such major forms as the epic and tragedy , in part because contemporary poets were practicing successfully a large variety of kinds sometimes in violation and frequently in variation

of

the accepted

rules . Hence , some theorists are willing

to

propose a doctrine in which genres are broadly characterized by a category

of subject matter and a general effect , and to permit great liberty in the working out both of internal poetic structure and prosodic detail . Here , again , the tendencies are little more than incipient , and it should not be thought that Italian critics are about to abandon a “ classical ” position in favor of the freedoms and excesses of “ romanticism .” They might, indeed , have done so , had not the influence of French classicism in the following century brought about a reversal of trends. On the whole , these last years the century mark a broadening , within the Horatian tradition , of the scope of critical inquiry , some loosening of tight systematic distinctions , and occasional prying into the psychological and linguistic factors that underlie a theory of diction .

of

[ 249 ]

CHAPTER SEVEN OF POETRY

NLIKE

PLATONISM

.

THOSE RENAISSANCE

THE DEFENCE

I.

:

who attached

CRITICS

to

themselves

Horace's Ars poetica or to Aristotle's Poetics as the basis for their critical thinking , the Platonic critic was essentially a man without a text . I mean by this that he was unable , as were his compeers , to derive his critical doctrine point by point from a central text , to concentrate his efforts of exegesis and commentary and interpretation upon that text , to discover within it the answers host artistic and technical ques Poetry tions For there no Art Plato no single treatise the notion

of

(

,

to

in

)

its

all

to

of

its

all

find collected specific art

to

itself alien the Platonic approach which one might the total theory the philosopher with respect this

is

”

“

of

is

.

of

treatise

by a

all

U

.

.

in

of

set

an

all -

,

of

in

a

to

his

,

of

,

a

in

ramifications and ultimate deductions Lacking document the Platonic critic the sixteenth century was obliged upon base Platonism scattered dicta various dialogues These dicta provided principles about literature they general were such that implications without examining detail their for the practice the art and the critic who used them possessed rather inclusive attitude such

in

.

and

of

the needs

inspiration

.

of

or

to it

by

,

contracted

—

poetry

,

or

Plato's ideas expanded

truth

the divine forces

on

or to

it

,

art

to

in

or

,

the

was related

ideal society

changed

these contexts

total evaluation

how

on -

,

but

real

, of

As

a

education

in

poem

or

beautiful

an in

in

of

it .

to

of

in

a

of of

precepts and rules toward poetry than firm body poetry not relationship Plato himself had seen the art itself but required various contexts which consideration He was interested not the practice the art the means which achieved the

his

sometimes

became more positive ,

a

of

in

all

an

at

to

he

,

to

of

,

.

.

his

in or

more negative took new orientations This was course entirely keeping with separation general method Rather than establishing among the sciences and treating each one terms the principles proper only preserve itself chose times the manifold relationships as

at

or

:

of

)

is is

it he

,

by

,

in

(

,

the Phaedrus 245A 265B and other dialogues Plato had declared but divine inspiration that he

to

by

that the poet produces not

of art

lesser way

of

,

of

in

several passages

by

and

a

),

(

534

. in In

The divine furor the lon

.

of

to

on

as

of

within

,

undifferentiated and unanalyzed reality least the moment his inquiry were pertinent them poetry the critics Of Plato's various dicta the art the Renais sance were interested primarily the following ones present

many

,

)

”

,

of his

he , is

250

able

to

a

is

of

or

for this reason that (

is

It

534

).

lon ,

(

"

,

or

.

of

a

frenzy and that when speaks moved the Muses state really the voice the gods and not his own voice that speaks within him really more than man and possessed The poet thus mad works God man but divine and the work the work are not human

bestow immortality upon

PLATONISM

DEFENCE OF POETRY

:

the various ways

by .

Of

in

a

of

),

;

a

,

he

,

of

,

in in

is

this sense

the

of

;

imitation

,

of

.

of

in

or

of

of

between the two procedures Otherwise stated

equivalent Republic 595

ff .

,

,

in

,

he

,

in

.

In

,

(

of

,

in

.

III

,

to

be

in

which the term imitation was used eminently useful Renaissance Plato two especially were found criticism First Book the Republic 394 Plato had divided narration into three types simple narration imitation and mixture story the two the first the poet spoke only his own voice telling person the second assumed the one another his characters and spoke through the voice that character the third alternated .

Imitation

to

art is

those whose deeds he sings . The poet who lacks such inspiration and who failure doomed to write merely according to the rules of

attempts

an

as

X

,

is

imitation by

that hence

,

he

his

, he

of

imitates

These ideas were used the describe the relationship between imitation 602

).

” (

or

the one hand

to

Renaissance

on on

a

of

of

he ,

at

is

right opinion the object which merely play sport kind

“

,

.

a ff .) ,

of (

presentation dramatic form Second Book the Plato had developed the argument that the poet appearances rather than calls Ideas those realities which imitator several removes from the truth that has neither knowledge nor

to

of

in .

of

as

or

an

,

he

of

be

had concluded that since poetry teaches false tales about the gods since

,

He

of

in

.

to

.

of

,

and reality the other hand discredit the imitative process poets The banishment the Since the Republic Plato was primarily relationships poetry concerned with the the education the future citizens and guardians the State had examined the various ways which the art might harmful beneficial instrument instruction

of

its

its

granted

admission the ideal State Rather should the poets except those who write hymns the gods and praises famous men banished Books III The point specifically pedagogical considering view and moral does the

X )

it

as

.

,

.

the young These ideas )

the Middle Ages

all

times

in

of

,

at

the Renaissance

they had been

on

of

poems upon the moral fiber ( as

in

ultimate effects became

II,

(

be

,

is

of

of

.

,

, it

should not

to to

of

occasion for their expression

be

it

,

by

at

is

it

to

an

as

,

it

render the soul effeminate through use soft strains and rhythms since many removes from the truth through very nature providing the imitation since feeds the passions the soul tends

of

by

in

of

.

of

-

-

or

it

of

bare juxtaposition

to

to of

and placed

to

.

to

in do

to

.

to

largely reply Plato What the Renaissance frequently failed realize about Plato's varied positions with respect poetry was that they not necessarily represent spent inconsistencies Hence much effort was the attempt reconcile only they ideas that are irreconcilable when are torn from their context a

Cinquecento

is on by

it

,

to

of

,

of

of

poetry and one the principal sources the attack Renaissance theorists felt themselves obliged deal with Plato's banishment the way way poets either accepting much more frequently rejecting poetry the basis other criteria The defence the

.

)

(

251

,

,

of

in

in

,

,

one another Returned their contexts seen the light the presuppositions and the conditions which surround them they are perfectly understandable consistent and reference

POETIC “

THEORY

true. ” But it was not in the spirit of Renaissance

see ideas in this way , and critics proceeded

fragmentation , separation , and isolation

intellectual method to by way

here as elsewhere

of

They were content with the

.

all

individual dictum - sometimes merely derived from the oral tradition with out any reference to the original texts —and with an acceptance or rejection of the dictum by itself . This fact, added to the absence of a central basic text, accounts for the extreme fluidity of the Platonic position in Renais

,

;

an

it

or

an

a

it

of

,

as

sance criticism . The position is found joined and combined with other possible attitudes introduced accompaniment addendum when provides the point departure for given theorist trails off into some a

In

.

,

.

of

.

of in

to

,

or

in of

,

as

to

of

generalization gives way other mode the details the poetic art very real sense there are hardly any true Platonists among literary theori practising critics cians the sixteenth century And when they are found they are Platonist their total philosophical outlook and this poetry reflects itself their total approach a

, by

,

on

.

,

-

in

,

In

the case Horace Renaissance critics inherited tradition inter pretation which had begun the late classical period and had persisted with some additions through the Middle Ages For Plato this was not

As

in

.

is a

an

by

,

,

of

of

,

of

.

of

poetry true Whereas there had been some use made his strictures churchmen the medieval period for the most part his writings became significant documents for literary discussion only with the rise the great Platonic commentators and philosophers the Quattrocento com pared with Horatianism then Platonism relatively new force literary

of

free the

not the

to

in

position related

.

in

of

a

tradition only because they manifest critical mode the central problems Platonism literature

or

.

,

in

.

of

,

,

relatively unencumbered ancient reading and relatively for the inquiring lucubrations the Renaissance mind Many theorists and critics who will appear the following discussion were truly Platonists nor was Plato their immediate source They belong theory

QUATTROCENTO DOCUMENTS is

of

to

be

so

,

of

ex

6,

II,

,

&

of on

is

its

in ,

to

,

.”

he

.

in

of in

the Republic possible moral effects general the framework the state disagree young But about the banishment Plato with tends

sint

a

chapter Book dis qui legendi quique theatris Patrizi here considering poetry

the work contains

eorum virtutibus

Like Plato

,

, of in

this kind had advanced before 1500. The first Francesco Patrizi Bishop ,

Poetis

1494

;

in

cussion

De

who died

,

Gaeta

exigendi

of

which thinking

the De institutione reipublicae et

these

“

of

the state

is to

of

, it

in

in

Although our concern exclusively with Platonism the present study the Cinquecento would perhaps instructive examine two typical documents the Quattrocento that we may have some appreciation

the the

to

]

[

252

to

he

,

,

,

a

in

:

,

of

of

.

a

of

Citing Cicero and Strabo support points out the his thesis multiple utilities poet philosopher the art The like first leads men know about the proper way life teaches them what they need poets

PLATONISM passions and customs

men . He provides the grammarian with the best

of

all

DEFENCE OF POETRY

:

is

,

to

of

and hence

able

combine human and to

of

.

in

,

and upon divine inspiration divine matters his works

he is

,

,

.

,

,

of

especially that which language elegant and kinds disciplines ornate and beautiful Unlike other which derive from art doctrine and precepts the functioning the poet depends upon nature

of

examples

a

:

for

.

,

,

of

poetry Patrizi passes From this general defence consideration genres separate First the drama usefulness their relative and the

,

be

The story

of

[

their meaning

.

virtue much more readily

,

to

,

led

by

selves

to

to

be

of

,

.

be ,

to

by

no

means

,

utility but partly also for pleasure which exist partly repudiated Children must taught and those things which otherwise they could with difficulty conceive they accept through the enticements fictions and they easily bring them mind and they allow them

Fictional inventions

are

to

be

,

all

of

to

do

.

...

It of

all

,

I

...

of

.

to

.)

of

Hercules Stories this kind instruct the young and make them more disposed desire praise However not wish assume the defence fictions praising types tragedy should the extent them Indeed almost ex

be

a

it

to

;

it

is

.

cluded from the best city not without reason that tragedy should hissed off the stage from every civil spectacle for has within certain exces sive violence mixed with despair which readily changes stupid men into madmen frenzy.1 and drives the unstable

off much

better

:

does comedy come

Nor

in

,

of

,

to

,

of

.

.

it

of

It

be

performed public spec does not please me either that comedy should corrupts the mores tacles For men and makes them effeminate and drives comedy for the most part them towards lust and dissipation ... For the plots seeing them affords concern adultery and rapes and the habit the spectator

by

the license for changing for the worst.2

specifically

,

it

.

;

the scabrous and even obscene

each case

the criterion

to

it

praises virtue and blames vices

,

In

uses

an .

which the & ad

.

ethical one .pp

referred

sometimes

ed .) ,

it

which

is

genre

is

language

in

be

generally desirable since found expressed regard caution must

to

,

,

,

, all is

to of , be on

is

but

a

it

.

—

of

in

be

Comedy may read scholars the privacy their studies and essentially for the linguistic interest rather than for the actions represented Epic poetry highly recommended presents the other hand since great heroes with the figures the virtues they represent As for satire

.

in

&

,

.

,

-

: “

...

.

, &

ad

,

ad

,

,

ad

i

(

De institutione reipublicae 1534 xxviv xxvii Fabularum inuentio partim delectationem neu uam repudienda est Docendi sunt pueri vtilitatem partim autem quę vix alioqui cogitare possent fabularum illecebris accipiunt facile memoriam redigunt earumque sensu virtutem longe magis diriguntur Eiusmodi fabulae adoles promptiores optandam laudem reddunt centes instituunt Non tamen fabularum

...

ex

.

,

ex

,

se

.

in

. . . .

ab

vt

vsque adeo patrocinium suscipere volo omnes laude afficere velim Nam tragoedia pene optima ciuitate omnis extrudenda est Nec immerito explodenda est omni ciuili spectaculo tragoedia Habet enim violentiam quandam nimiam mistam desperationi

...

"

.

in

&

,

,

,

ad

&

.”

)

(

253

&

,

ex ,

.

in

,

: “

,

...

...

lo ,

.

2

.,

.p

quae facile stultis insanos reddat leues furorem compellat spectaculis etiam recitari non placet Corrumpit Ibid xxvii Comoediam nanque hominum mores eosque effoeminatos reddit luxuriamque libidinem com pellit parte adulteria stupra continent Comoediarum nanque argumenta magna quocirca spectandi con mutandi etiam licentiam facit

POETIC

THEORY

One peculiar feature of Patrizi's remarks is his defence of the ancient against their banishment by Plato and against their exclusion by

poets

,

."

is 3

Moreover

of

of

,

making they ridiculed the pagans the very stupid opinions the people about

the gods and their vain and foolish superstitions the Christian apologist

by

...

, of

false gods their stories

of

humiliating sport them

: “

in the

Christian apologists. From the point of view of the Christian , the ancient poets rendered a real service to the cause of the true religion by deriding and

the wish

to

of

of

,

of

be

.

of

,

,

as

to

in

be

we

As

is .

to

his

.

to

literary problems similar approach century the fifteenth Antonio Mancinelli

a

represents

to

,

as

of as

of

heretical unfounded for before the coming Christ God was unknown all men and the philosophers ignorance erred much the poets their Him For these reasons the antiquity should forgiven their errors and men should poets allowed read them shall discover later the point view the apologist frequently very close Christian that the Platonist and exclude them

is

.

is

Strabo

-

Theophrastus

,

mores

and

against Catholic accusations

by

:

it

then defends

the betterment

—

poetry

of

role

in

of

.

on

a

in

of

of

a

all ,

at

,

.

a

on

,

et

ad

,

in

published Also De poetica virtute really not impellente studio humanitatis bonum This poetry quotations from Greek and treatise but collection poets arrangement Latin Yet the order and these quotations itself significant and the prefatory materials state typical attitude toward the art The dedicatory epistle quotes the customary ancient authorities the

.

it

;

in

also

of it

the civilizing

:

to

,

so

,

in

If

the contribution

;

held

the esteem which certain poets antiquity they were regarded

,

,

of

ac

de

.

of

.

us ,

of

a

is

is a

fact say that poetry ,

,

a in

us

to in

kind first philosophy which brings living which teaches the mores and the passions the art pleasant way teaches our duty Later writers declare that only the wise man For these reasons the cities the Greeks from the very earliest

The ancients from youth

which poet

the divine

be

insists

which they should

that they had made philosophy poetry man was the first was because

on

"

Laus

.

all

by

,

of

were held

of in

“

the Poetarum examples

the time honored

especially Homer

,

4

section

poets and the reverence -

repeats

of

subsequent

spiration

....

on

the finest things

,

in

of

of

by

be

to

I

.

of

A

,

be

to

on

,

,

wrongfully damned seem therefore certain people espe the grounds that they draw away from the Catholic faith those who are unwary shall truly show this false the words the selfsame poets For we shall find them the ten commandments the law and we shall see that they damn and prohibit the seven deadly sins and that they likewise teach many

The poets

cially

:

in . Id a

,

,

eis : “

,

.

)

(

254

;

ipsis reperiemus septem quoque Decem nanque legis praecepta prohibere videbimus Plurima item quam optima edocere

damnare

&

mortalia uitia illos

&

.

poetarum uerbis ostendam

-

.pp ."

a

),

( ca.

: “

., .p

De

*

3

dijs opiniones vanasque Ibid xxv stultissimas gentium fatuas superstitiones fabularum ludibrio contempserunt poetica virtute quibusdam damnari videntur 1490 aliv aiii Iniuria igitur praesertim quod inuigilantes equidem ego falsum eorundem catholica fide remoucant

DEFENCE OF POETRY

:

its

PLATONISM

times instructed their children in poetry , assuredly not for

gross pleasure but

for its chaste moderation.s

it

on

.

of

be

It

(

of

.

is

at

of

is

”

. he )

he

“

of

its

,

is

in

of

poetry are adduced support Other uses the argument Mancinelli's position essentially moralistic placing whatever emphasis can the pleasure utility poetry rather than on will noted that the inextricably mingled with the thinking Horatian utile dulci the Platonists When arrives the anthology which the main purpose (

—

,

,

.

)

—

,

he a

of

provides series headings religious and ethical for the most his work part under which gives brief prose introductions themselves quotations from ancient authors and then pertinent selections from the ancient poets The ten commandments the seven deadly sins and other similar categories

.

,

of

.

.

of

,

to

as a

is

,

it

.

to

of

is

of

”

“

of

organization for the passages quoted Clearly furnish the basis the quality poetry that alone sententious concern the editor Two distinguished humanists whose lives span the turn the century may serve transition the criticism the Cinquecento proper They are Giovanni Francesco Pico della Mirandola and Battista Mantovano

of

-

et in

,

works which date from the late Quattrocento expresses violently antipoetic view which the best neo Platonic is is

a

pair

of

a

,

in

Pico point

followed

,

,

,

,

in

of

a

satiety and complete

rejection

so

by

,

:

of

.

,

to

,

to

of

he

VI ,

.

I,

In

manhood

, of .

The first work his De studio divinae humanae philosophiae chapter Book discusses the relationship the various kinds ancient writings divine philosophy and finds that whereas physics logic geometry and metaphysics have some affinity divine scripture arith metic and poetry have much less He cites his own experience which parallels that many others poetry love childlıood and early tradition

of

I

I

I

is

is

,

.

by

be

to

in

of

I

to

philosophy and sacred letters completely But after had devoted myself poetry that scarcely opened the books renounced the delights the poets three times five years because was drawn away from them and felt my soul softened them But what more detestable that most poets mixed

by

their plots they

.

of

,

of

to

of

for which reason Isidore writes that Christians are forbidden

read the fancies the poets because through the delights excite the mind the provocations lust to

him .

,

,

;

ness and obscenities

by

be

to

by a

be

to

,

into their verses the greatest wickednesses and impurities which are not only not utterly expelled touched Christian but are You will not easily find many poems otherwise beautiful which are not made foul filthi

: :

:

in

." :

&

ad

:

:

&&

ut : “

fi

pp . fy -

),

ab

:

(

In

255

]

[

."

:

.

6

:

.

ab

.

:

ad

: “

.p

.,

ab

s

Antiqui uerò poeticam primam philosophiam quandam esse perhibent Ibid aivv quae ineunte nos aetate uiuendi rationes adducit que mores que affectiones edoceat quae res gerendas cum iucunditate precipiat Posteriores uero solum poetam ipsum sapien ipso primordio eorum liberos tem esse asseruerunt Quamobrem graecorum ciuitates poetica erudierunt non nude utique uoluptatis sed caste moderationis gratia philosophiam De rerum praenotione 1506–7 Sed postquam sacras litteras me contuli adeo illis remisi nuncium nec poetarum libros toto quinquennio ter forte aperuerim quandoquidem illis trahi animum emolliri sentiebam Sed quod est detestabilius plerique poetarum turpitudines maximas obscenitates suis uersibus immis cuerunt Quae christiano homini non modo attrectanda sed prorsus eliminanda Nec temerè multos inuenies qui pulchra alioquin poemata spurcitijs libidinibusque non foedauerint Quare scribit Isidorus ideo christianis prohiberi legere figmenta poetarum quia per oblecta menta fabularum excitant mentem ad incentiua libidinum

POETIC THEORY

to

its

Pico sees in this same corrupting influence of poetry the reason why Plato banished the poets from his republic . In the following chapter, Pico explains why in the early days of Christianity certain very holy men not only made use of pagan literature themselves but recommended use ,

,

in

its

he

-

of

;

on

.

,

others The circumstances however are not now the same and one should prefer Christian poetry religious themes this will have the greatest possible superiority over pagan poetry the superiority subject matter

believes

.

&

,

premisses

its

its

in

"

“

is

,

is

,

,

,

false

and

:

.

to

happiness The statement conclusions

,

, a

in

of

III

,

.

In

in

,

is

be

equally eloquent language and may question again The same examined but somewhat different light disciplinae Pico's Examen vanitatis doctrinae gentium veritatis chapter Christianae Book III this work Pico answers the claim useful for life and leads that poetry along with history and grammar

... for men

to

is

as

at

or

more inclined

to

be

to

;

be

and another may

,

in

,

in

in at

,

of

,

,

than another vices.7

let

derive from the poets occasions for evil not less significant for vice since the poets wrote different ways and one time they easy loose the reins the vices another they held them check see for anyone who takes them hand although one may more prone virtue than for virtue

narrating

praising the

is

he

,

of of

,

the past

:

is

, in

either What does know that the poets have frequently provided examples for undesirable activity .

is

of

art

In for

to

no

he it is

,

to he

of .

to

,

so

to

,

to

In

distinguish poet from poet and passage from passage the reader order poetics must appeal the philosopher that Pico the whole specifically subordinated philosophy the statement that chal utility and lenging Pico finds happiness and hence clear definitions impossible judge properly poetry's contribution believes that

to

,

in

of

of

to

in

on

a

;

it

,

of

to

in

,

in

many believe that Epicurus drew from Homer his idea that the greatest good pleasure that many found the excuse for irreligion Euripides that many lies sought impure and lewd loves and Alcaeus and Anacreon instigation lives anger were imbibed drunkenness and there are some who hold that precepts from Archilochus and Hipponax and would take long time enumerate the particular cases which some foolhardy men have fallen account those

Pico's judgments ex

ed .) ,

Ethical and religious criteria are inextricably mingled

in

. 8

things which they had falsely learned from the poets

,

&

,

in

,

si

sit

&

:

ab , in

ab

Impuri

obscoeni amoris

."

&

,

,

:

&

Alcaeo Anacreonte multos petisse Iracundiae praecepta longum esset percensere singula quibus bibisse sunt qui uelint quae apud Poëtas perperam didicissent ea

)

256

(

&

&

aliqui praecipites inierunt

in

,

&

ex

&

,

: "

Euripide multos impietatis habuisse occasionem

ebriosae uitę fomenta Hipponacte Archilocho

ob

,

est

,

ut

,

ad

,

II .” ex ,

.,

8

uoluptate

ut

: "

II,

ad

(

In

ad 7

Opera omnia 1573 938 non minores enim malorum occasiones Poëtis qui uitia quam uirtutes trahunt homines uariè scripserunt modò uitijs habenas quis eos laxarunt modò eas compescuerunt facilè uidere manus sumpserit tametsi alio alius uirtutem propensior alius alio inclinatior uitia uel narranda uel extollenda Ibid 939 multi existiment Epicurum Homero traxisse summum bonum esse

PLATONISM

DEFENCE OF POETRY

:

of the art of poetry , and , hence , those judgments bear almost solely upon the implications of subject matter for the lives of the reader . About

1505 , Battista Mantovano wrote a letter to Pico in praise of one poems ; the terms of praise show a clear critical position : of his

Since you have written a poem in a scrupulous , eloquent , and learned fashion , can neither praise nor admire it sufficiently . For it has wit and charm without effeminacy and lewdness , and it gives pleasure not as Flora does, but as Diana ; not as Venus, but as Minerva ; combining, in the way prescribed by Horace , utility

I

and beauty with pleasure . Obscene and lewd poems , in my opinion , bear the same relationship to true poems as do wanton prostitutes to honest matrons . I , indeed , do not deem a poem to be a true poem and one capable of withstanding every

...

censure unless it be serious , pure , and holy . Nor should we listen to the soft and effeminate poets , for whom nothing is savoury if it is not base , impure , cor

rupt, and malodorous

. . . . This poem of yours is like a river which grows as it along , flows and which the more it advances the more beautiful , the more pleasant , the more grand it appears , which is a sign of a very great talent . It is, say , the sign of a very great talent , such as does not weaken with exercise , but gathers

I

strength from effort.9

Moral and religious considerations are uppermost ; but there is also respect for the pleasure to be combined with utility and for the artistic strength of the work , which represents the poet's genius . It is significant that in one of the passages not quoted here Battista cites the verse of Horace ( Ars poetica 310 : “rem tibi Socraticae poterunt ostendere chartae " ) that indicates that the poet is to use the philosopher as his source .

CINQUECENTO HUMANISTS

, G. F.

,

he

of

this long line ;

device a

:

to

of

In

once

to

pedagogical

insistence upon allegorical interpretation relates him medieval expositors and his fellow Platonists

at

allegory

as a

length the power

of

at

develops

to

his

In contrast with Pico's passionate abuse of the art of poetry , Lodovico Ricchieri (Caelius Rhodiginus ) presents a moderate estimate in his Lectionum antiquarum libri XXX of 1516. Book IV of the work is devoted to a defence and discussion of poetry . The defence is made in terms almost identical with those used by Mancinelli: poetry as a first philosophy , as a teacher to youth of a way of life . But Ricchieri also insists on the character of the poet as a good and wise man and makes a case for the priority of verse over prose . In effort discern the major usefulness the art

ut :

,

ut

, , ac

.

."

)

(

257

, .

&

...

,

.

sit

est

,

,

,

,

.

&

,

,

, &

...

: “

), .p

&

,

,

,

.

&

,

ut

,

ac

,

,

(

,

&

,

ac

:

ut

&

9

Epistolarum libri quattuor 1506–7 Pico della Mirandola Fvv Poema quod religiose eloquenter neque laudare neque admirari satis possum docte conscripsisti leporem impudicitia Habet enim sine mollitie salem delectat non Flora sed Diana non Venus sed Minerua miscens quemadmodum praecipit Horatius dulcedini pulchritudinem impudica sunt iudicio meo inter uera utilitatem Poëmata obscoena poemata quales inter probas matronas fornicariae meretrices Ego enim poema uerum Nec quod omne punctum ferre possit esse non puto nisi graue castum sanctum purulen audiendi sunt poetae molles effoeminati quibus nihil sapit nisi turpe impurum tum olidum Poema hoc tuum simile fluuio qui currendo crescit quo magis procedit uidetur uenustius dulcius grandius quod indicium fortioris ingenij Fortioris inquam ingenij quod exercitio non flacescat sed laborando uires acquirat

POETIC

THEORY

But if profound matters are veiled and concealed in the outward covering of the fictions , and hidden as in the most secret sanctuaries , you must know that this is invention proper to poetry and among the ancients also that habit of fanci ful invention has long since grown strong . ... With such fictions as these, it seems to me , we should from the start form and , so to speak, “ delineate " our youth

of

is

all

it

as

is

,

most sweet and

in

,

is

experienced are most avid for what new which pleasant and not lacking the marvelous.10

in

of

by by a

us

on to it

us ,

all of

from tenderest childhood . For this animal , prudent and wise and possessed of reason , whom we call man , wishes , through a kind of internal drive , to know , and is hungry for knowledge ; and the poetic fiction is the first stimulus to such learn ing, especially since it remains unexpressed and vague and seems always to sug gest some other matter . Thus spurred kind natural force

all

to

of

be

to

on

an

by us

it

in a

Ricchieri

.

course apparent

to

poetry are

of

use

of

such

a

The dangers

of

.

,

of

.

,

,

us ,

ready and delightful answer thus poetry provides this knowledge especially youth may give thirst for and the roots giving arts and disciplines Ricchieri demonstrates his point alle gorical interpretation insisting the Aeneid the lessons learned from this way

For

to if

,

a

,

it

,

be

?

,

to an

to

is

,

he be

.

to it ,

,

,

or

If

or

reprehensible actions and the penetrate within ignorance spectator through youth the unable allegorical meanings what will Obviously the result undesirable says care must moral conclusion To prevent taken see that only plots young presented virtuous are the and was such concern that the fictional envelope contains wicked

a

:

a

for

.

of

lay behind Plato's banishment the poets But here Ricchieri makes commonplace among the apologists poetry distinction that became

,

their praises

of

celebrating elegantly and eloquently

to

heroes

in

,

moral improvement their hymns

or

to

he

to

he

in

to

be

;

by

to

these we must note carefully that the poets are not con outright demned Plato since the degree which holds that they rejected when they disturb the state and invent shameful things should that same degree embraces them and kisses then tenderly when they exhort

But with respect

the gods.11

of

of

res

10

.

of

it

to

of

,

is a

poetry Plato's ban thus limited one affecting not the whole the art only practices consequences but those which would lead undesirable for the state With these restrictions upon the activity the poet Ricchieri ,

. . . .

,

,

,

eo

,

,

,

,

iis

,

,

,

ut

,

,

ac

,

&

,

id

si

: “

), .p

Et , ( &

.

profundae conuelantur Lectionum 1516 156 Quod fabularum inuolucris obtegunturque scire conuenit esse poetices ferè Sanctariis secretioribus reconduntur uero germanum Veteribus quoque illum irroborasse pridem confingendi morem delineandague imprimis tenerior aetas formanda sic dicam uidetur Quoniam animal sagax intimo quodam rationis compos quem uocamus hominem hoc prouidum impetu scire desyderat estğue cognationis auidum Cuius fomentum primum fabula est

&

id

ad

,

,

concelebratis 258

, à

,

,

,

ad

." 1

facundeque

)

,

hymnis eleganter

(

,

, și

,

Deorum

,

."

iis

: “

in

,

., .p

11

,

ui ,

.

,

imprimis argumento quod indicta inscitaque alias profert Sumus autem nos proue nouitatis omnes perauidi quod praedulcis haec sentiatur hente naturali quadam iucunda nec admiratione careat Ibid 158 Sed illud impense animaduertendum non damnari prorsum aut turpia fingunt reiiciendos putat Platone Poetas Siquidem quantum ubi perturbant bonam frugem hortentur laudibus heroum aut tantundem amplexatur exosculaturque

PLATONISM

DEFENCE OF POETRY

:

sacrifice

stimu

becomes

the demons

”

“

made

to

to

a

since through them

sense

is

,

the poets

and

,

of

seek pleasure

in

lated

,

to

frequently the fictions

he

,

,

its

would agree , and he sees two agencies as capable of exercising the control, the church and the philosopher . The church , through canonical decrees for example has declared that the good Christian should not read too

of

:

of

be

,

a

In

).

(

of .p

160 more general way the writing the poet and the interpreting his works should under the watchful supervision the philosopher ,

in

by

as

by

at

)

if

by a

of

( as

by

,

—

. 12

its

in

be a

succeeds

forces itself upon the very reason and after extending dominion even farther

it,

is

living example placed before

having trod upon

it

a

of

of

,

of

,

by

to

an ...

philosophy who administer those who are skilled one must have recourse allegory the outer cloaks the fables and hav antidote having explained ing used the curative powers their precepts which means brake the enticements the pleasures are restrained and the same time the violence reading the passions diminished which excited for the most part

one

on

.

in

,

of

philosophy and poetry The ideal solution would combination which poets were philosophers and philosophers were poets

in

.

be a

by is

of

; a

of

no

is

is

in

is

:

in

.

of

,

be

to

of

,

poetry moreover extend beyond the simple con Ricchieri's ideas sideration the moral ends served He attacks the problem imitation and discovers that there are really two types one which every thing representation invented and there truth second which represented the truth the garb fictional narrative The second ,

of

of

,

.

by

or

on

in

”

“

called narratio fabulosa and may treated either two ways treating profound subjects completely acceptable philosophical and religious grounds admitting reprehensible matters Once again the ,

of

the pleasure which

to

to ).

Ricchieri does not fail call attention representations ugly objects accurate even ,

connection with imitation we

In

-

( .p

is

subject matter and obviously the distinction that between two kinds philosopher critic will tolerate only the first kind 158

he

us

to

of

to art

.

in

we

his

to

,

a

we

),

( he is

in

find apparently following Aristotle here statement which adds the warning that must not allow this kind admiration deceive poems He follows Aristotle again into accepting everything that find

of

in

;

of

,

.

of

of

he

, of of

of of or in

art

,

in

solution the problem versus nature the poet and the poets according differentiation their characters Ricchieri believes divine inspiration but also believes that the characters men good poetry they will write He reduces questions bad determine what kind ,

,

to

he

in

In

.

to

to

of

rhythms used the types various genres and the elements poetry style proper the latter connection cites Horace Cicero and

... decurrendumque

,

.

ad

12

is

of

as

of

Dionysius such rhetoricians Halicarnassus On the whole Ricchieri's position much more eclectic than that the other Platonists whom we Philosophiae

,

,

, ,

,

259

]

[

.”

&

,

,

,

: “

., p .

160

,

non ignaros Qui antipharmacum uelaminibus adhibitaque praeceptorum salubritate quibus Voluptatum adlubentia quodam uelut sufflamine reprimatur atque item impetus qui lectione tanquam exemplo proposito deferuescat perturbationum plerunque concitatior ingerit sese rationi illa exculcata latius affectat dominari Ibid

propinent explicatas per allegorias fabulamentorum

THEORY

POETIC

have studied thus far . He goes beyond the usual praise or blame

—

,

of

all

of poetry ; but when he does so he finds himself largely outside the Platonic context and is obliged to appeal to other masters . In his De incantationibus ( 1520) , Pietro Pomponazzi displays a much more restricted view of the whole problem of poetics , but one which is essentially favorable to the art . His concern is with two questions , that of the divine furor and that of allegory . For the first , he accepts fully the ancient statements about the divine inspiration the poet about the essential opposition between reason and poetry the poet really does not as

he

-

,

“

un

:

of

of

Plato

is

,

“

(

”

The rhetorical bias

of ad

).

the Horatians

.

.p

to

of

,

297

or

be

to

It

of

is

to

animos demulcendum the usual theory ”

&

“

it

.

of

its as a

,

dum

here very close

in

Poetry has the particular virtue instructing abstract through may quoted images matters the use material thus used supplementary device whenever persuade because necessary capacity fortify and caress the minds the listeners firman ." 13

punishment

of of

byto

as

,

be

so

to

us

to

of

.

of

he is

writing about the poets know what instruments and interpreters gods the For the second starts from the assumption that there are important truths hidden under the fables the poets ... they invent those fables lead the truth and that we may instruct the educated masses who must led the good and drawn away from evil just children are led and drawn the hope reward and the fear

to

be

incapable

is

.

of . It

resisting

these influences

,

,

the young reader

of of

he is

,

will Hence .

he

to ,

is

in

in

of of

is

(

)

is

to

,

a

to

which belongs roughly this concerned with the role that bishop should assign poetry the education the young And the very churchman finds that the rhetorical attractions which Pomponazzi spoken dangers greatest poetry had constitute the resident because divinely inspired because his works are full charms and the poet sway the souls enticements that able his readers whichever way its

Gasparo Contarini's De officio episcopi period although exact date unknown

of

by

be

,

of

:

to

in

of

to

on ,

)

(

"

of

.

in

allowed read him Contarini finds that especially his allowing youth full access own time men err the works the poets he the bishop should absolutely not permit the minds the young corrupted writings poets and from childhood the lascivious should not

In

In

,

it

." 14

be

men

to

better for

,

of

deems

all

the whole

it

he

but

on

in

13

14

,

Vergil

to

,

,

in

;

to

in

if

;

to

be

in in

this kind for they drink them their tender years impossible age will next for them their mature called back better moral behavior which matter our own time ... sins greatly Contarini can see some profit the reading certain poets especially other writers

read Christian &

&

,

meliorem frugem reuocentur

,

ad

:

260

si à

ab

."

maturiori ętate peccatur

)

... magnopere

(

vt in

,

ut

,

in

à ut

,

ad

: "

,

&

,

,

re

in

;

imbiberint impossibile prope erit nostris temporibus

." & ,

), .p

, ) , .p

: "

(

(

Opera 1567 201 nam illa fingunt ueritatem ueniamus rude uulgus quod inducere oportet pueri inducuntur instruamus bonum malo retrahere retrahuntur scilicet spe premij timore poenae Opera 1571 425 non permittat statim ineunte aetate puerorum animos quas coeterorumque huiusmodi auctorum lasciuiis corrumpi poetarum teneris annis

qua

PLATONISM

:

DEFENCE OF POETRY

writings . Presumably , as so frequently with these antagonists of the art , the term “ poet ” refers specifically , if not exclusively , to the pagan poets of antiquity , and some , at least , of the objection to them is on theological grounds . The Libro de natura de amore of Mario Equicola ( 1525 ) has been studied in connection with Horace's Ars poetica . It should be mentioned again , briefly , because of several passing references to Plato's ban on the poets and to exceptions that Equicola would make to the general interdict . Dante , for one , fits the category of those poets who , according to Plato , the ignorant multitude to a knowledge of high matters ” ( p . 5v ). The high matters taught by Dante in his hendecasyllables are " what punishment follows the guilt of those confirmed in vice , how one ascends purged to the true glory of beatitude, then the perfect life " ( ibid .). Another “ draw

is

its

the essential features

in

a

.

)

of in

(

i

1526

one

criticism then Francesco Berni's Dialogo contra strange some way fits into the tradition This may seem

the Platonic tradition

poeti

defence

,

of

Horace ( p. 37v ). If the attack upon poetry and

of

poet whom Plato would have admitted to his republic is Battista Manto vano , who represents the divine nature of the poet required by such theorists as Cicero and Democritus , combined with art as demanded by

of

;

,

in

of .

to

-s

.

of

-

,

by

it

.

,

in at

of

madness

of

be

The interlocutors make fun the self tyled overbearing inspiration They their claim divine

called reverse Platonism the poets

be

classification the joking and satirical dialogue But will less strange part upholding the when we realize that Berni proceeds least contrary the arguments usually used the defence perhaps this might

of ,

it is

as

"

,

of

be

.

"

;

of

;

,

,

,

be

charged with heresy uselessness complete lack should rather sub solidity they are venal and obsequious malicious and immoral stance and punishment rather than unashamed plagiarists they are worthy praise Only when they are good for something other than the writing verses should they tolerated and even then their quality men

.

be

to

, , of is

grounds not

.

,

certain serious animus against poets and the unjesting writers evident

of

a

but nevertheless

too dissimilar from those

on

;

,

, in

in

.

to

as

is

as

poets that appreciated and not Berni suggests such punishments making the poets themselves undergo the adventures which they attri reading the Dialogo the bute their heroes One should bear mind jocular tone and the satirical intent and make compensatory allowances

was really

an

its

,

of

poetica facolta

,

oratoria

et

De

of

be

of

to

treatise

la

His short

,

.

origins

in

to

as

of

poetry Rather than emphasize the moral consequences the reading contemporaries doing most his seemed Giovanni Bernardino indulge Fuscano chose elaborate praise the art because divine

to

.

)

261

to

its

of

a di

,

of

is a

confer life upon the dead past When [

to

upon the soul and

,

of

in

la

to

Napoli and was published introduction the Stanze sovra bellezza general description with the Stanze 1531. Fuscano begins with the part poetry extolling capacity eloquence which virtues seize eloquence

poetry , especially

verse , it achieves

most eloquence other forms divine rather than human

all

because poetry

,

is

This

unlike

all

form

,

,

;

all

:

in

whom and the poet

is

in

an

of

is

by

.

is

.

is

and indeed unlike other arts and sciences inspiration The poet like unconscious instrument through whom speaks the voice God without this voice mute Poetry defined Fuscano this way in

its

of

the beauties

marvelous

.

are added

THEORY

of

POETIC

all

,

to

not without delighting the ears and bringing profit

,

at

by

,

,

by ,

,

,

,

is

Poetry that art which embracing other arts marvelously expresses through definite rhythms through measured feet and through grave maxims that men have done all that they have ever said and known under marvelous veils illu variegated flowers minated clear ornaments and the same time adorned the mind.15

,

is

in

:

is a

all

of

he

of

he

is

it

all

.

is

.

an

,

a

In

treats the relationship between the poet implying specifically and God that the Christian poet that analogy God Himself speaks He begins with poet and creation poet poem His Of creatures the most like God his powers and separate development

all

,

all

,

he :

,

in all

of

, in

all

at

of

:

a

to

-

,

his

of

carries with

given powers

it

responsibility the poet must devote glory God the service and honor God tempering his voices with the harmony the corporeal senses must hymns and times give Him thanks verses and the gifts which this resemblance

. ”

as

at

of

16 is

in

all

be

;

of

in

is

it

,

,

he

in

of

of

to

him from His bounty must use spend and consume the cult glory His and the honor His majesty for that time which thinking spent otherwise than Him must accounted lost Thus that the poet always invokes God the beginning his compo come

it

of

of

,

is

.

to

,

to

is

to

or

,

he

closely akin sitions that the prophet and that his name itself means make create Fuscano's approach still Platonic and although emphasizes another the Plato's ideas rather than the idea .

of

in

of

the divine inspiration

to

by

.

a

in

of to

is

,

of

on

,

of

of

he

,

a

it

of

poetry moral utility concludes with Christianization the doctrine employs Since the form the dialogue his De liberis recte insti lively way both present tuendis liber 1533 Jacopo Sadoleto able argument poets sides the the banishment the Sadoleto himself using proofs that upholds the affirmative now have become fairly ,

he

,

by if

the other cannot imagine any

answered

da

,

,

,

”.

& ,

,

è

: et “ la

,

,

,

et

,

-

(

),

1531

con misurati

di

et

,

16

.pp ,

.

,

la

is

fatto quanto

Biij Biijv piedi

necessary

quella che abbracciando tutte Poesia con graui sententie quanto l'homini han han mai detto conosciuto sotto meravigliosi uelamenti chiari lumi uarij fiori parimente ornati non senza dilettar l'orecchi giouar l'animo exprime

poetica facolta

l'arti con diffiniti numeri illustrati mirabilmente

;

the state and

banished from walls On these points Sadoleto interlocutor Paolo Sadoleto who declares that De

;

or of

by

supervised

is

its

,

therefore that they should

be

to

in

operate

an

:

the poets which causes their works upon irresistible fashion the souls the listeners their resultant capacity orient the soul toward good evil the necessity standard

."

,

di

li

&

se

,

,

262

]

(

,

fia

lo

di

da

,

di

,

&

: “

di

a &

,

,

&

in

., .p

Biijv temprando sue voci con l'Harmonia Ibid tutti corporali sensi darli ogn'hor gratie versi Cantici tutti doni che sua larga bontà ueneno deue per colto per l'honore sua gloria sua Maestà usarli spenderli consumarli peròche tutto quel può tener perduto speso indubitatamente tempo che lui non pensar

PLATONISM

:

DEFENCE OF POETRY

.

,

of

,

a

is

all

.

on

;

of

.

as "

be

to

is

an 17

,

of

:

of “

do

mistress

is

say that comedy the school private life and social behavior makes me believe that you model for not only Terence not repudiate these poets either good judgment itself example diction and language but may serve solely linguistic grounds Paolo whereas Plautus recommended

Terence

What you yourself frequently

all

,

be

a

to

of

as

to

all

reading more useful or more delightful than that of Homer and of Vergil ; other found and wisdom and doctrine are in Homer , especially , poets have derived from him fountainhead He extends this rivers from comedy especially toleration the poets include even writers

be

if

no ,

,

is

.

write trivial corrupt

or

and those who prefer

by

,

be

to

to

is

in

every poet and that concludes that there some good should ad they are mitted the educative process Jacopo's own conclusion that admitted the poets must observe faithfully the proper ethical code

in

,

poets may

addition

a

of

a

to

defence

single

Nicolò Franco's dialogue

,

of

poetry

the substance

to

1539

on ).

Petrarchista

In

one finds essentially

,

Il

of

one reduces the general defence

author

(

If

.

,

good

,

,

to

The

”

tolerated

.

to

be

scurrilous verse are along with musicians and those who cultivate the other liberal arts participate the education and indoctrination of the young means

much biographical and anecdotic

man

:

as a

to

be

in

as

is

a

is a

so

he

for his style and indeed for his character be

well

substance

,

as

.

as in

;

it

is

.

be

,

passage presenting the reasons detail the dialogue Petrarch contains why Petrarch should imitated What said about language and style well have occurred could just not especially pertinent here document the Horatian mode But Petrarch admired for his

he

.

in

in

,

all

always And should much the more our hands that contains knowledge that every science has some place within him his verses And

in

?

he is

to In a

?

in

?

!

)

( oh ,

?

?

in

?

of

?

in

of

who can say how many and how great thoughts divine and human philosophy are hidden his rhymes how modest immortal God how clean and pure of every stain lowness how gay without lewdness how religious his thoughts how chaste his mind how Platonic his love ... word there ,

,

to

,

to

,

."

to

,

to

is

in

to

nothing him which does not belong the divine virtues the celestial angelic mores beauties the most honest love the highest humanity and 18 ineffable courtesy

;

,

is

,

:

in a

De

17

been found

in

nothing there this praise that might not also have typically Horatian document second the qualities singled

Two remarks first

&

,

ut

,

."

,

: “

(

), .p

liberis 1533 108 Nam quòd comoediam saepe affirmas priuatae uitae ego arbitror hos quoque poëtas non ciuilis consuetudinis esse magistram speciem habet repudiantis

cortesia

263

sia ne

di la ? ? e in

e

e

lui ;

di

che non amore somma ,

in

ne , in i e

somma

costumi d'honestissimo ,

e ? ?

,

Niente

e ?

si

ne le

E

.

,

si

le

ha

: de “ la ne E i

...

)

d'incffabile

(

, e

humanitate

Platonico nel suo amore celesti bellezze d'angelici

."

,

?

mente Quanto diuine uirtuti

di e

?

)

, e

), .p

la

( o

e

de

;

lui

(

Il

18

poi Petrarchista 1539 12v tanto piu per mani deue hauere quanto qualche luogo tanta dottrina che ogni scienza suoi uersi chi puo dire quanti quali sentimenti diuina humana philosophia stieno ascosi sue rime egli Quanto Dio immortale modesto quanto terso netto d'ogni lasciua ruggine religioso pensieri Quanto senza lasciuia leggiadro Quanto Quanto casto

THEORY

POETIC

his

out , breadth of knowledge , godliness , and morality , are precisely the same ones that would make a poet acceptable even in Plato's republic . Mario Equicola presents us , in his Institutioni al comporre in ogni sorte di rima della lingua volgare , with a much more completely Platonic work

of of of

,

all

In

of

, a

a

it

,

of

,

in

.

de

to it all

as , a

.

da

is

treatise

de

Libro natura amore Published 1541 the posthumous concerned above with prosodic recommendations for the various lyric forms for which leans heavily on the old treatise Antonio Tempo But prelude develops the history such discussion poetry lengthy comparison between poetry and painting defence than

to

,

(

),

:

,

,

,

,

of

.

is

So

a

,

.

praise phases both Dante and Petrarch almost prelude this the source Plato for the distinction made close the beginning among the various kinds verse the active under which Equicola classifies tragedy comedy bucolic and satire the narrative

the art and

,

(

),

,

.

,

,

.

of

a it

in

,

of

of

).

So

,

,

(

,

history maxims philosophy and mathematics and the mixed heroic lyric and elegiac poetry also for the insistence upon divine inspiration On the matter the banishment the poets however Equicola disagrees declaring that only came about the Republic and only because that entirely designed work state outside the bounds human possibility

in

“

,

.

to

to

of

,

in

,

by to

,

B )

.p

(

”

"

us ,

:

,

,

he

says Plato praised the poets and Equicola joins the praise delight bring way they here for the which our ears for the which praiseworthy from our earliest years they invite means fables and great actions for their incitement virtue Poetry teaches

Elsewhere

us it

,

of

,

of

a

in

;

to in

to

is

it

as

to

us

adorn ourselves with good mores and hold our passions check upon giving pleasure and enjoyment and utility intent men many things setting before makes accessible for our use the examples most diligent fashion and with delight the glory the ancient ;

a

be

,

in

no

,

to

no

is

or

in it in it

of

us

specifically

,

More

,

. "

19

poetry shows kings and the fortunes may passions temper our heroes indicates how we thus the fact that uses myths fictions more condemned than similar use religious mysteries and parables and the bad moral examples which sometimes provides are worse than those found constantly life virtues

,

”

"

its

.

)

of

(

insegna

.

affetti

ne

rifrenar

gli

in

1545

the present series gli

&

,

”

Bernardino Tomitano

poetry

buon costumi

)

264

."

à

la

ne

,

mortali

di

essempij molte cose nostro propone gloria delle antiche virtù

a '

&

,

of

“

di

B : “

), & .p

of

)

(

Ornarne

(

,

vso riduce

1541

far piacere dar volutta vtile diligentissimamente con giocondità ,

di

19

Institutioni

to to is in

of

in

.

The Ragionamenti della lingua toscana the first nearly complete art

represents studiosa

or

:

its

products are less subject and Dante and Petrarch employs the terms Horatian criticism

1545

(

TOMITANO

.

on

the body

destruction The brief discussion and the attitudes commonplace

of ,

the mind rather than

to

is

to

so

of

"

“

.

, in

poetry with painting points history the laws Equicola's comparison provided that feign out that both arts may legitimately invent doing they observe the laws decorum His conclusion that poetry superior painting appeal based two reasons poetry makes

PLATONISM

DEFENCE OF POETRY

:

Platonic treatises ; it also represents

If

far.

thus

the most eclectic

and in a sense the

of

one were to read the three books

the

all

most typical studied

, a

of

.

,

on

of

the detailed Ragionamenti in reverse order , one would find in the third treatment the more particular aspects the art treatment resting largely Horace's Ars poetica and on the rhetoricians but deriving certain essential ideas from Aristotle The second book deals largely with oratory

poetry

are taken from poets

is

to

of

oratorical principles

the examples

con

once again

the

,

stantly traced and

;

all

but even here the application

.

a

on

to

is

it

of

For rather than begin with one

of

by

.

is

,

of

,

to

all

.

in

rhetoricians provide the distinctions and the rules But the first lay the philosophical foundations for book where Tomitano wishes writing his source the art Plato And Plato appealed much broader basis than was done most Tomitano's contemporaries classical

I

his

;

or

...

"

in

of

.

,

as

he

),

of

of

at

to

(

the favorite dicta which have outlined starting point Plato's this chapter takes Ideas Like the painter the poet and the orator attempt represent the medium their arts some perfect concept Idea Ideas are those simple and spiritual forms which mean nothing else the beginning general concept

as

to

be

to

he

,

as a

poet must therefore may know the truths which

is be

a

succeed

that

he

of

philosopher

he

so to

the poet

is

If

be

,

to

going

20

. ”

mutation

something

all

or

of

but examples and norms those things which are born naturally made artificially which are absolutely eternal and durable just others are subject born perishable and mortal and may said constant

its

in

of

.

of

;

of

.

a

is

of

its

it

,

Of all

is

of

is

of

of

to

.

imitate poetry philosophy complicated one The relationship indeed philosophy discovery poetry The business the truth the business the imitation truth through the medium fictions But poetry does every part not imitate truth nor does serve ultimate ends ,

is

in

is

it

,

,

in

;

or

,

to

wise through some intellectual habit

contemplative just

as

merely render

us

us

: “

,

,

to

In

.

is

it

.

.

its

the latter which involves two ends pleasure and utility utility For the both moral and intellectual character and found moral and intellectual precepts scattered throughout the work order write such precepts properly Tomitano insists the poet philosophical must know the truths from which they spring These pre cepts then will either teach how live well and happily else they will

imitation philosophy

the latter ones are ,

?

,

of

he

Or

of all

." 21

a

necessary part

the former are called moral

of

and both kinds philosophy are Does this mean that the poet must have exact and complete knowledge matters both human and divine knowledge speak does without and run the risk Platonic con called

&

."

si

ci

de

gli

&

,

)

(

265

gli

:

,

."

necessaria della philosophia

:

, ò

si

,

&

, si

,

di ) , .p di 8 & : “

: “

.pp & a

ci

,

, si ò . ,

21

&

&

(

20

Ragionamenti 1545 quelle semplici spiritali forme ... che altro non importano quelle cose che nascono naturalmente che essempi norme artificiosamente fanno lequali sempiterne del tutto dureuoli sono come tutte l'altre cose nascenti mancheuoli possono addomandare mortali mutatione continouo soggiacenti insegneranno uiuer bene Ibid 42-43 Questi precetti adunque ouero beata mente che renderanno solamente per alcun habito intellettuale saputi liquali contem platiui quali sono parte addomanderanno come quegli altri morali uni altri

POETIC THEORY demnation on that score ? Tomitano takes a middle position : The poet must have knowledge , and the more he knows the more successfully will he write ; but it need not be profound and thorough knowledge . “ I tell you that the orator and the poet must possess so pure and simple a knowledge of things pertaining to philosophy , that when he remains silent about them

." 22

thereby

his

,

on

.

a

,

if

to

Indeed the poet cultivates philosophy excessive degree poet Tomitano's remarks becomes less good Dante clarify

he

an

a

or

he

all

he will show that he knows them ; and aside from this they will be a guide and norm to him from which he may derive more pleasant and more solid speaks greater splendor maxims and may give to that writes

whole

:

position

.

.

,

a

be

he

,

a

in

it

is

to

or

he

,

to

be

I

is a

of

hold therefore that that man better and graver poet who with the aid philosophy will able render his compositions more beautiful and more grave but not that should for this reason dispute talk about philosophy And there you that Dante although may fore not conceded better philosopher being greater poet than Petrarch For Petrarch understood that succeeds to

To

,

. 23

,

of

in

;

to

of

philosophy which was sufficient give spirit and solidity minimum amount his rhymes whereas the matter beautiful diction from which the poet derives his name he was better than Dante

.

of

of

.

,

he

a

a

.

of

'

al

of

by

the truths within

“

portava insegna the poet

, he as . a ”

must penetrate

the fable interpreting the myth done Parnassus Perch viso d'amor Petrarch's madrigal

,

an

of

Tomitano shows how this analysis and giving

to

allegorical interpretation is

of

by If

the reader would derive full benefit from the poem means

or

of

,

of , is

in

he

a

,

of

philosophy also allegory this matter related the problem expounding The poet knows basic collection truths but instead myth them directly dresses them the outward fashion fiction

at

of

:

,

of

.

,

to

be

,

in

be

, so

34

(

be

a

—

.pp , of

of

.

of

or

no

,

).

.pp

22

a

the poet must both

be , a

second

be

knowledge possessed the high poet truth and must man moral character From such reprehensible works need supervised harmful feared practice for which Plato blamed the 141-42 He may even tell lies ;

osophers

to

be

all

by

If

disguise can philosopher men useful the lives expelled from any state Tomitano meets should not Plato's ban two counterproposals first the works the poet should censorship subjected times the examination and the the phil

then clearly

." &

ò

,

sia ,

à

&

gli

& di

,

,

., ne & .p

,

di &

& il

,

: “

.,

poeta douer una cognitione cosi schietta Ibid 94–95 dicoui l'oratore semplice ritenere delle cose alla philosophia appartenenti lequali egli tacendole mostrera saperle questo oltre seranno una guida norma onde egli piu uaghe sode sen maggior splendore doni parla tentie diriui tutto quello onde egli scriue ,

&

,

il

,

ui si

: ui la

à

il

)

(

266

,

et

si

a

."

di

fu

,

,

di

quel tanto philosophia intese che fermezza alle sue rime bastaua recar spirito che poi nella bella elocutione dallaquale denomina Poeta come piu basso Dante migliore

doue dirò

,

Et

.

;

ad

.

ò i

et

: “

di

23

Voglio adunque che miglior poeta quello piu graue che con l'aiuto Ibid 240 piu graui ma non per questo della philosophia sapra render suoi componimenti piu belli parli philosophia tenzoni per questo non che egli concede che Dante quantunque uenga Petrarca esser piu gran poeta del Petrarca Percioche sia maggior philosopho

OF POETRY

DEFENCE

lie ,

:

no

PLATONISM

of

an

as

he

it

,

In

.

;

in

its

.

a

lie , ”

“

in in it ,

”

virtue which has poets - provided that he avoid the “ fraudulent hidden truth Only which masks and practice only the artful manifesta passing does Tomitano mention the divine furor and regarded this incidental aspect tions the poet apparently theory Tomitano frequently associates these various remarks on poetry

,

,

as

as

,

as

a

as

of

of

,

,

of

in

,

as

to

.

of

.

as

they were for with oratory The two arts are very closely allied for him having theorists the rhetorical school He sees them both similar pleasure and profit seeking the same ends relationship Ideas finding their utility largely sharing the the inclusion moral precepts using invention disposition and elocution and same qualitative parts

the poet alone makes

;

in

,

his

;

to

:

in

,

,

of

,

of

;

in

as

his

,

to

.

of

They differ however speech identical figures various respects oratory tends emphasize utility poetry gives more attention pleasure achieving the orator uses persuasion means ends the poet uses prose the other writes imitation whereas the one writes verse and

he

,

;

,

he

all

this point

Horatian

the

.

he

.

in

and important feature the language which they use that comes into closest contact with certain theorists rhetorical school

It of is

,

a

to

at

.

all

in

, to in he

all

in

of

as

do

.

use fables and fictions These theoretical differ not prevent Tomitano from citing passages from poems fact tends discusses the rhetorical devices which his demonstrative find more and more throughout the treatise materials Petrarch alone This means that the last analysis reduces single one and finds their most interesting the arts using language ences examples

CA. 1550

)

'

(

ANTONIO MARIA DE CONTI

to

et

in in of of

,

in

in he

,

de '

.

at

in as

of

,

,

by

of

a

be

assigned the century must group works Antonio Maria Conti who called himself pro fessionally Marcantonio Maioragio Since died 1555 and the major part professor his career Milan fell the preceding ten years the praefationes works published the Orationes 1582 would seem

of

same period roughly the middle

To this

of

"

a

of

,

"

at in byall ,

art

an

to

of

of a

"

"

a

,

to

to

belong poetry Conti has two the period around 1550. On the subject contributions make theoretical statement the form De arte poetica and practical applications prefaces number the which praelectiones were really courses academic interpretation vari

of

of

as

;

of

of

all

of

or

, of it

is a

Its

.

,

it

.

is ;

is

it

no

.

is

poetry ous texts Conti's oration De arte poetica not since inquiry into the nature makes the art into the devices which poetic excellence poetry fairly achieved instead offers praise conventional terms Poetry the most excellent and the most divine provides man with knowledge things both human and the arts since supernatural prime function Tyre and educative Maximus

]

[

267

in

,

of

,

of

us

“

it is a

an

to

,

us

,

Strabo have pointed out first philosophy which from earliest good childhood leads honest way life which instructs mores which calms and rules the disturbed movements the soul which

POETIC THEORY

.

The terms of praise are old and familiar there are two great arguments against First

for

the Platonic eviction

,

As

all

teaches , in the most pleasurable fashion , what things are to be done . " 24

,

the most saintly moral maxims

in

,

it :

every poet one may find since good poets are also good men and , .

:

of

(

in

of

of of

in

,

do

we

.

it to

)

he ,

,

,

he is By

"

it as

of

,

.

of

religion Augustine are the preceptors life Second such great pillars poetry and cited constantly Jerome and Ambrose were great readers Moreover even Plato argues against himself since other works where not concerned with the perfect state insists upon the divinity poetry and praises the skies Follows Conti's own extravagant praise the immortal gods what sweetness not find the language

?

,

of

is

so

?

of

,

?

25

? ”

of

here given resolves

to set

.

to

be

,

itself into matters diction and sound and what more distinctly poetic qualities are not even

might considered intimated

be

in

all

?

of

?

?

poetry what harmony what charm what loveliness what cleverness composition invention what proportion what gravity maxims style frequently the case the praise what majesty kinds As

.”

“

,

of

in

,

all

of

.

all

.

is ,

is

of

,

to

be

all

A

principles praelectiones similar found applied the The two prefaces Homer are typical Homer course the ocean from knowledge and literary skill have been derived He has taught which kings how kings has given the foundations the arts and sciences

. , by In "

“

and the

imperitos

,

so

of ;

teaching them

the

greatest

he

,

so

"

of

by

,

in

the guise

of

doing frivolous myths uses the method frequently use parables and similes for divine the theologians who

mysteries

of

rudes

"

the

“

vates

by

of

,

of

a

.

, as

be

to

is

.

of

in

and has surpassed even the historians those lessons which are the proper history His use mythological tales blamed many contribution defended device for the presentation serious materials properly interpreted these tales contain within themselves all kinds hidden knowledge They are the means which Homer attracts and capti

to

in

,

in

as

of

he

,

,

so

In

26

by

. ”

to

,

matters means which untutored minds are easily raised from known things which are apparent the senses those which are unknown doing also poetry and sublime serves the ends estab lished Horace providing useful instruction mores and the good

to

to

(

the

and

Iliad teaches

ad

it

;

the effect that the ab

24

),

also quotes Plutarch

learned

to

the first had been from the work about eloquence

about

the arts

as

the Odyssey

stresses what

is

be

devoted

Iliad

all

,

The second preface

to

.

life

,

ac

,

?

?

?

?

?

,

?

?

: "

., .p ?

25

."

,

: "

), .p

(

, et

praefationes 1582 quae nos Orationes 145 ineunte aetate honestas uiuendi regit rationes adducit quae bonis moribus instruit quae motus animi turbidos placat quae res gerendas summa cum iucunditate praecipit quae concinitas Ibid 148 Proh Dij immortales quę suauitas poeticae locutionis qui lepos quae uenustas quod inuentionis acumen quae compositionis harmonia qui quae sententiarum grauitas quae denique generum omnium dicendi uerborum splendor

]

[

268

in

similitudinibus rebus diuinis sub sensum cadentibus rebus

ad

&

à

, :“

.”

&

Ibid 154v sicut etiam Theologi nostri parabolis cognitis frequenter utuntur quo rudes animi facilius incognitas sublimes extollantur

ac

., ? " .p

26

maiestas

all

PLATONISM

DEFENCE OF POETRY

:

In

ad

"

"

,

of

.pp

158v 162

)

-

Vergil one the Georgics compared with Hesiod and to

prefaces are devoted

to

lengthy

,

Two fairly

to

(

).

( .p

of

,

,

on

strength

remarks

by

his

of

body and the Odyssey strength soul 157v Hesiod's Works and Days Conti rests upon the praise given the poet the greatest philosophers and rhetoricians sharing their middle style the miration for the precepts and for the apt handling above

is

of as

,

a

.

of

a

all

a

of

,

is

,

,

In

,

its

in

it .

,

of

,

of

we

so

,

a

in

of

to

to

IV as

of

Aeneas Book

it is

to

piety and fortitude the particular show the evil power love the errors and may avoid catastrophes which leads that For the rest one may see highest form presented the life Aeneas every virtue living example and through action rather than description more praised for his incredible erudition for his admirable general way Vergil poetic rather than natural order style and versification for his use present

function

the exemplar

is

,

if

of

.

its

,

of

.

.

on

its

of

,

be

to

is

and the other the Aeneid The first work superior largely because found the elegance and the clearness diction but also because erudition For the Aeneid Conti concen trates the fourth book He finds that the general aim the poem

.

on

,

178–183v

of

,

on

).

)

(p .

by in

of

(

.p

of

on

to

"

"

.

(p

),

,

In

his works his tres Aristotelis libros arte rhetorica osthumous 1572 Conti reflects other aspects the current Platonic doctrine He explains the special sense which Plato uses things imitation describe the representation words 347A poets and cites the lon the divinity 381A These remarks are found explanationes

,

another

de

of

).

,

177v

In

.pp

(

his

to

of

as

of

on

,

as

,

of

the rhetorical devices treatment and for his proper exploitation subject matter Once again soon Conti passes from general remarks poetry particular consideration poetic techniques and the end text becomes the Ars poetica and his method Horatian 173–

a

he

.

to

of of

.

a

a

in

of

commentary context Aristotle and are frequently coupled with similar remarks from Horace They demonstrate once more the eclectic nature Conti's approach and the extent which uses Plato for number purposes

...

all

is

),

.

of

:

a

of

on

in

of

(

in

,

in

Sperone Speroni his Discorso lode della pittura undated inci dentally concerned with the broader meaning imitation and with Plato's poetry He also distinction between narrative and dramatic imitation hierarchy nobility subjects establishes the basis the imitated and the prosodic means to

to

is

.

if

all

,

all

to

or

for as

,

as

of

is

,

which

or

less noble not only according the thing common arts and sciences but also according the imitating Thus means and the manner the epic and tragedy and comedy imitate far the thing imitated concerned the first two are nobler than the

the imitative arts are more

imitated

)

269

a

,

imitates with the hexameter (

deed different from these because

it

in

.

is

,

of

as

;

third but the mode instrument imitation tragedy and comedy are not unlike since the one and the other imitates with the iamb But the epic most noble

POETIC

THEORY

It is quite true that the epic does not imitate as well, speaking absolutely about imitation , as do the other two which are dramatic.27 verse .

In

as this , of course , there are strong echoes of the dis by tinctions made Aristotle in chapter 3 of the Poetics ; but perhaps the assigning of “ nobility ” on various scores is more specifically Platonic in implications decidedly secondary The Platonic element the Aristotelis librum

In

is

in

.

its

such a statement

is ,

).

,

of

as

an

as a

on .

in

in

be

,

of

(

of

it of de

poetica communes explanationes Maggi and Lombardi 1550 This major course one the Aristotelian commentaries the century and will appears treated detail later But Plato both source for certain ideas the commentary and earlier theorist whose ideas is

so

of

"

at

,

;

of

in

.

or

developed The latter position Aristotle either combatted stated clearly connection with the distinction between narrative and dramatic imita length tion Maggi cites Book III the Republic that we may more easily discover how wisely Aristotle using the precepts his teacher

Aristotle's ideas are seen

as

,

Occasionally

of

to

as

,

.” 28

Plato has improved upon them being opposition those

on

in

(

,

of

in

,

be

to

.

of

is

of

.pp

,

he

is

to

be

II

in

)

is

in

Plato when connection with answering Plato's attacks Poetics 1460b33 Aristotle said Homer Books and III the Republic Again the last lines his treatise using Plato's argument that the end poetry Aristotle said pleasure although elsewhere Aristotle goes beyond when states that the

,

.

In

).

,

,

as

,

of

the education

as

is

an ,

,

a

is

”

“

.

,

be

;

of to

tion

voluptas

youth.29 Plato's condemna

thus limited one applying youth general corrupt his conclusion like that bad poets who would Aristotle and Horace would that poetry useful educative instrument

of

the poets who seek only

of

he

,

”

its

,

as is

,

human actions and through pleasurable language spanning the tradition both Plato and

ennoble the soul Plutarch who saw end to

.

of

by imitating

“

is ,

the end

is

of

,

to

,

to

(

is

end rather utility through purgation 277 299 Most frequently though the commentators wish parallels Maggi's find and influences Prolegomena which treats the standard topics relative any work one point investigation poetry Insofar the end Aristotle holds that

,

a

(“

III ,

o

, , e al la

e

le

se è la

: "

, a e le la

443-44 tutte arti imitative sono più men nobili non scienzie ma quanto allo instru tutte arti che comune però epopeja tragedia imitano commedia quanto

) , ,

,

(

In

Opere Venice 1740 solo quanto alla cosa imitata

il

27

of

.

),

(p

of

In

of

connection with specific passages the Poetics the commentators beauty they establish parallel between cite Plato's definition 123 Poetics 1454b13 and Plato's Ideas siue natura secun the Trapádeiyua

,

o

,

. le è

,

:

e

,

,

67 : " "

,

)

270

."

."

, ea

(

in ut

,

(

facilius deprehendi possit quàm doctè placitis Platonis melius reformet Aristoteles utens actiones humanas imitando suaui sermone animum excultum reddere

13 : "

Ibid

., .p

29

sui praeceptoris

...

), . .p

quali sono drammatiche Explanationes 1550

28

le

,

si è

la

da

la

;

le

.

e

mento modo dello imitare alla cosa imitata due prime sono più nobili della terza ma quanto modo istrumento tragedia della commedia imitando l'una l'altra col jambo dello imitare non son diverse epopeja ma diversa esse perchè imita collo esametro nobilissimo verso ben vero che non imita così bene assolutamente della imitazione parlando come imitano altre due

PLATONISM

In

be

to

ideas on the sources of poetic inspiration ( p. 187 ) . distinguish anything that might very difficult

be

consyderata , non ut in hoc , aut in illo reperta , ” p . 175 ) , and of they refer to Plato on the divine furor as antecedent to Aristotle's would underlying assumption that this

an , it

se

course

all

dum

DEFENCE OF POETRY

:

termed its

,

of

a

it

(I

much shorter text

the decade 1550–1560

),

in in

is

A

.

refutation his master's poetic theories distinctly Platonic position indeed visible approximately the same time roughly date

a

or

a

of ,

is

is

as a

.

is

of

interesting because Platonic position The text present frequently source for Aristotle's ideas and that Plato frequently concerned with development contrariwise Aristotle

.

la

è

the great

:

is

,

to

of

this conception might well incite men imitate the errors directly opposed Leonardi's own opinion

.

.

,

to it

is

è

al

sia

:

in

several manuscripts Giovanni Giacomo Leonardi's Discorso piu utile poesia Leonardi takes issue with mondo l'historia the usual assumption that poetry more useful than history because presents ideal models rather than imperfect realities History according

found qual

...

an

a

in

all

of

is

it

to

of

.

...

the impossible and one does not heed them with the large part the true Besides the poet who desirous pays forgets much attention this end that times utility pursue that which has proposed his end that and results that men those who not understand the secret whether what the poet say was trying found the verse the surface and the pleasure

to of

he

at

it

,

in

or

,

or

,

on

,

,

discover

...

is ,

to

as

do

to in

is

things difficult whether the poetry.30

in

is

in

,

.

so

as

to

,

he

,

same attention giving pleasure

,

of

impression as

beginning

an

do

as

,

to

it

to

,

it a

,

to

I

of

always was and still am the opinion that History much greater use things truth the world than Poetry since seems me that impression upon gives carries with certain admiration men which them much greater desire imitate than fiction and lies this does not come pass with invented things since fables they give themselves from the very fulness

leave aside the intention hidden within

to is

1 )

(

:

on

; ( 3 )

to

be

to

be ; (

is

2 )

of

as a

to

preferable Three essentially Platonic ideas are present here truth teaching men fiction means the poet tends seek pleasure rather than utility and hence condemned the meanings con readily apparent tained under the allegorical exterior may not the

Io

of

.

a

,

be

to

III

,

la

in

et

,

la

,

: “

-

.

,

384 fols 133v 134 opinione nondimeno sempre fui sono Mondo utile molto maggiore che Poesia parendomi che verità un'impression negli huomini che doni loro cose una certa admiratione

che l'Historia torni

al .

MS BNF

II .

30

he

to

.

say that only good and rare intellects will reader Leonardi goes the hidden meanings and concludes with summation the various lessons learned from history perceive

un ,

ne

,

lascia

da

nascosa nella poesia

la

,

et

,

)

(

271

, in et

,

il ,

di

si

saper l'intention

a

è

Il

.

le

...

gli

à se ne

il fà

cose difficili

"

....

di

è

oueramente come lato

...

.

, et la

,

la

se

,

di

,

le

in

habbia tutte bugia molto maggiore studio d'imitarla che fittione cosi non auuiene nelle cose finte percioche come fauole danno nel principio un'impressione dell'impossibile non s'attendono con quella attentione come uere Poeta poiche uolto dilettare proseguir quello che s'hà posto buona parte mira tanto questo che scorda alle uolte per fine che l'utile quel che huomini come quelli che non intendono secreto chc habbia uoluto dire Poeta stia nel uerso nella superficie nella dilettatione

POETIC

A

THEORY

letter written by Girolamo

,

point

appre

showing

cites his own works

,

case

he

,

be

he

“

to

the mechanical arts nor can

to

in to

excellent

,

.

As

he

their beauty

ciate

in

be

.”

31

man cannot indeed

a

a

of

of

,

to

his

Fracastoro to Girolamo Amalteo in 1551 indicates that at that date it was still necessary to protest against a common opinion that poetry was a “ madness ” ( “ una pazzia ”) and that poetic genius was inconsistent with disciplined intellectual activity . Fracastoro declares that , had he been able to live according to own wishes would have chosen only these know only philosophy and poetry since knowledge with their related materials seem two fields worthy me man He quotes Navagero the effect that without poetic genius

necessary

the art against

defend

it

-

of

to

to

of

.

how they combine both scientific and poetic compositions Fracastoro's argument belongs the larger position the anti Platonists who felt the charge

irresponsi

madness and

.

bility

1553

)

(

PATRIZI

of

the Discorso della diversità dei furori poetici Francesco Patrizi 1553 lies entirely within framework Platonic pre suppositions The problem which Patrizi poses discover why different inquires into the various poets excel different genres To answer

of

the poet must

it

achieve

,

.”

"

in

Ingegno

to

''

'

“

to :

of

an

"

to

”

"

an

"

32

. "

in

the beautiful images and eloquent man For ingenium two definitions are given properly used for attitude and readiness our mind

in

in

and the Platonic furor Art will not help make the poet rich the perfections which can exist

“

little use since ,

of

concluding that

ingenium

all

,

is

these matters

to he is to

a

it ,

.

poetic excellence

possess both the Horatian

all it

sources

,

of

in .

)

(

,

On the other hand

a

us

as

,

in

us ,

or ,

Plato teaches the Phaedrus we might say human and divine

is

,

,

”

. “

'

...

,

mi

suoi annessi perfettioni

,

tutte

le

di

&

concetti

,

bei

: "

di

tutti

con

che

.”

( : in “ ),

queste due cognizioni

li

solo

i

263

Discorso 1553 45-45v ricco possano cadere huomo eloquente ingegno propriamente Ibid 45v ritrouare nostra mente all'imparare 33

,

at

that the soul may take certain impressions : "

,

.pp . "

II,

ed .

to

,

."

,

of

on

the possibility

Calogerà Raccolta degne dell'uomo

32

parono

,

In

31

discourses

33

is

divine descends from Heaven and raises above the human and almost semiangels After having developed some length the relationship planets God the and the muses human genius Patrizi makes

us

what

Furor

supernatural

;

or

natural elements either natural

: “ '

a

in

.”

is

a

is

in

'

is

a

'

,

at

.

In

is

learn and ingegno discover ... still another way taken for certain dis position and inclination which given man and which times found makes him incline toward one thing rather than toward another This apparently natural gift man Furor however contains certain super

(

,

fa

lo

."

il ci

,

.

,

...

ad ,

&

in

'

ci

,

et

,

&

...

,

“ Il

ci

272

)

, "; ò

,

si

, si

,

un , '

si

dice

In

.

al

& , &

&

,

,

è ò

, ò

ad

,

., .p

una attitudine una prontezza della prende l'ingegno altro modo ancora per una certa affettione alcun huomo che troua che tal'hora inclinatione insegna una cosa piu che un'altra inchinato and furore secondo che Platone uogliamo dire humano sopranaturale diuino diuino nel Fedro naturale quasi semiangeli sopra all'esser humano rende inalza descende da Cielo

...

PLATONISM

DEFENCE OF POETRY

:

on

to by

,

is

of

or

,

it of is

it

as

or

. 34

of

of

or of

by

.

,

in

,

,

poetry then rather one subject than another results from descending through the other heavens takes which the soul more from this planet than from that And according more illuminated Mercury the rays Phoebus Venus than Mars more given sing amorous matters and the liberal arts than either war the

of

the writing the disposition

on

...

from the planets and that the poetic faculty may be one of the impressions so derived . This assumption leads to the solution of the specific problem :

mechanical arts

a

of

A

of

of

of

or

In its

...

a

: “

it to

.

as or

,

of

.

by

,

of

"

. “

,

the source

”

,

is

,

then

subject matter

is of a “

special ingegno the inclination toward developed state Furor the same whose copious ness and abundance results from additional gifts the muses final problem remains that the relationship between these natural divine acquired powers learning and practice gifts and the purely artificial relieving the soul earthly darkness and the art These are regarded permitting see the divine light each hour they purify the soul

This

is

to

be

to

;

( .p

)

"

“

be a

a

his inspiration

.

to

as

)

pp .

analyze Alessandro Lionardi's Dialogi Chapter above 137-38 and ,

of

I

( cf. to

have already had occasion della inventione poetica 1554

IV

of

of

by

;

by

of

function

,

,

be 35

to .”

is

if

it

earthly shadow and cause exposed that general then for Patrizi the divine furor necessary anything but cold and stupid the poem 50v the particular poem practised kind the poet will depend upon his special gifts and given matter will even the kind verse used him for treating little more from heavenly light

as

,

76 ).

,

of

the poet which are ,

(

and the Ion for the qualities copiousness diction readiness ,

consist

"

said

in

to

,

Republic the Phaedo

to of

”

as

.

.p

enuntiatione

Thus Lionardi calls upon Plato for the against imitatione dramatic representation narrative representation He calls upon the the period

"

"

Plato are typical special meaning

.

or of of to “ an

suggest how both Aristotelian and Platonic elements exist incidental accompaniments essentially rhetorical theory The borrowings from

discover knowledge at

“ a

as

.

82 )

.

knowledge that the poet must have

(p

to

he

36

,

of

to a

discuss the kinds

un '

34

comes

of

" ]. "

,

to

(

" ),

perfect erudition and wisdom

to

[

as “

judg and art defined ment reduced rules for knowing how invent and imitate well and the same time adorn and enrich the matter Since this definition knowledge Lionardi also refers involves conception Plato when defined

,

Et

et à

'

,

."

à

, . è

da

,

in

, ò ò di

,

è

di

, da

,

in

, ò di

."

,

( : ) un , la “ ). .p " 62 : "

., .p

&

di

da i

è

et

(p

&

,

&

)

273

(

) la ,

di ,

erfetta eruditione uena del dire prontezza del ritrouare dottrina regolato giudicio saper ben fingere arte imitare insieme adornare materia

(

35 36

Dialogi 1554

scienza arricchire

&

,

gli

: " il

., .p

Ibid 48v Poetare poi piu una materia che altra uiene dall'affettione questo Pianeta che quello che nel discendere per altri Cieli prende piu secondo raggi piu data che illuminata piu Febo Venere che Marte Mercurio cantare delle cose amorose dell'arti liberali che della guerra delle mecanice Ibid 50v ogni hora uanno piu disgombrando l'anima dall ombra terrena quel celeste lume fanno esposta

THEORY

POETIC

by

of

to

is

:

is

76 ),

( .p

of

III

Finally , he makes the usual references to Plato when moral questions or questions of the lessons taught by poetry are at issue ; Book the Republic poetry cited for the opposition the moving the passions interpreted thus and Plato's real meaning

of

the good and praiseworthy

37

as

to

ones

by

.

as

deeds and blameworthy

of

is

it

,

to

be

is

.

,

Plato does not condemn those passions from which come honest and virtuous desires and effects but only those which induce vicious longings and activities This does not mean that the poet should not narrate that which harmful and necessary for him avoided since relate well the causes wicked

of

a

is

of

of

in

.

of

-

of

is a

.

to

,

-

,

of It

theory would seem here that the Platonic criticism right poet the even the moral duty the treat the whole gamut poetry against Plato the passions This kind defence Platonic elements are again secondary Giovanni Battista Pigna's tempered

a

of “

he is

16 ),

(

obviously

when religious pre classical mythology and

Likewise

is re

,

.

tradition

.p

as

presents men conversing

the current Platonic

"

of

,

it as

he

imitator when

following

of

,

,

"

of

"

to

.

of

,

a

as

his role

its

theory for 1554. The work has aim the development new genre the romanzo and founds this theory essentially upon the pattern the Poetics But when for example Pigna speaks imitatione equivalent parlamenti and fulfilling most completely the poet Iromanzi

he

,

of

of

an

(

At

)

of

”

of

“ a

at

a

of

to

of

occupations lead him condemn the use commend instead moderate application the Christian marvelous once reflecting the Platonic concern with true and proper presentation outgrowth the gods and the later Christian prejudice itself thought against representation Platonic modes the pagan gods

to

in

of

as

,

by

lie

So

...

I

of

,

or

.

,

as is

to

of

is

to

:

“

of

is

on

a

38

of

of

as it a

truth

. "

of

every form

within rather

a

good poet carries buried told explained Plato's ban the poets condemnation certain audiences than certain poets everybody but only believe that the reading the poets not forbidden people who are not capable perceiving their meanings under standing their secrets such the common and ignorant people For that

: “

that they may conceal

of

be

”

“

of

,

,

,

,

in

,

,

.

of

).

.pp

(

opposition 40-41 other times however Pigna places himself Plato His discussion the true the false and the verisimilar results the conclusion that the poet may feign untrue things such the passions the gods that certain genres indeed are based upon untrue materials and may even that the use lies recommended because the truths

...

of

,

."

ne

-

the ignorant and the material minded

;

“

,

in

by

”

completely incredible 80 : “

be

37

to

“

of

of

this reason the poets are sent out the city since the greater part poetry the people are not apt for the understanding After explaining poetry Pigna concludes that these are held the four lies contained and

&

;

274

]

[

. "

."

,

& ,

,

de '

,

&

,

il

& ,

à

,

da

,

22 : "

, .p

(

I

38

le

de '

&

,

,

. & , è .p

uengono desiderij Ibid Platone non riprende quegli affetti onde effetti operationi inducono honesti uirtuosi ma quelli che uitiose uoglie non però che fuggirsi quello che poeta narrar non debba essendoli necessario riferir noceuole uitupereuoli come buoni laudeuoli cause così fatti maluagi romanzi 1554) Tal che vna bugia d'un buon poeta ogni verità sepellisce

PLATONISM

DEFENCE

:

OF POETRY

among those who are judicious they pass as being beautiful and good . ” 39 To his essentially Horatian and rhetorical approach Matteo San Martino adds, in his Osservationi grammaticali e poetiche della lingua italiana ( 1555 ) , two arguments springing from Platonic sources . These concern the

of poetry and the character of the poet . Aside from the usual praise poetry englobing civilizing , based on of other arts and sciences antiquity and religious uses San Martino singles function out to

God and

the

as

of of

it

,

,

to

be

of

the worship

its

its

all

of

its

its of to ,

.pp

,

its

the one art devoted part political life

of all

defence

betterment

in

,

of

,

).

in

by

,

( .pp of

a

he

.

of

).

At

it

of

,

sure

he

is

of

of

(

is

— .

A

consists the fact that requires the presence poetry alone sciences divine origin since poetry and the the divine furor 124–25 this point the defence description poet the character the are identical For the distinguishing poet upon depends special kind feature the that divine inspiration without which possibly cannot excel his art 128–29 praise

, in

a

a

as ,

: "

to

,

a

to

to

of

at

it , or

40

."

perfection

such

perhaps nobody

could

ever

)

(

1557

its

As

is

in

,

by

observing achieve GRIFOLI

be

basically Platonic aim Indeed San Martino himself seems moved purpose writing present simple since his future poets perfect poet tellectual form Idea the and solid norm for arriving

.

art is is is

all

of

a

it

de

.

a

of

,

it

as

a

is

)

(

Giacopo Grifoli's Oratio title indicates laudibus poetarum again special praise poetry 1557 and defence But has imposing character insofar concludes with the Platonic necessity philosophical restrictions upon poetry Grifoli's first premiss that arts

divided into those which

be ,

to

.

of

,

By

it in

it

all

.

it

as

judged great must provide both utility and pleasure and that any according poetry satisfies both ends this standard the greatest poetry are since excels others these respects The utilities is

;

it

(

:

us

so

...

be

to

)

a

of

in

claimed the past this the commonplace civilizing function and those which may still serve the largely political and ethical latter would seem

allegation

of

to

us in

to

of

no

,

all

of

,

,

no

;

by

of

to

of

,

of

taught private citizens and those since the poets not only the duties magis the general condition men but also the functions military leaders kings that part trates human life seems have been neglected many them since moreover they bring profit the human race

common

sia

,

or

in

.

,

,

of

in

,

in

of in

or

,

a

of

ways and through multiplicity way did they ever offer actions more ample service than preventing either the virtues distinguished ex men ploits any way the deeds the brave from dying now fact the poets la

&

,

da piu i

&

i

in

è la :

;

:

i

."

in

i

" le

&

" ;

i

il

de i

...

)

(

275

,

a

,

: "

o

127–28 una simplice spirital forma Idea del sommo Poeta enir osseruandola tal perfettione alla qual forse non fia mai

."

di ) ,

(

.pp

&

:

40

Osservationi 1555 una salda norma chi arriui

&

ne

si

,

è

ad

mi

de 31 : "

., ne .p .

...

sensi loro

La i

39

poeti ma solo alla penso che ognuno non leggere vietato capace plebeia intendente loro secreti quale poeti della città onde mandano fuori essendo esso non atti all'intelligenza della poesia quali and tutto per incredibili tenute sono rozzi passano per belle materiali buone tra giudiciosi lbid gente che ignorante

POETIC

THEORY

not only write of the exploits virtuously

accomplished by others , but they also teach the offices of virtue and instruct men to do those things which will be the ornaments of the centuries . 41

This conception of the aim of poetry may also serve as a means of dis tinguishing among poets ; Horace , for example , would be second only to Vergil and would be preferred to Lucretius “ because he attends to what is true and proper and is entirely concerned with leading men to a proper life and to true virtue . " 42

If these utilities be present in poetry , why then should Plato have ex cluded the poets from his perfect state ? Grifoli recognizes that for Plato himself there would seem to be contradictions : Indeed we must believe that that philosopher condemned the teachings of the poets although he himself had called them the fathers of wisdom , or else that he had excluded them as dangerous although he himself affirms that they are the go betweens of the gods , and while he holds that their poems are not the inventions

of men but the gifts of heaven , he nevertheless legislated that they were to be kept, as wicked men , outside the borders of his State.43

Grifoli further maintains that , far from

of corruption for pedagogical device for the

being a source

youth , poems may be used to advantage

as a

imparting of knowledge that would be otherwise inaccessible . The danger lies in the fact that at an early age , readers may be insufficiently wise to interpret the hidden meanings of poetry and may hence be led into error by the trumperies of the superficial statements . The solution lies in the joining of philosophy , which would provide correct interpretations , to the poetry itself : Thus poetry brings us many sweets by means of which our native abilities may be nourished , but no fewer which — if the best training were not ready at hand would disturb the mind and would lead it away from proper modes of thinking . Therefore poetry united to philosophy gives pleasure and profit like wine diluted

...

.pp

,

so

all

with water . Let this then be the function of the poets , to charm the minds of men with pleasant fables ; for it is their business to make known the most famous exploits and to imitate convincingly the characters of men that whoever &

ea ad

,

,

,

ita ,

vt

,

,

,

occupatus

,

est

eo

totus

in

,

." , &

& ."

,

rectam

de

,

“

" ;

56 : "

atque homines instituunt

59 : "

&

., ., ad p .p .

42

,

gestis scribunt sed etiam docent officia virtutum 99 quae sint ornamenta saeculorum qui verum Ibid decens curat vitam veram virtutem homines perducat 43

faciant

vt

in

re

,

se hi

,

,

: "

53 ,

,

),

,

vt

ijs

(

1557 ab

In

41

54–55 quoniam non modo priuatorum officia omnium hominum sed magistratuum ducum regumque munera docuerunt neglecta esse videatur cum autem multis rebus multiplicique industria iuuent humanum genus nulla tamen commodiores nobis praebuerunt quàm quod neque virtutes hominum neque praeclaros labores neque fortium gesta vllo pacto mori patiuntur and iam vero poetae non rebus aliorum modo cum virtute Orationes

communis conditionis nulla pars vitae

,

)

(

276

.”

à

,

&

,

,

,

,

Ibid est vero credendum illum philosophum doctrinam damnasse poetarum qui eosdem ipse sapientiae patres appellarit aut tanquam perniciosos exclusisse quos idem interpretes deorum testetur esse quorum poemata non hominum inuenta sed munera coelestia esse ducat hos tanquàm impios arcendos finibus ciuitatis suae statuisse

PLATONISM

DEFENCE

:

OF POETRY

reads or hears them will not only know with the greatest clarity what things are to be done and what ones avoided , but will also be filled with a most joyful feeling of pleasure.44

All

difficulties thus disappear if the teacher or the philosopher be present to extract the lesson from the poet ; the poets are readmitted to the state , where they serve a special purpose because of the pleasurable elements which accompany their art . The problem of truth , sometimes

in Platonic discussions of

central

poetry , is treated in passing by Annibale Caro in his Apologia degli Acade

( 1558 ) —his

famous reply to Castelvetro's famous argument attack . In both documents the is largely linguistic ; but at one point in his reply, Caro has Predella speak thus on the subject of poetic mici di Banchi di Roma

license :

Don't you know , nevertheless , that where opposite opinions exist the poets may attach themselves to one of them , whether it be the better or the worse ? and that in different places they may use now the one , now the other ? Don't you know , further , that they may follow not only the opinion of the wise but also the errors of the common people , as when they say that the rainbow drinks ? ... The license

of the poets is such that they may use not only opposite opinions , but those which are clearly false and ridiculous, without being blamed for so doing.45 Two things are notable here : first , that the poet is not held to logical con or to philosophical soundness ; second , that the criterion of truth

sistency

applied to his works .

is not necessarily

AMMIRATO ( 1560)

A still more complete examination of the same questions - of truth , of knowledge, of the ban - forms the subject of Scipione Ammirato's dialogue , Il Dedalione overo del poeta dialogo . The dialogue was written in 1560 and presents two interlocutors , Dedalione ( identified in the manuscript as Francesco Maria Giordano ) and Tiresia (Marino Cosentino ) ; both were of the Accademia dei Trasformati , which Ammirato founded at ita

members

,

& , res&

à

,

,

,

vt

,

gli

in ,

,

&

, è

?

, ò

di

sia ?

,

83 à : " & ,

), .p

."

]

277

;

de le ,

?

;

,

si

(

,

,

de le ;

;

& è

de '

dotti ma errori ancora del uolgo come dicendo che l'Arcobaleno poeti possono ualere non pur licenza tale che diuerse openioni espressamente false ridicole senza meritarne riprensione

... le

de .

beua ma

la

seguir l'openione

de di i

i

si

(

45

."

,

,

,

gestas illustrare atque verisimili poemate cuiusvis mores imitari quicunque legit aut audit eos non modo quae sequenda quaeque fugienda sint apertissime cognoscat sed iucundissima quoque voluptate capiatur Apologia 1558 Non sapete uoi nondimeno che doue sono diuerse openioni poeti possono attaccare migliore peggiore ch'ella una d'esse seruirsi anco questa quella Non sapete ancora che non solamente possono diuersi lochi hora hora ,

praeclarae

&

,

,

ita

,

sit

,

vt

.

...

sit

.

,

at

poesis dulcia quidem multa tradit quibus vegetentur ingenia 14 Ibid ., pp . 60, 62-63 : " quae nisi praesto optima institutio perturbent animum non pauciora recta poesis cum philosophia prodest ratione deducant quare vinum aqua temperatum igitur poetarum iucundis fabulis mentes hominum delinire quorum est delectat

THEORY

POETIC

be

, it

of

,

As

.

,

all

Lecce in 1558–59.46 There are several sections in the dialogue , correspond ing to the various aspects of the problem of poetry ; them will noted concern the generalities about poetry with which Platonic discussion was exclusively occupied Grifoli had done Ammirato starts from the as

its

it of is

is

to

,

of

in

in

.

in of

,

of

.

of

in

of

apparent contradiction poetry and the Plato between the praise depending upon two banishment the poets He sees the banishment poets the special things the incapacity listeners rather than the vice conditions the Republic For the latter work the aim consider poetry not general but rather effects upon the education the at

“

in

be

is

appreciated

contrast with the absolute all

all

:

on

character Plato's ban sophists ban

to

of

.

”

to

.

of

youths who will ultimately become the leaders the state Now this early age that men are especially unqualified understand and penetrate the lessons concealed beneath poetic expression The relative

not penetrate the allegorical meaning

of

,

,

,

,

.

of

ances and who

do

is

in

an

go

;

Truly Plato drives out the sophists and from every place not the poets but only those who feign ugly things about the gods and who about imitating intense way disturbed minds And not from every place but from the city that from the mass the ignorant and the young who easily fall into disturb the poets.47

of of

,

, in

to

“

is

is

,

;

should not itself

the audience

.

in it

of

be

of

entirely condemned for accounts for the fact that the Bible God and the angels are spoken entirely ways acceptable certain This because our small high things capacity which more readily moved the knowledge This weakness

of

is

,

,

. " 48

through material and common examples than through abstract and subtle poetry are The assumption here apparently that the devices

ones

;

or

by

,

or

,

led

.

is

of

.

be

,

so

be

to

of

for the communication certain ideas men young old but some safeguards must offered that men young old will put astray the proper construction upon poems and will not false interpretations knowledge Plato had included among his The second problem that charges against poetry the fact that poets really did not know the subjects necessary

.

: "

,

at

about which they wrote that their poems were several removes from the truth Ammirato answers thus the poets know nothing about the

...

(N

di

,

, dei

12

,

.

,

.

III , .

,

),

.

in

(

, in

in

46

manuscript The dialogue exists MS Bibl Naz Florence Magl VII and was published Ammirato's Opuscoli Florence 1642 353-94 On the Accademia aples Napoli Trasformati see Eustachi d'Afflitto Memorie degli Scrittori del Regno 308. On Ammirato's later associations with the Accademia degli Alterati Florence Argomenti degli Alterati discussione letteraria nell'Accademia 1570–1600 Giornale Storico della Letteratura Italiana CXXXI 1954 177–78 Opuscoli ogni luogo 359 Veramente discaccia Platone sofisti tutti poeti non tutti ma coloro che degli Dij brutte cose fingono animi perturbati intensa giouani igno mente vanno imitando Nè da ogni luogo ma dalla città cioè dalla turba

,

"

),

; i

da

&

gli

&

de e

de

.

,

,

,

,

i

,

.

),

(

: “

III ,

,

In

47

,

(

di

see ), p “ .

in

1782 my

,

di

]

[

."

&

si

,

,

gli

278

& la

la

: "

., .p

48

.”

, i

&

l'allegorico sentimento quali leggieri nelle perturbazioni discorrano Poeti non penetrano quale più ageuolmente picciola capacità nostra muoue alla Ibid 361 esempi materiali sottili cognizione delle cose alte con comuni che con gli astratti ranti

PLATONISM

DEFENCE OF POETRY

:

about which they write , and still they (are ] full of knowledge and wisdom . ... speaking in terms of the art , he ( the poet ) really knows nothing as a poet , writing and developing materials under the influence of the divine furor . ”49 This divine furor itself, however , constitutes a kind of knowledge , and one which , in the long run , is superior to that obtained through science . That is to say , God and the muses , speaking through the things

the poet , infuse into his works a kind

of superhuman truth which incapable the mind of man alone would be of discovering . problem The third is that of the ends of poetry . The Horatian assump tion of the "utile dulci " is at the basis of the discussion , which revolves of

voice

about the specific character of the usefulness . Ammirato sees both the body and the soul as suffering ills and as needing remedies . Those of the body are provided by the doctor . Those of the soul are supplied by the

to it

to is

he

concerned with the minister with

... Whence

as

us

.

be

to

;

do

of

for the

without the

. 50

of

as , a

it

he

a

is

it

to ,

he

cannot

com

would

the first

his

do ,

to

to

to

he he be

to

,

: “

in

to

a

thus

a

philosopher who uses special instrument attain the profit same end The philosopher who uses poetry order able does not thereby alter and change his end even though takes another means and other ways necessary and appropriate what intends is

The poet

,

of

profit but since poet wishes first and absolutely accompaniment pleasure uses servant

which the profit so

to

a

,

to

be

truly

the profit making two ends for the poet according profit and delight but consequence held

to

panion

is

it is

to

,

poet distinguished from the other cures sweetness becomes point out that the delight necessary not considered here

he as a

,

he

let

it

in

general was said above that the philosopher say that when health of the bul condescends as

of of

-

:

to

,

is

It

.

,

of

the

legislator, the orator , and the poet. For both body and soul , some device sugar coating is necessary to make the remedy palatable — the pills examples doctor's the the orator the fables and the verse the poet poetry this that gives the special quality

49

si

to

to

is

,

.

of

on

on

."

to

is

,

he

principal end which profit but still follows classify These various considerations lead Ammirato the one hand poetry under philosophy and distinguish the specific uses the other the various poetic genres Philosophy divided into the contemplative and the active which subdivide respectively into the natural and the super dl

så

,

&

,

.

: “ i

."

,

50

...

&

& ., .p di

poeti delle cose che scriuono nulla sanno pur tuttauia esser pieni Ibid 364 sapienza inquanto dottrina secondo l'arte parlando egli veramente niuna cosa poeta scriuendo trattando da diuino furore commosso à

la

;

il e

di

sia

da

hà

si

,

& ,

non per questo altera proporzionate quel à

la .

)

279

."

di

,

(

il

e

: , “ il se ,

di

.,

il p .

&

poesia 378 filosofo che per poter giouare prende suo fine ben piglia altro mezzo altre vie necessarie giouare che intende fare ma segue principal suo ch'è Ibid cangia

,

la

in

il

on

.p

,

."

51

il

à

,

à

in

và

il

,

&

si

di

: “

...

,

.

., .p

sopra genere riguarda Ibid 377 come disse filosofo sanità dell'anima diciamo che quando egli discende curarla con dolcezza diventa poeta differenza dell'altre porre qui per compagno del curazioni Que bisogna auuertire che diletto non giouamento onde s'habbiano giouaro far due fini del poeta ch'egli veramente tenuto egli conseguenza del giouamento percioche vuole primieramente dilettare ma poeta giouare ma non potendo farlo senza congiunzione del diletto assolutamente prende per ministro del primo Cf. 383 fable and verse

POETIC

THEORY

of

).

,

of

it If

us

let

,

of

: “

of

for

natural sciences and mathematics ( for the contemplative ) and into ethics, Poetry domestic or family economy , and civil philosophy ( the active belongs under the last these civil philosophy concerns the good our minds and our bodies truly will concern both these arts poetry

to

53

is

is

“

”

This

done

the public person

For comedy

the individual

.

the private person

of

genres

to of it .

by

,

to

to

society comedy

driving vice out Tragedy ministers

.

the separate

,

of

separately

of

in

52

introduce virtue into the soul by

to

as

."

of

,

of

a

it

in

;

and medicine but take the matter broader sense and say that equivocally concerns the one and the other medicine that the soul and that the body The poet here stands the same relationship the physician poetics the legislator does the surgeon and the end

economics and perhaps even politics Such final poetry statements these constitute Ammirato's ultimate defence doing significant that they remain against the Platonic ban within the essential presuppositions Plato's approach although they contrasting find answer is

,

we

.

a

of

,

it

so

.

In

as

of

,

,

ethics

.

alone teaches

as

,

of

of

of to

in

"

,

"

,

it

(C

a

.p

IV ,

of

Bernardino Parthenio's Della imitatione poetica 1560 was have hapter 145 document belonging primarily the Horatian tradition since took imitation the specific sense imitation models and developed the techniques for the approximation another seen

to

of

of

it

of

,

.

If

an

,

,

;

,

of

a

a

is

.

of

by

its

by

all

all

...

the heavens

:

at

look

to

,

,

of of

of

,

art .

modes praise

It

contains incidentally two passages related Platonic thought about poetry The first sequel the extravagant Homer and the other poets and constitutes formal defence preceded poetry the Parthenio speaks the antiquity how prose invention the gods the poets moreover are beloved the gods and inspired them we wish additional proof we need only .

poet's style

of

it

we

or

,

,

,

,

,

to

if

know that God wise above others and prudent above may understand loves poetry either from the harmony those most holy celestial choirs which with that ineffable sweetness make sweet the heavens and the divine mind from the harmony which we know arises from we wish

others

us

,

as

de

."

,

il

. "

&

la ,

&

la

la ), .p 5 : , “

(

è

.: " il

54 53

&

;

la

&

il

la

,

: “

., .p

la

corpi veramente ella 386 Se ciuile riguarda bene degli animi nostri poetica amendue questi cioè medicina ma prendiamo cosa più larga diciamo ch'ella riguarda equiuocamente l'vna l'altra medicina dell'anima del corpo Ibid fine della poetica indur nell'anima virtù discacciandone vizio Della imitatione poetica 1560 se vogliamo conoscere che Dio solo sapientis

Ibid riguarderà

&

,

of

54

.

hearing

52

of

to

to

be

of

the most orderly movement the spheres heaven which the divine wisdom tempered wished with numbers and with poetic arrangement joining to gether might calm within form among themselves such harmony the power

&

,

la

&

di

]

[

280

,

il

."

addormenta

la

in

in

,

la

,

le

;

,

, i

,

&

poesia comprendiamolo quelli solo prudentissimo ama dalla harmonia ouero quali con quella ineffabile dolcezza addolciscono beatissimi chori celesti cielo mouimento delle mente diuina ouero dal concento che sappiamo nascer dal ordinatissimo quali sapienza diuina uolle che con numeri sfere del cielo con ragione poetica temperate fossero tra loro accordandosi noi uirtù del sentire creare tal harmonia che simo

PLATONISM

DEFENCE OF POETRY

:

,

.

as

of

all

,

,

of

own from Plato's ban Plato's imitation perils and hence involved kinds

says

as ,

so that he may exempt was that the passions

he

his

Such a passage as this is doubly significant ; it shows the persistence of a habit of regarding poetry in the vaguest analogical terms, as a kind of superior harmony , and at the same time it limits the essence of poetry to rhythm and to musical qualities . In a second passage , Parthenio distin guishes the imitation of which he is speaking from that considered by Plato , far

us is

).

,

Il

in

,

(

.pp

in

.

it

in

of of

,

to

in

,

to

,

of

,

,

truth religion and moral education were concerned His own merely that other poets and far from being blameworthy satisfies our natural instinct imitate and the delight we take the process 15-16 Two years after the writing his Dedalione Scipione Ammirato poetry returned 1562 the subject Rota overo delle imprese in

a

of

,

of

an

:

);

is

by

(

”

“

a

of

.

.

of

dialogo The particular circumstances part the the dialogue explain orientation toward poetry For poetry enters into the discussion because imprese basic similarity with heraldic devices containing hidden meaning this explained the Bishop Potenza one the inter locutors

,

all

by

,

.

by

be

to

so

,

,

to

all

to

It

keep with every care and ancient usage among all the wise men persons the most important doctrines and sciences from revealing profaned that they would not come the vulgar crowd And this was the reason why the imaginary fables were invented under whose outer surface was

device

of

,

of

of

all

,

In

.

to

of

of

,

were hidden those ancient wise men the secrets the speculative sciences knowledge and the things nature and the useful and necessary forms which pertain man this way the ignorant man had the pleasure the fable as

,

so

to

,

to

it .

at

,

,

and the wise man penetrating farther within gathered the fruit contained within And since poetry and painting are sisters both born one delivery just poetry began explain these fictions with words also afterwards painting began depict many things which seemed monstrous but which under these

on to

the development

of

In

fictions contained many fine secrets.55 ,

30 )

( .p

“

as

,

),

"

(“

,

the abbreviated

the extended

,

(“

while

uses the figurative the

,

,

the improper

for

it

vice than ordinary men have

the rhetoricians

-in

it

.

in

by

In

”

,

to

,

the foreign

,

the old

form

justified .pp

new

,

that

is

bad with greater virtue

of

or

good

or

of

its

to

is

of

.

to

,

these ideas however Ammirato passes other He finds that both arts need seek the marvelous— what rarely happens and outside the nature other ordinary things proper appeal poetry the marvelous order make the their audience subject matter has justification Aristotle for presents men sources

and

281

]

[

. "

di

, à

la

Et

le .

di

à

,

la la il

vn

in

; à si

la

,

& , la & il

,

&

i

i

si

in

le i

à di

,

la

le

, &

Di

,

: le

;

da fù

.

si

le

&

.

,

:

ne

&

le : Et “

di ed .) ,

à

si

&

(

Il

55

Rota 1562 14–15 Fu antica osseruanza tutti saui guardarsi con ogni ingegno persone guisa ch'elle studio non palesar belle dottrine scienze tutte questa cagione che fingimenti delle venissero profanare dal volgo ritrouassero ricopriuano quelli antichi saui tutti segreti delle scienze fauole sotto cui scorze speculatiue delle cose della natura tutte vtili necessarie cognitioni che apparten gono all'huomo piaceuolezza della fauola modo che all'ignorante restaua sauio raccoglieua penetrando più perche poesia pittura dentro frutto essa parto poesia con parole cominciò spiegare queste sono sorelle tutte nate come pittura pigner fintioni così cominciò susseguentemente molte cose che pareuano quali però sotto esse rinchiudeuano molti belli segreti mostruose

POETIC

THEORY

other figures in greater number than does ordinary speech " ) .56 Horace supplies the basis for the warning against excess in any particular style ( p . 31 ) . A final comparison between the " impresa " and poetry concerns their audiences

both must be accessible to the ignorant and pleasurable

;

33 ).

.p

impresa

(

the

"

closest

"

to

all

to the wise , and they must thus be based on common materials which will poetic genres the one be readily intelligible . In this sense , comedy is of

to

)

of

as .

or

of

as

of

in

to

,

,

in

,

],

985 M.8 [

(

MS

de

tragoedia connection with the Tractatus Biblioteca Comunale Perugia about 1562 how the author's poetry led him reject convictions with respect the utility present the condemnations such philosophers Plato He insists upon the impropriety regarding either pleasure utility poetry the sole end

I

have already mentioned

, ,

pleasure as

as is a

it

is or

at

next this function least

of of

57

It ,

as

it

to

were mingled with the perfect

."

it

employed

of

,

as

perfect and

as

,

is a

it

,

,

those for whom

the poets has been brought into use delight the mind either contemplate perfect

and that the technique

to to

agreeable

is

Aristotle and Plato hold

to

:

“

it

as

serving the and considers that both Plato and Aristotle saw the pleasure utility From which follows that poetry since diversion both

,

In

,

,

of

sheer ignorance

by

,

by

,

of

,

a

. 58

of

maggior numero

, , fa lo o

,

in

l'altre figure

, , il

in

il

, o

il

o

&

l'allungato

,

,

;

; e

fa

30 : “

. gli , .p

l'accorciato

che non

che

Ex

57

."

pedestre Perugia

vitio

straniero l'oratione

,

.

is

medicine

,

gli

wicked doctor gives poison instead

percioche maggior uirtù huomini buoni cattiui ordinarij nelle parole percioche vsa traslato nuouo vecchio

Ibid

non son l'improprio

a

,

the poet who like

,

56

but

of

of

,

of

of

to

of

,

of ,

of

means

in

general but particular those poets who the harmony and sweetness their verses aroused and inflamed the young people tender souls lascivious and voluptuous actions and means example the and imitation rendered them soft effeminate and entirely use poetry less for the good and the improvement the republic Nor this fault in

He does not exclude poetry

this

:

;

as

having banished the poets

is

.

It

to

,

all

is a

in

a

in of

is

.

.

II

it in

in

of

,

is

,

of

as

to

utility that constitutes the main defence intermediary poetry and even Plato himself admits Book the Laws essence poets are educators and that their main justification One the interlocutors the preceding dialogue Bernardo Tasso Ragionamento della poesia delivered before the Accademia the author fairly Veneziana 1560 and published 1562. The Ragionamento complete Platonic document touching upon the main points current interest does not fail answer those Platonists who interpret the master pleasure

)

(

282

il

da

la

de

repu essaltatione maluagio medico

di

, et a la a

guisa

infiammauano con l'imitatione

i

, , e et

: e

al

:

,

, e

."

de la

,

è

la

in

.” ,

in

loro uersi commoueuano uoluttuose con l'essempio

rendeuano molli effeminati del tutto inutili benifitio blica Ne questo difetto Poesia ma del poeta ilquale uece de medicina ueleno in

,

ut

,

,

: “

,

, e

a

de

, i

gli

de

), .p ,

(

58

quali con l'armonia esclude dolcezza giouenetti teneri animi cose lasciue .

et

,

la

.

),

et

(

.,

.

Bibl Com

, 10 e : “

,

ut ,

quo conscquitur poesim siquidem MS 985 M.8 fol 103v Aristoteli placet Platoni iucundam esse quibus adhibeatur oblectandis animis artificium poetarum accersitum uoluptatem uel intueri semper ultimum uel certe tamquam ultimo proximum quasique cum ultimo temperatum Ragionamento particolare que Poeti 1562 non Poesia uniuersale ma

ludus est

PLATONISM

DEFENCE OF POETRY

:

The proper function of the poet is indeed the opposite : " by imitating human actions through the delightfulness of plots , through the sweetness

of the words arranged in a most beautiful order , through the harmony of the verse , to adorn human souls with good and gentle characters , and with various virtues . ”59 This moral and social usefulness is the main element in the defence of poetry , and Tasso finds it both in times past and in times present . He makes the usual statements about the contributions of the

of civilization and their

poets to the advance

In

present favors .

summary ,

he asks : “ Oh venerable science , which brings pleasure and profit to every kind of person , to every age , to every sex , to every nation , and in every

,

other men through two qualities his

of all

season and in every time, who could ever praise you properly and to the extent to which you merit praise ? ”60 According to Tasso , the poet excels

.

indis

:

of

is

is

knowledge The first the divine furor and the universality pensable and the sign the poet's dependence upon God

to

he

be

he

;

be

it

no ;

of

a of

he a

,

;

of

of

all

of

without this extraordinary gift nature even though man may have know ledge may have learned the doctrines even though through long study perfect writing even though may have long experience law and the art impossible that the things the world still will should turn out be

of

it

on

. 61

it,

.

is

good poet There doubt whatsoever but that the perfection this science placed has something divine about and that for this same reason should before all others

.

.

of

--

.

, in

in as

—

all

at

of

,

,

does not mean

of

the necessity divine inspiration This however that the poet may rely upon his natural gifts knowledge which the poet must length the kinds Tasso develops possess and cites the cases arts and sciences are his prerogative Homer and Vergil the most extraordinary this respect This erudition

Both Plato and Cicero are cited

is

)

a

of to

in

an

(e

,

an

(

of

is

it

a

,

of

).

to

be

be

may also especially example Petrarch found the Italian poets and appreciated when allegorical exterior xample hidden under part Dante Probably because this wisdom consists understand ing produce great emotional effect the passions the poets are able

de le

in 12 : “

,

of

).

.

as

is

( pp

is as

59

It

,

in

their readers and this the source their power both entertainers and teachers 7–8 perhaps interesting that the separate elements Tasso's theory la

di

,

età , ;

ad

e

."

, e

a di ;

la

le

di

? "

ti

, la

de le

]

[

da

sia ,

è

.

di

: e

283

,

di

in ad

."

,

di

: “ ;

;

,

gli

la

,

:

tu

, , e et in

ad

: “

.pp

,

.,

., .p

fie

61

, O e di

., .p

le

60

, e

de

piaceuolezza Ibid imitando l'humanc attioni con fauole con soauità parole bellissimo ordine congiunte con l'armonia del uerso humani animi gentili costumi buoni uarie uirtù adornare ogni qualità persone ogni Ibid 15-15v uenerabile scienza che ad ogni sesso ogni natione ogni stagione ogni tempo porti piacere benefitio giamai che degnamente quanto possa chi ben meriti lodar Ibid 12v senza questo singolar dono natura ancor che altri tutte dottrine legge habbia cognitione ancor che con lungo studio habbia imparata l'arte del perfetta mente scriuere ancor che lunga esperienza habbia cose del mondo impossibil tuttauia perfettione questa scienza non sarà che riesca buon poeta non dubbio alcuno che partecipi diuinità che per questo anco non essere antiposta tutte l'altre

THEORY

POETIC

taken one by one , are almost identical with the essential doctrines of the Horatian - rhetorical creed : the ends of poetry as pleasure and utility ; the complicity of art and nature ; the importance of erudition ; the moving of the passions . This does not mean eclecticism , but merely current modes

of

thinking about poetry that are so deeply imbedded that they tend to deter mine the interpretation put upon any doctrinal source . There is , to be sure ,

in

of

to

to

, .

as a

of

,

5 .)

.p

(

tragedy are cited

pre

complete the

.

of

arguments for the superiority

;

its

in

,

imitation

the Poetics

"

of

of

the word

.

its

its

,

special use about this fragment first attack upon Aristotle and the intention

"

.

Dialogo sopra

wrote Virgilio

on

,

the century

,

called

it

frequent participator the literary short fragment imitation editor Fragmento Two things are noteworthy a

Sperone Speroni

of

,

1564

a

Around quarrels

:

sentation

to

to

of

,

,

to

sources

to

,

,

he

he

all

Tasso : his definitions

the classical and medieval

in

the various genres , derived may serve point case argue the superiority tragedy When however wishes the epic returns Plato declaring that tragedy appeals only the people and merely gives delight whereas the epic gives both pleasure and virtuous instruction men mature judgment and dignity Aristotle's some eclecticism

from

second

After reviewing let be

it

,

an of

in

a

,

:

,

in

it .

,

as

.

as

,

a

to

of of

,

is

us

in

an

to

may the various meanings assigned the word Speroni indicates that applied extraordinary way such work the Poetics Nature say the first object imitation and such poems the Iliad and the Odyssey are imitations These poems themselves become objects philosopher may imitate them imitation but two ways for one

in

,

;

is

be

,

).

,

",

.p

(

a

“

he

of

to

,

,

.

,

is

,

is

is

, "

“

in

art and this what Aristotle has done the Poetics for the other another poet may imitate them and this what Vergil has done the praised than the Aeneid The first process says Speroni much less incapable second which produces true poetic effects whereas Aristotle practising what practical matter then the poet teaches 358 As

is

,

he

,

.

be

these two the 62

. "

is

it

;

for evil must made good which not On Platonic position here Speroni ,

and must not

of

,

was the one who made his inferno worse be

,

made evil just

if he

a

—

to

now and always has been my judgment that

...

to

: “

This better poet

as he it is ,

say

is

a

to

of

:

is

is

“

to

.” of

should devote himself the study other poets his models and should Speroni also furnishes criterion for not concern himself with the rules imitation that imitation best which most like Nature Thus voyage choose between two depictions the Underworld will

-

a

us ,

to

is a

.

far

si

'l

:

il

)

(

284

,

il

fu

e

è

è ."

...

fe

: “

II,

),

(

sempre 1740 360 Questo ora mio giudicio quello esser stato questi due piggiore che suo inferno perciocchè male dee non far bene come non

di

è, e

It is a is

: “

to

it

;

,

is

so

is .

as as

,

to

it

—

is

to

In

62

Opere

miglior poeta male come

a

whole and comes close disdains imitation and ranks inferior art clear fact that always conjoined imitation not proper man art Therefore art thing not proper with reason and imitation not always monkeys but rooks and ... One can see with single eye how much the

PLATONISM

DEFENCE OF POETRY

:

worthy art is than either usage or imitation . ”63 This last passage indicates that the Platonic opposition to imitation is accompanied by a specific attack on Aristotle's notion that imitation is proper to man . Lionardo Salviati , who in his abundant critical activity included a trans

more

of

,

in

as

to

fill

to

it

,

,

of

by

by to

.

is

It

.

of

to

of

In

64

.”

a

in is

to

its

).

(

“

his

,

,

,

to

is

by

,

his

lation and commentary of the Poetics , shows a strong anti - Platonic bias in Trattato della poetica Lezzion Prima 1564 Plato's whole philosophy attacked Salviati since doctrine does not have end his works teach about Nature ... but referring God the major part our minds with tries our important actions and the most noble tendency poetry specific pure religion leads Plato this realm the deny that the poetic propose the doctrine the divine furor and faculty this denial which Salviati wishes habit the mind refute his lecture before the Florentine Academy He discusses one

of do

all

;

do

.

,

the Platonists First they claim that the one the arguments offered poets write about things which they not really understand but men

,

of

a

;

,

;

—

of

affect the individual's food and drink any given time these conclusion

to

In

.

at

-

,

weather general

or

,

as a

,

in ,

humors the planets poet capacities

all

in

,

as

-

of

.

or

of

,

of

a

a

or

.

of

is

,

it

particularly excusable for the poets because this and the brevity expression their and because the licenses accorded them Second they poet argue that occasionally single bad bad painter may produce good work thus demonstrating the power inspiration but this may merely show the operation chance accident Third they contend that frequently incapable writing verse but just the best trained minds are any case frequently they are and other influences the kinds

so

it

I

,

by

,

a

." 65

,

in

,

is a

: “ I

rebuttals Salviati says think that have sufficiently shown far that having poetry derive certain operations demonstrated that from habit which usually are regulated and ordered and which could not this way being what they are derive from anything but habit

of is an

in

of

.

66

” ,

“ a

no as

of

a

to

,

a ,

as it

,

is

or

,

.

of

of

developed further The affirmative aspect Salviati's argument general classification the habits Of the two kinds moral and intellectual operates the latter subdivides into active and productive according acting person series matter This within some external within the poetry operating distinctions leads definition habit external subject through the reason other definition than this

la

:

da

,

lo

."

a ."

)

285

,

...

"

.

subietto esteriore con ragione

(

,

la

,

, e

in

da

le

io

da

habito d'operare

in

29 : “

fol

.

.,

66

Ibid

,

la

,

. si

.

da

è

, e ha le o

e

23 : “

.

,

,

,

la

.

mi

piu nobili delle azzioni principali

credo infino hora hauer mostro Poesia essere habito piu uolte sono regolate essa derivano alcune operazioni che altro che habito cotal guisa cosi fatte deriuare non potreb ,

, e

che

maggior parte Dio pura relligione

."

e

con ordine bono

Assai che

da

28 : , “

gli

;

.

.,

Ibid fol hauendo dimostrato

di a

...

ma riducendo riempiere animi

.

65

'

è la , la

,

da

,

Natura

studia

di

la

64

,

è

da

è

,

è

.,

: “

II,

63

Ibid 365-66 chiara cosa imitazione non esser propria dell uomo siccome sempremai con ragione congiunta l'arte però l'arte non già sempre imitazione può discernere quale cosa non pur scimie cornacchie noi ma ciascuno occhio tanto esser l'arte più gentil cosa che non l'uso l'imitazione per fine nelle sue opere insegnare Trattato MS BNF Magl VII 307 fol non

POETIC

THEORY

needed to classify poetry as an art . If further proof be required, Salviati finds it in the exhaustive enumeration of all human actions as resulting

his

of

be

he

,

an

-

of

essentially ,

be

to

it

of

I

,

is

of

(

of

;

is in

by

i

its

,

,

to

,

in

or

its

by

,

of

so

67

to

,

in

of

;

of

or

,

or

to

its

by

,

In

: “

in a

in

the Muses and

have merely used

as a

poets themselves

it

in

the divine furor and that the impose themselves upon fraud beginning the public truth Poetry never had middle Apollo end divine furor infused the Muses the poets except the opinion the vulgar crowd ... but the poets render themselves marvelous and worthy attention the eyes men helped and augmented this opinion calling upon that divine aid and pretending believed

the fiction

ex ).

below

see

.pp

considers

view toward poetry and the poet

XI ,

be

to

,

he

to

Aristotelian point Chapter 494–97 An amusing attitude toward the whole idea the poetic furor pressed Lodovico Castelvetro his Parere sopra l'ajuto che domandano poeti alle Muse the fragment presume undated but from around 1565. Castelvetro states frankly that the philosophers have never ment

adopt what

as

,

of

.

all

from nature , art , violence , intellect , fortune , or chance (the source of the enumeration is said to be Aristotle's Metaphysics, Book VIII ) . He eli minates these sources except art which must thus the origin poetry The anti Platonic position thus leads him pursues argu

(

a

to

.

be

by

in

),

to

its

in

”

it .

have obtained Given this basic fact about the divine furor contrary assumptions Plato's central theory Castelvetro adopts realistic attitude toward the conditions and circumstances which the Muses may properly invoked the poet This leads him several

,

:

as

of as

as

,

is

,

the Muses far the form helping the writer make such verses would productions simply human the masses

byin

,

be

,

concerned consists only thought impossible

to

the miraculous favor

as

of

in

be

.

: “

in

...

verse

,

.

to

interesting distinctions with respect the poetic art He first divides pairs written works into three verse and prose long and short narrative long narrative poems and dramatic The Muses will called upon only

of

of

or

of

,

,

-

A

68

By

.

,

:

."

,

of

effort either because the power their meaning because their way beauty subject matters provides these similar three division couples historical and argumentative invented and observed difficult and easy The poet will invoke the Muses only for historical invented and “

of

us

to

Poesia non ebbe mai principio

, o

”

,

”

", da la

veramente

"

"

."

of

or

on ,

of

), .p

(

1727

90 : “

“

Opere varie critiche

, In o

67

we

”

“

,

,

by

it

to

.

difficult materials historical Castelvetro means that material give the appearance which we believe have occurred which believing that occurred merely the basis the words presented proof any materials are those Invented other without the author and difficult materials the writer from the mind which come se

,

,

, e

i

&

in

,

.”

, o

,

)

286

(

farli

,

miracoloso favore delle Muse quanto alla forma consiste solamente far versi tali che l'umana industria non sia creduta dal Volgo atta per Scrittore per efficacia della significazione per riguardo della vaghezza

, lo ., o .p

se a

Ibid ajutare

88 : " a il

68

."

,

,

, o ne '

, o

...

; la

da

Apollo mezo fine Furore divino infuso dalle Muse Poeti non secondo l'opinione del Volgo quale Pocti per rendersi maravigliosi riguardevoli nel cospetto quel divino soccorso degli uomini ajutavano facendo accrescevano domandando sembiante d'averlo impetrato

PLATONISM

DEFENCE

:

OF POETRY

contain things which , either because of their past time or for some other reason , it is not verisimilar that the writer could know or understand . " 69 In summary , then , the poet may be expected to use the those which

device of the Muses whenever either his form or his subject matter is so extraordinary as to tax the credulity of his audience ; invocation of divine assistance will then presumably create a kind of verisimilitude . Such in vocation must be used only in a limited way , by poets and for poems that merit it .

GRASSO AND GIRALDI ( 1566) the case of so many other theorists of this period, it is difficult to Benedetto Grasso between the Horatian and the Platonic

his

V , gli

in

ish

As in

at

I

(

on

,

,

,

of

is

, is

,

,

he

in

by

a

...

,

to

be

.

“

of , He

is

to

poetry and Grasso's objections are exclusively moral declares that Terence carries with him the schools since read publicly not worthy poisonous plague tender youths bewitched which the minds to

the objection

.

of

the

the utilitarian end

or

of

specific poets for unsatisfactory specifically Platonic This means really that moral grounds taken have Platonic origins

whereas the condemnation

serving

art

is

of

,

of

be

)

far

as

:

as

(

in in

.

).

of in .p

of

strains have already spoken some length Oratione contra Terentiani 1566 connection with the Horatian tradition Chapter properly made Perhaps the present case the distinction could 177 poetry are concerned the simple assigning this way the ends pleasing and instructing essentially Horatian the dual function

of

as

70

.”

dominate the souls

men

of

its

to

of

,

),

an

is

madness

poetry

inspiration and the communication the Platonic chain present here and second the wilful appeal poets the

of

(

something

to

.

of of

first the inherent capacity ,

them

,

of

in

of

become infected and poisoned the sewer the vices Such results are poetry Grasso sees two factors producing not necessary concomitants

. "

to

71 ,

a

in

as

,

to

.

to

“

to

,

of

,

In

.

vulgar crowd earlier more noble age the poets used their art for highest purposes addressing themselves priests and philosophers the wise men the community But later reflecting decadence the art they tried only give amusement the crowd and licentious ears ,

lewd picture

:

,

certainly fall under the ban are like those accompanying

a

.

by ,

This tendency accounts for Plato's ban which Grasso endorses whole heartedly For the effects produced Terence's poetry which should

89 sia : “

69

it

it

so

,

it is ,

to

,

as

..just painting the more close delights the specta nature the more represents for them lasci tors and holds them bound with marvel each time

, " o ;

."

, o

o

, le

“

lo

" ;

,

), .p è 5 : "

70

."

&

)

al

,

(

287

,

si

,

."

'

33 : "

ed

. . .

., .p

71

de

(

legge portante Oratione 1566 non essere degno publicamente nelle Scuole vnà venenosa peste dalla quale l'animi teneri fanciulli affascinati nella sentina vitij s'infettano auelleneno per dar spasso volgo Ibid alle licentiose orecchie

seco de

, o

, la

le

., .p

“

,

di

quella Materia quale noi crediamo essere avvenuta Ibid facciamo vista parole sole rappresentateci dallo Scrittore senz'altra prova credere che avvenuta per dall'ingegno dello Scrittore and quali per tempo passato and checontiene cose per altro rispetto non comprendere verisimile che Scrittore possa sapere

POETIC

THEORY

vious acts , obscene objects , dirty and ugly actions , it moves in us an honest blushing and arouses an unwillingness to look at them . And even if we do look at them , it is rather because we are moved by the artifice of the painter than by the beauty or the novelty of the painting . 72

Poets and painters, then , will fall into two categories : those who use their art for the proper ends of honest instruction and those who corrupt it to the improper ends of dishonest pleasure . The former are to be accepted and praised , the latter are to be rejected and banished . Grasso's attack was answered immediately by Lucio Olimpio Giraldi in a Ragionamento in difesa di Terentio ( 1566) . I shall not here go into the whole of Grasso's argument , already treated in Chapter V , but shall discuss only the materials pertinent to the present discussion . Giraldi regards Terence as the greatest of comic poets , especially because he is “ so excellent a demonstrator of customs and of daily life that nowhere else may one have a more useful and a clearer image of the ordinary way of life, both civil and popular . " 73 This general statement provides Giraldi , later , with the basis for his refutation of Grasso's moral strictures . He admits that a poet offering obscene and lewd images would be a dangerous influence upon the young ; but he denies that Terence ever does so :

I deny that Terence should be excluded from the schools for having proposed anything less than what was useful for private life ; for he was never anything but the most modest writer and representative of every kind of person , and he was so careful that no clever sailor ever avoided the rocks as carefully , while sailing , as he fled from lascivious and obscene words - even though he had before him Plautus, who was very licentious

. 74

Giraldi cites the authority of Sadoleto , who also praised Terence for his avoidance of improper language. Apparently , the critic here is considering only the dangers of language . As for the actions themselves , he believes that even when they seem to be vicious , they contain hidden lessons and precepts and are hence acceptable : " in the comedies of Terence we find

of honest behavior and of honorable citizens , which teach the reader what is proper to the praiseworthy life and through whose example examples

gli

may be known how much blame is deserved by those who have given them

,

,

,

&

,

gli

un '

de

.pp

73

."

'

,

le

,

in

:

gli

Et , se &

è

:

di

un '

,

,

e

72 Ibid ., p . 31 : " si come la pittura quanto piu s'acosta al naturale , tanto piu diletta riguardanti r'apresenta atti lasciui tiene legati con marauiglia Cosi ogni volta figure inhoneste sporche genera laide attioni muoue noi honesta erubescentia sdegno pur mirarle mirano piu presto mossi dal artificio del pittore che dalla vaghezza nouità della pittura

,

, et

,

,

ne

: lei “

,

,

&

,

." )

288

il

fù

,

(

ha

dishoneste

(

&

parole lasciue

,

) le

molto licentioso

da

,

fù ,

&

,

di

,

,

."

55 : "

., .p ,

lo

di ,

74

&

.

si

di

(

),

Ragionamento 1566 2–3 così vago dimostratore costumi della vita ciuile puo hauere piu vtile piu espressa imagine del viuere commune che altronde non popolaresco ciuile niego che Terentio sia Ibid scacciar delle schuole perche egli proponga rappre più modesto scrittore cosa meno che utile alla uita ciuile perche non mai ogni qualita gente sentatore cosi schifo che non schiuò mai tanto accorto nocchiero fuggito quantunque hauesse hauuto Plauto inanzi scoglio nel nauicare quanto questi

PLATONISM

DEFENCE OF POETRY

:

selves over to a vicious way

of life . "75 Indeed , it is of the essence of comedy provide to lessons of this kind ; and , rather than being dangerous to youth , indispensable part of early education . Plato's ban on the poets is it is an only thus to be considered as applying to those who displayed wicked acts and words and who created an improper image of the gods ; other poets were exempted from it . Examining Terence's plays , Giraldi finds in them numerous examples of both kinds of actions , wicked ones to be avoided , good ones to be imitated : Terence's intention was to show the ugliness of foul things so that men would abstain from them , not so that they would follow them ; and to propose to them that they might embrace them the praiseworthy and virtuous and honest and adorn themselves with them . Just as tragedy purges men's minds , through terror and pity , and induces men to abstain from acting wickedly , so comedy , by means of laughter and jokes , calls men to an honest private life.76

In sum , then , Terence may serve as a teacher of the living. It should be pointed out that , for Giraldi,

of good

very essence

the position remains definitely Platonic , insofar as the same moral criteria continue to be applied to comedy. He differs from his opponent only in the conclusions which he derives from application of these criteria to Terence . But the difference itself is significant ; it shows a much broader moral outlook and an initial tendency to justify rather than to condemn poetic works .

The Osservazioni sopra Virgilio of Orazio Toscanella ( 1566) has little to offer except a conventional defence of poetry in the usual terms ; such defences continued to be produced throughout the century and were especially frequent in the works of vulgarizers and popularizers such as

in

in

,

as

is

. "

77

,

;

is

of

all

58 : "

75

alone

of

all

:

and offers two reasons one which that from her from the other sciences issued forth ... and the other that she the rest the arts learned through the divine furor

,

mother

of

a

dignity

"

all

Toscanella . The present little treatise is nothing more than a list of the subject matters treated by Vergil , in alphabetical order , with examples of each subject and appropriate citations . In the dedication , he proposes first goodness and to indicate why poetry " surpasses other disciplines

,

di

à

,

,

&

di

,

,

,

di

,

à

, si

di

,

come

huomini huomini

ad la

,

...

,

...

induce chiama

gli gli &

adornino

, le

hà

,

brutezza delle cose sozze proposto loro lode

&

si ,

:

di

&

il

&

,

&

le

&

,

,

il

colla commiseratione beffe nelle Comedie

...

alla

)

(

289

da

lei ,

come madre quasi rimanente dell'arti per ,

,

è,

l'una delle quali che l'altra che essa sola fra tutto

il

da

:ijv “

),

...

."

(

Osservazioni 1566 tutte l'altre scienze uscirono diuin furore s'apprende

ij; *

.pp *

77

. "

,

le ,

le

,

è

di

animi col terrore astenersi dal mal operare cosi riso honesta vita ciuile

la

."

ne

,

,

intentione Terentio stata far uedere astengano non perche seguitino honeste perche abbraccino esse

gli &

&

,

huomini uoli virtuose Tragedia purga

se

, 65 : si "

gli.,

Ibid perche

.p

76

di

'

si

,

., .p

Ibid nelle Comedie Terentio hanno essempi honesti costumi honorate persone ciuili lequali dittano lettori quello che conuiene alla lodeuole vita quanto biasimo siano degni quelle che coll essempio delle quali conoscano vitioso modo vita son date

THEORY all

POETIC

in

be

to

is

a

in is

,

“ it

. "

of

its ,

all

of

poetry

all

,

,

is

“

,

it

it

,

,

.

, As

“

incredible

of

the

”

affords and because power moving the human passions for poetics itself that art which teaches the decorum the characters the style the way the passions because

which

part

necessary

of

pleasure

be of a

to

,

considered

is

Verse

.

,

a

year the same Toscanella published treatise on the concerned with problems metrics and extolling the art

Arte metrica writing verse

of in

to

to

,

In

the following

of

to

78 be ,

to

.

in

;

of

,

—

knowledge Follow the well - known arguments : found Homer and Vergil not only fine doctrines but the most practical suggestions for the conduct life and for mechanical operations poetry had early reli gious uses and was highly honored antiquity Consequently very thing poetry every fine that elevated mind should devote itself order acquire the most noble and precious doctrine that may obtained everlasting fame among mortals and the level ascend

,

in

.

is

,

in

to ,

is

It

of

.” 79

to

and the order which the poet must observe and sum the artifice that belongs the best poet hard see this anything but the traditional definition the poetic art and the emphasis upon decorum passions and the technical rather than moralistic ragiona nella quale universale del fine poetica type della we encounter text which will become increasingly prominent during the last third the sixteenth century text combining traditional Platonism with official Christian ethics The Letione commen tary Petrarch's sonnet Lasciato hai morte senza sole mondo was ",

il

,

,

“

on

.

, a

,

of

a

of

a

,

in

si

With Frosino Lapini's Letione

,

be

as

of

,

as be

“

is

its

or to

to

So

.

its

.

of

all

.

,

1 ,

on

May delivered before the Accademia Fiorentina 1567 and the precede theoretical considerations the commentary proper Lapini starts from the principle that the arts and faculties have their end the per they depend fection man But since from man's free will they may contrary the destruction used either achieve this end achieve delightful and verisimilar poetry proper end with the man with us

it

by

,

us

it

if

us

,

.”

“

be

-

,

&

;

,

,

costumi stile tutto quello che ,

, , i

lo

fra i

,

il

in

;

&

decoro somma

."

il

,

è

essa studio ponga per mortali

, o

à

e

in : “

con sue diletteuoli uerisimili fintioni noi rappresentate raccontando come Historico amonendo come moral Filosofo le

), .p

), , .p

(

quella che insegna Poetica poeta che deue osseruare poeta

290

)

(

."

si

&

(

,

gli

,

80

Bivy

che

,

,

1v , : “

di

à

79

la

Arte metrica 1567 strada affetti l'ordine d'artificioso pertiene all'ottimo Letione 1567 molto meglio giouare ſarebbe non

." &

: "

., .p *

iiijv Ibid ottimamente che ciascuno ingegno eleuato per fare acquisto della più nobile pregiata dottrina che s'acquisti poggiare grado nome sempiterno

in

.

of

so

that the divine furor was given the poets that they things many useful for their lives men the attention stà ,

78

might bring

VI ,

Book to

,

mated

in its

;

.

of

all

.” 80

if

as

or

to

to

us ,

profit done much more than would fictions presented narrated does the historian warned and advised the moral philosopher does Tragedy for example benefits purging our souls passions Thus Sophocles and Euripides always ended their tragedies with useful warnings about human life thus Aristotle insisted that good among And Vergil inti other requisites character must

PLATONISM

DEFENCE OF POETRY

:

Such artists and philosophers as these shared a proper conception of the poetic art . On the other hand , there have always been those artists whose only aim has been " to give pleasure to people , not without damage and harm not only for public and private life , but also for the reverence that is due religion , since they frequently make fun of the things they should revere and

exalt .” 81 These artists are sometimes read for the elegance of the treatment and the pleasure which men take in imitation ( Aristotle is cited as autho rity here ), sometimes for their sensuous appeal. A work of the latter kind

...

will please and delight , indeed , not because of the power or the art of the poetry , but because of the delight it gives to the appetite eager for such sensuality ; by which such appetite is not only not removed and regulated and dominated , be done by the good poet who writes to benefit men , but by means of examples such it is called to life and inflamed and invited to do evil and to plunge into vice through imitation and through the evil example observed in others . 82 as would

Nor is

to

be

,

of

.

the latter

:

for

the conditions

be

to

,

,

permitted and establishes

of as as

a

is

It

It

, is

.

,

,

,

to

.

,

or

,

his

the private life of the poet , which presumably may be purer than his power spoken works , any justification ; words written have influence and expansion that renders them dangerous such poets these whom Plato wished banish and justifiably such poetry this also that notable Christian writers have condemned Saint Paul and Saint Augustine and Savonarola among others The last these for example distinguishes between the poetry prohibited and that

,

its

he

to ) ,

,

its

it

its ,

(

he ,

..

of

having damned and driven out the Christian republic such ruin and pesti lential vanity i.e. poetry intended for pleasure alone nevertheless leaves place nor does take away from due praises that poetry which follow .

is

If

its

he

.

see )

we

as

( as ,

he

its

it

if

it

,

,

to

of

ing true end attends only the profit readers this profit concerned with human and moral matters shows that the poetry cannot properly use graceful and pleasing ornament and other poetic colors which would render But treats high and sublime and divine matters such the Christian religion in

,

83

81

., .p

82

., .p

.

a

in

,

of

,

mysteries appear puerile affirms that such ornaments truth and ridiculous since high subjects this kind cannot stand such ornamentation itself weak and vain thing and

,

, e

."

,

,

è

,

&

.rep

,

il

."

in

à

ne

&

il

,

,

si

et

...

ha

, et

, la

,

di

pp , .

e

il &

,

ne , e

la

la

e

,

'

le

e

: “ in

e , in , e

: “

è

Ibid Dv altro fine non che dar piacere alla gente non senza nocumento danno non solo del uiuer politico ciuile ma della reuerentia che alla Religione debbe pigliandosi eglino bene spesso gioco scherzo cose che reuerire esaltar douerebbero Dijv piacerà pure per l'arte della Poesia ma Ibid diletterà non per virtù per delettatione dell'appetito vago tali sensualità dalle quali non solo non rimosso regolato ribattuto come uero Poeta farebbe che per giouare scritto ma con tali esempli inanimisce ne.infiamma inuita comettere male attuffarsi nel vitio per per imitatione malo esempio scorto altrui

)

(

291

, , la e

a

,

, e )

si

,

se in

,

si

(

, e

, e

se è

; , il le et

à

di

se si

de

, e

ne

all '

,

, 'de lo ,

,

e

.

e

scacciata dalla Christiana toglie quella Poesia suo luogo utile solo attende suoi lettori mostra egli non disconuenirglisi l'ornato

: , il “

-

et

il

., e

dannata

;

83

pesti tale rouina quale sue douute lodi qual utile intorno cose morali humane altri colori Poetici che gratiato piaceuole rendino ma tratta cose alte sublimi diuine come della Christiana legge suoi misterij afferma tali ornamenti apparire come verità vede per cose puerili ridicole non patendo tali soggetti alti fatt'ornamento cosa debile uana Ibid Div Divv lentiale uanità lascia pur seguendo suo uero fine

POETIC

THEORY

the fact that part, at least, of the blame for the success pleasurable poetry of “ " lies with the audience , which is more prone to pleasure than the hard way follow the easy way of the utility that might possibly derive The end thus comes outside the poet himself depend upon those and whom his poem addressed the

all

: “

to

be

is

in

all

to

do

,

of

considera

undertakes

it

it

in it as

.

to

of

of

and when

the audience .

,

the poet's life and character Moreover these elements are compli essentially Christian severity towards poetic ornament and

by

all

an

by

of

mixed one Platonic insofar poetry moral principles places the effectiveness poetry

a

rhetorical when

the natural dispositions cated

to

thus curious and subordination the art

strangely

becomes

per those who not allow themselves good teaching their wicked disposition which of a

."

a

it

starts with

...

84

,

because

completely lost Lapini's position

tion

is lie

to

.

of

suaded

assigned

is

be

to

blame must

it

of

its

Lapini recognizes

a

a

in of

Castel

.

be

of

be

,

be

pleasurable and preference for artistic elements which might poetry subject might kind whose matter divine and whose uses would essentially religious Lodovico

,

is

)

Horatian

ascribe

:

to

(

be

tendency which might also moral values and social usefulness the arts a

dentally displays

to

its

,

,

o

la

of

.

a

of

,

of

at

in

vetro left death and published the Opere varie critiche 1727 contain certain materials Platonic character These treatises were probably written between 1565 and 1571. One them generally entitled Che cosa abbia scienza comune differente con l'arte interesting for distinction between the sciences and the arts and inci ,

manuscript

his

The miscellaneous short treatises on critical matters

in

of

,

it

to as

.

be

in

,

in

.

of

by in

of

.

It

in

Science has two things common with art and two which are different has common first the solidity the proofs because the one and the other proceed means demonstrative proofs Next has common the order the teach ings which complete and perfect On the the one and the other must ,

,

do

,

or

,

is

or

or

,

;

,

is

,

,

,

it

whether decent useful dishonest the world but art does not tolerate any subject which not decent the world.85

to

to

84

harmful and useful

be

science tolerates every material

It

.

to

;

its

its

be

,

is

other hand science has this which different from art first that science takes subject things which although they may known not necessarily lead subject things which when they are known action but Art does not take for cannot much more easily lead action has also this that different that

di

la

." si

,

, e

ha

de

,

, e

di

la : “ la

(

.

), .p

si

è

la

, E : “

., .p

In

85

colpa quelli che persuader non Ibid tutta lasciano per mala spositione loro nella quale perde ogni buono ammaestramento Opere varie critiche 1727 124 Scienza due cose comuni con l'Arte due differenti Ha comune premieramente fermezza delle prove perciocchè l'una l'altra

si

si

; la

." ,

Mondo

sia al

:

le

,

)

292

al

, o

.

utile

(

,

&

, o

, o

o

cosa che non sia onesta ,

tollera

di

si

non

, il

la

le

.

, e

;

si

si

la

:

,

, e

.

procede con prove dimostrative gl'insegnamenti quale dee Ha poi comune l'ordine perfetto Ha dall'altra parte nell'una nell'altra essere compiuto Scienza questo differente prende per soggetto cose quali per sapersi non possono dall'Arte prima Che Scienza prende cose per soggetto quali non possano molto far venire all'atto ma l'Arte non più agevolmente risapendosi venire all'atto Ha ancora differente questo Che Scienza tollera d'ogni cosa onesta utile disonesta dannosa ch'ella Mondo ma l'Arte

PLATONISM

DEFENCE OF POETRY

:

on

or

is ”

,

a "

of

in

we

:

“

is

.

,

as

his

The notion of the arts as necessarily “ honest ” and “ useful ” is a first step in the direction of a Platonic subordination of poetry to politics . A more direct consideration of questions raised by Plato himself is found in the Chiose intorno al libro del Comune di Platone , which Castel vetro states to be posterior to redaction the commentary Aris totle's Poetics Here again the following statement usefulness assumed for poetry Here see that the utility the harm that

In

is ,

,

to

is

a

in

,

is

is

87

;

.”

,

vel is

."

“

86

is

derived from the epic the same one that derived from history that argued But the whole question later passage and rejected Plato's own solution the reference the passage beginning Nihil aliud agere imitari oportet the example

by

,

in

is

of

be

or

be

or by

to

this passage Plato presupposes that poetry was not invented for any other way example and that what poetry whether found

reason than teach good evil can

,

;

is

.

it,

of of

,

of

men who heard

reject

. 88

in

,

by

of

us :

of

to

,

to

.

injustices drove fears and injustices from the hearts ing what Plato says this passage

to

it

,

it

,

it

must followed the reader This false for we wish should teach but that should present matters that we can think every kind before frighten the about and that we may have examples give knowledge wicked and console the good and the nature men and women And for this reason Aristotle said that tragedy means fears and not that

by

to

all

;

,

,

,

to

Thus for Castelvetro Plato's theory would seem demand that the reader follow unwittingly and unwillingly the examples presented him the poet whereas Aristotle's theory would permit the reader choice and .

;

as

.

a

of

a

as a

,

, in

of

,

or

rather choice following upon reflection The basic principle moral instruction remains both the same but Castelvetro sees the reader more independent and more intelligent man and the poet having greater scope activity reflection

To

CONCLUSIONS

elements 86

at

”

of

to

“

is

the one hand

,

But

by

.

both attack

on ,

.

does the attack

of

;

ments

so

in

,

,

of

interrupt this analysis Poetry the Defence the present chronological point about 1570 imply not that there was any such interruption thinking writing upon the and the subject The defence throughout using continues the century for the most part the same argu this date the essential and amply

and defence have been established

,

, è

)

293

, o

, e

paure con riprovando ,

uomini ascoltanti

,

ingiustizie quello che ,

la

le

le de gli

,

è

con

o

la

in

,

si

, e

,

da &

;

de

(

."

, e le

Tragedia

gli

la

i

,

E

.

in

le

,

, e

è

Il

da

, da e

i

.

, o

da ,

perciò diceva Aristotele che delle donne paure ingiustizie dal cuore scacciava questo luogo dice Platone

e

si

,

o il

.

." ,

,

: "

In

(

.pp

.

e

to

,

se

.,

), .p

,

si

88 87

sia ,

: “

.,

quella stessa Ibid 209 Ecco che l'utilità danno che trae dell'Epopea trae dell'Istoria cioè l'essempio Trans Ficino Basel 1546 561 questo luogo presuppone Platone che Ibid 215-16 Poesia non sia trovata per altro non per insegnare per Esempio ciò che truova Poesia bene male che possa proposta prima che vogliamo altri debba seguire che falso perciochè che insegna per materia farvi pensamenti sopra acciocchè abbiamo esempj d'ogni spaventare rei maniera consolare buoni conoscere natura uomini che

POETIC

THEORY

illustrated ; on the other hand , after 1570 an increasing number of docu ments adopt an antipoetic attitude because of their strong Christian bias. This means that while the problem remains the same during the last years the century , some

of

of

the solutions become

more extreme

and more

violent . This identity of the problem constitutes the principal unifying element the numerous texts that I have examined so far. Let me state it , briefly , in this way : Should the art of poetry be admitted to society because products contribute proscribed the good the state should because works are essentially harmful Whether the critics take the be

it

or

,

its

?

its

to

of

its

for

to

is

it

,

of

.

in

,

of

to

or

position favorable poetry opposite they remain within the same proper framework discussion within the basic assumption that consider poetry this light poetry start from certain premisses which are not always The opponents it

is

,

a

of

.

of

In

.

,

of

of

his

a

or

is

.

clearly stated and which are sometimes mutually contradictory They dangerous assume that one reason why poetry that exercises upon power superior the reader hearer kind irresistible rhetorical force passions and imposes upon him the teachings which sways the poem partly partly power terms the human divine this are The causes

,

his by

his

,

in

.

he

;

a

or in

of

,

of

pagan times the divine cause lies within the gods and the ancient poetic Muses terms modern Christian theory within God and the natural inspirations with which talents endows certain men As for the human causes they consist almost entirely those pleasurable adornments to

to

it

.

.

a

,

to

”

or "

of

,

of

,

or

.

all

audience

an

of

poem and makes which the poet beautifies attractive assumption irresistibility would seem Such indicate young prey equally that men old wise foolish should fall the blandishments the poetic art Yet second basic assumption denies this means

is

,

to

for

,

,

it

—

,

It

dangerous holds that poetry written under the conditions indicated only for certain groups young the men and women whose education might contribute for the ignorant masses for those men who are morally by ,

of

of

-

all

,

a

of

.

to

predisposed resisting wickedness and vice Others are quite capable danger mature and adult persons already formed and hence are out sound education the sages the city who have extraordinary faculties to

;

,

its

by

of

.

is

,

of

goodness and discrimination those men who are morally disposed differentiating young intelligence virtue The factor here the and the ignorant cannot understand the true meanings poetry and are led astray false appearances whereas the old and the wise pierce beneath the a

-

is

.

of

,

is

to

-

all

an in

a

of

294

)

duped

by

be

to

,

refuse

;

it

.

blessed with intelligence

(

,

the wise

but ”

by

cannot

is

imperfect representation hidden truth perceptible only the surface and young see the foolish and the intellect The pleasurable presents resist the enticements which the old and

the ear

only

“

to

, to

illusory surface This involves the salutary teachings contained within poetry assumption essen Terence even the comedies that third tially allegorical the eye and audible visible that what character

appearances

and

PLATONISM

DEFENCE OF POETRY

:

extract from the core of poetry the most abstruse and recondite teachings . Because of the dangers presented by the art of poetry to the young and the foolish , several alternatives for combatting these dangers are suggested by critics and philosophers . The most obvious is to forbid , to banish , to condemn poetry entirely . This is Plato's extreme solution in the Republic, and it has adherents throughout the years we have been studying. A second solution is to make a choice among poets and poems, admitting some and rejecting others according as they do or do not satisfy accepted standards of a pedagogical, ethical , political , or religious nature . This involves a

,

on

;

or

of

its

third possibility , that of placing the whole art under the jurisdiction of a body of arbiters . These might be the elders of the city, and they would then apply political standards ; or philosophers , who would see poetry in relationships with the totality priests whose judg human behavior an

of

is

of ,

,

-

.

of

of

of

of

.

of

of

it is

of

or

;

be

be

theological principles involving also ments would based ethical capable code those the citizens themselves who would the philoso proper kind groups probably discrimination Of these the phers who enjoy the greatest favor with Cinquecento theorists and this undoubtedly because the Platonic origins this point view and philosopher king vogue because the the notion the

of

is

to

is

a

,

of

.

,

I

of

,

of

of

to

Whatever the particular group chosen hold sway over poets and the principle subordination the art another discipline throughout distinguishing constant and constitutes one the features the Platonic approach during this century have already pointed out pedagogical potential very however that the central assumption poetry

of

of .

as a

,

of

.

A

of

special

,

as

Lapini

the light

of

,

poetry regards

.

-

both the pleasurable firm theological premisses

in

be

carefully limited and circumscribed ornaments and the doctrines taught

-

to

,

.

of

be

of

provided that these

of

directing the application ness the pleasure and the utility case must made for the extreme Christian apologists such for they tend admit certain religious uses for certain kinds

as

,

of

or

be

of

,

as a

of

is

”

“

of

,

to

of

utility whereas the recognition the Horatian notion the corrupting force sweet ornament takes into account Horace's pleasure The utile dulci thus present for both lines critics statement dangers for the Platonists And ends for the Horatians statement predominant while the former debated which the ends should how might sought reducing one serve the other the latter means the effective close

,

in of

,

,

be

.

,

295

)

(

,

by

,

of ,

as

to

encouraged every society The testimony historians and philosophers alike convinces them that

able and should ancients

.

a

in

as

As

.

to

to

-

-

,

The critics who defend poetry not the anti Platonists but rather the opposite conclusions Platonists who come are concerned with the same basic problem But they tend see the circumstances different way through they far can discover their historical researches through appeal their other authorities such Cicero Plutarch and Strabo through their own observations the teachings poetry are highly desir the the

POETIC

THEORY

by

on

all

remote ages of mankind the first contributions to civilization were made by the poets ; as a result, poetry became the first of the arts and the sciences

,

in

—

of

all

softening

the

and They

refinements .

sensibility

its

of

in

in

to

in

of

of

demands

to

of

fluences

of

.

as an a its —

a

special

known

on

of

to

as by a

,

of

and perhaps their own characters art that appeals men through kinds subtlety spirit and audience both

thus argue

have

.

and mother of the rest They support this opinion the one hand citing restricted number historical and philosophical texts the other pointing knowledge found hand the wealth and diversity such poets recognize Homer and Vergil They themselves seem men they

be

,

.

as

as

,

,

all of

,

of

an -

the basis

the same general

men who

system

of

,

between two groups

of

explain these differences

approach the same problem

of

shall

on

How

we

to

,

corollary that the pleasures poetry deriving from use language verse kind and the ornaments should sought rather than avoided for their own sake well for the contri bution that they make ultimate utility

and still come forth with contradictory conclusions One answer the attitude each group toward the men who constitute poetry tend less than their poets the audiences the The defenders opponents upon corrupt look mankind and corruptible They are

of

.

to

.

there may

hidden meanings

whatever

enough moral stability

of

be ,

or

the spectator has enough intelligence

by

be

perceive

as

to

willing

,

?

of

admit that the reader

of

believe

in

,

lies

to

I

,

reference

on

to

,

to

,

I

it

less definitely ethical their opponents Although they argue the matter consent the grounds proposed the Platonists they really not put much stock the moral mission the poet poetry They affirm but without conviction the educative function enthusiasm Primarily they are interested the work art work art a

,

or , or in

of

in of

as

of

,

.

in

its , by

its

of

.

so

of

in

do

to

:

art

to

of

the usual suppositions Christian theology and greater extent within the context the arguments

of

or a

, to

;

,

be

of

a

.

of of

position the church ethics They remain .

it of is

If

.

by

do

it

to

ulterior ends are driven

,

technique and perfection rather than the might serve they argue about these ends because they the vehemence and the persistence the attacks affirming the contrary and they argue largely what their opponents had declared Perhaps third answer should also intimated the de poetry are much less prone adopt toward their fenders the official in

the problems

,

by .

do

,

the whole

on

to

is

of

poetry have that the defenders poetry than and political approach

.

to

of

a

of

it

.

all )

of (

of

a

in

of

,

to

or

moved to

to

examples amused vice without necessarily under recognize imitate them immediately enough common sense poetry are after that the works fictions Perhaps they recognize thus enjoy the audience measure artistic sensitivity which enables the pleasure the work without becoming victim and discern suggest what parts the work are valid guides life Another answer

taking

,

a

in

,

of

296

)

(

.

of

of

of

classical antiquity and their loud proclaimings the beauties and the delights and the educative virtues poetry constitute way the triumph paganism

-

CHAPTER EIGHT . PLATONISM : II . THE TRIUMPH

OF CHRISTIANITY

URING THE LAST THIRTY YEARS of the Cinquecento , the principal Platonic ideas on poetry, pro and contra , continue as before . There D is little contraction or expansion of the arguments , little diversifica tion of the standard approaches to the problem . At best , one may note an increase in the number of critics and theorists who display an ultra - Catholic

attitude toward questions of literature

of

. Some

they undoubtedly reflect the conclusions

of

, and

these are churchmen

of

the successive meetings

the

Council of Trent - conclusions which tended to place stringent limitations on the practice and uses of poetry . One may perhaps note this as a general development in the century , a repentance over the pagan excesses of the earlier years and a wish to rival ,

if not

overtake , the strait - laced Puritanism literary of the reformed churches . In the world itself , some such turnabout may be detected in the case of Tasso — there was modicum of madness connected with it — who first imposed an allegorical interpretation upon

of

”

of

.

of

in

.

be

1570

)

(

I

VIPERANO

a

“

to

,

his

then proceeded the disastrous purification the purifica Liberata into the Gerusalemme Conquistata Such complete keeping with the wishes tion was those few theorists whom speaking shall masterpiece

Gerusalemme

all

of “

art

,

he ) is a

(

.

of

,

in

be

",

of

,

,

to

to

of

The first the theorists considered this chapter Giovanni Viperano poetry Or more belongs Antonio rather the defenders specifically his De scribendis virorum illustrium vitis 1570 kind biography biographer praises which the because serves the same . “

to

in

at

,

" 1

peoples

.

all

of

of

of

;

an

of

, “

”

be

to

the techniques

says Viperano

the

the poet and describes

to ,

as

common both Of study the arts which teach the historians and the poets seems me divine and admirable for with almost heavenly great men from oblivion and from the power they rescue the deeds damage time and the same time sow them far and wide the memory ends

,

is

,

.

,

be

it

;

be

in

to of

of

history and biography for Viperano The major pedagogical value princes but the instruction will remembered that this was frequently assumed the case for certain poetic genres For both the

of

.

:

a

of

to

to

in

to

,

of

to

glorious actions result from the education virtue and the stimulation biography proper depiction character and practically the whole art knowing ingredients present consists how characters The such presentation are the ones familiar the rhetoricians and the Horatians

]

[

297

in vi

,

:

&

,

."

ab

, &

: "

), .p

&

(

1

De scribendis vitis 1570 A3v inter cetera doctrinarum genera historicorum prae cipue studium poëtarum mihi diuinum qui coelesti quadam admirabile videtur simulque clarorum hominum res gestas obliuione uetustatis iniuria vindicant omnium gentium memoriam disseminant

POETIC THEORY .

be

the others They must

the painter

,

as

And just

: “

;

ut

all

age , sex , fortune , profession , place of birth , pictura historia presented clearly and vividly

of

in

,

least

of

poetry to of

,

at

of

history

be in or

by

.”

2

It

,

is

of in

of

all

,

,

,

however that the actions accomplished the hero are also important for the ends are stated partially

,

,

so

,

of

of

,

all

a

in

of

shaping the features thought shine face which the movements expressing the charac the good writer his powers out uses teristics perceived the soul from which the way life the person put expression diligence will into such his care and would seem terms

to

by

,

be

no

to

or

by in

of

: “

be

be

a

of

to

to

taught learned from deeds and acts Men should constancy spirit every vicissitude maintain fortune not allow good fortune depressed themselves carried away mis the lessons

,

. " 3

.

tell the truth whereas poetry expansion and ,

to

occasions

and rhetoric may indulge

in

in

is

of

,

,

of

all

arts and the crediting

of in

,

a

in

a

to

of

).

of

(

fictions Viperano The whole point view Platonic not only pedagogical assignment the function the various arts discussed but more subtle way the breaking down the barriers among these invents

exaggeration

kinds

all

on

,

in

,

obliged

of

is

it

that

all

poetry

in

be

of

;

is

fortune that there dishonor that does not come from wickedness nor any praise that does not flow from the springs honor Such lessons may also learned both arts from apothegms History differs from

.

an

di

et

,

of ,

)

V

to

to

as

).

added

It

is

(

little

be

with common ends and common means what has already been said in Chapter about Andrea Menechini's oration Delle lodi della poesia d'Omero Virgilio 1572 may serve admirably example the close com There

of

,

in He

we

us

it

:“ ,

our souls monstrous

,

it

be

,

in

)

constitutes the

it

to

Thus

it

and the

particular

se

ab ac

in

.”

&

, e

in

sic

,

: “

-

in .pp

.,

3

, in

conformandis

,

in

vt

: “

., .p

Cv

,

2

quo motus animorum lineamentis oris exprimendis animi moribus elucent summam operam consumit bonus scriptor quibus vitae ratio perspicitur omne studium suum diligentiam ponet Dijv Diij Doceanturgue Ibid homines omni fortuna constantem animum Ibid

pictor

singular and

the general

.

universal and frees them from

the of

the contemplation the

men

,

its

is

It

. "' 4

us

of

with the image those things which desire passion through this capacity possess the that poetry achieves usefulness that works

arouses

Itaque

remembered

of of

of

...

to

,

of

listeners

miracles that

it

its

with every warmth

poetry

excites the movements our minds frightening with examples

things and delighting

of

(

of

.

takes possession

of

is

that this major effectiveness

souls

.

of

of

will imitative capacity Imitation itself and one the central concepts the Platonists

of

in

,

power

of

, in of

to

as a

.”

on

"

of

,

of

panionship between the Horatian and the Platonic attitudes toward the ends poetry and also witness the continuation the vogue the poetry Menechini cites Plato frequently praise poetry defences emphasizes the divine furor and the prophetic gift the poets harmony especially the superiority prose persuasive verse over

."

)

,

." di

,

& de

,

i

(

298

gli

:

in

,

,

: di “

-

iv a

a

), .p

,

,

(

4

a

,

tenere nec secundis rebus efferre nec aduersis demittere nullam esse ignominiam quae turpitudine non proficiscatur nec laudem vllam quae non honestatis fonte emanet Delle lodi 1572 ivv eccita movimenti animi s'insignorisce delle rallegrandoci menti spauentandoci con essempij cose monstruose con l'imagine quelle che noi desideriamo con ogni caldo affetto

PLATONISM

TRIUMPH

of all

:

OF

CHRISTIANITY

These various powers are the con poetry poetry The divinity sequences understood the divinity from this fact that nobody can achieve success without celestial breath inspiration From the poet the divine spirit passes the reader the listener making him person closer the gods his perfection

of

is

or

to

of

us

purging

every

its

for

:

in

by

!

divine inspirations

,

its

in

to

it

,

.

it

,

of

is

a

as

its

,

pure and simple you make our soul shine with own splendor proper and natural strength intelligence which also through the chief and pilot that same soul you cause obtain from the angels single moment whatever desires ,

stain making and through

to

a

of

oh

highest

us

Oh holy Poetry

!

,

of

.”

,

5

or

,

in it

:

“

of

.

the sciences

of

becomes the mistress

to

in ,

.

— a

of

,

in

The praise continues this tone now general now applied Homer and Vergil tone which recalls that Plato the dialogues dealing with inspiration and enthusiasm a

of

.

of

I

,

it

a

is

; it

of

by

,

of

is

,

of

The same problem imitation but approached from more intellectual standpoint subject the brief fragment Lorenzo Giacomini Tebal ducci Malespini without title and shall call on the Definition Imitation The fragment follows Giacomini's translation Aristotle's in

of of by is

,

X

in

of

.

, by to

,

Its

is

,

of

be

it to

I

of

is

to ,

.

in

Poetics MS Laurenziana Ashb 531 and likewise the hand Giorgio Bartoli and presume the same date 1573. content also related the text the Poetics since Giacomini here trying distinguish between the definitions imitation offered Plato and Aristotle By combining the definitions Books III and the Republic ;

I

62

at

or

).

.

(p

II

be

.

in ", he

.

to

, to

of of

"

“

"

or

in

of a

"

be

to

“

of

,

it

belongs

can

equate imitation with fable

a

of

leads him

a

single one This combined into mythology raise the question whether fable need told the person another decide that poetry need not and concoct curious definition which various senses imitation and fable are hopelessly confused Giacomini

to

and hence that various meanings

in in

"

“

of

in

a

Giacomini produces somewhat strange interpretation Plato have already cited the passage Chapter extenso He assumes that all the uses the term imitation Plato are identical least similar

or by

in

of

a

on

In

)

1573

(

AGNOLO SEGNI

.

of

of

he

of

of

in

the Platonic tradition the sense that continues the discussion one the main ideas associated with that tradition contemporary theorists and that commentary presents kind interpretation Plato the text

:ijv "

)

by

to

be

it

( if

of

of

is a

.

of

to

be

,

fact Giacomini's little passage imitation indeed his may more closely indebted another work 1573 than his own transla Agnolo Segni tion the Poetics That work set lectures delivered

)

da

di

&

,

."

&

,

è

,

,

la fai gli

da

fai

299

(

la

,

,

&

;

, ò

."

,

la

si

, ò

Et di

:iijv “ O

,

, , in & ,

un

., .p

., .p b

b

s

la

6

qui comprende Ibid diuinità della Poesia imperò che alcun non può conseguirla senza fiato inspiration celeste poiche purgandoci Ibid santa Poesia ben somma inspiration diuina ogni macchia rendendone casti semplici rilucer per l'anima col proprio splendore propria diligenza sua come ancor per capo auriga natural sua mente che Angeli ciò che ella disidera conseguir essa anima subito momento

POETIC

THEORY

in their original form they were six in number , although Segni reduced them to four in 1576. The original lectures are now to be found in the Biblioteca Laurenziana , MS Ashb . 531 ( the one which contains Giacomini's works ) ; the published form appeared post the Accademia

to

Fiorentina

;

humously in 1581.7 In keeping with the traditions of the Accademia , Segni must limit himself to a discussion of Petrarch , and he chooses to speak of the canzone ( No. CXXVII ) beginning " In quella parte dove Amor mi sprona .” But only a few paragraphs of the lengthy Lezioni are devoted to the poem ; the rest is an essay on imitation , on Platonic principles , meant to serve as prolegomena to the analysis of Petrarch . In itself, the essay is

an

of

knowledge for in ,

of it

,

in

in in

,

"

general Platonic

is

a

.

involving the need for the search any field discovering that highest good most disciplines ,

is to

a

it

,

all

,

of

,

in ,

that Segni addresses himself The first lezione establishes system “

.

as a

complete theory broadest sense this justification requires imitation and the literary genres and that theory

But poetry

the

as

be

of

as a

of its to

,

its

one of the most extensive , most thoroughgoing , and most valuable Platonic documents of the century . Seen in narrowest sense Segni's group lectures may taken attempt justify lyric poetry proper genre and Petrarch poet

found

the

,

,

is

it

” )

(“

to

.

to

its of

is in

poetry intellect but that found the divine furor asserting that the poetry genus imitation The second lezione defines imitation estab relationships lishes false discourse orazione falsa and fable

at

,

of

discover

to

,

In

(

a

after

(

in

,

he

.

the sixth

reaches the discussion

an

Finally

,

poetry

to

assigned

the preceding five lezioni

),

of

preliminary

seeking

the various kinds arts with respect which they are addressed and the various

to

the faculties

which might lengthy summary

the fifth

Segni examines be

their ends

ends

verse and arrives

.

,

,

,

poetry ),

to

the ends

of

of

,

tion including the necessary instrument poetry poetics and poem definitions

of

.

of

in

he

,

,

of

.

of

” ),

("

an

favola and inquires into the objects such imitative fable The third studies the kinds imitation both without and within poetry and explains what sense Plato found imitation bad and why banished the poets from the Republic The fourth investigates the instruments imita

in to

letteraria

,

a

imitation

del Cinquecento

, "

critica

by

,

.

di

of

,

of A

"

of 8

art ."

this definition will reveal

He means

]

300

de

le

divine con purgare animi

gli

fine

di et

,

88 : “ à

le

cose humane

and fol

.

" ;

il

Immitazione

furor divino

de

.

manoscritti

,

, in

-

on

is

of

(

“

) is :

in

.

in

is

by

poetry

."

orazione favolosa versi secondo humani da loro affetti

: "

.

,

(

),

III

in .

, “

Nuove Attribuzioni 1952 247–49 MS Laur Ashb 531 fol 74v .

7

gloss

In

main ideas about the

See my Rinascimento 8

their emotions di

Segni's

[

human minds

of

by

."

to

,

of

of

,

if

;

of of

elementary theory Petrarch but since this immediately involves him anything question the lyric little said about the poem Segni's first definition poetry the fourth lecture An imitation things making human and divine means fable discourse verse according expanded the divine furor the last lecture this definition purging and completed the addition the formula the end

PLATONISM

TRIUMPH

:

CHRISTIANITY

OF

a

is

-

an

an

to

"

essempio

its or

imma

“

, "

idolo "

another which

its

an "

is “

of

likeness

is

,

of

one thing

fabricate

-

"

, to

to

,

-in

"

fantasma

54 )

In

of

of

It

fol .

an

.

(

it

"

,

"

a

gine

its

,

.

another

resemble

53 ) ;

fol .

number of things. He does not exclude the simplest Platonic meaning of " to speak in the person of another ” ( but this too limited meaning and would eliminate most the writings the lyric poets for poetry not example Petrarch indicates accident essential differentia most general meaning imitate make one thing

an of

of

.

As

,

of

a

an

"

is “

”

its

,

of

,

.

“

appearance essemplare representation The idolo gives object and poetry concerned with the making such images art imitation imitation poetry enters into the whole broader schematism

of

,

).

fol .

(

its

as

.

it

which Segni borrows from Plato Since uses discourse words imitate concepts just concepts imitate things 86v The general process in

byor

a

.

-

is

to

or

of

—

of to of

,

,

:

,

a

In

).

.

(

(

),

of

is

in

imitation found everywhere the world God imitates himself man Scripture nature imitates the world ideas art imitates nature men imitate each other fols 32–33 word the whole Platonic chain relationships particular concepts objects from universal Ideas objects representations series constituted those concepts imitations see

,

”

of

(

of

poetry

:

)

“

(

it is

poetry

attributing

"

himself states

is a

,

Of

by

.

,

he

.

As

,

their expression ),

to

false

"

“

,

of

truth These are called mythology the "

or

by a

"

likeness

the Italians

Plato the language the orazione and hence poetry false imitation

the distinction

,

of

Its

it

"

a

,

favola

this analysis apparently collapses the materials

with the instrument is

semblance

of

, in

.

;

"

create

the Latins

Greeks Segni

which

of

go

"

by

,

"

as

in "

themselves

fabula

.

to

of

poetry involves imitations special kinds and The particular realm many cautions with respect things them materials are not true history and science and the arts such those which into the making but rather false things for imitates things which without being true

to of

of

or

to

to

or

,

as ,

or

,

it or is

:

.

,

,

to

or

as

of

language the true which narrates the truth things these two kinds exactly they were done they are does not belong poetic are done poetry but proper either history imitation one another the sciences Hence the other part remains for poetic imitation and for poetry ;

of

.

by ,

is

is ,

by to ,

us

"

“

;

is

,

it

:

he

is

“

,

,

distinguishes false plot from false speech another context however fable thus always lying and falseness but divided into two one

The

56 : “

In

by

in

by

-

is to

of

make images out false language and out fable and consequently poetry this false language which makes images that which makes false things and things invented itself resemblance the true which language called mythology the Greeks and favola and the Latins

)

(

à la de le

è

è la la

,

fa

la

et et

:

ò

la

,

, la

à le

301

la

, la

la

et à

",

da

et lei

, et

e

la

la

;

;

et et

fa le

, ò , il , il

è

ò

è

,

ne à la

,

ò si

la

Di

.

.,

9

queste due orazioni quale narra Ibid fol vera verità cose appunto poetica immita come sono state fatte fanno come elle sono questa non appartiene poesia ma propria zione del istoria d'una d'un altra scienzia adunque l'altra parte resta al'immitazione poetica poesia far idoli con l'orazione falsa con favola diremo immitazione poetica essere far idoli con orazione falsa con conseguentemente poesia essere questo orazione falsa quale favola idoli cio somiglianti quale orazione mithologica cose false finte vere chiamata da Greci da noi favola da Latini

POETIC

THEORY

is the false language , as Plato says ... , which contains within itself false things, whatever they may be ; the other is those false things themselves and particularly false actions , not true but invented . ” 10 Segni thinks that herein - or one of the differences between Aristotle and Plato on imitation : Aristotle considered the actions themselves , not the words , 99 as the plot or " favola ."

lies the difference

way , Segni attributes to Aristotle the same meanings for imitation as to Plato . He argues that because Aristotle divided imitation into three manners - narrative , dramatic, and mixed — and because these

In

a general

were the three manners which Plato had given to “ mythology ,” then

imita

tion and mythology must be the same thing . Aristotle is made the authority for the statement that the objects of imitation are not restricted to human actions but include characters, passions , and thoughts as well ( fol. 59 ) , while Plato indicates that the gods also may be treated . Segni feels that are necessary , first to justify the inclusion

of lyric poetry kind of loose description of divine things . ” In that same

these statements

( which has no actions ), second to permit the the object , in his definition , as “ human and definition , the means of imitation are said to be “ fable -making discourse " ( a concept which we have already examined ) and verse . Verse is demanded by the common conception of poetry , by Plato ( explicitly ) and by Aristotle ( implicitly ) ; it is the

matter ” for the realization of the

“ necessary

form ” :

“

to

be

a

is

as

it

as :

,

to , a

,

in

a

,

its

a

to

to

,

,

,

is

to it ; as

its

Thus poetry is a composite of imitation and of verse , in which the imitation is poetry without essence and not the verse but not for this reason can necessary proper matter just body necessary verse which just any body particular body particular man and not but and matter but poetry the imitation just the soul and the form corresponds the or

,

of

is ,

according

to

Segni's original definition—

of

The last member

"

to of

. 11

in

,

to

language corresponds body and not any the body and certain kind language whatsoever but this fixed one that language metrical language made verse the divine

,

is

.

it is

of

of or

is

is

,

, it

.

in

,

;

”

poetry Nature and furor —is meant indicate the main efficient cause art are also efficient causes but nature the Platonic system identifi secondary because powerless able with divine inspiration and art without nature For Segni the presence absence the divine furor

“

in

is

he

,

et

”

,

,

si

se ,

in

la

."

stesse cose false poesia composto

et à la in

,

,

il

la

."

, 9et

)

302

et

il il

,

di

e

al

, è

è

al

,

, si

, et

è

(

, , al et

un

di

,

è

la

il

lei

, si

la

,

ne la

,

à

è

è

di : “ lei , et

.

.,

immitazione verso dove immita quale non verso ma non pero puo essere poesia senza verso corpo come propria sua materia come huomo necessario non corpo tale forma risponde qualunque corpo ma anima una materia tale ma poesia corpo immitazione come tale corpo risponde l’orazione non qualun versi fatta que orazione ma questa determinata ciò l'orazione metrica zione l'essenza necessario

Cosi

to

.

,

of

la

•

et

è le

l'altra

fol 72v

favola falsità ma divide due quale contiene cose false qualunque particolarmente l'azzioni false non vere ma finte

• .. •

57 : “ È

.,

sieno

Ibid

adunque sempre menzogna

orazione falsa come dice Platone

il ,

11

elle

lbid

:

una

si è la

10

,

of in fol .

to

or

poetry which accounts for the goodness badness complete his definition Segni adds the formula When order purging human minds providing his the end their passions

PLATONISM

TRIUMPH

:

CHRISTIANITY

OF

statement of the final cause . This may seem to be a nod to Aristotle ; but the formula is much more than a paraphrase of the purgation clause in

to

,

a

In

.

its

Aristotle's definition of tragedy. For Segni , working in a Platonic context , the ends of poetry are varied and complex . As an imitative art, it appeals to the senses , which are both deceived and satisfied by it ; it does not appeal to the reason . If there is another part of the soul to which imitation is germane, it is the appetitive faculty , for the appetite transforms itself into the irrational word poetry addresses itself desire the object of , of

,

,

of

of

,

of

a

“

is

.

of

,

of

by

,

if

.

, of

in

it

of

in

to ; to

fill it .

to

to ,

.

:

is

be

to

is

of

and hence the inferior parts the soul According Plato the end poetry these are good with passions alter the appetite and according good and vice versa But Aristotle the end the poem will just the opposite remove the passions from the soul means purgation After lengthy examination this effect Segni the nature pity and fear themselves concludes that consists the removal not opposites takes place but their opposites and that similar purgation poetry the other genres He states that the end the purgation from

da

la

“

to

,

,

82 ).

.

à

",

et

(

”

of

,

of

various noisome and blameworthy passions brought about through the means purgazione del animo other better passions diversi affetti noiosi biasimevoli col mezzo d'altri affetti migliori con dotta fine fol He does not however fail take into account other the mind

.

:

of

is

to

,

;

is

it

,

it

to ' ,

a

of

to

all

,

he

;

is

it

a

In

the possible

:

of

ends Aristotle's that the plot Horace's similarity pleasure and utility Proclus that that the original distinguish among these rival ends attempts final summation and admit poetry them into total conception suggestions

accident

the end

is

an

.

Pleasure

as

as

made

of

,

as

of

;

they are works which remain , an

as

of

:

of

:

as

We have explained several ends for poetry the plot the form and soul and opera the end the other parts the moving the passions and purgation tions the whole the passions that are moved and the purgation ends insofar

by

of

of

.

is

and because also the works made the operations end the passions previously aroused follows

our

mean the

in

is

.

of to

of

I

is

of

we

as

the patient and

the subject purged.12 de la

12

,

agent but that

of

of ,

byof

of

poetry and that the true and ultimate end the poem the purgation passions according minds their said above Aristotle And always purgation not the operation purging which this name

of

, it

of

is

,

the thing proposed end and purgation

an

of

an

parts are

is

placed among the ends But because when one speaks also called end and about the end one means that end which the end the whole and not the

:

gliet

, la

,

:

:

gli

et

e ' si

del

: il

la

de

lo et è è

de

de . le

et et tra la '

et si

,

, de la

de le

è

di

,

e '

et il

gli

:

il

.

et la

,

et .,

: “

poesia fols 83–83v Habbiamo esplicati piu fini favola come forma purgare come operazioni del tutto fine del altre parti mover affetti purgazione fini come opere che rimangano fatte piacere come accidente affetti mossi pone ragiona del fine ancora egli fine s'appella fini Ma perche quando fine quello che s'intende parti fine del tutto non perche cosa proposta operazioni sono fine purgazione ancora l'opere fine affetti mossi inanzi Ibid

anima

)

(

303

et

,

ne

la

et

è

la

il

et

."

,

da

seguita che poesia purgazione degli animi nostri del poema fine vero ultimo loro affetti come noi dicevamo disopra secondo Ar.e intendo sempre per questo nome purgazione non l'operazione del purgare quale agente ma quella del paziente del suggetto purgato

POETIC THEORY

inci

The seeming duality of approach , involving an admixture of an

Aristotelianism to a basic Platonism , is present throughout the work . We have seen it in the concept of imitation , in the insistence on verse , in the idea of purgation . At times , Segni thinks that the two ancient philosophers are in precise agreement ; at others, when they disagree , he finds the means of reconciling them by a more inclusive theory which embraces both . Occasionally , where Aristotle fails to define a term , Segni assumes that he adopts and shares Plato's use of it . When Aristotle says dental

fol .

( Poetics 1454b11 ) that the tragic poet's portrayals must represent men as more remarkable than they really are , Segni interprets this as calling for a .

63 )

is

of

,

,

,

,

of

lyric poetry that permits Petrarch writer as a

of of

,

,

it

is

a

is

(

.

of

to

It

narrative further division discover the proper classification

is

the lyric Segni

:

of

,

in

,

of

representation of Platonic Ideas of character and the passions ( poetry into four species epic tragic comic and lyric The distinction philosophers depends upon the division found both and the three manners imitation the epic mixed tragedy and comedy are dramatic

of

of

the general structure

,

ideas and the framework

poetry exists

a

be

he

:

of

the latter

as

,

the former

it is

a

subordinate

,

,

single man through repentance their natural order our particular arts to

to

of

much better connect with that general art the state and proper For from the preservation

the art

of

purge the errors

undoubtedly

of to in

to

a

is

it

If

pointing out the political usefulness good thing

.

in

a

to

,

to

in

of

.

,

it

of

in

:

of

of

of ,

At

a

by

it is in

Platonic world pursues imitations made possible the presence the divine furor goal moral betterment for the spectator poetry the beginning his discussion the utility his Apologia espous dei dialogi written around 1574–75,13 Sperone Speroni seems ing position opposite For answers Plato by the Republic Plato's reference

are Platonic

of

Segni

its

;

it is

to

the whole

,

.

(

of

On

90 ).

fol

is

it

is

to

.)

encomia and threnes From Aristotle Segni borrows the notion that history because poetry superior more universal from Plato the judgment that philosophy very particularity inferior because

in

to

to

. 14

of

,

...

,

no

or

do .

of

to

to

is

that order arises the determination not only evil but refrain from any actions which might appear legi opposition timate this that individual but which are the best behavior the whole body the citizenry

.

of

art of to

in

in

to

he

,

14 13

,

to

,

a

of

to

is

It

Speroni which led social usefulness according purgation tragedy We Aristotle include the clause the definition although Speroni poetry note here that sees virtues the use for social instruction nevertheless wishes subordinate the the higher art this notion

.

in

sia

...

ma son diverse

al

.

di

quello

,

questo

e

a

,

304

)

(

,

è

,

che pajon lecite

."

di

ma astenersi d'alcune vili operazioni decoro della adunanza cittadinesca

,

il

da

a

, e

è

le

;

un

di

gli

,

,

,

è

V ,

: “ ) ,

(

), I,

(

In

,

dating the Apologia See Speroni Opere 1740 209 364 365 for letters useful Opere 1740 355 se egli bene purgar errori uomo solo per penitenza senza dubbio assai meglio tener congiunte nel loro ordine naturale nostre arti particolari quelle questa come ragione subordinare con ciò colla comune della repubblica consiglio non solamente questo ordine conservato nasce non far male cosa che

PLATONISM

TRIUMPH OF CHRISTIANITY

:

of politics . When he goes on to discuss specific genres , especially comedy , he discovers that such forms may do as much harm as good — that they may be “ schools of vice " as well as " schools of virtue .” He must therefore or

:

a

all

conclude that the state should restrict the kinds of poetry that it allows public political men to write and to publish , and that essentially religious intention poetry should have

,

...

If

in

.

,

or

or

,

be

to

it

as

,

as

of

of

;

to

to

...

its

it

so , ;

it

,

all in of

to

-

of

is

It

every well ordered city portray elegantly the duty verse knows how and without admitting any other fables the favors that God praise the deeds just has granted the citizens who were victorious wars and sorrow over the death those who did not merit death poems will not turn out tragedies epics but does comedies

If

of

in

of

,

,

...

,

,

.

by ,

,

,

or

is

no

in

,

,

,

canticles and psalms useful decent and religious these poems are accompanied artistically the presentation music song and dance there woman child who having heard them one single time will not retain his life.15 the memory for the rest them pleasurably hymns

for

as a

in

;

it

I

of

.

is

.

of

,

a

of

is

The conclusion that Plato reflects the general circumstances and Apologia youthful age repentance tone the work written old sins Perhaps some the religious afterthought which have been already present here speaking 1576

)

(

LORENZO GAMBARA

.

:

“

,

of

de

in

is

its is

,

sit à

(

);

of

The next two documents are definite examples such public repentance perfectae poëseos ratione The first the Tractatio Lorenzo Gambara 1576 subtitle itself significant tum ostenditur cur abstinendum scriptione poëmatum turpium aut falsorum Deorum fabulas con

of

is

(

of

St.

,

of

.

of

of

of

:

of

in

.

of to

he

. ”

he

.

ad

pulcherrima alia poëmata Ac quàm late pateat campus Gambara admits that had spent his youth the writing profane poetry and that burning was now determined the necessity the two ends legitimate these same poems For they had served neither man's soul the glory God and the salvation for poetry the singing Instead they had merely been manifestations his own desire for worldly Augustine and fame one reminded the conversations between tinentium

edenda

15

he

by

)

,

,

of

thus agrees with the banishing the poets Plato Dio Suetonius and Plutarch are cited ,

to

is

The misguided Gambara here like the only and never able see

semblances

is

,

He

of

sophers

who represents

Plato

(

.

Truth

to

had not yet been apparent

poet

him .

,

,

,

In

).

in

writing them Petrarch the Secretum meum had been pursuing false gods and lying muses because the only real truth false appearances

the pagan

philo

and with the con

de

,

,

,

o

memoria

.”

abbia sempre

in

,

.

li

,

; e

)

...

li

al

, ed e li

,

305

...

;

le

le

,

...

volentieri tutta sua vita non

(

,

che quelli uditi una sola volta

, , al ,

al

, e

,

.

,

...

,

in

di

è

in

di le

de '

,

: "

., .p

egli ogni cittade bene ordinata ritrarre Ibid 357 officio versi quanto più sappia elegantemente senza altre favole tutte grazie che son fatte dal Signor Dio geste guerre giuste vittoriosi lodar cittadini condolersi alla morte chi era degno non morire ciò facendo riusciranno suoi poemi non commedie non tragedie religiosi quai poemi accompagnandosi non epopeje ma inni cantici salmi utili onesti con bella arte nelli spettacoli suono canto ballo non sarà donna fanciullo

POETIC

THEORY

demnation by the church fathers ( Clement of Alexandria and Basil , for example ) of any works which introduced heresy , magic , or moral wicked ness .

a

as

a

to

:

in

at ,

be

to

a

,

be

a

Christian neck filthy wantonness

is a

to a

laughed horse's neck ought hydra's head poem that the greatly lamented for his salva many others deplored either already

human head

to

form

who joins

of

certainly

of to a

he he

who joined

if

But

Christian poem either improper moral actions creates work Horace's monster

of as

ridiculous

the poet who adds

Moreover antiquity

,

of

the myths

or ,

the habit

sin .

Gambara himself will base the whole discussion of the art of poetry on the foundation of Christian theology. Seen in this light , the obscene and wicked fables of the poets and the licentious images of the painters are the work of Satan , designed to make men revolt against reason and develop

,

so

or

,

,

so

us

by

.

be

to

it

all

no ,

to

if

be

to

is

,

,

is

is

of

a

vile conflux along with the salvation deplored And indeed the fast approaching the point where will have hydra's head and according other prodigies and chimeras were invented many monstrosities that even our powers since we filled our writings with peril for our honor and decency there certainly would derive from there were tion

to

as

of

is

we have

to

if

of

full

them

or

vice

,

,

are excited

to

,

the reading

to

already sinned

we

reprehensible

our senses are depraved we

:

such works

is

the writing

dangers

of

If

of

,

in

a

long them considerable peril for our faith our minds were darkened when submerged these shadows and distracted completely from heavenly things vanities.16 the constant pursuit

,

of

to

of

.

in

them

no

is

,

.

all

.

is

repent our former are moved sin again rather than heresy Hence there doubt that errors The ultimate consequence antiquity the Christian reader should avoid the literary monuments spite the fact that certain church fathers may seem have authorized

,

a

the Christian a

,

these monuments

,

.

is

to

;

to

of

of

be

.

on

a

of

poet will provide works representing not only new new ethic but also new theology and poetics For Aristotle's Poetics based Homer and Horace's Ars poetica they merely provide rules for the based on Vergil can no use him willing unacceptable imitation models Gambara admit with St.

In

place

.

to

;

in

of

to

is

as

,

of

Augustine certain beauties style art and the ancient poets but their content such render them inadmissible the Christian state

of

If

of

poetry based them upon the wise ancient philosophers who wrote arts only because they had not yet had the privilege seeing , it is

these works

:

Truth

.pp

16

of

the light

...

,

,

,

tot

.

Et

,

sit

."

)

(

306

ad

à

,

,

,

à

(e )

ac

vt

,

oppleremus

&

pro viribus effingebantur chimera nobis cum scripta monstris pudicitię fuisset certe fidei non leuis erat iactura nisi honestati periculum dum mens nostra his tenebris offusa cecabatur atque celestibus inania celebranda curuabatur omnino ,

ceteraque portenta

,

sit ,

,

,

est

si

: “

,

(

),

qui humano capiti ceruicem equinam adiun Tractatio 1576 11-12 Quod geret ridendus esset sane qui Christianę ceruici hoc poëmati caput hydrę faedarum nempe libidinum colluuiem apponit magnopere defiendus est cuius salus cum salute pluri deploranda hydrę quidem caput morum aut deplorata aut non procul est cum

PLATONISM

:

TRIUMPH OF CHRISTIANITY

...

but although they have understood that poetry has been instilled in us by of truth , still , when once the fountain of nature had been troubled and their vision was overcast by a cloud of nature , and that it therefore resides in the imitation

error , because they had not achieved the greatest virtue in poetry , they chose finally what seemed right to themselves . 17 The Truth that was lacking to them was of course that of Christian revela tion , and without it they could not possibly discover the truth about poetry :

Now , since they were neither enlightened by the light of faith , nor so lived by the light of nature as to give glory to God ; and since , moreover , sin had intro duced into the world the errors of the false gods and the many common ideas about them ; and since indeed they had neither read nor understood the holy Scriptures , nor had they read or understood something in them would they have believed them , or even had they believed something in them would they have dared to make it public out of fear ; and finally , since they did not see among their countrymen absolutely anybody endowed with those virtues which even the light of nature requires in the formation of a perfect man , they themselves invented certain men for whom descendance from the gods or their exploits or the suppo sition that they were numbered among the gods won a certain esteem , stimulating others to imitate them . But we have already indicated with what manifold error !18

its

The new poetry , the Christian poetry , must have principles essentially different from the old . Perhaps, in a sense , the ends will be the same , since it too will seek to delight and profit ; “ imitation ” and “ doctrine ” are the two ends proposed for poetry , and it is the function of the poetic faculty " to see whatever is appropriate to the imitation of each action , passion , character , by means of beautiful language , in order to improve life and to

.

of

ac

,

22 : "

17

in

,

,

.

of

),

les

,

(

live well and happily .” 19 But whereas the old poetry was content, for subject matter with the necessary and the probable following Aristotle's recommendation the new poetry must content itself with nothing than the truth Whereas the old pagan poets derived their model the perfect man from error through invention and fiction the new poets will theology find theirs truth through pious meditation and the teachings in

,

,

;

in ;

vt

,

."

,

,

,

&

,

si , à

&

,

22 : "

,

ita ., .p

de

18

in

,

., .p

quod proinde Ibid natura Poësim nobis inditam veritatis imita caligine errorum oculis offusa tione sitam esse intellexerunt naturę tamen fonte turbato quod Poesi rectissimum erat non assequuti quod sibi tandem rectum visum est elegerunt Ibid Cum enim nec fidei lumine illustrarentur neque pro naturalis luminis ratione viuerent Deo gloriam tribuerent falsorum autem Deorum errores promiscu asque illis opiniones peccatum inuexisset Mundum nec vero Diuinas scripturas legis

,

si

in

:

ijs

,

,

si

,

:

,

quid legerant aut intellexerant credidissent aut tamen quid sent aut intellexissent nec denique cum apud suos neminem crederent auderent propter metum pronunciare omnino virtutibus preditum cernerent quas ipsum etiam naturę lumen requirit homine perfecto in

,

]

[

307

ad

ad

&

,

ad

sit

."

,

,

,

."

,

sit

24 : " vt .

., ad .p

19

,

,

ex

:

se

,

Dijs vel res gestę vel ipsi per aliquos effinxere quibus vel ortus Deorum numerum conficta relatio illis quidem existimationem conciliarent ceteris autem adderent calcar imitandum Sed quam multiplici errore iam diximus poëtica facultas Ibid videndi quodcunque accommodatum imita tionem cuiusque actionis affectionis moris suaui sermone vitam corrigendam beno beateque viuendum efformando

POETIC

THEORY

Thus the old criteria of "prudentia , varietas , efficacia , suavitas , " will be replaced by two only , " modestia " and "veritas , " sufficient in themselves

of

of the word of God will be more efficacious than the rhetorical devices and the prodigies poets the ancient and their modern imitators The lives and deeds the martyrs will supply materials having the required characteristics using the ends . The strength

of

;

all

.

of

all

all

to assure the achievement

one may write

,

them

;

of ,

all

.

is

A

to

,

;

of

to

... the epic without adulation and without damage the truth tragedy present ing the praise the Christian religion satire without bitterness permitting the poets inveigh against heresy and against the vices with the greatest sincerity but without violating charity vast field thus opened for writing kinds ,

without

,

,

,

,

,

,

,

poems without falsehood without ineptitudes without causticness foulness but with faith majesty graveness penetration charity.20

admitted

,

to to

be

,

of

to

found acceptable and will

will

the

on

.

,

of

conquest Jerusalem Christian Republic

be ,

to

of

.

,

;

in

to

to .

a

degree the new poetry has already been attempted But Gambara condemns those who have chosen sacred subjects only mix them with profane matters and profane meters treat them Marot Beza Buchanan come under the ban for this reason Only those poems devoted holy crusades the spreading the faith the publishing the

To

:

of

of

length

some

,

they represent the complete Christianization

of

is

to

or

of in

of

.

,

First

at

I

Gambara's theories for two reasons the Platonic point view The Republic having been transformed into the Christian Republic everything that Plato had said about poetry relation the former have dwelt

,

of

.

of of

,

a

in

all

in an

at

,

as

,

in

,

in

,

be

in

,

in

to

.

,

truth

to

.

the latter

or

terms

to

in

The treatment the gods God the Truth the role education these come early statement for consideration Second these theories are developed length doctrine which was some the following century only Italy not but France well the doctrine the Christian epic Gambara adumbrates 1576 the characteristics that new literary restated

relationship

.

genre

in

,

to

to

a

a

of

It

its

publication that Cardinal Sirleto sent must have been shortly after copy Gambara's treatise Francesco Panicarola for 1576 Pani carola wrote letter Sirleto thanking him for the work and adding his .

"

of

et

a

,

in

to

as

of

he

;

epopeia sine assentatione

27 : “

20

.

in

is

.

di

;

Di

an

“

is

to

preserved own remarks the discussion the letter MS Vat Lat Bologna 6531 and dated li.8 Settembre 1576. Panicarola reveals interesting filiation among writers sharing the same point view toward poetry speaks Gambara his friend and states that his master was pictura Antonio Possevino who 1593 was write treatise De poësi

,

,

in

,

)

(

308

,

,

,

,

,

."

,

,

,

,

.

commendatione

;

., .p

;

aut veritatis damno Tragica cum Christianae satyrae sine amarulentia dum haeresim vitiaque Poetę sin cerissimi salua charitate inuehuntur Ad cetera denique Poemata scribenda latissimus patet campus sine falsitate sine ineptijs sine mordacitate sine faeditate sed cum fide maiestate grauitate acumine charitate Ibid religionis

PLATONISM All

ethnica .

TRIUMPH OF CHRISTIANITY

:

the teaching

were Jesuits and reflected

three writers

of

the

to the decree of the twenty fifth session of the Council of Trent, 1563 , condemning obscene works of art. He is enthusiastic over Gambara's burning of his own poetry and hopes that other poets — and especially painters and sculptors —will destroy order ; Panicarola makes

specific

reference

their works . The whole tenor of his letter is that he wishes to see Gambara's principles for poetry applied to the other arts ; it is especially important that painting and sculpture should be subjected to control and censorship since the images they present affect the senses even more violently than do those of poetry . On the thesis of the close similarity between poetry and painting , which he finds stated by the best philosophers , he proposes that just as an Index has been established for books , so also one should be set up for works in the other arts . What he is most eager to insure is the limitation of any works which might be obscene or libidinous in their

of being an

exhaustive

of

treatment

subject

;

the letter has no pretentions

its

materials . The principles upon which such restriction would rest are sug gested by Panicarola , who calls upon the authority of the ancient saints and upon the suggestions made in the Decree of the Council of Trent . Clearly ,

.

necessary

made those excisions

to of

set

he

,

re an

,

as a as

is

.

a

of It

-

of

of

,

in

the Accademia Fiorentina six

to

,

of of

it

to

merely extends Gambara's arguments the other arts useful illustration the spreading this ultra Christian point view presentation thinking current within certain restricted milieu the kind Agnolo Segni revised for publication his When 1576 lectures reduce

,

“

of

of

,

by of

poetry

the words

“

be

At

.

the definition

of

of to

;

of

an

Thus the addition

—

of

of

a

of

its

in

.

In a

as

of

)

of

it

is

.

stressed

spirit

in

no

.

as .

at (

.

”

he

A

in

of le to

four lectures He died the same year and the Ragionamento sopra cose pertinenti alla poetica was not published until comparison really essential differences 1581. the two texts21 shows poetic theory Although cuts out some the basic philosophical general material such the outlines Platonic theory the summo beginning bene the the first lecture the general position does not change Nor does differ result curtailment some passages presenting specific arguments view toward broad lines the point chapter points the art the one outlined earlier this certain there are significant alterations the text but their importance should not over the series from

and

”

of in

, of

of

,

)

309

a

delle diuine con

dalle passioni nociue

. "

&

loro affetti

,

da '

."

&

,

(

animi humani

stress

Cinquecento

",

di

è

di

purgare

gli il

44 . : “

), .p di

., .p

58 : " à

in (

(

),

“

,

22

23

fine

del

to

intended only

&

,

be

of

at a

"

may

See my Nuove Attribuzioni manoscritti critica letteraria Rinascimento III 1952 247–49 Ragionamento 1581 ella imitazione delle cose humane spirito diuino orazione fauolosa versi secondo furore Ibid

of

,

to

,

harmful passions

" 23

of

emotions and 21

it

so

.

,

in

of

,

in

is

it

“

”

human and divine things means fable making discourse verse according the divine furor and spirit 22_ merely brings another the terms which had been frequently used original expansion the version The later place the final clause purging human minds this definition that reads to the end their imitation

POETIC

THEORY

utilitarian end which had always been recognized . In any case , the gloss upon the total definition need not be revised , nor was it by Segni, in the light of these alterations . His general vision of poetry as an art inter mediate between philosophy and history24 still obtains , and Plato remains the dominant master , who explains and complements the terse and elliptical Aristotle . Some of Segni's ideas were certainly known to Lorenzo Giacomini by 1576 , for he had a copy made of the original lectures of 1573. Yet it is difficult to see any direct reflection of them in his own lectures Della nobiltà delle lettere e delle arme , read to the Accademia Fiorentina in 1576 . His problem in the three lectures is to discover the relative worth of letters

in the first lecture he outlines his procedure : “... it will to discuss virtue in general , both active and contempla tive, and , since the virtues are habits of the soul , to discuss the soul and capabilities and moreover happiness for the virtues are the causes happiness This outline describes the general character the discussion

and of arms ; early

,

of

;

25

.”

, of its

...

be necessary

”

by

to

arms whereas ,

of . to " I

of

superior

of

constitute the contemplative sciences would

be

:

its

I

in

of

which throughout remains vague and abstract and only occasionally ap proaches the specific problem poetry literature and have indicated Chapter general conclusions those branches letters which

is

.

to

be

the ones which merely lead the kind action represented arms would inferior them The general supposition that philosophical disci —

,

,

in

of

.

of

it ,

—

of

plines which determine the ends and the modes action take precedence including poetry which merely serve over whereas ancillary sciences the ends action are less meritorious Giacomini remaining within his generalizations and considering poetry only terms the ends served ,

of

all

...

in

,

his

,

to

.

an

as

,

61 .

,

he 26 is

and

n .

. i, .p

chap

31

MS Ricc 1539 fol 132v

,

25 24

See above

26

in

. ”

of

.

is

a

,

introduces third person who speaks nobody who does not know that this relating partially the form and the character and the action any also classify person whatsoever These preliminary distinctions allow him prosopopeia the figure which interested imitation Along there

in is ,

speech

any representation

his when anybody own person imitation One imitates

an in “

in

in

a

sees imitation the broader sense object the more specific sense

;

He or

.

imitation person

as

.

)

in

.

(

I

,

its , in

.

of

the typical Platonic attitudes toward the art one The Accademia Fiorentina also heard two years later 1578 Francesco Bonciani's Lettione della prosopopea have analyzed Horatian elements Chapter VI From Plato Bonciani borrowed above certain ideas on represents

...

, in

un

.

an

;

le

:

; n . et 29 ,

18

. i, .p

)

310

."

di

:

,

quando altri nel suo ragionamento introduce terzo che'n Imitasi ancora nel che non sappia questa essere imitatione che che sia l'attione l'abito

(

niuno forma

, e

la

...

, : e è “

, et .

,

sua persona fauelli riferire partitamente

et

,

, et

,

, et

.”

.

. 2 : "

ragionare della virtù Fonds italien 982 fol sarà necessario poiche virtù sono habiti dell'anima della contemplatiua vniuersale della attiua ragionare dell'anima delle sue potenzie della felicità ancora poiche sono cause della earlier discussion and for felicità See also above chap

MS B.N. Paris

PLATONISM

TRIUMPH

:

CHRISTIANITY

OF

by

he

is

.

,

institu

the Uniuersales

Filippo Mocenigo considered briefly

the , ,

.

II,

V ,

of

by

,

,

."

a

of

,

de

,

ac is

in

.

the arts

“

,

in

The work was first published 1581 question Contemplatio Cap XIIII and the passage Pars Magistratuum qui artibus praeficiun entitled De artium omnium Starting tur fontibus from division the arts into the perfect ones and imperfect being the ones the former those which create means the

of

the regulation

it .

of

a

,

to fit

very considerable work

hominum perfectionem

of

problem

the audience

of

short passage ad

a

In

a

serious lesson useful

tiones

ideally the requirements for poetry since concealed under which imitation

exterioran

,

a

him

pleasurable

to

This form seems presents

a

to

,

to

of

of

by

;

in

its

civilizing func with other Platonists , he defends poetry on the basis of antiquity but insisting that one tion makes the argument specific early times the devices used the wise men educate and domesti prosopopeia cate primitive peoples was the animal apologue form

to

of

to

be

to or

,

no

as

be

as

.

of

or

to ,

an

,

,

a

product which remains the latter being limited only artistic activity having the activity Mocenigo sees the imperfect arts their sole end appeal They productive may one several the senses applicable they may effect beyond that upon the senses some or

,

, in

in

as

to

a

in

,

In

.

pleasure further use some cases the appeal the senses may result spectator person engaging for rather than for the the activity

to its

,

of

,

.

of

of

be

.

to

,

of a

,

,

to

.

addition the latter's pleasure Such arts the dance choral singing singing and instrumental playing belong the latter category whereas tragedy comedy and other poetical works combine such pleasure the spectator with higher function This would seem the building character and moral strength Both the pleasurable aspects art and

. "

.

27 as

,

by

in

an

be

as

in

,

of

)

1581

(

GIROLAMO FRACHETTA

as

“

it ;

of

educative possibilities demand that the magistrates the city intervene they must drive out the useless and indecent arts control well the indecent uses the arts according will established the laws Plato's suggestions the Republic are here echoed incidental way

a

,

,

,

,

;

I

,

,

In

the same year 1581 Girolamo Frachetta published work which enters much more fully into the Platonic current than the last few which have been discussing this was his Dialogo del furore poetico whose inter locutors were Frachetta himself Giovan Battista Pona Prospero Bernardo

to

:

is

to

is ,

all

in

of

.

is

to of

.

of

and Luigi Prato The problem the dialogue double discover whether Plato's theory the divine furor reconcilable with other things say about poetry and which Plato himself has ask whether the theory interpretations presented itself tenable Two Plato are connection to

is

it

inhonestas artes necnon inhonestos ,

,

)

311

(

), .p

: "

."

,

(

expellere inutiles Institutiones 1581 529 artium vsus prout legibus sancitum erit

ac

27

at

of

,

of

,

with the first problem one asserting that Plato's statements about the poetry are consistent impossible art the other insisting that accept the same time the doctrine the divine furor and the banishment

POETIC

THEORY

the poets . Pona is the champion of the affirmative , and his argument may be summarized in this way : Plato does believe completely the theory of the divine furor ; the poet writes not through natural causes but through a divine inspiration coming to him from God via the muses . If at the same time he banishes the poets from his Republic , it is because of the special conditions of the Republic and because of certain characteristics of poetry .

of

When the poet speaks under the influence of the furor he can speak only the truth , and this should be desirable in any state ; but he may speak this truth in the guise of an allegory which , because it is not intelligible to the

young and the ignorant , would thus not be desirable . The Republic , accepting only what is perfect and wishing to use poetry for pedagogical purposes , could not admit poetry of this kind . But poets also speak , at times , for themselves , on the basis of their purely human capacities ; and at such times they may err and may introduce lies into their poems. They may seek the pleasure of their audience , especially through such forms as tragedy and comedy , and in so doing they may depart from the mission assigned to them by the state . Any of these contingencies would disqualify them all

.

is

it

,

of

a

in

of in

in

it

,

all

from participation in the labors of the Republic . Pona insists that Plato's poets and statements are to be taken absolutely : the ban affects entirely poetry the Republic and the conception was necessary defensible the light belief the divine furor

,

.

in

.

to

,

of

Through most the Dialogo Frachetta himself takes the negative posi tion He cites Castelvetro and other scholars the effect that Plato could not really have believed divine inspiration For divine inspiration would mean truth and truth would mean good poetry and good poetry could to

,

.

at

as

,

,

;

be

,

,

.

be

not possibly excluded The ban however applies only bad poets and certain fictions and lies that must considered bad poetry these things were not only not true they were not even verisimilar and neither Plato nor his readers accepted them such the time Being bad and false is

,

of

of

in

of

,

he

by

the conversation

,

in

of

.

)

a

.

(

I

a

of

in

to

of

stating and they conclude poetry not only are more acceptable the keeping with Christian theology and the reason but are also more views Christian reader shall treat these discussions Aristotle later chapter that Aristotle's theories

of

carry the major part

,

of

,

of

.

In

.

.

a

is

or

;

they could not result from the divine furor hence either the ban un justified the divine furor itself fiction Frachetta chooses the latter alternative Throughout this argument contrasts the position Aris support totle with that Plato using the former his own points the dialogue other interlocutors intervene and view the later pages

,

.

is

(

) of

a

,

312

)

(

of

of

Il

,

of

its

15 ), to

.p

I,

its

(C

In

comparison poetry and history already studied interesting Lionardo Salviati's dialogue Lasca 1584 poetry from view The Platonic point for attack upon the art comparison ends the two disciplines which begins innocently enough addition hapter

PLATONISM

TRIUMPH

CHRISTIANITY

OF

all

:

,

.

of to

,

28

.”

is

have

epic poetry

,

is

which com equally prudence and the

is

,

to

be

to

admit that the proper end the most magnificent form

of

:

its

as

"

“

It

,

by

.

of

by

....

it of

by

or

or

,

...

it

to

purging passions and correcting manners makes itself useful but accidentally and not through primary concern.29

an

in

of

the epic

,

in

an

,

is

of

The essence the argument here that the special case poetry serves accidentally the domain end which falls

of

,

the city

the

of

it

"

I

;

in “

by

the arts

is a

in as

...

the state and

all

just

of

poetry said the proper end because the other forms are governed some way other the needs the city secondary But such cases derivative end Whereas seems that primary intention the work the epic poet concerns the good the republic

of

good

But there

goal

seems necessary

monly conceded

prudence

for the epic poem seems also

some doubt about this difference

prudence

history

“

that

is

of

“

proper

" ;

our behavior will

of

to

is

be

:

of

,

on

in

of

,

;

with a condemnation of poetry on scores the attack indeed springs principles from stated the first stages the argument Among other poetry history their the basis are differentiated and distinctions poetry purge passions ends that our souls the and assure that

ethics and

or :

it

be

,

is

.

,

?

Is

of

its

,

be

in

of

essentially politics The important end which falls the domain question and the one upon which the attack will later founded this properly serving poetry capable ethical end whether political

on us is

As

.

its

so

: "

, it as

of

is

of

,

is

,

Il

responsible for presenting the argument Deti the interlocutor who incapable compared with serving that poetry end history has the weakness not carrying conviction For history believes

.

be a

,

it

is

be

corrupting influence

.

of

,

, is

in

on

character and

a

it

a

by

,

as

so

us

in

As

in

,

it

is

accompanied

we

no

:

,

still havior

,

a

,

.” 30

a

by

it

us

by

.

,

,

is

to

believed true and poetry held fiction ... the poem moves more than history does but the emotion ends with the reading History any means arouse poetry does but the contrary does not much thing which my personal belief persuaded leaves not brought poem poetry about for the pleasure involved brief passing and costly the sense that involves great loss time Worse

;

renderci ben costumati

. "

";

animi dagli affetti

, e

gli

.

do

we

,

( , “ il ), .p

.pp

purgar fine prudenza il

Il

Ibid

Lasca 1584 and for history fine

11 del la : “ il

28

29

as

,

quickly When poetry puts forward the virtues benefit results for since recognize them false not found our actions upon those good examples

, e

.

,

di

...

...

.

, di si è

,

ho ,

si

il

, si , ed

ed

31 : “

....

il

di

. . . .

, si fa

i

, e il

de '

:

le

primo riguardo 30

lo

sia la ,

:

il "

,

il da

.,

poema eroico che per piu magnifico reputa comunemente 11-12 prudenza altresì concedere che diritto fine ben esser del comune impercioche anche l'altre guise poesia detto diritto come tutte l'arti sono ordinate per alcuna delle maniere beni della città Ma cotale fine conseguente Ma l'opera dell'Eroico prima intenzione col ben della repubblica par che riguardi purgarsi passioni col dirizarsi costumi vtile alla città ma per conseguente non par

]

:

,

il

La .

:

si

il

la

.”

la

il

313

(

:

,

si

la

,

la io , a

,

ci

lo

ci . , .p

poema Ibid Perchè Storia crede cosa vera tien per finzione poema commuoue piu che Storia ma commouimento cessa con lettura Storia per gran pezza quanto contrario non sollieua Poesia ma lasciaci persuasi cosa che dal poema secondo che credo non s'adopera

POETIC THEORY

of

is

);

(

of

.

or to

by

it is

,

its

On the contrary , by showing us vice the poet frequently does us much harm . For vice is completely the prey of the passions , and these passions constitute properly the power of the poem : it excites them , it works upon them , it exercises force damage over them with respect them that poetry excels Nor this punishment kind compensated blame vice within the poem for our , it

,

of

31

,

the verse the sweet these are sulphur and pitch

to

all

harm

.

;

of

;

,

of

the song the excitement the dance augment which the fire and the flame are ready ness

of

the beauty all

the imitation

,

The pleasure

,

,

? ”

about them

is “ in

;

it

to

it

,

to

desire without wishing hear out the argument seizes suddenly upon what pleases and accepts for true but when unpleasant things are involved has thinking recourse reason and says These are mere stories what's the use

its

it

;

it

by is

,

.

to

be

of to

,

of

by

its

its

in

is

of

of

if

of

is

of

It

be

will noted that the presentation the virtues inefficacious while capable producing undesirable effects that the vices because appe inherent weaknesses the audience which tends led tites rather than reason Another weakness this same audience inability consists reason about what sees hence the relationship ,

a

to

common among the complete lead

is to

way

as is

such

a

but Salviati generalizes

–

.

a

,

of

it

the young and the ignorant

it in

,

—

the audience

Platonists

to

of

of

it,

of

poetry through verisimilitude reality the false objects truths conception escapes and does not learn the intended lessons Such

(

,

of

, .

Il In

to

of

—

of of

of

in

as

.

a

-

as

the art

of

it is of in

poetry The state such not involved the special kind commonwealth with the Republic specific functions reserved for poetry but the governing disciplines politics and ethics are brought bear upon the judgment the art through disciplines light poetry his inter Salviati decides these the condemnation same way

VI ,

he

,

(

an

to

of

to

of

, in

.

of

)

in

of

locutor Deti that one should completely abandon poetry favor the history superior art Since Torquato Tasso himself had indicated the Allegoria del poema affixed the 1581 edition his Gerusalemme Liberata that meant the Chapter poem allegorical aspects s ee educative function have his a

re

in

,

,

la

ne

:

I

on

his

of

,

a

As

La

.pp

31

of

).

(

di

in

.

of to

),

.p

applying such 206 his critics and commentators were not long criteria his epic One commentator Scipione Gentili made few marks this character his Annotationi sopra Gierusalemme Liberata Torquato Tasso 1586 commentary result stanza presents poetry the following theory the ends

del

:

,

la

.

lo il

ci

,

: e il

in

,

lo

in

è

il

.

,

: “

.,

puo lasciare Ibid 39–40 Poesia del metterne auanti virtù niun guadagno conciosia che per falsa riconoscendola noi prestamente sopra quei buoni esempli non facciam fondamento Per contrario col dimostrarne vizio spesse fiate nuoce assai Poeta preda agli affetti questi affetti sono propriamente Perocchè vizio tutto sforzo

:

vampa

:

, la e la

,

:

,

]

,

,

: e

gli[n

in

si

,

si

,

pece che crescono lo'ncendio ,

, e )

(

314

la

Il

?

son tutti zolfo

."

,

,

la

in

,

,

il ne ,

lo

.

:

il

solleuamento del ballo tutti stanno per nuocere ,

canto

il il

fa

e

la

:

,

poema quelli eccita quiui s'adopera quelli esercita questa parte sua possanza puo ricompe sormonta Poesia Ne col biasimo col gastigo fatto danno sare poscia che l'appetito senza voler vdire piace discorso subitamente prende quel che spiaceuole ricorre alla ragione come vero riceue ma verso dice queste son fauole luogo pensarci piacere della imitazione vaghezza del verso che dolcezza del

PLATONISM But what

TRIUMPH OF CHRISTIANITY

:

is more important

is the fact that the true and proper end of the poet

no other that to profit by introducing the virtues and extirpating the vices from the souls of the citizens . He brings this about by purging them of those passions from which a great proportion of adverse events are born and depend . This purgation was indeed known and praised by Plato , who called it Kadapuov ; to say nothing of Aristotle , who put it in his definition of tragedy as the proper final is

of the

cause

latter . 32

The conflation of Plato and Aristotle , so familiar in the century, is here presented in a highly abbreviated form . The whole theory of purgation is developed at great length by Lorenzo Giacomini in his Sopra la purgazione della tragedia ( 1586 ) ; but since much

of the text concerns the interpretation of Aristotle , I shall treat it at a later time. There is , however, one sense in which the discussion is pertinent in the present context, and that is insofar as purgation , for Giacomini, is related to the utilitarian ends of poetry . Indeed , he sees the introduction of the purgation clause in Aristotle's definition of tragedy as a direct answer to Plato , an attempt to counteract the banishment of tragedy and distinguishes two ends for poetry : one , which we might call Aristotelian , is the making of the poem according to the the tragic poets . Giacomini

principles of the art ; the second , which is “ Platonic " in a vague way , is the of the poem for other purposes , “ whose consideration with respect to their causes belongs to the politician who forms the state or who governs use

it . " 33 When , therefore , he forms his own definition of poetry , he includes in it two phrases which state these ends, " made according to the poetic art ” and “ proper for purging , for teaching, for giving recreation or noble

And when

he seeks to identify the four causes of poetry , he according sees the final cause ( to Aristotle ) as including “ purgation , teaching, rest from the cares and from the affairs of life, and finally the diversion of the mind in the intelligent man , which is found in the perfect and joyous knowledge of the excellence of the work . " 35 ( The same ends diversion

. " 34

are also applicable to painting and sculpture .)

32

:

a

used not for one single end but for many

,

be

we say that poetry should

is

his

These distinctions provide Giacomini with a satisfactory solution to the compromise position and utility ;

debate about pleasure

e

il

.

de '

gli

,

,

e

da

,

quali

per

le

considerazione

de

la

,

la

33 : "

,

), . " .p

1597

loro cagioni

."

e

Orationi discorsi politico 33 : "

34

pertiene

(

, In o . , al .p

33

di

.

di

il fu

La

.

e

Il

di

, e

le

di (

,

è

), .p 3 : “

1586 Ma cio che piu importa s'è che vero dritto fine del poeta giouare inserendo sterpando vitij dagli animi non altro che virtu cittadini quelle passioni che gran parte dalle cose auuerse nascono che conseguisce col purgargli dipendono quale purgatione etiandio cognosciuta lodata Platone dimandandola Kadapudv per tacere quale Aristotile mise nella definitione della Tragedia come per causa finale essa propriamente Annotationi

,

, a

, , e e da

è

da le

,

,

)

(

315

ad

a

il

"

"

,

."

: “ il la . "

, ., e .pp

de la 35

Ibid fatta secondo l'arte poetica and atta purgare ammaestrare dar riposo nobile diporto purgatione l'ammaestramento riposo Ibid negotii 33–34 molestie diporto del animo nel huomo intendente che gioconda vita perfetta finalmente cognitione del eccellenza del opera

of all of

its we

POETIC THEORY to the different kinds of poems and of listeners , which ends profit for the rest and relaxation the mind from affairs and labors and the noble diversion the mind through the knowledge we

,

of

include under the name

;

of

according

,

all as

,

to

of

,

to of

.

to

—

of

of

classify these profit the exquisiteness the work along with Aristotle along with purgation and teaching Those first two ends are common kinds poetry but one intelligent men the other indeterminately them belongs ,

is

it

to ,

to

do

.

to

of

everybody The last two are proper special kinds poetry since purgation takes place only where strong passions are expressed and certain that some poems improve character.36 not have the power benefit virtue and

of

46 ).

all

of

.

(

p

be

at ,

is

were used too frequently

would purgation that was

of

a

would bring about

it

if

to

for

it

,

or

else

it

;

, in

moderation

not effect purgation

it

the right time and

if

“

as

,

he

is

lot

to to ,

in

,

,

in is

we

in

of

utility are the specific ways which the last kinds found later the discourse where Giacomini points out that poetry how calamity falls see the even the great and that we learn wherein true happiness found For these reasons concludes that the politician far from exiling the poets profitable should accept tragedy the city used properly and Some indication

effected

to

to

he

be

at ,

37

.

of

,

of

,

."

neither useful nor necessary Once again within the framework Platonic presuppositions Giacomini arrives conclusions divergent from integral the considers those his opponents conclusions that philosophy Aristotle 1586

)

(

GIASON DENORES

'

à

its

of

is

to

&

de '

,

il

et

la

'

.

of

in

:

, of

...

we comedy

,

,

vn

of

tragedy

la

e'l

,

,

di

,

da le

, e

da

, i

de la

si de la

his point clear

the parts

the case

diciamo essa douersi vsare non per fine solo ma per molti secondo quali fini tutti comprendiamo sotto nome giouamento deli vditori negozij l'allentamento del animo fatiche nobile diporto

, , e e

34 : “

poemi riposo

., il de p .

Ibid

&

36

have already clearly shown that most

diuersità poiche

,

of

every part and every feature each these ends

of

them

the service utilitarian ends make general statements about these

for the achievement His final summary makes

device .

determined

in &

,

la

,

by

a

,

specific

to

reduced

Whereas most theorists are content ends Denores insists upon seeing

in to

.38

is

)

of

poetry

(

the whole art

poem

or

,

of

,

,

et

is

,

,

of

rather their fusion and con Plato and Aristotle The juxtaposition again characteristic que fusion Giason Denores Discorso intorno principii cause poema tragedia accrescimenti che comedia governatori delle heroico ricevono dalla philosophia morale civile striking republiche which this text the extent still But more 1586

,

;

giouare alla virtù

,

ha

di

certo non hauer forza

se a

a

le

,

. al

,

la

,

è

&

,

alcuni poemi

, o se

."

51 il : "

,

a a

,

gli

e si

esprimono gagliardi affetti migliorare costume

37 di

.

, gli e

la

la

esquisitezza del opera con Arist giouamento riduciamo mente per conoscenza purgatione quei due primi fini sono poesie come anco l'ammaestramento tutte comuni ma vno pertiene huomini intelligenti l'altro indeterminatamente ciascuno speziali poesie poiche purgatione non luogo altri due s'appropriano non doue

)

(

316

il

.

."

:

of

ne

,

a

26 ,

,

la

a

la

è

il

, e

a

. i, .p

,

38

, o

,

&

., .p

Tragedia come gioueuole Ibid douere Politico accettare Città tempo adoperata perche troppo frequente vso conueneuolmente con misura non purgherebbe farebbe purgatione non vtile necessaria See above chap for brief discussion this text

PLATONISM

OF

CHRISTIANITY

39

in of

is

of It

.

in

in of

to

,

to

"

to

,

of

its

of

,

of

of to of

,

,

of in

by

...

definition modeled

men who lead civilized lives the poetry Present necessarily the definition tragedy and containing Aristotle's definition

40

in on

directed

. ”

cities must a

,

is ,

of it

the arts and the professions be

,

to

all

wise

course

takes various forms

,

—

and

-

present almost every page present various contexts high genius poetry where certain men the discussion the origins directed the art after natural beginnings the public benefit and utility which according reason and according the sayings the statement

the work

present

on

of

general

.”

no

of the heroic poem - change of fortune , reversals , recognitions , charac thought practically serve The other purpose than this utility

-

ter ,

and

TRIUMPH

:

),

to

,

of

in

,

,

by

,

,

a

in

.

of

,

a

to

a

of

.

of

of

its

of as

a

.” : 41

Present

,

virtuous men and the conservation modified way the definitions the poetry various kinds The modification comes about through the assignment specific audience special kind each genre state particular kind and needing indoctrination Thus comedy will have good republics

in

the imitation

to

to

good living

of

, , of

of

(

to

: “

purge them the listeners this final clause order means pleasure direct them the soul and the most important passions

,

,

of

,

,

,

of

of in

“

to

purge the spectators pleasure and the ridiculous end means those troubles which disturb their peace and their tranquillity through the falling love wives daughters and sons through the deceit and

to

;

of

to

43

to

. "

,

of

"

42

-r

to

,

of of . "

,

of

of

,

by

in

to

,

to

,

servants pimps nurses and others their kind and cause preserve that well egulated love private life and wish popular republic Tragedy will seek purge the which they live pity and pleasure spectators make them terror and means abhor the life the tyrants and the most powerful men And the treachery

them

to

to

“

& 43 :

to

wish

44

. "

-

in

,

to

tyrants and live under their state and abhor the dominion preserve that well regulated monarchy which they live 39

to to

to

of

,

of

of

to

as

its

goal heroic poem will have inflame the listeners the love and great the desire imitate the magnanimous and glorious exploits good and legitimate princes and persons and make them content

le

,

le

,

&

&

,

,

.”

, le

,

di

,

, ad

&

di

&

tal

,

'

, da

,

,

&

,

de '

&

,

da '

,

de '

a

di

,

le

& , &

]

[

317

.'

&

di

a

,

al

de '

&

,

&

,

de '

la

,

si

&

,

,

&

il de '

."

de '

&

,

gli

la

de '

."

gli si

,

: “

37 : "

&

., & ., di , .p .p

,

la

,

"

,

,

la

,

&

,

de '

,

,

gli

."

,

al

: "

., .p

42

43 44

&

( " al , ), la la , .p

lv :

36 : " ."

&

., .p

41

de '

40

., , , .p il

gia habbiamo apertamente fatto uedere piu parti della Discorso 1586 tragedia della comedia peripetie del poema heroico tramutation fortuna agnitioni costume sentenza non tender quasi altro che alla utilità per sentenza Ibid beneficio alla vtilità publica alla quale per ragione profession d'huomini sauii deono hauer mira tutte arti che uiuono accostumata mente nelle città per purgargli col mezzo del diletto piu importanti affetti dell'animo Ibid per indrizzargli ben viuere alla imitation degli huomini virtuosi alla conseruation delle buone republiche per purgar spettatori que Ibid 36v col mezzo del diletto del ridicolo trauagli che turbano tranquilità per gl'inamoramenti loro quiete delle mogli delle figlioli per gl'inganni figliole tradimenti seruitori ruffiani delle nutrici per fargli inamorar della vita priuata quella altri simili conseruation ben regolata republica populare nella quale troueranno per purgar spettatori per mezzo del diletto dal terrore Ibid 36v dalla miseri per fargli abhorrir piu potenti cordia uita tiranni per accender Ibid ascoltanti all'amor desiderio d'imitar l'imprese magnanime gloriose gran personaggi legitimi principi per fargli buoni Signoria contentar viuere sotto loro stato abhorrir tiranni conseruation 91 quella tal ben regolata monarchia nellaquale troueranno

POETIC

of

THEORY

the genres has a special message for a separate

of

as

as

,

in

at

the materials

in

be

,

.

absolute badness would defeat the poetry must presented

of

or

.

,

poetry Similarly

of

be ;

to

be

,

to

,

goodness

these characters absolute purposes

.

by

be

in

be ,

,

be

to

construction will

of

content and ,

its

,

its

group of determined that message For example the heroes the epic because they are presented models perfect every respect but those admired and imitated must punished tragedy and comedy because their vices and failings are warnings midway between the absolutely good the spectator should length the reasons why and the absolutely bad Denores develops Since each

people

of

of

the poet The rapidity .

allotted

:

of in

)

(

of

the brief period time twelve hours the change itself provides lessons

to

is

of

,

In

.

is

of

,

to

a

as

way engender the marvelous for this brings about pleasure and such utility tragedy and comedy the marvelous pleasure the instrument achieved through the accomplishment the change fortune within

a

of

,

a

to

so be

be

an

of

in

eye may

turned into

? 45

,

,

the blinking and murder

their greatness almost

into exile

death

,

of

every form

extreme ruin

,

of

?

be

of

in

in

Who then the spectators would not inflamed desire for private living seeing many times these plays that brief period time every trouble private citizens may changed into the greatest happiness and who would not hate the tyrannical life the more powerful seeing and considering that

of a

be

to

,

all

in

,

So

.

a

is

,

in

.

,

;

to

is

of

of

The more leisurely adventures the epic hero show that even the life desired than full uncertainties and hence less private existence they also serve illustrate even more vividly his numerous virtues Thus the episode the particular form which the mar velous takes the epic itself pedagogical device also forms

the perfect man

by

(

to

a

in

all

a

A

as

of

of

to

.

to

.

:

as

of

plot Aristotle distinguishes them recogni produce the marvelous and both enable the tion and reversal Both help poet bring about the reward the good and the punishment the way perfect plot will combine wicked these elements such simple and intelligible moral and political lesson Denores communicate are the other constituents

,

be

(p .

on to

).

"

of

poetry

,

to he

,

.

all

,

in

"

of

to

...

la

).

,

be

or

showing how excellent epics tragedies could illustrates his meaning drawn from Boccaccio's tales about the Conte d'Anversa Gismonda and Rosciglione One requisite for perfection will always the capacity the materials riceuere moralità 29v Following Aristotle's order the Poetics Denores then passes the was associates decorum other qualitative parts Character with which

to

,

to

is

of

to of

in

"

de '

17 : “

45

all

.

it

the listeners

a

of

forms

of

or

especially generate the minds knowledge and experience human him under not also useful actions ... for who will ever say that distinguish the good stand these qualities and conditions men and

introduced into the spectators

vn

la

? ”

in

,

, in

,

in

,

in

&

,

di

al

,

in

si

,

318

)

in ,

in

(

si

,

&

de '

si

de '

,

in

è

., .p

spettatori che non dunque desiderio della vita accenda Chi Ibid queste rappresentationi priuata riguardando spessissime volte cosi breue giro che riuolga priuati vita tempo ogni trauaglio che non abhorisca somma letitia piu potenti vedendo tirannica considerando che ogni loro grandezza quasi possa riuolger vccisioni essilio morte estrema ruina batter d'occhio

PLATONISM

TRIUMPH

:

CHRISTIANITY

OF

from the bad , in order to know himself and the ways of human life ? ”: 46 This is a separate end , served by a separate part of the poem . Thought , which he translates by “ sententia ” and “ discorso ,” has ( curiously enough ) a utility of a different kind , insofar as it may be of service to those of the citizenry who devote themselves to the study of eloquence . Diction and verse , finally, contribute to the production of the marvelous ; besides , when

they are properly adapted to the character and the station of the per sonages , they enhance the verisimilitude and hence the power of persuasion of the work . Every part of a good poem will therefore be included in the poem ;

.

to

All

.

of

or

be

be to

as it

or

,

of

to by

to

or

of

it

its

utility may serve either the general moral instruction some particular end peculiar itself More judged proper over the handling each part the poet will correspond corresponds improper the lesson the needs fails because it makes a contribution to

end

,

,

as

.

"

of

.

,

a

the criteria for the poem will necessarily linked ethical and political considerations Indeed Denores insists that was good moral and political philosopher Aristotle treated only those forms poetry which derived their principles from moral and civil philosophy He himself applying the same principles declares that such forms the tragicomedy

its

of

of ,

be

it to

the

so

of

.

of

by a

he

,

,

in

of

:

of

,

he

.

,

is

;

does

Platonization the latter document problem the usefulness poetry the state 1586-87

)

(

TOMMASO CORREA

prin

within the skeleton complete achieves kind limited only the limits the

and since Aristotle's Poetics

the poem

of

the arrangement

no of of

answer those who had raised doubts about The every aspect defence needed He applies

axiomatic art and every part is

it it . to

,

of

to

of

.

never seeking

ciple

to

a

,

profit they are like sophists who pursue false and deceptive form Throughout this analysis Denores holds tenaciously his poetry never doubting the social usefulness true

their art principle

of

.

of

,

at

;

of

,

,

as

of

and the pastoral are not worthy attention since they are monstrous artistic compositions and more damaging still they cannot possibly teach poetry Their authors are not the kinds lessons which are the province poets their audience and not best since they seek only the pleasure

of

its

,

is

its

It

all

.

of

a

at

(

),

,

'

& to

In

Denores work Tommaso Correa's De antiquitate digni entirely conscious poetarum differentia 1586 position that will Platonism and seeks once explain Plato's favorable begins statements about poetry and justify his banishment the poets contrast

tateque poesis

:

,

as a

.

to

,

its

.”

)

(

319

degli ascol anchora buone dalle sia

,

de '

,

,

.

&

,

la

&

,

...

&

: “

&

se

, il

,

.pp

.,

46

spettatori Ibid 30–30v per generar specialmente negli animi esperienza delle attioni humane tanti cognition chi dira mai che non comprender tutte queste qualità distinguer utile condition d'huomini prattica del uiuer nostro cattiue per cognoscer stesso

le gli&

of

its

,

a

of

poetry composed the traditional elements noble rank among the arts status first philo sophy bringing wisdom and manners uncouth peoples But immediately with defence ancient dignity

THEORY

all

POETIC

To

to

by ”

to

be

“

of

It

.

of

belongs only poets are worthy a distinction : not such praise those poets whom Plato called the ministers and interpreters the gods and should denied those who sing vacuous verses appreciated only in

these celestial and divine representing the existence corruption removed from the senses and the body The middle level the peculiarly human one representing combination the highest and the lowest things man's nature the divine and the knowledge The lowest bestial the realm the mind reason level the dark region the body and the senses where man close the

.

of

,

to

is .

,

a

a

of

.

,

of

the expression

which Plato spoke

the great deeds

of

of

is

or in

afflatus

as

all

.

is

It

of

is

first and most excellent class man and

. his of

.

poet responsible for the The divine furor poetry denotes the presence God highest capacities This that furor From comes such poetry celebrates .

of

,

,

by

appearances visions phantasies To corresponds category poetry and

says Correa

,

,

,

of of

dominated

it is

;

of of

kind

these levels

of in

,

is

is

it

is

;

of

lower animals each

a

all

by ,

is

man

,

God

in

of

.

of

soul The highest

of

of

to a

,

explain these differences among poets Correa appeals metaphysical principle the three levels existence the human .

the vulgar crowd

in

this category

of

.

,

of

all

In

belongs

:

,

to

us

it

our ancestors and serves render and our progeny more perfect The poetry the prophets and the seers that sacred letters and religious writings

, in

to , in

by

, .

in

this first kind

to

are referred

of

,

by a

to

, in ,

to

,

in

in

of

poetry were active almost those holy prophets whose works part predicted many future things part revealed sacred letters who part cele mortals many things about God and about heavenly matters part exhorted men religion and brated excellent deeds divine warnings part deterred them from vices All these things those men the other virtues heavenly spirit and deservedly these things have done inspired and impelled this kind

we have

poetry.47

of

It

.”

,

by

of it

;

,

48

,

of

is

,

,

of

to

is a

,

it

...

to

many ways

reason

in

of

,

inferior

: in “

the first the product things and knows the nature delight things sayings takes honest deeds and and concerns finite philosophical and moral poetry providing knowledge admoni kind tions virtue warnings against vice examples are furnished

The second species

the human faculties

.

his

of

.

in

its

,

:

divided into two kinds

illi

47

is

to

as

all ,

Imitation itself

.

it

,

his ,

the lowest form

poetica

,

Theognis

,

To

,

Empedocles Nicander and Lucretius springs from opinion dark and ignoble because and visions belongs such poetry has basis imitation Aristotle devoted Poetics exclusively this type and Horace most Ars

Tyrtaeus

,

;

: " In

in

,

,

& ,

,

320

res

in

&

dictis delectatur

,

&

honeste factis

,

,

cognoscit naturam rerum 11

]

includit

[

682

: ." "

., .p

Ibid numerum

&

."

,

.

&

;

ad

:

,

de

,

à

ad

48

), .p

(

De antiquitate 1586 679 hoc genere poeticae versati sunt omnes fere sacri sacris litteris habemus qui partim futura multa prędixerunt vates quorum monumenta partim partim excellentia facta Deo rebusque celestibus multa mortalibus aperuerunt partim monitis diuinis religionem caeterasque virtutes adhortati sunt partim exornarunt vitijs deterruerunt Quae omnia illi afflati instincti caelesti numine fecerunt merito hoc primum poeticae genus referuntur

PLATONISM

TRIUMPH

:

CHRISTIANITY

OF

kind of true and exact imitation which renders each and every thing exactly

a

as it is ; the second , contrived and invented , expresses

each thing , not as it actually From this there arises one form of poetry which has rested upon opinions about true things , and , by putting forth a likeness very close to those ( things ] and distinct , is completely is , but as it appears to be , or else can appear to the many .

adapted to the imitation of the truth . The second form , which , by following only that which seems and appears to be , sets before their eyes not the true likeness , but a kind of simulated appearance of the likeness , is completely adapted to pleasure . The former alters nothing by imitation , the latter inflates slight defects to huge dimensions , restores the listeners by the kind of language and the variety of harmony , completely changes the feelings of men and the nature of things , because it renders them by imitation not as they actually are but as they can seem to be , since it is a kind of sketchy outline , not a finely wrought conception of things.49

them

instruction

;

is

its its

in

,

see

accept these distinc adequate explanation

to an

Correa seems in

is

in

he

as

of

contradictions The same Correa published 1587 his librum arte poetica Horatij Flacci explanationes already analyzed Chapter 215 Since purpose here obviously was provide commentary Horace the problems poetry are seen from special point view Plato enters only incidentally and illustrative capacity There are however several

Q.

de

).

,

,

,

;

of

a

on p .

VI ,

in In

,

to

of

various

Indeed Plato also

: “

kind

that the poets are not permitted

teaches that they must observe the law

in

of

is

,

. ”

Platonic

"

“

is a

“

sees above

of to

,

but

is

.

on

or

Ars poetica 1-23 where Correa This propriety

conuenientia

the Republic affirms

whatever they wish priety There exist

he

Book

of

IV

,

a

of

all

connection with the remarks principle propriety kinds and among them there

in

,

interest with respect Plato and perhaps even one modification the theory presented the De antiquitate Plato first called upon

in

of

points

.

in

an

a

of

to

his

(

,

in

."

“

Plato's

the first two categories

.

.

of

the end

pleasure but the end the third tions sees them Plato and

to

For

subdivision

second

of

,

is

Correa goes on to say that the first two types are not only approved but are highly recommended by Plato ; whereas the third is accepted insofar as rejected and excluded and banned first subdivision concerned

say

pro

49

of

to

be

in

,

.

fact certain circumscribed limits beyond which they may not pass lest things said contrary the accepted norms life and &

id

, , &

.

)

321

,

,

naturam rerum quia non quales sunt sed adumbratio quaedam non subtilis rerum ,

,

(

. "

,

,

varietate recreat commutat animos hominum quales videri possunt effingit imitando cum cognitio

sit &

,

&

.

,

-

,

ad

ac

ad

,

,

.

ad

&

,

,

&

&

,

,

,

est ,

: “ ;

.

de

,

,

.,

pp 682–83 Ibid Imitatio quaedam vera recta quę talem vnamquamque rem effingit qualis ipsa est altera simulata ficta vnamquamque rem exprimit non qualis ipsa est sed qualis videtur aut multitudini videri potest Hinc existit vna forma poeticę quae veris germanam illarum expressam similitudinem rebus opinionibus nixa proponens tota quae sequens imitationem veritatis accommodatur Altera tantum quod videtur apparet non similitudinem veram sed quamdam simulatam speciem simili voluptatem comparatur tudinis ante oculos ponit tota Illa nihil immutat imitando ingentem magnitudinem extollit exigua mala auditores verborum genere hęc concentus

POETIC

THEORY

of mores . ”50 Correa seems to imply that in the Horatian context the preoccupations of Plato , largely religious and ethical , are reduced to a political and social level . So in his statement of the ends of poetry the Platonic elements of instruction of the young and formation of character

to the traditional rhetorical “vt admoneatur , delectetur, p doceatur ” ( . 93) . But he passes from attenuation to denial when he dis cusses the subject of the poetic furor . It will be remembered that in the De are attenuated

Correa had situated the operation of the poetic furor in the reaches of poetic activity , as a manifestation of the presence of in those poets who wrote religious and prophetic poetry . In the present

antiquitate highest

of

all

God

.

of

is

:

according

the opinion

of of

had touched upon the argument that

to

Since

,

he

,

,

on

work , however, he but denies the existence such divine intervention Commenting speaking lines 309–10 where Horace the necessity for knowledge Correa writes

so

,

a

.

of

,

it is

as

, , is

he

, he

of all

.

in

,

,

a

poet through nature and through Democritus the poet became kind furor this twentieth precept declares whence springs every praiseworthy Knowledge poem having decorum says just the mother the fountain things meriting praise poetry And and the origin also the nurse far

of

"

.

51

of

is

it

a

.

In

“

,

is

he is it

from the truth that the poet furious that nobody can write well unless has knowledge fact essential that every good and proper form writing should derive from knowledge things

of

he

of

.

is

.

a

;

an

as

commentary

1587

)

is

to

,

oration Del furor poetico 1587 also devoted the reaches the same practical

, it in

a

in

.

of

,

title indicates Lorenzo Giacomini's delivered before the Accademia degli Alterati problem poetic inspiration And sense

,

its

As

LORENZO GIACOMINI

he is

of

providing the purely theoretical essentially practical treatise

(

in

the realm regards what he

on

longer

in

be

of

in

of

in

by

is

ex

undoubtedly The difference between this text and his own treatise plained the fact that the latter had denied the existence the furor poetry the second and third levels and had asserted that Horace himself was concerned only with the lowest these levels But part the explanation may also here no the circumstance that Correa found

.

to

,

it

if

de

,

.iiij

50

;

it

if

:

of

as

in

conclusion had Correa the Explanationes and for the same reasons For Giacomini recognizes immediately the practical consequences as suming that the divine furor exists does then art and principles and his practice are useless does not then the poet must address himself

&

,

à

ne

,

ex

&

.

sic

,

vt

est ".

322

nisi sapiens

.

,

,

sit ,

bene scribere nemo possit rerum promanet necesse

)

(

,

furiosus poeta apta cognitione ex

,

verò abest

vt

Tantum

&

.

altrix

Omnis enim oratio bona

&

, vt

&

xx .

,

: “

.pp

.,

si

."

,

,

.

.

in

6 : “

,

,

(

), .p

Explanationes Rep negat permitti poetis 1587 Nam etiam Plato dicere quicquid voluerint sed spectandam esse conuenientiam docet Nam quidam sunt circunscripti termini vltra quos egredi fas non est moribus aliena vitae institutis dicantur quasi quodam furore poetam fieri attigerat Ibid 101–2 Quia natura sen precepto declarat vnde effiorescat laudabile tentia Democriti hoc decorum carmen origo Est inquit sapientia omnium laudandarum rerum mater fons etiam est poetae

PLATONISM

TRIUMPH

:

CHRISTIANITY

OF

,

.

,

"

by

If

.

is

;

.

?

all

,

or

or

:

of

not simple

the humors

of ,

of

in

to

,

,

,

...

;

of

to

to

of

an

,

he

to

in

order operations

merit and praise for the poet Giacomini's answer

poetry eloquence rise the heights temperate spirits inclining rather towards the cold ones has need think investigate discourse and judge continue such

The man who wishes philosophy

,

" a

be

,

theory

a

it

involves instead

art

are poems produced

furor how then

the

all

divinity destroys

cept

in

as

be

)

of (

or

,

he

.

no

,

all

art with greater seriousness and application . After presenting the conven tional arguments for the divinity of poetry, Giacomini points out that this theory involves a separation of poetry from the other arts ; for, whereas the other arts would have particular principles and fixed subjects poetry would have neither He sees reason for making this distinction Poetry says may verse and both fable expressed defined simply plot and verse may produced separately Moreover the con fable

;

,

of

abundance

. 52

be

,

in

so

he

in

to

,

,

humors neither weak nor easily dissipated but stable and firm which move through vigorous and powerful imaginations conformity with the idea conceived within himself but order execute well needs warmth that the expression may effective seeks

“

,

of

,

by

,

,

“

is

it

;

”

of

”

.” 53

is

it

doing what Such concentration furor and divine

the poet may

the soul upon the Idea to

of

individual

if

we denote reasoning and

,

born not

,

of

of

furor we mean that fixation

that internal incitement and movement judgment but the natural disposition

or

:

of

called

a

be

by

if

...

sense

or

itself

a

remember

in

an

,

,

“

spirits are the ones that give the effect These latter heated estasi rapimento furore smania because them that the soul fixed and operation forgets every other object and does not even intent upon

,

it is

inspiration

and only the

(

of

given men

that

on

,

of

a

subject having

individual act to

an

be

an

to

with

.

natural one for Giacomini , de e la

a

is

thus essentially

.pp

poetry

.

their lives

of

The mechanism

with

special favor accorded

in

,

God with

a

given moments

at

poets

)

of

But this furor has nothing the part

soul combined

do

:

I

lent Nature mean the human temperament.54

52

it

is

,

it

,

in

be

the instrument which united then there will furor the poet and will called divine not without reason proceeds from Nature which since the daughter God and from excel

,

in

ha

,

,

in , e se

;

,

ad . ”

, o

,

a

ne

,

,

ha

, al

: “

,

...

,

di

61 60 : di : " " se

., , e, .p

di

53

),

(

la

di , o

de

e

In

Orationi discorsi 1597 59–60 l'huomo che altezza Poesia del Eloquenza giudicare Filosofia dee salire per pensare inuestigare discorrere bisogno spiriti temperati che inclinino nel freddo per continuare queste operationi spiriti non deboli ricerca copia facili risoluersi ma stabili fermi che muouon con vigorosi potenti fantasmi ma per bene eseguire secondo l'idea conceputa bisogno calore accioche con efficacia esprima ,

ne

se

, , e o

da

,

di

è

, e

il

."

a

)

(

323

,

,

da

è

al

di la , tal

,

, e

da

da

e

si

di

."

,

affisata

se

ricorda ., .p

54

si

Ibid

& ne

ogni altro oggetto intenta vna operatione scorda quello che faccia stessa per furore intendiamo quel affisamento del anima del Idea Ibid vero proprio discorso giudizio denotiamo quel incitamento mouimento interno nato non quale ma naturale proprietà del instrumento vnita harà luogo furore nel poeta figliuola sarà non senza ragione detto Diuino poiche procede Natura che Dio soggetto Natura eccellente dico dal anima humana temperamento congiunta pure

THEORY by its

spectators

by

.

listeners

is

not two natural causes One which men identify themselves

to

by

an

He explains the power that the art has over supernatural intervention but appeal

or

POETIC

is ,

a

to

)

(

of

.

,

,

to

,

of

In

.

a

by

of

,

of

sympathy that movement the soul poetry with the passions others the case this identification favored and augmented second cause the delight which comes men through their senses from imitation The poet wishing produce these principles the ends proposed effects operates on the basis and upon

all

of

;

of

of

(

is a

the poem

).

of

in

subject matter the words and ideas employed the construction His work art rather than nature the poet possessing completely the principles his art will succeed better than one who has special

is

it .

in of be

,

In

.

of

,

to

I

of

a

an

to

In

.

).

be a

(

by

in

is a

of

,

a

arts

a

a

of or

natural inclination instinct toward This true for the poet rather than some and the fact that man talent becomes thing else result various circumstances and accidents some cases and only for short poems the minor genres precept and principle may replaced imitation which take mean imitation the works achieving perfection others But this can never sufficient means the major poetic forms order become excellent poet man must merely

,

of

.

sees

in

he

.

effects usually attributed

,

be

he

in

in .

of

a

in it ;

there were others who did not But

to

to of

believe

,

all

,

,

,

of

a

of

he

besides

,

;

"

55

“

those natural virtues

and memory

of

the soul intelligence judgment docility subjects and must know everything about long expert presents Giacomini list the sciences which must including the whole range disciplines arts and very special place Giacomini thus occupies the ranks those who discussed the inevitable Platonic question the divine furor He does not possess

poetry the kinds

he

by

,

by

,

in

of

.

is a

a

in

such furor and investigates them order completely natural find some other explanation That explanation one which the innate qualities the poet supplemented what has learned about his own art and about others and taking into account the

the accidents

of all is

It

to

it

the poet rather than

to

the art

of in

causes and their effects

to

”

“

an

.

,

be

to

of

poetic means produce the natural capacity the audience moved pleasurable excitement and enthusiasm which result from poetry explanation also artistic the sense that tends ascribe .

divine intervention

)

1587

Jacopo Mazzoni's Della difesa della Comedia Dante written around 1585 and published respectively 1587 and 1688 are their Platonic Giacomini's oration insofar sense complementary elements are concerned For whereas Giacomini had centered his attention upon the question the other two interested the divine furor Mazzoni major Platonic problems the definition poetry imitation and the ends involving already the latter the banishment have discussed some length

, a

in

in

,

)

(

324

Giudicio Docilità

Memoria

his ."

quelle naturali virtù del anima Ingegno

work that relate , e

Mazzoni's

,

those aspects

to

at

I

.

of

)

pp

.

24–26

70 : "

Ibid

., .p

ss

(

I,

Chapter

,

of

is

:

of

,

of

.

to

as

,

in

di

of

The two parts

(

JACOPO MAZZONI

PLATONISM

TRIUMPH

:

CHRISTIANITY

OF

i.e. ,

classification of poetry . It springs in part from a distinction which he finds in Book X of the Republic, concerning the three kinds of objects that lend themselves to the activity of the arts . These are Ideas (which are contem plated ) , Works ( which are made ) , and Images ( which are made by imita tion ) . In this connection , Mazzoni finds it necessary to define imitation , and the first attempt produces this statement :

is

)

its

to

.

56

,

in

no

therefore they were properly called imitative

by

;

resemble

,

its as

,

.

an

],

to ”

(“

represent and

bit -

or bit of

as

be

,

an

those which Since , then , we see that the artifice of the arts of making ( produce object such the the maker directed toward something other than mere representation mere resemblance therefore we shall say that they cannot called imitative But those arts which have their object the Image object that has idolo have other end artifice than

in

"

of

of

of

is

57

as ,

Mazzoni of representation

.

a

,

imitation

”

term

to

mean only dramatic representation analysis also admitted other forms that Plato after due concludes

the

“

. "

of

use

or

of

poetry has origin image The kind idol imitated our artifice and born our fancy and our intellect through our choice and our will This statement immediately raises the question Plato's seeming

of ..

an

it is is

,

at

a

to

of

is

:

,

of in

is

A

in

to

or

it

as

represents things exactly they are and way any poetic other with dissimi art imitate them error the larity.58 later introduced further restriction upon the imitative arts unity object point the that leads the the and this the discussion unity the work

of

rect and proper when

:

a

.

;

is

to

he

,

to

all ity of

wished indicate the superior imitations but that representation dramatic narrative imitation thus the genus for poetry To Plato also Mazzoni ascribes correlative principle imitation cor

;

is

is

in

is

59

to

it

as .

...

10 : al “

to

of

Pt .

" )

['

of

be

....

it is

of

of

or

it

of

all

be

56

of

of

the Image idolo which the object one thing and only one thing this not true either the Work the Idea The Image which their object represents better that one thing will the more worthy and excellent They limit themselves only imitation which made the representation the unity the thing which they wish resemble is

the proper nature and the excellence the imitative arts that should

, e , la la ."

di

, e

,

di

,

, & al

,

.

ha

hà

in

."

. 1

15 : "

;

.

.pp

.

.

., .,

Ibid secs 20–28 58 of Book III

quale suol nascere dalla nostra voluntà nostra chaps also secs 45–46 The same ideas are discussed again and .

58 59

.

l'origine dall'artificio sec nostro dal nostro intelletto mediante l'elettione

, ., e

Ibid phantasia

,

sic )

a (

,

si ad

,

,

57

,

,

.

),

(

I

,

Della difesa 1587 sec Perche adunque veggiamo che l'artificio dell'arti rappresentare facitrici viene indirizzato altro che solo solo rassomigliare però diremo ch'elle non potean nomare imitatrici Ma quell'arti c'hanno per oggetto rappresentare l'Idolo hanno vn'oggetto che non altro fine nel suo artificio che rassomigliare però furo debitamente imitatrici appellate

)

a

325

.

ne

,

,

si

(

.

...

."

è

, a

, e

,

è,

il

, e

la

: "

propria natura Ibid 644_45 l'eccellenza dell'idolo oggetto dell'arti imitanti ch'egli sia d'una cosa sola d'vno l'Idolo che non auuiene dell'opera dell'idea oggetto loro sia tanto più degno più eccellente quanto che rappresenterà meglio quella ristringono solamente rappresentare l'vnità cosa sola imitatione della quale fatto della cosa che vogliono rassomigliare

...

POETIC

THEORY

These notions with respect to imitation stand in close relationship , for ideas about the ends of poetry . If, ideally , poetry should

Mazzoni, to Plato's

.

its to

is

is

it

,

in

,

or

as

of

an

to to

, ,

is

it

,

,

,

is

.

in

of

to

no

a

of

,

no

its

is

;

it

60

. ”

is

to

"

to

"

,

of

its

is

pleasure

,

because

,

of

,

its

subject and and because the credible which which end since being under that genus and concerning that subject and because frequently con seeks that end distinguish strained admit what false One should however this relationship sophistic from another one which has the truth and true philosophy and which deliberately engages the telling lies poetry which To this latter kind belongs species not real poetry and is

proper genus

,

:

“

is a

of

is

It

of

.

to

,

the possible

,

,

its

object only the truth practically also required imitate the false and the credible and the latter indeed best object For poetry appeals audience common and ignorant men and can hope present not them the same materials would the sciences the same way thus that Mazzoni classifies the art under the rational faculty sophistic art because sophistics Poetry imitation which have as

in ,

it

of

:

as

In

the philosopher has the right

considering poetic pleasure

.

to

,

is

improperly satisfied When this second end expel poetry from the state The two ways follows are distinguished

.

it

of

;

of

,

.

;

, ,

to

its

of in

place

is

the state this the kind that Plato banished For pleasure springing from good and perfect imitation addition end poetry also serves another end that relaxation from labor since does faculty jurisdiction politics also falls under the civil and under the

which has

to

by

to

of

.

a

by

is ,

. 61

as

,

its

,

as to

placed under the praiseworthy type and subordinates appetite reason the civil faculty has utility end

...

virtuous living But qualified the say that that kind poetry which was sophistic that under that which orders game authorized and considered ,

,

at

ing the same time harm and danger civil faculty we shall necessarily have

as

it for of in it is of to to

,

,

of

,

is

the first way pleasure the end that poetry which was placed under the blameworthy type sophistic brings disorder such the appetite through excessive delight making every way rebellious reason and bring

princes and magistrates

,

,

and men

of

,

60 : “ la

;

60

which presents

tragedy

heroes

to

to

of

:

to

of

as

of

,

in

,

we

this

as

,

,

recognizes

of

utility the Laws and kind distinguishing may interpret the Republic three kinds indeed poetry bringing separate utilities people epic poetry three classes great which teaches virtue and glory soldiers through the examples

Mazzoni

says

Plato

il

,

,

,

è

,

il

è

,

fù

e , e

,

è

sia

danno qualificato

al

,

di

, è e ) , è

Ma

,

viuere virtuoso

se si

in

tutto ribcllo dalla ragione recando insieme nocumento considera questo diletto inquanto ch'egli regolato

diletto rendendolo

....

,

di

(

: “

il

."

al

.

.,

a

61

, lo , e e

a

, e

il

,

è

.

Pocsia

,

e

lo

.,

sec

è

per l'imitatione arte Sophistica che suo genere proprio per per credibile che suo soggetto diletto che suo fine poiche per esser sotto per rimirare quel fine viene astretta molte quel soggetto quel genere per esser intorno falso volte dar luogo quella Poesia che collocata diletto fine Nel primo modo Ibid secs 73–74 tale che disordina l'appetito con smoderato biasmo poich'ella sotto alla Sophistica degna Ibid

326

)

(

."

,

, , e

la

fù

,

di

, e

,

,

,

, ci

bisognerà necessariamente dire ch'egli dalla facoltà ciuile indirizzato all'vtile con Sophistica lodeuole cioè riposta sotto seguentemente che quella specie Poesia che sottopone l'appetito alla ragione considerata come gioco qualificato sotto quella ch'ordina dalla facoltà ciuile habbia per fine i'vtilc

PLATONISM

TRIUMPH OF CHRISTIANITY

:

all as

to

various types

These

,

the passions

legitimate

utility are

of

62

80 ).

of

actions which end happily ( achieved through the arousing

sec .

power the terrible cases of the fallen great , so that they may seek modera tion and remain submissive to the laws ; and comedy , which consoles the middle and lower classes for their mediocre fortune by showing them and hence the further ques

proceed

as

.

,

of

he

is

;

.

in

of

.

them

,

,

ex .

is

an

to

he

or ,

.

).

at

in ,

,

of

of

( .pp

is

,

he is

up

,

in

of

,

an

if

—

does present whenever is

is

his own voice

it

inferior degree But imitation nevertheless events are related that did not really happen since verisimilitude imitation the truth 133-34 great Mazzoni treats the question the passions virtue and vice length discussing mores and character Book IV where Dante's in

speaks

:

.

,

to

, of

apply them practically and seeks the defence the Divina Commedia argument reopened and The whole over imitation for example poet panded New distinctions are added The does not imitate when

he

of

is

in

of

support the Laws cited the latter contention the Difesa repeats many these ideas develops some

to of of

II

Book VII Part

be

to

to

of

,

be

.

of

II

III in

to

in

of

it

is

tion arises whether this fashion Plato condemns arousal the passions Books and the Republic poetry accept does Proclus But Mazzoni contends that the method provided proper properly passions able here that the moved and says that Plato's true intention was condemn the stimulation certain passions while allowing others exploited the proper circumstances

to

to

by be of

,

,

of

of

or

of

.

a

of

Plato who does not contrast between the position He sets any representation admit wickedness bad character and that poem

I

an

of

to

in

learned

by

its

citizens

to

As

.

of

the basis

allegorical

:

,

to

those critics who attempt defend poetry interpretations Mazzoni rejects their argument

on

a

of

”

a

it .

63

,

in

to

of

him

,

and pleasure moreover lived with the obstinate wish not allow any kind enter into that Republic knowing that pleasures are linked together such way that one necessarily draws another after Whereas Aristotle's practical one following the common practice state was men for in

the civil education instituted

as

( of

since

a

for

.

25 by

is is p .

I,

need for the poets

everything that was necessary

"

is

see

(

no

republic where there

is by

)

).

of

the

"

"

;

of

,

passions Both seem Aristotle who admits the whole range him right point supported for Plato's view reason and Aristotle's Chapter poets the practice translation the explainable passage The difference between the two Mazzoni speaking have already noted the fact that Plato terms ideal

...

is

at

,

Bk .

to

.

in

be

to

its

by

,

,

63 62

,

a

as

be

good one since there this defence should not admitted too great danger that honest things will come expressed ugly and dishonest words Without doubt appetite nature inclined evil would stop the outer

327

]

(

",

i

,

di

. 9 .

II,

,

in

da i

si

di lui , e

is

5 : "

(

II

), .p

ati ,

di

in

Pt .

,

of

tragedy and comedy chap discussed later Della difesa 1688 essendoche suoi Cittadini imparauano tutto quello ch'era necessario nella educatione ciuile instituita nel resto viueuano ostinati non quella Republica sorte alcuna piacere sapendo che diletti song voler lasciar entrare modo insieme conca che vno tira dietro l'altro necessariamente

The usefulness

THEORY

its

POETIC

to

of

.

a

that defence

.

I

of

the appropriate time

.

,

of

indicate the particular character

Dante And his appeals part his determination defending Dante shall at

to

in

,

of

a

,

the critics

of

some

of

of

the art

Plato for answers some these questions are any source whatsoever the means seek to

it

,

Mazzoni's lengthy work consciousness the poetry undoubtedly because these were of

by in

everywhere

by

is

There

moral problems raised the problems raised

in

covering as at a thing adapted to pleasure and this way would rather receive harm from the apparent meaning than benefit from the hidden one.64

I

to

re

in

is

11 ).

.p

(

I,

(

),

”

“

of

topics The range Platonic somewhat extended the De poetica libellus incerti auctoris 1588 Federico have attributed which Ceruti see Chapter For not only does Ceruti touch upon such

of

his

, of

of is

so . ,

do

to ,

,

of

in

to

poetry

verse

all

,

it is

as

divine

countries cities mores proper and possible

we

,

and

very vast

human and

. 65

,

it

of

,

of

the stars

,

of of

,

of

,

,

all

,

in ; a

the constellations animate beings

things human insofar conclude readily that the material and extends everywhere and that undertakes treat divine matters

word From which division laws

God

the former treats

;

the other TTPAKTIKń

of

,

calls Dewpikń

the celestial creatures heaven things the latter instead men

,

one which

of , of

he

.

:

of

in

of

,

,

of

,

the defence

also appeals

of to

;

,

furor

the

is he

as

poetry the ban and the kinds the his classification Plato for assistance art which indeed one the most interesting contributions little treatise He declares that Plato divides poetry into two kinds matters

imitation

an

he is a

:

of

his

to

of

accept the inclusion Ceruti's willingness divine matters among the poetry indicates general position defender and

subjects

De

, “

in

,

of

as

on

he

its

,

is

66

art

to

è 22 : "

."

to as

so

,

64

“

interpreters and cites the Minos the poets the they use poetry chastely and modestly long direct the minds every virtue the young The itself divine and Ceruti traces ",

necessary

gods

of

.

he

“

to

be

”

,

ac

of

,

he

apologist and selects from Plato those texts and passages which provide poetry Thus praise for the art poetices vtilitate his first chapter dignitate among includes Plato the writers who have declared poetry not only pleasant and useful for young people but indeed

di .

, e ,

, e in

che giouamento

."

dall'occulto 9-10 vna quae Dewpikn altera syderibus astris rebusque diuinis

.pp

65

,

mento dal senso manifesto poetica 1588 De

si

al ( sic )

,

al

,

in

E

., .p

si

Ma questa difesa non deue ammettere per buona essendoche troppo dell'honesta ch'ella venga dichiarta con brutte dishoneste parole senza dubbio l'appetito inclinato per sua natura male fermarebbe nella scorza questo modo più tosto riceuerebbe nocu fuori come cosa appropriata suo diletto

Ibid gran pericolo

,

,

de

;

,

,

de

, &

res

&

;

de

,

,

,

,

;

,

: "

,

.

,

,

,

,

&

,

."

tradant

]

328

ad

&

,

;

,

,

iuuenibus

[

,

omnem honestatem

&

non modo iuuenibus iucundam vtilem sed etiam necessariam esse interpretes deorum appellat modo poeticen castè pudicè formandos

1 : "

"

., . " .p

"

animos

and ad

66

Ibid

ducant

),

(

,

&

,

,

,

de re

de

quae TTPAKTIKTvocatur illa coelitibus coelo haec autem homine regionibus ciuitatibus animantibus moribus legibus denique rebus omnibus humanis quoad licet fieri potest pertractat Ex qua diuisione facile colligimus poetices materiam amplissimam esse per omnia vagari quae diuinas humanas carmine tractandas suscipiat Deo

PLATONISM

TRIUMPH OF CHRISTIANITY

:

of

( v .

by

art

origins to Moses , Noah , Abraham , and other holy men who used it for religious purposes . In fact , the term “ divine ” appears in almost every description of the poet or of the content of the offered Ceruti

precepts

drive the shadows

its

to

he

",

,

and instructions ignorance from the minds ,

of

et

by sit

means

of

to

teach men

wisdom

,

to

bring them

of

his

It

, “

: “

the ends thus

to

.

In

,

be

).

6

.p

for several examples follows almost necessarily that the ends useful ends and Ceruti multiplies statements utility Chapter VII quis finis poetae officium Quod states the art will

by

):

on

it

:

poetry those who are taught the soul and teaches that no man

to

of

by

it

,

Two extremely important things happen for first indeed serves that restraint ,

“

I

”

so

(

is

in

XI ,

is a

of

men

ex

.”

industry

67

difficult and sublime thing which requires labor and Chapter The formulation more specific Quantum poetices facultate emolumentum percipiatur give the chapter titles because they reveal much about the general approach and souls

,

it

.

68

,

be

or

so

,

of

by

of

by

or

,

all

,

to

-;

should accuse his own fortune harshly and boldly and the other hand opens the way magnanimity prepare your means which you may per dejected mind against the accidents fortune that you will not excessively moved anything turbed

a

in

to

16 ). he

is

.

,

it in

If

)

of

is

he

II

be

,

(

v .

it in

.

,

,

its

in

of

to to

of

poetry Earlier the same chapter Ceruti points the special efficacy pleasurable aspects have this kind ready appeal instruction since eminently useful the young For these reasons believes that poetry the state Plato Book the Laws and that far from being encouraged and cultivated banned from the state should one ask why Plato should have condemned the Republic the answer that .p

(

a

its ,

,

,

of

,

to

In

,

as

condemned only evil and wicked poets not the art whole escape such blame the poet must praise virtue decry vice order follow decorum and provide the kinds instruction which will serve

notable

Poeta the divine

of

(“

in

of

.

a

of

" ),

,

,

VI is

fairly perfunctory manner Chapter that when Ceruti discusses the nature the poet he makes no mention naturane an arte an vtraque fiat furor putting the question rather terms the Horatian in

The other topics are treated

It

.

ends

he is a

ad

,

In

.

its

he

he

but

does

the ancient

,

be

,

of he ,

a

., ex p . 8 : "

., .p

in

67

68

such

or ;

in

he

,

of As

.

narrative dramatic and mixed representation way that might easily reflecting Aristotle anonymous tradition general the rhetoricians distinction so

-

of

.

to

it

IX ,

in

,

in

art versus Chapter He mentions the divine afflatus only where uses explain the powerful effect which poetry has upon the minds audience for imitation reflects the Platonic tradition only the nature

theorist who

,

& ,

,

ac

ea

:

,

17 : “

,

.”

,

,

&

&

,

,

pręceptis sapientiam erudire ignorantiae Ibid institutis homines docere tenebras hominum mentibus atque animis depellere arduum quiddam sublime est quod magnum requirit studium atque industriam Ibid Duo preclara illis contingunt qui poetica instituuntur primum enim

."

)

(

329

; ,

ita

,

ad

,

,

,

ac

,

vt

ad

,

docetque nulli moleste moderatione animi famulatur temere fortunam exprobandam magnanimitatem qua componas animum alterum viam struit omnes fortunę casus non deijciaris conturberis nihilque commouearis

POETIC

THEORY

has Plato's writings fairly constantly in mind , but who selects from them those dicta that would seem to rank him with the anti - Platonist defenders

of poetry rather than with

the Platonic objectors . a

,

he

of

"

his

"

,

in

il

in

Se

Strozzi (

subject

)

the

Younger concerns himself with much paper more restricted his sia bene servirsi delle favole delli antichi delivered before the Accademia Fiorentina 1588. For the speaks are the ancient myths concerning the gods favole which Giovambattista

to

.

of

a

of

.

in

'

to

or

of

inquiry centers about the possibility the desirability Christian using these myths modern times The work thus belongs the religious point literature that considers poetry from view Strozzi's and

poets

,

be

,

.

,

,

a

,

to

by

all

to

its ,

he

.

of

deny the use

,

,

of

,

is

therefore summarize the arguments those who would says argue that no religion that mythology These men myths contrary can permit the publication own beliefs that the religion especially Christian outlaws fables that these fables cannot possibly produce the effects desired poetry because they are known false and incredible and that they cannot but have harmful effect upon the ignorant multitude But such arguments Strozzi insists do not carry first care

and critics like Castelvetro have already refuted them He him says the Christian religion does not self proceeds counter them First specifically ban the use fables and even admits such mythical personages nymphs and fates Second even though these myths are recognized ,

,

he

as

,

.

as

of

.

to

.

,

conviction

no

no

.

,

in

,

of

.

of

,

a

,

in

,

be

being entirely false they may still poetry and not only effective they may arouse give pleasure they because but also because whole variety emotions This comes about because the actions represented are what move the audience not the names the persons performing the danger from contact with these actions Third the multitude remains

them

all , .

by

be

exclude

Hence

.

to

to

try

to

as

so

ridiculous and impossible

be

it

would

,

be

,

,

,

to

be

;

pagan tales for Christian however simple will ever take the pagan gods imperiled true and real and hence his religious beliefs will not widely disseminated Since these myths are now known

.

to

...

us by

,

in

;

or

be

be

it

Strozzi finds establish norms for their proper use They should introduced only into nonreligious poems whether their subject religious poems they are presumably replaced ancient modern expedient

let

to

,

us

;

in

,

of to

,

let to

in

as

,

as

to

in

,

,

in

to

,

of

as

as

.

,

,

the angels

: “

and other supernatural beings He concludes myths principal subjects for use the and the mythical personages not passing poems but the reference ornament intercalation descriptions comparisons delight examples times order always give recreation the minds cause men marvel and God

a

is

69

. ”

to

de

69

It

to

others our own profit and that direct the whole point perhaps stretching include within the Platonic tradition , e

]

330

,

,

nostro

altrui

.”

giouamento

, e

,

,

,

sempre

[

tutto indrizziamo

à

,

,

e'l

,

,

de

marauiglia

: "

.

),

(

et

In

fauolosi non servianci delle fauole Orazioni altre prose 1635 pp 137–38 per passaggio nelle descrittioni per suggetto principale ma per framesso per condimento tempi nelle comparationi negl'esempli per dilettare per recrear gl'animi per eccitar

PLATONISM

TRIUMPH

:

CHRISTIANITY

OF

Giovanni Mario Verdizzotti's treatise Della narratione poetica ( 1588 ) . It might perhaps have been just as well classified among the rhetorical documents studied in Chapter VI . I have placed it here since it belong about the kinds of ( vaguely perhaps ) in the long series of discussions imitation and their subdivisions . Verdizzotti is not interested , as were Plato and so many others , in the major classification of narrative, dramatic , and mixed modes of representation ; he is concerned exclusively with narration .

In direct narration

the poet himself relates events with

their accom

he

paniments

all

This he divides into four kinds : the direct ( “retta " ), the semidirect ( " quasi retta " ) , the oblique ( “obliqua ") , and the semioblique ( " quasi obliqua ") .

.

,

is

all

at

in no

a

is

as a

speaker And said third person who not himself introduced semioblique narration person introduced but stories are told

byin

,

to

in

his

,

,

In

.

by

II

of

,

as ,

;

in

introduces another person who story example relates such events for when Aeneas tells Books oblique narration things are said and III the Aeneid have been narration

semidirect

...

of

.

so

of ,

.

of

;

or

is

of

of

,

a

,

,

of

depictions painting sculpture embroidery and forth Alongside this classification Verdizzotti makes number remarks which poetry The method indicate clearly his conception the art direct narration that the historian orator but poetry differs from these means

of

an

an

in

of

all

in

of

a

is

of

,

of

,

in

is

in

of

as

,

as

of

he

;

in

,

of

of

in

greater and freer abund the manner discourse which verse with figures thought ance well words than found either the other quality two and the excess the virtues and the vices and the explains and demonstrates other things which the actions the persons

or of

of

all

,

,

,

to ,

of

,

an

as

,

an

,

,

in

his poem for example excessive strength excessive wicked places excessive prudence excessive madness love beauty persons and other things this kind meant arouse the marvelous which accompanies the particulars.70 introduced

ness

“

"

is

it

,

...

what was

is

.

at

,

of

Vergil's summary

the

begin

take place

:

,

the Aeneid

to

Verdizzotti cites the case

of

of

special charm

ning

.

as

,

it is

It

.

or

be

it

so

is

by in

quality since peculiarly poetic Semidirect narration imitation so much that may not used the historian the orator So also for the semioblique form purely poetic since imitative such narra tives these that give the poet his particular character and his works their

it

of

to

in , .pp sl

;

.

of

,

he

If

.

an

as to

,

as

a he

;

he is

is

of

is to a

by

is be

is

completely poetic since kind artistic narration and one which pass beyond the limits the poet alone for not allowed the single action which proposes treat observes this rule the action will poet not proceeding treated him historian For this manner the only thing which distinguishes him from the historian and the orator and this

proper

lo ,

,

di

ha

in

è

,

,

& ,

, :

di

, e

)

& ,

,

(

331

altre cose

de di i

di

la

,

di : "

persone

.” di

, ò

,

luoghi particolari

de di i

,

,

furore amore bellezza merauiglia accessoria la

),

di

,

&

:

,

à

di

, e ò , di e

(

70

per Della narratione poetica 1588 5–6 maniera dire che verso con piu licentiosa copia maggior figure parole che non sentenze come stile vitij questo quello per l'eccesso qualità delle virtù tutte l'altre cose che egli spiega dimostra nelle attioni delle persone introdotte nel suo poema come sarebbe dire vna eccessiua fortezza una eccessiua viltà vna eccessiua prudenza vno eccessiuo questa sorte per far nascer

POETIC

THEORY

art

through this way of proceeding we may learn how to constitute the true definition of the poetic art . 71 ? :

,

in

of

I

,

as

as

of

all

of

an

,

or

.

a

a

to

1589

to

primarily

belongs

it

Although

)

GIOSEPPE MALATESTA

(

.

is

,

(

) by ,

,

a

of

,

to

The poetic would thus seem consist for Verdizzotti four qualities single action figures and imitation the representation abundance superior ornaments including verse and excessive degree the characteristics represented the poet Such definition this have already intimated very close the formulations the rhetoricians and of the Horatian theorists

concerning the dispute

the documents

Gioseppe Malatesta's

is

)

(

,

,

to

of

of

,

all .

is

so

of

.

of

in

,

over Ariosto Della nuova poesia 1589 suffi ciently involved poetry the discussion the ends merit treatment here Through much the dialogue the main interlocutor Sperone Speroni constantly that the end poetry delight alone that one wonders insists

all

”

at

...

a

:

“

in

all

"

"

“

as

of

be

whether other possible ends will considered He defines the subject poetry pleasurable through things matter treated imitation and explains the dilettabili although Poetry with generous this way

,

,

by

.

as

)

(1

:

its

),

(p

of

,

is

of

of ,

,

of

-

a

to

all to

or

to

72

.”

to

we

if

,

73

."

"

of

of

to

or

,

of

things nevertheless these are useful her not the they extent which are pleasurable not Art must direct dogmas and precepts toward the achieving .110 this pleasure and nothing poetry speak the end are the truth else but de light Monsignor Dandino however raises the question utility and poetry Speroni this leads full scale consideration recog the ends possibility utility nizes the three solutions the end served hand takes

an

be

;

,

of

he

To

.

of

,

of

,

of

;

3 )

(

;

”

be

by

"

he

it

to

.

as

;

( 2 )

as

utility and pleasure joint and equal ends pleasure alone objects giovare the end To the first that would not end peculiar poetry since would shared other arts that this would poetry without delight whereas no such presuppose the possibility poetry presence exists and that the imitation the form and soul objects necessarily involves the presence pleasure the second that pleasure

,

.

,

,

of

all

.

he to

.

all

support this theory

.pp

,

says

71

he

to

of

,

is

a

it is

impossible for single thing have more than one end The third proper poetry solution thus the one and contends that the means proportioned pleasure are the end Aristotle Quintilian and Cicero

:

.

lui

la

di

' :

si

&

.

,

i

,

in

, "

la

,

è

,

,

il

332

)

(

150

." le

le

da

: “

,

, ò

la

See also

.p : lei “ , il . fin

."

., .p

“

73

tione

),

(

Della nuova poesia 1589 109–10 tutte cose dilettabili trattate con imitatione se ben Poesia con ampia mano piglia tutte cose nondimeno elle tanto fanno quanto sono delettabili non fanno per non sono Ibid 119 della Poesia secondo vero parlando non altro che diletta

and ò

.pp

72

.”

arte poetica

da &

,

di

lui

,

si

&

di

è

di

da

è

è

: ; "

.,

questa Ibid 11-12 vna specie narratione artificiosa tutta poetica come proposta attione solo propria del Poeta alquale non lecito passar termini dell'vnica Laquale esso così facendo vien trattata come poeta non come historico Percioche questa maniera distingue dall'historico fare quella sola per laquale egli dall'Oratore procedere per questa via vera diffinitione dell constituire viene conoscimento

PLATONISM

TRIUMPH

:

CHRISTIANITY

OF

Does this mean that the end of utility is to be completely denied to the art ? In the course of the discussion , Malatesta admits not only that useful ends may be served , but also that they are desirable . He first admits

of poetry

" or " documento ” may be an accidental concomitant poet may the while insisting that harm and still

be a

do

pleasure ,

a

“ giovamento

all

that

of the

to

,

,

,

;

is so

,

;

,

a

,

,

in

to

"

he

at

:

.

is

good poet The second admission says arts more serious times may have two ends one intrinsic and the other extrinsic for poetry proper end which imitate which proposes for itself indeed delight but frequently another extrinsic end follows elegantly order

to

,

to

,

,

,

in

of

,

is

Whence Poetry which not the least among the arts wished have along with the others this happiness ours and therefore resolved

a

:

to

to

in

by

.” 74

is ,

,

all

;

he

,

of

profit this one namely that The poet achieves his proper end through pleasure only but may also participate the general end proposed help men Aristotle for the arts that achieve human happiness part

bring

,

us ,

;

to

,

mystical and allegorical meanings

all

of

as

us a

,

of

,

of

us ,

...

in

of

.

to

of

by of

as

to

profit the human species insofar that was possible she conceived the idea directing that pleasure hers some way our utility and profit and thus means imitation fiction and verse which naturally delight she might bring tried unroll before such things and subjects considerable utility under the outer bark the fables are hidden and covered many directed toward our good and instruction.7s ,

to

Scipione Gonzaga undertakes

,

of

in

is

." 76

,

as is

his

: “

be

in to

he

to ,

presents After examining the usual arguments own conclusion about Plato ... intention not wish that the poets poets but only with respect should exiled and driven out absolutely the guardians The fault thus the weakness the audience not .

the explanation

his

in

asked why Plato should have banished the

the ways indicated

.

is

,

they are useful

,

.

to

is

,

the dialogue the question

poets

if

of

,

a

—

a

of

poetry with Follows conventional praise caution however that poet should not allow such concerns take precedence over his primary end which Inevitably before the conclusion give pleasure the

in is to

.

of

in a

un un ' le fin

to .

of

),

at

of

be a

,

by

,

to

is ( as

74

in

;

of

no

be

long defence the poetic art and the passage ends with the latter Malatesta's position thus develops from one which there would seem through one evidence Platonism which the Horatian thesis interpreted essentially approved certain theorists least one which Plato himself made defender the utility the art

,

, in

lei si

,

,

."

è

;

di

è

,

,

è

di

,

&

,

si

la

: a : “ " la

., .p

, in ., .p ,

le

75

qual propon bene proprio che Ibid 189 imitare acconciamente per dilettare ma questo segue molte uolte altro fine estrinsico che del giouamento Ibid 190 Onde Poesia che pur trà Arti non infima volle auer parte come questa beatitudine nostra perciò risoluta giouare quanto per potesse altre

,

,

&

,

." ,

."

&

,

&

i

,

&

,

,

& la

,

,

la

di &

..

333

)

,

animo suo non uoler che Poeti siano fuggiti ma solo per rispetto delli custodi

(

256

mente come Poeti

è a di

Ibid

: "

, ., & .p

76

.

, si

,

ci &

,

in

qualche modo quella sua dilettatione all'vtilità alla specie humana imaginossi d'indrizzare giouamento nostro così con imitatione con fintione col verso che naturalmente soggetti tali che potessero apportarci dilettano sforzò andarci spiegando cose coperti molti sensi non picciola utilità sotto alla scorza delle fauole stanno uelati allegorici tutti indrizzati mistici nostro prò ammaestramento discacciati

assoluta

POETIC

THEORY

of

all

”

.

,

in

,

"

is

of

,

all

“

an De

,

VI

his

Unlike his fellow Jesuits , Gambara and Panicarola , Francesco Benci spoke out in praise of poetry in two of Orationes published 1990 Numbers and VII both entitled laudibus poëticae He does not understand how anybody can attack art which mother the virtues and the arts sole parent and mistress our duties and our in

;

;

it

to

,

,

of

...

”

all

of

;

to

its

it

he

to to

77

it

"

. "

praise Rather would for service mankind the past taught men moderate their passions restrain their desires control their impulses hate the vices and embrace the virtues have know ledge and wisdom things -and for the ends which still pursues for the poets mores

,

of

by

of

,

in

;

of

,

to

of

;

of

by

to

good deeds and the blame are totally dedicated the praise bad ones any glory and infamy whatsoever and doing these the magnification things they both introduce the virtues into the souls men and draw out them greed and the vices their very roots and they produce men wholly lacking wholly deserving every honor and praise.78

,

all

to

.

as —

as

,

so

is

,

in

its

to

is

by

it

to

,

of

pleasurable accompaniments poetry ascribable The effectiveness and the ease with which remembered enhanced certain cases the knowledge that the events recounted are true for the Old and the New Testaments which have religious well ethical uses For these reasons Benci believes that Plato's ban was meant affect only false as a

disguise for their wickedness and that Plato recognized himself and recommended the pedagogical possibilities the

of

poets who used the art

, , its

on

In

.

art

of

of

As

a

.

,

,

the sound

the actions presented

its

well

of

,

as

as

men

,

,

words and counsels

of

,

to

:

is

,

,

a

,

of

to

comparison poetry with VII Benci passes painting music and divination compared with the first things poetry definitely superior painting merely gives visual image poetry disposition which adds character attitudes and the deeds the Oratio

sister arts

,

to

of

,

so

;

“

).

(

.p

better since 110 Music moves the passions but poetry does every kind virtue deter verses not only move the soul but impel men

,

its

Platonic

.

of

its

that quality which religion

service

88 : “ in

ed .) , .p

it,

it

for is

he .

of

as

of

a

is

of

,

of in

,

79

. "

warmly and indeed commends opponents most frequently denied 77

as

exercising and sharpening their and are very efficacious Poetry minds thus itself kind divine force useful for the piety and religious observance our for the direction inculcation mundane lives Benci's praise the art thus complete and unreserved them from vice

in

,

&

“

in

,

."

&

in

&

,

:

."

)

(

334

à

."

ac

,

in

&

ad

: "

., .p

79

,

&

:

,

quod cum faciunt vitia radicitus extrahunt virtutes animis inserunt laude dignissimos efficiunt homines omni carentes cupiditate omni honore vitio omne virtutum genus impellunt deterrent Ibid 112 homines excitandis acuendisque ingenijs nimium quantum valent

amplificatione

:

,

,

" ;

ac

,

,

94 : "

89 ,

.pp

.,

...

,

78

&

(

procreatricem illam virtutum omnium artium Orationes 1590 magistram contumeliose inuehuntur vnicam officiorum morumque parentem impetus frangere detestari vitia amplexari Ibid coërcere cupiditates cognitionem and Toti sunt scientiam tenere virtutes rerum denique omnium gloriae cuiuslibet atque infamiae maleficiorum vituperatione benefactorum commendatione

PLATONISM

TRIUMPH

:

CHRISTIANITY

OF

ANTONIO POSSEVINO ( 1593)

With Antonio Possevino's Tractatio

de poësi et pictura ethnica , humana ,

, et sacra , we rejoin the ultra - Catholic , et fabulosa collata Jesuit tradition of Gambara and Panicarola , and we encounter one of those Cinquecento documents which , if they do not dominate last years special character The treatise published least give them 1593 also reply sense Benci whom mentions And while contradicts ,

the

is

,

the

it in

of

,

.

(

as

poetry

.

Possevino's potential

the art because

its

of of

of

whole art

of

so

” ),

Greek and Latin poets ones not far Gambara and

a

he

(

to

to

.

their means

:

in

their ends different ,

in

says are alike ,

he

,

The two arts

poetry

painting

of

six

),

in

the title Possevino devotes himself almost exclusively only the last chapters bearing upon the ends and techniques

also

,

of

.

is

;

all

in

is

;

of

,

glorification Christianity but this must manifested always only poetry acceptable which means that Christian thus the poetry pagan antiquity begins with condemned and discarded Although statement his intention treat both poetry and painting announced be

utility

he

:

is

in

“

,

to

accept his praise Benci refusing the whom Possevino calls ethnic does Panicarola their condemnation the position simply stated approves

go

,

of it of it

.

a

to

a

a

in at

the

cum vera , honesta

,

[

]

be , by

,

,

and

,

,

,

it

by

,

colors catches the ideas from things themselves else these should which ideas imitates lines light dark and background.80

Of

,

,

to

of

as

or

,

,

,

;

by is

of

of

poetry and painting The whole effect reduced two things teaching episodes and delighting and what poetry achieves means narrations eulogies tropes and other such means painting also achieves which using

to it

,

.

is

:

;

all

,

is

these two ends the primary one instruction and the poet should secondary bend his effort pleasure The specific lessons taught are variously stated a

be

of ,

,

. 81

heresies

on

the Catholic religion against

all ,

in

of

in

of

...

to

in

,

the virtues ;

,

of

knowledge

of

a

natural things and mores and through demon greater and men are made some unknown way greatness more excellent and from both these things are derived against adversity against soul and the weaknesses inherent human affairs strength against the fear temperance against lustful desires constancy death

of

through

stration

."

(

,

&

,

eiusmodi deberent numbers

,

,

,

,

,

,

,

docendo

:3v , “ è

81

.)

,

ex

;

,

,

,

,

;

&

(

Tractatio 1593 tota vis Poeseos atque Picturae duobus absoluitur episodijs encomijs tropis delectando quodque Poesis efficit narrationibus alijs idem Pictura facit quae coloribus vtens ipsis rebus aut quales hae esse capessit notiones quibus lineamenta lucem vmbram recessus imitatur Page represent my own counting ;

on

,

on

,

;

1v : "

ed .) , .p

80

of

,

on

,

“

From Lucretius one may leam lessons the contempt for death avoiding love controlling the desires calming the emotions and achieving tranquillity the soul about sleep about the rising and setting

,

)

(

335

re

...

ex

ac

, &

,

:

,

,

,

."

,

,

., .p

morumque Ibid rerum naturalium cognitione virtutum explicatione homines efficiantur nescio quo modo maiores atque elatiores vtraque animi magnitudo contra aduersa rerumque humanarum imbecillitatem fortitudo contra mortis temperantia contra libidinem timorem constantia Catholicae Religionis contra haereses paretur

POETIC

THEORY

of the stars , about the eclipses of the sun and the moon " _and so forth.82 Man will therefore learn from poetry divers lessons which fall into the general categories of ethical, religious, and scientific . The fact that the lessons are of so many kinds leads Possevino to a conception and a classification of poetry that are not conventional for his century . In the first place , he rejects the idea that imitation is necessary for poetry . Rather than accepting the authority of Aristotle , he turns to Lambin , who declares that the distinguishing features of poetry are not only imita tion , but also rhythm , figures , certain kinds of extraordinary words , and the divine genius of the poet . The purpose of Possevino’s rejection of imitation is to permit the inclusion , among the kinds of poetry , of com .

by

a

,

of

,

he

his

positions in verse which are not necessarily imitations but which serve the ends already noted . Possevino proceeds to classification two steps poetry into true and false the true poetry First cites Plato's division being that which delights by teaching decent things and which has

,

of

(p . ,

)

:

3 ).

,

is

It

.

its

(1

is

to

of

by

,

laudable subject matter the false being that which insinuates obscene and wicked things means attractions this latter kind incidentally which Plato said have banished from his Republic True poetry following categories then subdivides into the divine which Moses

by

,

3

,

; ( 2 ) )

(

;

noted that this

,

to

,

,

to

mixed classification based partly upon ,

will

is a

be

It

(

3 .)

.p

to

,

as

all

.

,

,

by

as

be

proposed the best examples natural represented Empedocles Lucretius and Fracastoro and moral exemplified Phocylides and Pythagoras The last category also includes economic and political poetry and tragedy comedy the epic the lyric such genres epigram they and the when are made lead virtue and exclude vice and David may

.

subject matter and partly upon effect

the only poetry which Possevino cares condone the true category preferred and his the religious Sacred poetry the best

of all : ,

is

is

fanciful wrappings

are fables rather poetry great and

the Psalmists

is

spoke true who called

it

that

he

so

of , of

,

.

its

every honest form

of

,

of

the other poems which consist only

than poems ... Moreover the utility great advantage for learning things

,

.

David

,

,

Moses

.

is

,

to

Obviously

the

,

so

it

,

,

its

so

.

it

,

of

of

nurse and the teacher the minds the young Certainly the very movement impresses itself upon the and rhythm the verses since attracts the soul memory making the mind receptive through diversified charm that causes ,

it

.

is a

of

to

83

de

de

de

11 : “

82

.

cares

it

to

forget what the mind almost never has perceived well Moreover also great solace for setting aside one's the praise God's work and

incites

, ,

de

,

,

de

,

...

ex

.

vt

"

,

de

,

,

&

de

3v : " ,

83

de

., .p

Ibid morte contemnenda amore fugiendo coercendis cupiditatibus comparanda sedandis animorum motibus mentis tranquillitate somno ortu obituque syderum Solis Lunae defectu ,

,

&

,

,

vt

,

,

(

336

)

:

.

& ,

. . . .

ad

vt

., .p ,

,

reliqua Poemata quae tantum fabulosis inuolucris constant fabulae quàm Poemata Ceterum honestae omnis Poeseos ingens vtilitas est atque res ediscendas percommoda vera dixerit qui eam adolescentis animi nutricem alumnam vocauit Certè ipse carminum flexus numerus animum allicit sic memoriae Ibid potius sint

PLATONISM

TRIUMPH

:

CHRISTIANITY

OF

an

as

in

,

he

,

of

,

of

in be to

future poets

or , .

example

in

in he

all

Possevino is hard put to it to find modern examples of the kind of poetry which he recommends ; but he nevertheless cites and quotes a number of sacred poems, songs , epigrams, elegies , and epics written in recent times . epics the Triumphus Christi Above admires the category reprints ascendentis caelum Macarius Mutius which toto

.

be

is

is

to

to

he

,

,

”

in to

“

is

It

remembered

in

however that Possevino's primary interest this inquire pagan poetry and hence treatise ethnic does not fail acceptable and useful what extent that poetry Christians He finds only one God and the ancient poets certain passages stating that there will

it

to

.

by

.

of

of

",

which contain the kind

approves by

which

—

speeches

centones

he

“

a

of

a

or

of

he

all , of , an

proverbs

moral instruction

by

passages

-

.

of

to

in

of

,

,

;

rejecting the numerous pagan gods these would useful He finds possible through allegorical and Christological interpretations discover the Greeks and Romans certain adumbrations the Christian mysteries song Sappho into religious and transform ode Pindar antiquity innumerable poem Most extracts from the works

of ,

,

be

:

,

it

.

è

be

ac to

,

,

“

,

IV

he

In

”

,

.

In

,

interpretation exemplifies This procedure selection extraction what Possevino states theoretically the proper use the ancient Chapter poets Usus qualis fructus poetis ethnicis Adduntur cautiones outlines that theory introducing thus to

be

.

of

or

,

of

of

.

of

to

of

of

truth we must say first that from most the pagan poets may learned many things which pertain the investigation natural phenomena and the forming character Similarly from them may derived the style and the correct use words either Greek and Latin the other languages But by

.

to

,

to to

)

(1

:

be

a

; to (2 )

their errors

turn them

our own

rather than translate the obscene poets and surround them apparatus with critical one should expurgate them and publish selections only good poets one should select passages from the such useful descriptions matters wars comparisons honest and grave sententiae general way the criteria are religious orthodoxy and moral accept ability whatever would seem praise even recognize the pagan gods

.

,

,

ne

is

or

:

to

,

a

In

as

of

)

(

;

4

on

,

;

( 3 )

purposes

precepts number one must choose carefully prepared one must resist the false teachings remove

,

of

be

to is

in

The theory stated the authors read the pagan poets

of

,

to

,

by

to

one must know how choose and apply generally cautions which were taught the pagans themselves but still more profoundly and solidly the church 84 fathers with respect this matter

ea ,

)

,

."

ijs

;

ex

:

,

est , è

, , ac &

ad

cautiones omnino adhibendas docuerunt

337

(

,

,

ad

,

ad

&

Id ."

ad 3v : “

delectum tamen eorum habendum

Ethnici sed altius atque solidius Patres hac

, de & re

comparari

:

ac

,

., .p

84

.

,

,

,

penè vnquam haeret variaque iucunditate mentem permulcens facit quae rectè per cipit obliuiscatur Quin incitat laudanda Dei opera magnoque est remissionem curarum leuamento plerisque Poetis Ethnicis multa intelligi Ibid vero ante omnia fatendum posse quae rerum naturas vestigandas mores efformandos pertinent Stylum item verborum proprietatem siue Graecae posse Latinae siue aliarum linguarum quas ipsimet

POETIC THEORY might seem to prophesy Christianity

to be excluded , whatever

may be

retained ; whatever is lewd , obscene , demoralizing must go , whatever

tends

to inculcate the proper moral lessons may remain . Two lesser criteria are also present: we may read those parts of ancient works which contain useful linguistic and stylistic models and those which impart information about the natural world . In terms of these criteria , Possevino makes a rapid

.”

all

of

be

examination of the principal writers of antiquity and provides for each a criticism and a commentary . These latter ideas demand a modification of my original statement that pagan antiquity will “ the poetry condemned and discarded

to

,

or

,

.

be

of

of

is a

to

trinal ethical scientific and stylistic principles

of

,

of

,

a

. In

.

by

,

be

totally conserved but only when surrounded few works may proper the commentaries which will assure correct interpretation word those remnants ancient literature which correspond the doc

A

writings

or

or

lly

be

as

to

Condemnation and discard will apply only the poems wholes salvaged certain poets from whom nothing may For most works care selected sections lines will salvable and what Possevino pro anthology poses kind morceaux choisis Greek and Roman

—

.

is

he

he

or

in

.

to in

by

be

of

by

,

10

D.

,

in

in

in

his

is

of

by

.

to

of

Possevino for religious poetry judged reasons and other defenders for other reasons entirely inexcusable Sopra l'allegoria Fabrizio Beltrami del poeta manuscript nella sua favola The treatise found MS VII the the kind suggested

by

Allegorical interpretation

,

of It

.

of

on

on

the basis

of

also apparent his review ancient poetry itself which lauds con their conformity his own standards

to

demns theorists

,

, in in a

is of of

;

is

of

at

of

sionally refers the divine furor writings and modern the art

,

—

be

,

,

a

is

,

the Christian critic who permitted the modern reader The also Christian theologian will apparent indeed this fundamental way basic Platonism the approach looking poetry theological and ethical standards context much more significant the case Possevino then the fact that occa

22

, is

all

of

is

:

an

of

be

,

by

by

.

of

to

on an

is

,

a

of

Siena and accompanied letter dated June Francesco Patrizi and Jacopo statements made 1594 answer allegory allegory The denial Mazzoni the subject Beltrami upon simple poetry premisses based several written specifically for the incapable penetrating beneath the sur common people who would Biblioteca Comunale

)

of

as

is

be

of to

,

II

the

,

fictions not only will

the form :

of

.

The reasons are clear

in

.

X

Book

things said

338

(

In

and similar statements are

the Republic

all

in

or

,

the Phaedo and

,

; of ", in

.

is

Poesia est res popularis

Book latter moreover Plato prohibited nonallegorically either allegorically ,

found

that

in

declared

“

of

,

a

of

;

of

,

of

;

seek out hidden meanings allegory supposes a

to

impossible external poetry action and possible internal action whereas the general theory allegory involves permission admits only the possible the admission plurality against the poetic art Plato actions which cited the authority for the first premisses these the Gorgias says Beltrami Plato face

PLATONISM

TRIUMPH OF CHRISTIANITY the

:

should us

,

allegorical meaning

an

in

we

:

poetry as it is

if

of

seek this credibility

to

we were

of as be

...

a

to

be

,

a

of

given work but no two men ever come to same interpretation rarely will anybody necessary found who will have the intellectual qualities find proper meaning to

be

so

.

to

,

,

,

,

of

,

,

in

. 85

is

by

?

;

to

in

by

,

of or

to is

of

II

it

men having these qualities how much more will not those who are moderately educated those who are completely ignorant And that these latter are the audience the poets confirmed Plato Book the first Book Strabo the Republic and to

fatiguing even

, a

fit

to

in ,

of

;

as

,

a

to

forced confess that poetry insofar imitation was not given pastime Plato said since allegory demands acuteness mind profundity learning variety knowledge happy memory most and finally exquisite judgment order the allegorical sense the literal sense And this effort

an

as

,

so

, is

as a

is

If

its

in

,

be

.

is

is

,

in

on

, .

,

—

,

allegorical writing that that something which appears the surface being impossible and untrue should within both possible and true

.

,

be ,

is ,

of as

its

,

an

of

the second

of

of

poetry Aristotle necessary imitation action one conditions that this action probable credible only meaning and not the intrinsic but also superficial expression We cannot therefore accept the basic assumption

For

the premisses the authority

an

.

as

an

art

or

of

frequently alleged Thus the ignorance the incapacity the audience argument against the whole here adduced specifically allegory against argument

partly Aristotle but mainly the reason the third premiss the authority thus completing the trilogy Plato Aristotle and the reason invoked

of

action required

of

.

secondary

But

second action

,

a

amounts

to or

—

in

the other

on at

,

,

,

principal

the episodes

Eustathius

plot which constitutes

the main

, , it

the one

in

it

and the commentary

by

the poem

occurs and thus the unity

say some

present either

or

may

or in in

Allegory

be ,

cited

-

the soul whether

is

Iliad

of

the

),

).

the beginning

(

(

of

is

For

TORQUATO TASSO

in

by a

to ,

in

as

10 ,

,

,

by

of

a

is

which many the period are

of in

of

on

)

(

1594

epic poetry Tasso himself the author treatise the problems debated Possevino Beltrami and others 85

in it

.

of

all

)

is

of

of

.

to

,

by

as

(

of

,

on

it .

by

,

on

is

destroyed reason Hence was allegory did not even mention the possibility the his silence condemned Plato on the audience Aristotle unity and the reason action unite outlaw interpretation and perhaps writing that upheld system vain such critics Patrizi and Mazzoni such poets Tasso the Allegoria appended the Gerusalemme Liberata

that Aristotle Poetics and credibility

]

[

ci ne

,

,

,

nel

della rep

. e

Plat

.

Poeti

2 °.

, e ne '

; e

al

,

, e

.

da

."

339

de '

la

il

che questi sieno gl'ascoltatori confermano

e

lo ?

è

la

si

di

,

;

in

'

o

negl idioti afatto Strabone nel primo

si

65 : "

,

.

,

in

,

di

, si

,

.

.

quando MS Bibl Com Siena D.VII fols 64v ricercasse questo credibile poesia inquanto senso allegorico saremmo forzati confessare che immitatione non fusse stata data per passatempo come diceua Plat ricercando l'Allegoria acutezza d'ingegno profondità dottrina uarietà scienze felicissima memoria finalmente giuditio esquisito saper accomodare questo ricerca senso allegorico senso letterale anco fatica cosi fatti huomini quanto maggiore ricercherà mediocremente letterati

POETIC

THEORY was not published

treated in some detail. The Discorsi del poema heroico

until 1594 , but it was probably written between 1575 and 1580 ; it repeats , in many respects , the materials included in the Discorsi dell'arte poetica of 1587. The Platonic reference is perhaps most distinct in Tasso's considera tion of the ends of poetry . I have already pointed out in Chapter I ( p. 32 ) that in classifying poetry among the arts he subordinated it to politics because he regarded utility as the primary end , pleasure as auxiliary . In a general way , the highest end of poetry is “ to benefit men through the

of human actions , ” and Tasso would therefore define poetry as an imitation of human actions made for the instruction of life . ” 86 More particularly , epic poetry instructs great men , who seek to conform to prudence examples strength temperance forms justice piety and religion every other virtue faith and example

It of

. "

great and power ,

,

illustrious

87

,

of

of

,

of

an

of

“

of ,

, as

,

of

of the

an imitation

defined

by

should thus ful

“

be

,

, of ,

in

its

"

to

in

,

in .

to

;

to

:

be

of

by

,

." 88

in

to

,

made

of

narrating with the highest form verse order bring profit minds through the marvelous and this way differently stated for each genre tragedy Indeed the end will will purge means terror and pity comedy will use laughter make ugly things men ashamed do action

move men's

.

of

of

-

of

a

of

of

a

of is

;

of of of

,

he

of

or

,

,

is a

There sense however which the functions the poet are more demonstrating examples noble than the mere providing actions images presented for the contempla Like the theologian maker theologian tion men this makes him kind rather the mystical

,

of

in

.” 89

be

is

of

a

do ,

of

by

as

by

, is in of

: “

of

tion

to

the scholastic strain ... the act leading men the contempla arousing them images divine things and this way means the mystical theologian and the poet much more noble operation than teaching means demonstrations which the function the high scholastic theologian For this reason the poet should held

than

,

.ity

of

by

.

he ,

.

he

in

in

.

,

as

by

to it

,

St. a

and his art should occupy more elevated position than that such divines Thomas His high calling imposes certain obligations For one must treat only the truth seeking novelty form and detail rather than matter For another must avoid the use the pagan marvelous and employ only that authorized Christian esteem

assigned

.pp

,

the most excellent form

of

proper only

to

the most excellent poem

govern

gli

...

is

:

,

,

Here again the close relationships between the poet the theologian and the legislator are apparent

à

,

,

,

in

,

& il ."

la

,

; , e e di

.”

, e

,

."

: "

),

(

., , ., " .p .p .ppdi 1 " 14 : : “ " le : , " & il gli .,

87 88

,

89

in

86

giouare huomini con l'essempio dell'attioni humane fatta per ammaestramento della vita Ibid forme della fortezza della temperanza della prudenza della giustitia d'ogni altra virtù della fede della pietà della Religione perfetta fatta narrando con altissimo Ibid imitatore d'attione illustre grande marauiglia giouare questa guisa verso affine muouere animi con Ibid 29–30 conducere alla contemplatione delle cose diuine destare Poema heroico 1594 6–7 humane and imitatione dell'attioni

340

)

(

."

è

& il

,

le

,

il

fà

questa guisa con l'imagini come Theologo mistico Poeta molto più nobile opera tione che l'ammaestrar con demostrationi com'è officio del Theologo scolastico

PLATONISM

TRIUMPH

:

CHRISTIANITY

OF

ment . This is the monarchy ; but the monarchy cannot be properly governed with The true religion is therefore proper to the best monarchy , and where there is false piety or false worship of God there can be no perfection in the prince or in the principality . Therefore poems must also participate in this a false religion .

same imperfection , but the fault is not that of the poetic art but of politics, not of the poet but of the legislator . We conclude , therefore , that no poem is to be praised which is excessively full of prodigies . 90

The only marvelous that is really acceptable is the Christian marvelous , since actions attributed to God and his ministers — even though they are improbable or impossible — become verisimilar through faith . The opinion of the multitude , to whom poetry is addressed , will accept such actions as true : “ One and the same action may therefore be both marvelous and verisimilar : marvelous if one consider it in itself and hemmed in by natural

of

.” 91

.

Christian subject He must not All other conditions this theorizing .

of he

In

.

,

.

Idea which the poet matter and form ,

Sperone Speroni's Dialogo dell'historia

treatise

which

an

of

a

of

the extent

poem

imitate through the happy combination

Like Tasso's

published

it ,

.

.

of

,

,

:

)

truth not falsehood from annals is

of in

does history

of

be

as

(

materials lie ,

derives

.

in

,

to

,

he

poetry

insists that the subject its

all ,

of

it

and that

...

, of of

in

is

,

as

it

important

to it .

an

I

;

a

to

,

in

have been much earlier date 1596 probably goes back any grounds assigning approximate unable find for date The Dialogo also has certain points doctrine common with Tasso One similarity along the classification the art for Speroni too places logic grammar philosophy with and rhetoric under rational He also sees politics Most essentially useful the state and the service

to

only

hidden Platonism

every part

,

seeks

to

sees behind every poem

to

,

,

is ,

moreover

or a

of

Tasso there

to

choose

use the most sacred these nor those recent times subject matter derive from these original bases

all

preference

a

should

of

of by

—

an

is

—

credibility

of

is a

to

,

its

limitations , verisimilar if one consider it separated from such limitations supernatural force capable with respect to cause which and producing such marvels accustomed This credibility the Christian marvelous additional reason why the epic poet who seeks always

to

,

it

as

a

35 : “

90

,

a

is

fable thus not would seem from the meaning the word itself but without any doubt the truth not merely natural and pure and simple è

poema

'

, i

è

:

,

il

,

,

de '

, e

, ò &

la

,

il

il

l'eccellentissimo Regno ma

è

., .p .

questa

.

di

proprio solamente della eccellentissima forma Regno non può esser ottimamente gouernato con falsa religione Conuiene adunque all'ottimo Regno vera religione oue sia falsa pietà però falso culto d'Iddio non può essere alcuna perfettione nel Principe nel Principato poemi ancora participano dell'istessa imperfettione ma difetto non dell'arte poetica Ibid gouerno

si

,

,

,

è

,

]

(

341

,

, e

, à i e

se

e

."

à

da

in

37 : “

., .p

,

&

91

. "

,

,

legislatori conchiudiamo dunque che non ma della politica non del poeta ma debba lodare alcun poema souerchiamente prodigioso merauigliosa Ibid Puo esser dunque vna medesima attione verisimile merauigliosa riguardandola stessa circonscritta dentro termini naturali verisimile questi termini nella sua cagione laquale considerandola diuisa vna virtù sopranaturale possente far simili merauiglie vsata

or by

its

POETIC THOERY

of

,

in

of

92

.

to

be

to

or

as

be

of

or

of

of

but the truth adorned and decorated truth , standing on own certain images which are marvelous imitators the behavior the reason the ways saying believing things common some part the world which impious reputed impossible other parts would held

of

,

a

,

,

or

of

.

is

;

of

is

,

.

to

it

in

of

is

of

is

of

;

is

in

Simple truth found history the annals noteworthy truth the matter subject poetry and noteworthy and marvelous truth the What more this marvelous aspect less the product the action itself the persons involved than the product the words metaphors epithets present them Poetry rapidly becomes and other decorations used

;

or

,

of ,

,

—

-

at

.

,

rhetoric

,

We should note however that Speroni encounters the political usefulness Platonic tradition several points ends truth specifically calling upon fulness without the authority Plato dis cussing his text rather the definite references and borrowings involve form

.

Aristotle's Poetics

of

in

gli

a

as

his

as

of

in

so

to

”

“

of

-

is

so

the century

—

of

the end

us

at

healthy the tradition Diomede example extravagant with another the defenses frequent poesy which had been the early years the Cinquecento and which were continue favorite literary exercise the Seicento

Almost

Borghesi supplies

on ,

e

et a '

,

of

a

of

,

of

by

,

“

is

,

.

is

It

all

is a

of

.

of is

pregi della poesia Oratione intorno onori della Borghesi poetry primarily praise 1596. bases his the fact gift that the poetic art nature and that natural objects are more excellent than others the divine furor without which no amount industry will avail the poet that constitutes the natural foundation the art the divine furor which breathed into our souls miraculously well This

eloquenza

in

in

.

,

,

is

of

of

, or

,

,

A

93

of

."

eulogy infinite providence second source found the witness philosophers kings generals innumerable and others who have either practised the art themselves praised those who did For poetry spite may ignorant exterior sound the beautiful think contains under what the

of

,

all

an

;

it

of

a

.

to

of

,

of

.

a

in

counsels and useful instructions Both poetry and eloquence are joined appreciation the superiority third form their language and reasoning Borghesi believes those the common people For these reasons upon poet that Plato's ban the was restricted one and that the whole art badly these was not blamed for the misdeeds those who practised

92

as by

of

be ,

of

by .

,

: “

at

of

is a

of

,

of

.

of

by

latter are the wicked and unscrupulous versifiers who wilfully corrupt poets innocent citizenry The citation Christians even the church proof that poetry may fathers and the many religious uses taken proper interpretation this Plato's meaning Borghesi's paean Poetry praise comes the end his oration means which the

, ,

. . .,

se

,

,

in

animi nostri dall'infinita prouidenza

(

."

&

,

è

,

&

&

,

gli

ne

, ò &

10 : “ il

, .p

qual

342

]

."

(

Oratione 1596) spira samente si

: "

, ) , .p

, ò

93

( di )sic ,

,

&

(

In

Dialoghi 1596 394 fauola adunque non menzogna come ella par nel uocabulo pura semplice per ma uerità senza fallo non natural solamente stante ma intagliata uerità lauorata alcune imagini imitatrice merauigliose del decoro della ragione del usanza del dirsse credere uolgarmente alcuna parte del mondo cose riputate impossibili che altroue sarebbono empie tenute

miracolo

PLATONISM

TRIUMPH

CHRISTIANITY

OF

all

:

, ,

,

immortal

the

of

,

and

of

-

of

of

,

,

honor

conservator

the

94

of

guardian

of

,

the

memories

other men

. "

praise

of of

things mover of the stars is duly celebrated , is the unique imitator of high minded behavior unbridled passions the teacher the producer noble actions the arouser virtue the dispenser the moderator

in

be

of

the sense that Beni maintains throughout

1600

),

soluere

It

is a

typical docu fundamentally Platonic

the context

)

as

is

in

:

A

,

in

as

( at

.

be

an

in

-

-while

of

ethical and political criteria opposite assumption the ethical and political effects will purely personal note desirable added the theory that these effects are desirable least for tragedy and comedy long prose but that undesirable consequences the poems are written attitude

considering poetry starting always from

vinculis 244

).

(p .

Chapter

(

metrorum

VI

in

at

some length

a

in

ment

atque tragoediam

comoediam

already studied

in

is

.

praestare

to

of

so

of

is

It

analyzed perhaps fortunate that the last the texts this chapter should represent typically one Cinque the dominant forms qua ostenditur cento Platonism The text Paolo Beni's Disputatio

is

It

.

is .

on be

is

I

to of

.

of

in

of

result from the writing the same forms verse this latter note that constitutes the originality the work poetry have already indicated that Beni assumes that the real end utility through moral instruction and that pleasure ancillary this end added others which clarify and To the passages already cited may

:

to

of

.

specify the position The statement the relationship between pleasure and utility also reveals Beni's conception the audience which tragedy comedy are addressed and

...

in

, is

in , as

,

of ,

of

if

of

a

...

of

.

be

by

:

,

.

or

of

tragic not pleasure the common and proper end tragedy and comic imitation Pleasure indeed was sought and obtained comedy with this purpose that since naked precepts for living joined with philo sophical severity are received and borne with difficulty the people they should tempered pleasure agreeableness seasoned and with kind and with comedy and tragedy salt Thus certainly the good writers imitation

,

For honest utility

in

by

–

,

, in of

—

of

as it

to

be

a

of

the expert medic who tempers with sweetness the bitterness medicine which would otherwise distasteful the palate the patient season and mix fooling the with pleasure the regulations and precepts for life order that palate they may give them useful lessons the masses were revolted

20 : “ la

94

.'

95 an agreeable way

,

,

di

."

,

& est

in

.

eo

, di di è

il

si

,

di

: "

.pp , e

,

),

...

ac

(

95 ,

di

,

di

., .p

imitatrice

la

qual degnamente Poesia con celebra mouitor delle Stelle qualunque cosa moderatrice trasandanti affetti insegnatrice generosi costumi producitrice nobili operationi solleuatrice virtù dispensatrice lodi albergatrice d'onore dell'altrui memorie immortal conseruatrice Disputatio germanus 1600 44v Etenim honesta vtilitas non voluptas proprius Comicae aut Tragicae imitationis Voluptas enim Tragoedia finis Comoedia Ibid singolare

vt

,

." ac

)

(

,

,

343

ac

&

...

,

.

ac

,

ac

vt

,

a

&

comparata est quoniam nuda vitae praecepta philosophicae consilio quaesita popularibus aut sustinentur voluptate quadam seueritati admista difficilè excipiuntur temperentur Tragicus iucunditate tanquam sale condiantur Sic sanè bonus Comicus periti instar Medici qui Pharmaci amaritudinem dulci temperat fastidiosum aegroti palatum fallit vitae officia atque praecepta voluptate condit temperat vulgi palatum quasi nauseantem fallens vtilitatem illi cum suauitate propinet

THEORY

POETIC

, in

;

of

all

For such an audience as this, an excess of pleasure can only be dangerous, and Beni takes a stand very close to that of Plato : “ They ( verses and song ] finally soften our souls and destroy the sinews manliness the guise

a

of

disapproves Beni

not hostile the imitation especially the gods He might he

.

,

of of

to

to

be

or to

by

,

If

one read him more carefully will understand that lyric poets any others who are not bound the law adapted singing the praises since their verses seem

to

he is

he

:

in

of

will find that

sum his argument authorizes that

of

read Plato well

only certain genres and that himself

he

of

we

a

to

.

on

we

believes that

if

He

.

poets

,

.” 96

be

to

of

is

as

us

of

liberal education they can bring much harm and evil Thus the question raised whether the whole art should condemned because these potential dangers Beni cites Cicero's Pro Archia for moderate position and then passes discussion Plato's banishment the

,

to

in

be

so

he

In

to

,

on

to

easily have restored his favor Homer and the epic poets whom indeed praises many scores wherever they had both used imitation more moderately opposition decency and and had corrected certain things which seemed to

to

if

as

he

he

,

in

of

so

,

.

indignant against the tragic and comic writers because virtue fact became they put that constant imitation through verses and songs completely the voluptuousness and brutality that use the end both repudiated the poems put and ordered that the poets themselves leave his state intended

all

,

so to

,

;

to

in

of

, .

them completely beyond the pale And this was because they lulled the ear with rhythm and verse and harmony and delighted the senses deprived reason finally exciting admiration the mob gathered the theater but not only did they not direct men's minds towards prudence and temperance but with such direct them.97 means they were not even capable

of

comedy

a

by

,

of

,

in

,

of

a

is

96

. .p .,

its

.

.

in

an

to

,

of

prose and which thus bends the texts Plato own purposes any means infrequent situation the Cinquecento

was not

97

This

by

poetry

in

in

.

of

;

a

,

, in

to

of

apparent

,

above

all in

,

in is

variety where meters and claptrap machinery melodies combination with the and the stage leads ethical results that are directly the opposite those sought the long soliloquy confesses her sins and art Comedy herself essence thus kind Platonism which verse Beni's blames them upon the use holds one attitude toward poetry verse and the opposite attitude toward This vice

si

:

."

,

: “ si

.pp

&

: "

,

Ibid 15v sed tamen mollire animos nostros neruos omnes virtutis elidere denique per speciem liberalis eruditionis multa nobis afferre mala detrimenta quis attentiùs eum perlegat intelliget non lyricis infensum esse Ibid 16–16v qui sunt alii qui imitationi haud astricti sint cum praesertim horum carmina diuinis aut :

...

,

&

&

ad .

,

ac

.

si

&

&

vt

,

sic

,

, é

&

,

vsi

.

in

,

&

in & in

,

in

poetis laudibus canendis accommodata uideantur Cum Homero etiam Heroicisque quos etiam gratiam vbi temperatiore imitatione multis laudat facilè rediisset primis nonnulla quae cum honestate essent virtute pugnare viderentur emendassent Tragicos verùm Comicos quoniam perpetuam illam imitationem metris cantibus lasciuiam seuitiamue inflecterent totam exarsit tandem illorum poemata repudi igni interdictum aqua illis poetas ipsos sua Rep excedere iusserit tanquam auerit ;

ea

,

)

(

."

344

ne ad

&

,

in

& ,

:

,

&

idque quia versu rythmo expertem rationis harmonia mulcerent quidem aures sensum delectarent confluentibus denique theatrum turbis admirationem mouerent prudentiam verò temperantiam non modò non informarent animos sed ratione informare quidem possent vellet

PLATONISM

TRIUMPH

:

CHRISTIANITY

OF

CONCLUSIONS During the last thirty years of the Cinquecento , the documents of literary belonging to the Platonic tradition show in certain respects striking similarities with those of the preceding years , in other respects innovations theory

and departures. Perhaps the most constant element is the praise or defence of poetry , usually couched in the most general terms and originating in a vague enthusiasm for the art . Such writers as Menechini , Correa , Benci , and Borghesi add little in the way of arguments to those that had been adduced by a Boccaccio two centuries earlier . One might even say that their orations or treatises reflect little of the critical sophistication which had , never

of

a

little

The

.

the divine furor

,

,

very

imitation

of

,

interests

(p

of

.

in

of

-

under the influence

change

these

much the same terms But perhaps here there robably for the question imitation the abundant discussions Aristotle's definition and

the balance be of

in

a

is

shift

defence

the great issues

,

the Platonic

critics continue discuss ethical and political ends

-

Platonic attack

to or

all

theless , developed during the intervening years . In spite of the great erudi tion resulting from the innumerable commentaries, debates , and discussions of the sixteenth century , their own writings display a kind of charming naïveté —which has the one disadvantage of sounding , always, somewhat trite and unoriginal . part As for the particular questions that at times formed the

all

to

poetry

of

,

.

the consideration

in

of

is

a

to

its

of

of

operation Contrariwise relationships the state and

his modes

of or of

to

it

as

,

of

as

to

)

its

exciting uses ceases had been earlier generations theorists and the question the divine furor either taken for granted gives way before more naturalistic conception the poet's talents and

terms

ethical instruction increases rather it is

a

of

to

and

is

Platonic

it

of

by in

,

of

to

.

to

,

of to

,

By this late date there comes origin Koivń present universally but unspecifically the minds men

geneous ideas

be a

or

he

a

,

to

.

of

to

the texts

is

For these problems there much less direct reference Plato themselves the point that sometimes difficult distinguish whether critic actually has Platonic basis for his point view whether starts from vague and anonymous positions hetero than decreases

of

a

is ,

.

of

,

as

.

,

is

this common fund that reference made the critics rather than the dialogues themselves Such references remain fragmentary and scattered just the literary citations before them had been because the funda mentally unsystematic attitude the critics That Plato remains col a

in

-

to

of

of .

on

a

rather

If

of

of

passages concerning the poetic art passages extracted from lection many dialogues philosopher having than total system the light poetry were developed which his various ideas poetry tend the ethical and political connotations the art

to

)

(

345

,

in

is

It

of

I

,

.

of

is

a it

,

the critics

of

of in

these years the

sciousnesses

be

may present because there the con stronger idea the state true that beginning with earliest writings that have considered there were sug poetry was subordinate politics and gestions that the art the art predominate

POETIC

THEORY

that the politician should exercise a role of direction and censure with respect to the poet . But these were theoretical in tone and showed always the direct impact of the Platonic texts . In such writers as Denores , now , the whole problem has an air of immediacy and of reality not earlier sensible . I hesitate to say that this phenomenon results either from a broader aware ness on the part of critics of the contemporary developments in political theory or from their observations of current politics . But the critical treatises themselves , unless I am mistaken , give increasing prominence to

the practice

of poetry

only

or

of

to

art of is

of

in be

to

,

a

body politic

.

as a whole or of certain of forms rather surprising corollary theorists are now less prone banish expel the poet from the state and more prone seek ways which the practice his art can controlled and turned the advantage the the art

in to

of

As

of

its

political implications and a lesser role to ethical instruction ; the emphasis is less on “ character building " and more on the consequences to the state

.

it

,

,

by by

I

its

to

.

,

as

of

in

of

is

to

. It

the cases the extreme Christian theorists that expressed with increased vigor condemn and exile the position already The Platonic have remarked carried with from the start admirable possibilities for exploitation Christian theorists and the first steps such exploitation were taken writers earlier years This application Platonic methods and ideas the Christian attack the wish

in

,

, is

of

of

It

be

pro must either purposes salvaged for

.

be

of

pleasure

as

of

all

the very presence such parts

as

poetry combining pleasure art utility immediately instrument

.

of

of

be

of

in

, of

be

by

.

or

or

or

of

be

,

it

toto cannot put under the ban This may mean the Christian indoctrination must exclusion poems certain genres certain poets whole ranges teaching undesirable lessons An having unacceptable subject matters especially reprehensible body poetry will poets who that produced were themselves not Christians since their works will found not only

in

hibited

or

because

as

using pleasure

an

.

the severest terms Such

of

suspect

an

a

of

,

with utility

or

in

pleasure

of of ,

in

upon poetry reaches culmination the years after 1570. Gambara Panicarola Possevino see the whole art the theological context Catholicism and brand Catholicism that condemns all forms

.

a

.

is

of

vicious moral incitements but also the praises and the beauties religions All pagan antiquity such condemnation the object

false

Even

of

.

I

to

.

is

or

is

of

,

of

of

of

a

of

.

of

as

in

an its

to

it

It ;

.

is

of

an

is

,

whose

the desirability

,

,

in

point view not specifically that the reading consulting citing the Greek and brought into question Giovambattista Strozzi's lecture Roman poets example thinking emphasize again that such this kind wish thinking far from setting the tone for late Renaissance attitudes toward poetry sectarian small number maximum degree exists theorists but has influence upon others well and helps determine theory the general orientations less rabid theorists

church

)

(

346

,

a

in

of

of

political reference and the school Christian inter Both the school departure pretation were joined their contempt for common point

CHRISTIANITY

OF

For if poetry or hear it are

the public to which they assumed that poetry was addressed . is politically dangerous, it is because the men who

will

read

or to

it

.

it

if

its

, it to is

disposed rather to act upon malevolent insinuations than salutary lessons And religion dangers carries with

follow

because

of

as

by

In

.

to

it

in

affects are too weak their faith too susceptible blandishments of other beliefs remain Christians unscathed

the men whom

its

TRIUMPH

:

to

PLATONISM

the

both

is

to

,

it

in

,

of

to

,

to

it

of

.

to

to

it

to

It

.

of

by

,

of

,

,

the lowest classes hence the critics ignorant and morally weak hence under the domination their senses uncontrolled reason Far from being the art the élite poetry the poems art the masses writes the kind does and the ways pander appeal sway them uses because wishes these masses cases these men are presented

a

is

-

,

of

,

of

a

to

as

of all ,

,

the whole art comes very close

.

of

Here the Platonic tradition poetry the considerations Horace and the the tradition probably such writer Mazzoni

education

subjects

to of

audience

it

specific

of

be

to

is

intellect and their lack

insofar

as

of

,

.

ness

,

to to

.

it

if

,

,

their low tastes instruct them can But this instruction itself doubtful thing granted the recalcitrance supposed characterize these indirectly through appealed men Even the possibility that they may allegory again because now subjected serious doubt their weak

,

a

in

a

.

,

be

to

to

a

by

,

,

It

.

rhetoricians comes closest who diversifies his audience into various classes establishes for each class sought special utility given poetic the poet and then assigns genre each such utility ,

.

,

as

of

,

of

in

,

There are fact many other points contact between the Platonic tradition and those Horace and Aristotle The Platonic ends these critics see them are practically indistinguishable from those that they find

,

or

,

of

of

the theory

to

reference

is

of

.

of

means

by

by

greater frequency answered

by

;

an

to

its

,

is

is

to

,

is

.

in a

;

is

,

in

.

of

.

or in

unequal dominant Horace's Ars poetica Utility and pleasure equal subordinate The tendency the Platonists declare that the two importance that utility are unequal dominant that pleasure instrument and this true even for those who believe that the art serves satisfactory way With Aristotle the rapprochements desirable ends become increasingly numerous and distinct The theory imitation moves utility closer Aristotelian solution the question with greater and

purga of in

;

of

of

an

in

,

in

it is

,

of

an

is

.

of

.

it is

If

of

on

.

tion Doubts raised Plato are solved Aristotle attacks made the Dialogues produce authority name the defences based the the Poetics this the general position the Platonists because from the very outset intermediate position both philosophically and point time The position grew and developed intellectual milieu that had already fully accepted Horace's dicta on many the problems

of

re -

by a

a

to

]

(

347

—

a

in

of

I

.

to ,

it

be

or It

of

,

.

the poetic art raises questions which had already been answered certain extent for which answers might found examination the Horatian text Moreover questions raises only limited number —those which have sought trace the last two chapters and leaves accepted doctrine that the Horatians had de untouched the vast body

be

of

,

,

a

.

in .

is

of all ,

as

,

comes

theoretical

matters

the art This doctrine will not century advances younger text Aris vie with Plato's dialogues for domination poetry least insofar the theory concerned

the sixteenth

to

.

Poetics

totle's

As

the practical aspects

at

for

easily displaced

-

veloped

all

POETIC THEORY

,

its his

by

to

is

to

,

his

it

.

of

in

of

,

in

in of

,

to

,

is

,

practical uses and This text like Horace's seen have above applications suggestions for the poet the practice art for the profession for the public reading and critic the practice understanding supply answers many poetry But also seen

)

348

of

of

Aristotle's Poetics

.

of of

a

the growing authority

(

doctrine and

of

is

.

in

,

in

—

problems which had been raised fundamental and abstruse problems Plato answers which some few cases confirm Plato's own findings but which most cases contradict and deny them The weakening the Platonic tradition concomitant the solidification Horatian

CHAPTER NINE . THE TRADITION OF ARISTOTLE'S : I. DISCOVERY AND EXEGESIS

POETICS

HERE IS NO DOUBT but that the signal event in the history of literary criticism in the Italian Renaissance was the discovery of Aristotle's incorporation into the critical tradition Whereas Poetics and poetica Horace's Ars had continued influence critical thinking through to

.

its

T

of ,

it

.

,

of

a

a

at

of

at

of

,

of

,

out the Middle Ages and whereas Plato's miscellaneous ideas had entered into consideration with the coming humanism the text the Poetics became available only the very end the fifteenth century and became generally known only toward the middle appeared the sixteenth Thus way thinking literary time when about matters derived from the texts known earlier and from the whole rhetorical tradition associated

with it

of

,

in

its

It

.

of

By

. .

.

,

of

in

Italy had painting sculpture and

was full blown

of

”

of

"

,

spirit hand 1500 the the Renaissance produced remarkable masterpieces the fields

,

,

several mutations had taken place which throw the appear that precise moment into peculiar relief On the one

the Poetics

by

of

,

of

in

of

the century

ance

of

are fundamentally important the states mind the successive periods are even greater significance the turn

the dates themselves

current

at

If

.

a

of

in

be a .

of

in

,

in

of of

Horace was firmly established the minds men was necessarily read interpreted keeping way thinking and with that and turn changed and modified the body existing attitudes The history the Aristotelian tradition the Cinquecento will thus narrative the give thought and and take between habitual modes fresh text presenting extraordinary and surprising ideas

or of ,

by a

,

,

:

or to

of

of

,

in

,

.

of

the study

all

,

in in

of

,

.

in

of in

the special

active production both

in

and

in

;

domain literature she was engaged Latin and the vulgar tongue These works ble original artistry had been accompanied since around 1450 activity theory and criticism the fields universities academies scholars their studies had addressed themselves the problem ascertaining whence these works acquired their beauty their quality Naturally the answers were first sought their worth the ancients and architecture

in

(

in

time when Aristotle's repute the scholarly world was regarded too severe and too scholastic

of

"

“

as

His method to

.

)

Greek the highest

,

of in

then not

at a

,

of

.

,

,

a

.

Horace and Plato was renewed and extended The arrival Aristotle among the company with text previously unexplored and unex ploited promised new possibilities for solving the remaining problems On the other hand the text the Poetics was published first Latin and

,

,

of

of

In

he

of

,

Aristotle's treatises was neither understood nor esteemed and analyzing the Italian Renaissance would have been capable 349

)

(

few men

).

as

(

and logic

of of

in

and too closely linked the medieval tradition the church had been abandoned favor the more attractive and more facile discoursings any case the rigorous construction Plato was then interpreted

POETIC

THEORY

no

he

.

all

or applying it . To be sure, the vogue of Aristotle ( especially of such works as the Ethics , the Politics , the De Anima , the Rhetoric , and the treatises on natural history ) continued throughout the sixteenth century : witness the large number of editions and commentaries, of university courses devoted longer the to interpreting him , of discussions of kinds But was as

he

of

,

by

.

,

,

,

as

Master the Philosopher the tyrant who imposed method well doctrine His authority was frequently questioned was openly attacked some and the methods and conclusions his rivals were upheld against

,

,

correctly

in of

.

it

read and understand

in

,

,

is

it

it ,

we

easy

.

not

the Renaissance reader

to

not

is

defence

of

a

of

in

its

of

said

-

the Poetics was

, in

that the text understand Incomplete the form highly condensed and the subtlety and rigorousness which have structure become apparent only after the most searching study and the light method discoverable only through analysis the whole

It

should

of

be

to

least prepared

at

to

of

:

an

.

of

,

,

,

II )

in

of

(

I

of

.

Even more serious was the fact that his best expositors and champions insufficient training and improper intellectual habits Chapter have spoken them and hence the interpretations that they offered were woefully insufficient Thus the appearance the Poetics was essentially anachronism the newest most exciting and most pro mising text light precisely the time when men were Aristotle came him

were often men

a

,

or to

a

its

to

as

, its

.

, it

in

, a

of in

a

by

.

.

,

Aristotelian corpus For the Renaissance reader the procedure was even many places corrupt more difficult He had before him text text which has been much improved the labors modern scholarship but which conjecture and uncertainty are still present Moreover was text which examples and borrowed illustrations from literature still very imper fectly known either content form and these examples must have

to

of

be

of

an

,

to

I

,

in

.

,

of

.

,

, it

be

to

of

.

If

provided little clarification for him these circumstances are added the badly printed texts and inadequate translations hazards will seen that his difficulties were indeed almost insuperable Hence the necessity exegesis after discovery for the tremendous effort which the Cinque cento dedicated itself propose interpretation hesitate even our time the text against which the problems and the solutions the Renaissance may ,

a

,

guide

to

the Poetics

in

.

If

.

as a

interest

the theory and practice

a

)

(

350

to

poem

,

to

of

by

.

to

analyze audiences nor study nature He wishes discover how produced imitation and representing some aspect natural

a

is

.

of

in

of

or

of

no

at

is

is

in

.

it

of

,

of

its

of

is

in

its

in it ,

because critics have seen a

is

it

,

any more than other theoretical document treatise which concentrates attention upon those qualities the work art itself which make beautiful and produc proper effect Aristotle the time neglectful either tive produced audience whom this proper effect the natural reality represented neither art But his aim the artificial work which

of

literary criticism

in be

recrudescence

of

;

is

in

great dispute reflected the matter still But perhaps the following general statement would acceptable there has been recent years

object

so

of

His points aesthetics which com .

,

in

achieve perfection

in

,

general conception

of

ope

are two

a

departure

:

its

of

poetry may

the artificial medium

the medium that the desired aesthetic effect results

form

that form

of

AND EXEGESIS

POETICS : DISCOVERY

,

of

it )

as

he

;

,

of

,

is

.

of

,

in

,

to

as

he

to

of

to

in

of

(

of

a

or he

,

its

, to

of

relationship

the end

,

such elements

of

as

poetry the nature imitation the artificial natural objects the relationship between the contemplator and the general criteria for artistic achievement work and body the other materials the literature Greece knew which analyzes the light this aesthetic discover how poets have achieved capable have failed achieve the perfection which their art and past suggestions from which obtains how the the various forms and genres have been successfully practised The analysis the works thus prises

as

of

to

,

,

or .

a

of

verification the aesthetic just the aesthetic had provided the initial means for the analysis The suggestions with respect the past are dogmas and hence the critic never solidified into rules the future becomes

,

I

it :

as

all

as ,

be

to

in

.

to ,

as

of

In

to

in

of

may find them guides and indications for the analysis other poems differently conceived and executed but nevertheless relatable the same they belong aesthetic insofar the same art anticipation the ways which the Renaissance was read the things Poetics two should noted about the theory have outlined

is

of

,

or

,

,

is a

of

,

,

;

a

it

in

.

,

or

an

of

is

. all It

In

be

.

or

I

of

"

"

a

of

in

in

,

of

,

at

mind the times bears concerns the audience Aristotle contemplator who sees presence reads and appreciates the poem Statements about the effect which have spoken may made either terms the kind reaction within audience the structural particularities within the work which produce that reaction either case general way general and universal one the audience considered personal idio and never particularized through race time place class syncracies composed sharing men the common feelings and exper First

,

by

,

of

,

of

iences mankind having the common conviction that actions spring from character and that events spring from causes susceptible enjoying the pleasures afforded the imitative arts and capable through their sensi

is

to

.

as

an

.

of

of

”

a

of

“

all

the poem

.

,

structural element

in

a

to

,

a

in is

is

;

as a

enter

it

be

of

, it

no

of

tivity and their habits reading distinguishing good works from bad Otherwise has distinctive qualities audience Hence the position the Poetics not rhetorical one because nowhere the poem made particular effect what persuasion upon order have particular audience moreover nowhere does the character the poet

a

at

,

)

(

of or

the former

resemblance

,

of ”

”

or

conforms not one

.

narrowest sense This means probability are not derived which things usually happen

in

"

“

“

of ”,

“

,

faithfulness realism imitation necessity that the requirements and from natural verisimilitude from the way 351

.

in as its is it “

of

.

to

so

of

it

as

is

good this does not mean that the latter bad fails conform The criterion

to

is

of

of

,

as

concerns natural reality Aristotle times maintains relationship sense the between the natural object which lies behind the imitation and the artificial object which the product the imitation But Second

THEORY

POETIC

in an ordered universe . Rather , they are expressions of relationships of a strictly structural character, which assure the proper integration and order of the component parts of the work . Since they are , in a way , like the laws of nature — wherein actions spring from character and events spring from the imitative relationship between

in

to

of

and

of

?

,

to

of

of

of

what was the nature

,

of

,

commentaries were first available them interpretations their these documents

,

translations what kind do

?

of

with the text

,

of

,

then

its

How

object

of

the work

to

its

nature and the other assure the intelligibility capacity the audience and feel the desired effect.1 did the men the Renaissance first coming into contact the Poetics read that text What kind text what kind

,

of

the poem and

on

causes -- they on the one hand establish

to

since these display merely

the humanists

the way

to

to

the existence

of

the work without any indication pass immediately was understood Instead wish

of

in a

the writings

of of

in

Poetics found knowledge

, 3

is it

to

.

as

as

a

,

, 2

to

it

of

I

speak not think useful here the existence medieval trans published since recently lation the Poetics into Latin far we can discover that translation was completely unknown during the Renaissance necessary Nor retail the first fragmentary and passing allusions the

a

of

in

in

the Aldine Greek text the

Aristotle's text

.

the content

of

of

apprehension

or

of

by

several times

which the scholars

of

Renaissance could gain

1498

means

of

an

1508 and was the first instrument

and

1515

commentary was made available

was thus that Averroës

before Giorgio Valla's Latin translation

of

in in

.

by

It

was reprinted '

It

.

thereafter

.

it

in

,

, in

poetria Aristotilis

minatio

in

,

I

on

.

'

of

it

which discus sion Averroës commentary the Poetics Written Arabic the twelfth century translated into Latin Hermannus Alemanus the Deter Venice 1481 under the title thirteenth was first published

THE AVERROËS PARAPHRASE by

of

,

,

is

It

.

,

be

to

of

to

It

be

would difficult for any writer classical antiquity less well for his presentation the modern world than was Aristotle Averroës and Hermannus clear from the printed version their text served

of

of

.

he

of

he

a

it ,

as

garbled version not only that Averroës had before him understanding completely himself was incapable the materials with which was working He did not know the Greek we have

the Poetics but that

),

to

be

to

this interpretation

of

For fuller statements

of

,

,

(

to

works which Aristotle refers for his examples only the names Homer among Greek poets seem Aesop and the illus him familiar and in

",

:

-

(

.

E. .

in

.

,

of

,

,

,

ed ), .

,

]

[

352

.pp

),

of

,

Le

:

of

,

1928

).

Press

,

Yale University

A

(

,

:

:

(C

S.

P.

R.

,

:

Il

).

,

de

,

de

:

(

,

3

;

New Haven

(

the Poetics hicago

Crane

Its

,

of S.

R.

of

:

),

, “

2

R.

ed .

1

see various articles Critics University Chicago Press McKeon and Elder Olson See also Elder English Institute Olson The Poetic Method Aristotle Powers and Limitations Essays 1951 New York Columbia University Press 1952 pp 70-94 Valgimigli Bruges Paris De arte poetica Guillelmo Moerbeke interprete Desclée Brouwer 1953 Cf. Remigio Sabbadini Metodo degli Umanisti Florence Monnier 1922 Bibliography 71-74 also Lane Cooper and Alfred Gudeman the Poetics Aristotle and Criticism Ancient and Modern 1952 especially those Crane

POETICS : DISCOVERY

AND EXEGESIS

trations were meaningless to him . He did not have any idea of the literary forms of which Aristotle speaks , with the possible exception of the epic , and the whole of the treatise must have seemed to him to exist in a kind of vacuum . He did know certain kinds of Arabic poetry , and he saw in them certain similarities to the works which Aristotle was describing. Moreover , he was aware of a rhetorical tradition in his own literature, concerned largely with tropes and figures and rhetorical devices , and these too he

Indeed , his intention as stated at the to

is

in

this edition

own how much

)

the Greeks they are found

Greek other

in in

of

or

[

,

i.e. ,

in

is

this book either consists

on

an

4

in

." or

,

to

;

nations most for most what found rules proper their poetry and their usage they are not found poems Arabic poetry languages

determine

concerned with universal rules common

of

or to

is

Our intention Aristotle's book On Poetry : “

literature

of all of

.

his

of Aristotle

to the text

outset is to discover to what extent the Poetics is applicable to

to

assimilated

to

,

the Poetics.5

Herman

The gaps will

:

'

in

have numbered the passages

nus translation and given the equivalents speak for themselves

in

to

it

I

so ,

do .I

;

are actually translated

to

of

,

,

it

In

'

.

on

in

"

“

to

The cross between misunderstanding the one hand and intention Arabize the other brings about several immediately visible conse omit quences leads him the first place Averroës Determinatio many passages sometimes fairly long ones from the translation that forms the basis the commentary think useful indicate here which passages

16

24-27

12-13

17

1449a21-28

15-16

18

18–28

19

31-36

20

24-28

21

31-34

7 ( ?

144969–13

16-23

22

8

4 3 2N 1

1447a8

23-29

23

36–1450a7 1450a7-14

5

28–144768 )

6 ( ? )

144769–13

9

1448a1-5

15-23

24

23–37

14

26

12

24-25

27

13

144864-12 12-19

28

8-13

14

29

13-16

15

20–24

30

16-21

ed de .),

11

25 ( ? )

11-12

10

37–145064 145064-8

in

in

in

in

so

the

."

in

&

in

est

.p f: "

(

4

Determinatio 1481 Intentio nostra est hac editione determinare quod libro poetrie aristotilis canonibus uniuersalibus comunibus omnibus nationibus aut pluribus cum plurimum eius quod hoc libro aut sunt canones proprii poematibus ipsorum ipsis aut non sunt reperta consuetudini ipsorum sermone arabum aut sunt reperta aliis idiomatibus

.

)

353

of

,

to

a

; a

is

of

(

to

as

S

A

question mark after passage indicates that the parallelism vague number make exact identification impossible after reference the Poetics that the limits the passage being paraphrased are unclear

POETIC

THEORY

31

22–24

70

17-22

32

25-32

71

23–26 31-25

33

35-40 ( ?)

72

34

1451a6-15

73

35

16-19

74

36

23–24

75

37

30_35

76

36–1451611

77

38

1455612- ( ?) 24-29 33–1456a3 1456a3-7 25- ?) 33-34

39

1451615-19

78

40

27-33

79

41

33–39

80

42

1452a12-18

81

8-19

43

22-23

82

44

29-33

83

20_21 22-34

45 46

33–36

84

35-38

36-145263

85

47

145269–13

86

48

1418

87

49

25–27

88

50

30-32 ( ?)

89

1453a7-12

90

52

22–23

91

53

23-26

92

51

54

55

30_36

93

145361-8

94

56

8-15

95

57

15–22

96

58 59

27–31 ( ?) 1454a13-15

10-14 145701418 18-23 23-30 31–145766 145766-12 ( ?) 33–35 1458a1-3 ( ?) 18–26 ( ?)

145861-11 11-15

98

1459a15-30 145968–12

16-27

99

61

33–36

100

1454b1–2 ( ?) 8-14

38–1457a6 1457a610

97

60 62

35–145662 145662-8

101

( ?)

17-21 ( ?) 146062–5

102

6–7 ( ?)

15–18

103

13–17 ( ?)

65

19-21

104

66

30–31

105 ( ? )

67

1454636–145524

63

64

68 69

1455a4-6

23–25 ( ?) 1461616-17

106 ( ?)

1461a16 ( ?)

107

1461622–25

108

( no equiv .)

12-15

A study of the passages in Aristotle omitted by Averroës -Hermannus shows both misunderstanding and " Arabizing " at work . Many of them (more than in any other category ) are passages in which Aristotle had cited or analyzed specific works by Greek authors , and these were , of course , incomprehensible to Averroës , especially when Aristotle had spoken of specific details of plot or character ( e.g. , 6 , 7 , 9-10 , 10–11 , 11-12 , 16–17 , 35–36 , 36–37 , 38–39 , 39-40 , 53-54 , 54–55 , etc. ). In another group are pas sages in which Aristotle had spoken

of such specifically dramatic

( 354)

elements

AND EXEGESIS

POETICS : DISCOVERY

as the constitution of the plot , the tragic hero , recognition , , reversal the “ deus ex machina ,” the quantitative parts ; since Averroës had no notions of dramatic poetry , these sections were completely meaningless for him ( e.g., 1-2, 17-18 , 32–33 , 41-42 , 46–47, 48–49 , 49–50 , 50 , 62 , 72–73 , passages comprised which Aristotle had treated the etc. ). A third

of

,

he '

;

as

of

)

of

no of

in

imitation since Averroës conception entirely different one could have

of

an

as

as

(

of

poetry very essence art poetry we shall see later was comprehension such ideas

an

is

of

tragedy

set

of

by

,

the second place

is

him

the Poetics translated

of

,

in

,

at

,

,

,

(

,

by

and the most continuous

in

of of

).

,

,

as

of

, ,

,

that represented

passages

the replacing

of

to

,

,

by

is

"

leads

examples

It

Arabize

“

The intention

to

79

diction and rhetorical figures

91 .

to

discussions single part

to ,

necessity and that imitation itself the related imitation truth and historical truth among object e.g. distinctions manner and means 3-4 11-12 20–21 42-43 102 103–4 104–7 Contrariwise Averroës felt quite home

probability

of

to

.

in

of

excludes the

Koran from of )gii

he

clear that

the general classification

in

is

,

: “

in

"

in

to

,

he

,

is ,

”

of

: is in

“

It

,

(p .

liber

“

the

“

from poetry poetry but .” 6

is

it

;

carefully differentiated sanctus and hyperbolical figures Arabic this kind are found Most High the book the Most that the Koran none such are found also clear that excludes certain religious writings called the Sermones Legales and apparently very close content the Old Testament You will find several stories of the kind mentioned here

of

poetry

to

,

.

,

.

of

is

. It

gories

,

from Arabic poetry Besides many fresh examples are added discover difficult from the bare translation poetry what kinds Arabic Averroës has mind But some the names mentioned and some the descriptions help establish the general cate Aristotle's examples

."

of ,

as

all

;

of

in an

,

is

of

;

to

,

of

Laws since this kind are the laudatory tales which incite praiseworthy actions for instance Joseph and his brethren example history examples from and there are other similar incidents accounts the past these are called hortatory exempla Once again the the Books

all

the Arabs

:

of of

;

If

writing are excluded merely because dramatic genres and

:gy "

not exist among the writings in ed

do

,

are excluded specifically other kinds

they

.” of in

in

be

in

)

to

in

of

: “

is

them

,

of

all

[

,

kind

of

carefully made And you will find many examples this praise the Scriptures the Laws since poems virtue i.e. tragedies are not found among the poems the Arabs they and are not found our times except the legal writings these distinction

in

in ."

( sic )

in

id

.) , .p

(

vii : “

f

., .p

7

6

Determinatio 1481 tales iperbolici sermones quamplurimi inueniuntur poematibus arabum sed libro altissimi est alkoratio nihil Ibid tu reperies plures representationum incidentium sermonibus legalibus

ad

tu .

of

f

.p

."

&

et

de

ut

:

de ad

secundum hunc modum cuius fecit mentionem cum talia sint sermones laudatiui instigantes opera laudabilia quidem inducitur historia ioseph fratrum suorum alia similia viiy narrationibus gestorum preteritorum que nominantur exempla exortatiua Cf. on the story Abraham

&

in

."

)

355

(

in

in

in

Et

: "

f

., .p

8

reperies multa scripturis legalibus Ibid viiv modum omnium istorum poematibus arabum cum carmina laudatiua uirtutum non inueniantur non inueniuntur legibus scriptis hoc nostro tempore nisi

POETIC

THEORY

such lengthy narrative poems as the epic . The poetry which Averroës knew consisted therefore exclusively of shorter works , narrative or lyric in general form and embracing such matters as encomia or eulogies, satires , elegiac and songs of joy . Within this body of known of the literary phenomena which he thought Aristotle was describing and discussing , with greater or less success according as parallelisms did or did not exist between Arabic and Greek or love themes

, laments

materials , he tried to find examples

poetry .

In a positive way , we may say that the theory of poetry found in the Determinatio differs from that found in the Poetics in three striking ways : ( 1) Averroës conceives of poetry as a representation or manifestation of the truth , in which the notion of “ imitation " is essentially lacking ; ( 2 ) he thinks of the end of poetry as exclusively ethical, seeking to inculcate virtue or to discourage vice in the reader ; ( 3 ) he sees this end as achieved ally through the affective devices of rhetoric — the figures , mainly

specific - rather

than through the total effect of a poetic form . I shall expand somewhat on each of these points in order to indicate the precise nature of Averroës ' position . Perhaps the simplest approach to Averroës ' general conception of poetry is through his initial statement that “sermones poetici sermones sunt imaginatiui ” ( p . f ) . From what follows , it is clear that “ imaginatiui ” means something like " composed of or productive of images , " something like “ figurative . " The next sentence , “ Modi autem imaginationis & assimila tionis tres sunt, ” confirms this through the establishment of the equivalence between " imaginatio " and "assimilatio " ; moreover , it indicates without a

rei

ad

doubt that these formulas are meant to translate Poetics 1447a15–16 and that " imaginatio " and " assimilatio " are translations of uiungis . But whereas Aristotle had gone on to distinguish three kinds of differences among imitations , according to object, manner , and means , Averroës ”,

”

of

a

is

“

in

a

of

or

”

“

”

an

2 )

“

(

”

“

a

is

(

;

a

on

a

of

of figures : ( 1) an

or

“ assimilatio rem which may using quasi metaphor take the form either simile sicut proportional relationship based assimilatio conuersa comparison you say that the sun which reversed like woman

discerns three kinds

“

to

”,

a

( 3 ) “

”

);

,

of

"

“

”

,

.

“

a

is

rather than that woman like the sun and combination the other two Since synonyms for assimilatio are transumptio trans latio and similitudo and since Averroës refers the reader Aristotle's

]

356

'

“

,

diction

pon

and

an

),

armony

to (h

equivalent

"

of

a

to

sonus

"

"

is

the last

as

,

a

.

,

assimilatio

;

“

),

in

of

. (

”

and

gives them

”

dus

rhythm

[

When Averroës comes poetry imitation

,

means

he

,

as a

given

"

"

.

be

pointed out that imitatio should meaning consistent with that already listing shortly afterward the three

are apparent throughout the work but always term does appear

in It

to

of of

, it is

Rhetoric for further information clear that the notion imitation has figurative expression been reduced that imitation this construction put upon the term The consequences

AND EXEGESIS

POETICS : DISCOVERY

in diction is said to be “ in sermonibus repre When he wishes to state the natural causes of poetry , he gives the first as man's natural practice of “assimilatio per rem evidence the useful representatio cites and imitation or representation

as

he

"

rei

&

rem :

ad

rei

” ( p . fv ).

seu imaginatiuis

sentatiuis

"

circulatio

be

“

,

by

"

“

by

to

(

and

no

in

found together poet called Abyraibi

a

,

speech

a

,

translated

both may the one cited from

of

f

as

.

" )

.pp

“

(

“

are both figures brief narrative passage such res

is a

he

of is (

of

),

to

Reversal and recognition

conceptions directio

he " is as

“

of

a

).

he

(

of .p

teaching

f2v

In

in

examples and comparisons such assimilationes confronted with the necessity more important way when plot which treating the parts much larger imitative form than any obliged replace translation paraphrase could conceive substitute for the ideas the original those which agree with his own ness

a

or

,

;

at

is

as a

of

."

9

which has offered itself for praise

the matter

giito by

long the praises Similarly the notions

of

of

on

]

[

,

,

, of

in

is

"

"

“

or

,

).

or vi -

of

”

f

plot itself has viv Action more specific meaning than subject matter although the word actio times used unity praise for example when action violated certain Arabic poems praise presents itself such fast horse some matter worthy precious sword and they digress from the main theme and they linger too

to

,

).

.p

cf.

(

of

insistence that poetry must

of

, in

found

his

,

of

Aristotelian meaning

is

its

thing but

treat only what

“

(

)

"

by "

or

"

be

”

“

,

knot and denouement translated carmen pertain and dissolutio disiunctio are made lyric poetry and may short citations illustrated Further evidence that the concept imitation has for Averroës any consecutiuum

,

:

is

.

he

;

he

ff .,

is

an

on

on .

is

true There are echoes here course Aristotle's ideas probability and historical truth but essentially the ideas are reversed opposite conclusion translating presented and Thus when Poetics 1451a35 makes this categorical statement

in

as

of

a

to

.

:

et

:

,

to

tragedy

aliquis equus strenuus laudibus materie que

vv

10

. "

a

: "

., .p

aliqua materia laudandi Ibid fv quando occurrerit proposito aut ensis preciosus digrediuntur immorantur nimis optulit ad laudandum

ut

or

"

carmen laudatiuum

eis

the

” :

specifically with respect

more

in

ars laudatiua

“

is

developed

“

he

The same thesis which calls the 9

no exist things which

10

....

he

of

proverbs and fables invents fabricates entities that simply gives them names But the poets give names fact and

matter exist

do of

to

or

.

or

.

it

to

,

in

of

.

representations which are made through untrue and extraordinary figments are not the poet's business And these are the ones which are called proverbs and Aesop and exempla and they are those which are found similar the book writings belong poet speak anything except fabulous For does not the things which exist extraordinary which can possibly exist ... For the maker

)

(

&

re :

in

."

.

357

eis

et in in

ea

ut

.

:

:

&

ea

Et :“

et

.

de

f

., .p

representationes que fiunt per figmenta mendosa adinuenticia non sunt Ibid que sunt exempla que nominantur prouerbia libro opere poete sunt Isopi similibus fabulosis conscriptionibus ideo quod poete non pertinet loqui nisi rebus que sunt aut quas possibile est esse fabu fictor ergo prouerbiorum adinuentiuorum ponit larum adinuenit seu fingit indiuidua que penitus non habent existentiam nomina Poete uero ponunt nomina rebus existentibus

POETIC

THEORY

...

the things from which the imitative representation is selected must be things existing in nature , not things invented or imaginary , for which terms are fabri cated . For the songs of praise [i.e. , tragedies ) have as their intention the improv ing of those actions which spring from the will; when therefore they are possible and almost real , they contain a greater capacity for persuasion or poetic credi bility , which moves the soul to follow something or to reject it . In actions , however , which do not exist in nature , [ this capacity ] is not present . 11

to

;

is

if

in

is

,

its

Imitation is no longer the process of presenting something that is like nature ; it is the process of presenting nature . greater The reason for this , the greater credibility of that which is and persuasiveness paragraph quoted poem contained the last the

of

.

,

'

of

as a

if

be

,

its

,

,

is

.

to

a

of

of

produce ethical action through persuasion audience and persuasion only depends upon conviction truth then true subjects will admitted poetry The end persuasion action the means the materials truth We may take this statement Averroës other two fundamental concepts

and

prevent

:

of

of

certain other actions

;

will

to

the

to

to

“

by

.

,

he

,

of

to

.

of

poetry With respect the end moral action his statements Paraphrasing Poetics 1448al are once again unequivocal writes Those who represent and those who imitate intend means their instigate imitations certain actions which spring from the activity the art

whence

those things which ." 12

in

in

he

of

be

they seek through their imitations will necessity virtues and vices rephrases passage such formulas the intention Later the same

&

be

(“ to

.

of

.”

of

in

"

",

et

“

&

”

,

“

" "

,

as

propter ostentationem decentis aut indecentis assecutio decentis uituperatio malorum approbatio refutatio turpis laus bonorum decentis detestatio turpis The various literary genres come named and judged the light their service these ends Tragedy ars lau be

)

an

It is

;

: "

to

in

is

,

,

I

,

,

of

to

of

”

(“

”

)

acceptable forms since and comedy ars uituperandi will praise both and blame contribute the end virtuous action the defini tragedy for example tion modified contain this clause say which generates imitation men's souls certain passions which

dandi

as

of be

It

(

13

.”

it

it

11

,

to

them toward pitying and fearing and other similar passions promotes through which induces and what makes virtuous men imagine honesty about and moral cleanliness should remembered that Averroës knew no dramatic literature and conceived these two forms temper

in

ad

in

ad

.

....

.pp ' fv 12 : "

12

ponuntur

ad

:

&

.

a

ut

"

.:

quibus sumitur imitatiua representatio res existentes Ibid sint res natura non res adinuenticie siue figmentales quibus ficta sint nomina Carmina namque laudatiua inten quando ergo fuerint possibiles quasi tionem habent promouendi actiones uoluntarias reales amplius incidit per eas sufficientia persuasiua seu credulitas poetica motiua anime assequendum aliquid aut refutandum ipsum Rebus autem non existentibus natura non

f3 -

.pp

13

ea

."

a

et

et

.,

representatores quas Ibid assimilatores per haec intendunt instigare quibusdam erunt necessario dam actiones que circa uoluntaria consistunt retrahere que intendunt per suas representationes aut uirtutes aut uicia in

."

&

de

ad

358

)

(

&

in

ad

: "

.,

Representatio inquam que generat Ibid f3v animabus passiones quasdam temperatiuas ipsarum miserendum aut timendum aut ceteras consimiles passiones quas munditia honestate promouet per hoc quod imaginari facit uirtuosis inducit

POETICS : DISCOVERY

AND EXEGESIS

short poems resembling eulogies and satires .) But love poems , since they lead only to vice , will not be acceptable : But the species of poetry which they call elegy is nothing but an incitement to acts of copulation which they conceal and adorn with the name of love . And therefore it is necessary that children should be restrained from the reading of such poems and that they should be instructed and exercised in poems which incite and incline to fortitude and liberality.14

in for

After pointing out what virtues are pursued by Arabic poetry, Averroës insists that the Greeks always seek to teach in their poetry and that didactic materials are included in it " insofar as they intend by them ( their poems ) to convey didactic illustrations and precepts for the following of the virtues and the rejecting of the vices , or for any other good things which may be

of be

.

,

consisting

as

of of “

poetry

of

be

is

the rhetorical means which such moral instruction figurative we have already seen that the principal one will we

,

by

With respect achieved

it is

to

.

of

,

be

done or known . " 15The end of poetry is thus instruction what may especially may learned but for the actions that taken the light learning Because essentially emphasis this moral instruction

in

to be ,

It

.

of

of

to

he

in

of

,

of

.

of

,

in

be

or

think

process

"

If

.

as

essentially

a

imitation imitation and metaphor assimilatio then whatever power the art has must found the rhetorical effectiveness such metaphors fairly clearly deforming again Averroës states the case the text Aristotle recognition and reversal connection with his treatment will language

;

Aristotle's tragedies

(

),

praise

,

...

the reception

the

ad

82 : "

est

of

to .

men's souls and make them quick

of

as

is .

of

to

,

16

.

14

up

to

people without relationship the soul the reception

through

representations bringing sadness

such the misfortunes falling upon good their merits Through these indeed the exciting Certainly these the virtues made powerful

from which follows some emotion

representations stir virtues

be

,

of

of

of

to

which one seeks the instigation virtues should made representations things causing fear the virtues and

or up of

songs

of

is

that

the

proper that odes

,

For

it is

:

be

,

he

figures speech remembered that had reduced both the status explain their effectiveness says this after pointing out how they should mixed within the individual poem

ut a

in

ad

.

&

."

&

ea

.,

., .p

12 -

15

16

.pp &

&

&

., .p

Species uero poetrie quam elegiam nominant non Ibid nisi incitatio actus cohituales quos amoris nomine obtegunt decorant Ideoque oportet talium carminum lectione abstrahantur filii instruantur exerceantur carminibus que actus largitatis incitant fortitudinis inclinant

. "

ad

&

ad

ut

fit

."

&

...

ex

:

ex

:

&

)

359

(

.

ad

&

ex

id

ut

vii : “

ad

f

aut

: "

inquantum intendunt per Ibid precepta f2v tradere documenta sequendas uirtutes aut respuenda uicia quaslibet alias bonitates operabiles aut scientiales Oportet enim Ibid ode est carmina laudum per que intenditur instigatio representationibus uirtutum representationibus rerum uirtutes composite sint quibus sequitur perturbatio incutientium pauorem contristantium sunt infortunia per haec enim uehemens incidentia bonis praeter merita ipsorum incitatio anime receptionem uirtutum He nempe representationes exacuunt animas festinas reddunt receptionem uirtutum eas

POETIC

this basically rhetorical attitude are seen

of

Further consequences out the work .

THEORY

through

We may take as a striking example

of

parts

tragedy

.

the handling of the six qualitative These are the terms which he uses as equivalent to Aris

totle's : plot

fabulares representatiui "

“ sermones

character

* consuetudines "

thought

“ credulitas "

diction

“ metrum

spectacle

“ consideratio

song

“ tonus " 17

” "

I have

already pointed out , there is in Averroës no conception of plot or ; thus “sermones fabulares representatiui " really refers to the whole of the poem rather than to a specific part . The next two parts are for Averroës the most important : " the major parts of laudatory songs are ' consuetudines ' and ' credulitates . ' ”' 18 He states the reasons for this judg

As

action as such

tragedy is not a part which represents men themselves as they are individuals present to the senses ; but it is representative of their honest

For

ment : “

represent

a

to

capacity

explain

:

goes

. ”

as

as

or

rhetorical implications . Averroës defines it as “ thing being thus not being thus Then

on to

he the

ways of living and of their praiseworthy actions and of their beliefs which render them happy. And ' consuetudines'include actions and characters . " 19 It is the third of these parts, “ credulitas," which has the most specific

.

an

a

do

to

in

in

is

;

a

or

is

to

attempted And this similar that which rhetoric the declaration that thing exists does not exist except that rhetoric seeks this through persuasive composition and poetry through imitative composition And

...

; to

is

to

,

is

or

but the

not

the

of

is

else

not

f3y

beatificantium

."

eorum honestarum comprehendunt

&

consuetudinum

Et

sed est representatiua

credulitatum

.

&

:

sensum

consuetudines

".

in

: “

laudabilium mores

.: & "

cadentia

actionum actiones

et

fiiii partes maiores carminis laudatiui sunt consuetudines credulitates Tragedia enim non est pars representatiua ipsorummet hominum prout sunt

Ibid Ibid indiuidua

20

nothing

.

Ibid

.: ., ., “ .p p .

19 18 17

or

or

of

a

to

composition which incites whereas belief incites acceptance the rejection the notion that something refusal the thing itself.20 active seeking out

to

to

or

a

to

of

a

to

preceptive poetic composition which incites the difference between beliefs living preceptive one which incites ways and that the latter incites accomplishing and doing something renouncing and avoiding something

in

&

&

ad

est

ad

ad &

ad

Et

ad

ad

.

ad

&

operandum agendum aliquid aut consuetudines instigat fugiendum Sermo uero qui instigat credulitatem non instigat nisi cre fugiendum aliquid esse aut non esse sed non inquirendum ipsum aut respu

360

)

(

."

dendum endum

&

recedendum

&

ille qui instigat

ad

ad

. . &. .

ad

ei

Et

quod conatur rethorica Ibid hoc est simile declarationc quod res existat aut poetria per non existat nisi quod rethorica conatur hoc per sermonem persuasiuum sermonem representatiuum differentia inter sermonem poeticum preceptiuum instigatiuum preceptiuum instigatiuum quoniam credulitates consuetudines

AND EXEGESIS

POETICS : DISCOVERY

; (

2 )

of

all ,

There are many curious things about these statements , but perhaps the most significant aspects are these : ( 1) " plot, " " character , " and " thought " are poetic compositions but separate kinds not parts of poems at

of

,

.

be to

by

early should now clear what the reader the late fifteenth century would learn about Aristotle's Poetics from reading or

of

It

which produce knowing to

which leads

but one

of

both

ethical ends through rhetorical means doing while the other leads

,

these kinds are divided into two larger classes

Hermannus Alemanus

.

the translation

in

Determinatio

'

Averroës

of

sixteenth

He

to

be

to

,

of

to ),

,

.

of

,

as be a as

),

of

:

it

(

as

.

(

of

only the vaguest notions about the text some the main terms but often misused and misapplied some the central ideas frequently the most general theoretical distinc not deformed but tions He would led contrary the intention Aristotle himself poetry moral instruction didactic instrument proceeding think through rhetorical devices Of these the most important would the would derive from

be

to

,

in

,

of

to

.

of

.

,

of

.

of

speech and other ornaments Poetry this view comes identical with rhetoric and with the kind limitation diction and figures associated with the Alexandrian rhetoricians None the distinctively poetry remains clear and discernible Aristotelian concepts figures

1498

)

(

THE VALLA TRANSLATION

E.

to

of

of

According

to

.

translation into Latin

,

,

in

in

of

Aristotle's Poetics the presentation The first great step forward Giorgio Valla's the modern reader came with the publication 1498 Greek Manuscripts

Lobel's

in

.

.gr ,

is

an

a

no

of

the Greek original

by

to

it

,

.

consult the few available manuscripts

of

able

to

a

,

of

,

at

25 ),

in ( .p

as

Valla used the basis for his translation the the Biblioteca Estense Modena Estensis 100 The translation which preceded any publication the Greek text good one For the first time larger public than was general gave Aristotle's Poetics manuscript now

a

,

a

of

a

,

or

no

.

at

of

, it

; (

2 )

it : in all , (1 ) a

to

of

of

,

as a

of

of

it it

to to

,

to

,

I

it .

,

is a

,

.

it

;

of

these are undoubtedly the responsibility the printer rather good translation and above than Valla himself But still notable advance over everything that had preceded should like the following pages emphasize the following points with respect the degree which rendered properly the key terms the Poetics the degree which rendered correctly most the text including certain

of

punctuation

it

on

is

It

.

of

be ,

of

it

;

in

perfect what was contained the text means given the state translation could not the manuscript which was based and the state Greek scholarship the time For the modern reader offers the additional difficulties solid presentation with paragraphing completely capricious division into chapters and accurate idea

it

4 )

of

.

a

of )

(

361

,

(

;

,

to of

be

of

;

( 3 )

central passages the kinds errors which made result the imperfections the Greek manuscripts and those errors which were actually errors translation and the reasons behind them Again my purpose will general idea indicate what kind reader this trans

POETIC

THEORY

.” its

lation might have of Aristotle's Poetics during the years from

to 1536

1498

to

of

.

it )

,

a

the transla

in

,

in

,

.

"

“

λόγω και αρμονία

are

means

,

the distinction

of

harmonia

" ;

"

&

oratione

of &

by

,

the three means ρυθμό και :

“

rendered

be

by

imitantur rhythmo

becomes

used

and the later commentators Thus with respect poetry uíungis becomes imitatio and uiuoŨNTAI

of

of

successors the general nature

” ;

to

tions

the Latin terms that were

his

lished the tradition

to

of

.

,

is

of

“

of

place beside (when Pazzi's translation took The key terms the Poetics The satisfactory character Valla's rendering only apparent striking key the terms not but even one who estab has read the Averroës version Not only that but Valla sense

in ή

,

)

(

. ”

"

for

"

(

fabula

for

for thought

dictio

, “

"

"

With

imitantur

the terms used are

sententiae

kai

and actions kai ñen

actiones

“

&

,

&

,

ή

... ,

is

"

"

, of

;

"

:

“

as

(

in ,

by

,

of

tragedy

for character animi conspectus for spectacle

mores

"

"

,

the qualitative parts

affectus ,

respect

mores

of

to

)

TÁOn kai Tpáfeis

plot

characters passions

and the imitation

”

“

as

vis

),

“

,

,

is

and manner

ÉTÉPW5

εν

imitation τώ ετέροις τώ έτερα τα genere translated alienis there some ambiguity the poetry Suvauis appears translation here aliena aliter the effect object

(I

”

as

"

is

,

,

." ),

(

,

"

"

”

of

"

"

“

."

:

;

"

“

=

;

"

;

decorum

"

"

=

"

TTPÉTTOV

passiva

=

...

TNV OÚOtaOW

DavudoTÓV miri pictores simulacro ”

TÒ

;

”

;

”

ex

elkovoy pápous

= ”;

,

agentes

rerum complexum

ratiocinatione and Tradntikń

"

=

"

"

=

= “

)

affectus

implexa

peragentes

"

Tas

=

of

“

= (

tráOn

or

of

“

“

”

as

”

“

Tà

;

”

” ; £ K

miscellaneous terms are equally well translated

1450b23

OUMoylouoŨ

TTETTAnyuévn

“

in

of

of

).

"

"

“

TÕV Tepayuátwv

rum

melopoeia

of

,

"

of

, “

“ "

A

certain number TTPÁTTOVTAS and Spõ ficum

and

“

for song shall the difficulties involved the use animi sententiae and plot ávaryvápiois conspectus expressed One the parts recognitio pity resulting and the effects and fear from tragedy poßepà Kai Recivá and formido commiseratio miseratio complication and the plot Ségis aúois For the denouement and solutio Valla uses ligatio diction speak later

qırávopwtrov

.” =

;

of

.

in

”

;

= “

"

“

= “

=

TÓ

;

”

;

"

to so

"

“

Ávároyov eúquias KATà iuxta proportionem 91 äloya SinynuatiKÚv ingenii expositricem rationis expertes this And on for many other felicitous solutions To have presented humanum

a

,

of

a

of

in

to

of

,

large number way the Cinquecento the beginning the reader the Latin terms that were become standard the translations and com for considerable achievement mentaries the Poetics was already .

Giorgio Valla

—

of

by

.

.

an

by

to

a

,

I

.

of

In

362

)

(

.

.

to

compare the translation with the original text spite these excellences Errors resulting from the text

in

of

is

except This difficult demonstrate extensive can only invite the reader the original and the translation

.

the right sense

comparison

general But Valla's achievement was more extensive syntax presented solved correctly the problems the and result text which for the most part made sense

as he a in

,

,

In

The translation most cases original giving

Valla's

AND EXEGESIS

POETICS : DISCOVERY

translation of 1498 , there were a large number of errors and inadequacies. These were of two kinds , those occasioned by the corruptness of the manu scripts which he was using and those resulting from his own misunder standings . With respect to the manuscripts, they presented many lacunae , haplographies , misreadings , and these were reproduced in the later editio princeps ( 1508 ) ; hence we are able to discover the state of Valla's manu scripts through the edition of 1508 as well as through our modern editions .

For in many

cases , and in spite

of the brilliant

and emendations

conjectures

of modern scholars, the text remains imperfect. Indeed , in almost every where major difficulties are found , one may explanation imperfection original text find the in some of Epopoeia 1447a28 Valla orationibus tenuibus aut metris Hisque siue inuicem inter miscendo siue uno aliquo genere utendo metrorum hoc the MS usque tempus come from the presence difficulties Valla's the word ÉTrottolia after and from the absence after métowy the

ad

.

:

by

Bernays confirmed

of

'

H

Sé

conjecture

the

as

.

is a

which

,

word åvávuuos Arabic version

of

."

in

of

:

se

.

: “

.

his

of Valla's translation

passage

.

.

&

in

.

."

in

&

finis actio after eudaipovías

δε

,

,

actione est

&

"

in

&

infelicitas

Valla's text lacked

...

-ή

uitae

.

quaedam

&

felicitatis qualitas est non

&

actionis

“

.

:

.

: "

is a

of

.

.

:

."

.

:

“

1448a15 Valla circa leges pergas 1508 reads TOUS VÓMous Trépyas The passage gave infinite trouble throughout the sixteenth century conjecture Vahlen ώσπερ γάρ quibus quo modo lacking 1448a25 Valla kai the text namque Tragoedia imitatio non hominum sed est 1450al6 Valla

."

)

;

,

:

The MSS lacked

,

infortunium

by

est

.”

unde transitus

Valla

: “

.

1455b27

ad

.

(

as

.

: “

.

, a

ευδαιμονία Vahlen conjecture quibus partes tragoediae Antea diximus utendum 1452b25 Valla lacking they The words tideoi were from 1508 and from Pazzi 1536 supplied subsequently have been from other MSS the words και κακοδαιμονίας

a

,

εις

is a

,

was lacking from Valla's text

SÈ

TÒ

is

,

"

;

still

,

translating kai Étri

excluded from the text

by

which now

medio

sit

in

363

)

: “

duplex error

:

unus non recte praeoccupare sed partem prouoluere quod qualibet utramlibet arte pecca Valla

(

in

.

1460b15 aequum

est .

.

,

των άκρων και επί του μέσου editors

quam

”

extremis

is in

tam

Valla

: “

.

1457a2

in

.

corrupt

his kinds

.”

simple porro aequabilis

Valla Quarta since 1508 reads rather than the modern conjectural reading the passage “

.

1456a2 TÉTAPTOV

.

in

...

Sé

Stañ

Since

tragedies did not include the :

of

.

1455b35

“

in

.

: “

." &

.

ή

,

εις

supplied ευτυχίαν the words συμβαίνει άτυχίαν Vahlen conjecture and from other MSS ligatio quidem quae prius gesta pusionis acceptio 1455b31 Valla usque apetita quod ipsorum lacuna There adfinem morte est rursus longer our text which was still Valla's after

POETIC

THEORY

est

tum . ” Valla's translation is garbled for two reasons : because certain words now conjectured for the text were lacking and because his text included , after μη ορθώς , a repetition of κατά συμβεβηκός , thus leading to a hap lography .

,

in

were inverted

by

.

TETTOINTai

no

,

as

."

in

:

&

1461a27 . Valla : “ unde factum crus nuper fabrefacti stanni aereas ferro elaboratas unde dicitur ganymedes ioui uinum miscere non bibenti bus uinum The garbled translation results from the fact that Valla's MS 1508 the two phrases beginning with odev cipntai and odev

,

).

,

,

of ,

,

at

, of

be

17 ,

as

of

,

,

11 ,

(

an

to

imperfect translations ascribable These are means the only cases imperfect text others may 1454b2 and 614 found for example -55b15 and 633 -56a10 and -5668 -57a7 -60all -61628 But examples they may serve difficulties which the Greek the kinds .

of

of

in

of

text presented and the kinds confusion and misunderstanding which the the Valla translation For the reader were necessarily reflected

Some

.

translation

of

Actual errors

these are

the simplest

kind and

the terms signified objects which Valla did not know

no :

are easily explained

of

of

.

a

,

to

time they merely served make more difficult and enigmatic document whose philosophical difficulties were already almost insuperable

”

”

as

“

“

;

as

gives the proper equivalent as

or

as

consistently

for

mistranslates

;

,

preceded and

“

",

“

is

)

(

by

).

In

;

him

,

(

"

“

)

”

(

-55a27

(

:

,

”

, ”

“

kapkívą

thus

Náros -60a30 iolaus giving the completely misleading

cancrum

darium

“

) )

is

in (

becomes

-61b35

,

&

“

it

proper names gave him trouble 1508

he

he

,

(

”

petulantia

”

).

"

as

just

recognitio

e.g. -52a17 procacitas e.g. duaptia surprising not that should have troubled flagicium scelus -53a16 other cases “

is as

It

translates

consistently

Whereas

as

he

-59b11

).

TTEPITTEteia

at .

of

as

-52617

(

”

"

statiua

åvayvápiois

.

in

to

as

of

he

and hence had idea their proper rendering Latin These are mostly technical terms the poetic art He did not know what gnomic poetry was and translated Tõv vouwv Tápodos legum 1447b26 parts and otáOINOV the chorus are given accessus and

TØ

livsápou

talis fuit erga

In

. ”

darium opinio

,

is ,

.

by

he at

,

he

,

of

meaning required

so

:

.

is

it

rendered

, ”

"

, "

is

“

.”

modify change neos person having character and or

“

also

pathetic

event and usually correctly given

”

.”

be

“ a

Nuev

but

is to

” ;

“

be

364

)

needs

to

should

(

-60a10

pain

actual

it

“ ,

at

-53b22 , it

at

,

;

character but

but

of

its

a

he

equivalent

,

;

soluere

where one needs ”

-53b18

at

he

,

of

,

its

affectus

as

is

a

,

;

of

usually properly rendered

-52610 where one needs something

“

as at at

Tráðos

.

the context This came fully about for two reasons one because did not understand the text specific points two because knowledge lacked the possible range implications meanings for word nuances and For example seize the shade :

failed

to

in

he

,

a

another category and far more extensive one come those terms whose general meaning understood clearly enough but for which given places gave unacceptable equivalents the text That

POETICS : DISCOVERY

AND EXEGESIS

the total phrase

" uirum aut foeminam aut morem aliquem ” becomes ambiguous . oi ypapeis may mean “ scriptores ” ; but at 48a5 it means

."

" painters

Other cases are more serious , since they involve terms whose understand ing is essential for the total interpretation of the Poetics . Such terms as “ necessity ” and “ probability , ” for example , are fundamental . Valla regu larly gives

” for åvarykatov ; but he just as regularly gives aequitas ” or even “ modestia ” for elkós ( -51a27 probability Aris and these not render the notion

),

,

-51a36 -5168 totle's four terms for the four requisites

.

of

do

“

,

or

cf.

“ necessarium

“ aequum ”

,

I

,

,

,

of

”

“

“

"

“

”

of

"

"

.”

.

of

"

"

in

,

character are xpnotóv åpuÓTTOV Õudiov oualov The third and fourth find satisfactory equivalents think aequabile frugalem simile and But and concinnum were goodness and like hardly capable giving the reader the notions

is

of

,

“

;

“

as

)

(

)

cernentes

be :

.”

-53637

(

Elbotas eldóras Numerous other examples

translates

cernentes

the same kind might

of

un

he

, "

;

as

,

of

,

In

).

in

,

in

”

(I

passing that the exact sense ness should point out the terms discussing the types dispute still action Aristotle uses the phrase eidotas kai yivớOKOVTAS Valla interprets the first epithet idiotas planeque uulgares shortly afterward thus deforming the sense -53628 aut

non

cited.21 be

.

,

”

of

.

do

“

of

For another category mistranslations Valla should perhaps not For they not constitute errors translation Rather they

blamed

in

—

.

he

to

to

in

of

consist the choice unfortunate Latin equivalents unfortunate the sense that they had associations and implications which might lead the assign reader Aristotle meanings that did not intend Thus for ”, ,

of

.

is of

,

to

of

.

... .

”

)

(

kadódou

get across the notion generality which fails needed example the first above Valla's translation for tpaywdías

cf.

in

by At “

totum

49b8 and -50613 the rendering

-

At

towards actions and persons 49b17

At

:

“

”

“

&

of

Ñ

at

paulous probos aut improbos Otroudaious 48a2 Valla gives restricting unnecessarily the distinction moral character 48625 speciosas speciosorum emphasizes excessively the attitude others

21

,

,

At

at at

"

“

of

,

.

to

"

"

a

it

.

be

,

of

the translation

Si '

of

introduces

”

an

.

of

an

to

unfortunate distinction moral merit -55a18 Eikótwv by per decorem not only loses the meaning verisimilitude but makes dangerous allusion current theory which should not confused with Aristotle's text it

-50a19

of &

“

is

tragedia honesta Otroudaias kai paýans uili which again over insignes the moral implications The use the word inappropriate element and -50a5 adds the definition character emphasizes

)

; )

;

passiones

;

sunt

)

( (

) =

.

) =

(

) =

(

365

) =

veu(

(

;

; &

) =

(

) =

;

) =

;

(

;

SES (

;

[

(

;

;

) =

Trapaloyiouos -60a20 absonum Táon tñs AÉFECOS -60612 dictionis huaptñota -60629 hallucinari duiuntws -60632 sine imitatione

(

) = ;

) = in

(

) =

). (

;

(

) =

) tò ex =

;

(

) ( =

;

os

(

tr .

,

) =

;

= 81 ' = &

(

poaptikń Poetica Valla 1498 Cf. virouetpiav -48a11 carminis tenuitate corruptiua tanquam speciebus -52b11 eldeci -52614 ÉTTIEIKETS -52634 modestos aequos pinávopwtrov -52b38 homini amicabile humanumque xopnyias SEÓLEVOV-5368 egetque adminiculo uerum uiapov -53639 TEPATW -5369 monstrosum scelestum arropiav -54b21 ambiguitate onuciov -56a15 coniectura 518aokarias -5665 kúpiov -58a23 proprium bywĖOTATOV turgidissimum citra doctrinam -59635

POETIC

THEORY

Finally , one must consider , in addition to the isolated terms already longer passages which present unsatisfactory translations . There are many of these . They are explained by the presence of the types of words just examined , but also and particularly by deficiencies in Valla's studied , those

;

”

&

ad

est of

est

”

:

;

”

, “

of

quidem mos -54a21 sed nec dum mulieri congruus fortem ipsam aut grauem esse

fortis

;

siue posterius recognoscendo amiciciam

est

.

"

,

;

”

&

est

, “

-

of

of

est

comprehension of construction and of syntactical difficulties . The result is a passage which fails to give a clear and precise meaning . Some of these are fairly short ; so the version of -5064 , “ id autem uerbis complecti posse agitantia concinnantia -50635 item honestum animal 53b30 sane agere quidem ignorantes sed ignorantes agere quiduis

,

So

&

.

in

&

:

ut

: “

.

them are longer

& .

of

Some

”

“

,

quia iuxta dictam

.

hallucinationem licet namque non nihil for -59b26–30 collapsed into the following sentences quae seiuncta diuiduntur Haec sunt Quantitate quae constructas fabulas uereri oporteat uero oportet coniectare -54634 ingerere

id

&

of

all ,

in

,

.”

&

ad

.

“

.:

ff

.”

erit

sit

post haec quae nunc dicta sunt nobis dicendum quod expositio est partes multas facere also for -59626 terminatas quibus suis eius aceruus poematis augetur Proinde habet magnificentiam agressus bonum mutare auditorem admittere inaequalibus episodiis There are some twenty passages this kind throughout the translation.22 So

unde fuerit opus tragoediae

.

of

he

be

,

of

I

'

“

to

in

in

In

a

by be

the fact that

the

22 )

—

further enhanced in

in

at

it

The reader's difficulties would distance from the original text increased on

his

and

all .

to

understand

.”

"

"

of or

,

or

“

as

of I

to

point out that should not fail addition these actual errors Valla which should characterize translation there are many passages ambiguities questionable doubtful these because meaning led unclear constructions the reader might easily because way which was not intended Or might not understand the text

.)

, in

to

,

of

.

of

to

he

.

a

in

a

in it

of ff

(

to

in

on

(

diction chapter the textual examples are omitted and replies that the section criticism roughly -61a12 the Greek spite examples are given without translation Therefore Valla's really considerable contribution and the many qualities his translation his perfectly satisfactory introduction Aris reader would not find reasonably accurate totle's Poetics He had the Poetics for the first time whole section

a

by

of

-59a21

,

-58612

,

-56633

,

,

,

a

by

in

,

)

366

.

,

,

,

,

-53635 -55a35 -5663 -5669 -62a6 -62a9 -62a17

-61613

(

-60636

,

-60632

,

,

,

-6063

,

Cf. also the translations

-60a26

the

Aldus and entitled listing the followed

Venice

hi ,

hoc volumine habentur

the first Greek text

of

)

a

volume published

of

simply Rhetores

in

,

Poetics appeared 22

1508

ten years after the Valla translation

in

1508

,

In

THE ALDUS TEXT

(

.

to

,

the form which could easily lead also had before him but many problems and discussions and insurmountable difficulties that were plague the exegetes throughout the sixteenth century form

POETICS : DISCOVERY

AND EXEGESIS

texts included . There is no prefatory or explanatory material . The text , based on manuscripts then in Italy , is a reasonably good one , and it was long to remain the basic text for the Poetics ; it was copied or adapted or corrected by most of the sixteenth - century editors . It is possible that the editor of the text may have been Joannes Lascaris ; such , at least , was the

of Margoliouth

, who credited Lascaris with the greatest single editing contribution to the of the Poetics.23 If one compares this text with a modern edition , one finds many errors of spelling, many lacunae , and of

thesis

course the same difficulties which have led to the conjectures and the ex clusions of recent editors . But these are largely imperfections of the manu scripts and not failures of the editor of the printed text . Essentially, Aristotle's text is presented in a usable form , and to the growing group of humanists and scholars it offered the possibility of controlling Valla's translation , of preparing generally more satisfactory translations , and of proceeding to better editions and to intelligent exegeses .

For

the next thirty years, there is practically no activity in the tradition

of

In

.24

Aristotle's Poetics . Such texts as are found treat the Poetics in passing, alluding or referring to it in connection with other problems . It is hardly an exaggeration to say that study of the document , if we are to go by the extant works , was at a standstill for almost a third of a century. An example of the passing references to the Poetics may be found in Pomponio Gaurico's in is so

all ,

at

to

refers Aristotle does hearsay rather the result merely

of

it

, an be if

).

"

( .p

commouere Aiii The phrase only the vaguest way and might

of in

a

ad

we

,

:

“

on

a

of

commentary on Horace , De arte poetica (ca. 1510 ) work which paraphrase suddenly come upon this phrase essentially Horace tragedy praecipue quum uult spectatores the section misericordiam

,

In

in

on

of ;

.p

,

"

)

(

of

it

)

he :ait

and cites the origins poeticis quoniam Epicharmus Sicily esset oriundus AA4

23

libri

XXX

the most part Ricchieri D.

For

1516

(

Ricchieri's Lectionum antiquarum

is

Lodovico

references are still more extensive.25

),

).

to

In

,

AA3 in

"

,

.p

comoediam imitare quemadmodum Aristoteles comicorum antiquissimus poeta illinc this refers Poetics 1448a33

(“

ridiculum comedy

est

(“

,

.

),

.

(

a

of

knowledge than the text almost contemporary work Vittore Fausto's De comoedia libellus 1511 the citations are more specific Fausto takes directly from the Poetics the assertion that comedy imitates the ridicu turpitudine lous Hoc etiam Aristoteles comprobauit inquens quod

the

working

)

367

.

.

.

its

of

a

41

(

,

n .

97 ).

.

"

is

(p

the text the greatest which any one scholar has made study 88–90 and for this text and for date for this work ,

, ),

(L

of

it is

is

; in

, :

to (

an

as

so

,

of

S.

;

, xv ,

.pp

),

,

. . be ii, iii , p . to .pp 57

,

contribution Lascaris See above chap See above chap 25 24

of

,

of

,

.

, of

...

E.

.p on xi it a : , ; “ : .

Margoliouth's For indications the basic manuscripts see edition the Poetics eipzig 1885 London Hodder and Stoughton 1911 95-97 also Vahlen's edition and Lobel Greck Manuscripts Aristotle's Poetics London Oxford Univ Press 1933 pp 31–32 Margoliouth who ascribes the Aldine text Lascaris makes this judgment important epoch Lascaris's emendations constitute the history the Poetics long probable that the number will retained the Poetics studied and

POETIC

THEORY

in the Platonic tradition . But when he speaks of the origins of poetry , he gives as equivalent to the Latin “ ex rudi principio ” the Greek ÉK TÕV autooXEDICO LÁTWV, which may derive from Poetics 1449a9 , and then he gives the following explanation , translating fairly closely Poetics 1448624 ff .: ,

to

.

in

to

as

an

its

origin art was dis Indeed , from this basis of imitation , whence poetry had engaged and art was subdivided and issued several component parts For the inclination imitate was revealed according the nature and the to

on

.

;

as

of

,

.

of

character each writer The more worthy ones proposed imitate fine and honorable actions but the lower and baser ones chose conformably vile and ignoble actions just some from the start undertook poems blame while others sang hymns and praises ,

art

:

, in

of

is

of

There also possibly some reflection Poetics 144869 the pleasure ugly objects derived from the imitation the following passage In

be

to

-

in

.

of

to

a

in

the Opera

paraphrase

the Averroës instrument education

:

(

poetry

first published

of

defence

an

of

.

is a a

,

contains

the Poetics

1520

short passage which cites

of It

of of

Pietro Pomponazzi's De incantationibus 1567

be in

or ,

the resemblance.26 ),

but because

as

,

animals

of

,

of

a

we

,

,

of

of

coherently For that work arouses admiration whose portrayal seems things handled for the representation and depiction the images the same way indeed praise monkey depicted conformity with the lizard truth not because their beauty which we know non existent such

,

,

,

is

,

in

do ,

,

as

as

,

so

.

be

which must

,

crowd

at

so

,

as

to

of

;

to

by

in

expression For the mode the laws Averroës says his Poetry they invent fables which similar that used the poets for just the poets according the literal meaning the words are nor possible but within they contain the truth Plato and Aristotle frequently point out For they tell un truths that we may arrive the truth and that we may instruct the vulgar led toward good action and away from wicked action.27

as 2

.

,

&

,

,

,

&

,

,

.

&

,

.

,

in

: ac “

(

&

,

,

diuulsa

,

hac uero imitandi ratione unde Poesis ortum ducit abiit quodammodo membra plura Nam pro cuiusque natura moribus imitandi studium proferebatur honestiores enim pulchras honestasque actiones sibi imitandas proponebant Tenuiores autem humilioresque Viles itidem ignobiles primo quidem uituperationem complexi Sicuti hymnos alii Laudes con ), .p

Lectionum 1516 162 disparataque Ars est

Ex

26

to

it

of

,

,

it

:

, is in

to

a

as

especially interesting for several reasons shows this Such passage what extent Aristotle these years was still read through Averroës and demonstrates with what ease Plato and Aristotle were spoken assigning the same pedagogical role poetry

27

ex

&

,

."

ob

.

,

in

,

ad

.

,

,

: “

" ;

.p

quo expressio congruenter cinnarunt and 160 Verum Artificium parere admirationem informandisque uidetur pertractata adumbrandis rerum imaginibus Nam eodem ferè pul modo Lacertam aut Simiam commode Veritatem pictam laudamus non utique quam esse nullam chritudine eiusmodi animalibus scimus Sed similitudinem ,

,

ad

:

,

in

&

ut

,

,

ut

&

,

,

,

ut

: "

), .p

in

retrahere

368

)

(

had been reprinted together

1515

.

The Averroës paraphrase and the Valla translation

in

malo

."

à

&

,

28

,

bonum

ut

,

,

(

In

Opera 1567 inquit Auerrois 201 Sermo enim legum sua poësi est similis sermoni poëtarum nam quanquam poëtę fingunt fabulas quę uerba sonant non sunt possibles intus tamen ueritatem continent multotiens Plato Aristoteles referunt nam illa fingunt ueritatem ueniamus rude uulgus instruamus quod inducere oportet

POETICS : DISCOVERY

AND EXEGESIS

Apropos of Averroës , it should be mentioned that a new Latin transla tion of his paraphrase of the Poetics , that of Abram de Balmes , was published in 1523. Balmes ' translation was based , however , on the fourteenth century Hebrew translation of Todros Todrosi , and there is not much evidence to indicate that it was used extensively by Italian commentators . The earliest extensive exploitation of the Poetics in Italian among the is found in Giovanni Giorgio Trissino's Pope to Leo X , dated 1524. Trissino first calls

documents we shall examine

dedication of upon the text of Aristotle for a general comedy :

also that tragedy , according to Aristotle, is to be preferred to by

knowing

distinction between tragedy and all

his Sophonisba

,

a

.

defective and ugly But tragedy along with other teachings

— it

and

is

of

to

—

,

is

ridiculous

with which

fear

is

,

dulci

utile

an

,

the Horatian

”

inevitably

the passage

“

the listeners and utility for human living.29

to

the very end

an

,

as

a

of

,

since what

and

of

At

it

,

pity moves brings pleasure

is

ugliness

to to

related

as

.

,

,

so

,

in

,

;

,

it

other poems since imitates means harmonious language virtuous and perfect action which should have magnitude and just Polygnotus ancient painter imitating his works made the bodies better than they were and tragedy Pauson worse imitates makes the forms behavior better and comedy worse And therefore this comedy moves laughter thing which

;

is

six

:

.

in

of

of

.

is

... of

of

to

apology for his use introduced Trissino Italian unrhymed verse and for both the justi rather than Latin and his use fication found Aristotle The defence curious and the interpretation Aristotle garbled then proceeds

,

of it

if

in

(

,

in

,

,

,

be

,

to

is ,

by ,

all

,

is

it

.

)

be ,

,

plot characters words discourse necessary parts that since tragedy has representation and verse having presented Italy clear that the Sophonisba could not understood the people were composed another language than Italian And furthermore the ways behavior the sen

29

of if

of

is

)

it

to

in

,

as .

(

, è ,

, e

,

,

: “

,

gli(

), .p

1524

fa e

, e

, et

al ,

la

,

,

, e

,

di

la

,

, e

è

,

, e

la

le

,

e

,

, di e

; e

e la

tutti

la

aijv sapendo etiandio che Tragedia secondo Aristotele perfetta actione altri poemi per imitare con soave sermone una virtuosa quale habbia grandeza come Polygnoto antico pictore nele opere sue imitando faceua corpi quello che erano migliori Tragedia imitando Pauson peggiori cosi costumi migliori per ciò essa Comedia muove riso cosa che partecipa Comedia peggiori Tragedia muove compassione brutteza essendo ciò che ridiculo difettoso brutto Ma quali tema con con altri amaestramenti arreca diletto agli ascoltatori utilitate preposta

a

Sophonisba

it in

to

,

of

...

I

,

of

by

,

tentiae and the discourse would not provide universal utility and pleasure they were not understood deprive the listeners Hence order not representation which the possibility Aristotle says the first the parts tragedy chose write this language.30

. "

vivere bumano

, le

, e

,

la

le

,

in

a

è,

il ,

)

(

369

. de Si , la

;

) è il la da , gli et

le da

,

,

sei

il

, et

se

,

." (

, la

e

&

,

;

, e

di la

la

, : la “

in il ., .p

,

30

Aiij Tragedia parti necessarie cioè Ibid hauendo favola costumi rappre parole rappresentatione discorso verso Manifesta cosa che hauendosi popolo s'ella fosse sentare Italia non potrebbe essere intesa tutto altra lingua che appresso Italiana composta costumi sententie discorso non arrecherebbono universale utilitate diletto non fossero intese ascoltanti che per non torre rappresentatione quale come dice Aristotile prima parte Tragedia elessi 19 questo Idioma scriverla

...

POETIC

THEORY

Trissino's confusion springs either from his identification of " plot " with “ representation , ” or more probably from a faulty reading of Poetics 1450a14 , where “ spectacle ” is listed first among the qualitative parts . He

of

of the Poetics , declaring that speeches which move to pity must themselves be expressions of suffering, and that such expressions are spontaneous and intolerant of such restrictions as that provided by rhyme ( p . Alijv ). Parts I to IV of the Poetica of the same Trissino , published in 1529 , defends

the absence

rhyme , also on the basis

occupy a remarkable position in the history of Aristotle's Poetics (Parts V and VI , based entirely upon the Poetics , were published posthumously in they will be treated

in a later chapter ) . What is remarkable is , knowing that Trissino the Poetics as he did , should have proceeded almost without reference to it in the composition of own Poetica prosody His sources are instead the rhetoricians and such writers Tempo passage Antonio cites the Poetics twice first

.

on

means

in

a

of

the ac ,

,

,

made

imitation

words rhymes and design and colors

of

) is

by

means

to by

made

is

,

as

,

is

tions man and since this imitation harmony just the painter's imitation

of an

:

,

He

,

.

of

diction

Aristotle said before me

as

to

his study

say then that poetry

of

I

preliminary

(

as

da

,

his

1563 , and

or

,

.

31

by

be

to

.

of

by

occasioned his treatment foreign words These are especially languages where variety Aristotle says probably Poetics 1459a10 indeed

, is

as

of

speaks

: “

,

,

words when

of

in

these four parts treats only diction and rhyme

Aristotle he

in of

be

the choice is to

Trissino

second reference

to

on ,

From then

His

of

of

,

of

of

,

is

to

is be

,

it

well before coming this imitation treat that with which this rhymes leaving harmony song imitation made that words and producing the imitation without song and aside since the others are capable since the poet considers these two and leaves song considered the singer

would

,

,

.

to

In

of

),

I

( as

have already pointed out33

most

cases the statement

of

,

and

in

In

.

this case

number

in

are few

we

to )

,

(

on

and the Poetics

Q.

is

32

In

.”

,

heroic poetry The allusion Aulo Giano Parrasio's Horatii Flacci arteni poeticam commen taria 1531 posthumous have the first those numerous commentaries develop the parallelisms between the Ars poetica Horace which were used

sought

the parallels

the Aristotelian

of

&

“

,

in

iiv de : “

) , è

quale

la

,

lo

ne

heroico

nel

, e

il

,

;

da

il

il

ad

usarsi

,

,

, e

fa

,

si

di

." )

(

.

370

si fia , fà ,

(

la

,

; e

, si

: " e .pp

. iii , ,

33

adunque

queste specialmente stanno bene iiiiv lingue come dice Aristotele ricerca Cf. chap 96-100 Ibid

varietà

di ., .p

32

ponno fare considerare

l'homo

di

de le

harmonia inanzi che parole

Dico

che Poesia come prima disse Aristotele facendosi questa cotale imitazione con parole rime come imitazione del dipintore con disegno con colori buono vegna trattare quello con che essa imitazione essa imitazione cioè parte perciò che quelle rime lasciando harmonia overo canto queste due imitazione senza esso Poeta considera lascia canto Cantore 1529 azioni

, la , e

et

una imitazione

si

poetica

, , al la e ad si ( de de le le ), ." la .p ;

31

La

,

So ,

.

is

of

position such that one thinks immediately Averroës rather than the Poetics itself Parrasio's introduction for the statement Obser rythmus natura nobis tributa uauerunt eam mortales quod harmonia

POETICS : DISCOVERY ( p.lv ) ,

AND EXEGESIS

which refers to Averroës , p . f2v, and for another ,

“ Erit ergo quod periti & quasi imaginem , operis faciunt architecti breui tabella totius ante oculos proponere " ( p . 6v ) , which may refer to Averroës , p . gy . In the same intro

sunt ”

boni poctae ante omnia ideam futuri sibi poematis

statuere ,

,

,

as

on

to

in

,

in

-

.

on .p

are closer Parrasio says Nihil enim aliud facitque quae hominis propria est ,

,

,

, “

:

&

68v

with which compare Averroës homini respectu ceterorum animalium quum homo inter cetera animalia delectatur assimila .

in

Et

,

”,

est

earum representatione seu poetica nihil aliud quam

other contem only slightly

;

in

reflected

.

to

,

of

”

,

, is .p fv .

imitatio naturae with which compare Averroës porary documents the text the Poetics itself Averroës continues dominate the scene

As

,

est

in

&

...

Si

“

in

sensu percepit says enim he

on .p

.

”

78

est

: “

in

narrative from the

caeteris animalibus

istud proprium

hoc tione rerum quas iam imitatione And causa

In

.

to

no

poesis nisi imitatio uitae a

est

ut .p

morum

the Poetics

vel hac una differt

f2v

into his works poems.334

there are two brief passages which again

318 and 408

to ,

.

references

Averroës than

which did not

tradition the line line commentary Horace Aristotle But late the text connection with

current Horatian vss

imita

-by

" 35 —

of

a

or

,

“

The next statement however— All poems are either dramatic mixture these could come well from Plato there are

gave

that no

,

kinds

dispersed

of

all

,

and

of

he be

at

be

is

,

.

,

comedies tragedies dithyrambs ,

of

a

have the subjects

in

a

-

tion

to

that was previously single and definitive body and marveled might not even dramatic representation contrived counterpart his work With his own might introduced

poetry

a

to

The latter (Homer ), having put together

or or

it all

duction , however , there is at least one passage which seems to go back directlyto the Poetics . Beginning with a rapid history of poetry before Homer , Parrasio continues :

)

(

1530

be

PAZZI'S TEXT AND TRANSLATION

in

of

of

de '

,

,

changed however after the publication The general situation will Alessandro Pazzi's Greek text and Latin translation the

1536

in

,

is

.

,

)

or

(

,

;

in

in

.

in

he

Poetics Pazzi's own statements the dedication indicate that had pre pared the volume Rome 1524 the dedication itself dated 1527 and the publication was posthumous Pazzi Paccius having died the intervening years For the contemporary reader Pazzi's volume must have it

a

of ,

ne

his mista

."

aut

ex

,

)

(

, ."

ui

,

,

2v : “

., .p

,

371

,

ut

,

“

& :

admirandum

matico effingi possit quę non borum omniumque poematum argumenta suis operibus inseruit Ibid Poemata omnia aut actiua sunt aut enarratiua 35

earlier

Hic complexus quicquid antea diuisum fuerat unum nulla imitatio ritu quidem drag dythiram tragoediarum illo cluceat sua comediarum

2–2v

fecit

in ,

),

(

Commentaria 1531 poeticae corpus perfectum

.pp

34

,

,

portable inexpensive format contrasting with the sizable tomes

,

in

it

;

,

.

,

had two especially attractive features For the first time offered text and translation together separated from the other works with which both had previously been printed and for the first time presented them small

POETIC

THEORY

editions . These reasons probably explain why the volume was rapidly reprinted in Basel, in 1527 , and in Paris , in 1538. As for the text and trans both represent advances over their predecessors . The less notable in the case of the Greek text , where there , was little to add on the basis of available manuscripts , to Lascaris ' distinguished contributions in the Aldine edition . Pazzi used three manu scripts, one of them in the Vatican ( now Vat . gr . 1400 ), and from them he lation themselves progress

,

is perhaps

of

a certain number

derived

emendations to Lascaris ' text . But it

useful

was the translation which really rendered

the greatest service to Pazzi's contemporaries . It is , generally , far superior to Giorgio Valla's . I should not say that it is always and unfailingly better ; some of Valla's errors are repeated , some of his correct solutions are spoiled , and the basic difficulties of the available Greek manuscripts still continue to be reflected in the

Poetics

1449b24

the kind

)

in

the crucial passage

:

defined

(

is

which tragedy

improvement

of

of

an

.

we

,

of

making sense out example the Poetics may compare achieved the two translations

of

As

in

its

translation . But for the most part , Pazzi's work is more accurate and more readable ; it has a much greater clarity of construction and is less dense and elliptical , and sentence divisions and punctuation assist the reader

Est igitur tragoedia imitatio actionis probae atque consumatae magni particulis tudinem iucunda oratione obtimentis citra quamlibet speciem agentium nec pauore terminans comissorum pronuntiatu miseratione

&

ac de

de

in

:

Valla

in

fa

sit

uisus

siquidem

imi

his

&

.

in

tragoediae aliqua

compositionem est

si

est

.

particula

ornamentum esse necesse inde melopoeiam dictionem tationem conficiunt Dictionem uero ipsam uoco metrorum

ut

primo quidem

id

&

ciunt agentes imitationem

.

&

.

quam orationem talium disciplinarum purgationem suauem oblectabilem per habentem rhythmum harmoniam melos quod autem citra species metra quaedam dumtaxat perficitur sicut porro alia per melos Verum quia

.

.

,

ab

at

melopoeiam uim omnem habet manifestam quia actionis imitatio agitur aliquibus agentibus quos qualitate aliqua insignes esse necesse est autem moribus atque animi sententia propter haec enim quod actiones qualitate in est

.

&

uero actionis fabula imitatio

).

,

illustris absolutae magnitudinem haben generibus partibus agentibus non per atque terrorem perturbationes huiusmodi quo numerus harmonia melos inest ,

:

&

,

,

in

.

,

,

,

tis ,

:

est imitatio actionis sermone suaui separatim singulis enarrationem per misericordiam uerò purgans sermonem suauem appello

in

Pazzi Tragoedia

,

r

(

uoti impotes fiunt

iiv

morem unde assecuntur

.p

&

signes esse dicamus uis tulit naturae actionum binas esse causas animi sententiam

,

,

,

imitationem

conficiant dictionem uis

quibus

:

utpote

ex

dictionem

;

&

melodiam

,

,

.

in

:

id

uerò separatim genere dictinctum cum metro tantum quaedam absoluantur quaedam rursum melodia Quoniam uerò tota imitatio actione uersatur primum quidem apparatum ipsum partem Tragoediae ponere necesse est mox

ab

,

.

se

:

,

appello illam quidem metrorum compositionem melodiam cuius omnino agenti per ipsa satis apparet Scd quoniam actionis imitatio est agiturque

,

:

)

(

372

est

,

&

,

quos tum moribus tum sententia tales esse omnino oportet bus quibusdam sicuti quoque actiones aliquas esse tales dicimus manifestum harum actio

POETICS : DISCOVERY

AND EXEGESIS

num duas esse causas , sententiam , & mores : per quas planè uel uoti compotes , uel minime compotes omnes fiunt. Ad haec actionis imitatio fabula est ( p . 9v ).

Pazzi's translation immediately became standard for the Poetics ; not only was it reprinted at least a dozen times during the century , in Italy , France , and Switzerland , but it was taken as the basis for such important commentaries as those of Robortello and Maggi. LOMBARDI AND MAGGI

( 1541)

The next event in the history of Aristotle's Poetics in the Cinquecento involves three men and two important documents . The event is the first public lectures on the Poetics of which we have accurate records ; the three

Maggi, and Alessandro Sardi ; , and the documents first Sardi's notes on Maggi's lectures , dated 1546 , and the Explanationes published by Maggi , himself and Lombardi 1550. The story rather complex reconstruct the chronology roughly follows men are Bartolomeo Lombardi , Vincenzo

on

as in

,

the c

)

and

(

”

Padua

;

“

; ( b ) a

Praefatio

to

,

he

of

the Poetics degli Infiammati

the Accademia

of

addressed

,

,

text and translation to

a ) a

:

papers

work

Bartolomeo Lombardi began the public exposition Padua But shortly afterward died leaving among his 1541

.

at ,

December

the Poetics

(

of

In

:

I

;

is

for

are ,

later incorporated into the Explanationes.36 Maggi and apparently with considerable The lectures were continued may consult the letter which Benedetto Varchi success As witness ,

1541

,

as

to

of is

as

if

as

of

37

he

.

at at

again

Ferrara

Ferrara was the young

,

where

.

,

of

philosophy 1543 Maggi became professor expounded the Poetics Among those who heard Maggi's lectures

In

,

,

I

I

a

In

a

to

,

as

.

I

;

be

,

to

.

,

If

as

to

;

I

to

possible

be ,

copy get you don't have them try them from some friend yours and then send them me word desire greatly have them such although they may have heard that they are divine

of

having those lectures few many they may am greatly desirous pray you you have them which Maggi gave on Aristotle's Poetics wherefore you possibly can and carefully written send them me soon

as

or

received from Cosimo Rucellai on December

:

17 ,

we

.

by

,

the work

,

extensive notes

of

the same volume

,

in

printed

on

.p

;

by

is

Praefatio

"

,

The

“

.

the volume

27 to

to

of

, "

V.

F.

,

),

(

on

to

contributions

.

. , Di 37

Lombardi's pp 1-11

), .p * , ij

(

",

in

of

,

of

36

For the date Lombardi's lectures see Cerreta An Account the Early Life the Accademia degli Infiammati the Letters Alessandro Piccolomini Benedetto Varchi Romanic Review XLVIII 1957 253 264. See also Maggi's introduction the Explanationes 1550 Lombardi's lectures interrupted his death and

),

,

(

I

se

,

se

In ;

le

.

."

sia ,

vi

,

.

,

, o

la

IV ,

( Pt . in

to

,

)

ho

,

si

373

(

di

, e

da

,

, e

;

il

o

di ",

in

)

(

la 42 : “ 17. io di

), .p

le

“

of

Bologna Cosimo Rucellai from Florence Benedetto Varchi dated Firenze adi Dicembre 1541 printed the Prose Fiorentine Vol Flor poche ence 1734 desidero assai avere quelle assai lezioni che elle fussero Maggio per qual cosa prego che che fece sopra Poetica d'Aristotile l'avete me più diligentemente scritte che possibile mandiate quanto prima potete non qualche vostro Amico averne copia dipoi me l'avete cerchiate mandiate somma grandemente desidero averle quali elle siano benchè inteso son divine Letter

POETIC

THEORY

Alessandro Sardi, who was later to become the author of several erudite His notes on these lectures are dated “ 15 Cal . Februarj MDXLVI ”

works.38

and are preserved in the Biblioteca Estense at Modena as MS.a.Q.6.14 . In spite of the late date of these notes , I see no reason for believing that they

do not represent the lectures substantially as Maggi began to give them in 1541 , since in them Maggi declares that his interpretation is still based on that of Lombardi . Even with their date of 1546 , however , Sardi's notes constitute the earliest extant commentary on Aristotle's Poetics . In 1548 , before Maggi was able to publish the Explanationes on which he had been working , Francesco Robortello published his own Explicationes , which thus became the first published commentary . Maggi was of course

furious , and he took occasion to attack Robortello in a section of his manuscript entitled “ Obiectiones quaedam aduersus Robortelli explica tionem in primum Aristotelis contextum , " stating his objections and indicating Robortello's errors and omissions . Finally , in 1550 , the joint work of Lombardi and Maggi appeared under

In Aristotelis librum

the title assuming

de poetica

that this text represents

I

and hence

explanationes .

communes

I

am

of Maggi's thinking

a much later state

,

shall discuss it under the date 1550 .

Meanwhile , we may suppose that Lombardi's “ Praefatio " was published as he wrote it and analyze it at this point. As a preface to a commentary on Aristotle's Poetics , these pages are remarkable above for the fact that they have nothing with the text the ideas the Poetics Except for

of

or

brief passage near the end

10

to

do

all

essentially

on

",

its

)

.p

(

“

an

as

to

its

as

art ”

“

,

all

on

,

of

”

“

a

.

where Lombardi subject divides the Poetics into prooemium and narratio indicates upon superiority matter and exclaims the excellence the work and might just poetics the others Praefatio well serve intro

.

of

:

all

of

by

he

,

of

.

of

is

he

,

,

in to to

.

pletely

in

to

any other work poetry Lombardi's ideas are com the traditional He interested two problems the relationship poetry disciplines poetry With the other arts and and the defence disciplines upon respect are other the fact that insists the first the other poetry and present one how the materials shows one duction

is

as

rhetorical topoi just

of

are full

,

example

,

,

for

of

of

,

Homer and Vergil

of

;

devices

.

of

poetry sciences are also the materials This done for grammar and especially for rhetoric which treats subjects the same and uses the same

.

of

,

by

,

his

in

of

all

by

.

,

,

.

,

Girolamo Ferri and published with Sardi's Numinum

374

)

(

).

,

,

On Sardi see the life written Heroum Origines Rome 1775 (

ei

38

,

,

,

,

is a

, of

.

in

of

,

examples from the poets the works the rhetoricians are full Similarly for logic whose parts are found the exposition the poet including the syllogism and paralo personages and the speeches philosophy gism All natural the poets and indeed has been treated poet appanage necessary The demonstration con the philosophy geography theology astrology tinues for music the prophetic arts physiognomics moral philosophy painting and medicine

AND EXEGESIS

POETICS : DISCOVERY

In another development, Lombardi adopts Averroës ' classification of Demonstrativa , Dialectica , Sophistica , Rhetorica , Poetica " and seeks the distinctions to be made between poetry and each of sister disciplines The five arts are divided into two groups The first containing Logic

,

.

,

.

-

its

"

of

;

,

as

,

.

,

its

;

it

to

"

,

The second containing Rhetoric and Poetics does not really logic the example and the uses more popular devices such enthymeme and materials are largely political Having accepted this

.”

logic belong

all

of

by

,

,

to

Dialectic and Sophistic produces dissertations which attempt convince argumentation and the use three are branches the syllogism

not surprising that Lombardi should propose definition poetry which rhetoric than Aristotle's definition much closer anything found Poetry says the Poetics the faculty discover ing whatever appropriate any action passion the imitation correcting character means harmonious discourse for the purpose good and happy life.39 leading living and our way a

,

,

of

on

,

is to a

of of

to

is

Its

.p 6 ).

us

by

,

it

to in

”

by

8 .)

.p

",

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Maggi's exposition which Alessandro Sardi took the Poetics the University Ferrara 1546 except that these are the notes student rather than the lecturer They must represent only imperfectly the spoken word the master still less satisfactorily the written notes from which

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POETIC

language . Nevertheless , these notes are a completely remark

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THEORY

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Dithyrambica graeco habetur 810upaußotointiin est dithirambopoe tica uno uerbo Ideo interpres non est fidelis Aristoteles autem miro artificio hoc quia dithyrambi maxime gaudent nominibus compo uerbo composito usus ipsis loquens usus est sitis nominibus longis Ideo etiam philosophus

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his edition Sardi's Numinum Heroum Origines Girolamo Ferri prints two docu unpublished works ments interest for the history these notes One them list Sardi includes the following passage Lezioni manoscritte del Maggio del Guarino quarto altri miei precettori Volumi Ferri xlviii The other from which the first

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POETICS : DISCOVERY

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poetas Vbi multa illis agit commentator etiam alibi ornithiis deridet eos Aristophanes quod sint multa uerborum nullum sententiarum habeant Inde uerba Dithyrambicorum diuersa absque sententia De his illegible poetis libro nomine eorum .

pacto nubes alant aliquos deridet Dithyrambicos

the commentary the 1550 work closely printed fills one and one third folio pages Many the same Maggi now repeats the materials appear but different order 34–35

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from Book VII display erudition define the name the genre describe opinions fully possible and from ancient authors about collect Maggi's procedure typical this passage what does throughout spoken commentary brings the Poetics He bear upon each word quoting

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His erudition for the century covers the whole range both Greek and Latin writers and includes many texts which had been made available only generation since the beginning the century the space the first accumulate

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authors for example Sardi records references following diversified the Plato Laws Phaedrus Cratylus Sophist Phaedo Timaeus Aristotle Prior Analytics both Rhetorics Posterior Analytics De Anima Physics Problemata Ethics well commentators Hermogenes Dionysius several these texts Plutarch Halicar ten pages

]

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377

for

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Diomedes Simplicius Suidas Cicero nassus Ammonius Aphthonius Oratore Finibus Tusculan Orations and Quintilian The

POETIC

THEORY

the whole of the set of notes would be much longer . In using these ancient authors for the exposition of his text , Maggi was merely applying the familiar technique of the scholarly gloss ; more specifically , he was adapting

,

to

we on

: “

and

shall say how Aristotle

shall observe this order

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...

continues

we

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,

poetica is completely explicit . In opening sentence Maggi declares rely intentions after stating that means Lombardi's notes

he his

his

to the Poetics the devices of elucidation which had been for so long used in connection with the Ars poetica . Throughout , the consideration of the Poetics in the light of the Ars

. " 41

to

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and Horace agree between them and what Aristotle said that Horace omitted what Horace said that Aristotle omitted and who did better He passes immediately according the canonical order examina tion the titles the two works asking why Aristotle should have called

a

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at

of

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his merely De poetica whereas Horace called his De arte poetica and these considerations lead him far into the discovery the basic difference parallel between the two works The same done other points where Horace seems appropriate

of

of ,

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to it

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Aristotle and Horace which will last

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This does not mean that Maggi conceives the two works identical Instead initial opposition their titles leads him discover funda mental difference between them Stated succinct formula that thing philosopher Aristotle treats itself and Horace the precepts and almost nothing Thus Aristotle calls his the thing

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Horace who writes only write poem justly gave the art the title arte

fol .

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cordent inter 43 42

De arte poetica

include those precepts

Bibl Estense a.Q.6.14 fol hunc ordinem seruabimus quid con quid dixerit Aristoteles quod omisserit Aristoteles Horatius dicemus quis melius fecerit uel quid dixerit Horatius quod omisserit Aristoteles philosophus praeceptis agit Horatius quasi nihil respiciens cognitionem poesis dixit poetica cognoscamus fols 3–3v

MS Modena se

41

the thing and more

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Horatius

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poetica because considering the knowledge poetry poetics may parts quantitative that know both and qualitative other words because Aristotle's intention was treat poetry the knowledge since the art taken from the thing and according thing precedes because nature the entitled his book treatise speaks

AND EXEGESIS

POETICS : DISCOVERY

laws which the poet must observe . ”44 The philosopher , in sum , a “ method ” whereas the poet writes an “ art .” Maggi repeats this opposition , very briefly , when he glosses the first two words of Pazzi's

of the

speak

writes

translation ( fol.

5).

As a result of the difference in intention , the content of the two works is also different . The Ars poetica , adding precept to knowledge and art to method , will comprise a larger variety of materials than the Poetics . Maggi divides it into three sections , points out how it treats both poetry and the of poetry , distinguishes it from the Poetics :

art

Whence with respect to his book you will see that it is divided into three parts . he writes of what poet [ ? ] ; in the second , of poetry ; in the third he teaches the precepts of poetry . At the beginning he speaks to him who wishes to be a good poet ; Aristotle says nothing about this . Horace , when he says

In the first

"Pictoribus atque poetis quidlibet audendi semper fuit aequa potestas , " is speaking of poetry ; because like Plutarch in the book Quomodo pueri debeant uidere poetas , he says that poets are like painters . On the other hand , [he speaks ) of precepts in “ Humano capiti , ” etc.45

The Poetics , being a methodical treatise will have another kind of order . Maggi

will be differently composed and sees it as having two parts , which

,

may

be designated as the " proemium ” and the “ tractatus ” or as the principium " " and the “ narratio . ” The “ proemium , ” brief as it is is

it

made up

of only

the first sentence ) , has many functions to perform and is

subdivided into many parts :

A.

Genera et partes 1. Genera 2. Partes

a . De poesi in se b . De generibus c . De fabula d . De partibus qualibus et quantis De omnis quae pertinent ad hanc materiam

,

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Treatment

...

Tragoediae Comoediae hoc quod sint imitationes

3v : “

44

B.

3. 2.

artium quae conueniunt Differentia tria inter has De inuentione poesis

et

:

subdivided into only two parts

De poesi De conuenientia Epopeiae

1.

A.

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The tractatus

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plura Ibid fol Horatius qui modicum arte scribit merito inscripsit legibus quas seruare poeta debet arte quasi diceret scripta ipsius ipsa Ibid fol Vnde circa prima uidebitis diuisa tres partes quem poetam illegible scribit poesim principio loquitur tradit praecepta poesis qui poeta eum uult esse bonus Aristoteles nihil hac dicit Horatius quando dicit pictoribus atque poetis quidlibet audendi semper fuit acqua potestas loquitur plu poesi quia quomodo pueri poetas tarchus libro debeant uidere dicit poetae esse similes pictoribus agit praeceptis capiti autem Humano etc.

POETIC

THEORY

Clearly , and in spite of his designations , Maggi philosophical rather than a rhetorical order .

in the Poetics a

sees

be

his

This establishment of differences between Aristotle and Horace and this distinction of Aristotle's method do not , however , prevent Maggi from assigning to poetic theory the same ends for poetry that might found

,

to

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art

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art

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philosophers widely different approaches The naming the ends Maggi's definition poetry found first We say consequently upon Aristotle's principles that poetry imitation the actions passions pleasant speech and characters men themselves the end that "

of

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proper conduct making The will the way that men will proper conduct enticed Although each homines alliciantur bonos mores fols the genres may have specific end they have common end the production Maggi distinguishes the tragedy from moral improvement end comedy repeats various those uses two meanings end men may the imitation

a

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differ they agree nevertheless the end Comedy may have sad begin ning and happy ending and tragedy just the opposite The passage distinguishing the other ends they differ continues Yet not for this proper conduct through divers ways end because they bring men Comedy laughs bad and wicked men that we may flee them Tragedy

lessons

.” : 47

a

is

poetry acceptable

.

of

of

extols illustrious men and the best characters that we may follow them language Sweetness considered rhetorical device which makes the

:

say that poetics must

classified under moral pholosophy ,

for Plutarch says that the poet teaches proper conduct But what way can classified under the moral

and Cicero also says

so . ;

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be

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the moral end that enables Maggi classify poetry under moral philosophy Antecedent traditions had pro vided him with two major alternatives for the classification the medieval logicians and Averroës suggested subsuming under logic Plato and subsuming under moral philosophy Maggi accepts Plutarch and Cicero both suggestions and tries reconcile them this same identification

3v : “

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46 47

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philosophy Averroës poetics goes under logic considered according the way which about imitating actions characters and passions because has with lan guage and depicts actions characters and the passions men means language concerned with logic Because concerned with words and puts

ut

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380

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principia Aristotelis quod poesis est Ibid fol Nos dicimus consequenter imitatio actionum passionum morum ipsorum hominum sermone suaui hoc homines trahantur bonos mores quia quamuis tragoedia Ibid fol comoedia uideantur differre conueniunt tum fine licet comocdia principium triste laetum finem habere contra autem tragoedia non tamen fine differunt quia redducunt homines mores bonos per diuersos modos effugiamus Tragoedia uiros extollit claros Comoedia deridet malos uiles mores optimos eos sequamur

POETICS : DISCOVERY

AND EXEGESIS

as

on

is

,

it

;

as

its

hóyos, it is language . But it is under the moral because of this reason , because it being conduct for this reason end classified moral.48

considers

to

Aut pro

Horace's

“

reflected

.

aut delectare poetae The Platonic and Horatian traditions poetry are thus allowed the end direct the reading Aristotle exactly similar way this first commentary the Poetics reads into

.

of

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desse uolunt

of

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good conduct

and should not that Plato's and Cicero's in

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;

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demand

cacopoetae

4v ); “

that poets who treat wicked matters are read nec legendi sed cohorrendi fol

love

"

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he

,

as

Regarding both classifications justifiable Maggi goes point out that Petrarch moral philosopher because teaches how lovers should

is .

in

be

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in

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from earlier critical positions the requirement that poetry verse the object imitation actions passions characters the means sweet language and verse sermo suauis and carmen fol The laws poetry are reduced composing verses those which must use .

,

. 5 ).

,

"

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,

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to

by

is

he

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of

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by

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fabula

is

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componendis carminibus fol too the traditional and rhetorical Discarding the meanings suggested Terence Horace and Cicero Maggi adopts the assuming that what whole Aristotle's argument from the Problemata poetic applicable says there fabula the quibus

meaning assigned

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a

in

(

in

.

in

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18 ,

,

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But now we understand fable that which stands the place true example which like certain exemplum Aristotle the Problemata particula probl examples asks why their orations orators take greater pleasure he

us ,

;

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.

.

,

,

in

enthymemes and reasonings and and fables than advances these three reasons Because examples are more familiar and pleasant they are quickly learned and on that account they are more acceptable Also because fables are particular things but reasonings are universal things which are more remote but ,

we

is

,

,

to

by

we

an .

is

of

a

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a

is

example fable like thus here understand fable picture some thing and thence fables are like the thing which ,

image

of

an

says expressly that

.

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.

in

us ,

by .

be

is

,

by

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to

to

therefore we learn more speedily And the second reason said more readily believed which confirmed present examples The third reason because learn more readily things that are similar and because examples and fables are similar Therefore we enjoy the things more With respect this when Aristotle there fables are closer because that thing judgment which

48

being treated.49

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et

in

et

.2 .

et in

,

.

et

Si

.

,

. et

eaet

:

.

.,

.

in

et

49

, et

?

si

ut

:

( ? )

.

:

: "

.

.,

lbid fols 4-4v tamen dicimus quod poetica debet redduci sub philosophia morali quia Plutarchus dicit poetam docere bonos mores quod etiam Cicero dicit quo pacto autem poetica consideretur debetur redduci sub morali Auerrois eam sub logica ponit passiones quia uersatur circa sermonem ratione qua uersatur imitetur actiones mores pingit sermone actiones mores passiones hominum uersatur circa logicam qui Aoyos est sermo sub morali autem est quia uersatur uerbis ratione quia respicit finem mores esse ratione ad moralem redducitur quod est loco exempli ueri Ibid fols 50–6 Fabulam autem nunc intelligimus quod est ueluti quoddam exemplum Aristotel problematibus particula 18. probl magis quaerit quare orationibus oratores delectentur exemplis fabulis quam Entime exempla magis matibus rationibus has tres rationes affert Quia sunt familiaria iucun dia cito addiscuntur ideo gratiora sunt Etiam quia fabulae sunt res particulares rationes autem uniuersales quae sunt magis remotae uiciniores autem fabulae ideo magis discemus cito ratio quia haec res dicitur magis credi nobis quae est existimatio confirmata quod exemplis est quia exempla ratio quia nos addiscimus libentius similia exprese dicit fabulae sunt similes Ideo res magis gaudemus Quo circa cum Aristoteles quod fabula est uelut exemplum Ideo hic per fabulam intelligimus imaginem alicuius rei qua agitur ideo fabulae sunt ueluti pictura

POETIC

In

THEORY

of these cases , the meaning is derived from old ways of thinking poetry ; in the second , from old ways of talking about rhetoric . about Maggi's developments are , indeed , apt to be more extensive on such traditional matters as these than on ideas which are new because they are particularly germane to Aristotle's Poetics . For some of the latter , the treatment is brief to the point of being disappointing ; topics which later the first

of Aristotelian discussion are here passed over flurry may without a . We take as an example the definition of tragedy. Maggi states that Aristotle defines tragedy first , before the other genres , qualitative and because it is the most excellent of that includes quantitative parts promised proemium the and that the definition its

,

on

”

“

in

by

all

as

all ,

he

the great cruxes

became

to

,

,

,

he “

quia

merely remarks

to on is

“

.

."

“

.

,

a

”

For sermone suaui commentary later Enarrationem epopeis The only extensive notes are

to in

"

"

"

”

“

"

“

inagnitudinem

since action

perfectae

”

of

refers

the phrase

On

actionis

means

the action the imitation

vt

by

he

separatim

and clarified “

the magnitude ”

is

debet esse una tota actio integra

"

on

is

(

.” .)

.”

“

gloss differentiam uulgarium There previously had been discussed Absolutae

that this

is

"

. "

no

ad

,

of

. "

requirements

.

stating genus and differentiae His glosses the extremely individual words are short Imitatio said indicate the genus the rest the definition the differentiae Illustris means merely meets

: “

in

of of

.

,

of of

in

of ",

of

"

pity and fear where Maggi compares the purgation purgation speaks that which Aristotle Book VIII the Politics the purgation passions from the soul through music The pleasurable aspects the effect are indicated the sentence And purgations are exaltations misericordiam

et

constantes

fol

ita

expurgantur

,

of

:“

et

,

a

, in

at

be

.

is

44 )

an

at

he

.

It

.

,

,

of

redduntur fortes

"

( et “

liberantur talibus affectibus Maggi thinks that this the best might several suggested interpretations noted this point that the 1550 Explanationes studies the whole matter much more thoroughly ”

and constant

...

,

of

,

,

of

as

of

44 .)

fol .

, "

”

(“

Et

expurgationes sunt sublationes animae the soul along with pleasure Maggi interprets the effect purgation cum uoluptate the driving out from the soul through the spectacle strong passions those they same passions leaving the soul provided with more desirable ones are purged and liberated such passions and thus they are made strong

to

he

of

of

it

.

to

,

it in

by

.

of

of

on

.

essentially different conclusion partial Maggi will serve analysis Even this Sardi's notes show Maggi long explicating the begins the their distinctive features tradition placing two contexts Horace's Ars poetica and the rhetorical Poetics brings tradition He the same kind erudition that had long been

and arrives

of

he is

and conclusions scrupulous

course

,

.

)

382

He

is ,

if

,

discover Aristotle's own system

other times

he

of ,

a

,

definitions

at

,

times distinctions other systems even

(

about trying

to

.

in to it

Poetics He sees which belong rather

at

is

to

to

of

.

does other classical texts But because called upon for the elucidation considering poetic problems use old methods and refers old ways bound miss much that might have been new for fresh reader the

faced with

POETICS : DISCOVERY

AND EXEGESIS

insuperable difficulties : a difficult text , philosophically , in poor philological shape , in an only moderately satisfactory translation , full of terms and

conceptions that had not previously attracted the attention of the scholars . His great merit , in this situation , was having tackled the problem , pursued

of

on

an

set

his

it with great diligence through at least a decade , and produced a number of valid conclusions . What he did in lectures the pattern for Aristotelian commentary throughout the century and provided for later theorists initial interpretation the basis which they might elaborate their own

unpublished

his

in ,

in

"

"

make

of

(

was

preface

a

”

“

Lombardi's Praefatio had been delivered the Accademia degli Infiammati Robortello

1541 the date under public the sense that opening lecture before

an

.

But they were

to

course

which they have been treated

as "

these materials were

“

All

of

.

studies

similar use )

.

in

a

of

,

in

recited before the Accademia Fiorentina 154850 and that publication Lombardi's and then Maggi's lectures were actually form Between this date and 1548 the uses of the Poetics critical documents are

.

sparse and incidental

an

it

of

,

on

di

I

he

:

,

in

uses

tragedy

;

of

so

doing

which are borrowed from Aristotle's definition give the text Italian italicizing the significant phrases terms

.

,

to

in

structure and ,

of

,

In I

;

he

in

,

praises the unity

of

all .

Comedy First

by

to

or

in

a

on

of

,

is a

It

.

of

is

of

early especial interest since One these documents constitutes application principles terminology practical Aristotelian and criti speech cism set notes conversation about Dante Girolamo Benivieni preserved the Biblioteca Marucelliana MS A.137 assign them without proof The notes are undated circa 1540 since Benivieni died 1542. them Benivieni passes judgment the Divine

,

,

,

altrui

,

di

,

,

se

di

narrano

con

, e

,

, o,

,

,

et

,

di

,

fu

, e

’

,

un

,

,

la

un

quello che alcune altre fauole finito narrando profitteuole alli ascoltanti.si ornato parlare

e

la

e,

..

quanto all'anima questa compositione che senza dubbio inuentione chi punto sottilmente bada ageuolmente scorge hauere Dante imitato sogno anzi uno desto sol fatto non dico auueduto uiaggio che egli questo altra uolta hauea trapassato conueneuole grandezza proportionato fauola

"

"

, "

),

138v

,

in

to

”

per uia d'Imitatione

( .fol

.

passa

,

"

egli tutto Poeticamente

may have

.

See MS BNF II.IV.192

A.

31 50

to

by

“

an of

to

a

"

"

as

of

Despite such traditional elements the identification favola with profitable inventione and the final the listeners the description apply Aristotle's has note freshness supplied the intention definition actual critical judgment One other phrase the notes

MS Marucelliana

at

of

as

;

of

a

a

,

I

at he a do

,

: "

In

."

to

,

[

383

]

.

,

or .

he

,

,

,

,

,

a

undoubtedly

,

is ,

137 fol 134v translation for the soul this composition the invention the plot who looks all carefully will easily single action voyage discover that Dante has imitated not say dream but rather previous time and this was made while awake and aware which proper had taken magnitude proportioned and complete narrating about himself what certain other plots narrate about others with embellished language and profitable the listeners which

POETIC

THEORY

Aristotelian origins . For the rest , Benivieni insists on the utility of Dante's

of

poem , which , like those

ancient poets

the best and most

...

, “

under a

impresses upon those who veil , with the beauty of Poetry , enjoy his poem the highest mysteries of Christian philosophy . " 52 He praises the variety and multiplicity of ideas in Dante , his treatment of the pleasant

sciences and the liberal arts , and his many wise sayings , pointing out finally how both Petrarch and Boccaccio had imitated him .

Another contemporary piece in Italian , Giovambattista Giraldi Cintio's dedication to his Orbecche ( written in 1541 but published in 1543) , com plains of the impossibility of using the Poetics rather than doing so . It may well reflect the attitude of readers in general before the publication of the great commentaries . Giraldi is speaking of the difficulty of writing tragedy in his time : And although Aristotle gives us the method for composing them , aside from his native obscurity , which , as you know , is extreme , he remains so obscure and full of so many shadows because we do not have the authors from whom he derives his authority and the examples for confirmation of the orders and the laws that he imposes on writers of tragedies , that one understands with difficulty I will not say the art that he teaches but the very definition that he gives of tragedy.53

Bernardino Tomitano's Ragionamenti della lingua toscana of 1545 makes use of the Poetics , but withal it is not an Aristotelian treatise ; everything see Chapter , rather as has been pointed out , it is a little develop individual sections his VII 264–67 Tomitano tends (

of

of

by

by

to

).

pp

.

,

bit

extensive

is a

in

III

,

,

.

,

so

;

as

or

dialogue paraphrasing earlier works translating from them directly and Plato Horace and various rhetoricians pass through his long section hands also does Aristotle There Book which

,

of a

an

"

"

, it ; all is

is

and since

reces

human

...

ne

,

(

a

in

of

is

,

52

di

."

, et ,

gli & ,

di

,

il

ci

) è

, de de la

& gli (

,

."

di

."

dà

,

gli

à

,

gli

384

)

,

(

: "

), .p

,

,

de

,

(

,

54

gli

quali egli adduce l'auttoritadi essempi essere auttori ordini delle leggi ch'egli impone scrittori d'esse ch'affatica intesa non dirò l'arte ch'egli insegna ma diffinitione ch'egli della tragedia Ragionamenti 1945 227 imitatore atti humani con merauiglia chi l'ascolta ,

tante tenebre per non per confirmatione

Et

), , .p ui la 2 : "

(

, i

,

la

,

: "

.

., ,

in

imitation

shadow bodies good and bad since

uaghezza della Poesia imprime fol 136 sotto piaceuole uelame con piu rileuanti misterij della Cristiana filosofia che sono del suo Poema uaghi comporle egli oltre Orbecche 1543 anchora ch'Aristotile dia modo quale pieno sua natia oscuritade come sapete somma riman tanto oscuro Ibid

coloro 53

la

is an to

as

understand that poetry

imitation related him who acts life sary that actions themselves being two kinds

imitator 54_obviously

:

by

this statement

to

are led

to

followed

,

of of

,

is

the listener

in

).

( .p

is

It

we

this definition

an

In

.

mixed definition

defined

as

his

It

.

of

of

as

and means imitation 226 The poet human actions who arouses admiration

è

it

It

as a

.

develops the difference between orator and follows the Poetics closely poet persuasion difference between and imitation but then adds the poetry approxi further differential verse and rhyme lists the kinds object manner mately Aristotle had done and repeats distinction

POETICS : DISCOVERY

AND EXEGESIS

actions prove to be distinguished on the basis of vice and of virtue ) , similarly every imitation should turn out to be like a real action , or better, or worse.55

This ethical distinction is what leads to the difference between tragedy and comedy . But when Tomitano wishes to develop the difference , he does so in terms which go back to the rhetorical classification of the literary genres according to subject matters

or passions

:

This imitation is based on our common human passions , on the events of fortune, on the qualities of the mind and of the body . As for the passions , tragedy imitates hopes , desires , despair , weepings , memories of deaths , and deaths ; comedy , suspicions , fears , sudden passages from good to evil and from evil to good , rescues , happy human lives and human beings . Sapphic poetry brings forth tender thoughts and magnificent eulogies ; the hendecasyllable , humble and low concerns ; the elegy , tears and signs ; odes , precepts , customs , memories , loves , and praise of others ; sermons , discourses necessary for happy living ; satire , condemnations of vicious living and rewards heroic style , illustrious and magnanimous feats . 56

by he

.

of

on

his

Similar distinctions are made for the Italian genres

for virtues ; the

,

”

all

" : "

“

at

he

,

of

he

of

;

he

“

When Tomitano develops ideas the manner imitation expands the passage follows Poetics 1448a25 fairly closely but when adding examples the has not understood shows that his own implications Michelangelo narrative and dramatic manner Thus

,

on

of

of

on

is

he

.

its

of

.

, of

the natural causes

reveals how

a

interest since

it

of of in

a

poetry The whole section scholar 1545 used the letter the text spirit and how sought elucidation Aristotle without understanding more familiar texts and traditions

cludes with

passage

in

be

,

"

. " 57

and

;

in in

”

,

he

might possibly imitate the same thing but neverthe says different ways which difference may equally well seen Petrarch Dante The section the Ragionamenti based Aristotle con

and Titian less

in

to

a

of

in

to

a

,

of

is

of

apparent The same kind eclecticism Liliɔ Gregorio Giraldi's set ten dialogues variously dated from 1541 Historiae poetarum dialogi 1545 and published 1545. Giraldi wishes primarily list the Greek biographical compendium and Latin poets and provide the known ;

le

o

gli

)

." &

(

o

è

:

la

à i

,

,

à

in

, ò

, ò

ad ,

56

da à

si

: “

è

è &

., .p

55

comprendere che poesia sia imitatione Ibid 227 Nellaqual diffinitione corpi per questo perche l'imitatione tale rispetto colui che opera quale l'ombra necessario che operandosi due maniere bene male come che tutte attioni humane uengono esser differenti per conto del uitio della uirtu similmente ogni imitatione migliore piggiore dell'effetto simile adiviene

la ,

, & & le

:

La ,

gli

, le ,

le à

,

al

&

.

il

.

&

,

, i

& ]al

al , i &

i

, le

, i

i

,

le

gli ,

&

i

le

i

,

: “ E

., .p

questa imitatione fondata sopra Ibid 228 affetti della nostra humanita sopra casi della fortuna sopra beni dell'animo del corpo Quanto affetti imita pianti morſt Tragedia speranze disperationi desii ricordi morti Comedia sospetti paure subiti mouimenti dal bene male dal male bene saluezze magnifiche lodi Saphico humili uite humani contenti Dolci pensieri partorisce ,

,

,

.

"

i

...

:

laqual differenza comprender

385

)

(

."

dissomigliantemente Dante

si

&

:

&

:

,

:

la

&

al

le

:

e in

,

cosa nondimeno nel Petrarca

: "

., & .p

57

,

le

:

lo

lagrime sospiri Elegia precetti costumi ricordi amori basse cure Endecasillabo lode d'altrui Ode discorsi uiuere beatamente necessari sermoni uituperi del uitioso premi delle uirtu generosi l'heroico stile uiuere Satire gesti illustri Ibid 229 cosi Michel'agnolo Titiano potranno per auentura imitare l'istessa puo medesimamente

POETIC

THEORY

facts relating to them . He includes as well the standard defence

of poetry ,

a discussion of the poetic furor, and a certain amount of theoretical material . Plato , Horace , Cicero , Donatus are freely drawn upon , and almost neces

sarily

84 .) est

— at this date — there are a number of references to Aristotle . At the outset, Giraldi lists Aristotle first among the writers " qui de poëtis scripse runt " ; he cites him on the origins of poetry ( p . 6 ) and for his insistence that

he ex

III ,

,

, he in

,

of

his

on

'

'

.

,

,

It ,

of

in is

In

”

of

,

of

he

to

he

,

VI ,

( .p

sententia poëtam Dialogue fabulis potius esse quàm carminibus deplores the loss the original two books the Poetics.58 not how tragedy and comedy Dialogue ever until comes the discussion that makes any substantial borrowings from Aristotle's text There tragedy after giving Diomedes and Theophrastus definitions cites ex

the plot , not verse , makes the poet : “ Aristotelis

a

,

& in

,

:

&

,

ab

"

&

:

or

be

to

of

of

the antiquity the genre and then gives definition any translation that does not correspond those published before 1541 may represent some manuscript version and hence may his own perfectae actionis magnitudinem Est ergo Tragoedia imitatio studiosae unaquaque specierum agentium suaui oratione habentis separatim particularis non per annunciationem sed misericordia quadam

Aristotle

).

(p .

a

a

:

of

,

est

,

of

,

to

he

.

of

of

”

timore perficiens talim affectionum purgationem 672 There are short quotations from Aristotle's explanation the definition and discussion the qualitative and quantitative parts comedy Giraldi again cites first traditional Greek When comes definition then those Donatus and Cicero finally that Aristotle );

”

,

he

.

is

,

of

( .p

ad

,

“

Comoedia imitatio improbioris quidem non omnem tamen malitiam sed turpitudinis quaedam est ridicula particula 677 the again unknown Ultimately after citing Aristotle's definition translation

of

an

,

"

is

.

by

on

.

"

tation

to

.

;

borrowed from other works neither changing them nor nothing even vaguely suggesting interpre them There of Aristotle

other pieces changed

.

by

to of no

of

,

is

as

” 59 — a

by

to

is

It

: “

,

the ridiculous concludes seen from these words that the philosopher implies that comedy was invented give pleasure the people conclusion means justified the text Giraldi's method many the same that his contemporaries He takes pieces out his own work they there stand alongside the Poetics transports them

it

as a

ea

de

.

in

.

of

,

-

of

(p

,

,

in

of

of

to

of

)

by

in

of

.

to

In

Parrasio's commentary Horace 1531 there had been some intro ductory allusions the Poetics Fifteen years later 1546 the Ecphrasis Horatii Flacci artem poeticam Francesco Pedemonte ublished post humously the Poetics Puresius made the first full scale use parallels Moreover the Ars poetica and explanations source gave fairly extensive quotations Greek There are some thirty the text

,

,

: "

), .p

9

.

.”

)

(

386

innuere

,

ex

., .p

: “

."

ad

Ibid

in

studiosorum manibus habetur nunc Videtur his uerbis Philosophus 677 oblectandos populos

59

imperfectumque

,

ut

,

(

58

facultate uolumina composuit 313 duo primùm Historine poetarum 1545 quae temporum uidemus iniuria periere Mox alterum uolumen edidit quod dimidiatum Comoediam

inuentam esse

POETICS : DISCOVERY

AND EXEGESIS

I have indicated in Chapter IV ) . They are drawn from widely separated sections of the Poetics and demonstrate a fairly complete knowledge of the text . Pedemonte achieves a better fusion of his borrowed materials than was the case with his immediate predecessors . For example , he assigns to the first thirteen lines of the Ars poetica the subtitle “ De idea concipienda , ” suggesting that Horace means to demand that the poet have a conception of the one hand this conception

to

his

such parallel passages ( as

,

;

,

)

in

in

by

,

a

on

"

“

to

of

is

it is

,

in

[

” : “

,

“

of

,

on

total form before setting work likened Platonic Idea and the representing the term Aristotle described other the process imitation This also the preconception the Form comes about painting molding and sculpturing which indeed every art especially .”

60

(

ut ,

4 )

,

.p

to

as

be

Pedemonte attempts him related ideas to

this

,

case

studying what seem

to

a

such

as

In

4v .

in of

by )

( .p

nature

on on

he

categories

of

,

.

a

text Horace Plato and Aristotle general the passages from Aristotle which Pedemonte uses fall into

In

in

clarify

”

,

ac

,

,

,

(“

,

ex

)

he

resembling

as

of

in

to

,

to

proceed seem Aristotle the same way imitation does poetry This same requirement explains why Aristotle demands the complete form having beginning middle and end miniméue totum ipsum quod inquit Aristoteles principio medio fine constat absoluetur and why should have proposed Homer the model most closely

:

,

to to

to

of

;

16 a )

and the idea

the presence and place

,

57 );

);

( .pp

beautiful animal

the

convey

Horace's proper magni

related

having

the poet's

36v

of

a

to

the poem

hopes

( .p

as

of

,

of

appropriateness

the work's structure

each

of

is

,

,

its

of

on

of

of

to

;

."

,

,

,

in

omni arte pingendi maxime fingendi atque tramite cum poesi Aristoteli incedere uidentur 387

)

(

of

sic

3v : "

on

,

on

), .p

on

;

a

of

;

of

on

on

;

;

(

Ecphrasis itaque 1546 culpendi quae dem eodem imitationis

;

to

.

a

to

,

.

by

;

01

of

a

of

.

(

.p

third classification come those passages which pertain the handling the separate genres Most these pertain tragedy and comedy although there are fair number for the epic and say about tragedy some for satire What Horace has for example elucidated citations from the Poetics definition and explanations that definition the comparison between tragedy and comedy and unity through action tragedy and the epic the use iambic verse through single rather than the choice hero the creation the tragic spectacle and stage effect through reading only without recourse plot and presentation tragedy with the kinds the mixture to

parts

resemblance

25 )

its

of of

the inevitability

of

of

.

tude and thus

its ) ;

(p

15v

In

16 );

.p

(

”

“

decorum

the conception

he

necessity that the poet should himself first feel what the requirement

.

as

,

.pp

of

a

of

,

52-53

kind

(

the differences between poetry and history philosophical need for knowledge especially and

others

an

,

of

of

:

of

.

for

of

on

of

.

,

First those historical interest cites numerous texts the origins and development comedy somewhat fewer tragedy and the origins epic poet These the epic and the excellence Homer are the most part without critical interest Second those which concern general principles necessity and probability the poetic art the notions

THEORY all

POETIC

a

is

or

of of

any interpretation whether there theory the special character

of

.

it

of

of

undoubtedly satire ( mostly , pp . 29–32 ) . What results from this con ception tragedy much richer and much more detailed than the the art reader might obtain from Horace alone But still remains doubtful

be

.

on

of

,

to

a

,

.

of

at

to

,

,

his

in

of

is

any awareness Aristotle's text tragedy singled out for the finally should Pedemonte Several passages witness they give the position that Aristotle's Poetics was attaining part this state The first them the commentary Ars poetica 179–88 asserts that Aristotle's notions were inferior Horace's since : “

a

)

(

,

by

]

(

he

at a

Horace came later date and represented more refined taste Since Aristotle handed down the norms for the poetic art without departing from the models supplied ancient poetry whereas this poet Horace

of

-

we in

”,

,

;

as

be “

to

or

”

“

or

”

60 ).

.p

”

,

to

,

in

in

be

to

it be

"

“

,

of

(“

qui

"

of

as

“

to

,

." 61

,

is a

of

assessing the poems -and this matter the greatest importance his predecessors and contemporaries accepts certain things while rejecting others Nevertheless Aristotle's dicta are taken laws and inquit addition the usual asserit autore Aristotele find such formulas statuisse and the final categorical statement that Horace Aristotle and found only the art are the precepts taught possible transgress who the rules which would never regulas docuerunt quas transgredi nequaquam licitum foret ,

—

of

to

,

a

of

,

Before the time the great commentaries then the Poetics had achieved position authority equal that the Ars poetica and this was no small feat considering the reverence for the latter document throughout Ages and the humanistic period )

1548

of (

ROBORTELLO

.

the late Middle

of

to

”

,

a

, of He

.

;

by

it

of of

it ,

,

he

in

of

of

of

as a

de

the

his

,

great commentaries

In

"

the

Francesco Robortello

be

published was that librum Aristotelis arte poetica explicationes apparently prepared 1548. Robortello own Greek text using consulting manuscripts basis the Aldine text 1508 but correcting two these were the possession the Medici family and Robortello frequently argues for the superiority their readings used the Pazzi translation but again corrected and collation the two Latin The first

of

.

in an

which determined the future tendencies

ab

61

in

of

many ways made new suggestions the reading the text.62

; it

of

. It

be

to

,

of

,

in

,

in

in

literary versions shows many slight variations detail For the history criticism the Renaissance however Robortello's great importance lies printed his commentary the first extensive one not only was epitome the earlier scattered interpretations the Poetics also

on

. "

an

an

62 I

,

,

,

: “

;

., .p

Quippc ille antiqua poesi non discedens artis poeticae normas tra Ibid 31v didit hic autem uates quod quidem permultam interest cum maiorum tum iuniorum poemata perpendens quaedam admittit quaedam uero non probat is

“

its

, I

)

(

388

of ,

,

in

of

In

.

.pp

:

in

. ii,

.

,

",

have given extensive analysis the commentary article Robortello the Poetics Critics and Criticism Ancient and Modern the argument which summarized above chap 66-68 the following pages extract from the article essential points

POETICS : DISCOVERY

AND EXEGESIS

it

of we

,

as

,

of

by

is

is

of

: “

of ,

its

is

,

or

.”

63

all

The essential direction of Robortello's analysis of the Poetics results from his conception of the ends of poetry . There seem to be three ends : First , the dual Horatian end of pleasure and utility : “ Poetry, if we consider it carefully , bends efforts toward delighting although also does profit And since imitation the Aristotelian end Besides there representation produced this imitation means discourse language which imitates just poetry may say that the end that 64

. ”

as

an

;

to

is

is

65

in a

specified

passage

...

of

a

man refine frequently

; it

thought

as

in

as

long they are men nature and represented some in

,

of

their own nature once they are taken out form resembling nature give great pleasure

by

by

,

is

perceived ment than that which the mind and happens that things which arouse horror and terror in

of

greater pleasure truly worthy ,

no

indeed for men ,

There

is ,

:

The nature the pleasure derived from poetry from Robortello's prologue

is

.

."

to

,

of

): "

(

as

of of

,

to

is

a

a

in

is

language which persuades rhetoric All the ends are brought together Poetry thus commenting following passage on 144864 the such prior the other the prior end sets double end for itself one which delight unexpressed imitate the other Profit here included delight concomitant

,

,

;

first the pleasure intermediate end

in ;

,

an

of

emphasized salient features this passage must achieved through imitation which thus becomes

is

,

,

,

be

Two

,

to .

? of 66

as

as ,

,

What other end therefore can delight through the representation we say that the poetic faculty has than description every human action every emotion every thing and imitation animate well inanimate

( as

so

,

)

( or

,

,

,

.” ,

hęc per orationem dicimus 19 rhetorice sermonem persuadentem

.”

poëtice

alterum

altero

."

,

Ibid Finem enim duplicem habet sibi propositum priorem Prior est imitari Alter vero est oblectare .

omnem suam

fit ;

representatio sicut

,

,

,

siquis diligenter attendat

in

,

, .p 2 : “

&

,

si

),

Et

30 : , “

: . , .p

sit , . , .p

2 : "

65

., .p

quoniam imitatio Ibid poëtice finem esse sermonem imitantem

in

64

ad

(

Explicationes 1548 Prologue Poëtice vim confert prodest quoque oblectandum

66

of

of

,

If ,

.

on

; if, in

virtue

63

to

they bring various kinds performance and the one hand the reading the virtue and the praise some excellent man people are the other hand vices are represented people are strongly on

poetic readings and imitations are

multiple utility

imitation consist incited

of

;

:

in

,

just a

to

men

as

is

For

,

.

as

of

all

is

)

of

,

is

of

second the imitation not only human actions and passions objects Aristotle but kinds well The nature the utility derived from poetry much more explicitly indicated once again the key passage found the prologue

.

in

,

, vt

omnium

,

,

)

389

motionum

;

omnium

rerum

&

. . . .

;

humanarum

(

omnium actionum tùm inanimatarum

? "

imitationem animatarum

,

,

,

;

,

in

;

&

,

&

,

,

2 : “

lbid Nulla verò inter homines maior voluptas quae quidem liberali homine digna quàm quae mente cogitatione percipitur imò saepè contingit quae horrorem propria natura sunt extrà naturam posita terrorem incutiunt hominibus dum qua piam similitudine dum repraesentantur multum oblectent Quem igitur alium finem poëtices facultatis esse dicemus quàm oblectare per repraesentationem descriptionem

tùm

POETIC

THEORY

deterred from those vices , and they are driven away from them with much greater force than if you were to use any other form of persuasion.67

From this and other passages68 it is clear that the utility is essentially an one , achieved through rhetorical means ; men discover through poetry man's common fate , they learn what characters and events are ethical

worthy of dread and commiseration , and they achieve moderate their own passions when adversity strikes .

In

the capacity to

of poetry , it becomes clear that the end , producing beyond itself either

these passages on the various ends

of imitation

end

is an intermediate

or utility of the moral kind so completely outlined . It is soon clear not only that the different ends of pleasure and utility are achieved by different means but that they result from different parts of the poem itself . separate poetic Moreover , each separate kind of utility has source a

in

its

pleasure

is

,

,

.

of

an

of

by a

of

a

is

the pleasure

of

.

Neither

a

utility

of

concomitant the utility nor the poem resultant the total structure the Rather Robortello fragmentation proceeds analysis the work and what each element

is

.

us

.

or

,

.

of

,

of

:

of

.

to

of

fragment contributes toward one especially the separate ends The case utility respect clear with Moral betterment derives from three separate sources there are lessons from the fortunes men there are lessons from the characters men there are lessons from maxims sententiae Let take the fortunes men first The conclusion that fate strikes all men

, in a

on

is

or of

,

to

is

plot such the stage representation very powerful a

the play The representation .

of

;

of it

a

of

,

in

"

“

fabula

is

to

unhappiness that men pass quickly from happiness deduced study not from men's characters but from the contemplation the actions which they are involved hence related the plot the equally

on

,

to

in

to

,

to

it

if

as

effect

were the

is a

.

Hence fundamental con The problem ita

.

the poem

upon the

full

its “

is

as a

it

.p 3 ),

the actions

of

to

the imitation

,

,

if

;

to

life

",

"

truth any discussion

of

however

will produce credibility life and enters

"

(

the imitation

quasi rem ipsam

in

sideration

representation depends

the

of

resemblance

thing itself the criterion

67

, to

in

to

,

of

The effectiveness

of

."

joy

69

,

or ,

on

of

: “

is

powerful moral instrument This moving and rousing the souls anger and rage men the one hand calling softening gentleness and the other hand them back exciting laughter pity them now them sorrow and tears now and

,

ab

&

si

,

.

,

)

390

& ad

;

&

ad

,

in

laetitiam

ad

,

;

&

,

,

ad

ad

,

emolliendis

autem habet vim huiusmodi representatio commouendis animis tum iram furorem tum mansuetudinem reuo lacrymas tum tum concitandis commiserationem fletum

(

,

Magnam

hominum

."

,

& &

candis

,

102 165–66 211

Ibid

Ibid inflammandis risum

fit , ,

vt

vtaris

., ., .p pp . 3 : 53 “ , ."

69 68

hortatione

Si

:

ui

;

his

;

ad

,

si

&

;

,

., .p 3 : "

Ibid Recitationes autem imitationes poëticae sunt multiplices multi plicem afferunt hominibus vtilitatem Nam recitatio atque imitatio virtutum laudum praeclari alicuius viri incitantur homines virtutem rursus vitia repraesentantur maioréque quadam repelluntur quàm homines multum deterrentur alia quauis

POETICS : DISCOVERY

AND EXEGESIS

real one and a difficult one ; for , essentially

:

its

,

its

.

to

,

,

true and from

an

. 70

In

by

;

other art the lies used the poetic art false elements are taken them true conclusions are derived

...

as

to in a

no

to

is

,

,

it is

untruth

subject matter fictitious and fictional discourse proper way invent fiction and intermingle lies more fitting than this one

poetics

clear that the function

the other

subject matter things which are not true to

poetics has

Since then its

in taking for

discourse

is of as it its

of

arts

, poetry differs from

, do

,

be

to

or

,

or

: “

of

is

of

,

of

to

If

impression from these fictional elements truth obtained the plot itself must contain actions belonging one three kinds For poetics speaks only those actions which exist which can exist

all

at ,

is

it

if

,

as

,

in

.

as in

he

:

is

73

.”

, to

an

he is

of

we shall

accordance plot well his Robortello

creates

byof

.

If

;

a

of

is

or

he

,

a

with probability then inventor the level possibilities summarized The whole range commentary on Poetics 146067

,

.,

"

to

.” 72

we

his true poetic activity

historian

bears upon elements other than the plot

on

,

: "

.

to

,

,

“

as , a if

the activity

resembles see

is

to

which exist according what men used think 71_i.e the true the possible the traditional The true the best we should try possible probable treat true actions The possible next best but not should invent new ones according the probable Inso poet uses does not invent and hence his work true plot far

or as

or

If

,

in

,

he or

as

,

in

.

it

as

or ,

be

,

to

,

or

a

or

,

If

.

.

,

If

,

poet imitates are either true The things actions and persons which they are living invented true they either exist now did exist died long they exist and are living the poet imitates them ago two ways either they are commonly said appears they are they are neither living nor exist but died long ago they are still imitated these two ways either

as

If

.

it

as

as

set

be "

to

.

is

they are This not and seem rather "

"

said

things be

of

imitation

equated with

to

”

True

. “

accidental

the notion

“

distinctions

of

,

noted that Robortello omits from this apparently exhaustive

,

of It

will

is

be

it

is

,

by

to

general opinion reports them appears they were have been the persons are invented the poet himself imitates and expresses them being what fitting and proper that they should be.74

70

is ,

of

he

,

as

he

.

If

all ,

"

“

than with are for the simple reason that the realm the poet after they are then the fictitious trespasses upon the treats things

,

,

."

,

."

,

ac

.

,

,

.

Si

,

."

,

;

,

,

nouas

&

res ,

: “

: "

., .p

, . , .p

,

Sin minus

: “

danda

219

., .p

219

Ibid

, vt ex si

fieri possit circa veras actiones versemur verisimili confingamus persone quas imitatur poëta aut verae sunt aut fictae Ibid 290 actiones verae aut sunt aut fuerunt vel enim viuunt vel iamdiu interierunt sunt viuunt Ibid

opera

.'

ex

,

...

in

;

&

,

ut

jis ,

de

est

.

74 73 72 Si

; ,

ad

,

2 : “

:2 “

., .p

71

;

&

., .p

Ibid Cum igitur poëtice subiectam sibi habeat pro materie orationem fictam patet poëticen pertinere fabulosam fabulam mendacium aptè confingat nul liúsque alterius artis proprium magis esse mendacia comminisci quàm huius poëticis mendaciis principia falsa pro veris assumuntur atque his verae eliciuntur conclusiones Ibid Nam poëtice loquitur tantum rebus aut quę sunt aut quae esse possunt aut quas uetus est apud homines opinio esse

)

(

391

,

. Si

;

,

;

,

."

ab

Si ,

.

&

,

,

,

;

,

duplici modo has imitatur poëta aut quales aiunt vulgò esse aut videntur esse non viuunt neque sunt sed iamdiu interierunt imitatur etiam has duplici modo aut quales rumor est expri personae fictae sunt ipso poëta eas imitatur fuisse aut quales videntur fuisse mitque quales esse conuenit oportet

POETIC

THEORY

of

,

,

as

;

at

of of

his

domain of the historian . It is by this line of reasoning that Robortello arrives at his interpretation of Aristotle's τα δυνατά κατά το είκός ή το åvaykaſov ( 1451a38 ) ; at own theory the possible the probable and credibility determining the the necessary and his central doctrine ;

, :

its

is

in

.

it

is

as

.

is

moral effect the action The true credible hence moving the veri moving only similar insofar resembles the true The whole argument presented the passage expounding 1451b15

soul

of

.

to

is

It

.

to

be

,

,

;

to

,

,

as

of

to of

to

,

a

by

in

.

it is

as

Tragedy has purpose arouse two the major passions the pity and fear Now much more difficult arouse these than others which agitate hope laughter and others more pleasant way such this kind pleasant things but averse For men their very nature are prone un pleasant ones they cannot therefore easily impelled sorrow thus an

in

,

it in , all

us

be

if

.

,

,

it

of

,

by

a

if

.

a

to

in

necessary for them first know that the thing actually happened such and way Thus tragic plot contained such action which did not really take place and was not true but was represented the poet himself accordance with verisimilitude would perhaps move the souls the auditors but certainly pleasure less For verisimilar things give the pleasure derives from the to

to

,

in

.

us

to

,

;

.

to

This passage relates credibility

to

is

its

it

in

that did come about the way specified Whatever virtue thus contained relationship verisimilitude derived totally from truth.75

in

is us

.

in

it

to

us ,

of

us

If

...

to

.

to

present general fact that we know these things the truth and the extent that the verisimilar partakes truth has the power move and persuade verisimilar things move the true will move much more Verisimilar things move because we believe have been possible for the event come about the way specified True things move because we know

.

,

in

as

must then

,

of

,

;

critical

it

is

or

as as is a

to

." 76

term

true else verisimilar impossible and completely the true consisting those

93 : "

75

or

“

necessarily

express something which and instead tries unbelievable The necessary the same things which had happened been done

,

preserve what

is

imitation and fails

to

its

" ;

:

“

.

a

in

to

to

truth verisimilitude and verisimilitude poem Other terms relevant the action are treated elsewhere The false and the impossible are never acceptable The poetic faculty rejects poetry errs those things which are absolutely false and as often

,

,

si

;

ab ita

si

;

in

est

,

vis

,

si

&

.

,

,

.

,

ita

.

,

ita

ac

in

,

,

oblectant

ea

,

commouebit

at

;

sit

;

ad

.

,

&

,

,

;

ab

,

sit , , vt ;

, ad

,

fortasse animos audientium minus certè nam verisimilia nos oblectatio omnis inde prouenit quòd veris inesse scimus omnino quatenus persuadendi nos verisimilia verisimile veritatis est particeps vim habet mouendi mouent multo magis vera mouebunt Verisimilia nos mouent quia fieri potuisse credimus rem accidisse Vera nos mouent quia scimus accidisse quicquid igitur veri ;

simile

, &

., .p

Ibid Habet sibi propositum tragoedia mouere duas maximas perturbationes animi commiserationem metum multò verò difficilius est has mouere quàm reliquas quae iucundius perturbant qualis est spes risus huiusmodi sunt enim suapte natura homines iucundas res proni iniucundis autem alieni non facilè igitur luctum pos sunt impelli necesse est igitur sciant prius rem cecidisse quod fabula tragica actionem ipso poëta fuerit efficta secundum veri neque vera sed contineat quae non acta

ac " ;

."

,

sit ;

(

,

ea ,

;

in

392

)

à

."

,

: "

...

: "

,

76

Ibid

,

.p

., id .p

totum arripit vero quae prorsus sunt falsa 284 patet poëticen facultatem reiicere quotiescunque poëtica 292 imitatione peccat neque seruat necessarium praeterque omnem fidem simile conaturgue exprimere aliquid quod impossibile

simili

and

veri

AND EXEGESIS

POETICS : DISCOVERY

have the same meaning as the “ true " and refer not to real existence but to possibility and opinion . The possible consists of those things which can be done ( Tà Suvatá ) and subdivides into the necessary and the probable . If to this subdivision we add another one , that affecting unnatural and incredible

objects ( for these in certain circumstances are admissible into certain poems ), we get another exhaustive distinction as follows : Duplici modo fingere , & mentiri poëtas : 1. in rebus secundum naturam ( the possible ) ( the necessary )

( a ) TÒ ávarykaſov

( b) Tò

elkós

( the probable

)

in rebus praeter naturam ( the impossible

2.

)

( a ) quae receptae iam sunt in opinionem vulgi ( the traditional) ( b) non antè unquam auditis , aut narratis ab alio (the newly invented )

The impossible or the false , because it is incredible , has no place in poetry , no persuasive power , no possible moral effect . But it is occasionally admitted when the poet can succeed in giving it a semblance of credibility

art

( p. 87 ). In many of the passages in which Robortello speaks of the utility springing from the actions of poems, he speaks of representation or per formance ( rather than merely of imitation ) and of the effect upon spectators ( rather than upon readers ). This is because he considers the art of imitation really two arts , a poetic art concerned with the writing of poems and a

.

functions

be

:

in

is

of

histrionic concerned with their performance The division his commentary on Poetics 1449631 clear

in

of

as

or

it in

be

in

by

is to

of

it

of

If

.

is

he as it , is

,

in

as

,

we

is

by

,

It

tragedy may should noted fact that the imitation considered insofar acted the actors scenic and two ways either insofar you think made the poet writes terms the poet who may say that the principal end tragedy writes then imitate the nature ,

to

be

.

If

or

,

as

,

or

as

he

,

of

in

on

;

if

.

,

of

In

58 : “

:

this way

77

in

happiness

the writing and the imitation the poets some such order the you follow nature established character from which comes unhappiness But the action the stage the actor recites unhappiness.77 action from which comes happiness

or is .

following

of

as , a

as

he

to

unhappy

is

to

to

is

it

or

it

of

of

souls and the characters men through written words through which descrip possible unhappy you assume discern whether men are happy refer the actor acts then we may say that the greatest and most powerful end happy that very action result which men are judged tion

...

an

.

, Si ;

fit

à

ex

&

an ,

,

; in

,

ab

&

à

,

.,

.p

tragoediae imitationem duplici modo considerari Ibid Notandum verò poëta aut quatenus scenica est histrionibus agitur aut quatenus scribente quatenus tragoedia finem esse imitari scribente poëta intelligas dicimus primarium qua descriptione homines habitum animi mores hominum per orationem scriptam

...

,

In

, .

si

,

393

)

(

."

TAS

ex

,

.

.

, ex

&

ex

,

. Si

ac

, In

.

.

,

,

,

quatenus histrio agens eam refert sumas cerni possunt felices verò infelices sint potissimum finem esse ipsam actionem qua homines diiudicantur dicimus maximum scriptione aut felices aut infelices imitatione poëtarum talis ordo constituitur quibus FELICITAS aut INFELICITAS naturam sequaris MORES actione verò qua FELICITAS aut INFELICI scenica recitantium histrionum huiusmodi ACTIO

POETIC THEORY

,

,

,

in of of

to

to

the object two

in to it ,

be

(

of

six

)

poetry

,

of these ideas, one of Robortello's most puzzling statements poetics about becomes significant . In Poetics 1450a10 , Aristotle indicated parts plot character thought diction song and tragedy that the might spectacle distributed thus among the constitutive elements ,

the light

In

on is to

of

,

is

)

of ,

;

of

of

,

or

to

is

is

belonging

(

,

of a

,

be

.

:

the means and one the manner plot which imitation Robortello provides such distribution and the Aristotelian text must one the objects imitation becomes the one part belonging the manner imitation the manner dramatic plot hence the plot part what acted the action tragedy the three

.

all -

to

of

78 in

a

is

In

.

of

,

,

of of

of

.

—

or

of

to

the manner imitation He even goes demonstrate how part especially germane stage presentation spectacle that the means apparatus tragedy and contains sense the end the other parts within itself The second kind moral utility the lessons learned from the characters men comes specifically from the depiction character the distribution

be

as

no

,

;

to

.

as

to

,

, ,

of

as

to in

(

of

.

to

,

"

to

"

,

"

"

"

as

"

the heroes

of

of

”

,

of

He takes

distinction better worse and meaning superior better those who epic and gnomic poetry and the kings and

"

he

characters

our times

Aristotle's

does .

like

live

in "

"

)

must present wicked persons except when one means expose them ridicule These considerations lead him as to

,

chosen

comedy interpret

of

parts already mentioned Robortello assigns the object imitation parts thought the three character and diction The characters depicted serve moral examples mankind hence they must well

of

to

of

be

).

20 ,

.pp

( if

be or is

so

of

no

to

in

of

to

in

is

of

.

be

,

is

. “

in

it

;

all

,

.

in

as

"

to

in

”

.

tragedy

“

Like refers characters who resemble men our dialogues and epic poems own times and who appear Worse means may also mean those who are those who are morally base but low along station life Indeed the line the distinction tends become especially clear social rather than moral The process the case the tragic hero who must high station his fall from happiness unhappiness produce the desired effect 132–33 Just the case action moral utility can achieved unless the heroes

a

is

"

,

in

of

of

ff .

.

of

as

is

"

;

“

.

to

will accept readily only those persons Appropriateness interpreted the theory

the audience

57 : in “

78

who conform

type

“

to

,

to

type characteristics

in

,

,

all

.

in

;

is

it

of

is

action itself credible made credible the case character credibility problem perhaps basis must established The more com plicated than with action indeed four the requirements for character that Aristotle indicated 1454a15 become the hands credibility separate Robortello means Goodness becomes conformity

)

(

394

.

Ex

.

SEN

.

MORES

,

DICTIO

,

tres partes

.

;

tertia

,

, in

,

Ex

FABVLA

.

.

vna pars tantum

& .

.

ex

,

& cs ;

Ex

.

TENTIA

."

secunda

as .

,

ols .

,

.

&

,

ols ,

,

., .p

Ibid Probat verò alia quadam ratione esse sex per tres videlicet notas illas principio libri appositae fuerunt differentias quae declaratae Sunt autem hae quae instrumentum significat velut quoddam Per primam differentiam scilicet Per quae modum significat quo imitatio diuersitatem sumit secundam differentiam scilicet quae subiectam materiem significat qua versatur imitatio Per tertiam differentiam scilicet tragoediae prima differentia duae existunt partes APPARATVS MELODIA

POETICS : DISCOVERY

AND EXEGESIS

decorum , according to which a complex

of

was assigned

to each person in accordance with the circumstances surrounding him . Here again , the audience holds these expectations with respect to the person and will find him credible when they are realized . “ Likeness " is taken to mean the observance, for traditional or historical persons, of the conception of character established for them . They must conform to the accepted opinion traits

held by the audience . “ Consistency ” refers especially to persons newly invented by the poet ; these must be constant throughout if the audience is to believe in them ( pp . 167–69 ) . This distinction between new and traditional characters is fundamental . We have already seen a similar distinction at work with respect to action : “ true " actions , as they should be or seemed to be ( note the traditional element ), fall into the category of the necessary ; " invented " actions into that of the probable or verisimilar . So for character

:

If, therefore , the persons are real and the actions in themselves and the out come of the deeds related are true , then the characters of the persons must be expressed by the poet according to the necessary , that is (as Averroës correctly explains it ) , according to truth . If the persons are fictitious , their characters will have to be expressed according to the verisimilar , that is ( as the same Averroës interprets it ) , according to the opinion of the majority.79

These various statements about action and character assume that both truth and verisimilitude are within the jurisdiction of the audience , that the individual character or action is submitted to the judgment of the spectator or the auditor . The assumption is made more specific in connec tion with Robortello's treatment of the passages on the epic . He says :

.

hearers

to

of

or

,

do

in

of

is

or

,

80

,

or

or

.

is fit

In epic poetry , just as in the others , this is the first thing that must be attended to : that the words used should have nothing about them that is incongruous or contradictory , but that they should in every respect agree among themselves and properly together For whenever either the period time which the action done the place the person the manner not congruous these things the the readers the mind not satisfy reason nor are they acceptable

in

is

of

vt Si à ab

79

——

-

is

a

as

passage Such this indicates that the really important consideration any poem relationship among words the rather than among characters and actions that the goodness the relationship determined essenti ,

,

.

,

)

res

&

se ,

ne

,

ab

.

in

in

,

,

In

: “

., .p

80

.”

.

(

.

)

,

,

&

: “ Si ;

( , vt

., .p

igitur personae verae sunt ipsis euentaque rerum quae Ibid 175 facta poëta secundum necessarium narrantur vera sunt debent tunc personarum mores exprimi aptè declarat Auerroës hoc est secundum veritatem nouae sint personae illarum mores exprimendi erunt secundum verisimile hoc est idem interpretatur Auerroës secundum plurimorum opinionem poësi Epica sicuti etiam primis videndum Ibid 286 aliis illud sermones habiti absonum aliquid habeant aut repugnans Sed omni parte consentiant inter

)

(

395

,

,

;

,

,

;

,

.'

,

;

quadrent Quotiescunque enim aut spatium temporis quo gesta fuit aut locus aut persona aut modus non constat non quadrant rationi neque cum legentium aut audientium mente conueniunt

POETIC

THEORY

in

all

ally by the reactions of the audience , and that the only internal criterion is one of a vague “ fittingness ” or “ congruity ” of the words the is .

poem

as ,

is

]”

( .pp

.

;

to of

to

an

)

by

or

an

is

;

of

in

of

)

an of it (

(

"

as

be

of

,

in

this sense that diction along with sententiae and character just becomes for Robortello one the objects imitation this assigned remarkable that plot should the manner The poetic faculty produces ethical discourse conficitque orationem moratam 291-92 and both character and thought sententiae contribute the production object rather this discourse this sense end

It

perhaps

a

,

,

of

,

in

,

of

a

, it

of ,

A

.

an

the persuasive

speeches will depend upon the credibility closely resemble true speeches made

by

of

,

they

As for action and character also

of

emotional qualities speeches

is

, of

198

).

.p

the emotions

(

.

As

a

in in

a

special form than means imitation diction the speech made object poem character even more clearly imitation for Robor produces special kind tello the cases action and character persuasion which effect upon the audience effect addition arouses

and these

:

of

"

or

,

of

;

or

of

,

of

,

,

In

.

"

"

"

.

;

real people Verisimilitude will bring about credibility utility which men derive from summary then the various kinds poetry come separately from various parts poems from plot the unhappiness springing from his actions spectacle man's happiness unhappiness springing from character the example man's happiness must

of

,

.

,

of

.

the

utility will result only is

in

,

,

the audience the truthfulness the poem and that depend upon the degree which the poem made probable

in

belief

will

cases

to

,

turn

of

a

from

the final expression

become

all

since the sententiae

In

,

entirely separate

lessons from both action and character

,

it ,

or

to

to

to

or

,

;

from his character from sententiae the statements which will persuade the spectator which will demonstrate truths dissuade him from action him and move him imitation revulsion These are not perhaps

the sense that specific

of

effects

pleasure will

treatment

a

subdivided into number distinguished providing

by

of

of

,

of

kinds but separate parts the poem will voluptas produced different aspects the

be

.

,

may expect that result from separate causes follow the same pattern Pleasure itself will not

as

analytical

be his

system

we is

Robortello's

Since

in

.

and verisimilar

,

or

of

2 )

(

);

militate against the achievement

of

3 )

; (

to

utility essentially

.

of

to

of

:

(

( 1) in it

be

.

of

by

in

the achievement pleasure

be be

.

”

be

“

poetry Moreover these parts providing utility special different from the will compli problem parts pleasure these The whole will cated several considerations must derived from subjects which tragedy are themselves not pleasurable the case the audience prefer inartistic will tend artistic pleasures the things done for

will usually subdivisions

be

,

an

byis

"

in

"

be

.

,

)

( as it is

) ;

396

,

of

poetry pleasure will truth itself lies outside the domain with the credible However credibility itself not enough readily subjects utility audience believed will some for (

Since

associated

POETICS : DISCOVERY

AND EXEGESIS

but they will not as readily be “ liked . ” Hence there arises a distinction between genres such as comedy , where the subject matter itself is pleasur able , and tragedy , where it is not pleasurable ; men will naturally prefer the former to the latter . Hence , also , bad poets will make concessions to the mob in the form of such devices as the happy ending for tragedy ( p. 142 ) . The distinction between the pleasure of tragedy and the pleasure of comedy is found in the following passage :

...

the pleasure which is obtained from tragedy is that which imitation provides . has in delighting our souls may be sufficiently recognized from the fact that even horrible things , if they present themselves in

The power that this imitation

some imitative expression , attract us to them and bring us delight and pleasure . ... Such is therefore the pleasure that is derived from tragedy . Nor is that which comes from comedy unlike it , insofar as comedy contains imitation . The latter , therefore , pleases because it imitates in a joyous fashion the ridiculous actions of men ; the former because it imitates in an artistic fashion the sorrow , the

lamenta

tion , and the calamity of mortal men . Now if you should ask which is the greater pleasure of the two , I should dare to affirm that the one deriving from tragedy is much greater , for it pervades our souls more deeply and touches us in a more

unusual way , and that imitation is accomplished with somewhat greater effort . Therefore , to the extent that we know it to be more difficult to express that imi tation , to that extent - if it be successful - we regard it with greater admiration , and we obtain from it a greater pleasure .81

I

have cited this passage at length because

it contains an elaboration of what are , essentially , the three bases of pleasure for Robortello : imitation , the difficulté vaincue , and admiration . of these three bases , perhaps the most important is admiration , that feeling of wonder and amazement which comes from the spectacle of the unexpected , the extraordinary , the marvelous . If this is an essential ingre dient of pleasure , then a crucial question is raised : Is not the marvelous the exact contradictory

of the credible , and would not the pleasure arising possibility from it exclude the of utility ? Robortello works out the diffi culty in a way entirely consistent with the previous données of his system . The marvelous is indeed in conflict with the credible . Hence it must be kept to a minimum in those genres where credibility is most essential ( e.g., comedy ) and may attain a maximum in other genres , where , because they 81 Ibid ., p . 146: “ Sed respondeo ; voluptatem , quae capitur ex tragoedia , esse eam , quam animos , vel inde satis cognosci

parit imitatio . quantum verò habeat haec vim ad oblectandos

.

ex

,

.

ex

,

.

397

maioremģue capimus

voluptatem

."

;

;

fit

admiramur

(

vi

exacta fuerit

,

, si

tantò magis

,

si

.

,

;

,

,

posse scimus

tragoedia percipitur

imitationem continet Haec illa quòd artificiosè imitatur

quaeras vtra maior voluptas ausim calamitatemģue mortalium Quòd tragoedia prouenit maiorem multò altius enim peruadit animos rariusque maioregue quadam imitatio illa quantò igitur difficilius exprimi eam

luctum

affirmare quae nobis contingit

ex

,

moerorem

igitur voluptas quae

prouenit quatenus huic quòd festiuè imitatur ridiculas actiones hominum

)

,

Nec dissimilis igitur oblectat

aliqua expressa sese nobis obtulerint ; delecta

afferunt . . . . Talis quae comoedia

est ,

tionem , voluptatemque

est

potest . quòd etiam horribilia , si imitatione

POETIC

THEORY

).

45 ,

,

all

,

.pp

cf.

(

a

of

of

is

to

for the poet reconcile the credible with the marvelous and this specific devices does through the use number 328 121 lem

he

,

as

a

In

.

87 )

.p

cf.

are narrative rather than dramatic , credibility is of lesser importance . This genre tragedy the prob is especially true of the epic ( such

to

is

it .

of

all

to

in

,

In

virtually permitted the poet discard concern for exploit achieving the order the available means marvelous and the pleasure connected with the last analysis

credibility

,

of

of

,

of

;

,

to

of

,

The pleasures arising from imitation the difficulté vaincue and admira parts tion are largely attached the poem different from those which produce utility they come from episodes from recognition and reversal rather than from the principal action the plot from secondary characters .

to

by as

of

to

,

as

. It

do

of

"

in

,

"

,

,

rather than from the hero from elements diction independent the ethical speeches from gratuitous descriptions This does not mean that the parts merely means other essential the poem not give pleasure keeping analytical tendency that with his Robortello seeks often possible find separate causes for the pleasure and the utility derived

by

)

.

accompanied

moral betterment

by

one

The constant conclusion

any individual discussion

, in

of

.

be

upon the audience will pleasurable sensations

of

as a

to

(

a

if

of

.

Pleasure will contribute the achievement the ultimate utilitarian goal the work such subordination indeed exists only making the poem whole enjoyable the audience The total effect the audience

the preceding

a

in

of

,

a

is

It

as

move the audience

an

as

in

with the

purgation and

length

in

idea

at

Robortello develops man like ourselves

audience

of

experiencing the effects

“ a

those found ,

is ,

It

).

.pp

audience

an .

. It

rough and ignorant

moreover which will sympathize

his

capable

145-46

is

a

in

an

as the

“

"

-not

com

the

" :

,

be .

,

moral betterment mentary on 1453a5

an (

of

of

of

tragic hero and will

vulgus

separate way

ingredient

such cheap satisfactions

"

crowd men that demands tragedies the double ending up good men only made

is

not the

thus involved

"

the elite

,

of

of

audience

the poem

the audience

of

the parts

of

each

The character

of

of

of

a

to

.

of

" "

”

,

,

to

” “

,

,

“

,

persuasion

” “

as

with such terms moral betterment effect upon pleasurable point clearly the audience sensations should the essential character Robortello's system rhetorical system persuasion seeking specific effect which Robortello sees the poem upon specified audience and obtaining that effect through the potentiality pages

,

.

of

he

or

;

be

.

to

it all is of

,

,

is

Fear aroused indeed when we behold someone like ourselves who has fallen into misery Aristotle means like the auditors themselves almost good speaks only whom are judged else the good ones For to

to

he is

398

)

(

,

he

he

,

,

,

.

-

,

of

of

be

is

of

their souls that the rule for writing tragedy derived nor must any poet mindful the wicked but must adapt everything writes the good men Good men then when they see evil things happen nature some good man fear like themselves and that they since they understand that out

ever

AND EXEGESIS

POETICS : DISCOVERY

are like him — lest a like thing at some time befall them , since they live in equiv alent circumstances . 82

to

,

by

-

all

,

is

of

,

is

is

:

of

,

to

we

a

do

is

its

by of of

all

Finally , we know that the audience is possessed of a large amount of knowledge and a large number of expectations, which contribute credibility what true what traditional canon the constitution probable and verisimilar opinion what these matter what consulting the are known only reference the audience and only ),

is

.

a

of

.

to

.pp

(

II

an

to

,

in

have already pointed out a

of I

.

know whether they have been achieved Chapter 66-68 the consequences poetical system this shift from almost completely rhetorical methodological order The reader system and the implications referred that discussion audience

ex

&

of

,

, of

so

“

,

in on ” a

iis

in

to

to

hold latter group especially would seem approach applied genres not treated scribendis Aristotelis declares that Libello arte Poetica principia sumpsit "

an :

,

of

.

containing the Explicationes The great promise Aristotelian fully by Aristotle for Robortello ipsius methodum seruauit

de

,

;

a

of

to

be ,

on

)

(

THE ROBORTELLO TREATISES 1548 that nothing Aristotle Robortello added— To his commentary lacking —a paraphrase belonging Horace's the poetic art might satire the epigram comedy short treatises Ars poetica and group separate part the volume humor and the elegy these were published

).

to

-

(

.

,

he is

of

,

that these materials

it

;

guarantee

they merely supplement

with

Satire

by ,

the pattern

.

,

the group establishes

so

of

all

,

The treatise De satyra first

in

.

of

a

of

,

no

of

,

in

.

is ,

Aristotle There course any way develop Aristotle's thesis will miscellany information in

found

in

to

.

lar

to

of

,

is

”

omnium suarum explicationum half title page the separate part not however fulfilled Robortello does indeed cite from the The promise translation the Poetics those passages which are pertinent the particu usually genre being treated But for the development the theory antiquity the materials not content seek elsewhere other writers

its

is

.

to

on

,

it

,

be a

.

in

a

in

;

,

,

,

,

of

,

poetry imitates human actions and other kinds does rhythm means diction and harmony Imitation not verse distin guishing feature for history Paraphras history verse would still ing Aristotle this way Robortello goes the distinction between

like

82

ff .) ,

28

in ,

,

(

$$

no Bk .

(

of

"

“

,

cites his subdivisions

Athenaeus Deipnosophistae XIV lyric and scenic poetry and finds satire

of

shifts

to

he to

he

the Poetics

),

in

,

.

,

actions which have happened and actions which might happen But when soon wishes treat the manner satire finding direct indication

the latter

.

, in

ex

;

,

: “

,

,

."

)

(

399

ne

,

,

,

,

.

ad

,

;

,

de .

., .p

Ibid 128 Metus verò concitatur cum intuemur aliquem nobis similem miseriam qui ferè omnes boni censendi esse lapsum Similem auditoribus ipsis intelligit Aristoteles sunt vel bonis tantum loquitur nam eorum animis norma sumitur scribendę tra goediae neque vllus debet poëta improbos vnquam respicere sed totam suam scriptionem accommodare bonorum naturam Viri igitur boni cum immerenti alicui viro bono aliquid mali vident accidisse metuunt quòd similem illum sibi segue illi esse intelligunt idem sibi aliquando accidat quia pari viuunt conditione

POETIC

THEORY

group . Various authorities are then cited on the antiquity of the form . Satyrs , fauns, and sileni are distinguished , again on the basis of many authorities . Robortello next attacks the problem of the personages of satire ; he finds information on satyrs in Julius Pollux and Dionysius of Halicarnassus

As for

the subject

of this

genre , Robortello returns pitiable , decides that satire , like to Aristotle the terrible and the comedy , must treat the ridiculous . The people at whom it pokes laughter ingratos prodigos periuros rapaces are ambitiosos auaros adulteros adulatores loquaces stolidos amatores ineptos irreligiosos parricidas qui huiusmodi sunt desides inertes parasitos the list resembles .

matter

,

,

30 );

,

,

,

,

.p

(

”

&

on

"

“

why Horace called

a

to

fundamental way

,

to

in

,

to

is

.

occasional

the sister genre

which

a

of

and

an

of

is

,

there

to

In

this

;

on

;

on or

and

occasional quotation the Poetics extend what Aristotle said about comedy apply satire But nowhere there any intention principles underlying genre the Aristotle's treatment attempt

,

-

as he

of

it ;

of

satirical blame

.

“

proper use

sermones

he

all

,

.

a

a

83

.”

by

of

on

gained

his satires

,

: "

,

be

be he

,

discussions

he

by ,

of

he

:

of be

be

to

of

comedy Next the qualifications must versatile skillful keen sharp witted eloquent good and honest for seeing that examines the possess way may vices others himself must such life not justly anybody long criticized There follows section maledicentia antiquity who have used badly and the poets well the good the satiric poet but must also

in

those traditionally cited

,

,

,

,

,

,

,

,

,

,

"

,

its

, excludes

had not

.

treated

The procedure Libro Poetica

:

.

is

ex

(“

,

, to (

so

an

of

,

,

,

,

,

,

a

is a

or

.

In of no

be

a

of

no

of

,

.

a

,

it

of

be

to

in

So

appropriate the genre which passage where the tragic epigram

400

)

(

."

vitia perspiciat

.

: "

qui cum optimè aliorum 30–31 quae nullo iurè reprehendi possit

to

:

treat serious matters that have about them much

,

,

),

(

Paraphrasis 1548 talem ineat vitae rationem

”

.

proper for tragedy

for

the epigram will

reflected indirectly to

the Poetics

part is

“

a

states that the matter

one that would

smaller

à

is

Robortello

.pp

83

It

the text

be

,

section

each case

would

of be

in

the second

So

. ”

of

“

“

"

or

.

of

of

any these forms The genres may further having divided into those imitation direct speech and those having imitation but only narration The first section ends with discussion Aristotle far word the epigram the origins and etymology is a

small part

,

.

a

,

in

)

or

”

;

as ) a .

,

“

epigram

.

avoided

the order given

(

to

followed

,

jects are then treated

or

writing them These sub For the first poetic genres are groups longer comedy epic dithyramb tragedy divided into two the forms and legum poesis divine poetry and the shorter forms satire epistle and sylva strange way may belong The epigram either epic comedy tragedy group for just the small part in be

what practices are

in ,

to

of

at

he " ),

ex

,

in

;

de

Aristotelis which follows the De epigrammate magna parte desumpta somewhat different Robortello announces the beginning that will treat three subjects poetry epigrams belong the kind which their subject matter and

ipse tamen

POETICS : DISCOVERY

AND EXEGESIS

they happen

,

,

as

,

these same things

to a

produced

if

pity

is

;

murders

by

all

evoke pain , pity , and no little wonder , as Aristotle abundantly explains in the floggings wounds Poetics . Sorrow is produced by horrible things such man who does a

,

.

or

.

of

,

,

at

of

as

,

as

if

or

they come about between relatives not deserve them between mother and her son between brothers Events arousing admiration are those involving Mitys Argos falling down killed him accident such when the statue who had killed Mitys All these things are susceptible the most beautiful

on

descriptions.84

of to

.

in

;

“

)

”

(p .

37

for the purpose the epigram differ from

ridicula Nor does

it & .

at

materia conuitiosa

vice and condemning

)

(

,

anything except

“

comedy

it

will use laughing

a

,

Epigrams written deaths and funerals will belong this category For comedy also Robortello cites Aristotle 1449a31 the epigram related

is

of

,

words

to

of

the kinds

of

,

as

,

well

Robortello condemns

be as

. of In

to

.”

and acuteness

,

used while negatively

as

suauitas

"

"

venustas

, "

“

,

to

85

in

of

a

by

is

by in

als ;

in

treating the materi the form and the way dialogue the former shorter more diffuse and proceeds simple narration kind Similar comparisons are provided for epigrams related amatory verse and the epic the third style section the positive recommendations concern such elements the latter and proceeds

acrostics and Greek

the use

of

A

.

to

outwardly

to

seem

,

would

more nearly

of

all

comoedia

,

The treatise

be

.

De

,

to

,

to

,

in

or

,

,

.

in

Things the epigram should not become the servants the superfluity words and the poet should never indulge excess final read the ancient follow Robortello's method sentence urges the poet practise writing poets and words

it is

or is to in

in

,

.

of

,

or

“

”

than the others for almost the materials which paraphrases made are direct quotations the Poetics But with few exceptions they are passages from that text dealing with tragedy which Aristotelian

”

.

be as

to

,

a

of

on

.

of it , of its

"

”

“

comedy tragedy has been substituted for the word equally applicable which the passage has been taken over unchanged made The treatise course had both genres Some adjustments most interesting for the light throws Robortello's conception the word

.

of

its

,

“

in

it ;

those this

it

:

;

res

and

se

,

its

,

in

it

imitates

.

in

,

serias quae multum sicuti copiosè explicat Arist ;

,

,

,

à

)

401

forma

at et

,

;

."

vt

,

,

."

(

praeterquàm

Hoc autem breuius

differt comoedia per collocutionem

ac

in

neque vlla epigramma Ibid ratione tractandarum rerum Illa enim fusius que simplici quadam narratione ,

,

si

,

;

re ;

.

,

37 : "

,

., .p ,

85

&

, si

.

,

vulnera caedes Commiserationem vtpotè inter inter consanguineos Argis statua Mityi collapsa matrem filium vel inter fratres Admirabilia sunt fortuita eum peremit qui Mityum peremerat Recipiunt enim haec omnia pulcherrimas descriptiones in

Poët Dolorem afferunt omnia atrocia verbera afferunt eadem ipsa viro immerenti accidant aut

,

of

,

est

tractare habeant neque parum admirationis vt

36 : "

Tragoediae quidem proprium

commiserationis

,

,

.p

Ibid

doloris

& .,

84

actions

a

.

the subject matter which treats for men which are more lowly and more common

from the others

in

,

its

to

of

,

by

of

interpretations dramatic genre and for some the text Aristotle reporting from the Poetics Robortello begins brief form the funda poetry mental distinctions with respect the end three means objects and manners For the objects first difference comedy differs

POETIC

THEORY

from tragedy , which imitates those which are more excellent . ”' 86 From Aristotle come also the developments on the natural origins of comedy , history and improvement supplemented however Plutarch

of of

and Donatus

discussion

by

,

,

the distinctions between Old and New Comedy

For

.

on

,

its

differs

the

the qualitative parts

or

,

as

in

is

it

(

,

.

;

ne

iis

,

;

,

in

,

in

vt

,

)

; &

apparatus

si

non adhibeatur Melodia quia obtinuit tanquàm vsus res scena vrbe aut oppido aliquo geri erò ultò videatur Ergo necessariae sunt hae partes Melodia Apparatus magis necessariae aliae quia sine scribi quidem potest comoedia Nam ,

Non potest recitari comoedia vlla

ita

:

to

"

“

of

(

),

ff .

a

In

.

in

,

Robortello again merely adapts the tragedy treatment the Poetics such passage the following for paraphrasing Poetics 1449631 only the substitution example the addition the word any way comoedia which makes the text especially pertinent comedy

, .

,

;

est

.

.

,

"

.

,

;

.

.

,

Dialecticorum Verùm quia necesse animi sensa exprimi per quae est Sententia Sed quia ideò necesse alteram addere partem sententia verbis constat ideò necessariò additur etiam alia quae est DICTIO orationem

;

Physiologorum

&

;

;

&

;

.

,

comoediam

,

est

prius necesse excogitare rem quae scribenda est Ea oportet quia imitatur esse moratam continetur fabula sed rursus fabulam exprimere exactè diuersorum hominum mores ideò necessaria altera pars MORES nam non omnis oratio Morata qualis est Mathematicorum Medicorum scripturo

by

an

).

.

(

pp 44-45

of

on

of

on a

is

Donatus the authority comedy into five acts

on on

of

.

to

,

"

”

“

"

"

the quantitative parts

and

the

.

division

De of

.

theater

as his

in ,

a

of

"

,

"

,

"

the

is

of

occupied orderly discussion the treatise rules and conditions the qualitative parts discussion which commentary leans heavily upon Robortello's own interpretations the Poetics but which also appeals later sources such Horace For the parts sententia and dictio most the materials are drawn from Aristides and for apparatus from whole series Latin writers the The central section

of

of

a

a

to

,

of

,

of

a

.

be

in a

is

The comoedia sense the most disappointing the supple mentary treatises We would curious discover how theorist 1548 theory comedy but we find instead merely would have constructed transfer familiar ideas and passages with only the most passing and the .

no

it

,

is

its

, its

As

.

;

to

De

to

of of

comedy most perfunctory adaptations the special conditions Aristotle's Rhetoric and Cicero provide the majority the materials for particular the short treatise salibus title suggests has any poetic genre indeed rhetorical rather than interest reference

at

,

of

at

is ,

:

)

402

;

,

à

&

;

,

imitatur

(

,

of

at a

, ab

aliis materie rerum subiectarum quas tractat tragoedia quae viliores ideò differt

&

,

differt etiam comoedia actiones hominum humiliores

."

., .p

praestantiores

41 : “

;

86

Ibid nam imitatur

us

to

it

be

to

,

: “

in

as

, ,

poetic Robortello indicates his first sentence Of the rhetorical faculty which has many and ample parts seems that hardly any thing remains explained except these two matters first what aims delighting and lightening the souls wit and clever the listeners that sayings then those things that aim the embel form discourse and

POETICS : DISCOVERY

AND EXEGESIS

lishment of speech .” 87 The treatment is thus exclusively rhetorical , except for such kinds of wit as may be used in certain poetic types , and the whole document is unrelated to the fortunes of the Poetics in the Renaissance . Indeed , the work seems to be a fragment of a larger treatise on rhetoric . In the last of the short treatises , De elegia , the Poetics appears again only in a most incidental way ; since Aristotle had not treated the elegy specific ally , Robortello was obliged to turn to other sources . Unable to adapt Aristotle's theory to this genre , he took refuge in a conventional treatment of the “origo , finis , materies, artificium " of the elegy . For each topic , he solutions in a variety of ancient authors ( Athenaeus, Proclus , , Cicero Horace are prominent among them ) . He sees the elegy as a poem which may treat almost any subject matter and whose kind and category vary with variations in subject matter . A funeral elegy belongs to auletic sought

laws belongs to the “ poesis legum " ; others philosophy are of doubtful classification . In a which treat of elegies are related general way , imitation the epic since their containing dialogue They mixed both narration and are neither too high nor too low variety style use devices create effect which poetry ; one which describes

is

”

in

an

,

of

by a

an

to

is

"

as

"

de

ad

in

).

.p

of

,

a

in

:

the

the treatment

of

latter connection

,

In

).

by

the

to

be

to

.

to

others refer

still others

),

,

,

(

,

(

of

haphazard Several

1449a23

),

1459b31

tragedy and comedy 1449a2 -19 character 1453a17 1451b1l 1454a16

of

history

The choices seem

metrics

,

statements

the texts concern matters

(

corroborates

of .

his

it

in

of or

so

,

(

,

IV ,

,

in

it is

—

his of

of

.

of

accompanied antiquity air We may conclude our discussion the addenda Robortello's Explica actually supplementary tiones 1548 the first item the volume Paraphrasis with librum Horatii qui vulgo arte poetica Pisones paraphrase inscribitur see above Chapter 118 Just the little more than that the uses Aristotle's Poetics are the traditional period ones for the Robortello cites the Poetics about dozen passages says the same things that Horace had said each case showing how is

the pathetic

,

in

.

"

“

,

“

to

all

war , mores ,

).

(

(

),

1460a18

of

In

ex

lies and paralogism

;

is

88

as

of

it ,

of

.

is

,

is

of

).

as

,

of

In

“

of

to

is a

" (

machina 1454a37 none this there equiva Aristotle except insofar the allegation reading lence kind the text one passage the Paraphrasis interpret the Poetics saying the opposite Robortello seems what says insisting that meter necessary for poetry but this consonant with deus

of

the interdict the any interpretation

the uses

of

),

1460a5

(

narrative form on

epic

is a

:

is

”

“

Horace's sibi constet the dualov Aristotle 1454a25 Some random distinctions are borrowed from the Poetics the fact that explained

ad

,

,

."

.

,

ea

& .

;

et

,

:

&

vt ,

., .p 6 : "

88

ad

,

&

,

,

51 : "

., .p

87

amplas partes habet nihil iam Ibid Ex Rhetorica facultate quae multas quae ferè nobis videtur reliquum quod explicemus praeter duo haec Primum oblec tandos releuandos animos auditorum spectat Sales scilicet acutè dicta Deinde quae locutionis genus ornamentum sermonis spectant Ibid enim poëma aliquod dicatur non tantum imitationc opus est sed etiam

.”

&

;

)

403

.

in

,

(

sit

,

ne

;

ipsum metro non quidem quòd metrum absque imitatione poëtam vllum efficiat Sed requiritur tamen nimium soluta oratio sicut etiam Poët innuere videtur Aristoteles

THEORY

of

poetry

.p

).90

that the best kind

1549

)

(

THE SEGNI TRANSLATION

cf.

(

of

,

in

theory expressed the Explicationes composite imitation and verse ,

is a his

POETIC

et

,

, in

in

,

have based his Italian translation

any case

it is 6v , in ,

seems

Latin translation rather than on the Greek

In

since

the text itself Robortello's the latter was probably more consider to

to

,

debt he

of

.

His

.

on

admitted

Robortello's

Pazzi's work

the text

,

he

text and commentary

on

in

.

the understanding able than

to

-

a

in

of

of

publishing Bernardo Segni had the distinction 1549 the first trans lation poetica the Poetics modern vernacular his Rettorica d'Aristotile He paid tribute his introduction the recent advances

, .p

of

;

,

,

is p . a

,

no

correct errors he

.

within the limitations the available supply lacunae and hence or to

it in to is

accurate

He made effort the really garbled spots

texts

cf.

(

,

20 ).

and

no

clear and readable

,

.p

,

in

,

in

Pazzi was not his source because passages present Pazzi and lacking Segni's version Segni Robortello are also lacking 278 Pazzi good one Robortello On the whole Segni's translation

of

at

the text makes better sense than had his But for the unlettered public his day his contribution must have been most welcome giving them for the first time the opportunity read the Poetics Italian The volume was reprinted Venice 1551 and again the series the Autori del ben parlare 1643 Besides the translation Segni provided brief explanatory introduction

is

But

Segni finds the two

using language

which

“

.

that they achieve their ends

the volume

.

part

by

alike

in

faculties

,

of

of

the larger

nothing Aristotelian about the comparison ”

“

is

because Aristotle's Rhetoric occupies

The introduction rhetoric probably

.

of

a

and set commentaries the individual chapters poetry and concerned with comparing the arts there

in

at

.

in

a

,

of

on

,

, in

of

.

in

,

to

.

predecessors

of

means greater use

proof

of

of

as

-

,

to

,

and demonstration

89

example and amplification although poetry tends make

enthymeme

,

-

arguments

. ”

of

,

,

has spoken discourse and character and the other desirable features rendering the diction beautiful capable Both use the same kinds

the

as

;

on

“

to ",

to

“

"

”

).

( .p

"

”

,

.

of

treating any subject although poetry Both are capable imitates more worthy persons and more celebrated actions than does oratory 273 The ends are the same for both they are the traditional delight them to move men's minds and otherwise stated to example

,

in

“

to

us

, is

its

of

,

;

."

to to

,

”

a

,

.

"

"

profit and give pleasure Segni attempts evaluate the two arts definitely give pleasure poetry because beauty their capacity superior here This beauty results from imitation represented action from special diction and figurative speech from meter and verse

)

(

404

,

in

of

its

&

to all

costume

;

,

discorso

&

it is

,

As

che habbia

. "

: “

), .p

1549 272 locutione

(

poetica

far bella

la

et

Rettorica uenienze atte

à

89

.

is

,

in

from great and delightful materials from universality virtue and vice goodness and from the general fact that the art divine and derives judge from nature rather than from art for utility difficult the l'altre

con

POETICS : DISCOVERY

AND EXEGESIS

be

to

),

.p

brief paraphrases

first

“

all of ,

that those who are less learned may understand 280

to

of

in

.

is

in it .

” 90

no

"

,

,

(

.p

it "

if

,

.

the text

in

He will then expound difficult points found here seems again come largely from Robortello who declares Segni has such wise made this work obscurity now remains clear that But Segni's total theory poetry less complete and less systematic than Robortello's He frequently not Such interpretation

as is ) .

some part

so

to

In

.

(

”

“

to

its

comparative effectiveness of poetry and of rhetoric since , in modern times, we do not see either of them in public performance. Poetry is even less frequently performed than oratory , which may be heard in the pulpit . capacity bring Hence the effectiveness of purgation , our minds tranquillity and freedom from every perturbation 275 cannot properly measured the commentaries on the individual chapters Segni proposes give

to

to

,

he is

citing Horace and not averse theories expounded thus Boccaccio's

illustrate the

(

works

in

seeks explanations and parallels

Italian

.

of It

] ).

.p

an [

is

of

to

of

-

of

examples

in

of

as

poems written prose 281 His twenty improvement chapters division the Poetics into two sizable over the unbroken texts Pazzi and Robortello's 270 fragments are given

stories

is to

a

of

go

because

Following the text chapter

separate interpretations which are number originality their because they counter the

or

of

,

interest

the Poetics

.

scheme

of

the general

mines

chapter Segni presents

of by

of

of

he

he

a

,

,

he

.

a

get the reader much clearer idea the general order Aristotle's text As for that order Segni believes that when Aristotle declares that will things give treat first first means that will definitions the individual poetry and that this deter general definition genres before attempting enables

to

I,

he

,

he

on

.

to

.

as a

to

of

”

“

,

of

of

(

of of

,

in

He states

of

give

a

to

.

tradition

).

possible

it

connection with chapter that not poetry for the same reasons that universal definition defining the state referring Aristotle adduced for the impossibility the question meaning Xóyois yiaois Politics On the moot the offers prose the correct reading whereas many Renaissance commentators possibility prose refused admit the medium for poetry Yet adopts Robortello's conclusion that the best poetry joins verse imitation accepted

as

of

of

purga

:

moral and

a

.

The effect psychological one

we

of

,

be a

to

is

said

the natural sources

we

(

tion

)

chapter

V

who insisted that meter was one

he

II,

on

,

he

he .

,

of

in

,

to

Still relative the same chapter makes significant remarks the ways chapter distinguishes which painting may imitate mores When poetry again lists them correctly the two natural sources imitation and the pleasure derived from imitation unlike many his contemporaries

405

)

(

."

resti

in

of

.

che nessuna oscurità più

ci

,

,

to

to

or

tal ’

sorte

,

to

;

ha

fatto aperta questa opera

or

we

280

: “ di

Ibid

., .p

90

if

support When see similar cases which have happened excellent people our own calamities more easily rather we learn how bear them And this way intemperate we come purge our souls are wrathful such

POETIC

THEORY

passions , considering those perils and those evils which befall him who is wrapped up in vice and him who is involved in the passions ; from which consideration it is inevitable that very great pleasure results.91

as to

is

,

,

,

,

,

be

It

.

,

to

the

As he passes on to the qualitative parts of tragedy, he adopts for them Robortello's division , assigning " apparatus ” and “ music ” to instru mental parts plot the material and language thought and character the final will noted however that whereas the division the same

,

.

to

fit

is

of

,

,

,

,

Robortello's the categories are different instrumental replacing means replacing manner and final replacing object By the same token the division Aristotle altered another Aristotelian form of material

.

in

,

on

his

,

.

,

,

to

his

In

of

,

but not the one being employed

at

this point the Poetics commentary those sections which relate Aristotle's specific Segni leans more heavily than elsewhere remarks about the tragic form upon parallels from Horace and upon traditional materials inherited from commentary the Middle Ages Thus for example Poetics 145361 analysis

,

"

191 ). ex

in

his

,

,

he

(

1.

“

on

“

of

a

),

(

”

1.

,

ÉK

Tñs õnews includes citation Horace's Nec pueros coram populo Medea trucidet 185 and Aristotle's remarks the deus machina bring forth the obvious quotation from the Ars poetica Similarly when discusses the tragic hero Segni distinguishes him conventional ”

of

;

of

large

.

a

it

public

in his

be

to

it

as

of

as

,

.

the text than did the glosses was written because well

must have shed considerable light upon the Poetics for

Italian

reading

,

;

di

”

“

,

more directly with the meaning contemporaries For this reason

of

“

"

,

).

1550

)

(

LOMBARDI AND MAGGI

of

( its .p

be

“

as a

,

principe excellent and great for fashion beni fortuna tragic heroes would thus privati separated from the other genres 308 On the whole however such references are rare and because brevity and conciseness Segni's commentary seems dealing much

the great published commentaries was that

a

an

.

of

asterisk

is a

The text and translation to

."

Annotatio

but where the commentators wish

emend

and when they

before the doubtful passage

,

;

Pazzi

"

)

an

the text they place

of

and then the usual those

of

de

,

at

of

,

in

is

"

(

"

Explanatio

are essentially

91

As

in ) .

is its

, in

,

(

,

In

of

Bartolomeo poetica communes Lombardi and Vincenzo Maggi Aristotelis librum explanationes work has already been pointed out this was 1550 early date and long elaboration Lombardi ceased which the role for which final form Maggi was undoubtedly largely responsible The text and trans special arrangement the sense that after each section paragraph entitled divided into 157 sections there lation the Poetics The second

."

è

;

se

in

.

à

&

,

di

'

Et

,

in

à

'

ne ne '

406 )

è

(

è

,

à

à

; ò

, le ò : "

,

,

:

&

., .p

persone eccellenti più ageuolmente ueggendo noi simili casi auuenuti Ibid 294 sopportarle noi tal modo comportiamo uero impariamo calamità nostru purgar l'animo tali affetti considerando quei intemperati uenghiamo siamo iracundi uitij rinuolto fitto nelle pertur quei mali che incontrano chi pericoli chi risulti piacer grandissimo forza che bationi dalla qual considerationc

POETICS : DISCOVERY

AND EXEGESIS

wish to propose an alteration of the translation they inark both text and translation with a dagger . The same symbols are then used in the annotations to explain the changes that they propose . The “ Explanationes " are given as the work of Lombardi and Maggi ; they contain first a kind of paraphrase text , then a first commentary of a textual

”

In

“

,

prepared Annotationes both explanations and

.

of of

;

translation bulk large for commentary provided problems involved

in

thorough

a

.

,

the Poetics

poetry

of

on

of

very extended treatment

and literary

Moreover since Maggi had the other works currently consulted the art

of

the interpretation

knowledge

is

,

there

is a

Nevertheless

,

,

,

of

.

a

in

,

by

character . This commentary is continued in Maggi usually much expanded form linguistic matters and questions annotations many sections indeed this the only kind

all

the preceding

the

of

of

completely consistent theory

poetry

-

we

-d

of

art ,

,

a

annotations but his own

not

his

.

,

in

find Aristotle's

his

he ,

,

Horace Plato Aristotle's Rhetoric the other Greek and Roman rhetoricians —and since himself had some well eveloped conceptions the

.

an :

.

,

13 ).

.p

”

,

in

actiones

,

est

reddere

the same

“

in

'

,

delightful discourse Poesis

("

"

,

is a

: “

(

"

by

to

is ,

of

poetry itself imitating human actions render the soul refined Finis autem ipsius humanas imitando suaui sermone animum excultum utilitarian end moral one variously described end

of

is

be ,

as

,

)

of

“

in

, a

of

of

conception The cornerstone this theory needs must the poetry end dual end borrowed from Horace teaching and pleasure Prolegomena important section for The earliest statements the emphasize Maggi's discovery The the utilitarian end Thus views the

The

Prolego "

to

”

,

-

animi perturbationibus expurgari

,

.) .

”

"

(

of

,

.

In

,

;

" )

of

, (

men for comedy

to

great

of

" );

of

“

praise the animis auferendo for the epic praeclara illustrium uirorum gesta uersibus exor nando make fun the vices uitia irridendo ibid the course the commentary these ideas are considerably expanded and clarified The restatements bring with them the use terms long and

deeds

perturbationes

to . .)

,

ab

illa

“

(

passions

ex

the soul

its

of

is

"

ut

nos

“

(

to

("

)

" :

to

poetry attempts mena embellish the human soul with the best possible optimis moribus sibi expoliendum proponit and moral dispositions produce proper moral action ibid The bonos mores inducant variously stated for the various genres moral end purge for tragedy

be ,

“

),

( .p

:

in he

407

action are useful

to

and those examples

,

@

to

neither

all

is

it

to

he

if

as

say that

terror And the poets attempt above of

humankind

says oŬTE ydp qidáv pwtrov

were

.

bring pity

is

Thus when Aristotle

έστι

)

.

...

(

bring profit

to

profitable nor does

φοβερόν

,

ούτε

or it

ελεεινόν

means that which expresses good character and which leads

society

,

ούτε

in

proper living

connection with Aristotle's TÒ Qiávopatrov

it

pwtrov

@

is

qilav

"

defined

,

to

By

desse

of

in

is

”

to

.

“

with other critical traditions Horace's Aut prodesse uolunt quoted aut delectare poetae connection with the pleasure derived from recognition and reversal pro 111 and the meaning associated

the society

POETIC

THEORY

of men in which the worst men fall from happiness into unhappiness , since through for

these the human race is taught and abstains from wicked deeds . 92

,

is

,

is

in

,

all

,

of

,

:

be

.

In

its

discussing operation Maggi the genre issue that was beginning much debated whether to

an

takes sides

as

by

.

utility produced on

kind

in

is ,

to

of

ful

Having established the end of moral utility poetry Maggi care tragedy seek the various parts the particular ways which Purgation that end achieved we have already seen the particular

through purgation

,

so by

:

if

be

.

,

,

it

or ,

souls

,

actually removes pity and fear from men's through their intermediation other less whether removes desirable passions Maggi argues for the latter interpretation holding that pity and fear were expelled from their souls men would worse off tragedy

to

,

;

of

,

to

I

of

to

,

,

,

is

.

...

through which removal the soul driven out for example

For once wrath

,

at a

94

;

of

. "

;

,

of

utility

Good

"

pedagogic

. “

a

has

in

he

." 95

so

to

be

,

of

might admonish character that especially attentive their expression

goodness

to

to

accorded the first place the poets most strongly 92

of

to

"

we

in

of

improvement tragedy will lead the personages character judge that spectators this section Aristotle For this reason :

its

of

is a

,

,

Maggi concludes that the first goodness character in

he

;

of

to

is

in

,

at

the

“

tragedy

.

position concludes later purge the human soul disorders peace and essentially better The once these are expelled men emerge purgation plot other kinds moral utility contained function derive from the handling mores Of the four requisites character ,

support

of in

Maggi cites the Politics purpose

point that

of

.

kindness

;

,

other disorders from the soul

adorned with the virtues 93 place takes its

comes

be

to

the removal

his

of

of

to

no

.

be

,

of

;

of

of

of

an

,

is

, it

is of

much better through which

of

pity and terror purge the the intervention many violent deaths come about avarice infinity which the cause almost ills lust thanks which the most harmful wicked deeds must frequently suffered For these reasons have doubt whatever that Aristotle was unwilling make the purgation terror tragedy but rather and pity from the human soul the end use these for Therefore soul wrath

, ,

pw

,

,

si

ac

,

,

quoniam

;

miseriam labuntur

."

in

ex

à

98 : "

,

&

, in

quibus pessimi uiri humanae societati exempla felicitate genus humanum sceleribus abstinet longè igitur melius est misericordiae

his instruitur Ibid 93

,

,

: “

,

in

.

at

,

. . . .

ad

(

), .p

Explanationes 1550 153 Per qindvopwtrov intelliget idem quod moratum quodque societatem humanam conducit Aristoteles igitur cùm dicit oŰte yap pináv trov OÛTE EEIVÓV OŰTE poßepov loti idem est diceret nec prodest nec misericordiam primis humano generi poetae prodesse student Prosunt autem timoremúe habet

:

,

,

,

.

;

ab

ad

uti

his

;

est

., .p . ., : .p

...

"

94

95

mansuetudo

ex ,

à

.

,

:

,

neces fiunt gratia nefandissima

est

&

ab

tot

Ira qua

,

à

. , ab , .p

terroris interuentu expurgare Auaritia quae infinitorum penè malorum causa Luxuria cuius scelera saepissime patrantur His itaque rationibus haudquaquam dubito Aristotelem nolle Tragoediae finem esse animam humanam terrore misericordiaúe expurgare sed alias perturbationes animo remouendas quarum remotione animus uirtutibus exornatur nam ira uerbi gratia depulsa succedit animum

à

de

ut

408

)

(

."

,

: "

in

."

ac

,

. . .

: "

perturbationibus 110 Officium uerò Tragoediae humanum animum seipsis meliores homines euadunt quibus extrusis tranquilli parte primum locum bonis Ibid 170 hac ratione arbitramur Aristotelem hac poetas potissimùm admoneret moribus concessisse illis exprimendis magis esse sollicitos oportere Ibid expurgare

AND EXEGESIS

POETICS : DISCOVERY

a

in

(“

as

),

of

on

.p

.p a

in

cf.

Goodness consists in the highest possible degree of manifestation of the way that the painters virtues ( 175 the procedure such tragedy may serve debent exemplar models for the audience actors

of

in

of

to

,

exact

the term

an

”

moral action according accepted to

“

good

an

assign

by

to

it

,

,

of

as “

or

it

”

“

;

In

.

“

to

a

,

disposition

the

action itself judged

form

difficult

seems clear that Maggi means

”

character

these passages

but

is

rather than the

all ”

);

qiráv pwtrov meaning mores Aristotle

&

,

"

",

.p

(

"

,

to

“

) is

to

,

a

In

(

).

",

tragedy which facere 175 similar way that particular kind imitating and expres Aristotle calls ňoikń 1456al taken mean one sing good mores and those which contribute proper living human exprimensgue society humanae societati conferentes bonos imitans Maggi derives the interpretation from the earlier 195 mores

,

to

is

I

,

is

an

is

by.

,

,

clear statement comes near the end

the commentary

is

of

.

of

to

be

it

be

...

,

of

of

he

,

be

in

to

of

say that the function But these words Aristotle seems the poet give pleasure and that this should poetry Yet since considered the end tragedy purges the disorder the definition had said that the soul pity purgation means and terror and not pleasure must considered

be by in to

:

.

this effect Such Poetics 146263

in

,

the moral utility although there are few specific statements a

achievement

to to

of

"

"

of

respect

that the

by

set

Maggi with distinctions and developments offered the other end pleasure The assumption throughout believe voluptas afforded poetry intermediate end the

similar to

A

.

ethical code

. 96

,

in a

to

.

as

by to

is

of

,

in

as

.

many ends regarded the end such matters there may which one greater than another We thus concede that the poets have their end produce pleasure bring profit but that they wish more important way

to its

adorning men with the virtues

as

:

.

is

is

on

is

,

be a

.

of

a

of

poetic work which give pleasure The elements audience are mostly tragedy should the plot and the diction Hence the necessity that the plot known plot based the argument that what known gives greater explaining Poetics 1457b19 pleasure than what unknown Maggi

the imitation

that action

.

of

is

learn and reason that this

...

thus

he

,

so

,

to

a

to

of

thing gives greater pleasure Just the image one who knows the thing previously than one who does not since one who knows the thing learns and reasons one who knows previously that action which the poet imitates will who knows

(

is

of

a

an

for

...

it .

]

of

it,

he

is

of

greater pleasure than the action which the plot imitation experiences incapable deducing the identifica who does not know since the latter tion the action from those plots which give the greatest pleasure

,

:

...

rei

.

&

.

,

.

in

,

in

,

: “

., .p

96

Ibid 299 his enim uerbis Aristoteles dicere uidetur poetae munus esse uolup Tragoediae definitione dicatur tatem afferre eamque poeticae finem statuere uerum cùm quòd interuentu misericordiae igitur huius terroris animum perturbationibus expurgat modi expurgatio finis non autem uoluptas statuenda erit eiusdem multi possunt esse

409

]

[

,

."

.

;

fines quorum alter altero magis intenditur concedimus enim poetas scopum habere uolup uelle tatem inducere magis tamen uirtutibus exornando prode

POETIC

THEORY

( other things being equal ) are to be preferred to others which are less enjoyable.97

Maggi himself recognizes

the contradiction that exists between this state

ment ( pleasure from knowledge ) and the earlier statement and reversal, as parts of plot , produced pleasure out

that recognition the unknown

of

( pleasure from ignorance ). In this latter connection , he is led to examine the whole question of the derivation of pleasure from the essentially painful events of tragedy . Rejecting the explanation of Alexander of Aphrodisias

its

that we rejoice at seeing ourselves exempt from the sufferings of others — he proposes rather that the “ pleasure ” of tragedy results from the fact that it is natural and human for men to feel pity : normal state

ſat

we

We feel sorrow by reason of the heart , which contracts beyond

it is

...

be a

be

;

to

.

be

.

...

]

do

in

to ,

,

it

to

it

is

at

of

piteous events but the spectacle fact the same time feel joy because human and natural have pity Since therefore human and pleasurable and most delightful natural for men feel pity will also pleasure For pleasure and pain concern different objects pain sure will to

is

is a

of

is a

it

it

;

is

,

to

the heart since movement contrary nature precisely towards that which constrictive whereas pleasure movement the soul towards that which and born with it.98 natural for

of

to

37 ),

against such attackers

as

art

poetry Assuming from the start that .

of

an

as in

”

aspects

.p

(

,

of

is a

”

“

of

in

, "

cf. “

(

).

.p

13

of

of

to

of

an

,

as a

of

by

cf.

defence the Plato Maggi asserts that the cultivation voluptas fault certain poets specifically not the art whole and that Aristotle answers the objec pleasure tragedy intermediary assigning tion the role the Prolegomena purgation and hence achievement moral utility is a

the Poetics

voluptuous

of

.

the

“

of

tion

,

as

,

of

,

of

of

The pleasure associated with tragedy will thus come from certain kinds plots from certain parts plot such recognition and reversal and from the emotion the spectator involved his sympathy for the fate the Maggi takes this last kind personages Plato's condemna answer

(“

.

of

a

it .

of

of

As

,

).

of

as

it is

149

rei

97

fact

,

of

be

considered

matter

.p

From the episodes which are plot ornaments the rather than parts desirability because the such ornamentation that

relaxandos animos audientium

to ”,

to ad

,

of

,

,

well from other features the poetic work From provides possibility the chorus which the relaxation cantus choricos as

Pleasure may come

,

ita

,

,

. . . .

,

,

.

, &

:

,

,

ea

,

de ,

,

:

is ,

is ,

...

&

: "

., .p

magis eum delectat qui rem prius nouit quàm qui non Ibid 134 sicut imago quoniam qui rem nouit addiscit quoque qui prius eam actionem ratiocinatur ratiocinabitur hanc actionis illius imitationem existere nouit quam imitatur poeta discet utique qui actionem nouit cuius fabula imitatio est maiori uoluptate afficietur quàm qui eam ignorat quoniam ratiocinari non potest nam fabulac quae magis nouit

sit , ac

est

est :

ad

.

rei

,

ac

. . . .

,

. . . ac .

,

:

,

,

)

: "

.pp

., (

98

à ".

caeteris paribus aliis minus gratis sunt praeferendae specie 112-13 Dolemus itaque ratione cordis quod miserabilis uisae ultra naturam suam constringitur laetamur uerò quoniam humanum naturale atque hominibus naturale uoluptuosum miserere Cum igitur misereri humanum periucundum Voluptas itaque etiam erit dolor diuersa respicient nempe dolor delectant Ibid

)

410

(

,

id

.”

ei

ad id ,

,

;

gratia cordis erit quoniam motus praeter naturam est scilicet quod angustum uoluptas uerò erit animae motus quod naturale connatumque est

AND EXEGESIS

POETICS : DISCOVERY

the poet —as compared with the historian

a relatively meager

- chooses

plot , which he then proceeds to magnify and adorn with episodes

.

Since it is the poet's aim to amplify the action and to strengthen it with every ornament , he will adorn the subject most wonderfully with digressions , and he will separate and rejoin one thing with another in such a way that the action , through the episodes, will appear more beautiful and clear . For it is not the poet's end to express the action in an arid and meager way , but to place it before our eyes in an ornate and elegant fashion.99

The total conception of the plot

-

brief in tragedy so as to avoid satiety parit , ” p . 257 ) , extensive and varied in epic for the pleasures

( "satietatem

to

in

by

to

be

)

[

is

be

,

as a

provided minor cause pleasure will poetry One the principal differences between

of

the diction

.

,

means

of

but

the language

no

,

by

."

separately

Finally

It

“

100

:

—

of or

all

of magnificence ( “ ad oblectandum varietate accommodatur ,” ibid .) — is itself determined by this end of pleasure . Furthermore , in different genres persons the plot will end differently - happily or unhappily , similarly for diversely for the wicked and the good order create different kinds voluptates which come pleasure necessary that the pleasures from tragedy and from comedy should different and appropriate each

of

(“

).

.p

is

of

”

,

,

in

of

,

poetry and rhetoric aside from the fact that the latter persuades while the poeti poetic diction former imitates resides the superior ornateness cam elocutionem esse pluribus illustratam ornatibus 237 One the Maggi's insistence that main consequences this demand for ornament

of

to

is

,

.

Of these

“

"

74 ),

.p

of

"

,

&

(

of

of ex

by 57 )

(

.p

,

not imitate

.

in

)

(

3

and who are called the first are the only real poets Maggi reinforces his theory declaring that meter one poetry with the assertion that the natural causes cùm ... Poetica imitatione carmine constet and that the phrase suauem ;

those who poets merely because they write verse

do

and who are also poets

,

;

( 2 )

,

: ( 1 )

a

to

is .

.

of

,

of

is

verse essential for poetry Since this runs counter certain clear affirma obliged develop complicated theory tions Aristotle Maggi the ingredients true poetry He distinguishes three degrees the true poets who both imitate and use verse those who imitate without using verse

is

a

101

of

form

of

a

in

written

in sit ,

be

subject matter Each genre will .

to

it

of

. ”

its

in

of

99

verse

an

a

is

in

the definition

From

: “

of

verse

"

tragedy again demand for the inclusion this text one concludes most clearly that verse inti poetry and included very nature mate part Such conception almost necessarily brings with the further theory the appropriateness sermonem

verse light

à , re

,

sed ornatè

ac

ac

,

&

,

exprimcre

,

ieiunè

res

ac

aridè

expolite

ex

."

.

appareret non enim poetae munus eas ob oculos ponere

est

,

ut

, : "

,

ac

., .p

quam amplectitur actionem omnibus eam Ibid 251 cùm poetae propositum ornamentis fulcire egressionibus uerò mirum modum rem exornet rem disterminet seiungat iure factum fuit perspicua magis actio episodiorum interuentu pulchrior

,

)

(

411

ac

,

,

,

.”

, in

."

: "

: "

,

., .p ., .p

uoluptates quae Tragoedia 100Ibid Comoediaque proueniunt 160 diuersas unicuique accommodatas esse oportere 101Ibid 100 Ex hoc contextu colligitur manifestissimè carmen esse quid intimum eiusque natura claudi oesi

POETIC

THEORY

,

by

of

its

a

to

Having adapted poetry

of

."

so 102

,

it

is

to

be

the

or grave according to the nature of the materials treated . In the epic , for proportioned verse must the subject treated and since grave and magnificent requires very nature heroic matter meter stable and ample example , “

to

is

as

,

specifically with of

103 he or

to

be

in

in

.

he

,

if

,

no of

a

is

,

in

.

of

general tators because the poet has mind the people might give them great pleasure those few even to

so

.”

states

performed for the pleasure this the fact that tragedy the populace general and moreover that such multitude does not know For even they may known one another the spec

the crowd plots that sort

if

of

to

Add and

vulgus

:

to

,

“

but the many not the élite but the tragedy respect

He

,

is

.

it

,

of

,

in

,

of

much Aristotle's Poetics his own notion the Maggi inevitably led instruction and pleasure considerable detail two further matters the nature the audience and the demands which will make on the poetic work For Maggi later for Castelvetro and other theorists the poct's audience not the few dual end develop

will pay

attention

a

a

.

be is

by ,

to

its

”

”

If

:

of of

“

"

,

a

In

generality curious way this the audience becomes basis and justification for the universality poetic subject matters proper effect especially The argument runs thus the poem have

"

"

,

he

in

he

,

a

poet cannot accomplish this purpose unless obtains the belief audience follows common opinion this respect.104

his

But

.

into

fulfilled

of

by

true narratives

is

introduced

his desire

,

be

teach proper conduct whether this or

to

is

end

false narratives

by

... because his men's souls since

in .

its

,

on

1460a27

):

(

Poetics

”

“

as

it

on

,

as

public accepted concerns moral instruction must true Maggi insists upon this several occasions and most particularly impossible probable connection with Aristotle's remarks the

, "

"

by

:

a

in

so

he

... falsehoods

;

is

,

"

“

,

to

Acceptability the criterion common opinion rather than truth for the poet may invent things which are essentially untrue provided way which makes them seem probable that does

to a

if

be

.

to

be

respondere

.

,

proportione

,

sui natura stabile

&

as

it

,

agit

ex

,

&

qua

iccirco

quoniam

atque amplum metrum

ac

103

.”

,

: “

., .p

Ibid 259 carmen debere magnifica heroica materia grauis est requirit

de

rei ,

.

of

102

as

,

be

to

,

to

in

of of

they are received the kind that are told the poets insofar the opinion the crowd are held verisimilar and true Therefore imagine something new acceptable certain poet were will said the opinion the crowd Since the crowd admits true similar things and things

,

,

,

si

,

,

in

de .

,

: “

,

est ,

.pp

."

, 104

,

., .p

populi Ibid 135 Adde Tragoediam uniuersae turbae gratiam fieri eiusmodi Quanquam igitur unus aut alter eas optime autem multitudinem fabulas eas ignorare paucis illis etiam magis eos delectet non erit calleat poeta tamen populum respiciens sollicitus

)

(

:

."

,

,

ei

412

.

ei

in

.,

: "

,

id

quòd propositus finis Ibid 267–68 bonos mores instituere quos siue ueris siue falsis narrationibus hominum animos inducat uoti compos efficitur sed quoniam poeta praestare non posset nisi fides adhiberetur iccirco uulgi opinionem sequitur

AND EXEGESIS

POETICS : DISCOVERY

which for a long time cannot have been done , then it will accept as true what is but recently invented.105

It is thus not necessary that the materials of poetry be " true " ; the only requirement is that they be acceptable as such to the common crowd which the audience of poetry . Moreover , acceptability may result from various qualities of the materials : ( 1) From what is “ natural . ” Maggi seems to mean by this those aspects of any action or character which seem to be inherently present in it : “To express things according to verisimilitude and necessity is nothing else but to express them taking into account the nature of those things. Nature 106

constitutes

.”

,

is

to

to

is

it

,

. “

to

to

(

“

2 )

is

of universal . ” From what verisimilar This does always correspond everyday not truth but nevertheless acceptable the mind For many things happen customarily mortals which are contrary not verisimilar and every day the senses experience what the indeed is a kind

it

—

of

to

;

an

is

of

.”

(

“

)

3

is

”

.

“

”

“

in

is

as

107 is

. "

to

,

in ;

to

,

.

And still this

is

reasonable for since verisimilar things are not pass verisimilar that some other way and may come certain things should happen contrary verisimilitude The distinction apparently constituting here between what reason would demand normal action and what actually does happen life between the rational and the probable necessary From what This internal factor according reason

necessary

,

108 ,

ex

in

to

.

is “

is

,

of of

,

necessity certain circumstances action and character presented among the données expected consequences the poem must lead the positione later development the work This called the necessary

be

we

He

by

”

to

,

is

a

of

. "

, it

necessary that another should follow when one thing being posited universality present since the consequences But even here criterion resulting from the given circumstances are the ones most usually

105

,

109

.

by

."

or

us

:

“

the poet warns that should contrive those conclusions for our plots which follow upon the actions necessarily for the most part not those which follow rarely These somewhat vague distinctions are clarified slightly the example which Maggi develops He assumes that used

in

,

&

,

:

,

,

&

., .p

.

107

Exprimere autem Ibid secundum uerisimile necessarium aliud quàm eas exprimere habita ratione illarum rerum naturae natura uero quidpiam uniuersale

est ." est ,

nil

res

131 : “

106

."

,

,

si

.

si

,

à

id

,

ac

,

: " id

., .p

genus falsa quae poetis dicuntur quoniam uulgi opinionem sunt Ibid 131 recepta pro uerisimilibus quispiam poeta nouum aliquid finxerit ueris habentur Quòd quae longè minus fieri etiam uulgi opinione receptum dicetur quoniam similia nequeunt tanquam uera uulgus admittit etiam quòd recenter est fictum tanquam uerum recipiet

.

,

cùm uno posito

necesse

est

necessarium dicitur

,

positione

,

autem

ex

Id

126

. "

)

(

413

qui aut necessario

aut

in

,

ut

,

,

., .p

Ibid nos admonet fines eos fabulis faciamus plurimis non autem qui rarò huiuscemodi actiones sequuntur

,

121 : "

109

."

., .p

Ibid aliud sequi

: “

108

."

:

est ,

.

,

in ., .p

: “

201 nam multa mortalibus usu uenire non uerisimilia praeterque rationem idque rationi consonum est nam cùm uerisimilia dies ipso sensu comprobatur praeter uerisimile non necessaria non sint aliter quoque fieri possunt igitur uerisimile nulla fieri Ibid omnem

THEORY

POETIC

we are given certain characters for a father and a son and a proposal the marriage of the son ; certain reactions will have to follow :

for

We say that

such -and - such actions must necessarily follow ; for these things preceded having been established , the poet must see to it that others come which about. Otherwise the comedy will not be properly made . ... if the father proposes a marriage

see

to the son , it is verisimilar that the son should consult a household servant or a friend concerning the way to avoid his father's proposal. If, there fore , the poet introduces the son consulting a servant , he will then rest on veri similitude . . . . But if the poet introduces a father , who , in order to bring about the marriage of his son , tries to use the offices of the servant , it will immediately result from necessity that the servant should , for example , necessarily deceive the old man .110 in

to

on

:

Poetics 1460a27

no

fairly close paraphrase

of

in

is a

)

(4

.

Maggi's commentary

He

.

reason

a

in

of

an

But the distinction is still not very useful ; at best we verisimilitude approximation development necessity what traditionally happens Acceptability depends part conformity from stated données the be

of

,

to

is

or

.

of

as

if

as

to

a

be

all

to

or

in

“

enjoins that the total composition the poem there should part which might seem anything contrary contain absurd reason but that should made with maximum reason This the same say that everything should present itself one were verisimilar by

111

.' "

necessary

to

if

:

.

derive from the poem the proper utility

of

, is do it to

of

of

,

(

5 )

Most clearly and most convincingly acceptability the audience according type characters will result from the presentation the requirements decorum The relationships are fairly simple here the ,

in

"

they must express the highest probity 112

that

is ,

it ,

of

must make exemplars

of

,

: “

of

.

,

to

“

as

to

if

so

]

(

in

it

be

the form moral willing accept instruction must true the characters presented recognizable traditional types The and will these correspond good behavior poems are exemplars people presented Since they people poets they present the imitate the best when their behavior they audience

in

or

to

. "'

to

as

)

(

at

in

“

,

,

of

in

of

Maggi those whom they undertake imitate Trapádelyua point relates the his text this 1454b13 Platonic Ideas character Nature considered itself and not manifested this character

persons

,

,

.

ut ,

.

,

,

necessarium

ut

,

ad

,

à

hoc statim exoritur

ut

,

Si

,

...

scilicet seruus necessariò senem sit

111 ."

,

serui opera uti uelit cludat

ut

:

.

si

.

,

de

,

., .p

: id “ id

sequatur constitutis enim illis quae 110Ibid 126 sanè dicitur esse necessarium praecessere poeta pater efficere cogitur alioqui Comoedia probe facta non esset nuptiis tentarit uerisimile sanè est filium consulere seruum domesticum uel amicum filium quomodo possit patrem eludere igitur poeta filium consulentem seruum inducit ueri pater inducatur poeta qui simili tunc innititur ... Quòd exitum nuptias filii deducat

,

,

,

,

)

414

illius personae

,

summum probitatis

(

." in

,

exemplar facere hoc moribus dam proponunt exprimere ,

in

ac si

,

: " est

.p

.

., ."

112

ut

,

: , “ ac

., .p

Praecipit quoque pars Ibid 267 uniuersa Poesis constitutione nulla praeter rationem continere uideatur sed omnia summa cum ratione quae aliquid absurdi facta sint hoc autem perinde est diceret omnia praeseferre uerisimile aut necessarium oportere quoniam praestantiores imitantur Ibid 175 cùm mores exprimunt debent

quam sibi imitan

AND EXEGESIS

POETICS : DISCOVERY

that particular object " ( " natura secundum se consyderata , non ut in hoc , aut in illo reperta , " p . 175 ) . These Ideas , however, rapidly become the collections of traits habitually associated with certain types ; a servant will be gluttonous and will think only of food ; his master will think only of honor and glory ( p. king ( this constitutes

king must do and say those things proper to a another kind of “universal ”) . “The meaning is that the poet deals with the universal. For if he introduces a king as saying or doing a given thing , what he says or does must belong to those things which 113

115 ) ; a

be

a

of

(

.p

an

).

of ,

,

(

a

),

as

,

In

attributed to kings . " still more general man must not have feminine characteristics Ulysses should not weeping and presented soul woman should not show virility example Menalippe 171 a

are usually or necessarily

way

of

be

,

a

word the field the the plot itself must

in to

.

,

-

diction Contrariwise

to

or

of

to

of

the plot and through ornateness pleasurable elements the poem

in

a

of

.

of

in

of

,

,

of

to

is to

be

,

,

of

in

be

pleasure and utility must essentially Because the ends achieved common audience and because this audience provides certain criteria universality generality writing the and truth the activity the poet liberty remaining fairly well restricted The great field poem comes open variety episodes added him that ornamentation through

an

;

.

is

of

,

of of

in

,

as

,

At

.

be

,

acceptable one known the audience the characters must conform kept constantly traditional types and the needs instruction must necessity mind times the case internal and structural criterion results from these demands the audience but more frequently imposed from without Thus Aristotle's remark on the the criterion

93 )

.p

"

for credibility

demands

...

as

audience

.

the basis

,

,

of

(“

on

a

is

of

tragedies usual time transformed into rule for both tragedy and comedy unico solis circuitu uel paulò longiore exprimere debet

.

[

,

a

is

if

a

is

or

a

in

is

as

to

of

to

of

an

he

an

a

in

,

in

to

at

or

,

if

we

attempt approach Since then tragedy and comedy close truth possible were hear things done the space month presented two tragedy comedy most three hours which time certainly acted incredibility messenger the thing will absolutely produce effect Thus

if

in

all

,

on

an

114

the poet

?

by

is

113

contrived

,

:)

to

Egypt and returns within hour what spectator indeed after one hour this man returning here seen introduced the stage will not whistle and hiss the actor off the stage and judge that action lacking reason was

sent

,

.

,

id

re ,

in

."

ad

,

res

...

rem

in

,

,

,

,

)

(

415

&

, , si

,

explodetgue

? "

,

carentem

...

uideat non exibilabit factam praedicabit

,

.

scenam introduci

à

,

,

,

gestas mensis unius spatio duabus tribusúe accedere conentur summum horis quanto nimirum tempore Tragoedia uel Comoedia agitur factas audiremus res prorsus quis profectò spectator post horam hunc redeuntem illinc incredibilis efficeretur , si

potest

,

si

. . .

in

,

,

, à

.p

.,

ut

,

iis

ex

id

,

: “

.p

."

,

...

si 94 : " ab co

.

si

.

de

.

,

: "

,

., .p

regem quidpiam Ibid 131 sensus est poetam circa uniuersale uersari quoniam aut dicentem aut facientem inducit debet plurimum esse quae regibus aut necessariò contingunt Cf. 272 exprimere Poeticae enim scopus est rerum ideas regem exprimit regis ideam referre quantumque ueluti rege desyderari posset omne illi tribuere rectitudo enim Poeticae est quae fieri possunt sectari quacunque qua propria sua rectitudine recedet agit quòd quod fieri potest recedat propè ueritatem quoad fieri 114 Ibid Cùm igitur Tragoedia atque Comoedia

poeta omni prorsus ratione

POETIC

THEORY

an

,

by

;

of is

“

as

just

.

Aristotle does tragedy object

,

to

assigns the various qualitative parts

some

neces the term

as

of

conceives

it

since

the poem

at

of

,

to

.

The interpretation ,

,

,

in

an

when

example

the first Maggi

of

,

Again

cited

internal relationship

he

"

may again

designating

predecessors

as

be

points more successful than sity

,

,

-

decidedly

in

,

at

Aristotelian cast With respect

to

un

a

reference

own intellectual structure second almost inevit complete the explanations give the whole the theory

this period criticism other documents and hence

to to

own order and

able tendency

an his .

its

of

its

The system of ideas encountered in Maggi's Explanationes shows two complementary tendencies : first , a wish to explain Aristotle's text in terms

).

.

(

p

”

"

,

;

,

,

Aristotle's basic meaning

.

of

much keener apprehension

,

, “

“

,

"

shows here

a

"

;

:

,

,

a

more correct distribution than manner and means Maggi makes melopoeia Robortello had done for the means dictio for the manner apparatus and for the object fabula mores sententia 104 He

of

to

he

,

,

and from the long borrows the theory decorum

of

of

,

with him

he

,

From Horace also

.

rhetorical tradition associated

of

he

his authority

as

and cites Horace

as

, So ,

.

of

in

of

,

he

On the other hand cannot resist the temptation other ideas current the thinking his time we have seen ascribes the Poetics utility and pleasure with which the ends was familiar through Horace

a

of

on

.

the types character and human behavior The same rhetorical tragedy and comedy tradition provides him with number remarks which come ultimately from Donatus and Diomedes rather than from

and

"

“

”

,

,

)

as "

,

,

"

64

(p .

”

).

,

Musica

,

:

Moribus morata

:

,

:

à

,

101 .)

.p

(

, à

: “

ornata

The conventional association

the long argument justifying verse that

to

,

à

perplexa Fabula simplex between poetry and verse leads

”

,

,

, à

,

:

Dictione metrica elegans euidens grauis affectibus referta

so

ab be

of

on

of

a

uel sumptuosa Sententia

uel

,

à

:

(p .

of

of

a

he

in

,

uel regia

suauis

,

by

,

id

,

“

of

)

77

.p

(

,

against humiliores puta rusticos seruos genus homines —and the two genres are further differentiated the unhappy ending the one and the happy ending the other 160 Indeed when Maggi presents summary Aristotle's ideas the qualitative parts group tragedy collects terms which might easily found any standard rhetorical treatise Apparatu assembled Dicitur igitur "

potentibus

,

is

"

”

‘

& of .

“

Aristotle Thus the moral distinction between better and worse forms character turned into the familiar social distinction between reges heroas for tragedy and uiles moriones seruos ancillas atque scurras for comedy otherwise stated uenerandis

416

have

theory

,

does

a

).

( .p

Maggi

of

in

of on

so

.

"

of

eclecticism )

pure

explain away Plato's banishment beauty 123 .

to

,

the nature

(

however

on

does not fail

,

,

79 ).

.

he

(

youth

certain ideas

not

-

“

,

or

.

of

as

is ) ,

This

to

is

(p

.

,

,

education the poets

of

praised for his proper handling Homer inven tion disposition and elocution The answers critical objections are organized around the old res verba distinction And for other rhetorical ideas From Plato Maggi derives the conception character trapadeiyuata types Ideas the theory that poetry may serve the we have already noted

POETICS : DISCOVERY

AND EXEGESIS

about his notion of the dual end of poetry ; and most of what he of interpretation tends to orient the Poetics in the direction of that theory . He is not led , however , to a total deformation of Aristotle's text , and in at least a few respects his commentary presents the best light on the Poetics to date . centering

offers in the way

In the same volume as the Explanationes, Maggi published two other works , his commentary on Horace's Ars poetica , called an Interpretatio ( treated in Chapter IV , pp . 119–22 ), and his treatise on comedy entitled De ridiculis . I have already pointed out that his main interest in the first of of parallels between the texts of Aristotle and of Horace and that his array of such parallels was the most extensive yet prepared . Naturally , some of the theory elaborated in the Explanationes is these was the establishment

,

to

”

—

“

of

of

"

"

—

in "

-

res

repeated in connection with Horace's text , which Maggi regards as stemming directly from Aristotle . The “ verba distinction figures prominently identify and Maggi tends perhaps more than the Explanationes plot and with the end utility and res with elements verba with

those episodes which are meant

give

he

Maggi again

the poem

,

of

.

in

.

of

,

of

is

decorum

the parts

a

digressions

once more found

interconnection

to

regards

character

necessity as

interprets

as

The essence

all an

of

to

.

of

pleasure Hence the ends distinguished are also diction and with the end the same and they are similarly related the various parts the poem

and variety

.

to

and magnitude the plot All these matters are stated more succinctly with less philosophical justification the Interpretatio which essentially appendix must considered the commentary Aristotle similar judgment may made the little treatise De ridiculis which

on

,

to

an

,

A

be

on

.

as

be

in

-and

he

of

.

,

of

,

of

,

of

,

a

of

,

to

.

as , a

it

in

the 1550 volume comes between the Explanationes and the Interpretatio Maggi means supplement Aristotle for notes that comedy plot structure and the ingredient requires two elements certain kind the ridiculous and that Aristotle treats only the first these Before offering his own theory the ridiculous Maggi examines those Cicero is

,

,

, & of

by

,

“

to

.

,

to

,

it

.

,

very unsatis Quintilian and Pontano His own theory unfortunately factory since does little more than collect the passages from the Poetics explain them which refer the ridiculous and attempt citation other authors Thus after quoting Aristotle's definition peccatum

”

in

“

in

the need

tragedy à

Risus 307

).

insists

( .p

.

“

sees

he

”

,

]

417

[

,

."

“

”

Maggi

admiration which had required part through variety and novelty

and the epic achieved turpitudine citra dolorem cum admiratione dependet in

he

of

a

“

are cited

he .

in of

)

the distinction

comedy for the same kind

he "

,

of

or

of

A

is

.

note the persistence

of

(

of

" .)

ex

("

of

be

,

ac

turpitudinem points out deformitatem quandam esse sine dolore that the ridiculous may the body the mind and cites examples the latter from Cicero third kind may come from circumstances turpitudo rebus Plato's Sophist consulted for definition Various examples the ridiculous springing from res and from verba

POETIC

THEORY

And

as for the various genres treated by Horace , comedy as well requires gifts the of nature and the skills of art on the part of the poet.

GIACOPO GRIFOLI ( 1550 ) The middle year of the century was also marked by the publication of another extensive commentary on Horace , Giacopo Grifoli's In artem poeticam Horatii interpretatio ( see above , Chapter IV , pp . 122–27 ). Unlike Maggi, Grifoli is primarily interested in the text of Horace , and he uses Aristotle as a means of clarifying and expounding the Ars poetica . In a few places — and a considerable number of Aristotelian passages are used by Grifoli - his remarks and applications constitute an interpretation of the Poetics and are hence of interest to us here . Generally , there is the tacit assumption that Aristotle and Horace are not only talking about the same things, but that they are saying the same things. Hence, it is just as proper to read Aristotle in terms of Horace as it is to read Horace in terms of the second place, since Grifoli seeks in Aristotle primarily a discovering means of the order and sense of Horace's text , he is most by attracted those sections of the Poetics which present neat categories and

Aristotle

In

.

of .

consist

two

instruments

the

of

of

to

,

and

or

verba

"

of

in

of

in

he

be

to

"

the materials and

the work

“

or

the whole

:

the other five parts are then distributed thus

on

;

,

elements

expression

fabula

res “ "

takes "

Grifoli

,

of

.

he

of

six

numerical divisions . Two such sets of distinctions appeal to him most forcefully : the qualitative parts tragedy and the four requisites only character Not does see the six parts the essential ordering principle interprets them Horace's text but the light that text

All

of

,

to

is it a

we

,

In

res )

.

of

,

in

.

in

,

these things indeed happen the stage whose external presentation does any way clash with the materials themselves Rather kind instru ment since imitation occurs also the spectacle and the melody according plot the laws truth diction and character and thought are the materials not

res -

it

in

of

,

a

if

.

of

no

(

tragedy spectacle and which are proposed for imitation Now read melody are more parts than delivery and memory the orations the ancients when they are read.115

in

”

,

,

82 : "

,

plot character ,

:

of

tragedy

]

[

418

,

& & ad

&

,

,

,

,

,

ex ,

in

,

in si

,

.

.

,

:

), .p

omnia enim haec versantur

vt

(

1550 rebus nihil abhorrentem

."

à

scena quae quidem speciem apparatu est enim velut instrumentum nam melodia sunt imitationes fabulae ratio postulat dictio verò mores sententiae res sunt quae tragoediam ipsam legamus non magis apparatus imitandum sunt propositae verum antiquorum quae leguntur melodia sunt illius partes quàm orationibus actio memoria habet

Interpretatio

perhaps more clearly

:

Ars poetica

the

“

is )

(

repeated

We said from the beginning that there are six parts 115

”

“

,

connection with lines 319-22

is

The same division

of

Robortello

).

by

(

of as

,

of

We should note here the crossing imitation with the verba distinction the parallelism with rhetoric and the strange division which puts melody considered means and actual singing among the diction among the objects imitation this the same division suggested

AND EXEGESIS

POETICS : DISCOVERY

in a

in

that order

the plot itself has been

which

set

character

Grifoli

begins

generalizing

...

“

,

):

"

(“

of

,

to

.

on

."

", "

"

, "

at ",

117

to

“

in

:

he

Greek terms and then proceeds

Aristotle's

cites

define

we

:

,

verba

,

,

."

or

of

114-18 them

"

a

, it

be of

without language indeed will difficult determine whether the moral quality the appropriateness character have been the similarity and the constancy observed not The very terms used indicate Grifoli's understanding proprietas the requisites officium similitudo constantia He explains them full several later points Commenting lines them into

criteria for language

by

the four requisites

,

As for

of

.

in

made that manner and composed 116

in

be

all

diction , thought , spectacle , and melody . Of these the last two are as it were the instruments of imitation , the middle three are the subjects proposed for imita tion . The first , then , contains in itself the manner of imitation , since the plot tragedy and since the imitation must is a composition of the things

,

,

he of ,

.

be

In

,

—

to

,

—

,

be

,

be

to it in

be

should see the first place that there should char appropriate are good then that they should then that they should similar finally that they should uniform These qualities are different speak briefly from one another for the first concerns the moral quality the second appropriateness the third similarity and the fourth constancy

This means that

acters which

,

.

118

;

he

,

to

,

he

;

in

,

in

;

to

.

in

the first nobody errs except through wickedness the second goes errs who counter his own dignity the third who departs from his proper kind himself who does not remain constant the fourth character

to (1 to )

,

or

a

by

he

),

.pp

(

,

.

, to

TÒ

of ,

,

by

he

of

so

.

-

(

,

3

) a

of

decorum self consistency

of

his

( 4 ) a

of

,

(

2

) a

thus reduces Aristotle's four requisites

rule

of

rule moral good conformity type rule tradition and By doing brings them into harmony rule interpretation especi with the Ars poetica Moreover 42–43 ally assigns the fourth quality dualov characters newly invented traditional characters will have been well the poet since the nature

Grifoli

ness

to .

,

, ”

“

;

of

97 : “

”

116

“

res

of

.

earlier poets These matters character and the rules associated with them belong poetry they affect the verba however since they are the established

,

,

&

eo

,

in

."

& .

ad

&

sit

,

:

&

,

à

,

sit

ne , 118 117

., , .p sit , 12 :

in se

,

,

., .p

principio sex esse partes tragoediae fabulam Ibid Diximus morem dic quarum postremae duae sunt tanquam instru tionem sententiam apparatum melodiam propositae menta imitationis tres mediae subiectae sunt imitandum Prima verò continet compositio rerum omnium tragoedia modum cum fabula modo ordine quo composita ipsa fabula imitandum ,

,

in

TÒ SĖ

40 : "

,

.p

,

."

dissimilis

,

sit

:

."

,

, vt

)

(

419

ut

, se ,

,

est.

in

,

: vt

sua conditione seruus seruo non omni actione sibi constet

vt à in

non discrepet Oualov

,

,

vt

,

,

est

, in

agat ouorov mercator mercatori .

vt

,

39 : “ id

in ,

6è , . vt TÒ SĖ

TÒ

, vt à :

,

., .p

.”

"

,

Ibid officium porro proprietas similitudo constantia morum seruetur nec sine oratione vix constare poterit Ibid est videamus mores primum sint qui boni sunt tum qui con quod sentanei deinde qui similes postremo qui aequabiles differunt enim haec inter officij secundum paucis agamus primum genus quartum decori tertium similitudinis primo nemo peccat sine scelere constantiae secundo qui contra dignitatem suam quarto qui sibi non constat tertio qui suo genere discrepat Cf. ÅPNÓTTOV postulat naturae quisque suae consentiat vir quae sunt viri mulier quę sunt mulieris neque

POETIC

THEORY

material for which words are used . Grifoli justifies his insistence on the primacy of “ res ” by quoting Aristotle to the effect that the poet is a poet through imitation , not through the use of verse . But imitation becomes invention and this in turn becomes plot and character , which are more important than verse because they make a greater appeal to the audience . The whole nature of the transformation of Aristotle's thesis is seen in such a passage as the following : " The poet indeed , as Aristotle himself affirms , insofar as he imitates is a poet of actions , not of meters . Therefore , an

of

a

,

up

119

excellent invention —and a structure of the plot in which character is diligently observed - holds the audience much more than would verses poor in content and presented on the stage with great solemnity . " single criterion Moreover Grifoli sets Nature for these subject it :

,

be

to

as

.

or

, of or

of

a

in

120

,

to

is

of

is

to

,

it

“

making probability and necessity dependent upon Tragedy support anything appropriate cannot which not Nature And even though comedy tragedy not the function the writer things actually happened Aristotle says relate those which nevertheless way that they might probably they must relate them necessarily matters

to

a

is

or

;

of

on

,

the Idea

the purgation

and

such

37 ).

96 ,

.pp

a

the Form

parallelism between them

pity and fear in all

is as ,

indicates

-

—

,

single object for the poet's study

(

Grifoli also

a

.

to

as

providing

passions

,

as

,

as

of

;

.”

have come about Nevertheless the Nature imitated not Maggi does Grifoli refers commonplace and visible one just the poet painter Ideas Plato the norms which the like the should attempt represent Once again Plato and Aristotle are brought together

as

,

on It

.

of

in ,

is

it

the laws the poet but ,

and

of

by

the poets

proposed

to

beauty

”

“

of

an

is ,

ideal verisimilitude which prevents any wild flights Everything that does reduced rule and precept

.

to

is

he

,

of

by

.

of

ideal

an

.

practice

the traditional

That accompanied the imagination

is

to

on

by

,

represented decorum

of as of to a a

of

a

,

this

to

a

in

kind total interpretation the Poetics poetry appears becomes text which natural object seeking present the perfection the one hand the highest forms Nature the Ideas and the other hand conform more commonplace Nature There

,

Lodovico

In

a

at

.

to

est

in

of

,

of of

., .p

., .p

98 : “

119

120

of

of

by

of

,

also

;

,

In

Dolce published his Osservationi nella volgar lingua which the first three books are exclusively linguistic and gram poetry only way introducing lengthy matical the fourth treats prosodic questions relevant discussion the various genres the poetry treatment one might say that Dolce begins each step with Aristotle but rapidly moves the direction the current rhetorical 1550

)

(

420

."

,

.

.

,

,

,

sit

sit , ea

,

,

vt

sit ,

,

15 : “

,

&

in

&

.

ea Et

, .) in

( , vt

poëta non Ibid Poëta enim idem testatur Arist quatenus fingit rerum qua ratio morum diligens habeatur metrorum Inuentio igitur insignis fabulę constitutio magis capit spectatores quàm versus inopes rerum magno cum pondere missi scenam Atqui Tragoedia ferre nihil potest quod non Ibid naturae consentaneum inquit Aristoteles nec item comici quamuis tragici non dicere quę gesta fuerint aut etiam necessarium tamen illi dicenda sunt omnino quae fieri potuisse verisimile

POETICS : DISCOVERY

AND EXEGESIS

of the art : " That Poetry , a heavenly gift, is nothing else but imitation is taught to us by Aristotle in a single and proper theory . So for the definition

for the

to

idea that imitation not verse makes ,

,

also

let

all

:

.

So

sible pleasure and utility the poet

"

to is

a

of

as "

121

definition ; for the function of the poet is to imitate the actions of men ; and the end is to delight the soul of the reader under pleasant veils of moral and slipping useful inventions , " Here the from imitation invention and from notion imitation the end the more readily comprehen

,

by

-

;

so

in

to is

,

is

of

necessary that they are acquired only with difficult and lacking the dignity large part them the Poet so

one

of

in

of

,

,

so

are

if

,

—

together and great sweat and

of

all

,

to

in

.

it of

nobody think that But those who write verse are worthy this title knowledge which this faculty requires Poet For addition the variety needs invention order artifice and words which things each one itself

a

to

to

given

few

;

the Poet

and these few are the good

.

to

of

proper the function Poets 122

,

it it is is

;

to

.

.

is

But none more than imitation which does more make him poet than artifice and words For possible for any mediocre mind find some display noble invention but with those ornaments and beauties which are decreased

, he

of

,

of

at

to

,

of

is

-

is

;

of

on

his

in

of

he

,

In

.

of

of

,

,

.

).

(

Todros Todrosi 1337 Both translations enjoy some circulation during the coming decade

of ,

to

from the Hebrew were

Balmes Like the latter Mantino's was based

of

de to

Abram

the Hebrew translation

'

of

to

in

,

,

Alemanus and

of

on

he

is

-

by

of

.

up

devoting poetry composition book such matters finally 1550 Jacob Mantino's translation Averroës commentary already the Poetics was added the two available those Hermannus

In

thus justified

on

to

all

,

(

slightly disguised

);

In

his ideas terms invention disposition although and elocution and seems first mean that imitation invention poetry the most important ingredient really the crux poetic saying that imitation elocution ends increasingly passages emphasizes excellence later the fact that the real art the poet lies his handling words and verse and Dolce this passage Dolce reduces

121

omit most

Averroës materials based upon Arabic '

to

that the latter tend

of

in

in

'

in

Balmes being reprinted 1560 and Mantino's 1562. The significance the shift away from Hermannus and toward the new versions lies the fact

&

di

:

,

,

da

."

88 di : “ di

,

,

,

,

:

,

, e di

:

la

,

Ma non pensi alcuno che tutti coloro che uersi scriuono siano Poeta percioche oltre diuersità delle dottrine che questa faculta parole lequali cose ciascuna inuentione ordine d'artificio , di

ha

Ibid 87v degni questo titolo ricerca ella mestiero : e se , di , ., e

,

: e

il

dee

di

le

.pp

122

: “

), .p

(

c'è

è di

,

Osservationi 1550 87v La Poetica celeste dono niente altro essere che imita percioche l'ufficio del Poeta tione con propria una difinitione insegnato Aristotele gli huomini imitare attioni fine sotto leggiadri ueli morali utili inuentioni dilettar l'animo chi legge

)

(

421

che all'ufficio

del Poeta conuengono

; . ,

le

e

fa

:

la

di

il

,

. "

i

: e

a

e

ma quella spiegar con quegli ornamenti bellezze pochi questi pochi sono buoni Poeti dato

è

è

,

e

lo è

, è

in

,

ad

,

da

per tutte insieme sono tanto difficili necessarie che non senza molti sudori s'acqui gran parte dignità del Poeta ma niuna stano mancandone l’una scemata oltre quello che alla imitatione parole che maggiormente faccia Poeta l'artificio ogni mediocre intelletto poter trouare alcuna nobile inuentione Percioche conceduto

THEORY

literature , and the work seems therefore

its

POETIC

to be closer to

Greek

distant

original.123

CONCLUSIONS

a

,

all ,

as

of

.

in

in

a

of

of

of of

or

-

is

in

-

slightly more The first half century the history Aristotle's period Poetics modern times thus tremendous progress the knowledge and the interpretation the text We must constantly bear only few mind the fact that the end the fifteenth century approached or

' ;

in

a

of

a

in

A

it

,

.

of of

at

having read humanists knew the text consulted the available manu somewhat larger group scholars might have read Averroës commentary extant manuscripts and printed number 1481 they would have obtained very imperfect idea indeed but from the scripts

) at ,

,

,

of

of

'

of

of .

a

,

(

of of

in

:

to

,

in

of

Beginning with Valla's content and orientations Aristotle's theory translation into Latin 1498 whole series documents soon became available the Renaissance reader the Greek text 1508 the reprint Valla and Averroës 1515 Erasmus Greek text 1532 Pazzi's text and translation 1536 reprinted 1537 and 1538 and finally Segni’s translation

to

it

,

in

-

of

to

of

of

by

by

as

;

of

,

1549. With these documents hand was soon possible undertake the serious study and exegesis the Poetics especially after the appearance increase this kind seem the Pazzi volume does activity witnessed the public lectures Lombardi Maggi beginning 1541

into Italian

in

of

on

of in

to

to

became necessary

,

;

a

to

of

.

in

in

no

we

it

to

of

.

(

of

as it ,

of

,

,

poetry just

as to

consider and cite the dicta Aristotle the had long been necessary reckon with the opinions Horace Plato and such rhetoricians Cicero and Quintilian Such consideration Aristotle was usually brief and fragmentary tending limit itself few passages which the writers found eminently useful general statements about the way from can derive which the the diffusion was this early period The second result Poetics was read

of art of . It

kinds

of

.

in

of of

-

1548

,

of

the first two the great published commentaries Robortello's and Lombardi Maggi's 1550 The first result this diffusion texts and commentaries was the increasing number many passing references the Poetics works and

,

it

an

in

”

“

be

to

ofIf

.

to :

in

on

authority undoubtedly more significant Aristotle came considered poetry equal equality was possible prestige Horace such Aristotle's the time found was because the cumulative wisdom

to

have spoken

;

which

I

of

.

of

in

,

123

the passing references

it

at ,

a

a

,

separate passages

of

we

it

of

,

in

of

.

to

of

had come the poetic art which Poetics essentially the same theory have been the period which attribute Horace's Ars poetica Thus procedure studying we discover the growth that habit and first for establishing parallelism between the two texts This was done was

by

,

",

.

.pp ,

,

,

)

(

422

.

),

(

:

,

, “

.

,

a

For modern edition the Mantino translation see Friedrich Heidenhain Jahrbücher 354–82 See also the discussion für class Philologie Supplementband XVII 1889 Jaroslav Tkač Über den arabischen Kommentar des Averroes zur Poetik des Aristoteles Wiener Studien Zeitschrift für klassische Philologie XXIV 1902 70-98

POETICS : DISCOVERY

AND EXEGESIS

or

in

,

of in

.

on

,

the epistle

As of

the general organization

earlier chapters the effects

of to

,

be to

is

,

,

all

of

, in

to

they

whether

have studied

be

or to

passages

I

In

of

:

of

its

later done, and in a constantly more elaborate way , for the totality of the the successive most complete form two texts . Naturally , it appears in commentaries on Horace Parrasio's 1531 Pedemonte's 1546 Maggi's and Grifoli's 1550. these the procedure search Aristotle single lines for clues the meaning Horace whether they this search

under

the

in its

.

to

.

it

—

,

in

of

standing and the elucidation the Ars poetica has already been obvious the present chapter the partnership with Horace was not without dangers for Aristotle specialists For meant that many readers

It

.”

“

of

of to

of to

in

,

be

of

,

of

.

to

in it

Horace and others came the Poetics determined find the doctrine which they had long associated with the Ars poetica This they did without difficulty for there are sufficient similarities subject matter and enough parallels accidental likeness detail facilitate the discovery exculpation should said those who yielded too easily the tempta

in to

,

as

to

a

by

to

.

,

a

of

so

all

of

.

,

tion that the temptation was very great indeed The first half the Cinque problems poetic theory and the was deeply concerned with discovery new treatise revered writer Aristotle was bound elicit much attention Naturally the first impulse was find the known cento

,

.

),

(

as

"

.

in a

of

for

on

”

or

,

the unknown read Horace into Aristotle On the other hand this impulse prevented long time the discovery delayed what Aristotle was actually doing and saying the Poetics Even the great commen taries the Poetics published during this period and later well

.

,

of

,

of

;

to

.

of

its

directly concerned though they were with the text and exegesis show this tendency They may not specifically seek identity theory they may even attempt read Aristotle for his own sake But the results

.

to

is

to of

)

423

(

in

,

is

and what

,

the old habits mind and the old accepted ideas are there produced theory the way much closer the standard any distinctively Aristotelian analysis Horatian rhetorical tradition than nevertheless

CHAPTER TEN . THE TRADITION OF ARISTOTLE'S : II . THE FIRST THEORETICAL APPLICATIONS

POETICS

following the middle of the century , the tendencies in the first half are continued and accelerated . This is generally true in branches criticism for the documents accumulated more new materials became available the partisan spirit grew there multiplication pamphlets was discussions treatises one were ,

as

,

.

If

, of

,

of

,

of

a

as

of

all

as

YEARS

observed

,

THE

'N

a

.

no

.

of

on

”

,

to

“

no

is

on

in

curve

,

of

one would note

a

a

statistical

,

to

Cinquecento criticism purely quanti sharp rise the years following 1550. The writings relative exception Aristotle's Poetics would provide There great commentary until 1560 when Vettori's appeared Neverthe prepare

tative basis

.

,

,

of

a

on

,

,

the editions and commentaries Horace short independent variety poetic matters and miscellaneous materials become constantly more numerous and with them the Aristotelian tradi tion expands and develops less

treatises

CONTI AND SPERONI

)

(

CA. 1550

"

as

of I

,

of

et

in

),

in

.

of

“

as

(

de '

byat

of

I

I

shall discuss first three documents which are not dated and which place roughly the middle the century for want better evidence The first two are Antonio Maria Conti called Maioragio who died 1555. His very brief De arte poetica appeared Oratio XXIV the praefationes collected Orationes 1582. The oration have pointed

a

to

to

.

his

it

-

of

of

as to a a

it

is

),

;

of

(

,

.p

primarily devoted poetry and out Chapter VII 267 defence rejection part Plato's ban but uses the Poetics this defence and statements about imitation and -more important still derives from history poetry about the Conti refers Poetics 1447b1 confirm is

“

,

a

In

.

),

it

"

"

(

or

"

a "

to as

a

of

. " 1

, in

of

,

he

“

as

poetry

:

of

Aristotle himself intimates that poetry the same philosophy wisdom and when numbers among poems the most learned and most elegant dialogues Plato which are treated the most important matters both divine and human later passage Conti collapses together early history poetry brief He begins with imita coupling immediately origin cause with meter pro defence

thing

divergent

products.2

Conti thus chooses some

of

of

),

of

,

,

,

,

(

the division

of

poetry into species comic tragic epic melic and high concludes with the differentiation between poets moral character and those low moral character and between their ceeds

dithyrambic

the ideas from the Poetics sit

ex

,

&

ab

,

,

&

: “

), .p ,

: sit “

2

., . " .p

&

in

,

(

et

In

1

praefationes 1582 Orationes 143 quod autem poetica eadem quae sapientia elegantissimos Platonis dialogos seu philosophia innuit etiam Aristoteles qui doctissimos quibus maximae quaeque res diuinae humanae tractantur inter poemata con 19 numerat Ibid 146. The full text reads thus Aristoteles poesim imitatione primo natam

ait ,

ac ,

,

)

(

424

ex

ad

ex

,

.

re à

in

,

fuisse censet quoniam imitandi studium ineunte aetate cunctis hominibus innatum qua belluis homo differat qui igitur metrum natura procliues fuerunt eos poesim primo protulisse quodam imperito rudique principio atque subita fortuita

POETICS : THEORETICAL APPLICATIONS

tres Aristotelis libros

,

his

de

.

Aristotle and imitation

in

Conti returns

In

to

its

most frequently cited by his predecessors , those which might throw light on the beginnings of the art and earliest history

published posthumously arte rhetorica explanationes few scattered passages the commentary Book

a

of of

by on

to

he ,

his

,

an it

;

:

words were born many arts such

as

in

poetry

,

,

,

Whence from the imitation contained

of

the brief history

again

man Then .

natural

is

tion

to

to

it is

.

In

in

on

,

III in

1572. There are that are interest poetry for poetic theory the first one Conti argues for the antiquity argument preceded oratory basing and for the fact that Aristotle's support citing the proceeds statement that imitation this Cratylus the effect that words themselves are imitations and that imita

;

all

,

but when

the medieval

In

to

,

Plato on of

he

Aristotle

the direction

of

theory

moves

is

(

he

);

he

&

(“

is

of

a

, .p

in

of

of

he

later passages

.

literature based above decorum important states that one the differences between oratory and poetry lies because the latter this the ornate language poetry comes from repeats his assertion that divine furor 381A poetry the essence imitation Horatius egregium poetam uocat a

definitions and

in

,

Conti assimilates

the literary types

of

speaks

,

of

of

had done previously

of

he

he As

words the

,

,

satires and mimes and which represents through the medium every age class and condition.3 characters and the lives men

,

of ,

,

;

,

,

in

of

kings the epic which expresses hexametric verse the wars and the deeds generals and leaders and the histrionic art which includes comedies tragedies

no

)

;

.p

all on

"

,

distinguishes doctum imitatorem 406A and those poets who please only the stage from those who also please when they are read he

to

his

a

in

as

.

be

to

is

his

,

to di

art as

, is

It

,

,

,

,

&

,

salibusque

inuadere

.

,

illum irridere

unde postea

."

,

actiones canere coeperunt atque hunc comoedia atque Satyra nata est

&

.

&

ad

,

ut

,

&

,

&

&

,

,

&

.

in

.

res

.

,

,

in

in

plura membra diuisa poesis multas hac imitandi ratione quasi poetę dicti sunt alij Comici alij Tragici alij Epici alij Melici alij Dithyrambici alij alio nomine nam pro cuiusque natura moribus imitandi studium pro egregias praestantes ferebatur honestiores enim poctae laudabiles actiones sibi itaque regum canendas proponebant deorum conuiuijs uirorum excellentium laudes resque praeclarè gestas heroicis carminibus concinebant eas imitandas iuuenes excita rentur alacriores redderentur qui uerò abiectiori essent animo uiles etiam humiles .

dictione sed deinceps species abijt atque

ita ex

is

or

.

, e

,

dell'arte

in

of

also concerned with the problem imitation della natura Dio but much broader and more philosophical way primarily say whether difficult doctrine intermingled Platonic Aristotelian elements from both seem Speroni's premiss that imitates Nature just Nature imitates God Sperone

Discorso

is

Speroni

.

of

a

be

;

in ,

In

of

).

(

.p

415B these statements about imitation Conti shows under standing the peculiar meaning given the term the Poetics chooses applied passages separated rather Platonic meaning and one that can from the whole the text

,

."

)

(

425

,

, &

,

,

&

,

,

&

,

à

: “

), .p

(

,

,

,

,

& ut

3

quare De arte rhetorica 1572 347A uocis imitatione natae sunt artes plurimae epica quae regum imperatorum ducum res gestas bella carminibus exametris exprimit quae comoedias tragoedias Satyras mimos amplectitur histrionica cuiuslibet aetatis ordinis conditionis hominum mores uitas uoce repraesentat

Nature and possible

not the

an

.

is

resemblance

imitates

Nature much not possible since the object art resemble

of

But complete real object

is

,

,

finds first that art always seeks

.

to

in operation . He seeks the conditions under which

as

art

THEORY

as

POETIC

to

so

it ,

as

Nature and art leads decide that

,

,

,

,

as

,

speak

was before

to

:

it

follows

for

to

in

the order

in

of

the triple relationship among God inquire into their relative nobility and which they have been named

Consideration Speroni

in

it is

as

and insofar action and must remain action just after the form which the artifex will have impressed upon it.4

much

as

it,

be

accident which resembles the substance therefore has for subject the being action

it

.

Art

in

is

that added possibly can

an

to it is

;

no

is

actually And this comes about because the subject upon which art operates true thing therefore substantial form can introduced into but everything

be ,

a is

in

to

;

be

to

it

,

,

it

is

in —

,

in

is

all ,

,

if

at

it of is a

a

,

a

of

posed

examines .

byhe

when

clearly inquiring into metaphysical and aesthetic problem problem imitation far different order than that present present only Conti The text the Poetics

is

Speroni

to

;

is

is

it,

by

,

a

not Nature herself

—

the painting operates but imitates her since this subject art and Nature are joined already made and Nature the latter making the former presupposing more noble than art since the less noble always seeks resemble the more said about Nature and God.5 noble the same

Thus since art imitates Nature but not man but his image and imitation subject which was made Nature and

le , .

in

of

( it

of

is

The lecture praise for Giotto

as

of

a

in

of

to

.

in

lettioni But

in

once again the subject discussion the Lettione decima volume entitled Tutte 1551 Giovanni Battista Gelli Gelli we encounter the same kind discussion Conti painting poetry devoted the arts and ends with

is

by

Imitation published

in of

.

a

remote way

is .

“

,

by

)

by

III.I

(

to

)

on

),

,

,

to

(

,

which are arts imitation Dante and Petrarch both Gelli cites Aristotle Poetics 144864 the reasons why imitation pleasurable these arguments the notion from Rhetoric man adding speaking using his voice that man imitates words and since ,

of

an

concepts and since the voice serves words are nothing but imitation better than for demonstrating the passions the soul He

III ,

ed .) ,

."

of

for nothing

si

al

,

,

in

è

in

ed

, si

in

,

dir ,

,

in

,

lo

ha

Ici ,

;

in la ".

vi

è

,

la

,

,

e

si

,

; ed e in la

;

ed

la

,

,

,

già è

,

il

in

,

: " E ;

, è

vi si

in

, è (

: “ de '

non

subietto

è

s

rimanere come era prima dopo forma che arà impressa l'artefice Dunque come l'arte imita natura ma non essa natura perciocchè perciocchè ella opera uomo ma sua imagine imitazione ma imita quale aggiungono arte fatto dalla natura esso natura questa

atto 366

Ibid dipintura un

,

...

il

,

atto

ed ., in .p

.

4

quale Discorso 1740 365 ciò avviene perche subietto intorno adopra l'arte cosa vera effetto però essa non può introdursi alcuna forma sustanziale aggiunge quanto puote ma ogni cosa che accidente che alla sostanza rassimi glia per subietto quanto egli L'arte adunque ente atto per cosi

)

426

l'animo

."

de

affetti

." ;

de e di

da

,

gli

i

a

dimostrare

;

è

è

:

di

: "

), il .p

cosa alcuna meglio che (

voce

a

(

le

seruendo

la

nc

o

al

,

ſacendolo quella fatto presupponendolo natura dell'arte più nobile perciocchè assimigliarsi sempre più nobile cerca Dio così dire della natura men nobile Tutte lettioni 1551 358 Non essendo altro nomi che imitation concetti

POETICS :

THEORETICAL APPLICATIONS

.

).

IV , in pp

,

see

then returns to direct translation or paraphrase of Aristotle on the pleasure derived from learning and on the pleasure derived from contemplating representations of essentially unpleasant objects. Two years later, in 1553 , Giason Denores published his In epistolam Q. Horatij Flacci de arte poetica ( above Chapter 128–29 Denores

of

of

, is

( .p

,

34 ), he

a

to

.

he

.p

(

of

).

125v

common speech

the iamb

example

69v artistic and nonartistic errors poetic theory for which But there are several major questions ),

( .p on

the resemblance the proper size animals

on

cites Aristotle

Thus for

his commentary

of

the course

on

in

cross references

of

of

,

is

of

less interested than were some his predecessors the mere listing parallels between Horace and Aristotle although there small number

to

recurrently appeals

a

:

"

“

of

.

of

is

an

,

&

de

est

,

de

'

it in

of

.

his

,

the Poetics and they are the same ones that were troubling contemporaries One was the problem imitation We see poetry first reflection his statement that invention the soul 66 ipsa quasi inuentione hoc anima constitutione poematis

to

is

;

all

:

on the question

is

it

.

his discussion

be

to

reflected again

, in

see

it

We

of

,

5v in ).

(

.p

extraordinary what may seem figurative language Denores wonders why meta phors and similes are pleasurable and discovers that because they are imitations which teach Aristotle's whole argument then brought bear way

,

of

by ,

,

.

all

...

,

.

all

,

is ,

I

in

should hold then that metaphors produce men greater admiration and pleasure than do proper terms for the same reason for which we judge that poetry delights more than history that because poetry imitates Imitation moreover affects and delights men equally For since receive learning easily

us

by

.?

of

us

,

in

,

in

is

of

,

it

,

of

means imitation and resemblance matters from the knowledge which they then derive the greatest pleasure certain that metaphors are most pleasurable not only because they generate knowledge via resemblance and imitation but also because they produce pleasure out that knowledge are not basically different from those

.

,

,

as

in , to ut

(“

32 ), as

.

in

,

of

of

,

in

ideas

,

expressed certain Maggi chapter notably writers studied the last Grifoli and Dolce The passage just quoted introduces the second the problems for which Denores consulted Aristotle that the relationship between poetry and history they He sees one difference the distinction between things actually happened and things they might happen gestae Non sunt These

.

-

is

: “

it

& ea

.pp

be

is

be

.p

”

,

ut

geri potuerunt and quotes Aristotle corroboration pro Another distinction between truth and what may added truth vided that verisimilitude observed For not simply that the his torian differs from the poet only because one uses verse and the other sed

,

,

&

,

.

,

ex

in

:

)

(

427

&

,

."

ex

;

:

,

ex

. . . .

,

,

,

: "

),

(

In

7

epistolam 1553 Ego autem uel potissimum ratione existimarem 23–23v uoluptatem translata maiorem afferre apud omnes admirationem quàm propria qua etiam magis oblectare poesis historia iudicatur hoc est quia imitatur imitatio autem omnes pariter afficit atque delectat Quare cum imitatione similitudine facile omnes disciplinas percipiant quarum postea cognitione summam capiant iucunditatem certum est translationes esse gratissimas tum quia per similitudinem imitationem pariunt cognitione pariunt uoluptatem nobis cognitionem tum quia

POETIC

THEORY

prose , but also in this , that the historian adds nothing to the truth and takes nothing away from it ; the poet adds and removes many things, but what he presents is verisimilar . " 8 Aristotle is again cited on history and on

verisimilitude . Denores ' third problem is that of the end of tragedy and the purgation and fear . It is significant that his problem arises in connection with Ars poetica 333 , in the gloss on “ prodesse ." He quotes the definition and then comments :

of pity

.

...

as all

poets

to

to

it

proper

treat above

so

on , a of a

On this subject when Aristotle says that

is

his

For , since the end of tragedy relates to softening and as it were purifying the passions of the soul, because it aims, apparently , at inculcation of the right way of living and ( thus ) at a practical effect , we must say that it is not only proper for the poet to express things relevant to living , but that this is main object

he

in

?

is

to

of to

9

living

.

express things relevant

to

other than

to

be

,

as

,

those matters universal kind that they will present them not such particular occasion but they should have been does events were not perhaps openly say that this end should assigned them embrace their poems the various species and the various functions daily life This nothing

to

As

in

11.

,

on

.

to

in

,

of

,

.

is

,

of of

to

,

is

pity and fear easy for Denores from the purgation proper living which constitutes for moral usefulness the instruction poetry Aristotle readily reduced him the end Horace for the achievement this end the question arises partially connection with

The transition

).

ff .

or

: "

,

or

,

).

64

(

.p

to

be

-

(

Horace's remarks off stage action 179 Denores identifies those actions which should not shown on the stage with those which bring pity and fear the spectator which are incredible miraculous which are wicked He summarizes Tria igitur sunt tantummodo refe

in

of

is

to ).

(

to

to

to

it

as a

;

).

.

&

,

(

”

of

by

be

p

,

&

;

,

in

renda non autem agenda scaena quae terribilia sunt miserabilia quae obscaena sunt quae fieri non possunt Rather should 64v pity and terror produced the composition the plot Poetics 1453b1 superior This consideration leads Denores conclude that the epic requires less genre since tragedy external machinery the way

).

is

'

of ( .pp

,

,

of

a

;

ac

,

;

ac

,

à

soluta oratione plura detrahat

&

quasi expiandos uidetur spectare

&

,

, ad

est

,

ad

: “

.pp

.,

9

."

,

: “

., .p

8

poeta historicus carmine uel Ibid 56v Neque enim solum differt sed quòd alter ueritati nihil addat nihil detrahat alter plura addat uerisimilia tamen Ibid 117–17v Quare cum finis tragoediae referatur leniendos animorum motus quod recte degendae uitae institutionem utilitatem

,

.

is

of

to

of

,

is

and appeals the ear rather than the eye and that those tragedies are most perfect which most closely approach the epic form 65–67 What most striking perhaps about Denores use Aristotle his wresting the texts from their original reference and their application widely different materials This respect evidence not only lack

... ,

)

(

428

."

,

,

in

ut

,

,

indicat munus hoc esse illis assignatum uarias eorum poematis ciuilis uitae species quod nihil quicquam esse putandum est quàm idonea uitae dicere officia complectantur

&

,

his

ab

,

ut

in

.

,

poetis etiam esse proprium idonea uitae afferre sed hoc maxime non solum dicendum Ad haec cum Aristoteles rebus uniuersi generis maxime uersari proprium poetis esse dicat non quales aliqui fuerint sed quales esse debuerint referantur nonne aperte

THEORETICAL APPLICATIONS

POETICS :

of the Poetics , but of a complete indifference to careful thinking proper is enough for distinctions . A modicum of similarity - a word or to only parallels , Denores not to establish but to elaborate arguments and reach definite conclusions for

.

to

set

up

the text

BENEDETTO VARCHI

)

a

com

is

the lectures

say that the principal

of

exaggeration

,

of in

,

it

I

,

but think organization found

The philosophical derivation a to

poetry

.

art

plex

in no

of in

of

kind

(

Varchi's Lezzioni della poetica delivered before the Accademia late 1553 and early 1554 and published 1590 constitutes

Benedetto

Fiorentina

1553–54

basis

;

, it

but We find

)

574 .

function

)

1,

.

to

, “

.p

",

e

to ,

and

felice

achieve this end

The

end

of

end

"

"

distinction between

.pp

,

see

as

perfetto

uses imitation "

it

”

in

that

the is

,

,

to

,

is

is

to

thus make the human soul perfect and happy and his function imitate that invent and represent things which render men good

to

poet

, a

therefore

of

of

as to

fare l'huomo

(“

of

perfect and happy differs from others

" : “

In

all

art (

.

by

is

preliminary lecture Varchi con Chapter cerns himself first with the classification the 7-9 poetry Varchi sees and then proceeds such general matters the end poetry the end that shared arts and sciences make man the Poetics

(

. is

,

it

"

, art it

"

;

of

to

"

of

in

in

of an "

),

.p

of

,

be

,

by

,

." 10

and virtuous and consequently happy The particular objects imitated the poet are the actions passions and moral characters men 574 poet thoroughly politics and hence the must versed ethics and Although we begin here with Aristotelian principle imitation rapidly reduced from the role end that function and since

as

its

),

of (

cf.

.

of

an

of

a

, ,

,

to of

;

of

is

of

to

as

so

its

. ” ' 11

of

,

to

in

all

,

, in by

or be

is

, : or “

passion

in

faculty which teaches what ways any action rhythm character should imitated means discourse harmony together separately and order remove men from vice and incite them the virtues order that they may achieve their perfection and beatitude Again the framework the definition vaguely Poetics

a

pounds

is

,

of

becomes one

of

"

end

"

moral improvement the soon identified efficacy branch moral and civil philosophy Nevertheless obtains from the power imitation over men's souls Aristotle and imitation poetry which Varchi com becomes essential part the definition the

on

in

“

of

,

.

be

poets

unless

fine del Poeta far perfetta felice l'anima rappresentare cose che rendono huomini , e

'gl

, e

: " è

,

for

sufficient

il

ed .) , .p

quai modi

si

quale insegna

& in

, la

".

debbe imitare

."

]

[

429

,

,

,

,

.

&

,

con numero sermone armonia mescolatamente vizij accendergli alle virtù affine che conseguano ,

;

, e

,

, e

se ,

la o di

azzione affetto costume per rimuouere gli huomini perfezzione beatitudine loro

da '

578

è

Ibid qualunche per

, e

., & , e .p

,

11

l'vffizio virtuosi

that genius would not

adunque 576 suo imitare cioè fingere per conseguente felici La poetica vna facultà

1590

(

Lezzioni

humana buoni

declares

: “

10

,

genius

he

it

“

"

of

.

an

;

changed Aristotelian but content has been make the art poetry entirely different one from what Aristotle intended Even the meaning imitation becomes fluid and his gloss the above definition Varchi soon gives another sense Speaking art and

POETIC

THEORY

they were to make use of imitation , that is , in their own compositions to go about imitating the compositions of good poets, for in that way it

would be like using art ; indeed

,

nothing can be done of greater usefulness

its

than to consider the works of the perfect masters . " 12 This is imitation in the meaning so frequently given to it in the Renaissance . Nevertheless ,

),

.pp

,

(

to

,

his

,

,

,

as

of

the kinds

,

of of

,

in

this way does not prevent Varchi almost immediately from speaking imitation narrative dramatic and mixed 579–80 object manner and means and from quoting Aristotle the effect that

use

:

be

of

,

as

”

,

,

as "

as

“

"

,

in

.

,

,

of

,

imitation not verse makes the poet One sees distinction the poets the same ideas that Maggi had expressed the poet may kinds considered most narrowly one who practises both imitation and properly verse one who uses imitation only without verse and

,

so

.

so

he

,

of

.

,

an

it

;

of

,

in

of

,

with the content other texts and other traditions patent contradictions .

freely combined leading sometimes

to it

he

,

of In

on as

to

is a

”

commonly one who uses verse only without imitation Varchi necessary ingredient himself believes that verse poetry and argument for his position construes Poetics 1448620 make many these multifarious ideas imitation we note that Varchi like his contemporaries had clearly mind the content the Poetics but

to

he

of

(

,

.

to

in

,

)

of

:

,

as , a

of

,

on

(

to

of

,

In

.

in

The ideas presented thus far are contained the introductory lecture Varchi's series the Lezzione prima December 1553 returns again point departure the discussion imitation this time taking develop his theory Poetics 1448al the objects imitation order that the poet imitates three objects actions passions characters pp 602 to

,

their choices

:

Here again the utilitarian end directs the poets

.

or

,

,

,

is

in of

3 ).

,

in

epic poetry raises the The Lezzione seconda devoted specifically question the relationship between imitation and object and the answer found the demand for the necessary the possible the probable

or

so to

or

,

,

in

,

be

,

in or

,

in

in to

.

be

in

by

it of

They are not write human actions the way which they were done necessary that but that way which was either possible verisimilar they might done ... Poets must not consider the main how things are done men but how they should done although many things are permitted

vtilità

,

Vergil

componimenti

seruissero dell'arte l'opere maestri

,

è

in

si

cioè andassero

caso come che andar considerando

ne '

on

Homer and

de '

maggiore

tal ,

to ,

de ' si

seruissero dell'imitazione poeti buoni perche ,

può far cosa

di

i

già non 579 componimenti

judgments

in .pp

13

."

anzi non perfetti

si

loro imitando

considerations lead

: " se

Ibid

., .p

12

These general

.

to

,

them even outside nature and even outside the reasonable the verisimilar that they may bring not only greater utility for this mortal life but also greater 13 delight and admiration men

)

(

430

.

si ,

,

,

."

, e

a

,

,

gli

da

,

, o

si

, le o

si

; o

,

, del

lo o

à

: , “

.,

,

si

i

...

in

quel modo che fatte scriuere l'azzioni humane possibile verisimile necessario che facessero piu come cose fanno huomini ma come fare douerebbono ancora che conceda loro molte cose eziandio fuori della natura ragioneuole non che uerisimile accioche possano arrecarne non solo piu vtilità alla gli huomini ammirazione vita mortale ma ancora maggior diletto Ibid 616-17 non hanno quel modo nel quale era furono ma poeti non deono considerare per

POETICS : THEORETICAL APPLICATIONS judgments in which the theoretical positions are almost entirely absent. Homer is great because of his extensive knowledge and because of the good characters and customs he presents ; Vergil is great because of his erudition , his eloquence, his gravity ( pp. 617-20 ). The Lezzione quarta , on tragedy , quotes Aristotle's definition in extenso ( reflecting still the imperfect state of text and translations in the transition to the last clause , “ non per modo di

narrazione , ma mediante la misericordia , e il terrore ,” p . 657 ) . His com mentary on the definition is of interest in many ways . He interprets “ graue ” as referring to great and illustrious persons— “ Kings , Generals , and other such persons " ( p. 658 )—whose actions are grave , high , worthy , and of moment , and as distinguishing tragedy from the low persons and ordinary actions of comedy . He gives to “perfetta ” the function of dis tinguishing good tragedies from the earlier imperfect ones and from the many episodes action of the epic , which because of less perfect To

he

;

indicates

their per referring not to

"

it

.

is

gives the meaning already noted leading men through virtue

as ,

,

of

that

,

he

of

course

tragedy

,

the end

”

,

purgazione

of

“

its

great

to

.

a

of

by

he

to

to

.

of

to

to

thus apparent that while Varchi organizes his set

of

to

be

of

,

he

in

by

.

of

.

to

)

all

to

be

to

"

;

(p .

fection and beatitude 660 but takes the clause only pity and fear but passions the The commonplace lessons learned from tragedy are then retailed The rest the lecture treats the qualitative parts the order listed Aristotle With respect says way commentary character does not fail add what complete treatment the various types and the characteristics which need attributed them according the laws decorum

he

of

is

.

It

a

up

his

by

,

of

in

he is

on

or

.

,

in

be

.

,

he

is

of

in

its ,

is

It

lectures around many order the detailed developments constantly led away from the position knowledge the Poetics other texts More frequently than not ends with theory whose real support would found Horace not Aristotle for this reason that his lectures are significant Unlike the official commentaries on Horace the Poetics and follows

of

an

he he is is

,

,

it

to

.

at is

,

.

of

Varchi from Pietro Angeli

, of

letters

to

in

Two

.

by

is

of

,

Aristotle not seeking parallel passages not looking for attempting corroboration one text the other Rather original treatment whose basic source Aristotle But the weight the every juncture established tradition too heavy and causes him accepted positions veer away the direction

)

(

431

the

81 ).

580–82

[ =

.pp

ed .) ,

1590

(

in

the Lezzioni

.

(

),

1553 printed 66-68 68–70 ,

,

Prose Fiorentine

I,

,

Cf. Varchi Della Poetica In

1514

is

of

Pietro Vettori also his opinion and that Vettori's interpretation Poetics will confirm their agreement.15

of

.

so to

is

a

be

to

, ,

,

he

.

to

as

in

to

of

of

as a of

the question

,

,

to

November and December imitation and challenge particularly Varchi's belief that the dialogue form imitation was considered interpret genre poetry.14 Angeli believes that hold this view badly the passage says the ends are the Poetics Rather different separate the dialogue completely from poetic forms He declares that 1553 return

POETIC

THEORY

Like Varchi's Lezzioni , Alessandro Lionardi's Dialogi della inventione poetica ( 1554 ) are an attempt at an original formulation of certain theories with respect to the art of poetry . But whereas Varchi begins with Aristotle , Lionardi begins with Horace and the rhetorical tradition . I have indicated in Chapter IV the kind of theory which he develops . His use of Aristotle is incidental and in most cases reflects the thinking of his contemporaries ; it revolves largely about the question of imitation and verisimilitude . As

for others, imitation for Lionardi

is identified with the " invention " of the rhetorical scheme: “ [ The poet] is not a poet because of verse , but because of the plot , that is , because of the quality of the invention and imitation . " 16 But the meaning of imitation is not clear, especially in such a sentence as

. "

18

to

in ,

,

of

]

[

all

,

of

,

...

this : “ It is true that the most perfect poem is the one which is made up of fiction , of imitation , and of verse . "' 17 Nor is the meaning helped by this statement : “ this the poet's varied knowledge belongs the imita persons operations and accidents tion feigning and description it

”

, ”

favole

Lionardo

:

is

,

defines the second kind which

to

after distinguishing three kinds proper poetry

apparent when

“

of

"

."

“

or by

“

”

is

, ”

19

"

,

it

is

The text Aristotle more accurately represented the assertion that the since carries with the plot may stand without the characters actions but this too obscured the discovery that favola means This becomes even falsehoods fables not only plot but also

.

it is

to

by

.

of as

of

to

be

to

:

imitate some other is

,

la

la

fintione

di ,

di

Poeta non

qualità fauola cioè per scriuere poeticamente null'altro questa guisa servisse ancora si fa di

ma per

essendo

d'imitatione

,

che

,

,

è

."

inuentione imitatione quello uero che piu perfetto poema la

tries

lo

,

uersi

si

,

huomini

poet

the

best which decorated and enriched with many veri

poeta per

See also

require

But that imitation will

, se p è il . 30 : “ li

gli

."

il

15 : “ È

., .p

Ibid,

descrittione

delle persone

,

&

,

,

fintione

."

&

Eroico

gli

è

Et il

poetica de

...

.

di

è

di

i

,

.”

fauola puo stare senza costumi apportando seco l'attioni imagine quella fauola che uero poi chiamata ispositione poema Tragico cose verisimili

Ombra cioè narratione

& &

,

tutto ciò appartiene all'imitatione

accidenti

., ., .p .p

Ibid

Ibid imitatione

23 63 58 : : & : " " " la

Ibid dell'operationi 20 19

imi

uerso

., .p .

&

18 di 17

le

che imitare attioni parlare sarebbe imperfetta

è

,

14 : “

non

imitatione de

&

), .p

1554

be .

in

by

)

(

on

and which will

...

things

,

all

—

of

at a

,

[

16

Dialogi

dell'inuentione

depart from

fable.20

Tragedy follows verisimilitude past action described somebody else the truth

to

is

...

also improper for the poet

Yet later point Lionardi does not hesitate especially the tragic poet the use true materials

founded

...

of it or

is a

of

of

it of

,

of

so

tell fables false things tation and from the use

.

of

up

or

,

by

,

is

”

which

is is a

“

favola

of

called poetic imitation shadow and image the exposition truth that narration and verisimilar things And the tragic heroic poem made truth and verisimilitude together And thus comes about that the poet relates the causes events sometimes means just history sometimes vicious for the historian means fable

That

)

(

432

le

il

."

il

et

il

...

è

E

si

.

,

.

di

al

,

ò

&

uero

,

di

perciò auiene che poeta racconta uerisimile insieme cause auenimenti hora per istoria hora per fauola come uitioso all'istorico narrar fauole partirsi dalla imitatione poeta dalla fauola disconuiene cose false cosi ancora fassi

POETICS : THEORETICAL APPLICATIONS

its

similar things . . . . And just as art succeeds best when it is aided by nature , so the verisimilar is worth much more every time that it has for assistance and basis the truth.21

). , 67

(

.p

to

of

as a

be

to

is

to

Aristotle's preference for the impossible probable the improbable pos seriously poetic composition guide sible taken is

is

as

”

“

he ,

if

,

err of

is

,

.

to

he

GIRALDI AND PIGNA

is

,

,

frequently distorted and obscured

.

just

as

sense

is

,

its

frequently cited

or

),

, of

a

of

.

its

(

be

--

his

—

be in ;

stays especially The closer the truth such serious genres tragedy and the epic the better work will and where the truth strictly observed historical and actual truth the verisimilar cannot place Such theory the probable should take course has only sur although face similarities with the doctrine the Poetics and the latter

.

freely

.

a

of

,

is

of

,

it

;

as as it

The sequence ideas associated with imitation and verisimilitude con may sound does have fused certain consistency Imitation inven tion such the invention what not true fables and this the proper domain poet poet the However the will invents too

)

(

1554

,

I

is

to

his

.

its

,

and the accompanying Discorso intorno

"

“

Aprile

had seen fact

dei romanzi

al

,

XXIX

adi

di

MDXLIX

ideas

,

,

that Pigna who had been his pupil

declared

,

which

Giraldi's treatise many years before and had plagiarized comporre Giraldi dates his treatise Discorso intorno

In

;

he

,

in ,

own

by

.

A

of

important documents belonging whole group the year 1554 concerned with the controversy between Giovambattista Giraldi Cintio Pigna's treatise and Giovanni Battista Pigna over the romance form publishing romanzi was published first but Giraldi Cintio answered

il

of

to

of

.)

,

,

is

it

,

(

le

.

di

.

di

a

In

“

et

A

,

delle Comedie

.”

al

Aprile XX Ferrara delle tragedie companion sopra MDXLIII treatise Lettera ovvero discorso com porre satire atte alle scene also dated 1554 although was not pub lished until the nineteenth century There followed letters and denials accusations and counteraccusations.22 Without prejudice either side comporre

.

a

in on

,

...

.

of

,

of

it ;

be in

to

64 : “

21

),

(

of

.

,

to

of

-

be

,

I

shall treat Giraldi's discourses first because the earlier dates which they bear even though these may falsified dates Giraldi's discourses belong the history Aristotle's Poetics rather curious way Basically they are modeled upon the Poetics taking their departure tragedy essential points one them the discourse dated 1543 even claims the first exposition Aristotle's text Yet the case

be

,

).

-

,

(

in a

to

.

.

.

to

of

)

433

[

,

, .p

.

by

,

third letter Giraldi dated 1554 and gives the reasons for publishing the others pamphlet was apparently prepared Giraldi substantiate his case against Pigna the first two letters 957 on the dates below chap xix ,

,

il

ha

Et

is to

,

. . . .

il

, di

."

il

, , is or

by

,

A

of

22

di

, si

fia

il

in

&

,

&

è

&

fia

.

., & p .

segue Ibid tutto verisimile sforza imitare qualche altra d'altrui passata attione Ma miglior quella imitatione che sara fondata sopra descritta uero che ornata arricchita molti uerisimili come l'arte riesce meglio quando per suo ella aiutata insieme dalla natura così uerisimile assai piu uale qualunque uolta aiuto fondamento uero group letters relevant the controversy found sixteen page brochure without date title page other identifying information British Museum 11826.d.42 The

The See

POETIC

THEORY

the theory that Giraldi develops with respect to the romance finds itself at every point in overt opposition to Aristotle , and he presents it in three

to invention , disposition , and elocution . Moreover conclusions which he reaches on such matters as the end of poetry are constantly those of the Horatian tradition . Perhaps the funda mental reason for a difference of theory between the Poetics and the sections

respectively

devoted , the

Discorso intorno al comporre dei romanzi is Giraldi's contention that there are two kinds of poems , those in which there is a single unified action ( the kind treated by Aristotle ) and those in which there is a multiple action unaffected by requirements of unity ( as exemplified by the romance ). This conception leads to a rephrasing of the definition of plot - and incidentally

of poetry -- so

plot should be based appro poet on one or several illustrious actions , which he ( the ) imitates priately by means of pleasant discourse in order to teach men honest living and good character, for this is the end that every good poet must seek " ; 23 and “since Heroic Poetry is nothing else than the imitation of illustrious as to

account for the two types :

“ The

actions , the subject of such compositions will be one or more illustrious actions of one or more famous and excellent men , which the poet will imitate by means of words accompanied by rhythm and by sweet lan " 24

guage .

The opposition to Aristotle inherent in these definitions is explicitly stated later in the text : “ The laws given by Aristotle apply only to the poetic composi forms of poetry which are of one single action ; and tions which contain deeds heroes are not included within the limits that single action Aristotle has for poets who write poems having

25

. "

he

to

be

a

:

as

would not admissible for the poet may relate many long lifetime without those included

and these are such multiplicity action

of

is

.

of

The first

all

,

ments and conditions the epic

of

of

.

separate the romance from the epic Once means has require the way clear for the establishment whole new set is

so ,

Giraldi clearly done

all

a

set

of

...

of

of

,

21 .) —

.p

: “

of

to

a

,

that

is ,

add episodes

,

pleasure and gives wide enjoyable digressions and

the condiment

,

it

the writer

which

.pp

23

field

variety

to ,

to

brings with

is

of

of

(

a

in

-

,

actions one hero indeed making the poem too long for the audience's pleasure see Rather the multiplication actions and ornaments will increase the variety the poem and hence the delight the audience This diversity actions

: " la

(

si

è

,

, et i

,

. la "

: “

il .pp

.,

24

),

a o al gli

comporre dei romanzi 1554 quale fauola uuole essere 8–9 piu attioni illustri lequali egli imiti conueneuolmente con parlare fondata soura una soaue per insegnare huomini l'honesta uita buoni costumi che questo dee preporre per fine qualunque buono Poeta perche Ibid 10–11 Poesia Heroica non altro che imitatione delle attioni Discorso intorno

o di

la

di

& ,

,

,

le

, o

di

,

., ." & .p

)

434

che scrivono

Poema

,

di

che sono Heroi non

di

Poeti

di ,

,

c'ha messo Aristotile

(

,

si

stendono senon alle Poesio Poetiche che contengono fatti ,

,

termini

Aristotile non

compositioni

a

da

leggi date tutte

...

."

sono chiuse tra attione

i

Ibid una sola attione

le

22 ; :" & le

Poeta 25

il

,

,

piu huomini piu attioni illustri illustri sarà soggetto tali componimenti una uno chiari eccellenti che con uoci accompagnate col numero con dolcezza imiterà

una sola

THEORETICAL APPLICATIONS

POETICS :

introduce therein events which can never happen ( without some suspicion of blame ) in poems which are made up of a single action . ” 26 Another way of obtaining multiplicity of action is by recounting many deeds of many heroes .

As a second general new requirement, the poet will add to the action or actions a large number of ornaments or “ fillers " ( " riempimenti ” ). Giraldi gives several lists

of such ornaments : on

page 26 :

amori , odij, pianti , risa , giuochi, cose graui , discordie , paci , bruttezze , bellezze , descrittioni di luochi, di tempi , di persone , fauole finte da se , & tolte da gliantichi, nauigationi , errori, mostri ; improuisi auenimenti , morti , essequie, lamentationi , recognitioni, cose terribili & compassioneuoli , nozze , nascimenti , uittorie , triomphi, singolari battaglie , giostre , torneamenti , cataloghi , ordinanze , & altre simili cose . page

On

improuisi

43 : “amori , auenimenti

cortesie ,

,

giustitie , torti ,

liberalità , uitij, uirtù , offensioni , difese , inganni, insidie , fede, lealtà , for tezze , dapocaggini , speranze , timori , utili , danni ” —and the passage con tinues : “ and other such episodes or digressions which are most numerous and which can introduce , along with the linking together and the disposi tion of the work , so much variety and so much pleasure that the poem will become most lovely and most delightful . ” 27 A third general requirement is that the poet interrupt the flow

of

the

up

of

of

this end

of

Any Aristotelian conception

of

means

.

to

be

natural order will

.

as

as

,

a

in

his

action as a means of obtaining suspense and of removing satiety ( “ leuare story la satietà , ” p . 42 ) from the reader . Whereas the epic poet may tell continuous fashion the writer romances should break the narra possible tive much The many digressions and disturbances the ”

“

action has thus been com But Giraldi realizes that some way must discovered for proposes two devices verisimilitude holding the poem together and disposition general principle and decorum There also order proposition invocation and narration stated the rhetorical terms disposition verisimilitude Giraldi means credibility means believ unity

.

statement

as

a

he

a

such

By ,

:

or

of

,

by ,

the two are closely linked

in

events

;

able order

of

,

in

of

a

.

is

,

he

.

be

pletely rejected

the

all

:

following

is

of

as

,

be

,

of

lei la

25 : “

26

of

he

,

to

,

as

is

And because poetry imitation and alone imitation and verse make the poet and because this imitation far the subject the poem concerned extremely careful that the actions which relates the actions the poet must takes for subject and foundation the structure his work carry with them ,

è

(

."

)

(

435

,

tanto diletto

,

, &

tanta uarietà

&

,

la , o

."

di

dispositione dell'opera con piaceuolissimo

&

, , &

il

legatura indurre insieme con che diuerrà Poema uaghissimo

,

di

da

,

43 : " la &

., ) .p

,

si

,

&

,

di

27

&

è

il

., .p

Ibid Però che porta questa diuersità delle attioni con esso uarietà laquale largo campo allo Scrittore condimento del diletto fare Episodij cio digressioni grate introdurui auenimenti che non possono mai99 auenire senon con qualche sospetto biasimo nelle Poesie che sono una sola attione digressioni iquali sono piu che molti Ibid altri tali Episodij possono

POETIC

THEORY

both in the disposition and in the other parts , so much verisimilitude that it will not be incredible , and that one part of the work will depend from another in such wise that one will come after the other either necessarily or probably.28

The same principles of disposition and verisimilitude apply to the digressions as well as to the main subject of the poem : And in these digressions the poet must be very watchful to treat them in such way a that one will depend from the other , and that they will be well joined with the parts of the subject which he has undertaken to relate with a continuous chain , and that they

thread and a continuous

will bear verisimilitude with them

For if

( insofar as this is possible in poetic fictions ).

these digressions were made any way poem faulty , in other the would become and displeasing , whereas it delights and pleases when they are seen to come about in a way that they appear to be born along with the subject itself.29

no

is

all

of

to

]

a

in

.

it

[

...

,

:

as

all

There are, of course , no specific recommendations for the achievement of disposition The principle this order , this linking , this over more obviously reflects precise than the Horatian dogma which such this statement giving with these digressions the parts the proper size and the appropriate ornament with such proportion that out be 30

so a to

.

of

,

of

of

.”

by

,

to

.

in

;

in

to );

( .pp

be

,

be

or by

by

,

order work

his

of

by

:

,

essential

a

is

an

untrue and incredible ingredient

the fact that the poet must relate

please his audience

the marvelous Giraldi resolves the difficulty several ways first distinction between major subject and digressions major subject -the must true the digressions may false 50-51 admitting second that certain false stories and episodes have come

is

what

complicated however ,

The problem

is

of

.

as

to , a it

of

-

a

As all

it

regulated and well composed body will come principle for the verisimilitude will also related that proper order leads credibility proper decorum Just kind handling credibility characters and situations produces another kind

in

;

as

: “

is

,

In it

a

is

of

be a

54 : “

.

28

of

as

55 .)

.

(p

be

verisimilar through their exploitation earlier poets plot essentially Verisimilitude thus matter action decorum may also plot although primarily matter concerns character and thought Giraldi's description very broad these things the accepted

fa

,

si il si di

il

, , & se il . "

...

&

,

le

& &

,

a

in

. "

, o

in

o

Et

25 : “ ,

,

., .p

29

dall'altra dipenda che necessariamente uerisimilmente l'una uenga dietro l'altra queste digressioni esser molto aueduto Ibid deue Poeta trattarle parti della materia che modo che una dipenda dall'altra siano bene aggiunte con preso dire con continuo filo con continua catena che portino con esso loro ha

&

,

&

, &

,

di

,

,

si

& ,

& il

,

, è la

&

,

,

,

il

le

al

,

è

la

Et

,

il

., & p .

perche Ibid Poesia tutta imitatione solo imitatione uerso perche essa imitatione quanto soggetto del Poema Poeta intorno alle attioni deue piglia per soggetto per hauere grandissimo riguardo Poeta che attioni ch'egli fondamento della fabrica della opera sua portino con esso loro nella dispositione nelle altre parti tanto del verisimile che non rimanga priua fede che una parte cosi

&

,

,

corpo

."

ben composto

,

la

)

(

436

regolato

&

ueda riuscire

,

un

la

le

a

ne

che

se

,

&

, il

,

26 : “

si

., .p

30

con tale proportione

).

,

(

quanto s'appertiene alle fittioni Poetiche queste digressioni Perche piace facessero altrimenti diuerrebbe Poema uitioso increscieuole come diletta quando elle ueggono nascere tali che paiano nate con cosa istessa parti Ibid dando con esse tutte debita misura diceuole ornamento uerisimile

POETICS : THEORETICAL APPLICATIONS others , the poet must always keep an eye on decorum , which is nothing else but what is proper to places , times , and persons . decorum is merely the grace and the appropriateness of things , and it must be considered not so much with respect to actions as to the speeches and the responses that men make to one another . " 31 As such , decorum once again approaches

...

Horatian principle of appropriateness . Insofar as it relates to of character, decorum has a peculiarly normative function . It shows people not as they are , but as they should be ; and it provides object lessons by displaying the necessary accompaniments, fair or foul, of virtue and vice : the general

his

the depiction

fictions and visualizing them not and accompanying appropriately the things which vice carries with with honor and pity this belongs less the purges our souls heroic poet than the tragic poet when the matter justifies similar passions and arouses virtue we see the definition that they should

to

no

for

to in

,

as

,

it )

,

,

addition verisimilitude what considered everywhere the work.32

in

honest must

on

is

that be

.

of

tragedy And thus

praiseworthy and what

In

is

Aristotle gives

in

of

us it to is

,

to

(

it

be ,

they are but

as

as

The poet , imitating illustrious actions in

.

(

as

an

,

is

)

,

,

this passage two Aristotelian ideas take new forms The notion that the poet unlike the historian relates such events could happen Poetics requirement 145165 transformed here into ethical that the poet in

.

of

by

to

of

all

in

of

-a

an

of

a

of

us

by

of

to

of

be .

purgation indicated what should And the effect the last tragedy clause the definition becomes statement ethical end demonstrating the results make better vice principle appropriateness The involved decorum raises the question present

63 : "

:

of

a

satisfy

As

of ,

the same time a

."

in

to

example here

because they wish 33 at

is

it

,

an

as

serve

to

in

of

"

,

is

If

(p .

a

or

or

may

the general rule for poets

this contemporary audience profit and delight order satisfying the men age that which they are writing 31

of

as

-

,

.

of

Vergil's practice

;

depicting

58 .)

which

is

he

,

of

,

a

is

.

,

.

is

in

constant one theories decorum the criterion which Usually the expectations judged appropriateness the demands given audience are involved Here Giraldi does not hesitate the audience contemporary one and Italian The poet follows the customs and man ners his own time not those his model even those the period

matter

...

gli

,

si

.

,

, a ;

& i

,

al

&

,

al

,

, 59 : "

. ., " .p

32

, a il i

& il ,

la ,

,

in

Et

, è

( e )

;

il al

., .p

queste cose come nell'altre Ibid Poeta dee sempre hauere l'occhio tempi alle persone decoro ilquale non altro che quello che conuiene luochi gratia decoro non altro che conueneuole delle cose dee egli considerare parlare rispondere che fanno non pur quanto alle attioni ma quanto huomini tra loro

&

,

le

,

,

è

da

da gli

(

)

il

&

,

il

in

,

uede nella difinitione che Aristotile della considerare tutta l'opera lodeuole da

è si la

&

le

&

,

,

desta alla uirtù come che oltre uerisimile

il

ci

qui

è,

di ,

., . . " .p Et

simili passioni Tragedia

&

,

il

, si

,

il

proponendolesi Ibid imitando Poeta col suo fingere attioni illustri accompagnando conueneuolemente non quali sono ma quali esser debbono cose che portano con esso loro uitio con l'horribile col miserabile che ciò non meno del Poeta Heroica che sia del Tragico quando materia richiede purga animi nostri

)

(

437

quella età

,

huomini

di

gli

a

,

dilettare insieme sodisfacendo

. "

,

58 : “

33

per giouare Ibid nella quale scriuono

&

l'honesto

POETIC

THEORY

fact, the whole difference between Aristotle and the theory of the romance may be stated as a difference of time : Aristotle's Poetics is based on the practice of the poets of his time and of earlier centuries ; Giraldi's is simi larly derived . The rules for the romance

...

should be left within those limits established by those poets who have , among and reputation to that kind of poetry . And just as the Greeks

us , given authority

and the Latins have derived the art of which they have written from their poets , so also we must derive it from our own , and follow that form which the best writers of romances have given us .34

.

its

thus prefer

of

all

The poet who writes a romance is thus independent of the rules of Aristotle and of Horace and needs to consider only the practices of his predecessors in the same genre — whom are relatively recent The audience will it

of .

of

its its

is

of

its ,

a

as .

,

it

if

to it,

form which close within which will recognize Moreover that form will achieve ends with special efficacy contemporary audience uses one means the religion Giraldi praises Boiardo and Ariosto for having added the embellishment Christianity own mores

be

is ,

he

to

joyous over and be

be

to

as

of

,

a

... which arouses marvelous attention and causes the reader the fortunate adventures those who are of the same faith

,

of

a

in

he

in

we

pleasure

the ends

utility and

by

.

which Giraldi proposes for the poet These are Horace's ends

not

writes

of

,

which there are indications

of

men the learned but the passages previously cited most

every age

,

,

that language

another affirma ." 36

as

be

must

these

pleasing

in

of

“

a

of

poem

all

to

the subject

in

in

is

is a

.

reconcile with such statements ,

to

Giraldi

:

difficult

of

In

tion only

to of

is

It

of

. 35 ,

to

at

of

to

,

to

always suspense sorrowful when the contrary happens and state waiting for his God provide relief from the difficulties and the harms which they suffer thing which the hands the unfaithful This also well adapted importance the terrible and the pitiful which two things are not the least compositions this kind

to in

it

to

;

of

gli

tra

tra

as

: "

of

of

of

is a

of

to

Giraldi

.

in

,

Aristotle's text the same method that have There kind division labor among the overtly parts these ends Giraldi states the poem for the service utility belongs just his discussion elocution the sententiae and assimilated

seen elsewhere

ha

et i ,

i

si il

de de

."

ci

si

&

,

de fa i

,

la

.

&

,

di

i

a

& ,

,

da i

a

45 : "

11 : , “

,

., .p

., da i .p

& si

34

35

que termini quali Ibid ma deuono lasciare hanno posti chi queste specie riputatione Latini come Greci Poesia data tra noi auttorità debbiamo anco noi loro Poeti cosi hanno tratta l'arte dellaquale hanno scritto quella forma che migliori Poeti hanno data Romanzi attenersi trarre nostri allegri laqual cosa desta marauigliosa attentione lettore che Ibid

&

è :

,

in

,

." )

(

438

a

,

a i

,

in

nella quale egli scriue

gli

le

in

.

,

,

a i

&

al

15 : “ si

quella fauella

,

huomini

., di .p

36

."

al

&

,

&

i

,

i

di

dolga felici auenimenti coloro che sono della medesima fede della quale egli contrarij aspettando che dal suo Iddio uenga proui stia tuttauia con l'animo sospeso danni che patiscono da gli infedeli Cosa ch'è anco molto sione alle inconuenienze compassioneuole lequali due cose non tengono atta terribile ultime parti simili 92 compositioni ogni tempo non pure tutti dotti ma che possa piacere Ibid

POETICS : THEORETICAL APPLICATIONS

-

in addition to the expression the things which are treated , so the words delightfulness pleasure entirely . "37 In terms of and serve of the idea

Aristotle's qualitative parts , utility would come from plot , character, and thought , and pleasure from diction ; in terms of the rhetorical division of invention , disposition , and elocution (around which he organizes his own treatise ), utility would derive essentially

from the first two , pleasure from really also the “ res -verba " distinc involves latter division the third . The tion . Following the total line of relationships , we see that the utilitarian is achieved by the arousing of pity and fear depends for , effectiveness on verisimilitude ) which romance (even in the general upon proper disposition subject the parts and upon

of moral improvement

a

,

of

,

of

its

end

of ,

,

.

,

of

Giraldi regards

.

160–61 On the whole the work which begins with certain ,

see

a

the physiognomy

upon variety resulting

upon diction .)

;

the poem

of

soul

of

the

presents

treatise

"

elocution

“

as

,

from innumerable ornaments and above

,

digressions .pp

means

all

of

by

,

the marvelous introduced

(

,

on

of

of

of

credibility springing from the audience's sense contemporaneity common interest with the heroes the poem Pleasure the other hand depends upon the total composition the work upon

decorum and

in

it

it

tragedy

and that thus far the Aristotle's Poetics Aprile MDXLIII XX

If

38

and

the exposition

that this

is e

Cintio declares

Giraldi

comedy

. "

on in

1554

of

his hand

gives

to

has

at

set

,

"

nobody

",

.

as

of

at

in

as

at

,

,

of

.

a

is

we

as

,

,

di

.

a di

In

,

In

,

, “

the end

in

.

,

his

Ferrara justified published treatises authentic claims are least insofar any case the treatise follows very closely the order are concerned the many places Poetics and little more than translation The com mentary however every point finds should now expect Aris theory poetry totle Giraldi's own which becomes clear the exposition is

date which

he

the first

,

also published vernacular treatise

delle tragedie

,

al

of

At

.

,

of

,

of

Aristotelian conceptions the tragedy and the epic which treats the mould the habitual rhetorical distinctions and from which derives conclusions which are primarily Horatian comporre delle comedie the beginning his Discorso intorno

.

of

be

to

, of

of

an

of

It

.

application develops consists little more than the principles already discovered for the romance tragedy and comedy the genres Giraldi's remarks may divided into two categories those which concern

of

of

ad

“

the audience's

of

,

;

by

).

the moving

this end are two verse both passions and from this

,

The means the achievement action and language accompanied

207

of

"

to (

"

99 : "

these contribute 37

to an .p

of ”

,

buoni costumi the imitation

;

to

all

in

is

to

;

it

is

.

,

the common characteristics the two dramatic genres and those which concern their differences Of the common characteristics the most salient the end pursued cases teach good behavior both them intend introduce good manners amendue intendono introdurre

]

le

;

: "

ne

si

), ." .p

(

."

di

la

439

(

ad

, et

al

38

et

,

, et

è

il

., .p

uoci giouare trattano cosi Ibid come delle sentenze delle cose che oltre l'espressione del concetto sono tutte del piacere della uaghezza comporre delle comedie Discorso intorno delle tragedie 1554 202 alcuno isporre habbia ancora messo mano Poetica Aristotile

THEORY is the

POETIC

,

of

in

,

power moving the movement comes the desired moral effect , “ since tragic passions rests only upon imitation which separated not from verisimilitude and since things themselves cannot move the passions

it

.

by

,

its

of

in

." 39

Apparently without words which are properly put together and verse sympathy the moral lesson results from the which the audience feels for justice and humanity But the actors from sense also results from us

,

,

an

,

let

in

,

to

much harm

in

a

of

as

I

if

,

'

?

to

now see what would happen me were commit this sin voluntarily and this thought makes him

I

suffered

perchance

40

as

: '

,

If

:

“

to of

,

a

reasoning process which the spectator puts himself the place say Oedipus the King The spectator unexpressed deduction says himself this man because fault committed unwittingly has

as

in

,

they are

their

of

in as

.

But

226

—

and universal aspects

is

in

,

in

they appropriately come about ( .p

most general

).

they should

as

be ,

as

of

is

to

. "

abstain from mistakes necessary Imitation thus equivalent verisimilitude and this turn participation poet presents for the the audience the action The actions the case

the

or

In

to

“

:

to

is

it

is

in

the decorum

,

the reasonings the mores ." , 41

,

to

verisimilitude with respect

,

as

,

-

is

selecting romance verisimilitude local and contemporaneous forming for himself these illustrious actions ... good have them writing desire them according such the times which the poet

and

a

verisimilar to

is

)

.

(p .

fashion 245 what would happen

underhanded

verisimilitude

probable that )

, ( or

is

:

an

in

rather than

matters

an it

,

insult and

of

in

open

:

life

Be

in

will The ultimate appeal everyday

an

avenge ,

so

he

do

seek

in

necessarily

an to

is

by

to

persons the other circumstances relative The difference between veri necessity example courageous man will similitude and indicated

be

in

or

do

,

to

of

;

at

or

be

an

imitatione

,

su le la

le

terms

uoci accon

affetti senza se

da ,

fia di

fa

,

il

&

,

questi per errore seco dice quanto uedo hora che me questo pensiero astenere

41

., .p

42

., .p

."

?

se

,

commesso non uolontariamente tanto male sofferto forse uolontariamente commettessi questo peccato 17 gli errori

io ,

ha

."

gli

se

,

affetti Tragici senon da

gli

verisimilitude and decorum

forza del mouere

of

in

to

of

verisimilitude.42

non mouendo cose insieme giunte spettatore con tacita consequenza ,

: " lo

217–18

...

.

: “

numerosamente

& la

thinks

,

at

if

on

be

course

,

,

lbid

.,

40

che non ciamente

done according

209 non stando parta dal uerisimile

, si ., .p

Ibid

&

39

Giraldi

of

they would

.pp

as is

be

do

on

do

public say sure that the persons introduced the stage not things that they would not verisimilarly say home and certain that blameworthy what would done home according honest rules action things must composed and represented also blameworthy the stage

,

,

&

casa che casa sia anco

in

,

,

&

a

)

in

, o

, &

(

440

, ; o

,

."

a i

,

il

ne

,

in

si

...

."

.

,

si

, è

,

da

&

i

,

: "

nel publico che verisimilemente non farebbono non direbbono teniate certo che quello che honesta attione sarebbe uituperoso fare uituperoso nella Scena comporre rappresentare cosi debbono mente farebbono ,

quello

le ,

, al

, a i

,

le

,

, o

: "

, o

Ibid 218 nello eleggersi formarsi queste attioni illustri cosi dette non perche grandissimi personaggi non siano lodeuoli uirtuose ma perche vengono senon bene tempi iquali scriue hauerle tali quali ricercano uerisimilmente Poeta quanto ragionamenti costumi decoro alle altre circonstanze della persona persone introdutte nella Scena non facciano Ibid 284 auertiate che dicano

come uerisimil

POETICS : THEORETICAL APPLICATIONS audience ; he excludes

obscene

matters , which please only

plebeian

and

“sausage - makers and

in

;

,

of

all

similar kinds of people " ( p . 219 ) , and insists that the poet must try to please only “ the good judges ” ( p. 285) . But please the audience he must , since this is one of the fundamental requisites for poetry the action the audience without pleasure the participation .

in

,

to

.

he

to

a

( of .pp

a

suggest

to

be

,

it

necessary

that will

he

moral instruction are both impossible When deems recommending goes devices Aristotle counter Giraldi more pleasurable the audience Thus does not hesitate happy ending tragedy designed for pre diluted form with

and the consequent

)

of ( "

"

;

in

.

a

of

)

"

(

be

of

to

).

to

his audience 221-22 The other precepts relevant common characteristics are largely close reflections the Aristotelian text Plot both tragedy and comedy must complete proper magnitude perfetta and debita grandezza sentation

(d

is

no

).

.pp

(

-

be

),

of

is

quickly translated into length performance espite but proper size Aristotle's warning with minima three hours for comedy and four for disappointed required tragedy lest the audience 203-4 Verse an

).

In

) .pp .

as

ex

be

as

to

“

"

"

;

to

is

a

a

—

).

.pp

addi

the audience

of

to

”

and their rewards and punishments will provide .

(

,

"

is

without recourse such artificial means the deus 211-13 For both and here the departure from Aristotle preferable single one the good double plot and

bad characters tional enjoyment

“

(

is

of

,

)

;

( .p

contrived machina radical

to a

of

(p .

of

be

,

to

discrepancy for both forms and Giraldi seems conscious between this requirement and Aristotle's theory 205 Both imitate single day action and limit the time that action 205–6 both dramatic genres the plot the end toward which the other parts contribute carefully 207 and such parts the plot knot and solution must

the treatment

.

,

he

as

as

,

of

by

.

of

to

is

of

.

the antecedent

to

in

is

of

It

the difference between the two genres that the tradition makes itself most clearly felt Joined this the concern for the pleasure the contemporary audience We have already seen that Giraldi ascribes tragedy and comedy the common end moral instruction He derives from Aristotle well can the

force

The kinds

).

of

.

life

:

everyday

actions

:

,

horrible events comedy the activities themselves have moral implications

of of

by

,

(p .

;

different emotional effects means which they proceed tragedy works through terror and pity comedy through pleasure and merry jokes 208 These are produced different kinds action tragedy presents death and

through horror and compassion

43

in

of

a

,

.

,

,

us

by

us to

,

,

.

,

purges

of

us

,

in

showing what we should avoid the disturbances which the tragic characters have become setting before involved But comedy what we should imitate through passions through temperate feelings mixed with play with laughter with derisive jests calls proper way living 43 life ,

Tragedy

. "

di

,

al

ne

,

441

)

(

.

le

,

,

,

si

,

&

,

,

&

la

, : ci "

la

., .p

Tragedia coll'horrore Ibid 219 colla compassione mostrando quello che purga dalle perturbationi persone Tragiche debbiam fuggire nelle quali sono incorse Ma Comedia col proporci quello che dee imitare con passioni con affetti temperati mescolati con giuochi con risa con scherneuoli motti chiama buon modo uiuere

POETIC

THEORY

But if in Aristotle tragedy and comedy involved particular kinds of plot structure, in Giraldi the differences between those kinds tend to be dimin ished . Thus the happy ending is recommended for both forms , and Giraldi proudly declares that he has used no other type in his own tragedies . He admits that this goes against Aristotle and that it favors the audience ; he has used the happy ending make them ( the the usage of our

of it

the ignorance have thought

I

of its

. . . exclusively to serve the needs of the spectators , and to tragedies ) more pleasing on the stage , and to conform better to times . For even if Aristotle says that this is a way of catering to spectators , since the other side nevertheless has partisans

(

be

be it

.

on

),

a

at

is

in ful of to

be

as ,

to

satisfy him who must listen better the risk lesser excellence supposing accepted that Aristotle's opinion the better than with little more grandeur displease those for whose pleasure the plot put the stage For would to

it

if

of

if

(

a

;

made into

better and distinction between higher and “

to

a

is

moral characters

.

to

,

as

-

it

he

as

gives way expediency understands rapidly and wittingly the distinction between

"

on

be

to

in

as —

worse

”

Just

. in 44

be

.

)

when acted

Principle

“

a

compose on

to

slightly more praiseworthy plot were distaste perhaps the minds people the stage Those terrible plots happy the theater abhor them may used written works and those with ending works acted the stage little use

an

of

,

“

to

of

;

,

,

,

"

,

of

a

.

to

;

is ,

lower classes that similar transformation takes place with respect plot and tragedy fitted character The personages illustrious comedy participating and royal action are kings heroes nobles those

if

is

as

,

it

;

, he

"

;

,

"

"

a

in

action are men and women the people and Aristotle said that comedy imitated worse actions not that meant that imitated the wicked and the guilty but the less illustrious nobility they are compared with who are worse insofar concerned plebeian and civil

therefore

to

.

be ,

,

,

,

be

If

to

in

all

in

" 46 —

,

,

of

“

;

the average

,

45

.”

of

comedy are even less dignified than The personages citizenry they are parasites prostitutes cooks servants pimps soldiers and finally almost every kind plebeian folk who are found the city those who had long figured the traditional lists these differences are found among the objects imitated there will

royal persons

as .

)

(

gli

)

(

of

be

corresponding differences among the means imitation Tragedy may still use rhythm bodily motion and melody choral song means supple ho

,

i

a

:

.

,

le

of

.

)

(

442

&

,

pp , .

."

be

V.

,

,

."

,

le

le

&

la

le

:

di

.

)

,

un ,

(q

di

un

in

a

le si

da

,

si

,

se si

,

to ,

,

, è &

, in

,

.

,

,

)

si

."

fu

: " & : “

&

a

de i

ad gli

&

gli ,

de

la

de

di .p

.,

46

,

., ci p .

( fin se 45

la

a

ha de

: "

., .p

44

spettatori Ibid 221 solo per seruire farle riuscire piu grate Scena piu con l'uso conformarmi nostri tempi Che anchora che Aristotile dica che cio spettatori hauendo pero l'altra parte difensori suoi seruire alla ignoranza tenuto meglio sodisfare uando fusse accettata chi ascoltare con qualche minore eccellenza per migliore l'openione d'Aristotile che con poco piu grandezza dispiacere coloro per piacere quali fauola conduce Scena che poco giouerebbe compor fauola poco piu lodeuole poi rappresentare che ella hauesse odiosamente Quelle terribili gli animi spettatori forse possono essere delle scritture queste abhoriscono lieto delle rappresentationi però Ibid 203 detto Aristotile che Comedia imitaua attioni peggiori Non che uolesse significare che imitasse uitiose ree ma meno illustri lequali conferiscono colle reali sono peggiori quanto alla nobilità Ibid 215 serui parasiti meretrici cuochi ruffiani soldati finalmente quas ogni sorte gente popolaresca che 271-75 for other listings troui nelle città persons and for the characters associated with various types

POETICS : THEORETICAL APPLICATIONS mentary to verse ; but comedy now uses neither ( p . 205 ) . If verse is the universal accompaniment of diction , it is not used in the same way in the two genres . Comedy admits of no rhyme , whereas tragedy should mix rhymed with unrhymed sections , rhyme being useful especially in the choruses and in those " moral " parts where a lesson is specifically stated , “ so that they may be more easily received in the mind of the listener ” ( " accioche piu ageuolmente siano riceuute nell'animo di chi ascolta , " p . 234 ) . The diction itself will necessarily be appropriate to the actions and

or

which require more less noble diction than that employed for the rest One senses throughout the discussion the presence decorum character and the styles and also the rules the theory they were applied diction the examination Terence's comedies The third Giraldi's treatises bearing the date 1554 but published much ,

,

.

to

of

in

of

,

of

of

as

in of

.

,

a

special circumstances

on

his

the persons depicted . “ The speech of tragedy should be great , royal , and magnificent, and figurative ; that of comedy simple , pure , familiar , and appropriate to men of the people . "'47 Giraldi develops ideas the

,

,

to

its

.

of

of its

in

of

,

is

il

entitled

to le

is

.

,

It

comporre Lettera ovvero discorso sopra satire atte alle relatively short and perceive even shortness permits one clearly previous more than the case the treatise the extent which organization depends upon the outline the Poetics Giraldi conceives

later

scene

,

.

of

of

on

to

in on

an

—

in

he

"

"

,

both tragedy

it

of

as a

proper for the stage genre combining the comedy characteristics and Thus the definition which gives for and the detailed remarks the definition attempt combine the materials found Aristotle and his own treatise the other two the dramatic satire

imitation poetry

.

other kinds

an ,

,

on all

the remarks made

those

of

on

to

,

to

in

a

as

Of on

."

And the gloss

the complete action are the same

;

appropriate terror and pity and

in

,

a

,

in

to

in

on

in

of

,

: “

is

complete action dramatic genres Satire imitation suitable length combining the mirthful with the grave pleasant language the components part divided part combined single place which are laughter and presented the stage order move men's souls

much

as " do

as

In , of

"

.

it

favors verse just

the

&

magnifico alle persone del ,

,

,

,

,

&

La

48

,

:

." : .,

“

.p

quel parlare della Tragedia uuole esser grande reale Ibid 264 figurato quello della Comedia semplice puro famigliare conueneuole popolo

&

47

.

,

in

prose for divides from works written 48 other two types already mentioned

is "

at

,

it

...

be

,

to

.

...

“

"

,

be

it to its

,

as

“

suitable length _separates from complete works which are short such epigrams odes elegies Mirthful and grave the same time —this shows difference from comedy and from tragedy which the first com posed pleasing the other pleasant language —this serious

,

...

."

.

la ,

,

,

la

il

Di

,

.

,

e

di

443

)

(

,

...

di

è

ed : al “

II,

,

il

.

— la al fa

,

e

,

al

in

è

e , e

al ,

ed a

,

la

a

a le

...

al ),

(

in

di

,

Lettera ovvero discorso Scritti estetici 1864 134–35 satira imitazione giocoso azione perfetta grave con parlar soave dicevole grandezza composta per parte divise rappresentata membro della quale sono insieme suo luogo per parte compassione commovere gli animi riso convenevole terrore dicevole grandezza separa dalle cose perfette ma che sono picciole come epigrammi ode elegie grave prima Insieme giocosa diversa dalla comedia dalla tragedia delle quali composta piacevole l'altra grave parlar soave quale divide dalle cose prosa perchè ella così ama scritte verso come l'amano l'altre due già dette

POETIC

THEORY

The remainder of the gloss explains the appearance of “ numero , armonia , canto " together or separately ; the dramatic character of the genre ; and the " appropriate " terror and pity , to be distinguished from the stronger pas

of

For the satire , Giraldi demands the unhappy ending which he had not deemed necessary for tragedy, an action limited to one day and having the same quantitative and qualitative parts as the other dramatic forms . The qualitative parts are treated in this order : ( 1) “l'ap sions

tragedy .

," or spectacle ; ( 2 ) “ il ragionare " ( language , including necessarily ; verse ) ( 3 ) " melodia , " or the music of the choruses ; ( 4 ) “ sentenza " (the parato

of concepts ) ;

expression

( 5 ) “ costume , ” or character ; and (6 ) favola . " There is very little here that goes beyond the text of Aristotle , although some of the points of view noted in the other treatises reappear interpretation here in verbal

.

its

"

of

.

he

,

in

of

is

of

highly representative Giraldi Cintio's group treatises the activity around the Poetics these middle years the Cinquecento They are original treatises rather than commentaries treating three dramatic genres its

.

,

on

.

be

to

as

which Giraldi regards traditional and one narrative genre which con general new They are patterned the Poetics following outline and repeating many passages and many principles For the tradi

siders

;

led

,

,

is

his

by

,

-

sometimes

is

of

set

—

to

to

ence

is

of

only superficial constantly Aristotle the theorist drastically Aristotle's principles own adher principles which essentially Horatian and rhe another

acceptance alter

for

.

,

of

of

,

of

tional genres they accept without question much Aristotle's theory for independence they the rules modern forms declare the the new one being Throughout established before such forms came into however the

.

torical

to

,

in

as

is

does not follow the order

of

he

65 ),

( .p

the romanzo

everything that

he

.

a

.

It

of

;

is

an or

.

he

of

in

said

on

Pigna declares that Aristotle has been his guide

in

I

on ,

of

Giovanni Battista Pigna also published 1954 belongs original treatises based Aristotle did Giraldi Cintio's three discourses Whether Pigna learned what knew about the romance from Giraldi whether Giraldi plagiarized Pigna indifferent Pigna's essentially independent theory work presents the romance based on Aristotle somewhat different way from the others For although romanzi

the group

has

the Poetics

,

genres

finding by

the

by

He proceeds

another

He

one

of

this statement

.

reflects

romance

or

the

to

to in

His method everywhere similarities transferring

?

of

,

,

,

of

in

be

his

of

:

to

.

as

Giraldi had done He seems state the problem this way Given the fact that Aristotle does not treat the genre the romance what may one history tragedy comedy and the epic that will derive from theories defining the conditions and the excellences useful the new genre and

)

444

the rule will

is

,

to

be

position

: “

his

of

fundamental tenet (

This

is a

.

68 )

( .p

,

do

,

.

the romance the apposite statements must use this method since the only genre closely resembling the romance the epic nevertheless considerably different and the same rules not apply both

dis

THEORETICAL APPLICATIONS

POETICS :

one will be required to write in a way proper to the

covered whereby

”) ; and that this kind of writing has a form part agreeing with the others Greek and Latin epics of own part not and that given this foundation blamed for the fact not many respects that different from the other forms

in

),

49

."

be

to

it

is

;

it

in is (

,

in

( “Romanzeuolmente

its

romance

in

on

is

as of

i.e. ,

of

(

or

a

;

)

(

.

to

be

I

in

or

.

By

of

as

,

a ) is is

that the basis their imitation the not the same that the epic for the epic uses true event the probable one true mean derived either from history from actuality supposed true true These others romances

is ,

that

have

no

basis for fable

."

“

:

this single difference

There

romances

to

concern whatever with the truth.so

In

,

not

is

and the romance

;

to

of

,

of

be

The principal differences between the romance and the epic will the The general imitazione imitation which Pigna calls merely rules imitation apply equally both but the epic based the truth object

any case must make

its a

,

—

It

.

in

falsehood with the true and

.pp

of

large ingredient

”

.

its

“

,

is

-

this respect and here the cross reference other genres appears the romance like comedy which invents own subjects But not entirely may mix since the romance does treat known and true subjects is a

,

by “ (

It

double be

great

of

a

each romance will

a

be

,

"

.”

"

“

”

.

,

).

accompanied necessarily such through

action

of

, of

;

,

"

a

will thus have mixed ending like the Odyssey variety infinite fortunes

"

)

,

,

“

,

in

of

(

as

difference 20–21 Next there for treatment Here the romance will high royal and rather resemble the Odyssey which mixes and low high pastoral personages than the Iliad which represents only the

verisimilar aterials acceptable persons selected the kinds

it

be

. " 51

be

its

of of

,

of

it

,

in

and the rank the persons will also will tend toward the highest rather than toward the two kinds but illustrious actions will lowest and almost every one

of

,

”

:

"

is

it

,

a

be

it in of

of

.

of

the action will also

,

different for whereas the one man the romance will relate many actions unity action the poem without unity one man The problem way which may not thoroughly necessarily arises and Pigna solves satisfactory since impressionistic essentially

The general structure epic presents one action

15 : " la

49

,

.

in

so

,

a

in

be

all

to

of

The romances readily devote themselves several deeds several men but they concern especially one man who should celebrated over the others taking single person but not And thus they agree with the epic poets

& si

in

,

di

se

,

se ,

sia

lo

.'

s'allontana .pp

50

dall'altre

&

nò : :

&

da

,

si

), .p

(

I

regola scoprirà con cui Romanzeuolmente romanzi 1554 scriuer per parte con l'altre conueniente richieda come tale scrittura habbia vna forma parte posto fondamento non degno come per biasimo molte cose

il

.

, ò

in

è ò

& ne

che all'infime

:

,

445

)

(

.

,

due sorti ma piu alle sopreme mirerà

." di

gradi delle persone sarà etiandio quasi ogni sua attione sarà illustre

il

di

24 : "

., .p

si

."

:

, ò

o

:

vn '

: “

è

.,

&

.

;

19-20 Euui questa sola differenza che fondamento della costoro imita con l'Epico istesso percioche l'Epico sopra vna cosa vera fonda vna veri per historie per fauole cio simile vera intendo effetto vera vera sopposta Questi altri alla verità risguardo alcuno non hanno quale Ibid tale per molta varietà casi infiniti sarà ciascun Romancio Ibid tione non

POETIC

take as many of them as seem to be sufficient . all

taking a single action ; for they

THEORY

“ sufficient " when they have put the heroes in

The number is

final difference

;

a

as

. of

,

in

of of

;

all

,

at

. . . .

to

in

all

as in

in

those honorable perils and perfect knight and those major actions which are sought this way endless adventures are avoided And finish the poem soon we have arrived that goal which we have selected the order nature will 52 help for when the attributes are present matter motion ceases subject

to

,

as

an

of

as

to

he is

please much more apt antiquated pagan mythology

which

,

of

his audience

the introduction

41 .)

( .p

connection with the problem

important

unity

of

these

Pigna notes other

.

materials

of

I

have already touched upon the handling and organization

in

in

by

agree with the beliefs

this way than

,

,

,

14 ).

in

on

( . .p to

A

matter between the romance and the classical religion the use The gentiles were permitted invent fables based their religion and use them ornaments for their poems whereas Christians are not Nevertheless the Christian poet may they use saints and devils miracles and other supernatural acts insofar epic lies

,

of

,

to

14 ).

:

its

,

of

( .p

his

-

its

does not observe the epic order

it

it

a

of

,

in

to

its

plot need for excessive length than

to be

no by

is

.

to

by ,

in

...

suspense and from

pleasure.53

longer There err better

it is

be

Similarly the romance will perceptible one glance and ,

source

of

desire which

is a

a

,

When the time does not present itself the mind remains this there arises

.

he

,

or

It

...

in ,

at

he

it off

,

:

is

an ,

,

,

of

rule

its

of

it

if

this does not mean that does not own which the following breaks the narrative either interruption presents itself when the time for when does not When does the mind the reader remains rest from which derives contentment presence completed action and therefore pleasure since remains have

a

Even

,

,

be

to

it in of

his

.

a

differences The epic poet presents continuous narrative pre story from time whereas the poet romance interrupts time tending portions before sing hosts Thus the narrative straightforward and direct while that the epic will the romance will just like the knights who are steps heroes wander digress retrace

in a

by

to

.

be

is

or

.

disappoint the reader excessive shortness One may even consider that single sing may proper length hear what one for each canto the sitting The cantos should connected one another moral dis

...

vn

.pp

52

.

courses

in

:

è

gli

.

sol

vn

& ,

di

si

vn

,

il à

è,

al

...

&

.

si

il

in

in

gli

.

Et

,

nel

: il

gli

à

: " i

nelsi

,

.,

&

&

.

, ne

si

piu fatti piu huomini ma 25–26 Romanzi dan bene huomo Epici quale sia soura tutti propongono cosi con altri celebrato pigliare vna sola persona ma prendere concorrono fatto non cosi percioche ogni volta che tutti quegli honorati assai tanti trattano quanto lor pare essere assai pericoli perfetto cauagliere tutte quelle maggiori attioni posto hanno che toglie quanto poema tosto che arriuati ricercano cosi gire infinito finire

Ibid specialmente

.

)

(

446

ne

.

resta sospeso

&

:

&

, ò

l'animo

,

ha

dà ,

nol

dà . :

è

dà

,

.

... Quando

."

fa

.

restando egli con vna cosa compiuta perciò diletto desiderio che vn

."

il

, è

...

di

dà ,

.

45 : “

., .p il è

la

53

il

;

, à

à

quel segno siamo che mirauamo seruasi l'ordine della natura percioche presenti che moto sono gli habiti nella materia cessa Ibid se bene l'ordine Epico non osserua non che vna sua regola non habbia quale questa quando tempo quando nol Tralascia che s'interponga perciò piacere Quando l'animo chi legge quieto rimane dal che contentezza

nasce

THEORETICAL APPLICATIONS

POETICS :

to

us

to

is

,

its

And this discourse will be moral so that by means of virtue it will invite us to praise purpose which will serve inflame

be better , and so that it

,

of

we

,

us

;

a

worthy action through pleasure whence arises certain affection which makes absorbing the material attentive and through attention become capable and ultimately benevolent toward the poet.54

will use more numerous descriptions and and although both are necessarily written verse the verse form not the same their totality these differences between the romance and the epic the same two sister genres not represent merely the adaptation set

of

to

we

of do

( .p

15 ).

51 ),

is

,

In

,

in

( .p

,

,

The romance generally freer comparisons than the epic

in to

of

to

for

a

of

of

.

,

as

principles Rather Pigna's pass from Aristotle's theory the epic theory the epic and the romance we see certain major changes orienta theory directed toward the beauty tion from the work itself one

;

,

,

on

in

of

is

in

a

in

to

.

of

to

of

a

of

of

its

,

a

;

particular kind pleasure and given moral instruction from one concerned with the structural unity the poem another recommending variety multiplicity diversity discontinuity from one deriving criteria from within another seeking criteria miscel lany external factors The movement these directions even clearer theory when one considers the broad context which Pigna places his seeking

audience

.

of a

of

an

as

dual end lengthy

The profit arises from learning about the tenor

of

:

a

,

sad and

pleasure

in

of

we

of

be

.

of

the romance The development his thought the utility and pleasure may example taken He gives explanation why derive pleasure from the representation tearful events and this explanation Aristotle's remark about the accompanying knowledge plays only minor part treatment

.

to

,

to

.

its ,

is it a is a

it

;

,

is

prosperity

us

human life and about how especially about the opposite fortune and teaches perfection and since there This nevertheless gives pleasure since knowledge proper form And fore the soul rejoices finding natural thing wish uncertain

by

.

so

in

.

is

physico physiological theory -

,

a

.

is

explain pleasure from painful events

offered

:

To

to

of

on

,

,

is

us

pleasure And for the know and that which natural and which occurs gives being same reason we have another delight which consists moved these great changes fortune that we take pity those who suffer them For pity therefore natural comes man of itself and

of

is

us .

it is

If

, .

us

,

,

as

dilatation produces joy then pleasure since how can pity ever give the opposite direction nevertheless

sadness results

joy comes about through dilatation

it

,

of

compressed

,

when the heart

is a

us

is

pity which The consideration diverse since the natural movement delights and movement the heart that not natural which saddens For

is

It

?

;

in

)

at

46 : "

54

us ;

(

in

of

produces the shrinking the heart necessary that these humors spiriti should expand otherwise they will not com fort and this will come about the very same time which they are being

."

]

447

[

il

,

& .

à

&

:

,

ne

,

è

;

Et

;

& .,

.p

Ibid sura questo discorso morale accioche per mezzo della virtù meglio c'inuiti accioche stia nel suo proponimento chc con diletto lodeuoli cose infiammarne dal che nasce vna certa affettione che attenti rende d'attenti capaci della materia poeta finalmente beneuoli verso

,

partly

have pity

to

to

human thing

is

us

they will give

free

us a

on

.

,

compressed . For in part restricted and in part pleasure and partly uneasiness Pleasure because

set

THEORY

it

POETIC

us , to

to

,

,

of

A

,

it 20 ).

it is

is

at

,

of

( .p

24 ).

of

knowledge

Those plots which teach most about human pleasurable because the delight accompanying required Verse once because more enjoyable

the most

( .p

life will

be

recognition

pleasure

,

,

17 .)

.

(p

an

,

.

of

,

he

In

pleasure

aesthetic

.

of

a

kind

compendium

on

of of

,

current thinking the other passages studies the artistic devices which may produce that pleasure The ornateness the narrative style for example produces novelty hence the marvelous hence presenting intense pleasure strict observance decorum the audience types which knows and recognizes makes possible the here

causes and nature

of

Pigna presents

it .

is

,

by

,

to

is

of

,

in

,

it

the afflicted aside from the fact that consoles see that we ourselves are free from the evil which there still another pleasure Uneasiness because feeling sorrow outside nature aside from the fact that disturbs trans fer ourselves the imagination the suffering others.55

it

,

).

in

So

.

;

in

be

to

he

,

of

(

.pp

,

of

in

than prose being more artistic and because assists the communication the moral lesson 53-54 Very few Pigna's statements take issue with Aristotle since for the agreement most part believes himself the differences consist added ideas which essentially alter Aristotle's thought for the distinc :

tion between poetry and history

,

,

;

,

a

.

of

,

of

And although both them not without some profit are delightful they are unequal value For the historian remains always nevertheless different and perpetual similarity rarely changed and the poet with the particular pursuing removing monotony through constant variety And there are many other things which make notable difference between them that the poet charms and teaches more than the historian .pp

55

so

. 56

,

a

.

,

seeks the universal

.

dà

ne il

da ,

è

&

&

&

:

;

.

&

,

il

&

:

la sia la : " è il il

.

& :

fa

.,

giouamento nasce dall'apparare Ibid 28–29 tenore della vita humana quanto instabile prosperità dal contrario massimamente c'insegna Ciò tutta uia rallegrandosi perciò l'anima che suo sugello diletto essendo scienza vna perfettione quello che piacere ritroui natural cosa voler sapere naturale che viene

;

.

è si

è

.

? ci

& in

,

è

lo

ha

,

;

ne

& il è,

;

ci

Se

la

.

:

ci

è,

...

il

ci

è

&

da se ,

,

il la

di

,

&

per questa istessa ragione vn'altro diletto habbiamo questi grandi che nell'essere venga mutamenti talmente commossi che pietà chi loro sottoposto troua percioche perciò per natura rispetto misericordia viene all'huomo diuerso essendo moto naturale della misericordia quello che diletta moto del cuore che naturale quello che non attrista percioche compresso ch'egli contristatione nasce come allegrezza dalla dilatatione adunque l'allegrezza per mezzo della dilatatione come porgerà mai diletto poscia ch'ella stringimento del cuore opposito misericordia

56

,

.

,

.

è

, in è &

ne

.

di

il

, :

.

il

. "

in

è

il .

gli

à

&

ne ne

in

:

ci

Bisogna tutta uia che essi spiriti s'allarghino altramente non conforteranno ciò auerrà quel tempo istesso che comprimeransi percioche parte ristretti parte slargati parte piacere parte noia daranno Piacere quanto che humana cosa l'hauer compassione afflitti senza che consola vedere che siamo ſuor del male che vn'altro Noia quanto che rincrescimento fuor natura senza che disturba trasferire con l'imagina tione noi stessi l'altrui dolore ;

)

,

: &

vi

il in

all '

vi

&

:

."

448

(

.

&

&

di

.

di

, &

&

2 : “ la

., .p

quantunque ambe non senza qualche giouamento sien diletteuoli Ibid sono pregio disuguale percioche l'historico stà nondimeno diverse sul particolare con poeta togliendo col vna perpetua similitudine alterata rado uniuersale mira sempre variare satietà molte altre cose sono che differenza notabile fanno tale insegna piu che quello che questo alletta

POETICS :

THEORETICAL APPLICATIONS

From the particular and the universal

the passage

, and thence to grcater pleasure perhaps, is found in the treatment of

case ,

to monotony more striking

is made

and instruction . A the four requisites for character .

and variety

Pigna assumes immediately that characters are either traditional or new ( i.e. , invented ) and that Aristotle's four requisites are divided between these two types . All four are forms of verisimilitude , but some are natural and others are “ by reference ." These distinctions give the following schema : Verisimilitude

New characters

Traditional characters

( finta )

( tolta ) Similarity

Appropriateness

( simile )

( convenevole )

By nature

By reference

Christón

Armótton

The terms

"

by nature

By nature Ómalon

By reference Omion

explained thus

” and “ by reference " are

:

By reference : referring the one whom I am treating to the opinion in which he or in fables , I will depict him primarily as fierce or pleasant , as prudent or bold , as deceitful or just . . . . By nature : considering the habits as confirmed dispositions of the soul , I will make any person throughout the work is held in histories

and to the very end such as I have established him to be from the beginning . 57

Verisimilitude is thus defined in terms of consistency of character (“ by a tradition (" by reference " ), and Aristotle's

nature ") or of faithfulness to

that the

is

to

perhaps

select group

-

— a

this

.

of on

A

.

between those who admire ingeniousness

difference

the pleasure

passages point

the difficulté vaincue number not always appreciated and that there

But Pigna notes that a

insistence

it is

audience takes

I romanzi is

of

special feature

in

A

its

four requisites are reduced to these terms .

and

,

2 )

be

,

”

in

,

.

A

.

be

of

,

be

of

,

be

in

,

of

.p “

So

.

di

“

to

”

(

of

is

tragedies will the popular taste which less discriminating demon maggior greater ingegno strative wit dimonstratrici but popular taste than the romance Still even will appeal less the romance form the difficult solution will the best new subject involving new characters will less admirable than the traditional ones since the poet handling them will not under the constraint the accepted story

, is

it

,

;

is

is

a

“

:

...

,

se

ò :34 “

is

in

57

As

." , 58 “

the

the decorum

of

to

do ,

known personages which because less easy always shows greater virtuosity general thing pleasure poet's triumphs comes from the spectacle the more narrow genius the field which our restricted the more difficulty seen there and

in

of

di

il gli

, ò

,

, à ò

di

;

se

a

449

)

(

."

si fa ,

20 : "

., .p

58

of

,

.

da

...

, .p

,

."

, ò

ò

;

, ò

il

ò è

., .p

Ibid Per relatione referendo colui ch'io tratto all'opinione che egli piaceuole circonspetto nelle historie nelle fauole fiero temerario insidiatore giusto principalmente dipingerò Per natura mirando habiti che sono spositioni confirmate tale qual principio haurò stabilito alcuno farò essere per tutta l'opera infino alla fine See below 468 for similar schema resulting from the text Pigna's Poetica Horatiana 1561. Ibid che perche disagiosamente mostra tutta uia piu virtù

and

...

and

of

POETIC

THEORY

59

."

its

of

an

:

to

be

is

all

its

it

of

an

to

by

;

to we

,

—

-

is

It

difficult things happen rarely and they are therefore more beautiful opposition contrary since this grows may again see adaptation for this reason and Aristotelian principles that tragedy considered superior the epic greater efficacy

,

its

or

by a ,

its

in

of

of

;

(

to

,

the

and Ariosto’s comedies he

,

:

a

is

admitted from the start

the best romance ever written

is

an

by

is

,

,

the judgment

is

).

In

as

II as

.

,

of

.

of

by

.

his be

all

of as

of

in

he

for

is or

A

So

to

be

of

,

it

is

.

,

I;

in

,

are the best

,

the language Rather wishes authority precepts given discover the Orlando the the has Book indirectly praise will fall upon the Orlando the source the best Pigna's material may examples and precedents certain amount biographical neglected since deals with Ariosto's fame But indication that the form the plot determined the works Boiardo the Cassaria

in

especially

about more easily

for the extensive sections devoted occupied examination the Orlando Furioso although Pigna not really seeking

III

All

works for

the

Orlando Furioso

of

;

,

be

,

,

is

significant finally

Books and Ariosto's works the comedies well primarily the latter this examination judgment

in in

it is

,

,

brought

element

,

a

Pigna's treatise practical criticism

of to

important

chorus

of

deprived

narrator than by

. 60

a

in

a

which

is

in

;

be

to ,

it

or

a

in

of

Restriction gives excellence since limited action not dis posing plot digres which great events come together and the matter sions since cannot permit itself many varied ones lest the composition turn disproportionate out and time having only the space one day day and half which the whole action must pleasure concluded and

in

do a

it is

He

;

it

,

to

by

.

and Homer needs noted also the fact that the digressions are glorify the Este family for part explained the wish also justifi cation and Pigna takes for granted that such external reasons consti

is

an

,

,

we

in

in

.

of

of

tute justifications the form the plot declares that Ariosto supreme both earlier and from the accidents the essence and

in

is

of or

of

in

,

—

of of

that while the machinery ,

è

;

che piu

."

&

,

di

,

,

& dà .

le il

:

in

,

ne

in

è il

le

&

:

,

ui : si "

...

37 : “ la

vn

., di .p

60

&

.,

quanto piu stretto campo Ibid 36–37 che l'ingegno nostro ridotto tanta piu difficoltà vede cose difficili rado auengono sono perciò maggior virtù accrescendo ella contra belle suo contrario Ibid strettezza tutta l'eccellenza essendo ella angusta nell'attione non hauere fatto cui gran fatti concorrano nelle digressioni percioche non

of

is

So

."

the romance

.

plot

in

of

a "

of

up

is

It

.

as

"

.pp

59

of

"

Orlando Furioso actions multiplicity the

all

clear from the analysis that Pigna thinks the many whole plots and that each made the plot constitutes This consonant with his theory

knot and denouement separate

be

of to .

of

15 ),

in of

(p .

know that the essence substance the plot and the digressions analysis plot asking which accidents are the The consists plot Pigna types the four are found here and finds them examining the treatment studying the use the quantitative parts statement

per

può ,

la &

:

,

in

&

,

)

(

450

la

, ò

."

,

nel

,

&

:

lo

,

il

pigliarne molte componimento varie accioche sproportionato non venga nel tempo spatio d'un giorno hauendo ella solo d'un giorno mezzo cui tutta cosa con piacere che d'una gran parte manca quale dal narratore piu commoda chiuda mente nasce che dal choro

POETICS :

THEORETICAL APPLICATIONS

the Aristotelian text is applied , the theoretical basis is fundamentally dif ferent in Pigna . He applies a criterion of unity to the poem — but only insofar as it is possible or desirable in the romance : " in the end everything is properly conducted with beautiful unity , to the extent that this kind of poetry admits of unity .” 61 The problem of unity involves the problem of digressions , and Pigna praises Ariosto for the use of episodes which properly mix the grave and the light , the calm and the disturbed , the active

correctly observed , in the of contemporary events , and in the expression . Finally , events and episodes are accompanied by moral overtones and by possibilities of allegorical interpretation which serve the end of utility . and the passionate . Decorum is everywhere transfer to the Orlando of traditional materials

In

this discussion

of

, in the use

the Orlando Furioso , Pigna uses the term “

imita

tion " in three separate senses which demonstrate with especial clarity his habits in the use of terminology . Since the plot depends upon Homer and

Vergil , it contains “ imitations " of them . A second kind of imitation occurs when men are presented “ as they should be , " either through narration or through dialogue . Dialogue itself is a kind of imitation , in the Platonic sense which distinguishes imitation from narration ( p . 80 ). The Aristotelian sense appears earlier in the text : “ The plot is an imitation of an action " ( “ Favola è imitatione d'una attione , " p . 15 ) ; but in the definition which

follows , Pigna clearly gives it a restricted meaning : “ To imitate is to use the verisimilar according to that form which is most proper in the matter undertaken . ”62 Imitation as direct or dramatic representation is also fully treated in the early sections of the text ( p. 16 ) . Although he assigns so many meanings to the word , Pigna makes no attempt to define or dis tinguish , and the reader must derive the proper meaning from the context. A similar case , although not nearly so extensive , is found with respect to the word "favola " (pp . 15 , 92 ) . The examination of Ariosto's comedies ( pp . 105 ff .) presents interesting solutions to the question of why one comedy , the Cassaria , is superior to another , the Suppositi. Seven reasons are offered : ( 1) the denouement derives more successfully from the preceding action ; ( 2 ) the denouement does not depend upon external signs ; ( 3 ) the Cassaria is more verisimilar ;

; ( 7 )

,

its

( 4) the comedy succeeds in conducting a more difficult plot ; ( 5 ) it has more pleasantness in it and less of sadness ; ( 6 ) devices are newer causing increased admiration and greater pleasure the episodes are more

of

, è

verisimile secondo quella forma

,

il

pigliare

."

Ibid Imitare materia piu conuiene

)

451

(

., .p

in

,

his

: “

."

., .p

101 alla fine ogni cosa con vaga vnità per quanto questa poesia patisce guidata è

62

Ibid debitamente

15 : "

61

,

.

In

to

immediately derived from the knot and solution and more closely linked these seven points Pigna once again raises questions found the applications and conclusions are not necessarily Poetics although them

che nella proposta

POETIC

THEORY

Aristotelian . But he does more : judging that works may be evaluated by comparison with their contraries , he compares the Cassaria with the "best tragedy that one might read . " This is the result : In this ( tragedy ), we will see royal life expressed , in the Cassaria , the life of the people ; the one excellent in long discourses , the other in brief repartees ; on the one hand , the operation of fortune , on the other , of cunning ; in the former ,

the

grave teachings and majesty and sorrows and infinite anguish , in the latter , delight and joy and playfulness and many warnings about private life.63

. A

of

juxtaposition Here , Aristotle is absent, and we return once again to tragedy and comedy familiar throughout the Middle Ages final ,

of

of

a

to

I

new and prophetic He takes one hundred .

is

.

Orlando Furioso His method

).

(p .

its

of

,

is

in

to

reason for preferring the Cassaria the Suppositi and one which should superior morality not surprise the context 107 Pigna devotes the third book study romanzi the style the

In

this study phonetics

he

to ,

is

.

.

of

,

to

,

,

,

of

,

,

as

grammar

,

variants the comments concern such matters sound proportion and symmetry prosody clarity ease construction ambiguity appropriateness matter and nature and ornament The point view thus almost entirely gram matical and rhetorical .

last version

, or of

,

in

;

of

in

passages from the romance and shows the successive stages the composi gives the reason why Ariosto preferred the tion the text each case

1554

on

of in

the poetic

It

,

,

de

Q.

a

of

on

.

another the stamp Aristotle's Poetics also publication major commentary Horace Francesco librum Horatii Flacci arte poetica commentarius which

of in

In

short works

or

one way

that bore was the year

Lovisini's

extraordinarily rich

1554 was thus

art

The year

)

(

LOVISINI

,

in

to

of

.

in

made the customary comparisons between Aristotle and Horace But regard the history Aristotle's Poetics the Cinquecento Lovisini's it

.

it

,

the

to

mere examination

of

from

a

be

learned be

to of

,

traditional not much juxtaposed passages

is

by

a

it .

of

),

.pp

(

see

IV ,

of

an

is

its

contemporaries Although work much less rewarding than discovers extraordinarily large number parallels between Horace and Aristotle Chapter 130–32 above for the most part does little else than cite the selected text from the Poetics and give translation Moreover since this time many the parallels have become commonplace and

,

said about

a

of

which what

is

few points

at

.

.pp

63

There are

a

so

texts was the same

."

)

(

452

.

.

: di la

&

in

là la :

Di &

;

.

&

&

&

si

in la

in

: “

:

.,

popolaresca Ibid 106–7 essa vita reale espressa vedrà nella Cassaria lunghi discorsi l'una l'altra prontezze strette eccellente qua l'astutia fortuna quella documenti graui angoscie infinite questa diletto gioia maestà dolori piaceuolezze auertimenti domestici assai

&

& In In

it

in

as

,

he

It

of

.

say what Lovisini's general would difficult interpretation found the Poetics was aside from the fact that many passages that conveyed the same meaning Horace's Ars poetica many that one might insist that the total meaning perhaps the two

THEORETICAL APPLICATIONS

POETICS :

passage in Aristotle reveals the construction which Lovisini put upon it . So for the early commentary on lines 1-13 of the Ars poetica , where we find how Lovisini understands imitation :

do

,

as

,

in

The sense imitation plus meaning Plato

.

64

of

by

,

,

of

of

things many sculptors and the appearance means art through the are poets Plato's Socrates affirms the Symposium things fact that they give pleasure their invention and imitation painters

as

image

by

or

all

Poets follow the imagination , not opinion , since they call themselves poets not because they write in verse but because of the plot and the fiction , as Aristotle has set it down for us in the Poetics . And therefore those who imitate the

:

its

of

,

:

a

all

is

in

.

,

in

its

of

on

is

”

we

)

in

of

to

be ,

“

(

,

in

its

“

of

meaning here composed the Poetics with emphasis the latter Furthermore the Platonic and Horatian element further emphasized the next sentence poetic figments Indeed these matters must establish rule not approved are but only those which derive rather from prudence than

.

by

,

lines 119-27

:

“

:

to

Lovisini necessarily refers Aristotle's four requisites then following distinction between oudiov and ouahov There

character

,

For

is a he on

34v

,

cites Poetics 1451a36

).

when

(p .

he

52 ,

in

,

.” 65

prudence with from freedom creation The presence moral and political connotations indicates the direction taken the interpreter Lovisini again expresses the same ideas connection with Ars poetica 146 makes the difference

similar and uniform for similarity refers those about whom others had written previously and uniformity those about whom alone are writing We must observe constant personage whom we are ourselves introducing uniformity that ;

,

so

,

the distinction between

traditional and by

is

This

we

.”

himself

66

a

be

will always

he

.

in

to

we

,

to

,

is ,

oudiov kai oualov that

between

by

,

.

in

"

of

).

40

to

to

)

(

.p

he

,

at

(

"

“

a

In

,

an

.

of

accepts Robortello's demonstration the tragic action Here artificial day i.e. twelve hours was intended oppose some point few places least Lovisini seems wish

duration that

"

,

of

to

of

in

of

newly invented characters which Pigna but have just seen developed with differences the understanding the requisites Lovisini also attempts the questions about the Poetics which was answer one already much debated the meaning one day the remark on the

64

,

In

an

be

to

to

.

of

,

to

a

of

.

theory offered Aristotle Poetics 1454a28 Aristotle had given examples number characters who were improperly treated Lovisini takes exception several claiming that Menelaus seems him in

,

ut

&

in

,

,

,

."

,

&

,

.,

., .p ut

.pp

65

66

persona

&

,

:

,

&

, ut

.

,

(

), .p 4 : “

Commentarius 1554 Poetae phantasiam non opinionem sequuntur quia poetae poetice nomen sibi asciscunt non propter carmen sed propter fabulam fictionem testatum relinquit Aristoteles iccirco quicunque rerum effigiem simulacra arte imitan symposio Platonis tur mechanici plerique artifices faciunt poetae sunt quemadmodum Socrates affirmat propterea quòd fictione rerum imitatione delectantur

."

sit sibi constans

)

(

453

,

de

,

,

&

,

ea ,

in

,

ad

,

,

,

,

."

à

,

se

,

de

“

ad

:

,

à

:

: "

Ibid 4–5 Verum his modus statuendus est neque enim omnia poetarum figmenta probanda sunt sed quae prudentia potius quàm sola fingendi libertate proficiscuntur discrepant inter ovojov kal dualov idest simile aequale nam Ibid 29v quibus alij etiam scripserunt aequalitas quibus similitudo eos refertur eos quam inducimus nos tantum scribimus perpetuam aequalitatem seruare debemus

THEORY

of

uniformity

and that Iphigenia docs display judgment might Such differences

necessary

of

of admirable probity

example

the

POETIC

of

a

in

he

or

of

to

,

to

,

for Aristotle and

”

“

or

“

finis

of by or

the Poetics

.

says

"

“

.

Aristotle

to

,

officium

are different The

in

since troinois toti uiunois profit and delight.68 instead

as

"

officium

”

“

)

and the

"

finis

"

so .

These two words may either signify the same thing distinguished that munus means the end sought

,

to

finis

" is

“

is

.

“

tue poet Indeed the the poet imitate But the

munus

poetry finally Lovisini hides Wishing reconcile Aristotle

:

"

Munus and officium different things

(

tv

“

,

with Horace uses the term officium for Horace

”

he

.

a

of

for the important matter the end his disagreement under verbal distinction

of

As

.

is

of

in

be

is

it

noted that Lovisini sense regards opinion preferred that

an

It

me that

no

be

to

67

to

is ,

of

,

.

of

necessity that sometimes

. "

seems

far are poets from they invent things which are

Indeed

better

not even verisimilar authority whose Aristotle Horace as

But so

our author understood the matter the law

the poet only the law

well

.

necessity

to

of

: “

,

.

events Hence verisimilitude Aristotle that expressing

the inevitable realization

,

natural necessity that Horace required

says

as

he to

of

believes necessity

be

,

).

( .p

in

.

character result from the fact that Lovisini had different texts interpreted mind that necessity and different way Aristotle's requisites 54v On the subject probability the disagreement apparently springs from the fact that Lovisini

,

with

.

as

of

is

or

clearly between function operation and end The distinction providing the real definition Horace the latter

of

to

,

,

of

e

poetiche della lingua Matteo San Martino's Osservationi grammaticali italiana the following year 1555 belongs primarily the history

although certain passages are relevant the fortunes Only Plato's ideas above Chapters and VII 138 275 cidentally does concern Aristotle's Poetics and then almost exclusively for highly heterogeneous the interpretation imitation definition ).

in

to

,

.pp

of

his

In

.

of

,

,

IV

see ,

it

(

of

Horace's Ars poetica

.,

., .p

is a

;

an

as

: “

do

In

attributes

to

shows the importance

he

.”

to

,

however

65 ): “

67

68 ,

.pp

,

immediately follows

he

of

by

,

,

to

,

of

poetry San Martino course includes imitation element the times Poetry would not have permitted him otherwise beautiful fiction which restricted within harmonized rhythms and imitating human pleasure brings profit what the listener means actions

,

.

n [ o ]

,

ea

ut at

."

)

(

454

uero

prodesse

,

finis

& est:

.

,

Aristoteles

uel

,

poetice

.

in

ait

ut

toti uiunois

,

,

imitari nam toinois delectare

&

se

.

et

,

.

ut

: “

."

,

ut

,

.

(

66-67 the latter page misnumbered Horatius uerisimile tantum etiam necessarium poetis proposuit melius sensisse uidetur hic ster nam poetae necessarium exprimant aliquando quae uerisimilia etiam non tantum abest sunt comminisci uideantur Ibid 61v Munus officium duae hae dictiones uel idem significant diuersa munus finem poetae innuat differunt enim inter finis officium officium poetae Ibid Aristoteles

APPLICATIONS

POETICS : THEORETICAL

69

."

”

,

,

at a

the poets consists

all

of

.

by

is ,

70

the doctrine

,

of

,

in

imitation and must Aristotle and Cicero that and harmony Here again there uncer of

to

according

of it

“

it

as

of

a

the final intention

"

be

that

practice

its

its

principal part secondary and not : “ So that imitation is From such passage this would seem that the principal part would pleasure and utility Yet later point the writer insists the pursuit imitation

is

of

in

of

in of

:

an

by

of

.

71

,

to

diction

,

to

it is

or

,

,

as be ,

,

or

,

is

imitator another designer they were three things either things proper for them provided

as

said

or of

be ,

imitate one

according imitations what was said separately together either

and harmony

,

,

number

“

by .”

of

]

he

(

,

all

as

or of

that

that since the poet

says also must always they appear and are poets make their

to

He Aristotle images

to on

is

,

it is

In

on

.

.”

of

,

is

,

,

means diction number tainty since one wonders what meant the doctrine Aristotle and poetry are Horatian fairly clear that the ends any case Cicero and that imitation has some intermediary function the achievement those ends Further light thrown the problem San Martino's reality poetry statement the relationship

“

.p

“

or

"

“

to

”,

“

”

by or

).

“

”

do

“

”

(

of

”

is

,

I

,

In

com the original diction have translated both these passages ponimento which stated mean something like the disposition arrangement As San Martino uses this and the 158 ornate speech accompanying terms numero and concento harmonia not ,

,

be

on

.

.

is

in

on

of

only they signify the means imitation indicated Aristotle but they prosody which will also carry with them the stress rhetoric and his principal concern the treatise Aside from these passages the Poetics used only rarely 1557

)

(

SIGONIO

,

, in

we

,

of

.

by

is

of

activity affecting Aristotle's text represented Another kind 1557 Carlo Sigonio's Emendationum libri duo For besides the editions and frequently find philological and philosophical commentaries the text to

to .

of

his

;

of

,

of

or

to

to

his

; Si fra

sia

:

of

an

69

is

miscellanies

the Poetics

in

on

shorter critical

The sections by

.

in

largely devoted textual Sigonio's book are answers open disagreement with him suggestions Robortello statements Before proceeding the study individual passages Sigonio expresses opposition dividing the text Robortello's way own suggestion interesting one for the total conception Aristotle's plan discussions

exegesis

la

a

,

,

la

de

.”

, si , ., di .p , , o di : & “ tre

71

di

la

, de e i

."

, e

,

a

la

: “

), .p

: “

., .p

70

è

,

(

Osservationi 1355 130 Poetica una uaga fittione che harmonizzati numcri ristretta imitando l'humane attioni con diletto gioui chi l'ascolta che imita tione sua parte secondaria non principale Ibid 146 consistendo final intentione Poeti nella imitatione che tutti exercitarla conujene secondo dottrina d'Aristotele Cicerone cioè con Componi mento Numero Concento

. "

o

)

(

455

o

la

, o

, o le

, o

il

&

,

gli

,

è e

Ibid 184 Dice ancor che essendo Poeta imitatore come aitro disignator imagini che una cose conuien che sempre imiti cose come furono come appaiono che dicono come esser conuiene pur che tutti fanno loro imitatione secondo che Componimento detto separatamente congiuntamente umero Harmonia

THEORY six .

POETIC

its

,

to

.

the definition There the epic The fifth part .

all

on

not belong tragedy the other ,

,

follow then two other parts one

at

But origin and growth on

.

growth

do

he

in

its

of

In my judgment this book is to be divided not into three parts , but into poetry but also origin and For the first treats not only the definition

In

.

on

tragedy and the epic.72

of

the

:

”

offer his opinion some contemporaries

to

,

“

For the rest Sigonio's emendations texts which gave the greatest difficulty

his

detached from the discussion

a

be

of

cause

it is

;

he

it

is a

,

in

concerns questions and answers about poetry which comes afterwards his separate subject from tragedy and the epic division since the last book compares tragedy with the epic this may properly called sixth part be

of .

”

&

,

2 )

(

all ;

at

of

;

( 3 )

,

– 50 ).

148v

,

.

do

to

in

to

it

is

,

or ,

counterpart

to

dithyramb

is a ?

"

in

-

”

"

"

by

.”

comoediae nomen

is

.

“

Quid Poesis Nomorum Persas non esse iocosum The text presents two difficulties First what meant gnomic poetry more properly how should one interpret vóuos the text Sigonio's suggestion that has nothing with counterpart comedy laws but rather the same way that the ,

On 1447624–28

sit

( .pp

as

of

)

(

do

:

( 1 )

“

,

sit

kidapiotikń Sigonio draws three On 1447a15 Quid aŭantikń conclusions from the text there are some kinds auletic and citharistic poetry which they use harmony and rhythm not imitate dance only for their imitation excluding speech and meter Aristotle poetry which imitate without speech examples meant them kinds

of "

at

as

in

"

).

Ểv -

.pp

synonymous with vóuos and

149v 50v

sit

the text

(

Sigonio uses the term

offers no emendation

to

.

the paragraph

“

;

is

.

as

of of it

"

be a

.

of

.

”

great

“

a

the last two ,

,

is

tragedy The first two express little form matters The vóuos would thus ancient authors who condemned comic poetry and Sigonio cites the texts such The second difficulty comes from Robortello's reading 1448a15 tépoas hence the statement about Persas vouous the heading matters

to

.”

,

equivalent

to

as

,

it

saltum

"

uses the word

“

,

of

.

he

Aris

.

-

150v

51 )

before

( ff ., pp “ .

as

as

.

dance Here totle's puouós

be

£ v

,

“

Sigonio rejects On 1448a20 Quid uiueio dai Tois aŭtois Robortello's explanation that the phrase Tois autois referred the men whose actions were imitated He declares that should rather inter signifying the means preted imitation discourse harmony and the

72

as

.

of ."

.

in

he

”

“

On 144864 De causis naturalibus poeseos Another moot point poetry Robortello had seen the two natural causes the instinct derives from imitation man and the pleasure which toward imitation

in

,

,

in

.

de

.

ad

,

de

,

in

eo

sit . ab

.

)

(

456

sit ,

&

,

de

à

."

.

,

epopoeia separata materia extremo libro tragoediam cum epopoeia com epopoeia auulsa tragoedia disputatione cum

quae sexta pars appellari merito potest

parat

&

,

de

, .

,

&

,

&

tragoedia

,

à

&

de

.

de

: “

(

), .p

Emendationum libri duo 1557 148v Meo enim iudicio liber hic non tres sed sex partes distribuendus est primum enim non solum definitione poeseos agit sed etiam origine eius incremento origo autem incrementum nihil definitionem pertinent quacs Sequuntur deinde aliae partes una tragoedia epopoeia altera Quinta est tionibus dissolutionibus poeticis quae sua diuisione praeterita est cum tamen

THEORETICAL APPLICATIONS

POETICS :

Aristotle's arguments

of

his

Sigonio chooses rather to adopt the position of Averroës that the two causes are ( 1) imitation and ( 2 ) rhythm plus harmony ; one cause would thus be imitation , the other the means of imitation . Rhythm itself is dual , being composed of meter and the dance . Sigonio gives version :

thus

;

of

,

,

he

,

.”

,

" )

“

(

,

Sigonio

and that

considers having the

At

-

54 ).

of of

.”

a

in

”

,

he ”

to

,

.”

“

.pp

153v

“

Quid

believes

,

modum

xwpis Tõv elõv non esse intellectum this using melos broader sense Aristotle is

point Sigonio

intellectum

sit

“

,

On 1449b25

meter

esse

He

sense

non

Rationem

modo suauitatis pleno The means rhythm with music melos

and

,

,

of

special

(

be

to

harmony

music

by sit

be

'

“

,

On 1449625 HEUOUÉVW Móyw quid thinks that loyw should translated the whole phrase means

us.73

natural

“

be

to

he

because tation are natural that had proved imitation itself

,

,

.

He ,

thought this sufficiently clear from the fact

he

to

. us ,

of

is

,

in

The means indeed are three number comprising harmony and rhythm for says are consti divided into two dance and meters Meters then rhythms tuent parts does not offer proof though that the means imi rhythm

a

.pp

is

to

of

in

.

harmony and rhythm thinks that the whole passage the definition tragedy meant indicate that there were certain parts

tragedy

the six qualitative parts

).

tragedy among object Sigonio proposes his own division which

:

,

,

imitation

of

tello's distribution manner and means he defends thus

,

of of

“

.”

,

(

,

recited with music and dance certain others without them 154–54v Rejecting Robor On 1450a10 Partes tragoediae intellectas non esse

,

of

;

of

.

74

and thought

,

;

,

.

...

,

,

;

,

three plot character ,

,

objects

as

,

,

is as

,

.

,

,

For the tragic poets imitate plot character and thought their subject matter they imitate with diction and song means and song includes harmony and rhythm The third element manner the stage onto which the actors are intro duced which Aristotle calls ornatus aspectus the means imitation are two diction and song the manner one embellishment visual spectacle the

of

,

,

difficult

to

be

of

of

of

;

-

.

advance over Robortello

all

an

It

affirm that on the whole Sigonio's emendations for the interpretation the passages discussed His over division the text and his distribution the qualitative parts are superior but some the individual exegeses move would

represent

73

., .p

., .p

role which

it

a

in

,

1559 the Poetics appears

ex 74 eo ,

In

.

backward rather than forward

frequently played during in

.

,

&

& ,

ut

,

&

, . "

,

: “

,

.

,

, ,

.

&

,

: "

in

,

rhythmus nam rhythmus Ibid 152v instrumenta uero tria sunt harmonia duo diuiditur saltum metra metra enim inquit particulae sunt rhythmorum Non probat autem instrumenta imitationis esse nobis naturalia quia satis perspicuum putauit quod imitationem ipsam nobis esse naturalem probauit Ibid 155 Nam tragici imitantur fabulam mores sententiam materiam

]

457

,

.

&

,

."

&

,

,

,

,

,

,

in

,

,

est

,

ut

...

[

:

,

,

.

.

,

&

melopoeia melopoeia uero harmoniam instrumentis qua agentes inducunt quem Modus autem tertius scena quibus imitantur duo sunt dictio melopoeia Aristoteles uocat ornatum aspectus quomodo unum aspectus ornatus quae tria fabula mores sententia imitantur autem dictione rhythmum comprehendit

POETIC

THEORY

the Cinquecento , that

of a source of theory on the art ment in question is Dionigi Atanagi's Ragionamento

of history . The docu de la eccellentia

de la historia . Atanagi's theoretical treatment

perfettione

et

of history follows

two separate lines, one emphasizing the differences between poetry and history and one displaying their similarities . It is for the first of these that Aristotle is the principal source ; for the second , Atanagi refers largely to

of Horace and of the rhetoricians . After a defence of the art as to Platonic elevation of the soul , Atanagi defines history as " a narrative of things done as they were done , with praise or with blame , according to person , places , and times , and including the deliberations , the the tradition

a means

causes , and the events . ”75 Then he proceeds to the comparison with poetry , from which I cite the salient passages :

History different from poetry , not because the latter is written in verse and the former in prose , as is commonly believed by those who think that everything that is written in verse is poetry . For although verse is proper to the poetic faculty , nevertheless it is not verse but imitation that makes poetry ; and that this is true is shown by the fact that there are also poems which are composed in prose . . . Therefore the true difference and divergence between them lies in this , that poetry

all

imitates and history does not .

... Poetry

takes a single action of a single man and ;

of

,

a

at

.

is

to

is

its it

.

its

other actions are accidental History takes several actions several men and although not denied that history also times treats single action ... proper function nevertheless treat several and diverse actions The poet

as as

or ,

,

as

he

;

be as

be

.

a

,

;

,

to

of

concerns himself with the universal attending the simple and pure idea things the historian deals with the particular representing things they are like painter who draws from nature The historian thus relates things done they they should they were done the poet relates them done necessarily

to

,

or

he

as

as

or

he

,

.

,

and linked since because many one toward which

of

by

,

connected

makes one out

,

on

its

.

all

of

certain

actions

,

of as of

poetry

and varied The order the interrelationship

is

,

he

.

...

it

,

might verisimilarly and probably done The poet once has undertaken imitate somebody keeps him always and everywhere exactly the same was when first introduced The historian keeps men constant varies them takes them from life depending whether finds them constant unstable

neither does

a

to

)

(

458

,

&

,

in

uerso in

la

, de le , ,

,

&

è in

sia

, de si la ,

;

si

è

La

,

&

, il

la fa se la

.

la

nò . . . .

.

la

,

,

si

, sia

il

,

è

in

stimando

le

,

,

co i

non perche questa ciò ,

,

poesia

che tutto che uerso proprio poesia Percioche poetica facoltà nondimeno scritto bene verso poesia poesie anco non uerso ma imitatione che ciò uero ritruouano poesia questo che Adunque prosa tessute diuersità loro vera differenza poesia prende una sola attione d'un'huomo solo l'altre tutte imita historia

...

crede

cose fatte come elle son tempi consigli con

di

, e i

, i

historia differente come uolgarmente

la

de

La

è

le

,

historia una narration persone luoghi

secondo è

: “

Ibid 4_4v quella prosa scriua in . ,

3v : “

), .p

.” 9

, gliò

.pp

&

,

,

76

1559

con uitupero avenimenti La

Ragionamento

(

75

do

;

since actions are not similar and linked but separate and diverse depend they relate single end.76 one from another nor

fatte con laude cagioni con

.

,

,

its

,

is

of

as it

is

of

,

;

a

by

,

of

it

directs the others servants and domestics serve mistress and this means the episodes which their nature and property always concern the plot which the substantial part and were the form and soul the poem history The order for the most part uncertain disjoined and fortuitous

POETICS : THEORETICAL APPLICATIONS Back of each one of these comparisons there lies some principle derived from the Poetics . If one were to abstract from the passage the sections relevant to poetry alone , one would have a fairly complete statement of Aristotle's basic theory . But in some cases at least , this theory will have taken on a flavor peculiar to Atanagi's text, as in the indication that “ necessity ” to things as they " should be ” and probability to things as they might be . " As the process of opposition continues , Atanagi breaks away from the Aristotelian text, and the basic principles become more exclusively Horatian . refers

"

It

lengthy study of the of poetry and history - Horace aug

is also Horace who presides over the somewhat

resemblances

the two arts

between

mented by general notions derived from the rhetoricians . Both are narrative , but poetry alone uses invocation . Both practise the demonstrative and the deliberative types of rhetoric , and therefore both praise the virtues and blame the vices and both introduce consultations and speeches .

Nor is the type excluded , although history uses it more frequently . Both

judicial

,

he of

is

true

in

,

whatever

-

to

poetry

7v )

prior

its

,

,

for the times

in

.

.

all

extraordinary

of

is

it

to

in

in

history agree seeing poetry comes from history Atanagi's Ragionamento not to

of

.

of

of

an

( at pp art

of

a

it

it

as

on to

so

,

with Robortello part make

,

,

,

a

Both must attempt visual representation what they Although disagrees make live for the audience history and would the matter the classification moral philosophy rather than rhetoric Atanagi seems

.

rhetorical devices are saying

4v

,

produce utility They describe many peoples places customs great variations fortune practise digressions and many

of

present

laws

.

to

all

observe prudence and decorum , both wish to teach , delight , and move — and above

in

is

It

.

La

,

on

collection

of

,

1559

a

in

Padua

in

lished

is

,

.

a

is

in

it

in

to

perhaps unusual facile combination various theoretical traditions keeps them separate for separate purposes and the extent which represented the completeness with which each small compass Like Sigonio's Emendationes pub Cristoforo Rufo's Antexegemata commentaries

isolated

, a

di

gli

certo

de la ,

è

, ò

,

, ne & fa

de gli la

ò

,

.

,

&

de le

,

,

è la

la

,

Il

.

& gli

in

&

,

, ò

, ò

,

,

L '

,

, le le ò

a

al

.

, è

& le

il ,

,

gli . . . .

un

ad

)

,

,

è è la

,

, il

",

, de nè la a la

.

in

:

ne

459

(

,

le &

,

&

di

la

a &

,

i

:

diuerse

poesia

una molte cio col mezzo

quali proprietà sempre riguardano parte loro natura fauola che quasi piú forma l'anima del poema L'ordine historia incerto congiunte ma separate caso percioche attioni essa non sono simili risguardano l'una dipende l'altra medesimo fine

ne

,

,

,

&

a &

,

gli

episodij

a , la

il

. . .

Il

.

,

.

Il

,

&

de le

.

&

,

di

,

da

,

uaria secondo che truoua costanti instabili uariati L'ordine congiunto concatenato percioche ella per l'affinità attioni quale come donna indirizza tutte l'altre come ministre seruenti sostantiale disgiunto

,

si

;

&

di

&

,

,

.

piu huomini nieghi che sono per accidente historia piu come che non proprio officio suo historia anch'ella tratti alcuna uolta una attion sola nondimeno poeta opera intorno trattar piu diuerse attioni l'uniuersale attendendo sem plice pura idea particolare rappresentando cose L'historico intorno cose come elle sono quasi pittor che ritragga dal naturale rico adunque narra cose fatte poeta come elle son fatte narra come elle dourebbono necessariamente come elle potrebbono uerisimilmente probabilmente esser fatte poeta poi che s'ha proposto per tutto quel modo stesso che egli l'ha imitatione d'alcuno egli mantien sempre prima introdotto L'historico come prende huomini cosi mantiene

POETIC

THEORY

passages . They are largely linguistic and philological in character , although some do represent interpretations of texts . As they relate to the Poetics , they state disagreements with such earlier commentators as Robortello and

Maggi .

attāv

The initial difficulty at this point results from which is still defective . For the reading which he had , Rufo disagreed with Robortello's version , “ad naturam rerum , ” and pro posed instead “ ex iisdem earum rerum propriis locis . " His whole interpre On 1456b3 , STIÒ Tāv

eidāv

.

the text ,

tation

of the passage

follows:

think that he meant that , whenever and comedies for compassion to be aroused or a certain horror produced or for something to be amplified or proved or made acceptable to the mind , these things should derived from the very situations proper these actions pavoīto ñSéa Again difficulties On 1456b8 text and Rufo reads as

“ I

...

itself in tragedies

be

,

of

." 77

of , to

.

,

el

all

the occasion presents

be a

.

as

)

.

of

both arts

of

conceptions

:

throws light

of

on

his

of

(

Maggi He interprets the passage supports his own reading against that meaning that there must which still gives difficulty difference tragedy and that oratory His commentary between the language ,

is

it

;

be

.

be a

in

in

to

in

,

,

It

has been said indeed that order arouse the emotions the soul the tragic poet may seek his arguments which the orator seeks the same places indispens them But there should certain difference between them for is

be

.

,

of

by

a

in

a

is

be

it

in

.

in

,

he

of

be or of

of

the tragic poet should most secret and that his words precepts proper that the should not reek doctrine But the orator oratory way that art and the teaching should clear such the force says has manifest luster and what set out clear light Indeed what able that the art

? 78 ,

to

if

his

if

to

of

be

is

to

judged function will the orator have served some things seem pleasantly and agreeably expressed and delivered but speech nevertheless productive not judged this pleasure

On

.

of

of

The comparison the two arts and the notion that tragedy secretly works toward the same moral ends are interest here

ăpa ovußñ

.

he

).

G7

ex

.

, in

vt

,

, si

ex

,

ex

: “

ad

,

." &

.

sit ,

: "

(

&

., .p

78

-

quando contingat G5 GSv voluisse censeo tra misericordia mouenda aut horror quidam incutiendus aut amplificandum aut probandum suadendum aliquid iisdem earum rerum propriis locis eae res omnes comparandae erunt Ibid 66 Dictum quidem est ciendas animi motiones iisdem locis peti argu ),

Antexegemata 1559 goediis comoedis

.pp

77

probability

(p .

,

of

.

a

of

on

,

,

is

again Yevóueva TroieTV The disagreement question poet may with Robortello the whether the imitate events which have actually happened and still remain poet Rufo judges that may providing that such events satisfy his criteria verisimilitude and 1451629 käv

,

vi

vt

,

.

,

? "

)

(

460

expressa elatağue

fuisse appareant

,

&

si

censebitur orator suauiter aliqua iucundè tamen suauitatis non iudicetur effectrix oratio ,

ita

,

.

a

&

in

At

ea ,

.

sit

,

a

quibus menta posse tragico rhetorico petuntur ceterùm inter vtrunque debet interesse quòd tragici ars occultissima oportet nec praecepta aut doctrinam aliquam redoleant denique eius dicta oratore artem doctrinam conspicuam esse decet constet quae dicat splendescere atque illuminari Etenim quodnam munus praestitisse orationis

cius

POETICS : THEORETICAL APPLICATIONS On 1453a32 , και τελευτώσα εξ εναντίας τοίς βελτίοσι και χείρoσιν . Rufo interprets the passage as meaning that the great and praiseworthy men in the Odyssey undergo a fate opposite to that of the wicked ( p . G7v ).

of

sure

Tipáyuaoiv

ŠUTTOINTÉov.

Rufo

insists that the plea tragedy must come from the action itself and not from the spectacle

On 1453b13 ,

¿v TOTS

( p . G8 ) .

On 1461b23 , ñ ws Blaßepá . Robortello is again rejected , since Rufo believes that Aristotle meant by Baßepá those things which are harmful to morality ( p . Hv ) . 1462b13 , pavepov ŐTI KPEITTwv av ein

and

to

to

some extreme

to

of

ill

the tragedy

the spectators refer the

that they might suffer

13 .)

.p

personages

" and reference the passage Rufo declares instead that Aristotle meant

to

of

are contested

.

“ perturbatio

Tábos as

(

his

uārlov . This time it is with Maggi that Rufo disagrees , denying that Aristotle wished to indicate a superiority of tragedy over epic in the achievement of the end proposed ( p . H2) . On 1452b11 , tráðos d'ļoti Tpãeis peapTiKń . Robortello's translation of On

εν

"

,

in

qui

be

15 ).

.p

"

,

&

”

a

as

(“ of

.

,

,

,

δι '

On 1453a9 αλλά αμαρτίαν τινά των μεγάλη δόξη όντων και EÚtuxią Disagreeing again with Robortello Rufo interprets the passage meaning that the tragic hero must those who enjoy great fame prosperous magna sunt opinione and and abundant fortune lautaque secunda fortuna ,

of

VETTORI

,

certain

.

of

in

distinction

a

his predecessors and this alone gives him than those the elaboration the process

acceptable

"

in de

"

"

"

in

,

(

.

great commentaries the primum librum Aristotelis arte appeared traditionally librum such

in

,

the Poetics the Commentarii primum poetarum The phrase

of

)

(

1560

1560 Pietro Vettori published the third

on

In

.

,

by

of

to

Rufo's work belongs the long and slow process concerned with improving the text passage the Poetics and especially with suggesting passage better interpretations His suggestions are sometimes more

of

Vettori's by

them

in

,

of

there are two hundred and twelve

by

small fragments

—

:

.)

of

,

,

of

titles because the assumption that additional books now lost had once comedy and existed and had contained Aristotle's theory the other genres Vettori's work followed the usual plan the Greek text divided into ,

a

.gr

his

an

.

on ,

it

as

,

to

—

division was given first followed translation into Latin followed Vettori's commentary each fragment Vettori's Greek text was the best date based was upon the available editions and upon ancient

)

(

461

) ;

his

in

he

by ,

a

In

.

viii

.

1885

ed . ), .p

Vahlen

(

9

his

(

it

manuscript Vahlen believes that was the Parisinus 174179 Latin general way translation was also own was more interested prede the philological and textual questions raised the Poetics than

POETIC cessors had been , less interested

in imposing a poetic theory

consequently

of Aristotle . Much of the commentary is exclusively linguistic ; certain of his questions and suggestions have been taken up by modern editors . For example , doubts about the position and subsequent

of

in of

,

,

a

of

30 )

by

)

(p .

71

.

of

of

)

( 2

to

imitate and

34 ),

.p

(

the Poetics than were his

connection with 1448619

summarizes these two natural sources the pleasure which men derive from rhythm and harmony He makes the naturalness third whereas Maggi had insisted that this was one the

the instinct

imitation cause

poetry

scholars

the text that

he

.

of in

is

to

is

It

as on ( 1 )

the natural origins

attention

.

1452b14–31 were later shared Ritter perhaps because this close philological frequently more faithful Vettori the spirit contemporaries Early the text for example the text

to

of

in

his

the reading

by

of his own upon

THEORY

of

,

"

of

“

of

as

80 the

,

of

47 )

.p

(

,

At

).

in

,

he

(

[ .p

two sources indicated Aristotle Robortello had earlier rejected this last interpretation which had found Averroës 1449a30 Vettori insists that both comedy and tragedy imitate the actions men departing from the positions Lombardi and Maggi who defined “

an

,

,

,

A of

of

of

).

fv

fol .

be

1450a8 correctly distributes diction and song

to to

commenting

,

,

,

on

,

,

It

.

,

to

, is

in

"

(

of

",

“

expression imitation the actions characters and passions human beings and Averroës who held that poetry was imita really significant difference from Robortello and tion Nature Maggi tragedy found Vettori's assignment the qualitative parts object manner and means will remembered that the two earlier commentators had placed plot under manner spectacle and song under means and diction character and thought under the objects.81 Vettori

,

by

in

of

,

he

,

,

:

of

of

he

,

)

“

to

'

(

in

;

(p in .

of

56 )

he

of

,

"

"

,

,

In

62 ).

.p

(

the manner

,

to

the means the objects and plot character and thought other less extensive developments shows proper insights into tragedy the meaning the text connection with the definition Aristotle constitutes sees clearly that the purgation included 1449623 tragedy the connection with Aristotle's criticism the end Euripides Orestes 1454a29 character Menelaus shows correctly conclusion without the that the plot could very well have been brought spectacle

in

"

,

.

these the

of

).

as

,

of .p

ed . ),

(

of

Such passages orientations

the basic

), .p

In

.

as

,

these

à

, vt

sine tanta nanque clari viri turpitudine fabula neque enim principio res ita constitutae fuerant

)

(

462

ad

.

146 : “

(

1550

."

.

), .p

(

1560 Commentarii commodè perduci poterat sequi necesse foret

.

. ix ,

,

Maggi and Lombardi Explanationes pp 394 and 416 See above chap

fortunate

34 .

,

of

Vettori's interpretations are not however ,

82 81 80

All

so

.

a

327

as

;

to

it

cf.

frequently did Castelvetro 1576 comprehension some demonstrate Poetics

(

he

is

as

is

a

be

;

a

so

in

of

great dishonoring hero ... indeed the plot was not established 82 the beginning such way that this would the necessary consequence interesting here What that Vettori understands clearly Aristotle's does not criticize the based on structural considerations criticism character because failed follow the traditional portrayal later critics

exitum hoc inde

THEORETICAL APPLICATIONS

POETICS :

fit

many cases , the force of the tradition as already established is irresistible , and he makes repeated and ingenious attempts to Aristotle's text into of

that tradition The most notable example remarks throughout the commentary

in

is

is

,

on

in

,

at

of

is

:

;

at

.

to

,

he

his

.

is

,

on

.

found Vettori's relationship the between poetry necessary for and verse His basic and immutable contention that verse poetry and interpretation bends the Poetics numerous places justify that contention This done for the first time the remarks Wóyois virois 1447a29 Vettori states his position ,

this effort

.

he

if

of

,

he

,

of

in

an

in

a

he

of

I

,

is

of

I

to

In

order declare completely how feel about this matter hold that one those elements which make true poets some men metrical discourse Nobody poet can call himself the proper sense the word even imitates and expresses what uses this form wishes excellent fashion unless discourse.83

of

.

of

,

as

)

, in

55 ).

”

( .p

&

"

implying meter 1449b25 He argues again connection

(

of

dvouévq tragedy the definition numerum concentum metrum

ñ

of

,

to

,

,

12 ).

( in .p he

:

in

it

be ,

for Vettori three indispensable elements this On the basis imitation verse and excellent expression assumption comedy who have written condemns those modern writers prose Consonant with the same position Vettori interprets the There would thus seem

poetry

(

.p

77 ).

,

with 1450613 that the passage confirms his earlier thesis that poetic diction necessarily involves verse

of

if

.

its

“

purge

where

of

the Poetics

to

us ,

the first sentence poetry were invented

the

in

is

,

he

The statement becomes more distinctly rhetorical tragedy states that purgation achieved

of

”

the definition

on

to

:

of

an

to

is

,

be

"

putting before our eyes misfortunes which necessarily move our Specifically purgation said answer Plato's banish the poets for their moving the passions

.

to

as

a

in

a

.

This

is

advance and takes away from

quantity and dangerous de

is

12 : “

excessive

in

found when somebody purges them

them what

in

, it is

to

,

at

,

,

.

is

remedy

83

if

they are the contrary judges that these feelings are useful way Nevertheless since times they could spill over such completely irrepressible necessary provide remedy for this evil The

Aristotle moderated be

84

us .

to

in

of

.”

ment

delight

by

souls

,

when tragedy

85

vices and

of

to

commentary

the

Vettori says that the species

in

be

.

of

of on

occurs

in

of

,

be

a

to

reduce poetics

to

of

second example

to

A

Vettori's yielding tradition may found his kind rhetoric There are many examples sufficiently clear we examine those this but perhaps the position may poetry with respect The first passages treating the end audience wish

done most conspicu

" ;

, .

,

,

re ,

,

:

18 : "

cf. .p

,

,

,

,

Vt

., .p

Ibid autem penitus quod sentio hac testificer arbitror alterum eorum quae reddunt aliquos propriè poetas esse orationem metricam nec posse quempiam vere vocari poëtam quamuis imitetur eximiegue exprimat quod vult nisi vtatur hac oratione

."

52 .

:

is , id

."

."

,

463

]

[

.p

,

à

., ., .p .p 2 : 56 : " "

84

"

ab

23 ,

.p

" ;

primo ipsum Nóyov cum dixit poeticam orationem est certis mensuris illigatam intellexisse and where Vettori claims that prose not acceptable for the poet remotamgue ipsam penitus existimo officio poëtae Also vitijs purgandis atque oblectandis Ibid cum inuentae sint nobis ponens ante oculos casus qui necessario moueant animos nostros Ibid

the passions and teaches how

this end and heals the violence ,

,

it

of

of

arouses means

. 86

of

it

of

and the outbreak the passions means two them which presents on the stage i.e. and moderates through the actions which pity and fear

by

by

all ,

In

far

.go

ously indeed by tragedy , which sets bounds to one may fact tragedy devotes itself

all

THEORY

to

POETIC

ad ad

,

);

So

"

( .p

”

& &

,

ad

ad

in

" "

,

: “

in

,

in

of

Moreover the verbs used later repetitions these formulas are ones constantly found rhetorical treatises timorem iniiciendum misericordiam mouendam accommodatos metum iniiciendum misericordiam timoremque animis spectatorum excitandam 101

.

of

ad

78 ). se

( .p

”

of

97 96 )

;

( (p .p .

” ,

ad

in

this passage

"

persuadendum

and

"

ad

persuadendum

again to

...

comedy must sumere materiam aptam their actions are those which magis aptae sint Vettori states the whole position very clearly

in ).

"

69 ) ;

(p .

"

capere sine dubio animos spectatorum dictated the fact that both tragedy

by

“

”

to

animos and has power The need for verisimilitude

is

,

ac

“

).

”

(p .

magnum incutere animis eorum tragedy 134 for the parts Recognition and reversal make for tragedies which vehementer capiant spectacle animos hominum ducant ipsos quò velint allicit

is

,

87

.”

to

to

;

of

: “

In

connection with verisimilitude fact the end the poets obtain the belief the listeners for which reason poets must adapt themselves persuade their judgment and express those things which are apt

of

.

its

of

of “

to up

is of

in

of

These rhetorical orientations are apparent Vettori's theory the expectations The audience nature the poet's audience and

of to

in

]. ” 88 to

, in

is

all ,

he

art

“

:

the poetic

attempts

for

the

avoid monotony will use probable

to

he

;

89 "

"

Above

For

to

).

.

it

,

the listeners and

use episodes

)

.

(p (p

to

of

in

the beliefs

will

244 and especially

subjection

insinuate itself with every

56 : “

to

).

,

he

;

it [ in

of

elegance and pleasure

and tedium for the spectator 251 gain credibility materials order

86

.p

of

to

to

.

those who hear this marveling and this fear sake

be ” (

I

“

go

it :

in

tragedy made the multitude seated the theater 183 The poet must strive brought upon please say that nothing must the stage which would counter the wish and the desires the specta very opposite poets please tors Since the seek them the effect would result from any such unacceptable materials The poet must strive provoke the minds will use surprise move various ways

:

)

464

,

."

&

pauorem

."

hanc admirationem

ac

,

,

in

,

ad

:

.'

&

, id ea

& est

,

animis eorum qui audiunt

(

efficere

in

:

163

: “

Ibid

,

ad

: “

: “

., .p

., . .p ”

89

sit

88

se

., .p

,

scenam inducit excitat moderaturgue est misericordiae metus adipisci assensum eorum qui audiunt quare Ibid 260 finis enim poëtarum proferre quae sint apta persuadendum accommodare debent eorum iudicia Ibid 122 nihil inquam afferri debere scenam quod contra voluntatem desi spectatorum deria cum enim poëtae placere studeant ipsis contrarium inde penitus sequeretur 87

quae

,

,

& in

rei ,

:

sit :

.

,

, ac ,

,

:

,

in

est

ui

, si vt

ita

., .p

Ibid contra vero Aristoteles iudicat motus hos temperatos esse utiles verun reprimi possent opus esse huic malo tamen quia aliquando effunderentur nulla quis antea ipsos purget quod nimium impor remedium adhibere remedium autem esse tunumque illis tollat Hoc verò praeclare facere tragoediam quae modum adhibet docetque quatenus progrediendum ipsa enim incumbit huic omnibus perturbationibus curat impetum exultantiamque perturbationum omnium ope duarum quas factis

THEORETICAL APPLICATIONS

POETICS :

as

in is of of a

his

on of

as

.

he

,

, in

90

."

all

means possible , into their minds , seizing upon means useful for this purpose and rejecting their opposites The rhetorical bent expresses itself finally Vettori's emphasis upon special poetic diction We have seen earlier that regards this one necessarily involving the use the distinguishing features the art and

all

,

he

“

...

, to it

of

the poet's genius the poetic faculty

of

it is

to

, "

all to

terms

proper bring

since

as to

a

its

reduced

is

special diction for verse and becomes distinctive quality

to

,

in

." 91

;

to

:

In

.

commentary specifically states that diction verse 1450613 not the same for prose and for poetry not words are proper the same way both kinds for the poets have certain words which are properly their own which are only little used prose When this demand

,

it

.

of

”

,

“

,

of

”

on

“

In

92

. "

embellish diction with words and the beauties this kind certain parts the poem then Aristotle suggests the poet will cultivate all the flowers and beauties diction toward rhetorical inter Vettori interprets result the prevalent critical tradition For one thing meaning better than men Aristotle's better like worse our times nostra aetate worse similar nunc

as

In be

:

;

24 )

(

.p

of

or in

...

is

of

of

,

,

tragedy are said connection with character again the personages middling condition highest birth while comic persons are those the nature the tragic hero clarified this later passage

22 to ).

of

he in

on .p

"

“

(

.p

of cf.

20 ; “

as

"

,

or

"

or

,

.

,

miscellaneous

or

,

(

),

"

a

elements appear

of

,

verse and the tendency

certain number

of

a

Besides the insistence

pretation

of

by

,

,

he

he

.

an

)

(

to

in

to

his

be

is

.

all

a

of

he

be a

of

should not man the people some lowly person but one the number those who have great name and are rich and favored fortune with advantages This opposition not the fact that Aristotle does not provided with extraordinary virtue For wish this same person

of

in

of

is

he

,

,

in

.

,

of

of

in

approves being excellent praise and esteem even though honor and glory are usually the companions speaking virtue Indeed terms the judgment the multitudes who admire the appearance virtue more than virtue itself and false more than true glory.93

see these

qualities praised

in is

when they

,

,

." ,

ad

:

studetguo seruit enim ars poëtarum opinionibus eorum qui audiunt qua potest animos ipsorum captans quidquid hoc aptum

insinuare omni ratione est reiiciensque contraria 91 ,

(“

"

"

,

291

: “

Ibid

for those who watch

in

life

., se p .

90

useful

,

to

:

.

,

on

,

Vettori's distinctions among characters are social whereas Aristotle's had been moral Similarly Aristotle's four requisites for character take the good morally good contemporary meaning this f or becomes

."

:

sit

sit ."

,

è

à

,

&

,

ut

: "

: e

,

aliquis

: “

., .p

123 non vnus populo obscura aliqua persona sed numero eorum quorum magnum nomen est quique opulenti sint atque fortuna omnibus commodis Non repugnat autem quod ipsum uirtute aliqua praestanti praeditum esse non vult

Ibid

., .p

93

92

,

in

:

77 : "

., .p

quamuis non omnia verba eodem pacto conueniant vtrique generi habent Ibid prosa enim poëtae sua quaedam propriaque verba quae non magnopere vsurpantur Ibid 264 Cum facultatis poëtarum ornare verbis orationem omnesque huiusce modi concinnitates adhibere

,

,

."

)

(

,

,

sit :

ex

465

ac :

,

&

.

ornati eundem tamen laude existimatione excellentem probat quamuis uirtutis comes honor loquitur enim gloria plerunque opinione multitudinis quae admiratur magis imaginem uirtutis atquc inanem quàm veram gloriam

POETIC

THEORY

the plot and accepted with approval , are impelled to imitate those deeds which spring from these characters, and they try to become just such persons " 94) ; " appropriate ” refers to decorum and such considerations as the sex

of

the century

of

the personage ; “ like ” means like the characters

being depicted ; and “ constant ” means self -consistent ( pp . 144-45 ). For matters other than character, also , Vettori calls upon traditional

interpretations . The meanings assigned by Aristotle to “ imitation ” are crossed with those found in Plato , and true imitation is identified with the dramatic manner ( p. 26 ) . Tragedy is said to “ purge ” other passions besides pity and fear ( p . 57 ), and thus the notion of an effect proper to a given genre is lost . All statements concerning necessity and probability reveal that these are understood

in

the context

of nature ; thus

a man wounded in the

heart " necessarily ” dies ( p. 81 ) and things which could “ probably ” happen are those which common opinion admits to be such ( p . 94 ).

On the whole , while it cannot be said that Vettori presents a general theory of poetics at variance with that of Aristotle — I think indeed that there is no general theory contained in his commentary - it is nevertheless

perhaps

a

own

.pp

.

of

does not impose upon Aristotle a total theory of distinguishing quality his work

is

his

true that many individual interpretations derive from current thinking about poetry rather than from insights into the Poetics itself. However , Vettori makes many contributions to the text and to the translation , his remarks are sometimes original and acceptable , and the very fact that he

,

V

as

,

.

of

)

(

it in

on

,

to

)

57

In

de

(

to

be

added what has already been said Chapter 156– Quintij Horatij about Pietro Angeli's arte poetica librum annota put chronological place around 1560 among the com tiones except mentaries Horace which made use the Poetics Angeli his references

Little need

;

of

of

of

it

of

to a

.

,

be

to

)

1561

(

PIGNA

to

us

V it

If

of

in

or

of

do

,

to

Aristotle indicate used one the editions Vettori's commentary but permit exactly these references not determine whether was that 1560 that 1573. were the latter then course our treatment Chapter moved later date would have him here and

is a

of

on

,

we

pp

.

a

-

a

it in is

"

"

;

on

,

of

commentary Like Angeli's work Pigna's Poetica Horatiana 1561 each one the full scale one presenting but the Ars poetica lengthy explanatory remark eighty precepts The Horace found correspondences which Pigna found between Horace and Aristotle have at

);

.

,

at

.

be

at

(

V ,

already been summarized Chapter 160–61 the present time may look more closely the particular construction which Pigna puts expected there are many points which his upon the Poetics As might

,

:

in

,

)

466

ab

,

(

ad

ea

."

&

,

: “

., .p

94

fabulis laudari Ibid 143 hoc enim uitae prodest nam qui spectant cum haec plausugue excipi vident illis moribus proueniunt facta imitanda excitantur quae ipsi tales euadere conantúrque

POETICS : THEORETICAL APPLICATIONS to Aristotle give no hint as to how he understood him . Such , for

references

,

( pp . 10 , 12 , 23 ) and on meter ( p . 32 ) and his distinction between artistic and nonartistic errors ( p . 16 ) . But there are three broad subjects on which Pigna offers a rather extensive interpre tation of the Poetics : ( 1) imitation , ( 2 ) necessity and probability , and ( 3 ) example

are his remarks on language

character . on

.

.

2 )

in is

the reason

;

one man

do in

one action poem

(

,

,

as

of

is

of

the like and the worse

treat the better

we of

beauty

as

seeking

,

,

that both

The object imitation defined that we must judge the case which our understanding embraces

.p

,

of

of

six

The passages on imitation concern everything from the nature of imitation qualitative parts tragedy Commenting the first lines Horace Pigna avers that poetry and painting are both imitations and

itself to the

is

,

a

( .p

of

to

to

to

as

as

—

to

—

56 )

a

to

it is

. " a 95

“

in

human affairs single action more readily than when poem directed towards several ends The magnitude similarly related our capacity for understanding the whole must not surpass our ability attend our willingness well remember for

,

a

In

repress the pride that spectacle

in

,

)

96

terms

to

.

these topics related

of

so

Aristotle

effects upon the

to

as

is

a

a

to

an

is a

“

poemate statuendum rebus humanis amplectitur quàm plures fines ,

nostra commodius

,

si

uerò

, vt in

Ita

), .p 8 : "

(

76 : “

in

., ." .p

he

( Il .

),

.

"

Poetica Horatiana 1561 quibus vna actio contemplatione posceret

coherent whenever they are necessary vague current generali allusion the matter concerns Horace's sixtieth finds Horace saying that verisimilitude

of

]

digressions will little more than

zation His main treatment precept 338-40 where 95

be ,

97 — the is

(

"

or

“

one— They probable

the Poetics what Pigna has although such reference the first

the text

of

related

say about necessity and probability

in

Much more closely

to

.

,

than

, so be it in in is

is

its

,

,

in

;

so

,

by

Whatever Aristotelian elements there might

96

human life and

our individual lives but rather because while we are attracted our wearied mind refreshed and ceases burdensome purified the soul throws off every care and

imitation are stated more audience

consequence more

of

us

)

(

in

tragedy does not purge for the reason that we become and that those emotions teach the tragedy

circumspect

thoughts

;

is

)

them

:

purified

”

"

are

of

.

its is a

(

of

the spectators

(

...

on

.

of

:

of to ,

,

of

-

it

.

be

negligibly small general way different whole must not imitation produce different effects and this gives the basis the distinction among the genres tragedy produces horror comedy wit and proper the epic admiration The effect each genre itself but some commentary tragedy becomes how since this Horace the effect identified with utilitarian end Pity and terror are aroused and the minds the

objects

&

467

vt

aut verisimilia

."

necessaria

,

quoties

ar

:

à

herentia

ita

.

:

,

& ,

autem

)

Erunt

(

Ibid

,

., .p 3 : : “

97

,

." , &

,

permotiones illae nos humanae Ibid non purgat quia cautiores euadamus superbiam nostrae premant Sed quia dum illo attrahimur vitae calamitatem edoceant spectaculo aegra mens reficitur cessat duris cogitationibus animus omni solici tudine exuatur itaque purgetur

POETIC

of our

THEORY

as spectators . This accounts for Aristotle's impossible statement that the verisimilar is preferable to the incredible Pigna true . identifies Aristotle's necessity with Horace's verisimilitude ; thinking gloss but Poetics 1451a37 shows that himself necessary and contingent actions be

το

Indeed those words και

το

τα

:

is

he

of

pleasure

on

his

condition

ή

it

at

,

in

,

times verisimilitude

as

,

at

in

as

history

.

,

of

necessary

,

is

at

For times the truth poetry.98

.

or

it

is

:

is

,

is

is

this sense

to ;

in

δυνατά κατά εικός αναγκαίον must under that elkós used for the contingent and avayxaiov for the necessary and elkos not distinguished because verisimilar but because proper things which may either happen not happen Indeed SUVatd that point are verisimilar things and these some are contingent others necessary stood

at of

of

of

be

,

to

It

.

,

,

of

.

,

:

to

to

,

in

of

in

of

The terms the Poetics are thus interpreted the light other theories might appropriate Aristotle not the light his poetic theory this point indicate that Pigna frequently refers other works the Aristotelian corpus the Rhetoric the Ethics the Politics the Posterior Analytics the Meteorologica

for things which

are easily believed

,

,

,

to

for things which

the other

,

divided into two kinds one ,

is

First verisimilitude ,

poetic genres

.

separate

to

of

.

is

A

in

of

;

.

in

is

,

The most extensive and detailed treatment materials from the Poetics given however connection with character Following Aristotle Pigna states that both character and passions are derived from plot but Aris totle's four requisites for character are justified terms verisimilitude special schematism provided consistent with Pigna's general position the verisimilitude and the four requisites for the relationship are believed

it

,

.

by

or

,

, ; in

by

:

is

it or

,

in .

is

with difficulty The former includes known things and the requisite for propriety comparison the latter includes unknown things itself comparison Thus the and the requisite for resemblance itself following diagram results Verisimile

)

pinione

(o

όμοιον

similes

)

in

collatione

ομαλόν (

)

(

se (

per

collatione

αρμόττον personarum qualitas

χρηστόν

)

in

se

per

difficile similitudo ignotius

)

(

facile quod decet notioris

be a

of

a

& , TÒ :

TÒ

& kai eis ,

as

of

,

as a

of to

It

be

then follows that Aristotle's XPNOTÓv would the appropriateness woman's character her nature woman and his åpuÓTTOV would compared with that appropriateness child the same character the

."

)

(

,

ut in

468

;

ita

.

, À

de

,

sit

de ,

tà

79 : “

:

vt in

,

.

ibi

,

sit

vt

de

., .p

98

pam verba illa dvaykalov Ibid SUVATI KOTÓ ELKÒS sunt intelligenda contingenti ávayxaiov elkos dicatur necessario atque elkos non distinguitur quae possint accidere quia non accidere Siquidem SUVATà uerisimile sed quia quorum alia contingentia alia necessaria est enim necessarium modo sunt uerisimilia poesi historia modo verisimile uerum

POETICS : THEORETICAL APPLICATIONS

to

as a

a

,

is

,

we

,

to

since the heroes are traditional

and the epic

ÕUOIov

,

tragedy

but this

not true for hence only oualov is

such poems

;

observed

In

.

genres

all ,

must

99

. "

by

serving different

as

to

him Pigna believes that the first quality XPNOTóv mentioned for never consider any person oualov and ouolov Pigna sees them

make the distinction exhaustive action himself With respect be

as in

only

, “

ascribes

.

to

of

his

or of a woman from another country . Aristotle's oualov is consistency of character with itself throughout the work , whereas õudiov demands the prince personage resemblance such the character which opinion

by

its

all

,

of

is be

,

on

,

,

,

a

of

to

,

.

At

).

( , .pp

comedy where persons are invented and where applies 46–47 Both qualities moreover are needed the orator and the historian later point finally commenting Horace lines 153–60 Pigna affirms that ápuÓTTOV must considered especially with age respect this the most difficult characters and that the

in

,

of

a

to

.

of

,

on

is a

as

its ;

in

of

(

.p

53 ).

applications Many Pigna's Gli heroici also published the same principles appear 1561 indeed the second work constitutes clarification the first insofar dealing with concrete cases provides examples the principles Gli explain Pigna's own heroici short treatise meant introduce and

an

or

,

he

;

to

,

,

,

, an a

“

in

:

”

So

of

,

to

,

,

epic this work will possess some heroic poem poetry some features peculiar the epic and some ,

to

a

,

As all a

).

a

it

all

9–10

qualities common

a

in

of

of

.

in

by ,

(

.pp an

of

,

an

end

da

heroic poem the fall Alfonso Este tournament the poem subject follows the same volume His choice the was dictated says the fact that contained their proper form the seven circum person great stances civil operations action relationship place persons the action and mode for and occasion instrument

of .

"

“

Similarly the particular ,

11 ).

,

.

among the serious genres

:

to

“

truth classes

it (p

to

of

tragedy and the epic

Heroico

...

its it

is

"

specifically

relationship

his

it

relates

in

it

tragedy characteristics which will share with the related form for the part single most the statement that contains one action one illus application except that the general illustrious trious person

In

...

his

a

to

,

it is

in

of

.

is

be

.

a

it a no is " a

if

to

is

it

in

,

a

in

in

“

in

coloring this imitation consists verisimilar thing upon true one comedy and certain other poems sufficient that the thing should said verisimilar way even there truth present But heroic poetry tragedy necessary and have foundation some true thing since not reasonable that great event should have occurred some great and famous gentleman without being widely known.100 ;

,

,

by

of

is

.

la è

."

in

nunquam tamen personam vllam actionibus solam consideramus questo imitare sopra una cosa uera colorire una uerisimile

1561

11 : "

heroici

(

Gli

), .p

., .p

Ibid

45 : "

10099

is

,

In

Pigna's poem the true event the fall Alfonso from horse the verisimilar consequence that the guardian angels headed Mars

)

(

469

sia . "

si

,

è

&

,

si

,

di

il

ui

di

è

un

un

in

in

.

ui

&

nella comedia certi altri Poemi basta che cosa dica uerisimilmente ancora che non sia uerità alcuna ma nella Poesia Heroica che sol nome detta Epopeia nella tragedia necessario che sia fondamento cosa uera non essendo ragioneuole che sia gran fatto qualche gran Signore segnalato che diuolgato non occorso

POETIC

THEORY

with God for his life. This latter action constitutes

should have interceded

imitation ." It will be noted that the action as described contains elements both of tragedy and of the epic : first , there is a mutation of fortune which relates it to tragedy ; second , there is a perfecting of the actual events which relate them to the epic . The emotional effects are equally mixed : pity the

"

101

and terror accompanied by the desire for honor (on the part of common men ) and the desire for magnanimity ( on the part of the great ). “ And thus in addition to the emulation of illustrious actions , which will be the princi pal passion , pity and fear will touch our hearts every time we read a heroic is

,

;

( .pp

.

to

,

to of

poem having tragic elements . ” Finally the action combines elements the active and the contemplative lives the active life more proper private citizens Thus Pigna's poem leans illustrious persons the other

this world may the space one

in

of

of

of

be

,

so

,

).

in

:

,

to of

longer than tragedy since the accidents things may easily sudden that these contained

a

all of is

... the epic change

of

by

in

,

is

more towards the active which both heroic and tragic 65–66 Tragedy differs from epic the limits time and these turn are imposed believe the audience the willingness

be

,

a

an

of

to

is

in

fit

or

its

presentation

to

to

this way

made

of

102

a

,

by a

to

so

of

in

he is in

,

a

a

,

in

,

of

of

the action itself and the circumstances

an

,

is

to .

The nature

one single day give account required set forth the life

composition not too long since waiting spectator listened

This

not

read

be

of

great prince

be

is

he

has something divine him nor can his greatness soul not less than month

that a

.

in

it

of

.

an ,

day And they thus become useful for the stage which does not admit too much passage many days should time since not proper that action represented four hours ... And since man may not short time show

.

the

of

is

in

in

.

, all

as to

,

of

in

,

to

to

contained

Gli heroici that provide the basis the

the three books

serve two purposes

,

il

gli

76 .

.p

V.

,

ci

,

& Et lo

cosi ancora oltre alla emulatione delle attioni illustri che sarà l'affetto spauento cuore ogni volta che leggiamo una toccheranno c'habbia del tragico

pietà

."

Poesia Heroica

14 : “

, ., la .p

Ibid principale

,

101

able

clear from what Pigna says

theory has been made

102

comprehend what

to

these must

: “

of

be

to

is ."

It

103as

insofar poem

,

;

,

,

,

to

,

of

it is

audience will thus determine whether for epic for tragedy Regardless the genre the poet uses certain devices common also the the present his materials these are such rhetorical means orator enthymeme the example the deduction the conclusion These are adapted general the capacities the audience One considers men

un

.

in

...

Et

,

di

si

ne

il

di

un

a in

:

14 : " è

&

:

., .p

piu lunga l'Epopeia della tragedia perche accidenti delle cose del Ibid rinchiudono facilmente nello spatio modo che essi subito mondo possono variare uengono d'un giorno seruire alla scena che non comporta troppo tempo per non essere quattro hore perche douere che una attione molte giornate sia rappresentata .

&

,

)

(

da

: in

gli

."

de

."

470

ad il

di

in

la

ui

23 : si " si

a

di ,

di

103

è

., .p

,

puo non cosi tosto l'huomo dimostra hauer del diuino solo dar conto del suo grand'animo uita d'un sopremo Principe dichiarare uuol meno d'un mese non troppo lunghezza douendosi leggere cosi fatto componimento non stare che non udirlo come spettatore quanto che cssi hanno riguarda l'uniuersale esser huomini Ibid capaci contiene nel Poema cio che

THEORETICAL APPLICATIONS

POETICS :

poem itself and to justify , after the fact , certain features of that same poem . In this way the " theoretical applications of Aristotle's Poetics is two - edged . But it is at best a vague and general application , since most of the Aristo telian principles taken over are now hardly recognizable. One is aware of their presence in certain formulas , and one realizes that they are there because one has seen them earlier in the Poetica Horatiana .

especially

MARANTA ( 1561 )

In 1561 also , but some time after the publication of the Poetica Horatiana , Bartolomeo Maranta undertook to expound the Ars poetica to the members of the Accademia Napoletana ; the lectures are now found in MS R.126.Sup . of

If

the Biblioteca Ambrosiana.104

have a place in the

these discourses

present chapter , it is because Maranta seeks to cast some fresher light on the interpretation

of Horace by referring at length to the Poetics. He con himself only with the first two " precepts " of Horace , which he interprets as treating the relationship between plot and episodes . The inter pretations of Robortello , Maggi , Vettori, and Pigna are rejected ,

he

,

first

...

all

,

Aristotle

."

"

" )

"

meanings

Maranta suggests that we must define carefully the episode says has three favola and Plot

" ; ( " it is ,

in of .

,

inadequate Instead meanings plot

as

all

cerns

at

,

,

.

of or

or

...

.

;

of

all

in

to

is ,

...

in

of

,

is

to

plot

is

the

of

the universal and the episodes The third that which concerns the action proper this meaning plot restricted solely the true episodes that that part the poem which begins from the first chorus and ends the last chorus.105 that way

the whole aggregate

...

or In

,

,

it

;

all

as

is , is

of in

of

. . . .

from the universal does not differ one formal part among the six except the addition names for the universal the plot and the principal action the whole poem are one and the same thing the second way plot any other poem the same thing the tragedy the comedy the epic

no

of

he

,

is

he

:

of

”,

Annali

these discourses the article in

is

,

),

(

II,

.

,

di

epi

29 : "

sei

.

105

sum

critica letteraria

VI

nuovi manoscritti

della Scuola Normale Pisa Serie XXIV 1955 115-25 for the dates and the attendant circumstances The MS now being discussed No. mentioned

of

Maranta

di

Bartolomeo

a

in

”

.

“

to

can say that the universal contains within itself :

See my article

he

;

we

,

this way

, “

104

In

to

to

as

to

external the unifying plot The distinction makes belong episodes story between which the general and those which are integral say about plot and episodes the plot has this the Aeneid

of

the poem

to

as

in

Maranta's disagreement with his predecessors consists the fact that they regard episodes part external the action whereas can admit

...

, e la

28

la

o

o

La

la

...

la . . . .

.

de

-

.

la

o

è

la

il

di

se

.

.,

MS Ambr R.126.Sup fols 128v una parte formale delle non differisce nomj perche l'vniuersale punto dall'vniuersale aggiuntione non per fauola principal attione poema sono tutte una cosa medesima tutto Nella maniera quello medesimo che Tragedia epopeia Fauola uero comedia altro poema

e

et

si

la

.

in

...

."

in la

e

cioè tutto l'aggregato della vniuersale delli episodij terza maniera della Fauola quella che uersa circa questo significato ristrigne solo attione propria fauola nelli ueri episodij cioè tutta quella parte del poema che comincia dal primo coro finisce nell'ultimo coro

)

(

471

POETIC

THEORY

sodes , considering , however , those episodes which truly belong to the principal action of the whole poem , but not to the plot which the poet has undertaken principally to write . And these episodes are the most appropriate when taken from within the action for they are like a part of the principal action and they

are truly necessary ; the others are indeed drawn from within , but they are not considered as parts of the principal action.106

In these passages , Maranta seems to be distinguishing one kind of plot which contains the whole of a story in general terms and the episodes proper to it ; a second kind which specifies this story in terms of a single action and named characters, and the episodes proper to it ; and , finally , plot as a qualitative part of a tragedy or an epic . In the last sense , the " episodes " are the sections between the choruses of a tragedy , for example . The preceding remarks constitute the substance of Maranta's second discourse . In the third , he repeats Aristotle's recommendation that the poet find the universal plot , the “ modello , ” then add names to it , then supply the episodes. The dominant principle of construction is unity and the plot must be so knit that the removal of any episode would spoil the whole structure . Unity must exist independently of episodes . There seems to be some wavering and inconsistency when , later in the same discourse , Maranta declares that the episode is a quantitative part ( adding " volume " a

,

.

of

he

,

In

on

.

of

to

its

plot constitutes combining to the poem ) and that as such addition quantitative formal and elements the fourth discourse Maranta gives further details episodes The episode the definition and use

does nothing else but extend and augment the plot and the universal telling how what summarized the universal has come about ... nature and end none other than tell the way which the complica

its

.

107

in

to

is

its

is

in

, “

by

says

is

.”

is

,

of

is

,

.

It

"

to ,

successive poets

In do

treatment

.

by

in

of

a

“

,

of

tion and the solution the plot are brought about The plot thus story episodes the immutable invariable eternal the are the variations poet can bring which that story clear that Maranta here speaking terms traditional accepted stories and their particular

in

,

its

the poetic

art ,

it

the most important aspect

of

be

.

its

to

considers

and

30 : “ A

he is

what 106

to

.

a

.

of

The fifth and sixth discourses little more than repeat and expand the totality the manuscript belabors discussion the same materials repetitious and monotonous way Maranta's ideas about plot and episode perhaps gives very extended consideration But this chief worth For

;

Et

a

da

da

gli

il

di

-

.

se

di

di

.,

questo modo noi potremo dire che l'uniuersale contenghi Ibid fols 129v Episodij pigliando pero quelli episodij che sono ben del fatto princi dentro somma pale poema ma non della fauola presa principalmente scriuersi dal poeta tutto questi episodij sono più proprij presi dentro l'attione perche sono como parte della

la

...

et sia et la

.

la

fa

si

)

(

472

la

sia et

."

el

il

dj

si

fa

: “

. "

il

et

si

: li

di

.

.,

il 107

; et

attione principale sono ueri necessarij altri ducono bene dentro ma non hanno parti della principale attione consideratione Ibid fol 146v non altro che dilatare accrescere fauola l'universale con dire modo che quello che nell'universale dice accaduto non altro sua natura quale solutione della connessione modo con dire suo ufficio senon fauola

of

of its

POETICS : THEORETICAL APPLICATIONS .

,

the

.

At

is

it

',

reading

in

solutions for this aspect the text the Poetics Maranta's frequently closer and more adequate than were his Aristotle although has some notable failings any rate his presen predecessors it seeks

, in a

,

to

all

.

.

. ,

;

in

of

, is

of

of

.

if

--

to

of

tation the lectures Accademia Napoletana must have seemed new boring and informative During the same months 1561 Maranta wrote for Giovanni Villani clarification some the points made his lectures the manuscript his Latin now Ambrosianus R.118.Sup fols 117–24v The additions

in

by

is

of

.

to

he

,

“

:

is

on

it

to

the usual way

,

of

of

.

of

theory are significant Most important his rejection dividing and interpreting the Ars poetica seeking invention disposition and elocution His the parts corresponding rejection who wishes We believe that Aristotelian grounds

statement

,

its

,

In

.

.

to

the variety means having enumerated

of

to

indeed

,

for the imitation

,

is

...

made

As

divide the Poetics itself according

which the imitation poems the kinds

.

seems

it

of

to

to

)

by (

Aristotle

108

. "

of

be

,

to

to

or

a

to

divide poetics must seek division proper and which does not belong any other science any other art The distinction rejected belong ing any possible use for poetics place rhetoric cannot apply the divisions Maranta will try the Poetics the Ars poetica

...

,

,

of

of

of

in

,

in

,

or

in it

in

,

be

:

of

. . . .

a

by

to

the latter three

.

it

of

and omitted the last three these we may easily using similarity derived from the first kind three types He divides the first three very carefully into parts Then there are species are present parts some like ideal forms the whole two kinds actuality whence potentiality than rather revealed the poem and can adapt

...

.

by

"

“

is

of

of

be

to

;

”

by

“

"

I

, ” if

they are properly called potentials may use that term The others are the parts which Aristotle calls quantitative because they divide the same poems actually existing these have also come integrating into parts called parts since brought together and made means them the body the poem

...

A 109

is

.

,

in

,

all

by

.

of

an

of

as

of

,

a

into whole just the body animal means the members perfect master poets must reveal these six parts one one which what Horace indeed accomplishes albeit not the same order that Aristotle used

of

,

”,

,

"

of

,

he

.

: “

.

,

." , et

propriam mauimus 109

Oportere autem eum qui poeticam partiri cupiat fol 117v quae nulli praeterca arti aut scientiae conueniat diuisionem quaerere existi .,

MS Ambr R.118.Sup .

108

,

of

:

to

of

The consideration the first qualitative part plot brings Maranta back his constant theme the discussion fabula the conditions for unity and episodes Here makes another important remark too

a

: "

...

.

in

;

...

ex

:

.

.,

poeticam ipsam quibus imitatio Ibid fols 118-18v uarietate instrumentorum perficitur partiri uidetur imitationem uerò enumeratis poematum speciebus omissis uero tribus posterioribus tribus prioribus per similitudinem quandam acceptam facile ipsis accommodare possumus tria priora diligentius partes scindit Sunt autem partium

...

ut

fit .

et

ex

.”

)

(

473

...

ex

,

in

in

...

et si

.

:

in

duo genera aliae quidem ueluti formae siue species sunt toto poemate quae potentia potius quam actu ipso ostendi possunt quam obrem potentiales hoc verbo utar merito appellantur partes actu Aliae sunt partes quas quantas appellat Aristoteles quia existentes eadem poemata diuidunt has etiam integrantes appellare consueuerunt quia ipsis ueluti corpus animalis optimus membris poematis corpus coalescit totum autem poetarum institutor has omnes sex partes sigillatim ostendere debet quod quidem exequitur Ho tius tam non eodem ordine quo Aristoteles usus est

POETIC

THEORY

frequently missed by his contemporaries : the plot is an imitation not of men but of human actions , of the fortune and misfortune that is found in such actions (fol. 118v) . Again , the principle for choice and exploitation of ).

fol .

of

(

a

of

,

the original argument concern episodes ,

.

return

to

,

to

relationship

of

, of

precepts

to

of

its "

Horace's first two unity plot and

”

as

by

,

its

unity and Maranta summarizes the three kinds a plot is false unity person single war listed Aristotle that time and 120

by

CONCLUSIONS in

in

;

To

us .

to

in

the century

the present period

although perhaps to

imagination

played

,

be

to

the game continues

of

to

of

as

”

“

.

)

(3

it ,

its

to

)

:

2 )

game discovered early

a

as

it

Some within poetica was

the range

(

,

of to

tionship

if

.

the uses which the Poetics was put during problems connected with and rela other critical modes the uses the Poetics are already familiar seek many passages parallel the text one could find the Ars

of (1

consider three questions

these years

be

,

of

on

.

we

to

of

,

of

.

of

to

The years 1550 1561 are marked several developments the history Aristotle's Poetics Not many these are new since critics and com mentators early established the main lines discussion with respect the text But some the emphases are marked and significant and the tradi tion takes new general lines These may perhaps more clearly seen

with less vigor and accumulate increasingly large

or

of

in

is

.

as

.

the ban put upon

some slackening

of

of

an

.

be

the latter for the perennial question

the Republic Here again there seems

the poets activity

to

imitation

,

or in of as , at "

"

of

an

of

to

of .

is

The tendency now less parallels and more investigate detail the similarities plot and episodes theory between selected points Maranta's study example here Another favorite use may serve for confirmation refutation Plato's ideas the former for such problems the meaning numbers

a

,

be

in

,

of

,

a

,

a

in

:

be

,

an

as

a

is

in

,

he is

as a

is an ,

of

be

to

.

on

-

if

—

of

,

a

,

in

the art

of

only occasionally original treatments the Poetics poetry themselves based essentially other principles When starting Benedetto Varchi his Lezzioni della poetica takes Aristotle point for theory which turns out entirely different kind

of

the exploitation

,

,

to

.

,

of

;

of

all

of

to

.

,

is

in

—

least the texts studied this incidental rather than may generalized dominant preoccupation The procedure indeed critics continue use Aristotle incidental authority the exposition fragment there will passage here kinds theories used for miscellany specific points systems rhetorical the illustration poetical and historical Something newer something that really gives the tone this decade

of

474

)

(

which they

do

.

,

satire take their suppositions from the Aristotelian text frankly admit that they are modeled Both Giraldi and Pigna

,

,

on

on

a

an

to .

.

of in

of

making just such use activity which him Newer still the type using the Poetics provide order and framework for new tragedy comedy and theories the genres Thus Giraldi's treatises consists

the same

POETICS : TIIEORETICAL APPLICATIONS thing when they develop

their theories of a genre unknown to Aristotle , of procedure, since they

the romance . But here there is a basic difference

must start with the admission that only a part of Aristotle's theory will be applicable . The extent to which each will depart from the dogma will depend first upon the way in which he reads the Poetics , second upon the which he is willing to accord to the new genre dissimilarity fundamental similarity

- an

the

arguments be

constitute

in

or

which were later

taken into and the moderns -must here any case the Poetics becomes more immediate and more ”

the ancients

In

to

“

quarrel

of

the

some

—

.

Many factors of

epic

its

involving

independence

to

of independence

degree

is

.

of

as a

on of

,

to

as ,

as

,

of

.

of

.

These statements

such matters

are

the identification

of at

,

to

the Poetics

as

.

,

tions and the general approaches first largely descriptive They relate

of to of

be

by

;

is

is

in

of

,

of

to , be

,

,

In

all

For the century wears and abstract commonplace thought theories become modes kinds works both old and new come examined and judged the light those theories perhaps distinctly the 1550's the effort more toward examination than toward judgment for the problem discover what kinds state employing the terminology the distinc ments can made about works .

basis for practical criticism

.

or

of

,

a

to

it

,

in

.

consideration contemporary when used contri true whenever this way The same theory though genre may butes the new even the contribution take the form only isolated precepts miscellaneous remarks One should give special attention finally the use the Poetics

of

to

at

,

the

,

I

”

,

,

of

.

of

,

"

with the Poetics mean distinguished from the subjects just discussed the kinds treatment which the text itself was actually subjected With some these again

we to as

of

.

,

long difficult and subtle process problems connected the range By ,

on

attempted

criteria from principles

is a

,

of

some time before evaluations will

the same text since the derivation

be

of

be

a

In

.

of

will

be in

It

of .

criticism basis

of

,

a

of

episodes

.

its

poem

,

the plot the summation character the discovery They unity respect and make affirmations with the the plot and the decorum the characters word critics are work testing the ways which the text the Poetics may useful for practical

the parts

,

all

by

as it,

in

,

of

.

are already familiar There was only one major commentary during these years that Vettori 1560. Aside from however there were the partial

In

.

:

475

be

one

witness

(

,

,

distinguished amateurs seems also from the universities

this period

to in

in

(

of

of

an

academy

emphases

]

newer

[

of

the

literature was his hobby rather than his correcting interpretations and restoring the handling the text public The latter way

of

tradition

.

interested

Aristotelian

lectures before

,

,

an

popular expositor

)

profession

in

other

as a

as

.

at

,

of

,

to

,

the text

be

to

of

Sigonio and Rufo such writers these philological linguistic there seems increased attention and textual problems and many useful suggestions are made for the improvement the text Both Vettori and Maranta work with the text close range the primarily professor one erudite concerned with the text itself the examinations

POETIC

THEORY

Maggi in the 1540's ) the Poetics passes to the academies ( witness Maranta and Varchi in the ' 50's and '60's ), thus to a wider and less specifically professional audience . Lombardi

and

of

.

be

be

is

is

in

,

of .

to

its

,

is

,

.

or be to

to

to

it

a

a

as

.

of

,

to its

its

But while attention on the text becomes fixed more closely and while universality seems audience grows contested This results largely apply from the attempt new genres the new exploitation old ones The scope the Poetics for example narrowed specifically applicability when such theorist Giraldi doubts the romance Such limitation may have serious consequences for the authority suggested Aristotle matters literary contested and the probability may sought elsewhere that there forms for which rules must Like

.

be

he

,

by

,

be

It

as

.

of

a

in

.

to

its

,

to

in .

be

of

—

to

to

as

of

no

to

,

,

is

, in

preferable when the same Giraldi declares that the double plot implies that modern tragedy the single one demanded Aristotle principles may longer applicable changes art the Aristotle Hence linked with certain works and certain the principles themselves come principles Despite such restrictions the influence times and cease grow the Poetics continues certain ways still remains the source theory poetic genres and for much new about new such writer Atanagi history main orientations are applied the art One should wise

a

,

,

to

in be

It

.

to

In of

by

is

in

in of

the former are solved

reference

some cases the procedure

exaggeration

to

an of

be

to

.

be

of

,

to

of

.

of

As

is to

the statements the Ars poetica would not say that read with Horace most cases Aristotle

uncertainties the latter

of

complication thus not see diminution during these years but rather attitudes and the raising some healthy doubts for the relationship Aristotle's theories other critical modes few changes are noted Horace continues the dominant authority Aristotle's text on poetic questions and the most frequent assimilation mind and that the

the relative certainties

—

.

,

,

is

of

by

as

is

to

an

.

its

us

of

,

,

,

,

of of

in

of

in of

of

art

.

of

I

,

;

-

is

.

and difficult passages Horace are illuminated citation the Poetics As usual we find that coupled with Horace and sometimes not distinguishable from the rhetorical tradition mean course his bearing upon the interpreta tion Aristotle One still thinks invention disposition and elocution poetry and Maranta's vehement protest the essential divisions the thinking assures currency Perhaps this against this kind the most striking way which the Middle Ages continue exert influence reversed

,

,

of

precepts

of

medieval

of

of

the whole collection

of

the addition

of

by

completed

"

“

,

in

.

is

of

.

of

upon the interpretation the Poetics Almost equally prominent though the medieval conception the literary genres For many the com Aristotle are mentators the abstract and partial statements found

to

,

an

to

,

all

.

,

an

us

.

)

476

(

of

is

.

,

,

:

,

for the genres subject matter kinds characters type action and example here Related ending style tone Pigna provides the with the insistence upon decorum which perhaps combines same tendency emphasis the influences already mentioned This leads increasingly upon social distinctions when Aristotle had made ethical distinctions and

POETICS :

THEORETICAL APPLICATIONS

upon ethical distinctions which derive rather from tradition than from the of a particular poem . Among critical modes which had more recently become current , the one

needs

most usually associated

with the Poetics is that of Plato's ideas on imitation . of the central doctrines of the work , it was only natural that Plato's texts should be called upon for elucidations and for supplementary ideas . Otherwise , little influence of Plato is felt in the inter pretations of Aristotle . Aristotle himself becomes one of the main sources of light on the Poetics ; the other works , especially the Rhetoric , are studied Since imitation was one

more and more intensively , and some of the theorists present complete sets of cross references to the whole of the Aristotelian corpus . These are not always happy or useful ; but they indicate a realization of the usefulness , for an understanding of any one work of Aristotle , of studying his other writings . Finally , during the years under examination , there is an increasing desire to ask questions about the relationship of Aristotle's theory to Christian subject matters and Christian attitudes toward the art of poetry. No polemic is as yet engaged . In the years to come , however, when practical criticism becomes more diversified and when the great literary quarrels develop , these considerations will have significant effects in the whole development

of Cinquecento

criticism .

(477 )

CHAPTER ELEVEN . THE TRADITION OF ARISTOTLE'S POETICS : III . THE VERNACULAR COMMENTARIES TENDENCIES just outlined , those that gained the prominence in the years now to be studied were the newer

F THE VARIOUS greatest

O

rather than the older ones . The Poetics becomes , in a sense , a more “ popular " document ; formal and erudite commentaries in Latin , search ing linguistic analyses , tend to give way to treatments which will be acces sible to a larger and less professional audience . Again , within limits , the older modes will continue to be practised . But there will be more numerous academic discourses , many practical applications , a certain number of vulgarizations . These will culminate in the two great vernacular commen taries , Castelvetro's in 1570 and Piccolomini's in 1575 Italian translation coming in the intervening years , in

TOSCANELLA

with Piccolomini's

,

1572 .

( 1562)

In

.

its

of

simplifications

and students

the printer

,

is

merely presenting

beginners

;

certain basic texts for the benefit

ho

Toscanella states that

of

,

his preface

of he

all

Given these general trends, it is perhaps significant that the first work in the present group should be Orazio Toscanella's Precetti necessari of 1562 . This is a frank work of vulgarization , as were those author

a

.

,

pages 80–89

La

.

:

of to

on

,

the

occupies

,

of

:

:

"

:

Toscanella prepares text mentioning topics and then summarizing say what Aristotle has those topics The tech the treatment these opening lines

in — for

sia be

in

kind catechism shorthand form nique may seen

* 4 ).

" ( .p

del

no

is

...

more than that

of

for

it

del

.

,

a

Avanzo makes similar statement fatto imprimere l'arte poetica d'Oratio Flacco L'arte poetica d'Aristotile L'arte breue del Lullio Vna parte poeta Minturno The digest Aristotle's Poetics

.

.

.

no

,

.

cose

che

might not

fully under

On the whole

,

form

.

tabular

be

).

statement

a

simplified

Nelle

80v

to to

imita

( . .p

si

in

digest

:

è

in

ha

when even

Nel Modo dell'imitare

tre termini

Toscanella reduces the ideas

of

,

differente

Nelle cose con che so

,

Moreover stood

è .

Imitatione

imitano

.

si

La

la

,

la

.

poesia considerata poesia Che cosa uniuersale IMITATIONE hor con questa hor con quella cosa secondo diuersità delle poesie Che cosa habbia per per genere l'imitatione Differenza della imitatione genere poesia La poesia

the

it is

;

of

of

see

for

.

an

as

must have been value the serious Aristotelian but highly interesting 1562 would what the schoolmaster indication have told his pupils about the Poetics a

in it

of

of

by

.

is a

of

.

to of

,

a

subdivisions which Toscanella un ,

make progressive )

478

(

and differentia and

to

to all

,

a

of

is

interesting typical The digest other reasons We can reading period compendium the Poetics for this the solutions which had been reached for the difficult problems the text There kind way proceed genus scholastic undertone the treatment wish

VERNACULAR COMMENTARIES

POETICS :

doubtedly thought appropriate to the handling of an Aristotelian text . If we merely take the text in the order of presentation , we find some of the typical solutions of which I have spoken . The means of poetry , as exempli fied by the epic , may be verse ( of one kind or several kinds in the epic ) or the genre , at times do not ; thus men

prose . The objects at times determine

“ better than others ” are found in tragedy

our

and the epic , men “ like

contemporary uncertainty resulting especially ,

from the imperfect

of

all

selves ” are found in comedy , and the “ worst ” men in any one of the three ( p . 81v ) . On the natural bases of imitation , Toscanella gives the correct reading : "Imitation , which is most natural . The deriving of pleasure from imitation . " 1 His translation of the definition of tragedy displays the state

an

:

the text

,

,

of

,

as

,

,

of

in

,

is

by

.

pity fear.2 six

means

,

,

of

.

by

he

but

does

its

in

of

.

a

of

,

is

Tragedy imitation virtuous perfect action Which has magnitude species with pleasant speech separately each one the parts those performing speech who are actions Pleasant that which has number harmony Conducting the PASSIONS not sweetness means narration the epic poem

,

,

,

;

"

.

of

,

if

,

“

,

,

comes

of

to

distributing the parts tragedy among object man adopts imperfectly ner and means Toscanella the system Robortello Apparatus and music are the instrumental parts character elocution When

the

of

of

,

he

.

of

“

“

is

or

:

is

composition elocution the the everything which shows does not show some

83 ).

.p

”

'

'

(

”

and discourse

sentenza

,

Its

.”

of

the other parts are equally strange verses

“

it

).

,

(

”

;

it

—

no

,

or

the “

final parts i.e. those which are imitated The plot should represent subject means but Toscanella calls rather part parts gives says material since the invention are reversal and recognition mention knot and solution Definitions some and discourse are the

of

to

,

So

or to to

;

: "

a

of

,

,

The pleasure derived from tragedy through pity and fear results from tragedy results from pity the learning moral lesson The pleasure and from fear for when the spectators see such terrible misfortunes hap pening such great persons they learn suffer patiently their own cala it

as as

,

naturalissima

Il

, la

qualc

è

the

a

82 : "

Imitationc

an

of of ,

is

of

in

), .p

(

1562

pigliarsi piacere

La

."

I

.

of

to

Precetti necessari dalla imitatione

.

.

of

,

bear them

.” 3

that the pleasure springs from the LEARNING plot highly instructive showing episodes The treatment and does tendency the think terms theme rather than action consti Vergil whose single tuting the unity plot Toscanella uses example mities

gli

,

Misericordia

.

ma per uia

di

:

poema heroico

.

,

.

.

,

come

di

.

è

Narratione

fà ha in il

non per uia

,

AFFETTI

di

.

è

,

: “

,

2

., .p

Tragedia Ibid 82v Vna imitatione d'attione uirtuosa perfetta Che habbia grandezza con parlar soaue separatamente ciascuna sua spetie nelle parti coloro che quello che uan negotiando Parlar soaue Numero Armonia Dolcezza Conducendo ., ." li p .

Timore

:

."

a

,

il

;

in

.

)

(

, ò a

,

479

&

: “ Il

le

3

piacere della Tragedia risulta dalla misericordia Ibid 83v dal timore perche spettatori casi cosi terribili successi persone cosi grandi imparano uedendo comportar patientemente supportarle Tanto che piacere nasce dallo IMPARARE calamità sue

POETIC action is constituted by

THEORY

exploits of Aeneas after he came to Italy ” (p . 83v ) ; the other matters are said to fall outside the poet's intention and to constitute digressions. These are “ those things which the poet treats departs from the matter undertaken when which digressions however entirely unrelated must not the matter proposed but must have part appropriateness Toscanella's translations the passages on pity and fear both show basically the tragic hero and on the nature

in ,

,

,

a

of

” 4

of

to it .

an

to

be

,

he

all

“ the

.)

(I

,

by ;

or

: “

.

of

sound understanding the text italicize significant words On the tragic hero Those pass into misery who are not excellent either for virtue for justice not for their vice nor for any iniquity but for some error is is

."

of

,

is

in

. " 6

to

.

to

a

us ;

we

,

so

:

“

of

;

in

glory and prosperity committed them who are placed fortune tragedy Pity concerns him who On the effects not worthy that him who should not fall into misery and forth Fear concerns him who like for fear lest similar thing should happen our own selves

of

,

"

“

(" to (“

in

to

“

of

which must always express

,

)

"

;

to

of

)

”

concerns the passions

tudine

”

)

"

(“

”

;

to

of

.

“

.

in

to

The solutions with respect the four requisites for character are less distinguish felicitous The principal difficulty lies Toscanella's inability among them He says that goodness bontà consists the assigning good characters good people that appropriateness conue speech nienza involves assigning the proper kind men and women according the characteristics their sex that resemblance simili the

basic

” )

(“

”

p

).

.

(

of

).

(

.p

to

.

of

is

,

,

,

a

we

of

At

of

“

;

constancy ugualità requires character the person and that uniform presentation the person's desires throughout the play 85v the end the digest find number miscellaneous precepts for tragedy and the epic some which reveal essential interpretations The epic poem 87v The contain numerous plots said for example

(

of

as

far

So

—

.

be

is

,

of

,

by

,

of

no

,

is

.

All

.

—

he

), a

of

.

is

of

be

tragedy must varied since satiety would result from too stability swollenness much similarity Epic verse characterized but variety languages and the use not the blameworthy kind meta phors Narrative imitation and here opposes Aristotle the most speech must excellent kind forms based upon reason doctrine concerned these remarks are no more miscellaneous than the episodes

of

or

It

volume ;

il

."

)

(

480

degno

&:

,

in

,

il

,

a

cioè chi non douerebbe perche dubitiamo che somi ;

simile

;

ci è

a

chi non

chi

.”

, è

a

intorno

Paura intorno noi medesimi

è

da

ne

,

ne

,

." ; in

La

à

, & c .

cadere miseria gliante non interuenga

è

: , “ o

Misericordia

85 : “

in ., .p

Ibid

per uirtù per giustitia sono eccellenti miseria iquali gloria loro che ma per qualche errore commesso

La

di

., .p

5

Ibid 84v Quei passino per iniquità non per uitio loro prosperità fortuna posti sono 6

;

in

,

4

., .p

poeta partendosi dalla materia incominciata Ibid tutte quelle cose che tratta quai digressi però non uogliono essere tutto lontani dalla materia propostasi ma hauere parte conuenienza seco

in

i

84 : "

While Toscanella's thumbnail summary presents the Poetics

in a

.

of

;

.

of

organized presents systematic interpretation rest the work Aristotle's Poetics but isolated translations and commentaries reveal important interpretations the passages involved

POETICS : VERNACULAR COMMENTARIES which

contained

the other essential treatises , Bernardo Tasso's della poesia ( published in 1562 , but probably delivered be

also

Ragionamento

fore the Accademia Veneziana in 1560 ) attempts to combine Aristotle's theory with various others in order to make an elaborate defence of the art . Essentially , Bernardo's sources are these three : the elements of the

Boccaccian defence of poesy

, the

allegations of universal knowledge found

in such texts as the Vita Homeri , and Plato's ideas on the divine furor ( see above , Chapter VII , pp . 282–84 ). In this context , Aristotle plays only a

the

art

minor role . He is corrected and clarified with respect to the distinction be tween poetry and poetics ; poetry , says Tasso , is “ the universal material of

be

actors

is

...

laboriously

:

to

of

be

,

in

,

art

,

its

.

of

deduced

of

suffer from the inadequacies

pre

regarded limitations for his own purposes the Poetics eminently useful for the practising poet especially this

poetry had discovery Before the from the reading the poets themselves

generation

the matter to

,

,

;

writer never has

its

as

to

of its

In

(

,

is

.

of

Tasso

5 ).

by .p

spite

con

,

'

,

,

statements about is on

,

,

of ,

these types and descriptive

them come from elsewhere Aristotle contradicted again his preference for the tragedy over epic for Tasso the epic ferred because

as

of

is

in

a

”

(“

six de le

,

,

:

.

rambic But the definitions

,

an

4 ).

of

"

.p

. " 7

in

to

to

the whole poem , ” while poetics is “ which teaches the poet how arrange well and according itself rule this material which Strictly poetry passing fused Aristotle provides definition imitation human actions una imitatione attioni humane poetic genres which He provides much more extensively the Tasso distinguishes comedy tragedy epic auletic citharistic and dithy

of

in

by

by by

,

of

in

, , so

of

now the poetics that most famous philosopher which teaches the art writing poetry with such orderliness and long buried such detail the dark shadows the world's ignorance and happily translated into the Latin language ,

of

a

us

and perfectly expounded and interpreted the erudite Robortello and our most judicious M. Vincentio Maggio and the excellent M. Pier Vittorio con poetry.8 ducts like sure and dependable escort along the difficult roads as

,

, in

,

its

is

as

far

As

)

.p

. (

,

: e la

di

il

di

se

V , .p

,

de

,

fidata scorta per

)

(

481

et

difficili strade

de la

, e

,

quasi sicura

conducendo

le

,

, e

ne la

ne

la

: "

interpretata

, ." et

ua

,

, e

.,

et si 8

del mondo Robortello Vittorio isposta

di

poetica quel famosissimo filosofo laqual con tanto ordine hora insegna l'arte del poetare tanto tempo l'ignoranza l'oscure tenebre sepolta perfettamente dal Erudito felicemente latina fauella tradotta dal nostro giuditiosissimo M. Vincentio Maggio dal Eccellente M. Pier

Ibid 9-9v particolarmente

ci

an

at

è

da

,

.pp

."

al

poesia poema materia uniuersale tutto regolatamente essa materia disporre insegna confusa

1562 bene

a (

7

Ragionamento poetica l'arte che Poeta

his son Torquato On the treatise and date see and Chapter VII 282. Aristotle

163

) , , p et . 3v : “ la

,

Chapter

la

poetic achievements above

of

as a

to

of

.

8 )

M.

(

de

in ,

on

as

The same Bernardo Tasso figures interlocutor the principal authority tragedy and subject praise the anonymous Tractatus Perugia Biblioteca Comunale 985 tragoedia found the manuscript The praise accrues him through the character and the recent

poesia

POETIC

THEORY

concerned , the main problems of the treatise are two : How does it happen that we find pleasure in the artistic representation of objects which are themselves distasteful ? And how can we justify the practice was condemned by Plato ? Aristotle

of an art which to both questions . It

gives answers

a

of

)

to

[

]

,

[

of

the

should be noted at the outset that , in general, the appeal to Aristotle is understood to be a departure from an earlier way of solving problems about poetry . Trissino ( author of the Sophonisba ) and Bernardo Tasso are assigned the opposing points of view : " one Trissino urges narrower poetry definition one scrupulously subjected the injunctions be

it

is

of

.

in

is

of

,

of

,

its

to

,

,

so

we

is

!

of

things the imitation nature's principles

by

,

a

in

all

we

is

present For who does not know how much delight drink with our minds certain joyfulness that

in

:

no

is

to in

. " 9

by

to

of

,

;

Aristotle while the other thinks more liberally that should defined according perceptions the judgment the multitude nature and poets the examples supplied With respect the first the questions the answer found the pleasure which men take imitation There essentially that direct reference the Poetics but the position Aristotle

,

,

a

play

life are

? 10

by

on

—

,

if

is it,

pleasure treme not this that vices bring when presented and produced the stage vices however that the very truth rejected the most discriminating minds and eyes and ears

of in

.

of

of

...

in us

of it

as

of

of

,

intimately involved with our faculties that with incredible pleasure see the representations things and the semblances persons and images the truth and were the forms actions copied through imitation For what ex

,

.

it

of

do

of

by

.

of

as to

to it

as

to

Imitation supplies the answer the second question well for the plea objects contemplation and actions makes the assures sure that possible coats the pill One instruction Imitation devices use them emphasizing may thus contradict the strictures Plato and Proclus to

a

of by

be

in

the ways

the system

, et

alter angustiorem

,

.

it

a

: "

.

fol 100

,

a

literary form not treated him the reading Thus the Poetics reveals implies reading discover what kind

of of a

to

another

considers

to

to It

.

MS 985 M.8

ceptionibus

it

is

of

Aristotelian

necessarily it is

,

Com

1562

applies what

Aristotle

discussing

.

Bibl

.

,

in so

In

.

9

Perugia

doing

(

and the principles

dialogue our problem

chapter

it

the preceding

of

in

Carlo Sigonio's De dialogo noted

),

pedagogy

.

to

,

to

,

of

,

.

in

of

poetry education This course has nothing although anonymous with the Poetics the author seems make direct transition from Aristotle's views on imitation these other views on the usefulness

religiosa cogit prae ,

,

,

, et

et

, et

e

ut !

in

: "

.

.,

10

."

,

Aristotelis deuinctam alter dissolutius iudicio multitudinis naturae sensibus poetarum exemplis definiendam putat rerum imitatione suauitas Quis autcm ignorat quanta insit Ibid fols 1034–4 naturae principijs implicitam sensibus animo imbibimus omnes iucunditatem quamdam exempla rerum ueritatis simulacra personarum cum incredibili uoluptate spectemus

...

,

!

? "

)

(

482

in

.

et

,

in et

,

,

imagines Quid enim est illud nisi hoc actionum quasi ſiguras imitatione simulatas scenam prolata uitia tantum oblectationis afferunt quae tamen ludum est quod ipsa uitae ueritate fastidiosissimis animis oculis auribus respuuntur

POETICS : VERNACULAR COMMENTARIES

of the precepts for dialogue ostensibly Having derived from Aristotle . no basic text to work with , Sigonio must proceed by analogy , and he starts from a supposition that the dialogue is like three other forms : poetry , oratory , and dialectic . It is like poetry in and to summarize

the character

" "

several meanings

un -

,

.

is

',";

11

“

its

res ,

that it is an imitation ; like oratory in that it uses prose rather than verse ; like dialectic in that those things which demand reason and inquiry the same Before we can proceed with the analysis we must point out that Sigonio .

,

a

it of be

to ,

a

of

.

in

of

,

in

is

,

.

It

.

"

the poet and the orator

of

is

to

“

imitation

in

The first Aristotelian Imitation copying the common consists basically style merely another writer When this consists the imitation lan way guage and figures and speech may serve writer's own ends uses

in

.

as

as

history

in

indicate arts

of

to is

,

of

,

but

.

,

or

feigning

or

to

.

,

At

represented and actions are presented imitation takes place the same time the term

equivalent

be

of is to

of .

of

it

;

is

.

This would seem

persons

that wherever discourse

other forms such

imitation

come under the same genus

,

and the epistle

not clearly defined

the Poetics The genus

in

.

to

oratory and the dialogue ,

,

be

to

it

poetry

related

the sense given

is

The third meaning

the narrative and the mixed seems

, a it

,

.

is

,

of

in

to

Platonic

it

is

Empedocles own person and Aristotle's rejection The second this kind imitation favor distinguished refers the dramatic manner from

arguments ;

poet

meaning

in

speaks as

as a

always

his

,

it is

be

to

as

it is

an

improper pursuit and condemned When instead makes the writer assume the personality his model and write such properly done and way praised mistaken for the model Amazingly enough Sigonio cites Plato's condemnation the poet who but

roughly

.”

by

,

as

at

good

the laws handed down treating the actions

of

all

a to

of

events

is

good poetry

to

by

counter

for example

of

The test

,

going

gay narratives

elsewhere 12

by of

13 --

”

us

by

;

if

imitation the poet fails great the master

seeking

places

."

and

"

men

descriptions

and pleasant

by

and discourse

,

of

of

.

by

“

classified

as

"

"

"

as

be

invention Thus Silius Italicus and Lucan poets not poets because they described these wars feigning they episodes historians And achieved this will and interweaving the deliberations the gods and goddesses with the meetings may

,

,

,

...

.

a

is

, ”

"

“

instrumentum

narrative dramatic and mixed

as

dialectic the

“

"

( .p

Aristotle had con The res 10 ).

as

,

as

those

modis ;

of

,

a

same differentiae

instrumentis

be

he

-

a

the

ab

,

ca ,

combines 13 : “

,

modus

“

; De

12 11

the

”

are the same

we have seen

prose

rebus

as

it

examining

, " a

by

of

definition

sidered for poetry as

a

to

a

of

single man whole war rather than single action will bad poet dialogue Sigonio belongs genus poetry Since the the same will seek

one may

.

&

,

."

)

(

483

Id

."

&

&

,

,

&

a

., .p 4 : “

13

."

,

,

,

), .p

3v : ( “

., .p

ilialogo 1562 quae disquisitione egent ratione quod Ibid bella haec non historicorum sed poetarum more descripserint episodiis pro arbitratu fingendis deum dearumque consiliis hominum concionibus intexendis atquc festiuis rerum narrationibus iucundis locorum descriptionibus aliunde petendis conscquuti sunt Ibid contra leges summo doctore traditas

POETIC see

that

THEORY

in Plato's dialogues. The definition thus has but few resemblances of poetry , which Sigonio gives as follows :

to

.

,

he

of

in

,

by

of

,

,

is

]

of

,

by

an to ,

as

performing the action

Aristotle came

(

,

thus when

in

he

)

when they use both manners And tragedy turn the treatment concluded from these principles that tragedy imitation those actions which are grave men using verse harmony and rhythm undertaken conducted the persons presentation only action.14 (

personages

or

the

The matters which the poets represent by imitating he finds to be the actions of men of grave or of light character or of those in between ; the instruments which contribute to the imitation are speech , harmony , and rhythm ; the manners of undertaking the imitation : when they use continuous narration , or introduce

of

to

, to

of ,

of

"

in

decorum

.

theory

a

really

of

.

.

(p

is iii )

the dialogue

of

his total theory

,

he

,

,

"

is

or

14 ),

.p

(

Indeed

by

it

to

his

,

as

he

,

it .

.

he

a

In

such statement this Sigonio remains fairly close the text the adapts Poetics When own purposes does not attempt declaring for example deform Indeed soon departs from Aristotle style the rhetori the middle that the proper style for the dialogue cians that the fundamental problems the handling the dialogue are decorum and verisimilitude

of

,

in

is

be

of

of

it

as

praised

18 ). “

( .p

of

be

, is to

obeys the laws insofar verisimilitude and through the observation imitation which every form decorum prescribed with respect made perfect For fact what else need The form

of

? " 15

to 16

men

;

of

the arts than

the most learned

. "

of

in

,

the judgment

to

in of all all

all

,

"

there was never anything more difficult these ends even

in

at

it in is

,

,

in

,

,

to

per this form besides the fact that based once observation keeping one's attention on them times places and causes and Even his dedication Sigonio insists that matters relative the dia logue must obey above else the laws decorum and verisimilitude sons

accomplish Essentially

of

as

:

of

.

to

seem

Rather will that

seem

is

nature that when

a so .

invented not

to

is

is of

such power and such

causes the thing which 10 : "

14

it

This poetic verisimilitude present

it

:

,

of

in

he

.

is

of

,

,

to

which reduce one have their end convincing the reader being said They concern two elements the truth what the dialogue speaks For the man speak the man speaking and the language which ing verisimilitude poetic requirements gives the character according assurance of truth these laws

,

,

ad

,

;

.

his

ex

,

,

;

&

,

,

,

,

in

,

,

est

."

,

,

a

de

&

,

18 ac : “

iii : "

,

., .p ,

."

,

)

,

&

484

(

in

quae decoro primis uerisimilitudini seruiant quibus tuendis officiis omnibus artibus ſuit unquam uel doctissimorum hominum iudicio difficilius

Ibid in

16

Ibid personarum positum nihil

principiis tragoediam imitationem tractationem tragoediae descendisset grauibus susciperentur hominibus earum actionum quae uersu concentu sola personarum inductione initam genere praecipiendum Quid igitur hoc aliud nisi utrunque atque animaduersione esse temporum locorum caussarum consideratione

., ? " , .p

15

esse conclusit rhythmogue

,

deinceps

ad

,

,

,

, ., .p

,

Res quas poetae imitando simularent aut grauiorum aut leuiorum aut qui his interiecti essent actiones esse inuenit instrumenta quae imitandum rhythmum afferrent orationem esse concentum modos ineundae imitationis cum iidem aut perpetua uterentur narratione aut quasi agentes inducerent aut utrunque Itaque cum Ibid hominum

POETICS : VERNACULAR COMMENTARIES invented which is in strong contrast to the true and which achieves no resem blance to truth , that is , whatever is in disagreement with persons , times , and places and either contains no causes why it should be done as it is or contains improbable causes .

The same passage contains the explanation of verisimilitude ( or decorum ) in language : “ Just as in fact not every man can do every thing , so it is not verisimilar that any one man should speak in every kind of discourse . And for the reason that there is no action except in time and in place , it is be also expressed

is the case in given circumstances

necessary that whatever

in the manner of speech . ” 17 The whole position is later summarized in a single formula : “Poetic decorum is involved both in the imitation of the characters of men and in the creation of appropriate speech . ” '18 This statement is followed immediately by a reference to Aristotle's four re

for character . In the remainder of the treatise Sigonio seems to ” —a natural transi

quisites

pass imperceptibly from “ mores ” to “morata oratio

tion since the same basic law applies to both . What starts as an attempt to apply Aristotelian distinctions to a new genre thus becomes little more than an expression of the current theory of decorum in literature. Clearly , Sigonio still writes at a time when the impli

of

.

all

cations of Aristotle's method are not clear , when it is easy to pass from one methodological critical context to another , when there is no notion at rigor

.

his

in

an

.

to

is a

It

).

“

,

.

.

is a

,

,

of

19 ,

(

,

”

on

,

in

.

IO

to

,

of

in

The next document our chronology however displays rigorous method another kind the method the philologists This letter from Pietro Vettori Bartolomeo Maranta dated Florent XIIII Kal reply Ianuar CIO LXII i.e. December 1562 earlier praising letter which Maranta after Vettori for his achievement in

,

in

,

.

on

commentary the Poetics expressed disagreement and asked clarification points chap several The passages involved the discussion found ”

“

considered

or

do

why does Aristotle include them

Hoc

at

arts

,

poetic

"

“

.

they are not

est

17

If

discourse

,

by

,

?

"

“

arts They should not since although they use one several poetry they the means used not use the distinguishing means poetic

of of

-p

as ,

:

as

1447a13-28

be

Poetics

),

sculpture

(

painting

,

dance

,

the

,

by

all

"

”

;

I

II,

as

ters and concern the distinctions among the arts mimetic and poetic here are Maranta's questions and Vettori's answers laying Should not the arts mentioned Aristotle such flute

this ,

ut

,

&

,

)

(

485

in

,

."

in

,

in

.

,

, Vt &

,

a

,

,

,

,

in

uersatur

."

conuenienti affingenda oratione

estest

et

.

in ., re p . est , 20 : id “

18

,

ita

, sic sit ,

.

sic

,

,

&

ne ., .p , ui : est“

,

18v

,

potestatis atque naturae autem poeticum eius cum adest efficiat res ficta uideatur ficta autem uidebitur quae uero longe abhorrebit nec ueritatis ullam similitudinem consequetur idest quae cum personis temporibus locis discrepabit caussas nullas cur factum aut certe non probabiles continebit enim non quicunque homo quancunque rem agit non uerisimile quencunque hominem quocunque sermone uersari quoniam actio nulla tempore nisi loco propterea quod etiam oratione exprimatur necesse est Ibid lam ucro decorum poeticum cum imitandis moribus hominum tum Ibid

POETIC

THEORY

point ? He does so because , like poetry, they are mimetic arts

of

spite

of one of

the fact that the more use

constitute imitation .

and this in

;

the means does not necessarily

Is not the use of any one of the means of poetry in a given work a suffi cient reason for classifying it as “ poetry " ? No ; the presence of discourse ( " oratio " ) is absolutely essential . Indeed , if diction is present (accom , adds Vettori , by verse ) in a work which imitates, we will have a poem . The crux of the whole matter, says Vettori, is the distinction between μίμησις and ποίησις , between the arts one side and the poetic arts

sages

Once we understand the basic difference the disputed pas philological distinction provides ,

the other

.

on

all

on

panied

a

;

in

Aristotle become clear thus the basis for important philosophical 1563-64

)

(

MARANTA

developments.19

of to

in

,

a

,

of

on

is

to

of

;

)

a

,

(

of

.

in of

.

of

a

chronological arrangement fols 125–32v purports

to .

in

I

.

to

discover and observe

discover Aristotle's central intention but soon drifts into other related problems Aristotle's purpose says Maranta reduce method the rules and precepts the poetic art means which the poet may become perfect This attempts for two reasons because recognizes the importance poetry badly practised human life and sees the extent which the art complete his philosophical system and because wishes Such reflec study tions these bring Maranta the relationship between the )

.

;

is

of

a

as

to

.

to

he

in

to

:

he

of

.

” 20

of

to

“

a

.

it

,

is

,

he

,

by

,

of

(

the discourses

to

The first

or as

pendant the Accademia Napoletana the series Horace's Ars poetica Four the lectures sketches for them are pre they date from the years served MS R.118.Sup the Ambrosiana generality rather than attempt 1563–64 shall treat these their order to

for delivery

. It

he

a

as

a

in

he

a

at

Bartolomeo Maranta raised these questions with Vettori time when study was himself engaged Aristotle's Poetics not order publish commentary Vettori had done but apparently for series quite possible that these were meant lectures which was preparing

"

of .

, of

all

: “

—

... they

ruling cities and justice fortitude

,

,

, of

art

of

of

the prudence

manner

.

et

ad

,

]

[

486

ad

,

,

ad

."

;

. "

: et “

.

.,

21

,

: "

),

.

.,

.

fol

,

R.118.Sup

(

107-9 praecepta artis 125 methodum redigere regulas poeticae quibus optimus fieri poeta possit praecepta morum pertinet quod Ibid fol 126 nihil omittunt quod artem regendarum urbium plena sunt omnia praeceptorum prudentiae iustitiae forti domuum tudinis temperantiae

MS Ambr

1586

.pp

21

libri

X

Epistolarum

and teaches

the moral sciences

of to

to is

,

."

;

In

and temperance 20 19

,

).

,

,

The poet like the philosopher treats and this especially true omit nothing pertaining moral precepts houses their works are full the precepts 125v

arts and sciences

—

(“

et

:

to

.

he

;

philosopher and the poet finds that they are one and the same thing The same definition applies both their pursuits the science divine and human things scientiam rerum diuinarum humanarum fol

POETICS : VERNACULAR COMMENTARIES

If there is a difference between the two , it is one which redounds to the credit of the poet and makes him superior to the teacher . Since he uses examples rather than naked propositions , his works appeal to the senses rather than to the mind ; they are therefore more apt to move the passions and to affect the reader. Maranta summarizes his argument thus :

.. not only do they (the poets ) teach things as do the others (the philosophers ), but they make them more powerful through examples . Indeed , the poets teach them better because more clearly , since , as they move the passions and display

to a

of

or

of is

,

it

him who does not wish makes itself accessible whereas unadorned philosophy reaches few men.22 it,

,

diction into the soul even greater number men

;

of

,

by

.

,

it

understand whence comes about that they drive their listeners their readers away from knowledge Therefore the ancient sages said that poetry penetrating through the sweetness much more useful for this reason that to

city

,

its

the habits , they place the things themselves before our eyes in such a way that we seem to see them and to touch them . But the pure philosophers , when they treat a discipline by abstracting it from matter weary the mind and the capa

an

—

of

,

it

of

to

In

.

.

and imitation considerably from his original The next step the argument

pro

in at

(

.

)

is

.

of

to

.

in

discussing Aristotle's purpose the same time brings him back Aristotle and removes him farther the direction Plato The new argument reflects Aristotle's statement Poetics 145165 that poetry more philosophical than history The poet treats

of

ject

examples

this time Maranta has departed ,

By

readily understandable devices

as

of

is

we of

by

is

as

Maranta bolsters his argument that poetry more useful instrument citing many ancient authors teaching the discussion the course simple men since especially apt for appealing learn that poetry philosophy uses instead the definitions and demonstrations such

But Maranta has some difficulty reconciling this statement with the notion that poetry works through examples which are always particular He resolves the difficulty declar ing that the poet really depicts the Idea the perfect and complete expres by

an

any virtue

by

of

—

.

,

in

.

,

the universal the historian the particular

—

,

is

of

of

of a

,

,

the double

He decides

illi

res

fol .

22

.

and that

.

of

delighting through diction Clearly Horatian end has been influencing his thinking throughout

examples

,

,

he

a

In

of

.

,

so

In

.

;

all

,

or

presenting vice for example individual mani possible aspects strength and forti festation thus Achilles displays doing the poet serves the greatest end poetry which tude the inculcation of the virtues final step his argument Maranta recognizes conflict between teaching through two ends which has distinguished for the art that

sion

.

ut

]

487

ut

,

fit

At ob

communis

in

at

hominibus

."

pluribus

fit :

multo

,

nolentium illabatur paucorum est hominum

[

uel

ob

:

a

à

et

.

ac

ut

ob

ita

in

: "

.,

Ibid 126v cum non solùm doceant sed exemplis corroborent Melius etiam quia significantius cum mouendis affectibus explicandisque habitibus poetae res ipsas oculos ponant intueri tractare illas uideamur nudi philosophj cum disci plinam tradant intelligendi uim fatigant unde materia abstrahendo mentem audientes uel legentes rerum scientia auersos reddant quare hanc rationem multo utili orem poeticam esse antiqui sapientes dixerunt quia cum dictionis suauitatem animos simplex philosophia

POETIC

THEORY

of

.

as

to

by

:

audience

by

be

to , it

of

all

ultimately , that distinguish traces contradiction can removed ing between poetry and the poet between the art and the artist The art and the precepts appropriate have their aim the pleasure the

it

to

so

be

.

to all

we

,

of

from philosophy

as

in

of ,

it is

In

Aristotle's purpose this little book set down the rules which simple and clear philosophy may adorned make seem most pleasurable men Whence we have concluded that we should not expect from the art the poets philosophical teachings since these are obtained fact

means

,

of

;

is

in

lie is , ,

may compose itself but instead the rules through which using the probable little fables which philosophy itself hidden for which the art.23 the end reason pleasure itself

he

(“

,

,

is

,

.

of

,

,

then

In

.

to

of

of

of

it

in

of

to

its

to

109-14v

he

.

(

fols

close Plato

is

Poetics close

Bartolomeo Maranta finds that the Horace the ends which establishes for poetry and conception the object imitation the second addresses himself the problem Aristotle's philoso

these discourses

in

the first

)

In

.

to

to

tranquillity and led the passions returned happiness The poet's goal completely

of

be

purged that they may thus the highest degree utilitarian

so by

to

,

).

fol .

as

"

,

in

,

to

.

to

profit men But the poet seeks something else He wishes teach them impress philosophical precepts upon their minds imprimere virtue philosophica praecepta hominum animis 132 This does employing pleasurable devices instruments for moving their souls

.

an

, all

in

,

to

as

of

phical method and the general organization the Poetics He finds that philosophical orderly passage from the may one describe the method universal the particular and that this turn determines the organiza

.

of

,

to

.

is

",

"

"

of

:

,

“

of

poetry Aristotle will treat first those things common forms peculiar Again terminology genres then the features the individual the propria vaguely reminiscent used communia and Horace

tion

in

,

in

,

of

to

"

all

“

in

of

“

“

)

.” (3

of

)

(2

.

of

.

is

.”

“

: (1 )

...

be

may Maranta thinks that the communia reduced four general headings ways poems species what are alike and what ways they differ From these come genus and differentia which turn give poems and the definitions The genus imitation On the origin why different kinds growth them were invented On the these

,

In

4 ) "

the treat

.

Aristotle passes

to

After these general statements the individual genres

24

of

. "

other ment

on

or

."

(

,

,

a

poems and how from formless state they reached perfection tragedy way how they differ from each and the epic are alike what

.

,

ac

se

.

)

(

.

in

&

ad

ex

488

in ac

et

de in

...

.

.

ut

: “

, et in

.

:

.'

,

in à

Ex

in

ut

ita

,

: “

...

ab

et

., .,

.

23 24

Ibid fol 131v Est enim Aristotelis mens hoc libello tradere regulas quibus philo sophia simplex aperta quo exornari possit iucundissima omnibus uidcatur colligimus arte poetarum nos non expectare debere philosophica documenta quia haec habentur nuda philosophia sed tamen regulas quibus uerisimili mendacio fabellas com quare finis artis est ipsa oblectatio quibus lateat ipsa philosophia ponamus quibus omncs pocmatum Ibid fols 113–13v Ac primum eorum est doceat origine poematum species conueniant quibus differant quam Secundum agit Tertium de incremento horum poematum ob rem diuersa eorum inuenta sint genera perfectionem postremum docet quomodo informibus deuencrint Quartum quoúc discrepent inter epopocia conueniant quo tragoedia

POETICS : VERNACULAR COMMENTARIES

As

this general

he develops

scheme

of for

the Poetics , Maranta

makes

several distinctions which are of interest the interpretation of that text . by Súvauis ( 1447a9 ), and early obliged very what is meant to decide He is excluding any poetry after reference to the end of ( “which is to purge the

minds of men of the vices

" 25) he argues

that it means

...

,

of

,

of

in

is so

of

vis ),

the formal and , so to speak , the specific nature of each poem , by which one differs from another ; indeed , when we know the definition of each , we know virtue which essence for example wherein consists their proper essence ( poem would not any other kind tragedy distinctly tragedy that the name be

fitting for it.26

he

to

an

by

a

,

their simplest

,

to

on

Maranta's ten precepts topics concern these

reduced

form

:

.

,

the Poetics

,

,

.

,

of

.

of

of

set in a

a

to

It

of

on

of

.

of

on

,

,

to

I

a

is ,

Shortly after fairly keen understanding the term This believe importance plot subsequent says that ward remarks the tragic plot precepts attempt Aristotle treats series ten The reduce Aristotle's discussion numbered precepts recalls similar effort this time effort the Ars poetica the commentators the part currency among gained yet commonplace the students however had not

;

,

.

to a

.

to

;

a

;

Unity

.

of

3. 2. 1.

easy remember without excessive brevity single end single action directed Universality verisimilar actions but not particular ones since these are the object history

Proper magnitude

.

of

by

,

.

of

.

Complex rather than simple plot tragedy Quantitative parts

.

bad fortune

.

to

a

of

.

The proper character for tragic personages single person from good Simple plot the passage Rules for the pitiable and the terrible :

the whole poem.27

are essential since its

handling will the manuscript

,

to ;

',

be as “

to

,

.”

ad

25

“

" "

,

he

.

of

a a

final section Maranta makes distinction with respect the genus poetry He had earlier declared that the genus was imitation but now realizes that poems are also classified under such terms effictio poesia poetica separated Of these the term which most needs ,

mean the ruin separate from the rest

In

is

of of

,

,

These careful recommendations for plot says Maranta plot tragedy and since the slightest error the soul

of in

10. 9. 8. 7. 6.

.

5. 4.

episodes Necessary and verisimilar connection produced incredible events since these excite greater admiration

Pity and terror

ob

ita

;

in

ac

sic

ut ."

: "

: "

.

ab .

a .,

.,

26

fol 110

ut

Súvauiv hoc loco non puto referri finem poeticae artis qui est uitijs animos hominum specificam naturam cuiusque poematis Ibid fol 110 formalem dixerim qua alterum quo uis pro altero differt nam cognita uniuscuiusque diffinitione scimus

Ibid expurget

110v

489

)

(

I

;

ei

as

vis ut "

"

to

of

of

11 .

fols

.

Ibid

.,

27

.

of

it

."

so

be

pria eorum consistat quam uim uerbi gratia tragoedia poematis est tragoedia aliud possible nomen conucnire nequeat Note that would translate effect have reflecting the spirit avoided doing because the danger certain modern trans lations

POETIC

THEORY

" effictio , " and Maranta separates them on the basis of their generality ; every imitation is a " making " but not every “ making " is an imitation . Imitation is thus the more “ proximate " genus and the one

from imitation is

of

to

by

in

,

.

Contra

of

is

the discussion

fol .

of

(

-

to

are

deprived

of

we

,

and

of

of to

of

in

included the second discourse seem interest for their interpretation the method and order

be

.

on

,

—

).

fol .

(

script ends abruptly shortly after this point Maranta's particular views these genres The fragments

”

“

of

,

of

,

to at

.

of

at

on

) ;

to

the correspondence with Vettori already Aristotle's reasons for listing various arts the beginning the Poetics Maranta contends that two poetry the kinds enumer poetry ated 1447a13 auletic and citharistic really belong rather than the more general category imitations but that they use rhythm and harmony alone without discourse 114 Unfortunately the manu 112

studied

)

the third refers directly

(

,

on to

to

,

.”

The first his

P.

Victor

);

fol .

“

Súvauis already noted quoiv 110 the second contention that Katà refers the method exposition beginning with universals and passing particulars

of

(

is

his

in terms of which kinds of poems are to be defined . Finally , it should be noted that in several of the marginalia to this manuscript Maranta indicates that position opposed that Vettori There are three such places marked the margin the phrase

especial ,

in

respect

,

to

Aristotle's text several terms and for the way which they reflect the philological and philosophical disagreements between two

for their distinctions with

),

of

of of

.

we .

,

is

he

a

to

he

(

of

At

.

contemporary humanists the beginning the third discourse fols 100-107 Maranta an summary give nounces that means brief the contents the precisely what Poetics and that does Most the interesting ideas a

in

on

,

:

of

,

of

-

a

of

on

,

,

.

,

,

,

.

from the discourses which have already analyzed There significant attitude passages occasionally which reveal however are speculating probable toward the text After the contents the missing part third book Maranta sees five division the first book poetry objections and the relative merits general tragedy the epic resolution are repeated

in :

;

he is

in

of

to he is

,

, in

in

"

of

is

of

.

of

tragedy and the epic Somewhat later Maranta remarks the way tragedy which the definition constituted and how the genre treated part tragedy said puts together what had out the definition He say things general part poetry and that about from the about

,

is

to of

of

the poem his

if

,

de

his

.

et

in

ex

: "

ipsa definitione

requisites

quae genere poesi dixerat partim quae mox rursusque explicatis partibus differentijs definitionem uenatur partes Tragoediae praecipue illas quas formales

."

ex

.

fol 101 partim colligit Tragoediac

is

”

"

.

,

.,

)

490

(

28 est

Ibid

the

ex

Maranta provides revealing explanations necessary character Goodness moral goodness

of

poraries

dicturus definitionis appellat

,

of of

is

28 he

. ' ”

‘

he

the definition be after having explained the parts and the differentiae ginning with the definition itself parts tragedy especially seeks out the those which calls formal As the case with most his contem

may refer

”

;

to fol . a

or

to

to

“

ethical improvement likeness the persons introduced

of

utilitarian end

the nature and habits

of

achieve

either

of

its

POETICS : VERNACULAR COMMENTARIES

resem ).

be

to

to

is

(

in

blance the customs the times involved the action 103v Among the features differentiating tragedy from epic the fact that the

on

. , on "

do

the priority

29

to

;

the five proofs

of

,

poetry

of

on

the genus

on

, of

as

,

as

to

"

be ,

,

,

former appeals the eye the latter the ear hence tragedy must more verisimilar less marvelous for the eyes consent less readily those things which are said against the reason than the ears Other wise Maranta repeats such ideas those already expressed imitation plot

unity ),

as

(

the Poetics

in .

It

the text

.

as

it in

in

is

of it

,

it

.

to

as

on .

—

—

of

,

of

the Aeneid

it

But does Aristotelian terms repeating many the ideas found the other frag developing ments and clarifying some them One may consider Aristotle's and Maranta's ideas the epic just the other discourses tragedy Perhaps because had discussed fully problems relevant Italian perhaps because takes into consideration some forms con

in

the form and the excellences

.

of

being related

(

is in of

;

claim

so

of

to

no

and makes

treats largely

of to it

as

to

is

)

Latin

.

to of

on

of

poetry compared with history and magnitude the universality purgation and the pedagogical uses There some question whether the last the discourses fols belongs really Italian rather than the same series for 133–39v

or

and princes and kings and such low condition intermediate ;

men and

of

,

... very inconspicuous

of

of

.

or

;

like

great leaders

illustrious men

: “

classes

on

,

temporary Italian literature this little treatise strays somewhat farther from Aristotle and displays strong leanings toward the current Horatian tradition The objects imitation are distinguished the basis social

as

.

of

30

, in in

,

as

be

. "

ones between these two extremes All these are presented rather they they are should than accordance with an Idea human action :

of

to in

all

,

perhaps its

is

.

"

,

"

“

in

,

by

,

of

,

,

,

in

,

in

as

is

the epic itself Maranta thinks that Aristotle

,

respect

his

With

as

"

"

to ,

"

"

;

.

In

,

antiquity poets those The three objects gave rise three groups who wrote tragedies and epics those who wrote comedies and those who Naples itself wrote mimes modern times the Kingdom three recognized authors levels are found tragedies and comedies are written while the low kind found farces the Gianni Venetiani and Mattoccini well macaronic prose narratives

in

,

.

is

,

,

dicuntur

similj

ò

et

,

)

491

."

prencipi tra questi duo estremi mezzani

(

O ,

.

illustri gran maestri

bassa conditione

et

his quae praeter rationem Re

assentiuntur

et

ita

.

non

huominj

,

,

In ,

.

in

in

: "

133–33v et di

: "

fols

.

is

, it

.

all

quia oculi

uilissimi

.,

Ibid

huomini

fol 106 .

." . ,

Ibid aures

30

ut

29

of

of to

is

its

its

in

,

tragedy

on

for

preference

its

in

The epic being more varied episodes and digressions recognitions being reversals and longer and more pleasant and more marvelous the whole more perhaps better any case Vergil difficult achieve Hence the any language and any form greatest poets with the possible exception the Prophets Within the epic form Maranta sees the same mistaken

...

POETIC

THEORY

by

.

,

,

Its

its

qualitative parts that Aristotle had discerned ; quantitative parts are pedagogical ends are achieved invocation and narration

proposition

is

“

.

of

on

,

by

,

to

”

on

,

is

he ,

is

of a

in

on the one hand the action— from those heroic deeds one fired way that such too incited become like their doer and thus the poetry gathered fruit 31— the other hand the characters since given virtues Maranta's general these represent the perfect expression

171-74

,

to its ,

,

an

,

,

of

literary criticism the the unpublished

bulk than

rhetorical and Horatian as

is

orientation

and such Aristotelian elements stylistics and long winded discussion

of

-

a

there are appear incidentally

all to

),

,

is

greater

all

Its of

.pp

.

,

V

see

(

general

1564

in

one published work

Bartolomeo Maranta's Lucullianae Quaestiones writings taken together above Chapter

be

to

70's

.

the

'

literary quarrels

of of

of

a

to

.

a

,

in

, of ,

it

a

in

engaged

is

the Aeneid that has one plot one man one time beginning one action with middle and end that separate parts are irremovable and unchangeable These would seem single work and they are pro constitute Aristotelian criteria applied phetic some the arguments which were adduced during the

conclusion

to

to

to

,

of

on

in

he

he

;

,

.

;

of

:

of

,

is

his

.

of

.

in

of is

,

of

;

its

,

.

,

metrics They reduce almost them considerations relative the tragic plot conditions and effects but there are some applications Vergil engaged the epic form since Maranta the study and praise Again the interpretations the Aristotle echo those found earlier manuscript discourses But since problem Vergil concentrates tragedy and the epic the three essential questions the comparison sources the tragic effect and the bases verisimilitude On the first

all

is

to

to

.

of

88 ,

.pp

to

,

is by all

be

,

he

,

of

by

,

he

,

in

"

”

;

, it

,

it

all

as at a

);

( to

to

by

.

is

,

to

,

,

compares the two genres with respect their qualitative and quantitative parts length their their manner dramatic versus narrative for these Aristotle the source On the subject the marvelous which more properly produced goes considerably the epic than the tragedy beyond the Poetics says must produced poets admiratio especially epic times but falls the domain the This because appeals narrative form the ear rather than the eye and may

as

In

).

he

he

, on

.

of

of

.

all , of )

,

on

(

.p

of

at

on

,

of

(

thus treat more incredible matters 133 The need astonish the tragedy audience necessarily involves consideration the effects compared with those the epic and above verisimilitude Maranta pity and fear and various times cites Aristotle elaborates the nature the tragic plot and the tragic hero 125 this connection

of to

”

“

of

."

)

492

si

,

,

,

sex

or

of

on

us

:

di si

si

il

fortune age

accende fatta sorte che frutto della poesia

(

si

quelle prodezze coglie cosi

et

da

: "

.

a

.”

“

of

to

as

is a

.

of

the elements which constitute decorum

Ibid fol 135v quello diuenire simile .,

he

is

of

.

;

a

31

several

),

(

TÒ

Starting from makes some important remarks the nature fear Aristotle's Õuorov Poetics 1453a5 sees two kinds likeness the tragic hero The first our common humanity with the persons subject tragedy the same calamities and the ourselves we think among same death The second resemblance the basis one

pro

incita anco egli

VERNACULAR COMMENTARIES

POETICS :

fession , character , and so forth ( p. 124 ). Here again the transition from the Poetics to the rhetoricians is almost imperceptible.

fit

Maranta's study of the tragic hero is important to him insofar as he Aristotle's descrip

wishes to discover whether Aeneas does or does not

,

,

of

;

A

126 number distinction between which may not

.p

).

of

of

auctoritate introduces

recognizes

other than the

an

he

persons a " (

,

,

.

&

:

be

in

his own which

that

;

,

in

no

he

a

,

would

wise

of

.

perfect and cannot err

,

all

by

it

.

,

,

,

,

he

as

,

“

,

to

is

the audience

believes

,

if

cited

:

Aristotle

is

,

,

be

however only

aroused

achieved

.

if

These passions will only verisimilitude

is

.

18 .)

"

fear

(p of

. In

,

;

,

,

to

,

—

by

,

-

be

is

tragedy Maranta's thesis that the effects plot the and character but the lesser elements diction sententiae melody chorus setting For Aristotle these would contribute the effect for Maranta they may produce almost keeping with his rhetorical bent independently asserts that the func anger terror pity tion sententiae arouse the passions such

,

Un Aristotelian again may achieved not only

As for Aeneas

he is

as a

“

considered intermediate qualify tragic hero because

."

as

be

,

,

,

which may wicked and the intention good hero who commits unwittingly wicked deed may thus

,

the action essentially

proof Besides

be

;

magna sunt existimatione

tragedies are cited

he

he

.

an )

(

he

an

-

qui

in

hero

of

''

“

error but adds idea being non Aristotelian the error may "

as as

involving

he

to

to

,

he

of

be

.

If

.

it in

attempts analyze more closely the conditions tion With mind pity and fear are for the tragic action attend the tragic personage high station and enjoy great esteem otherwise his misfortunes must will not produce the proper effect Maranta accepts Aristotle's notion properly interprets auapria the intermediate situation 1453a7 and

of

,

of to

of

. 32 to

it

,

is a

to

of

to

to

to

they try with

all

: “

marvelous

on

explain that verisimilitude matter opinion and that the difficulty lies reconciling this with the The poets seek nothing else but the assent the listeners and

the interlocutors goes

audience

in

of

One

of

an

,

,

if

to

Aristotle wrote that two actions were offer themselves the poet one which indeed could happen but was not verisimilar the other which could not really happen but was nevertheless credible the poet would accept and choose apparent truth even though belonged the one which had the number those which cannot naturally happen under any circumstances

of

33

in

,

89 : "

32

,

as it

to

.

."

give credence their energies force men marvelous actions And herein lies the greatest difficulty for the poet The solution the problem lies partly did for Aristotle the choice extra

."

]

[

in

:

:

ut

."

493

si

ut

sit : ,

,

:

, sit

ex

si

,

89 : "

., , .p

33

,

,

(

), .p

Lucullianarum quaestionum libri quinque 1564 Aristoteles tradit duao res sese poetae obferant altera quae fieri quidem possit sed uerisimilis non altera quao fieri reuerà nequeat credibilis tamen capiat atque eligat poeta eam quae apparentem habet quae naturaliter fieri nullo modo possit ueritatem etiam eorum numero poetae nihil venantur praeter assensum eorum qui audiunt atque omnibus Ibid neruis contendunt assentiri homines cogant admirabilibus rebus atque hoc uersatur maior poetae difficultas

POETIC ordinary events

THEORY

really occurred , those

that

catastrophes

upon

visited

certain great and noble families ( p. 133 ) . Maranta's total contribution to literary theory is about equally divided between Horatian and Aristotelian elements . It is Horatian in the lectures devoted to the Ars poetica and in the Quaestiones; it is Aristotelian espe cially in the other set of lectures, but also in the Quaestiones . Throughout , and reaffirms the parallelism between the two theorists ; or , any , in case he introduces the one into a context primarily reflecting the other . He frequently shows a good understanding of his texts , and his inter pretations are sometimes superior to those of most of his contemporaries . he establishes

on

his

SALVIATI (1564 )

as

,

,

be

to ,

of

a

of

.

of

While Maranta was preparing ( and perhaps giving ) lectures Aristotle for the Accademia Napoletana Lionardo Salviati was writing the First Lecture series three known collectively the prima poetica Trattato della The Lezzion was delivered before the Acca

...

,

,

,

of

is

in

It

,

of

in

he be

to

to

he

as

of

,

in

.

to

—

of

,

,

to

of in

heavily Aristotelian demia Fiorentina December 1564.34 tone only multiple not because the reference other works the Stagirite the Metaphysics the Ethics the Topica the Posterior Analytics the Physica the De caelo but also because the method which Salviati everywhere attempts apply Salviati believes that answers his questions are only early history found Aristotle and traces the the arts sees the beginnings order and clarity Aristotle's works ,

;

to to a by an

,

if

as

,

an

,

in

poetics

the realm

rigor

equally

of

.

If

such answers are reached ous method must be used

of

be

to

.

to

,

it

an as

,

so

of

I

,

—

by us

a

, in

at

in

to at

until last Aristotle descended upon earth believe through divine pity long ignorance order liberate from the fog reduced the truths pronounced first those first philosophers not indeed chance but con fusedly scattered way and were stammeringly marvelous order and reduced divers members incredible clarity artful body pro portioned with ineffable mastery 35

A

of

:

,

be

.

,

of

,

not about the word but about the essence of

of

,

whoever was asked

34

by

(

"

) is

.

be

of

of

,

as

involving basically two procedures this method definitions and the application the device the four definition defined including definition itself causes Everything must given see the Metaphysics and the Organon that reply which would Salviati conceives

the careful use

some

”,

,

a

so -

.

,

of

.

I a

), . 4;

(

II, ,

of as

as

,

in ,

,

, a

.

of

di

al

,

la

I

“ Il

35

MS BNF Magl VII

to

for the indication the whereabouts this MS Peter Brown's Ginnastica degli Antichi attribuito Cav Lionardo Salviati Annali complete della Scuola Normale Superiore Pisa Serie XXVI 1957 Brown gives description the MS The second lecture far know was never written The called part Third Lecture was merely copy made 1566 this First Lecture am indebted Discorso sopra

in

,

da

,

)

494

le

,

. "

diuerse membre ridusse

un

,

in

, e

, e di

in

,

, et in

artifizioso

(

maestria

et

in

zionato con indicibile

. 7 : “

,

307 fol

liberarne

a

.

a

pietà

,

,

infino che Aristotile finalmente disceso credo quci dalla nebbia cosi lunga ignoranza uerità primi filosofi non pure sparsamente quasi balbettando prima caso ma confuso pronunziate quasi corpo propor ordine marauiglioso chiarezza incredibile terra per diuina

POETICS : VERNACULAR COMMENTARIES

,

an

of to

of ,

is

in

"

a

The latter definition requires kinds habits and among their

of

of

full differentiation among the possible

38

"

.

the reason

of

is a

it

,

of

means

a

“

...

;

)

37

.

by "

in

ternal subject

as

it

see

...

be

(

art

Universal and of some universal substance , completely properly , but in such a way that there be no part in it which is not operant , nor any part lacking that might operate in it . ” 36 The first term of which we need a itself and Salviati definition , as we approach the subject of poetry , is operation the Metaphysics defines an external Principle principle differentiated from Nature because nature operating action itself Otherwise stated habit ex

intel Salviati see the Ethics derives the habits from two kinds lect the higher intellect and the reasoning power and classifies them under art prudence and science ,

all

the

:

,

,

he

...

he

)

,

.

(

sources

. 39

,

in

(

the

]

of

from one another because prudence treats the agent matter

.

;

,

on

all

,

)

,

(

)

(

higher intellect Aristotle derives from the former the habits which concern themselves with necessary and eternal things from the latter contingent things To this group reason those which exert themselves only belong without any doubt prudence and art which two habits are different those actions whose effect remains but art directs those whose effects pass over into some foreign

to

.

of

an

it is

—

a

,

an

,

he

,

.

a

is

by

he

of

of

.

of

,

,

in

All the arts and poetry among them induce perfection some object outside the agent himself pursue two The introduction the concept habit obliges Salviati further arguments First must answer the Platonists who maintain inspiration product that poetry not habit but the divine furor presenting various rebuttals philosophically wrong This does

,

fail

or

he is

,

we

:

“

...

;

in

of

,

;

is

in

,

a

—

by

,

is

,

to

think that God completely perfect would operate individual present judgment lacking the claims where furor the poets are not insisting that seeking reliable and accordance with his method surer and more predictable origin are looking for the cause

chi

ne

, in

40

.”

,

:

.”

a

in

be

da

.

,

36

a

is

of

“

,

,

of

rather the principle which most the time does not And again But we are seeking for the principle which not once while but most principle And this must definitely the time habit Furor

ui la

;

la ,

.

,

,

ed

,

)

is

." (

in

;

gli

15

in ,

,

,

a

;

...

."

se

in

14

: "

., , la et fa .

39

da

,

si

13 : “

: “

.

.,

38

è

.

. ., "

37

,

ui

, , sia e

: " la

.

.,

risposta che Ibid fol 11v darebbe fosse richiesto non del uocabolo ma dell'essenza d'alcuno Vniuersale d'alcuna uniuersal sostanza proprijssimamente ma tal guisa che parte alcuna non che non operi alcuna uene manchi che operare potesse Principio esteriore d'operare Ibid fol differenza della Natura percioche natura principio d'azzione stesso Ibid fol 14v2 Habito d'operare subbietto esteriore con ragione There are two folios bearing the numbers and each this the second 14. quello Ibid fol 142 da tutti habiti che sono dietro alle cose necessarie eterne questo uenire tutti quelli che nelle contingenti s'adoperano solamente Ciò sono

I

'

,

si

è

,

. "

)

(

le

,

, ò ,

,

495

le

."

in

, i

“ 18 : “

.

si

.

in

;

.,

" E ;

.

40

,

quali due habiti perciò sono tra loro differenti Prudenza l'Arte senza dubbio ueruno percioche quelle delle azzioni raggira l'effetto delle quali Prudenza rimane nell agente ma l'Arte dirizza quelle cui effetti alcuna materia forestiera trapassano uogliam dir principio piu uolte Ibid fol noi cerchiamo della cagione che piu uolte non falla and Ma noi cerchiamo del principio che non alcuna uolta ma principio ciò conuiene che sia l'habito fermamente

POETIC

THEORY

of be

to

of

it

.

capable

of

poetry acquired

29 )

fol is .

a word , cannot be accepted into the category of universal causes , whereas habit can . Second, he must discover what kind of habit is present in poetry . To do so , he divides the habits into moral and intellectual , the intellectual into habits of doing and of making , and classifies poetry under the last of possible for him these ( This makes declare that the art

,

,

of

, all

"

.

to 41

,

an

,

be

or in

its

,

,

to

.

to

.

is

to

,

to

.

in

,

itself whereas

to

,

to

.

these except

all

of

principle art Not nature since nature has poems have their source the poet Not fortune design Not chance since the poet makes his poem according violence always contrary since this the will Not the mind alone since this to

any

to

;

he

,

.

as be

A

an

by

“

precepts and and can very well mind through human industry related argument considers the various other sources which poetry might oper attributed Salviati makes exhaustive classification coming from nature art violence mind alone fortune and ations assigned chance then sets out show that poetry cannot properly counsels

excellent

,

of

:

of

.

be a

it

an

art is , it

;

As all

42

is

.

Its

,

. "

of in

it

: "

contingent and corruptible matter respect that other Aristotelian device .

to

With

the analysis

of

in

;

:

is

an

is

of

only rarely the source poetry hence principle Thus cannot poetry art has itself the qualities which are universally re quired for the existence art contains the three necessary operations speculation before anything done the operation the artist and the work itself matter the matter art consisting solely

he

,

so

In

(

"

,

gli he

,

a

.

is

to

"

is to

" il

of

his

,

at

.

of

,

the four doing Salviati makes his own assignment causes reveals presuppositions come from sources other than once how many says Aristotle and how uncertain his own method The final cause bring profit giouare our minds through pleasure animi causes

in

);

fol

,

Vettori

is as

”

.

For

finds difficulties

.

he

di

have considered

he

,

other critics such

l'intelletto

the material cause that

as

as

comes

,

“

is

; “

the art

to

of

,

when

is

(

It

he

the habit

i.e.

34 ). "

to

questo habito riuestito

is

34

.

, "

say con diletto fol this identical with what Horace has lines 333 and 343. The efficient cause the intellect invested with this habit

instruments those ele language harmony the matter that indisputably the most important not to

:

"

,

,

is ,

,

.

of

no

,

of of

to

con humano studio

da

, e

capace

.

,

as è

precetti

now material now instrument

eccellente

qualità

che all'essere

dell'Arte

in

tutte

lc

se

in

ha

fol 31v

: “

., ." .,

43

Ibid richieste

.

42

.”

.

, e

Ibid fol d'auertimenti ingegno puo molto bene conseguirsi .,

43

.”

single element di

of

a all

in

considering 29 : “

41

priety

,

...

,

to

,

,

.

,

ments which himself regards and rhythm Of these language rhythm and music but significant words both according the truth and according poems Aristotle's opinion are firmly the essence according Words then the authority Aristotle are the most poetry philosophical impro general material Salviati finds

uniuersale

sono

. "

.

la

di

)

(

496

,

la

, e

le

,

, e

il

: “

.

la

,

...

,

le e

parole significanti Ibid fol 34y non rimmo musica ma secondo uerità secondo l'opinione d'Aristotile sono della essenza delle poesie fermamente Sono dunque parole Poesia tutta secondo l'autorità d'Aristotile materia generalissima

VERNACULAR COMMENTARIES

POETICS :

Finally,

the formal cause consists

in the

in

invention

"

” ; he takes

the

Iliad

that greatest poem , the form is that invention which makes it different from every other poem which is not this very same one . "44

he

important

them

but

of

Salviati merely

,

the causes

on

of

he

to

findings with respect he recapitulates repeats what had said earlier for three

As

;

his

as his example : “

the subject

,

,

I

,

45

”

The Physica and the De caelo

un

by

.

.

of

as

the ultimate end the poet the basis for this distinction

an

of

are cited

"

. “

do

;

I

...

is

speaking

he

.

a

an

it

an

to

in

is

, “

to

make further distinction This con ultimate from immediate end The end profit with pleasure proximate says say not the most end because this without doubt the form and the work itself but am final cause finds differentiating

sists

,

,

of

:

.

of

,

be

of

,

if

, in

;

or

art :

).

,

is

its

of

fol .

(

poetry would

matter

it

supreme

moreover

the health and the well being

,

,

end

-

serves the highest

is ,

9 ).

Poetry

.

of

to

,

to

is

,

fol .

among the arts because the mind Once more Aristotle confirms the conclusion his belief that tragedy purges the mind disturbances shows that poetry concerned only with the mind 35v On his own Salviati raises some further interesting ques tions about the whether poetry can exist the poet's mind without put into words whether being written down this were true the real (

ophy

of

,

.

to

of

,

of

-

Salviati's ties with Aristotelian critical past are further attested repetition poetry his the standard conventional defence He traces society the civilizing role the beginnings the arts their relation ship the sciences Among the arts poetry appeals the highest faculty philos the intellect and hence close the contemplative operations

the feelings expressed rather than the words used

,

of

,

of

on

,

, in to

of

set

.

,

,

on

a

,

.

,

prudence

the subsequent

a

for

of

are promised

of

a

But the answers rather than being given here lectures Vergil and Sperone Speroni one Two treatises discourses dialogue Vergil probably belong the other this same year 1564.46 become

part

to

of

,

;

to

following the same line argument poetry express them whether making doing and ultimately would not pass from the arts the arts

,

in

:

“

of

...

47

...

it

"

by

art

to

by

its

of

“

its

.

to

to

to

of

,

is

as

Speroni finds Aristotle concerned the Poetics useful sug plot plot and the unity general with regard imitation and verisimilitude Speroni declares that the Discorsi sopra Virgilio will subject taught according treat the Aristotle and Plato teachings establishes the primacy plot and that the first

As far

gestions

;

in

,

a

in

be a

it in

be

;

in it

in

35 35 : : “ è “ la il ,

44

see

on

is

the first thing made the poet and this must woven such way that the events follow one another almost natural order and one should not the poet's will that should made this way

."

,

), II , .p

. ”

.

.

,

,

( of

o

]

[

497

lo

il

;

,

è

siala ."

di of

e le

. .

il

, bye

La

IV , ,

),

...

; "

., .,

(

In

47

Fr ,

46

45

da

quel sommo poema quella inuenzione che forma fanno diuerso che esso stesso non giouare con diletto non dico Ibid fol percioche fine fine piu propinquo questo senza fallo l'opera medesima forma ma parlo dell'ultimo fine del poeta See the reasons offered the editor the 1740 edition the Opere 419 and 356 opere Sperone Speroni Empoli 1920 Also Cammarosano Vita 164 Opere 1740 425 secondo l'arte da Aristotilo da Platone insegnata Ibid fol ogni altro poema

POETIC

THEORY

.

or

to

all

for if one does , the poem becomes affected rather than verisimilar . " 48 Verisimilitude is thus a product , in part at least , of a seemingly natural order of the events . Although we are not so told , we may perhaps assume that it is this “ natural order ” itself which guarantees the imitative quality of poetry . Poetry is an imitation , it is the plot which imitates human actions ; parts not belonging Speroni's the plot are digressions accidents ,

of

be ,

a

,

,

is

to

."

is

"

of

is

,

as . a

is ,

of

plot are not however thoroughly reasons for insisting upon the unity Aristotelian The first for an imitation must one single imitated thing just subject science one The second not since Speroni requiring unity provide through argues that the main reason for

to

be

to

to

,

in

to

if

“

,

if

,

, to of

,

highly simple and reduced plot the occasion for much amplification and unnecessary and superfluous ornamentation for the poem consists poet ornament the were undertake imitate poetically more than grow perfect would have one action the poem order infinite be

”

it

some

of

,

argument

as

an

In

,

they are less ornate and more obscure and this removes

the beauty

S0

for

as

“

:

.

-

“

to

it be

or

;

are

it

of

its

A of ,

49

in

.

”

poem constituted possible length more than one action would completely but imperfect for the poet would not able decorate parts without making over long and tedious Hence the every one preference for the simple over the complex plot Thence arises that triple comedies and tragedies are not beautiful simple ones double ,

of

,

an

imitation

"

is

The Poetics itself its

.

farther removed from Aristotle's

“

of

,

is a

;

it is

.

;

.

”

this Aristotelian loci and terms are present but the whole tendency and conclusion are different Imitation the topic once again the fragmentary Dialogo sopra Virgilio but strange kind imitation which becomes farther and such

of his

of

;

as

"

he as

a

as

A

."

“

is

as

of so

, to

to

to

,

is

, it

is

vi sia si in

...

,

of to

,

.

of

,

,

.

is

to

monkeys and more proper children than properly the province man for the thinking here reason Clearly Speroni

the other hand disciple rather than the enemy 48

.

of

is is

.

on

Art

It it

in

, ”

"

a

human activity

man

on

to

is

“

, it ",

be

.

on

on

his

,

philosopher Homer's two epic poems which thus become nature writing poetics bases poems just poet writing poems work bases them nature But the poet may also use other poems praised for imitating nature and Vergil should Homer did indeed better imitate other poets than heed the instructions philosophers poetry Speroni goes suggest that their arts far imitation since not based on the activity the mind not really

di , un 49

e

;

è la

, , e

:

di

li

il

: “

."

,

,

le

., .p

prima cosa fatta dal poeta questa bisogna che Ibid 425 Però modo tessuta che cose succedano quasi per ordine naturale l'una dall'altra non veda paja volontà del poeta che cosi fare perchè diventa non verisimile ma affettato poema e

a

, il

di

."

)

(

498

,

,

."

;

, e

il

, o

e

le

di

: “

le

qua viene che tragedie doppie triple non son belle 534 commedie più oscure semplici perchè son meno ornate che lieva della bellezza ,

Ibid

come

., .p

So

in

a

” ; “

è

,

di

: “

.

.,

perchè Ibid pp 438–39 una imitazione debba essere una cosa sola imitata como super soggetto una scienza ma anche perchè se'l poema ornamento redundante poema fluo se'l poeta togliesse imitar più una azione poeticamente volere esser perfetto cresceria infinito

VERNACULAR COMMENTARIES

POETICS :

of imitation as a kind of copying or physical mimicry , rather than as the of the artistic process . In the following year, 1565 , Speroni discussed another Aristotelian prob lem

essence

,

26

,

ut

:

“

,

explaining

the definition

that

by

this opinion

,

he

gives his reasons

by

of

must

be

.

,

the Aristotelians

and

"

facinoribus

ab it

,

of

of

it

hujuscemodi

of us

letter

a

,

to

purgation

in

of

,

Alvise Mocenigo dated February purgation one insisting 1565. He recognizes two current interpretations pity and fear the other that that concerns only the two passions admits other similar passions He adopts the latter liberemur that

;

to

is

,

of

in

to

of

he

in

his

of

,

so

.

he

,

of

of it in

using the words spoken Aristotle gives the Poetics Plato Book VIII the Laws where fact talked the tragedy Canace and says that those dishonest acts and the death Macareo And him who com truly the mits them are shown that one will learn avoid them and this understanding Aristotle.si proper way

.

a

in

be

;

a

He

it

to

;

,

as

to its

opposition holding that purgation achieves through forming effect the habits thus would accustom people pity and fear through repeated exposure them believes that the latter theory also implies limited usefulness for tragedy and comedy acceptable only both would state where the government was popu

of

Speroni interprets

,

"

by “

in .

,

.

an

, ;

is

in

of

lar rather than monarchical Tragedy showing the misfortunes the great people gods would convince the that their rulers are not and that their own comedy would teach other popular lessons preferable station life —

, . in

is

.

Like

its

,

V

,

179–83

).

.pp

see

(

in

1566 above Chapter made numerous comparisons between

Italian appeared ,

on

da

,

,

of

, in

analysis Both such become instruments used the governors an indirect and hidden way for the good the governed Throughout the forgotten discussion Platonic overtones are apparent and Aristotle Fighine's commentary Giovanni Fabrini Horace's Ars poetica

pre ;

an

.

,

“

as

by

in

of .

al

la

ne

to

“

(

"

or

lvi , ”

poetica nel testo secondo Aristotile cxxxi Maggi's divisions references throughout are the edition

Aristotile testo

,

in

be

to

is

to

,

of

,

of

.

of

,

it

,

it

Horace and Aristotle like them also assumed that Horace was following Aristotle and that the content and order the two treatises were essentially the same But whereas some the other commentaries revealed incidentally inter pretation Aristotle there seems none discernible Fabrini His merely constant practice cite similar passages prefacing each quota questo medesimo dice tion from the Poetics by some such formula decessors

in

of

fre

.

in

;

he

to

a

of is

).

quest 1550 Nor one any more rewarded the topics Aristotle especial interest everything that were Fabrini was interested Perhaps the more detailed and practical topics appear with greater

)

(

'

a

,

; si e

e

."

da

di le

di

, si

le

di

la

499

,

li

di

: “

dà ,

V ,

la

è

, e

;

,

ne

,

: e

In

Opere letter

de la

51

questa opinione deono esser CCXLII 175 Aristotelici espo parole detteci definizion che Aristotile nella poetica con Platone nell legibus ove appunto egli parla della tragedia ottavo Canace Macareo dice che queste cose disoneste rappresentano perchè impari morte chi commette questa lasciarle stare veramente bona intelligenzia Aristotile nendo

POETIC

THEORY

of Horace's work than , also , because

quency , merely because they are closer to the stuff

the more abstract and theoretical considerations — perhaps

Fabrini's Italian commentary was addressed to a more popular and less erudite audience . At times his translations are interesting, since the terminology reveals the extent to which he is thinking of Horace rather than of Aristotle . Thus , for example , he translates 1451b27 with the formula “ i poeti sono denominati piu da l'inuentione , e da la perfetta narratione de

para

le fauole , che dal comporre in uersi ” ( p. 355 , italics mine ); and he

1455623 thus : “ diuide la poesia d'Omero in due parti , in fauola ,

phrases

all ,

& episodi . cioè, in digressioni ” ( p. 355v ; italics mine ). Again , 1448a16 is translated : "la comedia , e la tragedia sono differenti tra loro ; perche questa imita cose piu eccellenti , & quella piu humili ” ( p. 364 ; italics mine ).

All in

(

to of

,

.

of

it

an in as

by

it

,

in

Fabrini's commentary has little significance for the history except the Renaissance another document relating essentially the Ars poetica and seeing terms the later work anonymous manuscript Siena To about the same period belongs the Poetics

, as '

“

to

de

'

,

in

its

,

to

)

Biblioteca Comunale K.IV.36 ascribed another hand Lottino dedicated Giovan Francesco Stella and Dionigi Atanagi and having poeti general theme the one indicated the title Intorno alli episodij

it

to

of

in

his

of

it

.

I

it

nelle poesie have placed circa 1566 because treats the general relationship between plot and episodes that Maranta had discussed lectures and because seems share the preoccupations those authors

...

.

of

:

be

of

to

by

a

in

so

,

to

in .

...

.

is

)

in , it (

things

her compounds

by

as

all

fact

nature

of

nothing else but the substantial part the poem But just way that the substantial parts are works such served those which are accidental the poet causes his plot served pass because the number principles from which the episodes This came

in

plot

as

to

, in

to he

,

,

who around 1566 were debating the merits and demerits Terence Lottino starts from Aristotle whose works finds authority for stating plot that the episodes are accidents are substance

it

,

its

as

,

if

be

by

,

by all

of

)

to

by

.

be

( so

the world had their origin was small that was necessary that not only the principles but things themselves resemblance the principles should mixed and intermingled with one another None these things could ever have been truly distinguished from another nor called one thing the ,

to

from —

in

it

to

in

is

it

,

a

by

divide

the matter

è

la

che

si

quelli

è

de

500

)

(

simiglianza

di

;

, è

,

è

Il

cose stesse

a

le

principij ma ,

i

non pure

.

gli epissodij seruita principij che auuenuto percio ch'il numero ch'egli cose del mondo hanno hauuto origine stato cosi piccolo stato

siano

sua fauola sia

quali tutte

bisogno

,

cosi

parte sustantiale

parti sustantiali

siano infra loro mescolate

che

, et

accidentali

altro che

che poeta

fa le ,

ritrouano

sempre

,

in

: "

somma non

la di , da

...

elle

suoi composti

il

esso

1-1v

ne .

natura

; fa

che

la

come

si

,

quelle seruite

,

,

Siena K.IV.36 fols in

Ma

si

.

.,

Bibl Com

poema

.

le da da del

52

it

-

or

them and derived from them such way that not possible except them effectively even those who are very expert distinguish from the plot.52

to is

is

no

,

in

in ,

of

.

In

other parts were not regulated and commanded one single part form ... this same way the good poets have proceeded the linking episode the episodes with their plots which found that not united

principal

POETICS : VERNACULAR COMMENTARIES

, it

of of

.”

a

to

ma

which will give beauty Such “

or

”

,

singular clarity

be

admiration

”

“ “

.

,

he

to

of

the poem included this that the poet back Aristotle again Lottino declares tragedy more feasible the epic than

to

is

It

.

the basic materials meagerness

in

,

a

of

a

process means reduction and the possible danger

and

”

excellent

, ”

“

”

those elements which are efficacy the poem and “

traditional

the poet selects

but rather the whole complex given story From these says

“

with

,

by

he

to

the individual poem

terials associated

,

his

Lottino seems here to be seeking metaphysical justification for the close connection of episodes with plot ; at the same time, he states an evaluative principle for that connection . As argument continues however be plot not the assemblage comes clear that means events peculiar

prevent

“

of

,

in

in

,

in

is

of .

to

introduces episodes Harking episodes that the addition and comedy since the dramatic forms are more restricted time— into time than those few hours their operation they cannot put more space ;

of

,

”

.

to

the action

of of

parts

These principles are carefully applied

.

the drama which recount the completed

of

at

of

“

,

by

is

,

it

”

"

of

is

.

A

” 53

to

be

presented during which they must final theoretical the people again derived from Aristotle consideration regarding plot concerns plot complication represented the division the into and solution For Lottino this plot itself preceded another the narrated one which apparently consists those expository parts the beginning the discussion

Terence's

,

,

the plot pleasantly through probable actions

they augment

( on .fol of

beauty

;

.

to

,

is

interspersed with the theoretical sections Eunuch which the short treatise Episodes were added the central plot says Lottino because without them the comedy would have had insufficient size and insufficient

no

,

of

all

“

:

.

3v )

Several dicta from the Poetics are compounded into this conclusion the episodes they are substantial parts the plot one

.

, is

of

respected

times

Hence

or

,

for Lottino

54

. ”

be

all

in

,

is

of to

,

so

of

,

of

all

is

all

at

are

;

to

—

of

be

transposed which nor the others like them could removed through without causing damage the plot and the poet makes them necessarily follow one from the other always observing verisimilitude persons that nothing the decorum left desired Decorum clearly respected personages and the itself the presentation ordering parts the plot such that verisimilitude and propriety the Poetics becomes

the

ciascuna delle quali non haurebbe mai potuto uera distintione dall'altra haucre una sola parte come sua forma principale non fusse stato comandato cotal modo sono buoni poeti proceduti nel col legamento epissodij con fauole loro nelle quali troua alcuno per fatta si

ne

se

ui

:

le

i

,

da

,

In

.

da

...

ne da

ad

de

gli

, et ;

una esser chiamata dato regola all'altre

se

ne

:

,

trapposte

si

;

."

la

;

,

,

lor

."

al

2v : “

.

., .,

,

53

54

;

da

, et

puo maniera esse unito esse deriuato che non che con effetto diuiderlo ma non quelli che pure senon sono ben pratichi conoscerne differenza queste nella operation loro non posson mettere più spatio che quelle Ibid fol poche hore nelle quali elle debbono essere popolo rappresentate à

,

et

501

)

(

."

si

;

;

il

:

ne

,

, à

:

. 4 si : “ fa

le

il

et

,

Ibid fol son tutte parti sustantiali della fauola delle quali delle altre simiglianti non potrebbe trasporre leuar alcuna che non uenisse danno alla fauola poeta con uerisimili cosi necessariamente seguitar l'una dall'altra decoro delle puo piu oltre desiderare persone sempre seruando che non

POETIC

THEORY

for both theoretical and practical

statements in criticism and a source from which he makes relatively few departures. source

,

in

to

he

,

1 ,

.

) is

(

del

The place of Aristotle in Frosino Lapini's Letione nella quale si ragiona quite different For in universale fine della poesia 1567 this lecture delivered before the Accademia Fiorentina on May 1567 the dominant a

,

:

of

,

of

.

to

in

to of

is

).

.

,

,

in

to

(

,

pp

of

is

;

is

Plato

it

who gives the essential orientation work poetry which declares that the end the inculcation virtue man see Chapter VII 290–92 There are some references Aristotle but rather the Physics and the Ethics than the Poetics From the Aris approach Lapini derives his identification general totelian the poetry material formal and final causes influence

the poet the plot under the subjects taken him for explanation and since the form the imitation follows that the end must different from these very great Nor this pleasure alone which felt accidental the outer ,

is

in

,

as

,

as

.

be

,

by

all

is

,

is

,

it

is

of

We conclude therefore that since the material

which are veiled and enclosed

the Poetics wherein

,

Aristotelian

the conclusions

are

the causes are differently defined

.

of of

,

may

all

the approach

whereas

,

Here

surely not those

be

in

. SS

in

,

by

,

of

of

shell and surface the beautiful invention the plot but mainly the utility en closed within the meaningful and moral subject veiled the plot the same way that the mysteries were hidden and covered the sacred ceremonies

is

goodness

necessary

if

the better living Lapini cites Vettori's

containing

as

utile dulci

of

corroborating his own and Horace's

"

for

exemplars

"

understands ,

to

how

mean honor and virtue

.

serve

he

is

as

as

are

also determines

takes

"

as

gloss

to

,

character which

personages

It

he

C ).

;

passions

(p .

its

of of

of

The conception moral utility the end determines Lapini's interpre purged tation catharsis moral betterment achieved when the soul

,

and the ends

of ,

is

as

-

moral perfection

the

.

be

to

a

be .

-

a

or

,

by

.

of

is

.

by

be

to

it

heightening will bring him near completely realized 1570

)

CASTELVETRO

(

poem will

is

The need for heightened goodness character always emphasized itself Imitation the nature imitation further pleasant and beautiful and these effects are achieved re meant presenting any object even low person nearly perfect action more than would normally When virtuous person concerned the the same conclusion

of

of

in ,

in

,

a

in

,

ac

:

il a

da

la

da

i

&

ne

,

-

: “

, e

,

.pp

in

,

forma sendo solo piacere

sposta

Basel

Eij Eijv materia del Poeta Conchiudiamo adunque che sendo soggetti presi quale sono velati dichiararsi lui racchiusi tutti queste conuien che sia segue che diverso fine ciò imitatione superficie della vaga inuentione della che per accidente nella scorza

) la la ,

1567

(

sia & la ss il la

Letione

Fauola sotto

, in

This was Lodovico Castelvetro's Poetica d'Aristotele vulgarizzata printed first revised edition 1570 and later Vienna

et

.

in

in

"

by

the great the first the publication The year 1570 was marked any European vernacular commentaries Italian and hence the first

. "

,

, e

, e

502

)

(

i

,

,

si

fauola sente grandissimo ma l'Utile principalmente racchiuso nel sensato morale soggetto coperti velato dalla fauola non altrimenti che misterij erano nelle sacre cerimonie ascosi

VERNACULAR COMMENTARIES his

POETICS :

is

of

”,

we

for

“

is

work

of

Castelvetro follows the usual pattern for such commentaries ; which divided into Parti each divided into six major

1576.56

a

.

,

his

in

whereas

;

of

the Poetics

his doubts about the

it of

says

,

he

it ,

of

as

,

.

his

to

declares

we

subservient develop own The Poetics have imperfect and unpolished poetry the art

and

theory and proposes first rough form

he

his attitude toward Aristotle and the text

they were respectful

"

, a “

or

”

“

all .

in in

six

,

in

,

also

or

”

“

of

"

,

"

,

or

,

a

“

“

and each Particella are given section the Greek Vulgarizzamento brief statement the Contenenza content commentary The pas translation and then the long Spositione sages themselves are fewer number and longer than Castelvetro's pre predecessors decessors totaling fifty Castelvetro differs from Particelle

text

is

...

at a

as

,

. "

57

in

to

,

,

of

His own purpose

to

to

he

of

it

is

so

“ a

,

is

which probable that the author preserved might serve him that collection notations and brief reminders order have them might wish compile and compose the complete art hand when :

more ambitious

do

go

to

to an

. 58

to

do

correctly and how one should judge properly whether those already written not have what they ought have

or

of all

be

or

,

of

by

,

of

in

us

to

I

poetry clear showing and displaying not have tried render the art only what was handed down these few pages that greatest philosophers but also whatever should could written for the full benefit those who might wish know how one should about composing poems

as

.

of

,

the Poetics

rather than

as

to

of (

works art characteristics

the world

in

of

art

that Aristotle

of

of

poems considers the special qualities analyzes those natural objects that

,

of

,

to

in of

,

is

to

as a

,

explanation

,

,

the analysis from the world

way

as

the whole say Let us

.

reality

of

transposes

by of

It

be

in

.

of ,

,

be

point departure partly Aristotle will used therefore partly opponent Our immediate problem here discover what happens theory adaptation process Aristotle's the and refutation general Castelvetro say that would perhaps not too bold

),

(

of

art

of

by

56

he

in

),

he

objects which usability affect their works rather than their natural qualities only that takes into consideration those capacities men which affect it

of

.

on

.

of I

as

.

, è .ed as ), a & .p of di ) O (3 on , : "

.

;

is

,

of

57

to

,

in

on

died

the basis

in

posthumous 1571 and the second edition was prepared the author's manuscripts There are numerous variations between the texts even the direct translations Aristotle Questions arise about the authenticity probably the changes and which text use basis for study have used the 1576 edition representing Castelvetro's final thinking poetic theory the text Aristotle and Castelvetro

friends

,

far

.

"

of of ,

:

(

di ,

,

in

,

,

,

, “

(3 : "

)O

ed .) , .p

(

ho is R. , in S.

, ".

ed .

(

,

;

,

pp .

: &

di

),

,

58

...

&

vna prima forma rozza imperfetta non verisimile che l'autore conseruasse perche seruisse bricui memorie per poterle hauere preste quando volesse compilare ordinare l'arte intera See my article Castelvetro's Theory Poetics Chicago University Chicago Critics and Criticism Ancient and Modern Crane large part abstracted from the article Press 1952 349–71 the present treatment Poetica d'Aristotele 1576 tentato manifesta l'arte poetica Poetica d'Aristotele 1576 polita dell'arto poetica laquale Juogo raccolta d'insegnamenti

in

,

"

no .

, o

,

)

(

503

a , o

è

si ,

,

,

, , se i

di

a

&

,

&

da

,

aprendo quello che queste poche non solamente mostrando stato lasciato scritto quel sommo philosopho poteua essere scritto carte ma quello anchora che doucua per vtilita piena comporre bene poemi coloro che volessero sapere come debba fare giudicare dirittamente composti habbiano quello che deono hauere

POETIC

”

as

.

un

.

,

of

remain

,

if

as

poetry

lost works ;

of

the art

to

the special conditions special conditions tends

be

to

of works ( rather than works and objects and men are

they were natural objects objects themselves they pass into the work and men are men

are treated

changed

“

,

Castelvetro

That

).

as

always with respect any idea

of

all

men

their characteristics

viewed

In

the appreciation , and the evaluation

is ,

,

the intelligence

THEORY

a to

.

is or

in

of

all

to

in

of

Perhaps the crux the matter lies Castelvetro's determination remove the principal emphasis from the poem the audience Such poetry are considered not aspects transformation means that terms

of

in

of

.

of

“

of of

be

to

it

of

,

...

"

:

"

a

of

of

the poem itself but terms the needs specifically demands characterized audience Castelvetro's audience composed thus limited and restricted and comes the common poetry was invented for the pleasure people the ignorant the artistic exigencies

,

to

...

:

of

. "

59

,

multitude and the common people and not for the pleasure the educated Since the élite and the educated are thus rigorously excluded certain qualities mind are denied the audience

--

imagination and will

possible

to

in

is it

: “

of

of

in

,

it

Nor

senses

or

,

,

,

establishing the rules the when someone speaks

must

almost completely lacking

believe only the evidence

its

This audience will

of

be

,

them

or

of

I

,

of to

of

things and artists

since does not understand them feel annoyance and displeasure.60

it

;

investigating the truth

and

,

use arts

of

in

— ,

to

]

(

poetry was invented exclusively delight and give recreation say delight and give recreation the minds the rough crowd and the common people which does not understand the reasons the distinctions the argu ments subtle and distant from the usage the ignorant which philosophers

make them

In

. ” 61

it an

,

a

as

is

select

35 : “ la

to

It

62

audience would have 59

deception can take

matters not reducible

of

be

it

,

. "

to

action

since

incapable going beyond what historical fact will king who did not exist nor attribute any We cannot imagine immediately clear that any poet writing for such him

the senses

knows—

“

to

in

as

a

,

their senses that only few hours have passed place them which the senses recognize such

no

believe that several days and nights have passed when they know through

his objects such actions and characters

il ,

,

&

gli

& , &

,

&

,

gli

,

ne

,

no gli le

,

&

,

,

I

."

.

by

“ la

le

,

ne

,

in

di , &

,

,

)

(

504

,

).

ne

sia

vn re ,

" (

è

ci ,

25 : "

."

, 1.

il

,

a

ad

30 .

25 , 1.

ne

la

in

i

è .p

27 : "

., .p

, 1. ."

&

,

&

., .p in

62

,

61

le ,

quali adoperano philosophi inuestigare verita delle cose artisti ordinare arti non gli'ntendendo conuiene quando altri fauella che egli senta dispiacere noia See also Ibid 109 Ne possibile dargli intendere che sieno passati piu notti quando essi sensibilmente sanno che non sono passate senon poche hore non potendo lo'nganno quale loro hauere luogo tuttauia riconosciuto dal senso italics mine possiamo imaginare attribuirgli Ibid 188 non che non stato alcuna attionc ,

degl'idioti

fu

&

& 36 ;

29 , 1.

., , .p

io

60

,

., .p

, 1.

poesia Ibid 679 trouata per diletto della moltitudine ignorante del popolo commune give pago and line non per diletto degli scientiati For this text numbers since the lines are numbered the publisher poesia sia stata trouata solamente per dilettare per ricreare Ibid dico per dilettare ricreare animi della rozza moltitudine del commune popolo ragioni quale non intende argomenti sottili divisioni lontani dall'vso

VERNACULAR COMMENTARIES

POETICS :

to the audience , that the choice of the objects would be determined to a degree by the audience , and that the objects would be chosen on the basis of their natural characteristics. But that is not The physical comfort and the convenience the

...

53 ,

of

a

.

its

be

we must not ask

would not certain limit

worth physical

of

;

short that remain beyond

it

.

,

(p

says Castelvetro

crowd

assembled

:

,

endurance

poem

so an

to

assemble for while nor must we expect the crowd

We are speaking

before

to

to

considered

poems presented

it a

27 ),

1.

need

of

audience

be

all .

as would be acceptable

that during which the spectators can comfortably remain the theater which far can see cannot exceed the revolution the sun Aristotle says that twelve hours for because the necessities eating drinking excreting the superfluous burdens the body such the belly and the bladder sleeping and because other necessities the people cannot

of of

of

;

of

,

I

,

of

,

displeased

be

to

its

of

characteristics the capacity by

to

be

one

time.63

of

,

this audience has certain things and

by ,

pleased

as

is ,

,

as

,

the theater beyond the aforementioned as

Finally

stay

in

continue

,

, as

its

,

,

as

,

in

is

the restricted time

seated

in

.

;

"

553

9 ).

, 1.

(

by

to

satiety

pleased

events which

do

of by

is

the audience wishes displeased

):

volontà

its "

"

hopes

(

in is

Another happen

its

which present commonplace events and rapidly lead

.p

,

it

, it

"

,

it

:

is

others One the bases knowledge the audience takes pleasure for pleasure and displeasure learning thought could not come about especially those things which contrariwise dislikes stories from which cannot learn anything those

its

to

it to

of

;

it

its

, of

a

,

.) .

(

,

accordance with those which not Finally the audience will relate the events poem the for tunes own life will enjoy seeing the good happy and the wicked unhappy since the case expect happiness from the former will lead ibid

of

to

;

,

it

objects

;

of

These additional characteristics

audience not only restrict further the poet's choice

of

be

,

,

of

21 ).

1.

122

,

;

l.

,

121

34

.pp

(

able

-

of

be

,

if

.

,

it

, a

it

if of

security own goodness and the case the latter will give sense justice good unhappy experience and On the other hand the are will fear and pity and the wicked are happy will feel envy and scorn but only temporary displeasures since they will give way these will feel ings justice which will ultimately pleasur righteousness self and the they also limit

it

.

of

in

of

his

,

,

to

,

he

his art for must now make plots and conceive characters certain ways conform length ordering certain wishes for the and his work Throughout the above passages Castelvetro has taken for granted is

.

on

as a

it )

as

, , 1. il 21 : " il

(

of

.

63

he

in

is

of

poetry This that pleasure alone explicit position every the end agreement with him and sees the utilitarian He finds Aristotle purgation interprets notion contradiction Aristotle's where

)

(

."

,

,

&

,

in

il

11 .

505

, è si

a

il

i

le

,

&

,

i

il 1.

,

è

,

io

.

, in ., .p

,

57 ,

.p

é

tempo stretto quello che veditori possono 109 suo agio dimorare quale giro del sole theatro non veggo che possa passare come dice cio hore dodici conciosia cosa che per mangiare necessita del corpo come superflui pesi del ventre per altre necesstia non bere diporre della vesica dormire possa popolo continuare oltre predetto termino cosi fatta dimora theatro See also Ibid sedendo Aristotele

POETIC

THEORY

" For if poetry was invented principally for pleasure , and not for utility , as he demonstrated in the passage where he spoke of the origin of poetry in general, why should he now insist that tragedy , which is a part of poetry, should seek utility above else Why should not seek mainly pleasure without paying attention utility He explains purgation

it

of

on

as

64

? "

to

by

an

to

?

all

part :

,

).

12

,

1.

1. 4 ;

9,

16 ;

to

it is

,

,

(

.pp

in

or

as a

1.

, is a

13 ).

,

in

is

if

pleasure

or of to

:

of

1.

15 ;

,

;

, 1.

24 ;

insists Aristotle

here

of

1.

Aristotle

( of .pp

Plato's banishment the poets moral moral use for poetry 116 272 697 The utility lies the diminution the passions pity and fear the audience their expulsion 117 299 purgation utility only incidental But admitted the real end answer

grounds

of

means

, ,

it

of

by he

of

pity

tragedy.65

be

of by of

,

,

,

is

It

66

"

us .

of to

with

external

force

certain charac be

is

to to

.

,

of

its

of

of

operating upon the composition the poem pleasure are related and achievement the end teristics the audience the means by which the end

poetry

an

a

is

—

a

in in

in

the natural love

of

because

great pleasure that have for ourselves source significant that places this discussion Castelvetro the end the audience such way that the end too becomes

If

be

it

the unhappiness are good since

ourselves

of

that

at

feeling displeasure

recognize

which recognition

we

us , ,

we

,

comes about when

another unjustly suffered unjust things displease

we

,

he

on to

)

of

“

he

,

;

of

,

“ v [

”

...

it

able

:“

the word pity from

source

n

sidered

fear and

fact Castelvetro believes that purgation itself may con pleasure thus affirms that Aristotle meant Sov 1453611 the purgation and the expulsion fear and explain how pleasur goes uman souls and can

matter

as a

a

the case with the purgation

of

,

he

]

to it, to

let

,

(

if,

is it;

as to

As

,

to

profit profit and Those who insist that poetry was invented mainly delight together them beware lest they oppose the authority Aristotle assign nothing but pleasure who here Poetics 1459a21 and elsewhere seems accidentally and indeed concedes some utility concedes

achieved

are

is

:

as

,

, se la

30 : “

64

it

if

.

In

.

of

on

of

similarly related Here the main consideration imagination the lack part argument the the audience sum the runs follows the audience will derive pleasure only identifies itself with the characters &

,

in

? ”

, si

di

,

è

è

la

il

,

,

si , 38 : , & “

, 1.

., .p

65

?

,

, la

la ,

ha

,

., .p

, 1.

poesia Ibid 275 Percioche stata trouata principalmente per diletto generale doue parlò dell'origine della poesia mostrato non per vtilita come egli perche vuole egli che nella tragedia quale poesia vna parte cerchi principalmente diletto senza hauer cura dell'vtilita cerca principalmente l'vtilita Perche non poesia sia trouata principalmente per lbid 505 Coloro che vogliono che

, le

se

,

, lo

è

,

la

&

è la ,

,

...

& ,

,

le

,

,

la ."

12 : “

,

& 1.

,

., .p

66

&

, il

, &

, o

giouare per giouare per dilettare insieme veggano che non s'oppongano all'autorita quale qui assegni altro che diletto pure d'Aristotele altroue non par che purgatione dello spauento concede alcuno giouamento gliele concede per accidente come della compassione per mezzo della tragedia purgatione lbid 299 Aristotele intese per voce novu scacciamento quando noi sentendo dis della compassione dagli animi humani dello spauento

)

(

506

,

,

to

. "

on

,

, la

.

ci è di ci

a le

, ci

piacere della miseria altrui ingiustamente auenutagli riconosciamo essere buoni poi che dispiacciono quale riconoscenza per l'amore naturale che noi portiamo cose ingiuste piacere grandissimo noi stessi The passage goes discuss additional secondary pleasures

POETICS : VERNACULAR COMMENTARIES

, it ;

of

,

prob

):

ff .

39

,

II .

.p

(

of on

he

.

to

"

“

to it to

is

.”

as “

It

"

“

be

to

,

to

,

necessity

possible actions

i.c. monstrous

or

nature

nature

,

to

to

the course

the course

(

,

A. Natural According Contrary

of of

which have actually happened

Possible actions 2. 1.

be

"

,

it

"

is

it

its

interpret Castelvetro does Aristotle's remarks ability and verisimilitude He divides the whole realm according 184 the following schema see I.

in of

If

of

.

is

.

It

of

in

its

and the events ; this identification is possible only if the audience believes in their reality ; belief their reality will depend upon the credibility the verisimilitude the presentation here that imagination enters imagination the audience were endowed with great capacities things far removed from the conditions real life would believe the realm will believe only what seems since not this general argument which leads true own experience

hap

miraculous

of or

Accidental Resulting from chance Resulting from the will

fortune

,

men Possible actions which have not yet happened A. and above as

B.

II .

2. 1.

B.

)

penings

of

is

be ; a no

be is

,

.

by

a

,

is

Td ,

to

,

in

,

to

; it

of

since

it

essentially the includes accomplished actions corresponds history province Yevóueva and Aristotle's particular actions performed specific persons Actions limited this tragedy and epic which since they deal with royal kind are essential incapable persons cannot dispense with historical basis the audience

I,

Now Category

it is

SUVATA

;

TS

coequal with Aristotle's the other hand the universal since the actions are possible , is

II,

Category the realm

,

of on

.

,

of

no

,

a

it

,

, of

all .

its at

of

,

of

imagining kings who did not exist etc. But poem may composed entirely history and not poem such actions since then would Comedy component course needs historical events since persons and their actions are private and obscure

for many

poetry All poems must possess some thus the realm actions which have not actually happened But whereas credibility does not arise the first category the question the second primary importance order that credibility and hence veri similitude may assured and that the ingredient the marvelous also any pleasure necessary present the following three occur may requisites are established for possible actions in

,

(

,

of

,

be

to to

.

those actions which have actually happened

similar

of

those actions which had the least probability but which did actually happen parcels The parts such actions must individually similar those parts actions which happened various cases various people similar

]

507

to

several means

first

,

assured

:

be

in

may

[

,

it

credibility then

,

respect

to

With

.

be

.

of

or

of

(

c )

,

happening

by to

(

be be

a )

They must

(

They must

b )

:

,

to

is

if

)

be

.

In of

.

in

.

of

it of is

of

it is

;

persons component

POETIC

THEORY

of a historical basis for the action in certain genres ; second , by adherence , in invented actions, to the conditions of “ real ” or " true " actions . At this point , the expectations of the audience again im by the use

a close

of its

in

its

,

In

.

of

pinge upon the poet in a very important way , for the audience is the touch stone of natural probability , and it will believe whatever conforms to conceptions reality part conceptions are formulated terms

,

of

at

to

be

to

as

of

.

of

.

of

,

of

given types assigned traditional traits characters conventional actions Castelvetro equates these once with the αρμόττοντα Aristotle and the Horatian decorum probability All degrees Castelvetro conceives them are natural decorum

and

to

or

a

of is,

;

of he

in

is

on

is

a

he .

,

If

.

.

of

,

by

to

by

is

to

in

probability rather than aesthetic probability that probability work established not reference the conditions the work itself preliminary statements within the work but reference outside the work especially clear the operations nature This the example uses for distinguishing between necessity and verisimilitude Actions both kinds are possible hence admissible into poetry man wounded

or of

is

an in

,

"

"

poetry and indirect way

of

the problems connected

in

of

nature with the making

so —

with the objects represented

are largely problems

audience

of

are

is

of

,

.

to

of

of

of

its

the problems connected

with

;

,

it

.p

(

of

all

,

all

In

40 ).

or

1.

,

.p

(

the audience

If

of

, 1. 1 ).

is

in

or

”

a

;

he

.

If

“

is

,

it

probable that verisimilar will die hence the poet may represent his death necessary man wounded the heart Similarly that die hence the poet may represent his death 188 for actions springing from character which are really matters decorum 330 such considerations historical truth necessity and verisimilitude the primary aim natural probability not making the poem resemble nature the imitation nature for the sake obtaining the credence but rather the resemblance nature for the sake the head

.

.

it

of to

is

.

,

As we have seen the first means the proper selection and assorting

, ;

of

by

,

is

of .

,

found

the poet

place time and the comparison

:

to

With respect time the clearest statement tragedy and the epic

in of

taken into account the unities

is

,

respectively

to be

in

imagination have

these two factors lead

, to

lack

of of

A

to

convincing and amusing the audience second means the these materials accordance with the unities time place We have already noted that the physical comforts the audience

of

its

and action

.

disposition and

this end

of

.

materials

of

achievement

to

a

tween the probable and the marvelous the

of

of

of

it

of

is ,

,

is

)

( or of

he

is

,

it

.

is

a

an

all

of

not the parts

to to

the work art The produce beautiful work art through the ordering artistically perfect structure beauty Questions rarely concern Castelvetro Rather the task the poet find some keeps way entertaining the audience while convinced that what striking proper balance be sees reads true that some way challenge

its

of

508

]

[

,

of

as

,

tragedy has found proper compass Now just the perceptible end within the revolution the sun over the earth without going beyond this limit

VERNACULAR COMMENTARIES

POETICS :

in

it .

on

67

of

,

be

or

to

its

in order to put an end to the discomfort of the audience and the expense of the proper compass being actors , so the perceptible end of the epic has found able extended over several days since neither the discomfort the listener expense connected with the reciter took this possibility away from nor harm

.

,

is ,

an

,

of

,

a

is

of

of

,

of

.

to

be

;

,

a

of no

. ”

or in

68

a

in

of

: “

in in

a

in

its

...

..

,

,

in in

as a

its

eyes will take place single spot the stage the action before subject tragedy Hence two unities action must have accomplished place space small area and small time that that place and that time where and when the actors remain engaged acting and not any other place any other time Ideally the invented action should occupy more time than real action and this performance the place should remain time should not exceed the time unchanged and person who contained within the space visible himself did not move As for the unity action which for Aristotle the only important one Besides

,

.

—

of

,

he

in

—

so

as

;

in a

it

be

a

in

history one may relate single narrative poetry possible single plot will

...

in

,

in

if

,

no doubt that single person a

there

several actions

of

For

is

:

a

he

to , is a

of

is

and which for him the very essence the work art Castelvetro's highly revelatory treatment his general attitude toward poetics To things for limiting begin with denies any necessity the nature frequently single action poem takes issue sharply with Aristotle here

of

,

in

a

it

,

do

multiple plot would more poet the ha

:

a

a

to

to

,

I

even

by

of

of

,

or

it

if

or of

. . .

.

poetry were conceded relate many many peoples not see that any blame should

And even

Moreover the presentation double readily serve the end pleasure sought 67

,

a

be

of

. . .

.

for

,

to it of of a a

people

many persons for this reason.69

actions come

,

a

in

a

actions

as

of

it

to

single person just narrate without being blamed for several actions similarly poetry one may relate without being blamed for single action history does this with much praise poetry whole people And indeed single action not only whole people may narrated but even several

la de

la

il

ha

,

,

ne

,

."

in in ,

,

non altroue

ne

&

in

,

è in

operatione

,

occupati

&

dimorano

,

di

17 : , “ & la in

rappresentatori

in

i

di , 1.

...

vn

se

ha

si

si

fa

,

,

se le , si si

Et ,

Et

. . . . si

. si

,

raccontamento

,

,

, 1.

178 Perche non dubbio niuno che nell'historia narra sotto piu attioni d'una persona sola potra sotto vna fauola nella poesia narrare senza biasimo piu attioni d'vna persona sola come parimente nella poesia senza potra narrare vna attione sola d'vna gente percioche l'historia biasimo cio con molta potra narrare vna attione d'vna gente ma lode non solamente pure nella poesia ., .p

Ibid

23 : “

69

."

&

quando doue altro tempo ,

il

in

,

de

& di la

., .p

68

, o

ne

,

la

il

, si

., .p

, 1. 1 : “

Ibid 534 Hora come termine sensibile della tragedia trouata sua misura d'vn giro del sole sopra terra senza passare piu oltre per cessare disconcio spesa rappresentatori veditori cosi termine sensibile dell'epopea trouata potere essere tirato lungo per piu giornate poi che disagio d'ascoltatore sua misura spesa del recitatore non gliele toglieua danno tragedia Ibid 109 conuiene hauere per soggetto vn'attione auenuta picciolo spatio luogo picciolo spatio tempo cio quel luogo quel tempo

509

)

(

.

di at

.”

di

le

la

, . . . .

an

di

, o

anchora piu attioni d'vna gente concedera narratione molte attioni molte persone molte genti non pero veggo che biasimo alcuno debba seguire The argument rests upon analogy between poetry and history which Castelvetro develops great length

or

THEORY

all

POETIC

the people

,

of

persons and

of

to a

of

,

of us

us

,

,

,

a

it,

of

or

if

of

we should not marvel at several actions one person one action people several actions several persons delight and make attentive plot carries with through the multitude listen since such the actions through the variety through the new events and through the multitude both pleasure and greatness and magnificence.70

,

of

.

a

of

of

is a

to

; it

be

,

of

?

is

it

,

,

Why then does Aristotle insist upon unity and why does Castelvetro recommend The reason different for the different genres For tragedy comedy unity consequence and action the unities time and place possible would not crowd into restricted space and into

”

,

:

to

,

.pp

”

,

29 )

23 )

, 1.

16 ;

, 1.

16 ,

is

on

.

,

1.

a

in

,

,

or

of

of

of

poetry

"

of

since poetry

is

Aristotle's work upon adequate an

it

,

Indeed

did not base

Their art

adequate ,

72

history

.

the

of

an art

a

to

A

.

to

art

.

of to

by

the fact that

an

,

,

be

extent vitiated

conception the art first major difference

possessed

"

we

this art

of

,

if of

he

says

intimate that unnecessary would write light from the light history

art to of an

derives

point

different from Aristotle's

Castelvetro's assimilation

,

kinship history

fact

he

appears

,

of

of

argument

these lines

poetry essentially all it is in so its

of

Many

in

.

of

its

its

is

as

1.

1.

,

see 179 179 and 504 What commentary about this position especially the any concern with the structural abandonment formal the work and insistence upon two such nonartistic consider the comfort and character the audience and the glory the

of

,

beauties

ations poet

24 ;

(

of

different things see 179 514 plot demonstrates the ingenuity and the excel

symptomatic Poetics

“

,

is

“

is

a

an

the poet

(

lence

abundance

because such

.pp

,

second

of

,

and

,

;

an

of of

a

,

a

spectator with

of

hours more than one action indeed sometimes one these plays only part epic necessity will contain action.71 For the where this sought for two other reasons does not exist unity action first because such unified plot more beautiful less likely satiate the twelve

.

of

art

an

be .pp

see

,

:

in

in

,

of

he

history and most presents would have been the precepts which adequately appropriately history developed more and more only history respects presents The two arts differ two events which actually happened poetry those which have not occurred but which might

,

41

as ;

, 1.

o

(“

”

of so

or

,

1. 1 ).

a

"

,

,

(

occur and poetry uses verse whereas history uses prose 115 190 Otherwise they are much alike that poetry may defined history rassomiglianza resemblance imitation similitudine it is

.

se

da

, , 1. o 18 : "

70

,

in

is

19 .)

28 , 1.

,

” .p

certainly more like history than Poetry like d'historia making the latter comparison painting and Aristotle errs with others

,

of

as

. "

.

of "

"

of

)

(

510

gli ad

, o

,

,

&

,

&

&

,

31 .

of

la as

la

,

la

, 1.

36 ;

, 1.

& ci

ci

di

la

,

, . 1.

,

."

, 1. 4; 21 : "

1.

., ., .p or . 5,

&

71

72

&

,

la

., .p

marauigliarsi piu attioni d'vna persona Ibid 179 non sia punto vna piu persone piu attioni rendessono intenti dilettassono attione d'vna gente ascoltarlo portando seco fauola per moltitudine dell'attioni per varieta per per piacere grandezza nuoui auenimenti moltitudine delle persone della gente magnificenza 692 See also pp 504 the pp 179 the whole the action 19. Castelvetro thinks 504 Ibid art the plot thei ndividual work traditional historical story not poesia ogni sua luce dalla luce dell'historia prendendo Ibid

POETICS : VERNACULAR COMMENTARIES

of

of

;

.

is

of

,

of

.

is

,

in

art and the art which most readily words history the one which provides ,

by

“

"

nature means all the essential distinctions treats

in

is

art

of

a

also the object

of

nature

is

object

of in

of

in

as

as

an

.

his

Castelvetro was so completely dedicated to the analogy between poetry and history that he failed to construct , as most of his contemporaries were doing , a parallelism between poetry and rhetoric —and this in spite of the essentially rhetorical character of own system Aristotle's notion introducing differences between object imitation nature and that object completely absent none represented work the implications present For the the Aristotelian concept imitation

in

to

all

so

of

“

at

.

,

we

to

is

its

it

,

its

of

or

by

.

to of

of

of

we

in

,

if

a

,

of

al

di

,

briefly Some these matters are further discussed Castelvetro's Chiose intorno libro del Comune Platone work which dates from the period the Poetica73 but which was first published the Opere varie critiche 1727. The sections the Republic which deal with poetics are naturally unusual interest Castelvetro He finds that Aristotle con example and tradicts Plato's statement that poetry meant teach liberty necessity follow examples Rather that must are through materials about teachings accept reject since teaches

of

,

to

,

in

... ,

.

,

:

of

of

by

“

is

.

,

,

is

in

,

to

,

to

to

,

which we may think and that we may have examples kinds both frighten the wicked and console the good and learn the nature men and of women The aim still teach this context but the audience may react against the examples rather than follow them blindly purgation This essence the meaning therefore Aristotle said that tragedy means fears and injustices drove out fears and

in

by "

,

as

of

of

a

,

of

.

of

to

author variously referred attack upon Dante entitled

as

an

1572

Ridolfo Castravilla wrote

Plato

an

1570 and

an

between

understanding

as

." 75

a

an

Aristotle depend upon

on .p

73

or

Somewhere

a

:

explanations

Anselmo

...

that the perils proposed are fire for man Castelvetro's understanding Plato depend upon Aristotle his

of of

...

explanations

as

relates

an

,

,

on

74

in

."

of

injustices from the hearts refuting what Plato says the men listening Again purgation Castelvetro proposes this passage alternative theory Perhaps Aristotle which like would purge like said that tragedy purged those same passions means those same passions purification and proving because they constituted man just Plato

is

of

, , e &

la i

to

is

,

in de

gli

da

rei , da e

. , E e le

i

da ":

."

,

in

le

, e

gli

de

le

of

., of

,

le

, e la

da

e

.pp

),

(

In

74

.

to

A

passage posterior 215 the Opere varie critiche indicates that the commentary that on the Poetics Opere varie critiche 1727 per materia 215-16 farvi pensamenti sopra spaventare acciocchè abbiamo esempj d'ogni maniera consolare buoni perciò diceva Aristotele che Tragedia conoscere natura uomini delle donne paure ingiustizie scacciava paure ingiustizie dal cuore con con uomini questo luogo ascoltanti riprovando quello che dice Platone The reference Plato .

)

(

511

,

."

il

i

,

,

, e

,

la

in

...

: “

.pp

75

.p

the Ficino translation the Basel edition 1546 Tragedia purgava quelle medesime Ibid 226–27 Forse Aristotele disse che poichè erano affinamento paragone dell'uomo affezioni con quelle medesime affezioni siccome racconta Platone che pericoli proposti sono fuoco dell'uomo 561

POETIC

THEORY

Discorso nel quale si mostra l'imperfettione della Comedia

.

This

I

shall

di Dante

was the work which started the great controversy over Dante , and

treat it in detail in a later chapter . But since the attack is based upon prin ciples which claim to be Aristotelian , it is of interest here to see how Castra villa ( who has never been successfully identified ) understood the text of is important to note that this is a

full - scale examination of

approach and the earliest practical studies

a

criteria do

of

to its

It

its

the Poetics .

great modern work , an examination that takes

so .

,

( in

.

a

an

-

an

a

is

of

is a

at

all ,

)

to

in

of

,

it is

from Aristotle and that one Castravilla writes rebuttal Benedetto Varchi's claim the Hercolano 1570 that Dante's poem was superior Homer's He first asks whether poem establishing the principle that poem the Divina Commedia plot which must contain the imitation action Aristotelian

in

in

,

in ,

of

of

states that

he

,

several places and especially poems are imitations kinds

all

the beginning that book where and the passage below where

of

Poetry

Art

he

in

Aristotle declares this

his

:

principle

,

is

of its

,

a

.

an

of

an

is

,

in is a

...

in

of

.

has been expressed

For this reason Aristotle said that the plot was like the soul

imitation making

it

,

second

,

a

as

first plot

poem

” ;

of

:

here

in

to

Two interesting comments are included prior any expression the form

exists

an

tragedy.76

“

of it

an

it is

an

is

a

is

a

:

he

in

adds that those who imitate imitate persons says that the plot action and farther below imitation action From plot poem except for the fact that this passage one concludes that poem poem until expressed not meter which outer garment and that the plot imitation action even the mind the poet and before

;

:

to he of

an

the Commedia

,

of

"

be

,

an

.

as

an

of

a

digest

analysis

good plot these are attributed parts the Poetics a

for

its

be

Aristotle and constitute

to

an

proceeds

requisites

of

he

Before

of

).

77v

set

a

(

”

heroes

establishes

fol .

-

it

to

be

a

of

poem involves necessarily the use into verse Castravilla next asks epic poem applying whether Dante's work may properly classed epic poem must Aristotle's yard stick that imitation

,

of

be

it

is ,

;

,

a

is ,

the end

;

to

,

be

in a

of

,

be

, it

at a

, it

is

from the beginning

76

that

;

of all

:

It

should verisimilar for without this the poem would fall short end and would remain deprived force and vigor Second should clear and easily remembered that such that can glance and remembered single turn seen the memory Thirdly must one that include one single action and that whole one

,

: "

in

e

la

...

.

et

di

.

;

.

,

, . e

di

,

è : et

,

le

in

.

I

quote this treatise from MS Vat Lat 6528 fols 76–84 see fol 76v Ilche declara piu luoghi quel libro doue pone Aristotele nella sua arte poetica maxime nell'exordio sperie delle poesie sono imitatione quello che poi sogiugnie che quelli che che tutte più imitano immitano persone agenti sotto dice che fauola imitatione d'attione e

il

;

la

è

, e la

.

e sia la

,

512

)

(

.

."

, e

del

è

si

poema non poema sinòche non dal qual luogo ritrae che poema fauola senonche espresso col metro che sua veste fauola imitatione d'attione etiam nella mente poeta prima ch'ella espressa Pero dicea Aristotele che fauola era quasi l'anima della tragedia There are numerous Latin words and expressions throughout the text

POETICS :

VERNACULAR COMMENTARIES

Plots will be beautiful if they are dramatic , that is if the persons introduced act and are in continuous action ; if they are simple , that is if they contain actions of a single thread ;

if they if they

have body and a proper size , for beauty cannot exist in little subjects ; have recognition and reversal which break forth from the subject prob ably or necessarily , in some marvelous fashion ; if they contain within the argument itself the marvelous , the terrible , the piti able , and the moral;

if they

do not have too many episodes , and if these are connected in such a way argument with the that they seem to be members born along with the body , not that were added to it .

if it has a beautiful knotting and action itself.77

beautiful solution which comes out of the

Castravilla's idea of plot seems to be a proper one - surely more correct than that of Castelvetro — and his digest of the requisites shows an under standing of the essential problems as Aristotle raises them . NERONI (CA.

1577)

all

To approximately the same period ( I have assigned them roughly to by Baccio Neroni , probably prepared for 157178 ) belong three discourses delivery to the Accademia degli Alterati. They deal with matters dis .

,

at

of

times present interpretations that text One necessario nella poesia and Neroni's answer

to

.

un

in

quella tutta cioe dal principio

fine

[i ] ne ,

,

se

,

persone indotte s'opereranno cioe conteneranno actioni dun piccoli argumenti non puo esser

,

necessariamente

misericordieuole

el

terribile

,

stesso l'admirabile

et il

nell argumento

,

haranno

uerisimilmente

il

"

Se

che erumpino

.

in

“

et

agnitione Se haranno peripetia dalla cosa alcun modo amirabile

, o

.

;

e

se

e

in

se

,

fauole saranno belle saranno dramatiche cioè saranno continua operatione saranno semplic grandezza giusta perche sol filo haranno corpo beltà

se le

se

.

Le al

:

of

, e

,

"

girare

.

di

e

e

in

"

Item debbe essere una cioe comprendere una sola actione

“

as

,

possa uedere

.

e

poema caderebbe dal suo

si

.

la

il

79 : "

-

.

.,

fine

sino

,

,

; it

by

,

is a

“

, 77 e

fols 78y Che sia uerisimile che senza questo uigore resteria spogliato d'ogni forza Secondo uuol essere conspicua ramemorabile cioe tale che d'un guardo ricordarsene una uolutione memoria Ibid

to

to

his

in

of

in

: ( 1 )

in

)

(

a

of

;

is

to

.

is

strong affirmative This opposition course prove position and the Poetics the author therefore obliged find suitable interpretation certain passages Aristotle He presents arguments twelve distinct and numbered Verse gives importance subjects which are unimportant themselves adds majesty greatness delighting poetry the marvelous and the audience achieves the end sign poets necessarily This manifest that must use verse men who is a

the question

verso

è

entitled

il

in

the Poetics and

is

them

Se

to of

cussed

.

morale

(

]

513

178

.

),

1954

(

CXXXI

[

,

Giornale Storico della Letteratura Italiana

), "

.”

di

“

78

“

e

.

“

e

quelli saranno connexi talmente con largumento che Se non haranno troppi episodij pareranno membri nati col corpo non sutiui apposti Se hara bello nexo bella solutione che erumpa dalla cosa Argomenti See my discussione letteraria nell'Accademia degli Alterati 1570-1600

POETIC treat mostly

of vain things

and

need to help them by means

of

THEORY

of little importance , and such that they the style , a thing which they cannot better achieve in any way than through verse . " 79 ( 2 ) Even in poems treating im )

(

is

I

,

a

of

,

;

in

,

is

because

the

true things

prose

( 3 )

80

in we

interested

in

be

a ”

all .

fact and am positive without verse they The situation different for histories learning the facts but poems which

read

“

,

(

4 )

. ” 81

by

as

all

...

)

verse

(5

into

Even

verse

:

of

Aristotle argues for the necessity

;

in

tations explains why Bernardo Tasso put this work

this

.

,

of

of

simple narration

need sweetness and the pleasantness which the readers are most highly attracted Such imi history prose the Amadigi were neglected because they were

are imitations verse

is

the reader

of

where

at

no

a

will remain cold thing and that such works will never pleasure would give

it

: “

;

of

all

portant subjects, such as tragedy and the epic , verse is needed , along with style without them the ornaments clear that these poems

in

in

to

is a

it

,

in

is

.

in

he

in

,

in

as is

,

as

,

.

be

to

is

82 a

be

to

)

if

to

somebody were prose and Aristotle said that write probability required poems imitate some action according should poet poetry verse not for that reason called one who understood that necessarily required . . . .

poems

to in be is

he (

if

be

is

in

a

...

,

to

at

compose any matter when Aristotle says that verse does not make poet the writer become clear sign that the proper poetic style prose that which contained verses Nor are works that are written called poetry even there imitation them which most important

,

be .

of

is

8 .it ) (

(

.

9 )

,

a

in

.

those who write

yaois

connection

in

only

Noyois

to

poet

When Aristotle uses the phrase

"

it

are always more highly praised

“

;

)

.

(

11

10 )

in (

79

in

of

,

pense with verse but comedies having Universal usage has given the name verse

is

it

be

,

is

,

in

. ( 7 )

a

,

,

,

a

of

( 6 )

,

This represents course considerable twisting Aristotle's meaning Were this not true Boccaccio who imitates most excellently would poetry and Tragedy poet needed Verse verse called lyric poetry which would uninteresting without One might think that comedy which treats low matters low style might dis

i

di

et

I

,

,

.

,

è

,

in

è

,

il

...

ne in

et è .

è

fa

in

il

...

, è

2v : “

.

.,

comporre qualsi uoglia cosa Ibid fol dicendo Aristotele che uersi non che proprio stile poetico componitore diuenti poeta segno manifesto che quello che prosa poesia douersi chiamare ancorche quelle versi contenuto Ne l'opere scritte

sia da il

. 2 : " la

fol

in , et

,

." .,

Ibid lettori

, et . "

. mi 2 : “

chiaro che esse rimarranno una cosa fredda una semplice narratione prosa per che senza uerso rendo sicuro che tali opere mai saranno lette piacere alcuno piaceuolezza del uerso dalla quale sono sommamente alletati suauita

et

.,

fol

di ,

è of lo lo

"

of

to

a

81

i

lv :

di

."

il

,

80

Ibid

d'un fatto non darebbono

82

.

,

.

,

il .

segno manifesto poeti MS Laur Ashb 559 fol Ilche che necessariamente piu trattano poca impor deuono usare verso come coloro che per cose uane tanza talche hanno bisogno aiutarle con stile ilche per altra uia meglio conseguire non possono che mediante uerso The folios the MS are unnumbered and have merely given separate pagination each the discourses

514

)

(

.

il

,

,

so

ne

si

il

in

ne

.

poemi importantissima non per questo disse che alcuno com poemi egli imitassi qualche attione secondo uerisimile come ricerca douesse essere chiamato poeta come quegli che intese necessariamente nelle poesie ricer carsj uerso l'imitatione che ponessi prosa

POETICS : VERNACULAR COMMENTARIES with the epic ( Poetics 1447a29 ) , 83 he does not mean prose but rather lan guage without rhythm and harmony . ( 12) In his definition of tragedy , again , in which were present argument insist

,

also

demanded

.

it is

in

is

if

in

by

“ that language

be

Móyw denotes

harmony , rhythm , and verse . " 84 Neroni concludes tragedy and the epic required ing that verse all other poetic genres

to

ń SUOuévq

his

the phrase

of

,

,

of

,

be

to

,

is

if

is

It

clear that the principles behind Neroni's argument include the poetry necessity pleasurable certain stylistic and prosodic poetry with verse and the con ornaments the traditional identification

of

debated

he

,

in

to

.

.

in

a

his

in

of

.

is

viction that Aristotle the final authority This last being true must giving every doubtful passage follow the lead his predecessors meaning that fits the Poetics own theoretical position The two pas sages studied arguments the last two were among those most frequently

im .

is

di

è

,

it

of

,

-

or ,

;

is

.

i

is

la

maggiore Another Neroni's discourses entitled Che fauola portanza nella poesia che costumi Once again the argument very sys tematically pursued and Aristotle but this time the main authority Neroni agrees throughout with his source rather his use does not

,

qualities

]

.:

the other things

var

in

of

is of

:

. .

a

upon which

the substance

(

poems

all

as

in is

of

.

of

:

.

is

repetitive involve any extensive deformation The discussion but one may distinguish these essential points Plot and character are the most philosophical defence poetry Neroni presents important parts his plot plot important contention that the more the two poems than character because the plot exists greater importance in

."

85

is

all

is

of

,

as

any not resident the fact being that the substance rest accidents subject subject Aristotle As the accidents itself the other but

:

is

it

,

of

in

is

.

in

;

of

,

points out plot can exist without character but character cannot exist Iphigenia without plot the plots Tauris and the Aeneid are analyzed poetry plot the substance proof Not only also the end

.

is is

of

,

,

consists

of

in

,

it

is

as

,

in

because

accidents

. 86

,

and

be

,

the Ethics and this excludes character which qualities cannot the end

of

of

a

of

,

is

of

every poem for the end poetry The plot the end and the purpose imitation but actions are imitated primarily thus the plot Besides the end quality action and not action said the Poetics and the first book

.

."

il

, et

, il

,

.

uerso

su ne '

at

this point

quella oratione nella quale era l'Armonia fol ritmo maggiore importanza MS Laur Ashb 559 fols 1-1v fauola Ibid

of its of

is

—

to

it is

,

363 for the difficulties with the text

, 3v : .p "

See above .,

85 84 83

-

as

is

It

plot which gives form any poem the form which the end any maker and such the most noble and the most important

i

è

;

la

à di

è

;

la

le

e

il

."

è il di

)

)

515

."

il

e

dice nella Poetica nel primo dell'Etica che perche sono qualità non possono esser fine

e

si

,

e

si

(

i

non qualità d'attione come

costumi iquali perche sono accidenti ,

è

li

.:

(

attione

è

.,

il

in

86

fine

esclude

: è “ la ne '

.

.

1v 2 : è “ lei

la

.

.

,

Poemi che guisa della sustanza laquale sono costumi non sono peroche fauola Poemi appogiate tutte l'altre cose var qualità come accidenti sendo che posta sustanza non suggetto altro suggetto ma tutti gl'Accidenti Ibid fols La fauola fine l'intendimento d'ogni Poema peroche fine della Poesia l'imitatione ma imitano principalmente attioni adunche fauola oltreche

POETIC

THEORY

parts . Poems are praised or blamed for the success or failure of their plots , by citations from Aristotle , by references to the demonstrates condemnation of the Canace , to Aristotle's praise of Homer , to the high esteem for Vergil and the contempt in which many critics hold the Orlando unity brings Furioso . Whereas character is multiple , plot is one and

be it

its

as Neroni

.

be

,

or

its

in it

of ,

a

in

is

is

It

in

its

;

it

beauty and perfection may these qualities result from the fact that totality may single glance easily seen and that remembered pleasure hence the principal source reader audience and this because actions are more pleasing than their accompanying circum to it its

a

the degree

which

has

a

end

particular

poem achieves

to

poem achieves

to

.

:

... the

through the plot that its

Besides

, it is

stances effects

plot

,

in

of or

or

of

by ;

all

87

)

is

as

in

no

(

it

is a

for

be

88 ,

,

same proposition presented the request the Reggente

might well

it

no

it

la

et

,

la

title

by

of

ha

,

of

to

. "

all

,

all

,

in

of

of

: "

to

the other arts and sciences than does politics over The last the Neroni lectures although bears peripetia recognitione called Che ogni fauola negative

.

a

,

of

,

of

plot over character and over other parts the poem striking analogy between his Neroni's conclusion presents suddenly plot and his conception poetry consideration the place sub politics among plot ordinate the sciences this case the architectonic part and that which commands the others wise less

of

the superiority

.”

,

,

is

in

is

by

to

pity receiving well adapted and proper the moving terror other thing desired the author for the moving the passions brought about properly every poem the plot since this consists recognition perturbation reversal and Other reasons are suggested for whatever

response

.

of

.

all

If

a

if

,

of on

all

of

,

of

a

,

he

a

at

,

,

.

Carlo

to

he

is

at

the

of

Rucellai Neroni's reply made the academy What say about recognition and reversal again represents has not dis very loose understanding tortion least Aristotle the subject poetry neces says means change reversal status then forms the

a ,

of

far

.

its

Of

a

in

utilitarian end not even as

:

sense continue those

a

.

is

he

.

in

plot which now emphasizes ,

are Neroni's remarks the preceding discourse But suggested the other writings ficance

on

in

or

to

or

of

it ,

sarily will have represent since tragedy and comedy and the epic unhappiness contrary Likewise fortune from happiness something every poem somebody recognized greater signi

change

a

,

to it;

ha la

fin

and

to on

,

of

all

in

,

they use those means which best lead them ha

achieve

it

or

.

to

,

of to

or

to

be or

to it is a

To fol .

87

.

this end

,

sure thing that poets when they compose plots have their end great effort for no other profit delight and that they spend reason than some utility men Wherefore when they compose either tragedies comedies heroic poems them they have their eye

And

either

)

(

516

."

e

'

si

à

."

a

e

la

questo caso quella che comanda Architettonica ciuile tutte l'altre arti scienze a

faccia

la

.

.,

Ibid fol niente meno che

in

4v si : " è

88

,

e

il

in o à

od il il

la

à

conueniente

il

in

e .,

3 : “

tanto Poema conseguito suo quanto fauola ben acco uoglia altra muouer misericordia terrore riceuere qual ogni Poema propriamente cosa desiderata dall'Autore percioche muouer degli affetti cagionato dalla fauola consistendo cio nella Peripetia Recognitione perturbatione Ibid modata

tutte l'altre

POETICS : VERNACULAR COMMENTARIES

,

,

to

or

to

compassion

,

of

.

,

moving them contempt then being represented.89

depending upon

is

his

delighting them the action which

or

,

to

:

all

do this , of the parts which are found in such poems certain ones are powerful over others reversal and recognition These are the ones which are apt more persons than anything else move the passions and they seize the minds

to

to

,

exemplary

.

for his time

TRANSLATION

1572

of (

, a

of

of

),

he

;

as a

us ,

by a

his

to

,

to

( on

his .

,

It

.

Il

)

to

be

the Poetics into Italian and independently commentary This was Alessandro Piccolomini's libro della Poetica part prepared d'Aristotele had been Piccolomini tells the already completed work annotations the same text but fearing appear until 1575 delays and indeed the Annotationi were not

(

the translations issued separately

of

In

1572 appeared the third the second after Segni's

)

PICCOLOMINI'S

of

he

.

,

is

in

;

Poetics

on

,

of

theory Like verse this passage shows Neroni's adherence the essentially Aristotelian Horatian tradition But even here insists general his faithfulness ideas and the text and the principles the

an he

"

if

be no

,

it

.

,

as in

it it ;

“

of

a

of

,

prefatory epistle translation alone accompanied only theory containing direct mention translation Piccolomini makes although surprising Castelvetro's vulgarizzamento would did not know fact one may detect throughout his translation publishes

his

of

,

possible

as

=

(

)

”

Particella Terza

.

a

“

Castelvetro's

Poetics

)

:

1447a26

in

with the last sentence

he

(

5 ”

“

,

his

,

,

he is

a

is

different When one compares

:

.

make

as

to

from that immediate pre following decessor the two one finds the essential always differences Piccolomini's translation little longer and more diffuse than Castelvetro's since more intent upon making the mean ing clear through translation alone without relying upon commentary example Maggi's compared For Particella uses divisions effort

,

15 ).

.

di

'

,

89

a

as

,

,

a

passage Whereas Castelvetro such this preserves the denseness the original Piccolomini substitutes phrases for words and achieves

of

10 ).

.

(p

huomini

,

.

da

, in de gli

attioni

i

:

'

le

&

affetti

,

gli

mezo

poi disgiunto dalla melodia imitan alcuni che son instrutti nell'arte del saltare conciosia cosa che questi tali col figurati mouimenti cerchino d'imitare ritmi accompagnati costumi

di ,

coloro

attioni Col ritmo stesso

(p

,

&

tormenti Piccolomini

&

,

&

:

lo

Castelvetro Ma con stesso numero rassomigliano senza harmonia certi ballatori percioche questi per figurati numeri rassomigliano anchora costumi

le

, ò

in

si

le

recognitione come quelle che sono piu che altro animi delle persone dilettando mouendo rappresenta che allora )

(

517

.”

si

à

, ò

, ò

,

et la

.

gli

,

, se

ad

, ò

si

il

,

,

la

,

et

il

, d à

gli

pocmi sono potentissime Peripetia pigliano atte muouere affetti sdegno compassione secondo fatto à

tal

,

à

in

,

ò

i

,

et

,

, o

Et è

. 1 : "

,

di

di

, o

.

.

poeti nel comporre MS Laur Ashb 559 fol cosa per certa che fauole giouare hanno per fine dilettare che per altro non muouono affaticarsi qualche utilita agli huomini Onde componendo essi tragedie non per essere comedie poemi Heroici quale conseguire adoperano que tutti hanno l'occhio fine per parti che mezzi che meglio uegli conducono alche fare sopra tutte trouano tali

POETIC

THEORY

clearer final meaning . Moreover , he frequently uses words (“ imitare " rather than “ rassomigliano ," " affetti " rather than “ tormenti ” ) that seem to convey a meaning closer to the original . For another example , we may compare his “ Particella 11 " with Castelvetro's “ Particella Sesta " ( Poetics 1448al ) : Castelvetro : Hora , poi che i rassomiglianti rassomigliano coloro , che fanno , & buoni, o rei, percioche i costumi quasi sempre accompagnano questi soli , conciosia cosa che tutti huomini sieno differenti

di

gli

i

Et

,

Poli

che qualche

,

,

migliori

certo 34 ).

.

i

&

,

i

,

tai

, : a &

i

,

&

i

,

, o

,

o i

i

necessita rassomigliare

piggiori dipintori che noi cosi fatti secondo che fanno Dionigi simili gnoto effigiaua migliori piggiori Pausone Piccolomini Hor perche coloro che imitano imitan persone

( .p

di

egli

è

per bonta

,

,

costumi per maluagita

o

è di necessita , che questi sieno o

:

,

persone migliori

di ,

,

: è

è

il

&

,

;

la

,

dir , ) ò

,

(

si

,

&

gli

&

buone può

è

persone

si

queste

fa di

ree mestieri che siano con queste due sole qualità del buono ciosia cosa che del reo ogni per costume dell'huomo segua riferisca come che per virtù vitio huomini nei lor costumi differiscan tutti necessario per questo che cosa facciano

di

;

ò

to

.

,

(p

11 ).

&

;

,

.

li

di

,

&

ad

le

di

;

si

si

,

di

di

, è

peggiori quali communemente noi siamo cosi faccia l'imitatione come vsan fare Pittori ancora posciache Polignoto più belle persone quello ch'ordinariamente sono Pausone più brutte Dionisio simili esse soleuano depingendo rappresentare fatte

by

,

, to

.

,

, in

i.e. passages which gave century more trouble than the rest the text Nóyois the debate over because critical vinoīs 1447a29 the prose and verse con parlari nudi Castelvetro translated Piccolomini sciolta misure versi the latter permits

17 ),

;

10 )

(

.p

“

”

(

.p

of

as

.

“

)

41

)

in

"

di

of

11 );

.p

(

"

to

se ”

the solitariamente preso explain the meaning

attempts

it

,

da

,

of

( to .p

be

(

a

&

a

,

,

&

,

a

Castelvetro and Piccolomini intorno

"

is

prose

the same problem

.

63 )

.

(p

on

,

”

tutti

which accompanies imitation Castelvetro ralegrano delle rassomiglianze

si

&

translates

the pleasure "

badly

by

1448b18

,

At

.

nudi

per

but

allo stesso verso paraphrase kind

:

of

so

by

"

da

written

1448all for viouempiav related nudi versi intorno parlari

“

At to

al

conclude that poetry may

parlare

latter “

as is

us by

)

(

,

At

the sixteenth

gives

,

the two men for certain crucial passages

,

posed

.

to

a

it

,

at

It

is

to

is

It

certain that the second makes better sense than the first the reader puzzle over terms and constructions obliged lesser degree may also certain points represent the Greek text more accurately juxtapose the solutions pro We should find useful this connection who

”

).

.p

translated by Castelvetro

to

by

“

as

(

13

,

è

)

& is

is

, "

to

il

,

(

“

to

poi l'esser parimente naturale L'altra cagion Piccolomini expands The first piacere dell'imitatione diletto sentir all’huomo natural the second find another factor version allows Castelvetro inter correct more the his committed whereas Piccolomini cause

)

518

”

di

“

de

"

Piccolomini

nobili as

;

permitting the sociological interpretation (

107

Otroudaiwv

as

,

1449b10

),

(p .

At

by

.

pretation

POETICS : VERNACULAR COMMENTARIES graui, & illustri persone ” ( p .

16 ) ,

in which ethical as well

as social elements

are present .

.p

"

di

ne

)

.

,

di

discussed term

to

the much

-

,

ne

"

(

ne

,

better rendering

of

“

ne , 27 ), di ne a

1452b38 ,

.p

(

gli

qıáv @pwtrov gives Castelvetro's " non è gratiosa a huo spauenteuole compassioneuole 265 and Piccolomini's compassioneuole commouimento humano temibile

At mini

to

,

on

a

to

These few examples show what extent Piccolomini's translation may greater fidelity claim the original than Castelvetro's which frequently

of

)

of

as a

(

,

,

to

.

is

allowed take that form most useful for Castelvetro's private theories his wish about poetry At times however Piccolomini perhaps because repeat Castelvetro for less satisfactory solution will adopt not , it

10 ),

, .p

.

.p

(

)

to

,

an

17 25 ), ;

;

, .p .p

(

10 ),

.p

(

CA. 1572

In

( to

be

of

)

18

( .p

ELLEBODIUS

10

be

”

“

of

“

uiuoi

mimi

.”

of

,

in

his translation

the more simple

,

in

instead passing

(p .

ridicolose imitationi Both translators should noted imperfect text and here are still faced with the problems they are almost equally unsuccessful one may examine their attempts deal with Poetics 1447a28 Castelvetro Piccolomini 1447622 and several others 113 and 1449b26 and example

”

de

.

.,

on

,

a

in

of “

set

).

.

(

a

by

)

in

of

de

is

assigned The date 1572 the most exact one that can the Aristotelis librum Poetica paraphrasis Nicasius Ellebodius Nicaise Van Ellebode contained Ambrosian MS R.123.Sup fols 68-91v and primum Aristotelis librum accompanied Poetica Notae fols 92–110 The date results from letter apparently accompanying the

to

It

,

many good

derives

be

1560

it

and Vettori's Commentarii the Poetics from

;

of

1508

it

;

he

.

in

of

of

of

,

its

intel de

,

to

a

origins

,

its

through

its

,

to

be

.

,

,

of

to

the Italian tradition the Cinquecento lectual ties and ultimate destination.90 90

by

'

, to

in

in

,

there and

;

Ellebodius connections are Paduan himself had studied Sophianos his literary relationships seem addition have Belgian been closest with Vettori Riccoboni and Pinelli This work probably written may thus properly belong Pressburg considered ,

Indeed most

in

old codex said the possession Giovanni Vincenzo Pinelli and calls upon the authority Michael Sophianos Chios who had studied and later taught Padua

of

for the text

to

readings

an

edition

of

of

in

.

'

.

to

,

22 ,

to

,

to

,

manuscript sent from Pressburg February 1572 asking the correspon show the manuscript Riccoboni and Paulo Manuzio Through manuscript out the shows Ellebodius Italian connections refers printed Italy especially the Aldine earlier texts and commentaries dent

.

,

,

-

to

,

,

,

II,

),

,

519

]

[

,

), I,

,

:

(

)

°

659. On Michael Sophianos whose main De anima see Emile Legrand Bibliographie 1885 168–76 and the various indices

.

et

a

of

:

(

.pp

,

S.

à

,

Bas Louvain Imprimerie Académique 1765 published work was translation Aristotle's hellénique XV XVI siècles Paris Leroux Legrand's volumes (

),

in

, ) ,

; (

,

:

(

,

On Ellebode also written Ellebaudt see the article the Biographie Nationale Belgique VII 554 also Adolfo Rivolta Catalogo dei Codici Pinelliani dell'Ambrosiana Giuseppe 1933 Milano Tipografia Pontificia Arcivescovile xxiv xlv Ixxxviii Also Jean Noël Paquot Mémoires pour servir l'histoire littéraire des dix sept provinces des Pays

POETIC

THEORY

Ellebodius ' work is remarkable in several ways . In the “ Notae ” he suggests numerous improvements of the Greek text , either from the Pinelli manuscript or from suggestions by Sophianos , some of which have found their way into the modern text through the conjectures of recent scholars ( see , for example , in the edition of J. Hardy , the variants on pages 33 , 43 , and 53 ) . These are frequently supported by citation of other texts which show a considerable erudition in Greek and Latin sources . The paraphrase itself, which is sometimes merely a running translation , sometimes an ex pansion and development of the original work , is reasonably accurate and faithful to the intentions of the original . Ellebodius sees these intentions as contained in the following program : “ so that we may understand , conception placed poetry genus we should have of it , what is under what its

...

" 91

.

,

of to

seeking clarification for both text and ideas

he

in as

of

to

as ,

its

both how it differs from other arts in the same genus and how forms beginnings and development differ among themselves what were closely Aristotelian He attempts remain can even the extent

,

to

,

-

:

in

.

corrobo

1447a28

of

,

or

.

of

be

it

;

no

absent from the epic

in be

by

language limited poetic numbers cannot surely poem kind without this poetry can

of

is

,

in

imitating only bare language that verse without modulated and dancing and either mixes with one another several kinds verse alone uses one form that conceded now this must uses

it ,

,

verse

or

sound

the Poetics connection with

to

passages

rate this view The initial statement comes

The epic

in of

so

apposite

.

in

of

,

as

;

,

he

interprets

all

is

on

.

of

of

is

were doing

be on

to

,

he

.

of

he

do

other works Aristotle frequently predecessors and refers much less than his the rival critical school the Horatians Nonetheless there are two major points departs quite markedly from what we must now consider which the Poetics the meaning poetry For Ellebodius poetry The first these the use verse impossible without verse and many his fellow commentators

from any ,

.

in it ,

of

,

or

of ,

be

in

it;

of

so

,

it is

;

wise imitate Moreover imita poetry chiefly resides essential that the very name nor indeed can subsist without the light which remarks neither can verse without any imitation nor imitation without verse made into epic into poetry

tion

sort.92 he

,

68 : "

Even the most sit

,

se

,

ut

."

,

,

.

est

.,

a

;

se

,

,

in

in .

est ,

...

sit ,

, .

...

hoc uersus sine modulato plura uersuum genera siue una nunc hoc concessum orationem quae poeticis numeris adstricta neq ullo poematis genere abesse posse quippe sine qua imitari .

: "

ab

.

carminis forma utatur neq epopoeia

sit ,

.

in

,

in a

,

sono

.

Epopoeia nudam tantum orationem fol 68v saltatione adhibet imitando siue misceat inter

.,

Ibid

, et

92 ,

rant

finds authority

R.123.Sup fol cui generi subijciatur poesis quae eius quo modo cum ipsa ceteris quę sunt eiusdem generis tum eius formę inter diffe quae initia progressusque poeseos sint intelligatur

MS Ambrosianus

,

notio

any crucial phrase appears meaning keeping with this position the text

ab

91

to it

,

Whenever later for giving

of

is ,

ea

ut

.

."

.

of

)

520

(

at

.

,

.

ea

,

sit

.

ita

poesis nullo modo potest imitatio porrò potissimum poescos necessaria positum nec sine nomen cohaerere sanè possit quocirca neq carmen sine imitatione neq imitatio sine carmine epopoeiam aut omnino poesin efficitur The text Aristotle corrupt this point through the presence the word ÉTrotolia

POETICS : VERNACULAR COMMENTARIES cautious and faithful of Aristotelians were thus unable to shake off the traditional association between poetry and verse . The second point of distortion ( if we may call it that ) is Ellebodius ' in sistence that purgation produces moral instruction , which in turn serves the political ends of those who govern the state . Again , he is far from being alone in this contention , and the effects of both Platonic and Horatian ways of thinking are abundantly apparent. This meaning is first read into the Poetics at the point at which the Paraphrasis is dealing with the explana tion of the definition of tragedy The last part of the definition

:

is formulated

in such a way that the usefulness

of tragedy

is made clear : tragedy brings to the state a utility which indeed is the very greatest , even for those who rule over citizens , and is to be sought out at all

costs . For the error must be refuted by those who believe that tragedy was devised for no useful role for the citizenry , but merely for the worthless pleasure eyes and the ears .

it is the duty

After arguing that , in general,

of

the rulers to make

the

especially

check the turbulent

of

hold

in

effect

to

of

Virtue moreover , since

to

its

morally better , Ellebodius continues :

citizens

is

of the

.

is

,

be

by

be

to

the lessons learned are

texts

:

of

done and the character

long line on

a

those consecrated

is

which this by

in

The way

of

.

a

it

toward womanish weakness precise moderation

—

which draw the soul away from strength and turn regulated and governed the soul with

—

,

some passions pity and fear

it

,

it

,

to

,

movements the soul and restrain them within the bounds moderation granted and since tragedy more than that curbs these emotions must surely extraordinary that tragedy's usefulness the state For causes two trouble

we

,

to

in

,

by to

, it

it

in

.

is

,

of of

( ? )

of

kings and For when we see repeatedly the stage the most bitter sorrows princes and blameless men and other most cruel misfortunes observe the fickleness human affairs and we are taught how bear with moderation every change fortune And thus the soul hardened habituation and those things which formerly feared begins almost the highest degree hold est

93

contempt.93

ad

.

,

;

ut

,

ijs

,

, et ,

est ad , et

: “

.

.

.,

posita Ibid fols 72–72v Extrema definitionis pars usus tragoediae ostendatur quem affert reip qui quidem maximus qui ciuitates regunt uehementer expetendus coarguendus enim error eorum est qui nullam partem utilem ciuitatibus qui inanem

...

,

.

,

,

et

,

,

ut

,

, et

, ut

.

.

in

,

id

dumtaxat uoluptatem oculorum aurium tragoediam comparatum putant uirtus autem agat cum potissimum animi motus turbidos ratione coerceat mediocritatis regionibus includat tragoedia porrò hos motus comprimat concedatur profecto singularem eius esse rep utilitatem facit enim duae affectiones importunae misericordia timor quae et

in

et

,

ad

et

, et

.

,

.

et

et

,

)

521

ut

." ita

(

.

ex

.

: “

. "

, et

, ,

...

animum gubernentur ad

fortitudine

animi moderatione

et

à

muliebrem ignauiam abjiciunt temperentur definita principum nam spectandis scena identidem regum alijs asperrimis casibus perspicitur inconstantia uirorum inte bus acerbissimis doloribus rerum humanarum omnem fortunae commutationem moderate ferendam erudimur itaque duratur consuetudine animus quae antea summe metuerat incipit penè contemnere Cf. fols 77–77v est autem munus tragoediae per miserationem timorem has ipsas affectiones animo abstergere quare fabula facienda est res formidabiles miserabiles inducantur nam hoc tragoediae est proprium auocant

POETIC

THEORY

Ellebodius concludes , therefore , that the Platonic exiling of tragic writers from the city was a mistake, for the pedagogical usefulness of purgation is he

in

or

( fol .

of

of

pináv

.

'

he

:

it

." 94

at

of

,

;

sensu

is )

by

“

of

to

be

others

the effects

77v and glosses thus which the soul affected through the for nature causes man from the mere fact that

communis humanitatis

generally means the sorrow

misfortunes

character and

catharsis He translates ”

as

...

it

Opwtrov

Ellebodius view both upon conception

of

depends

his

.

which they treat tragedy

of

or

as

A

of

.

to

to

used

to

,

to

accustom young men blood and wounds and incite military valor number miscellaneous translations notes the Paraphrasis are they confirm thinking interest contradict current about the matters

tacles them

of

96 ),

fol .

an answer to any charge of moral harmfulness . Later , in the notes to the develops the analogy with the gladiatorial spec same passage (

82 ).

( it .fol

be

to

of

(

as ),

'

in

,

as

a

or

,

,

(“

is

it

of

;

to

.

”

is

of

).

, in

is

of

“

.”

by

of

.

he as

,

of

,

is a

sorrowful the troubles men Demosthenes Cicero Horace and Hermogenes are cited authorities The accompanying effect fear gives the usual difficulty believes that takes place when the tragic hero qui uulgo similar virtue the mass men cum hominum uirtute par est fol 77v similarity again involved The matter Ellebodius understanding requisites the third the for character TÒ UoIov 1454a23 translated actually similes This implies representation character either man

,

of

it

“

:

do

be

,

be

,

to

is

be

to

is

,

an

.

If

an

a

as

In ,

.” 95

critical bent

these various statements

its

the general

we of

lation

this the last part the trans interpretation which shows author now we work backward through credibility find that will make possible iden

credible sentence such Aristotle while the first part adds ,

seem

of

to

be

;

if of

be

be

is

to

in

was the person imitated tradition has made out The requisite thus closely related the general problem verisimilitude respected since here too opinion and current conceptions must One unacceptable must take care lest anything related which the opinion preferred which cannot men wherefore those things should done only they are probable those which can indeed done but not

we

,

as

.

,

to

us

,

is

tification with the tragic hero who like ourselves that this will enable feel the tragic emotions and that these latter are purged will become morally better '

he

.

,

in

of

on

of

readings Another concatenation the same kind occurs Ellebodius the passages dealing with character Initially uses the terms

work probi

.

ob

in

of

in

"

,

",

,

at

of

to

”

is

,

,

ob

ut

,

,

: “

.

fol 100 communiter dolorem significat quo afficitur animus alterius res hoc ipsum quod homo est incommodis homo hominis nam natura fert ab

ne

est ,

88 : "

95

."

.

aduersas doleat

to

he “

”

”

Ibid

.,

94

“

,

"

1448a2 imitation differentiate the objects and improbi Then when comes the four requisites for character the same term probi good spite used for the first requisite the difference

,

,

."

522

)

(

,

ijs ,

,

.

.

.,

quid afferatur quod Ibid fols 87v Danda etiam opera hominum opinione abhorreat quamobrem praeoptanda sunt quae fieri nequeunt modo probabilia quae fieri quidem possunt sed tamen credibilia non uidentur sint

be

to

necessary

a

taken

positive way in

goodness

tragedy and the epic

,

Moral

is

the original Greek terms (

)82 .

fol .

VERNACULAR COMMENTARIES

POETICS .

,

a

.

It

of

is

is :

Although

a

in

,

to

of

.

or

”

“

of

, in

because the hero teaches virtue through the excellence way his own character He becomes exemplar specimen for this reason that the commentator adds portrayal the reason already given Aristotle's idea the heightening

it

an

96

"

.

(

GIACOMINI

,

the work

,

,

of

the which unfortunately the vigor misreadings and misunderstandings

.

perpetuation

concerned

the correction and commentary

1573

)

tradition led

a

to

,

of in

the text along with some cases

Aristotelianism

of

some remarkable features

is

As far

in

linked

as

they remained presents

to it .

of

it

:

its

of

of

,

of

as

of

,

so its

,

in

,

as

to

...

or

,

,

to

to

characters

“

be

portrayed are similar nevertheless painters own them each add something like the good good poet kind whether the imitates less characters that examples the virtues and the vices they may appear extraordinary On the whole the Paraphrasis Ellebodius constitutes vigor example Italian critical the kind shows with what works imposed upon tradition itself writers other countries and how closely necessary

,

.

.

in

by

It

in

,

by

in

,

of

Another translation the Poetics into Italian following closely upon Castelvetro's and Piccolomini's and emphasizing the growing activity the vernacular was prepared Lorenzo Giacomini Tebalducci Malespini 1573. was never published and exists today MS Laur Ashb 531

at

,

of

,

of

97

"

28

a

di

; he à

Di

a

, “

a

A

,

.

written

Fine

the end

,

Giacomini's secretary Giorgio Bartoli and dated d'Agº 1573. Laude Dio Giacomini was professor distinguished neither scholar nor was amateur most whose literary activity centered about the meetings and the chores the fols 1-38

of

of

—

,

.

of

.

of

This fact may account

thc present

in

part for the principal merits translation Giacomini does not copy any the carlier vernacular translations although borrowings from both Castel Accademia degli Alterati

,

of

—

in

closer

to

be

the modern ear

to

to

.

of

(

)

terse and direct and his words seem

of

is to

of

.

he

in

phrase and vetro and Piccolomini turn choice words are frequent One might say that combines the best features both the conciseness Castelvetro which also brings Giacomini's text closer again original the and the superior terminology Piccolomini His language

be

It

it .

: "

lo

Ma con

:

Castelvetro 96

.

:

,

,

he

'.

to is

always common speech than were his predecessors His main aim simplicity and frequently achieves might instructive com pare him with Castelvetro using the same passages that were quoted for the comparison with Piccolomini On Poetics 1447a26 those

stesso

numero

rassomigliano

senza harmonia

certi

di

.

),

ut

; “

,

]

(

523

(

,

of

."

,

...

, "

.

.

in .,

,

a

97

di

.

fol 104 Etsi mores affingendi sunt similes tamen instar pictorum addere illis suo cuiq genere oportet siue bonos siue minus bonos mores poeta imitetur uirtutis uitijq specimen appareant For more complete account this MS sce my Nuove Attribuzioni manoscritti critica letteraria del Cinquecento Rinascimento III 1952 245-46 Ibid aliquid

POETIC

THEORY

1v ).

fol .

ballatori, percioche questi per figurati numeri rassomigliano anchora & costumi, & tormenti, & attioni ( p. 15) . Giacomini : et il ritmo solo senza armonia usano i ballatori ; perche questi mediante i figurati ritmi imitano et i costumi et le passioni et le azzioni ( :

On Poetics 1448al

Hora poi che

. .pp

dipintori

Et

,

,

i

di

è

,

o

i

,

cosi fatti secondo che fanno ,

piggiori migliori

oi

,

che noi effigiaua

& oi

,

,

di

i

rei ,

, o

i

o

,

:

,

di

è

&

necessita

,

rassomiglianti rassomigliano coloro che fanno percioche costumi quasi sempre che questi sieno buoni accompagnano questi soli conciosia cosa che tutti gli huomini sieno differenti migliori per bonta egli costumi per maluagita necessita rassomigliare Castelvetro

certo Polignoto ).

(

i

i

,

,

è

,

et

,

&

i

gli

,

,

, ò

è

:

i

piggiori Dionigi simili Pausone 33–34 questi essere Giacomini Ma perche imitanti imitano agenti necessario buoni cattivi perche costumi quasi sempre questi accompagnano soli

migliori costumi tutti sono differenti pittori ancora tali necessario imitare come Polignoto migliori Pausone peggiori Dionisio simili ritraeva fols 2-2v vizio quanto

ò

à

i

).

(

,

et

:

è

, ò

peggiori

.

per

il

et

virtu

è

la

perche per

che secondo noi

,

of

,

of

;

in

to

of

brevity and the choice The first these passages shows the return words which are almost every case more current the second along with the confusion which might have been avoided the same qualities some

he

,

of

his

:

of

7 ;

fol .

(

la

di

:

et

,

di à

,

ne le

che habbia

;

in .:

(

la

tragedia imitazione d'azzione virtuosa vars studiosa grandezza con orazione condita disparte parti specie negozianti non per narrazione ma per purgazione terrore conducente fine cotali passioni ,

et

the text

is

The translation

still confused and unclear and on the whole inferior

to

).

misericordia italics mine

,

at

adunque

et le

ciascuna

the major problems

perfetta

de

]

Giacomini spudea

:

clarifies one

È of

a

of

.

in

as

.

if

Piccolomini's suggested versions had been adopted did his Giacomini experiences the same difficulties with the text itself supplies predecessors tragedy But least one case the definition predecessors had included and which immediately word which none

,

”

,

in '

in

is

be

to

is

'

'

: "

is ,

of

a

or he

is a

on et

”

,

di

“

"

a

. In

to

;

but the inclusion first time the proper opposition improvement marginal gloss

of

negozianti furnishing for the non per narrazione notable the same passage Giacomini also clarifying statement about the meaning makes otroudaias for which had offered three variant translations An action which studiosa play distinguished from that action which spudea done Piccolomini's

its

)

(

524

&

,

di

verisimilitudine

contradistingue

da la

studiosa spudea

si

Azzione vita

quello che

è

,

ne

costumi come anchora nella constitutione

necessita

, o

di

è

,

. de 7 : la “

,

.

531 fol per gioco nel riposo .

fa

che

MS Laur Ashb

si

98

delle cose cercare

bisogno cosi

quello che

.”

Hora o

:

Castelvetro

fa

:

is

of

(

its ),

in

,

In

of

." 98

of

the reposeful moments life another passage the best the necessity and probability Poetics for the understanding 1454a34 superior because completeness and Giacomini's translation clarity

azzione

POETICS : VERNACULAR COMMENTARIES che si faccia questo dopo questo o per necessita , o per verisimilitudine ( p. 320 ). Piccolomini: Hor ' egli fa di bisogno , che nei costumi, si com'ancor nella fauola ,

be

of

, ò

, è

et

,

as

as

.

(

ò

20 sia ).

& nel connettimento delle cose , si cerchi sempre , ò il necessario , ò il verisimile , & che l'vna cosa segua doppo l'altra è necessariamente , è verisimilmente ( p . 31 ) . Giacomini : Ancora bisogna ne ' costumi, si come ne la constituzione de fatti sempre cercare , ò il necessario , ò il verisimile , si che il tale tali cose dire ò fare , questo dopo questo farsi ò necessario verisimile necessario verisi mile sia fol in

to

,

has

as

contribution whatso addition

he

alter

all .

of

.

:

.

in

in

is

which

in

objects

are

on

;

is

learning there pleasure The second the

pleasure

.”

is

in

c .

,

is

images

from

seeing the images

learning

images there

of

deriving

of

images there

pleasure

is

the passion learning

the seeing

therefore

in

seeing

,

in

b .

of

a .

In

of

to a

Cause

pleasure

Subject

of

Passion

"

at

we

,

3v ,

on

is

first

note about the natural causes imitation Giacomini syllogistic form two reduce the arguments the text The presented general and pleasure tabular form

to

On folio tries

;

notes which tell how understood the text there may look briefly are only four such places and them ,

native translations

to

,

gives

in

folios Giacomini

several

us

On the margins

,

of

.

to

)

Piccolomini was better than Castelvetro make

ever

no (

he

of

;

on

.

,

I

is ,

in

far

,

know the best translation the passage found century the sixteenth One should not however exaggerate Gia many comini's merits the difficult passages such those wherein This Italy

themselves

Effect and sign images ugly things

of

b .

Subject and cause things made with imitation

predicate pleasure

c .

a .

Passion

or

:

distasteful

de la

passione Causa Imparare

imagini

veder

immagini

ė

le

veder

le

adunque

nel

c .

diletto

.

imparare

è

nel

,

è

l'imparare

le

et

Effetto segno immagini

de

c .

causa Cose fatte con imitazione

b .

Subietto

et

predicato

a .

cose

et Le

brutte de le

Passione Diletto

è

.

Nel veder l'imagini diletto

subietto

b .

“ a .

.

.,

Ibid fol Passione Diletto

3v :

99

us

;

of

is ,

:

as ,

of

pleasure the images ugly things are things made with imitation pleasure.99 therefore things made with imitation give

of

things give

is

a

us

, .

;

us

of

Things made with imitation are the cause why the images ugly things give pleasure and these are sign their cause that the things made with ugly imitation give pleasure This demonstrated follows The images

;

ci

ci

)

(

525

. "

, le

de le

.

ci è le

,

le

de , de la le

Le

le

immagini cose fatte con imitazione sono causa che cose brutte danno diletto queste sono segno loro causa cio cose fatte con imitazione danno diletto dimo immagini immagini strasi cosi cose brutte danno diletto cose brutte sono cose fatte con imitazione Adunque cose fatte con imitazione danno diletto

POETIC

THEORY

On folio 4 , continuing the same discussion , Giacomini analyzes the syl logistic form of the deduction by which we recognize objects as they are represented by images . After reducing the argument to a syllogism , he says : “ It is in the second figure, and good because it can be converted , the major

...

saying “Whoever has these properties is this example ' or without converting as follows : ' This example alone has these properties .' The middle term will thus be the properties common to the image and to the time were accustomed

as

Such passages to

100

them

these reveal practice textual

on

we

.

in

of

the way which men analysis and commentary

."

the example which alone has

of

all

premiss

as

is

of

,

as he

of

he

.

“

its

).

its

,

of

(

a

4v ,

lengthy discussion On folio find the passage Homer genres the model for the dramatic 1448634 Giacomini here concerned implications When with clarifying the meaning the text terms and dramatically says things Aristotle first that Homer imitated virtuous in

"

if if

simple

if

la

le

is

,

the end fortuneand

the same

of

mutation

affairs

to of

,

it

if

has

a

from the beginning

of

fortune and the state

,

ne

ne

fol .

the agents are on one side

the plot there are two sides contrary and opposed

,

3

,

double

to

)

is

in

one

reversed 100

which

many

simple the agents

fortune

the ways

in

the action

Plot divided according

tabular form

:

reduces

all

to

Giacomini

constituted

{

be

Ou folio plot may

17 ,

. "

102

to

is ,

“

,

byto

is

is

”

101 “ in

.”

"

of

be

his imitations virtuous actions showed the design for Dramatically meaning thus taken the way explained drama and further the formula that introduce persons who act among themselves and who talk with one another means that tragedy

state103

la

à la

,

."

ha

.

l[ e )

il

ò si

et

è

4 : “ ha E

...

la

de

il

le

de

le

4v : “

.

le

101 et à ., lo

ha

.,

puo convertire maggior Ibid seconda figura buono perche queste proprietà quello essemplare dicendo Chiunque senza convertire cosi Quello essemplare solo queste proprietà proprieta comuni mezzo adunque sarà imma essemplare che solo gine tutte Ibid fol Dicendo Aristotile prima che Omero imitò cose virtuose dramatica disegno mente vuole dire che sue imitazioni virtuose azzioni mostrò introdur

persone che

negozino

et

cio

se

...

tra

drama

è

uso

di

fol

a

:4y

102Ibid

.

. ., "

tragedia

parlino

una agenti sono una parte sola favola sono due parti contrarie

et

-se

doppia

)

526

fine stato

uno

. "

lo

cose

è

et

de et à le di la

-se

piegata

stato fortuna medesimo dal principio fortuna mutazione di

fortuna

(

da

-

nimiche semplice la

divide

o

favola

si

" la

-

semplice da gli agenti

ne gli la

molte se

da l'azzione

et se il la ha

fol

.

.,

103Ibid

." 17 :

l'uno con l'altro

VERNACULAR COMMENTARIES

POETICS :

This is interesting as a synthesis of fairly widely separated passages , and again as an indication of the total approach to the text . In a general way, Giacomini's translation is symptomatic of the lively interest in getting the Poetics into Italian and of the resultant tendencies in

— tendencies toward greater conciseness , toward simpler lan guage , and toward the use of terms more like those of common speech technique

than like those of the philosophers or the Latinists . In a sense , it is unfor tunate that the work was not published , for such later Italian translations as the reprint

on

it

) ;

II,

,

see

of Piccolomini's ( 1575 ) and even such Latin versions as Riccoboni's ( 1579 ) might have been better for having known it . The same manuscript contains a folio ( 39–39v ) immediately following the translation of the Poetics which discusses the meaning of imitation and pages 62–63 may readily the definition of poetry ( above Chapter of

it,

In

.

“

his

to

in

of

.

necessary element

IX ,

a

are

, ”

of

an

in

,

in

.

"

least

—

speech

at

in

falseness

-

,

a

“

of he

of for

to

.

his

a

as

the text

to

of

be

Giacomini displays some literary method He assimilates Aristotle's imitation Plato's mythology and fable and extends the parallel the interpretation three forms indicated each Similarly favola lying found interpretation allows the meaning Plato color poetry Aristotle producing thus definition which lying and taken further note the less admirable aspects

,

of

.

by

of

is

plot

of

is

;

a

is

plot Dante's Commedia not Therefore Dante's Commedia not

a

is a

Every poem

which for present purposes

;

in

to

is

the Discorso

form

:

Castravilla's first argument reduced the following

,

.

of

to

his

is

.

the activities the same Accademia degli Alterati Parere intorno alla risposta del primo argomento del Castravilla.104 Here again the materials are purely theoretical and relate directly the interpretation the Poetics For Bonciani intent upon disproving

It to

the same year and

to a

,

,

Another Florentine manuscript Magl 125 the Biblioteca Nazionale folios 23-26 contains document Francesco Bonciani which belongs

poem.los ,

as

of

in

),

(

1952

253–54

.

fauola

."

Poema

of

the poem not predicated

as ,

it is

)

but

.

III

,

è

)

...

è

as

or di

Dante non

(

be

(1 ) :

.”

is as a its

or

",

Comedia

527

predicated

terms predicated

form

Rinascimento

fauola Dante non

Plot cannot

di

la

La Commedia Adunque

to

(

...

form

use the proper

material è 23 :

.

,

“

,

“

See my Nuove Attribuzioni 105MS BNF Magl IX 125 fol Ogni Poema .

,

,

.

or as

”

“

be its

as to

material

be

is

If

the plot said predicated either must 104

plot

Every poem

a

“

the statement

poem either

it

of

of

,

in

a

The rebuttal involves close analysis they both terms poem and plot appear Aristotle and hence some fundamental questions about the total meaning the Poetics Bonciani offers three arguments refutation

POETIC

THEORY

material because then the comparison of Aristotle ( who says that the plot is the soul of tragedy ) , derived from a substituted proportion , would be bad . The soul is not the material of the animal, hence neither is the plot the material of

...

the poem . [ Nor can it be predicated as the form :) because the form is not predi cated substantively but rather by denomination . . . . Just as we cannot say that the animal is a soul , so we cannot say that the poem is a plot.106

is

if

, “

the

”

Bonciani

poems which are not

plot whence

is

and there imitation there the following argument every plot

imitations

greater part

some kinds

,

of

no

“

the phrase

From this use

deduces that there are some parts

an is no of

are imitations . "

of

107

In this argument , the same kind of logical analysis used by Giacomini is again applied . (2) The second argument depends upon a translation of 1447a13 — a bad translation — which Bonciani renders thus : “ The epic , tragedy , comedy , dithyrambic poetry , and the greater part ( la maggior parte ] of the poetry fitted to zithers and to flutes agree in this , that they

con

It

called poets

“

,

meaning that those who use verse alone without .

be as

,

,

)

may also

imitation

seems then that Aristotle admits

,

)

is

it

;

110

.

of

,

(

by

to

he

In

be

to

.”

109

;

he

if

di

a

to

,

a

,

to

a

be

poet even called does not imitate therefore not plot contrary the last two argu the proposition shaky and ments especially Bonciani's Aristotelianism seems surely does not contribute better understanding the text Bongianni Gratarolo's Difesa Dante undated but ca. 1573 relates again the controversy started Castravilla but more concerned is

that one may every poem

,

to

3

(

.

interprets

he

which

or

,

;

of

is

108

."

is a

,

:

is

imitation some poems are not imitations therefore some poems are not plots rather not plot every poem This the contradictory Castravilla's original proposition For his third argument Bonciani refers Poetics 1447613 stituted

.

of

contemptu

he

)

.

.

6528

per parlare

refers

co '

Se la

MS Vat Lat

(

in

the manuscript

, . ò la si 25 : “

106

Fairly early

a

in

,

,

of

its

of

.

a

than was Bonciani's Parere with answering specific objections and making detailed defence Some answers involve denying the authority Aristotle upon which Castravilla had based his attack and Gratarolo general question about the worth finds his best denial the Poetics

termini proprij predi )

la

,

si

la

'

è

,

si

è

si

.

la

.

,

in

et la

la

, et la

dithyrambica maggior commedia questo che sono alle tibie conuengono

"

.

.,

...

è se

.

108

epopeia tragedia Ibid fol parte della poesia accomodata alle cithare imitatione

,

è

...

, la ."

25 : “ la

il

è

,

la

)

ne

,

in

107 si

...

...

...

(

, à ò (

si

la

,

.,

Ibid fols 24v fauola debbe dire predica care del Poema debbe predicare come materia come forma ma non comparatione d'Aristotele come materia perche cattiua sarebbe che dice fauola essere l'anima della tragedia cauata dalla proportione commutata l'anima non materia dell perche predica animale adunque anco fauola materia del Poema forma non puo dire l'animale sustantivo ma denominatiuamente come non anima cosi puo dire Fauola Poema non

)

(

528

,

.

,

77 , n . 4;

."

si

,

."

,

è

è

.

.

pp 841-42

), .p

, è

di

,

(

, et

,

26 : “ , o

.

è

,

: " e

.

.,

.,

,

109

ogni

si

non u'è imitatione non u'è fauola perche constituisce questo qualche Poema non adunque qualche fauola imitatione imitatione uogliam dire Non ogni Poema Poema non fauola fauola possa chiamare Ibid fol Pare adunque che Aristotele ammetta che uno pero non ogni Poema Pceta ancorche non imiti fauola contra alla Propositione 110See M. Rossi Filippo Sasserti Città Castello 1899 also below chap xvi

fol 25v

Ibid argomento

VERNACULAR COMMENTARIES paper - spoiler of Aristotle's 90 ).

fol .

: “

a

this

is

that

of

confess

,

its

by

,

Later Aristotelians not work in

of

the many poetical matters

literally

on

,

because

it

it

,

in

leaves doubt we cannot follow those that does He himself makes only one important theoretical statement which reducing poetry consists two basic types tragic and comic the perfectly clear says would possessed the whole reduction

it

that

the Poetics and asserts that

of

.”

of

ness

in

)

in

,

,

to

ili

( in

he

as

reduced

all to a

author but merely notes which put down things they came him order treat them fully later with surpasses his usual orderliness which others some perfect book Gratarolo offers historical and literary proofs the incomplete to

perfection

set

his

in

your Castelvetro

and especially

also

Poetics " he

note - taker and

little

" that

( “ quel Notaiolo , o sfogliaccio della poetica d'Arist. ,” complete statement defends remark Other universal

a

ously to

he

POETICS :

;

to of

if

we

,

to

be

,

he

,

in

all

.

,

treat

as

of

.

of

Aristotle's treatise The raising one's voice against Aristotle was increasingly frequent become the great literary quarrels the century

1573

Still related same period

to

excitement

the is

the initial flush

–

these were the years

of of

the same controversy and belonging approximately

of

—

)

(

SASSETTI CA.

to

.

developed

found MS VII 1028 the Biblioteca Aristotelian document several ways first because essential organization follows the order Aristotle's qualitative parts second because beginning long dis presents the ,

of

,

in

an

,

is

Florence.112

a

of

of

,

it

at

its

,

in

Sopra Dante

Sassetti's

Nazionale

It

Filippo

be

of

the circumstances

to

,

of

,

be

adapted

present time and what modifications must

to of

a

.

,

it

in

how Aristotle's theories may

see

a

.

in

cussion theoretical matters found the Poetics The examination the Divina Commedia comes only later Moreover the discussion has remark practical point attempts from able feature that kind view the

made when one passes from is

;

a

in

.

he

,

of

of

in

. In

,

of

his

of

,

is

at

all

.

-

;

is

his

-

to

fifth century Greece sixteenth century Italy Aristotle the master although teaching not correctly understood times Plato called upon for certain ideas but Horace has disappeared poetry which results particular Sassetti really has own theory interpretation many places general the Poetics believes that

it

poetry because ultimately

:

to

is

—

is

—

end within the art

of

an

say

111

I

“

—

,

the art has two ends one them internal this the imitation human actions the other external this the moral usefulness the audience seeks the profit

.

. "

57

)

.

,

n .

di ;

see above Opuscoli Danteschi the date see Rossi Filippo ,

On

37–118

.

pp .

in

le

529

)

(

),

1897

the 1576 edition the Collezione

(3 in

, .p )

by

,

-

Vols XL XLI

, o .p , 19 , n . .6 .

rari

in

to

112

inediti Sassetti

gli

à

è

( ne

is

(

co '

to

Florence

The reference Castelvetro the Poetica The treatise was published Mario Rossi

il

, e

: “

.

,

, .

un

.

specialmente MS Vat Lat 6528 fol 92v anco degli altri Aristotelici catolici opera ridotta perfettione dall'Authore uostro casteluetro confessano ch'ella non ma solamente memoriale nel quale esso metteua giu cose secondo che soueniuano per quali soprauanzaua tutti distenderle poi suoi ordini soliti alcun libro perfetto

POETIC

THEORY

the human species and this is , we might say , the ultimate end which terminates, as in a thing outside the poet's work , in the soul of the readers or of the listeners who are the end to which this utility is ordered . " The poet's end thus succinctly stated imitation for profit imitare

a

lo

(“

”

not the Horatian end

In

is

noted that this

to to

should

be

be

It

.

.

fol

2v )

“

is ”, is

giouamento

-pleasure

as

113

of

.

.

at

of

to

114 “

“

,

,

.

of

of

by

of

,

,

so , at

on

;

,

he

—

omitted but one which seems Sassetti's own this connection Sassetti makes his first adaptation modern times The utili says will vary according tarian end the needs different peoples different times carnival comedies and masquerades are presented holy days one sees representations and the Passion The poet then serves different ends the choice different objects now grave actions "

."

,

of

it

is

in

”

“

light

,

,

of

high marvelousness now light ones worthy jests Grave are not absolute qualities the object however since Sassetti magnified thinks that each the direction that takes away from the and full

and

grave actions are made more grave low ones more humble and This sense constitutes one kind imitation the second kind residing day Sassetti believes that every such actions one sees done Italy practised the former kind still and cites Alamanni's Avarchide example example better actions and Pulci's Morgante any the worse unable however discover case imitations the finally Sassetti thinks that one like With respect the better

,

.

of

of

of

as

an

he

,

, ”

,

of of

“

,

in

us

his

,

and celebrated a

115 —

century

”

the present

whose ancient times more virtuous than those interpretation passage which gives

seek such characters as

of

,

necessity must almost always magnified men are

“

to

,

, to

“

"

of

he is

.”

"

;

as

an

is

in

in

as

a

in

.

of

,

;

middle

abject

of

.

Poetics 1448a18

of

of

in

a

to

.

,

as

,

,

we

so

;

is

so

,

fol .

,

but rather

all

,

in

be

,

to

of

us

let

in

in

,

a

In

,

.

di

e

le

di

."

o

il

il

si

de

è

e

all

2v : “

,

e

fol

1028 profitto

è in il

. 3 a : “

si

il

.,

Ibid

war

dico fine dentro arte della poesia percioche egli ulti questo fine vltimo come dice del genere humano degli ascoltanti lettori cosa fuori dell opera del poeta nell anima 55 ordinata quella vtilità degne leggieri piene alta marauiglia hora hora attioni graui

,

MS BNF VII

ricerca mamente quale termina come cuj che sono fine 115. 114 "

...

the heroes there come now only men valorous

instead 113

,

is

of

of to

superior

...

the mind that today the place the heroes should not illustrious lineage who are renowned war but wishing take the change generally those who through their virtue are far and away led into thinking that not word virtuous men

of of

put those cognizance

,

is

if

disposition

in

perfection exceeds heroic virtue virtue generally considered which commonly found we must believe that just extraordinary strength extraordinary prudence and the same for every other heroic virtue also

Now

that which is a

we

of or of

;

is to

Similar considerations lead Sassetti's redefinition the epic hero for modern times and since this done terms virtue rather than position military prowess proper are suddenly brought back reading tragic Aristotle on the hero

sono sempre magnificati

530

)

(

."

quali

e

de '

gl

.

fol huomini quegli del secolo presente

di .,

Ibid

uirtuosi

3v : "

beffe

celebrati come piu

POETICS : VERNACULAR COMMENTARIES those who through their virtue , whatever it may be , are greatly admired by other virtuous men .116

The same may

for the epic action

be said

For

.

tragedy presents

whereas

(

such heroes

as to ,

;

to

have been done

117

). "

,

,

,

those which the ancients supposed Achilles Ulysses Hector Aeneas

by

to

"

to

in

no

4 ),

of

fol .

actions " which happen every day to the human race " ( " che auuengono tutto giorno al genere humano , ” the epic seems treat only war longer occur but since heroic deeds the kind treated ancient epics we need find men who could properly accomplish actions similar

its

in

is

,

a

proper pleasurable effects

.

Two

of

of

show how plot may achieve predominant that be

to

tend

of

of

to

say about action and plot Almost everything that Sassetti has commentary on Aristotle and most the clarifications

the nature

an

on

it

is

is at

it

to it ,

118

. "

is

he

,

;

of

so

:

probable proposition

to

in

or of

or of

of all

.

of

,

is

verisimilar that order know the nature the know that the probable Those things are probable agreement with the opinion men most the wisest

necessary

to

latter

it is

to

A

be obtained

in

to

: “ if

.

is

:

to

verisimilitude and that the mar velous The first essential one were recount simply action which any did not bear credence with those who listened would not poetry's effect way move their soul which this Sassetti insists explains what verisimilitude and how various places ultimately ideas seem

...

,

,

in

.

is

It

of

,

in

in

of

is

so

in

which are that truth no concern this matter verisimilitude indeed true that probability and consequently false things are lacking verisimilitude when is

.

these change

,

se

4v a 5 : "

,

as

necessary that

it is

di

,

il

da

; si e

.

si

,

di

di

in

...

la

e

sia in la si

,

è

.

.,

il

,

Hora virtu eroica uirtu generalmente considerata che quella che uulgarmente ritroua stimar dee che sicome soura dogni altro habito eroica uirtu cosi ancora sourastante prudenza luogo degli heroj non maniera tale che hoggi douranno porre sangue illustre sono nome nella guerra ma uolendo rendere cambio

Ibid fols perfettione sourasta stantc fortezza somigliante noj coloro che

119 the probable should also change.1

la

116

of

,

,

.

by

is

to

accompany them ever impossibility made The probable not determined the possible because there are many possible things which are not probable absolutely Since then verisimilitude depends upon the opinions men

...

gl

.

sia

da

4v : "

fol .

118 117

."

si

la

in

ci

ad

la

di

generalmente coloro che per gran lunga uirtu loro sourastanno agl huominj virtuosi luogo degli eroi succedano solamente ensomma non lasciamo dare intendere che huominj nella guerra ualorosi ma tutti coloro che per uirtu loro qualunque ella sono dagl'altri uirtuosi grandemente ammirati

119 ."

.'

'

da

di

gl

à

di

"

. 5 :

.,

a

.,

percio habbiamo bisogno quali stieno bene Ibid trouare huominj quelle somiglianti che que tali essere adoperate attioni antichi fingeuano essere fatte Ibid fol chi raccontasse semplicemente una cosa laquale non hauesse credenza appresso coloro che lascoltano ella niente mouerebbe lanimo loro che leffetto della poesia

è

le

la

in

de

di

si

...

in

e

.

de

o

di

.

le

la

di

è

: “

.

.,

Ibid fol 10v Verisimile una propositione probabile maniera che per sapere quali sono natura desso bisogna sapere quella del probabile probabili sono quelle cose piu.o piu saggi questo affare secondo l'oppenione tutti maniera che uerita del uerisimile non adopera cosa nessuna egli ben vero che cose false mancano del proba compagnia loro aggiunga limpossi bile conseguentemente del verisimile ogni uolta che

. "

il

si

il

si

531

)

di

...

(

si

è al

le

.

bilità non determina giail probabile dal possibile conciosia cosa che molte cose sieno possibili quali probabili non sono stando adunque uerisimile con loppenione degl probabile huomini egli tutto mestieri che secondo che esse mutano muti ancora

POETIC

THEORY

The last sentence transports us again into modern times ; just as the super stitions of antiquity have been replaced by the teachings and precepts of Christianity , so the notion of what will be probable and verisimilar in poetry is affected by this change . Again , if what is verisimilar lies within the bounds of credibility , the marvelous lies beyond them . Sassetti dis latter largely in connection with the complex plot , which , because it contains recognition and reversal , is more apt than the simple plot to make the audience marvel . Simple plots place before our eyes only such things as anyone might readily imagine to have happened ; in complex plots , the human intellect is led to expect one event , but another happens cusses

the

of pleasure , “because marvelous things as such pleasing ” ( perche le cose marauigliose come tali sono gioconde , ”

instead . This is a source are

fol.

The need for these features of plot is more urgent in tragedy than in of the epic are such as to facilitate

6 ).

the epic , since the general conditions the achievement of the marvelous :

For

to a small action and to one place where it

[ tragedies ) are limited

these

must happen , whereas the epic plot is longer and spreads out over more territory and embraces various sites and places where it occurs ; and since it must be nar rated and not acted it carries with it greater possibility of moving the passions ,

us

that circumstances which permit the credibility that the verisi the kind

of

to

be

to

The conclusion would seem disguised give marvelous

it

to

be

-

as

of it

is

—

in it it is

its

and of appearing marvelous , because what has really happened , even a thing power when in itself , will lose none of recounted whereas when acted since the imitation cannot take place without great likeli being recognized hood false clearly the deed will leave cold.120 marvelous

is

,

it

(e

is

of in of

.

of

”

xcept

of

,

Aristotle's

e

et

si

e a

e

a

dessere falso

ognosciuto

manifestamente

:

euidenza

."

tano

)

1532

un

da

circonscriue dalla continouatione dun medesimo negotio come qualunche cosa opure una guerra tratta fine valoroso capi a

acquisto

un

."

fol

Sv : “ di si

Ibid viaggio

.

121 ) , il . , un

,

limitatione senon con grandissima fatto cadra nel freddo added

(c

;

se

e

e

e

, “ la

. 6 :

.,

ha si la

piccola attione luogo doue determinano piu per costa sua fauola piu lunga distende luoghi doue ella accaggia abbraccia diuersi siti douendo essere raccontata non rappre mostrarsi marauigliosa conciosia cosa sentata apporta seco maggior facilita nel muouere marauigliosa nell essere raccontato non che quello che ueramente sara accaduto cosa per perdera niente della sua forza doue che nell essere rappresentato per non hauerui luogo Ibid fol ella debba seguire

auuenga che esse doue lepopeia

."

conclusion

some thing

121

acquisition valorous captain

voyage

of

...

by

of

: “

he

its ,

a

war carried

unities

un

120

even

stated

the extent that Castelvetro had loose after excluding the actions the continuation circumscribed

them

action

one and the same affair such

to

or of

,

.

of

unity done His notion one person clarifies thus

call them

an

nor does

emphasize

time

;

),

action

he

.

Aristotle's terms But nowhere does

unity

of

the

“

place

,

of

unity

as a it is is ; by to he a

include

to

action

a

,

In

as

;

it

be

presented forthright milar has but when must best presented through such acceptable devices recognition and reversal the last passage cited Sassetti extends the principle the unity

VERNACULAR COMMENTARIES

POETICS :

and of inner determination are lacking , as they are in contemporaries . He has some difficulty in deciding to what Sassetti's poem plot are consubstantial — this was an issue much and the extent the

of

ideas

causality

5 ).

fol .

debated in the current controversy over Dante — and he concludes that they are not ; plot is argument , the bare action summarized in a few words , to which must be added the episodes if one is to have the whole poem (

of

a

.

:

,

all

,

,

is

of

insists

the plot and that this

he

is

,

such looseness

he

of

In

firmly that the important part tragedy As result particularly true forget condemns those who like Seneca that they are poets and become rhetoricians the danger that threatens epic poets above others spite

any poem

up

,

of

its

as

122

).

to

,

by

to or

— .

of

on

in

a

in

to

.

what those judgments were

see

later

.

shall

,

,

of

Aristotle

we

.

dramatic manner This leads some confusion the however the major guide the judgments

Elsewhere ;

he

,

of

the term is

is

the matter imitation He imitation with the Aristotelian concept replaces the latter the former and imitation here comes

have the meaning

Dante context

to

at

is

Sassetti's one extensive call upon Plato

use

,

in

these sententiae

on

after the truth

conflates Plato's notion rather

,

of

of

it

,

a

in

the mind running

(

object

as

,

if

do

a

in

all

... since their affair consists work words they come resemble orators they have fine actions more than dramatic poets who hand spend their time uttering many sententiae Seneca did his tragedies and they cover proper the main action such way that disappears and not considered

1574

)

(

DEL BENE

,

:

on

,

,

of

,

IX ,

.

.

in

in

is

,

,

è

to

passions.123 imitate actions rather than characters One the discourses Giulio Del Bene's Che egli necessario l'esser poeta preserved imitare actioni MS Magl 137 folios 69-80r the Biblioteca Nazionale Florence The debate arose for two reasons first

of

the need for the poet

to à or a

,

,

of

in

in

Early 1574 the Accademia degli Alterati which figures prominently the literary life these years devoted several sessions debate over

,

;

of

it

if

by

is

as

or

,

as

:

is

to

all

in

is

it

at he

.

of

,

is

.

or

a

be a

,

,

,

,

Aristotle declared that the three objects passion action character and were equally important second because might poem poem even others declared that still imitated only passion Del Bene's stand character clear the only essential object imitation action and essential forms lyric well narrative say and dramatic Most paraphrase what has direct quotation because some commentators

122

to

.

on

,

of

interpretative remarks His wil the Poetics accompanied times lingness rely the Poetics stems from his admiration for Aristotle and ad

e

533

]

[

."

letteraria

",

discussione

.

),

(

“

di

Argomenti See my Italiana CXXXI 1954 180 ,

è

e

al

di

123

se e

i

di

in

il

in

e

in

i

: "

.

.,

opera Ibid fol 24v parole uengono consistendo tutto caso loro assomi gliarsi piu agl oratori che rappresentatiuj poeti non fanno quali hanno belle attionj s'occupano proferire molte sentenze come Seneca fece nelle sue tragedie alle mani ricuoprono lattione principale guisa che ella sparisce non considerata correndo l'intel quelle sentenze come letto dietro alla verita proprio oggetto suo Giornale

Storico

della Letteratura

POETIC

THEORY

his conception

,

124 of ]

his time

less good

."

in

.

-

be

]

as a

philosopher Aristotle was The double reference poet increasingly important the model will the later

[

a

to as

to he

poet than nature and Renaissance

[

of

it

in

principally sidered the poems that had been written the best and the most perfect which were those Homer

,

all

,

its

up no to he

of his method , "since he not only drew the precepts of the nature , as an admirable observer of secrets but also con

of

art out

to

to

(

“

e

,

as

,

of ,

is

to

.

of

is

simple and for the most part remains close Del Bene's argument poetry that pleasure but limited the Poetics He sees the end the special pleasure which proper poem quella delettatione quale each

“

:

a

in , is it

;

“

”

of

his

,

byall

and the delights and the purgations which poems produce upon the plot and the actions which are contained and which the poet achieves end The marvelous most

beauties depend means

,

is

as

,

to

,

—

).

.

it

-

, to ”

propria del poema fol 71v Three elements beauty purgation and the pleasure although this marvelous seem contribute not clearly stated and we must derive from such passages the following All the

in it

at

is

,

it

action and actions and

plot

126 be :

of

of of ;

it

. "

125

at

in

an

of

is

be a

in

“

Hence the inevitability nothing but the imitation poet only order

be

pleasure and poem Poetry truth will necessary for the poet

.

no

,

,

of

,

to

;

of

,

of

beyond the ex beautiful part the poem when something happens pectations things the listener for men marvel new and those con trary their opinion and they take pleasure them The main source pleasure however the imitation action without there no will

we

Plato and ;

72v

)

(

and the kinds thing but

of of fol .

,

in

it

as

"

,

fiction

had

this way

of

are consequently restricted

"

the overtones

in

,

he

of

some

of

be

a

of

takes

dramatic representation imitating only when writes

mean

to

on

plot

”

“

is

former comes the poet said

to

.

,

,

."

to

,

to

of

,

in

imitate actions These statements lose some their clarity however when discover what meanings Del Bene associates both with imitation and with plot The

action in

,

';

essa tratti

principal

piu perfetti

."

, et i

purga

et

(

in to " le si

si

et

i

,

,

al

et li

,

et i

,

le

71 : “

.

.,

125i

fu

i

in

,

.

,

.

quale hauendo non solo precetti 137 fol come speculatore mirabile suoi secreti ma anchora hauendo migliori mente considerato tutti poemi che furono fino suo tempo fra quali homero non meno buono poeta che egli filosofo fosse purgamenti Ibid fol tutte bellezze diletti corrected poesie tutte dependono dalla fauola dalle actioni che tioni che fanno dalla natura

cio di

.”

,

,

71 : " de il

MS BNF Magl

IX ,

is

'

,

,

no

or

124

of

;

: “

every kind Not those actions which are not true but verisimilar and because these are made favola and therefore this way being feigned they merit the name poetic little difference found between imitation fiction and plot 127

al

;

et

.

.

."

di le

la

di

si

et

di

chi

in

di

73 : “

.

";

il

il

le

.

70 : " . "

70 : "

127

.,

ne

et

,

gli

è

lo

,

et

'' )

le

con poeta consegue quali Bellissima parte suo fine and fol mediante della poesia ammirabile quando essa qualcosa fuori della espettatione lascolta marauigliono fuori della loro opinione huomini delle cose nuoue adiuiene perche pigliono diletto poesia che imitatione actioni altro ueramente non sara 126Ibid fol poeta sara necessario solo per esser poeta actioni Cf. fol 69v imitare tengono

essa

)

(

534

, et

."

il

et la

la

, la

,

,

,

Et

.

et

si

a

;

.,

quelle actioni che uere non sono ma Ibid fol non dogni sorte cosa ma però questa per esser cosi fatte sendo finte meritono nome della fauola uerisimili fauola poca fintione imitatione poetica ritroua fra nulla differentia

POETICS : VERNACULAR COMMENTARIES

re

the

;

in

"

"

are

the

the

,

all

We find thus that a poem is an imitation , an invitation is a dramatic representation of a plot , a plot is an unreal but probable action . This goes poenis including the less perfect ones found for the lyric genres (

”

...

at

necessity

as it he

as

“

dithyrambthe kind

the

required

:

restricted

which springs from character will

of -

in

of

in

be

”

“

“

is

),

to

made

be

the statement

is

as

;

“

." of

is

exclusively poet difference that latter narrative counting the actions men whereas the epic mixed and tragedy and comedy are dramatic All are alike that their actions must once although marvelous and verisimilar we may suppose that all them feigns and describes

,

128

. "

of

be ,

by

)

(

they were but and imitates them actions not was necessary that being done they should Del Bene shows how ancient such men pastoral eclogues really did imitate actions and lyric poets and writers

all

,

,

a

.

all

.

in

so

,

of

)

is

in

(

a

in

of

In

).

he

(

of

)

of

incidental defence and acting and

(

of

an

Dante who constantly introduced people multiple Ariosto even though his action way genre and Petrarch who imitated actions different each that practised the light these convictions Del Bene contradicts certain general Not only are poets necessarily common notions about the arts painter for say imitators actions but are other artists To that makes

speaking

be

,

,

is

1574

, a

,

fols 47-58

lecture

et

non contenere mali .129 The subject being what

)

.

137

,

.

the Alterati

before

comedia vuole esser honesta

IX ,

favola

MS BNF Magl

he (

costumi

Bene also delivered

la

Che

v

Giulio Del entitled

in

.

the poet imitates them de la

depicts them

,

.

,

or

example imitates characters passions nonsense for the latter can only through imitated action The historian narrates actions the painter

he

,

of

As

,

,

as

as

(

.

to

.

of

on

of

on

by

)

be

to its

of

by

,

in

was led much farther afield than

of

,

it

the other lecture not only into proposed poetry consideration the ends for Horace and Plato but also into reflections poetry and the nature man both the object audience and the nature art Throughout however matters seem decided reference poetry man pro the Poetics the object was

and the epic

,

of

.

,

,

is

to

of

is

.

is

of

,

vides more actions and characters for comedy than does for tragedy and the epic for low and ordinary men are more numerous than exalted and extraordinary ones This the way nature which creates more frequently what commonplace than what rare and excellent Hence comedy study many fewer there are many more examples tragedy

if

“

dis

."

, et le

et

,

non quali furono ma quale era necessario che elle fussero sendo finge descriue imita .

129See note 123 above

)

(

535

di

,

no to

to of

he

because for the most part men are ashamed

of

is

,

to

;

.

,

.

is

to

,

74 : "

.

fol

cotali huomini

le

Ibid

.,

128

,

accusation and shame

,

,

of

).

.

is

(

is

,

is to

poetry however man seems fols 47-47v As the audience demand what rare and excellent He prefers what beautiful what ugly what honest what plea dishonest Indeed can derive comedy sure from the morally ugly and reprehensible the actions laughter but rather they were dishonest would not move disdain and

POETIC

dis

“ a

,

again 131

honest things as badly done and by vicious persons . "

Or

1.30

THEORY

action does not produce joy but hatred and shame Our first please their conclusion then that morally dishonest actions will fail specifically because audience nature audience Similar generalizations result from Del Bene's thoughts the nature perfected art He sees first device which nature device imitate nature and render quella more perfect imitare natura piu perfetta rendere fol this means that whatever the subject superior degree For the matter humble exalted art will depict

of to

“

a

,

et

"

la

is

, on

.

an

as

its

it

be

.

it

in a

;

,

is

,

he

,

do

so

all

:

.

does

55 ).

.

(

in

”

it

he

what

in

dom choice historian

pre

fol Moreover the artist this way for has complete free This distinguishes the poet from the

exquisite

et

,

,

in

he

means that even common objects will

does not treat nature

of

if

blame

48 )

.

, "

or

,

“

sented

to

hand comedy estremo grado

at

subject

("

as a

it

.

by

,

of

is

.

to "

,

honest

,

to

,

to

he is

by

is

by

,

his

striving for perfection its

so

:

in

,

in

The free choice the poet connection with further emphasized this passage

is

is

as

is

to

of

,

,

honest and virtue most delightful thing

in to

,

has the choice and art and nature driven what follow always what best the most useful and the achieve his end.132 order best

to

whence

it

as as

or

to

he

as

,

;

been

is

And the more must the poet this than the historian that the latter really constrained they happened according recount actions just the truth they should have been the former verisimilar that they must have

a

freedom

to

,

its

to

,

is

of

133

the

?

take the one and the other

,

is

as

of

,

so an

,

we

,

of

poetry subject not through And since this art excellent operates upon necessity but through choice shall believe that artist being able select honest subject and one which concerns honest actions will choose among great subjects comedy rather one which multitude are those dishonest and dishonorable than one which honest and gentle having the

of

he

,

he :

;

si

lo

,

a

,

,

da ,

il

,

il

lo

."

et

.”

,

ha

pur costretto

le

fol

persone uitiose come cose mal fatte uergogna dishonesta non partorisce allegrezza ma odio poeta che tanto maggiormente debbe far questo Historico che raccontare actioni qualli elleno sono state secondo uero quelli

55v 54v

e

uergognino

da

.

if

he

its

, , et . å 53 : "

se fussero dishoneste non mouerieno riso ma uergogna auuenga che delle cose dishoneste per piu

137 fol riprensione

: : " “ à E la ò

., .,

è

questi

Ibid Ibid

.

huomini

et a

sdegno

IX ,

MS BNF Magl si fol .

gli 132131

bene

a

130

,

to

,

by

.

of

of

is

ultimately preferred will depend upon poet's concep What subject tion the end his art Here has two alternatives He may think the ends proposed Horace pleasure and utility does will have subject opposite would neither teach the right choose the honest for

, et

la

il

."

il

, a

e

,

, è et

un

Et

: “

.

133

., et

a

et

quali doueuono essere quali uerisimile che esser debbino onde egli eletione spinto seguire sempre meglio come cosa larte dalla natura l'honesto alla uirtu piu utile piu diletteuole per meglio conseguire suo fine questa arte tanto excellente della poesia non per necessita ma per Ibid fol 48v

? ”

)

(

536

et

)

(

, et

in

sia

)

et

di

in

(

di

et

,

di

eletione operando nel suggetto crederremo noi che potendo eleggersi lartefice essa suggetto honesto per scerne honeste ationi egli cosi gran multitudine come son quelli della comedia piutosto uituperoso che uno honesto gentile uno dishonesto pigliare luno sendo suo arbitrio laltro

POETICS : VERNACULAR COMMENTARIES

.

,

.

for the audience will find an

by

.

is

in

,

of

by

,

by

, to

by

of

to

only the honest subject will achieve these ends basically immoral pleasure what no

Or

to

,

to

of

,

is

of

).

fol .

moral lessons nor ( given the nature of man ) afford any real pleasure teaching ( 51v The end show men good mores and induce emu constantly repeated through Del Bene's pages lation them the poet may think the audience Aristotle the moving the ends proposed pity and fear tragedy laughter and contentment comedy Again

,

,

we

. he

;

of

.

,

,

in

of

Difficulties and doubts about these matters are solved artistic consideration the way which the poet interprets Aristotle's grouping moral characters There are three groups the high the middle and the comedy But low the low contains the personages would err gravely it,

in

to

be

. "

of

'

'

in

,

of

, “

;

,

be in

since

of

of

tragedy are actions

,

of

with vice

"

lowness

"

equate

ing that the actions

of

to

say himself interprets comedy illustrious men those family and not vicious men but men who are humble and low intellectual capacity not meaning the worst through some vice that might them but through the low and base concepts their mind 134 were we

in

) ;

,

—

to

”

“ 56 )

”

fol .

“

in

(

to

be

”

of

;

;

comedy must end happily produce the desired effect properly complicated and fol .

of be to

to

he

if

,

a

but

:

be

on

in

the audience the action happy ending for wicked people fails hence the poet wishes his plot and contentment

.

(

,

by

,

,

.

of

,

vice dishonesty wickedness Such characters are plot and moreover the artistic demands for the handling plot may character The argument stated thus To produce joy ,

ugliness

excluded

,

of

of

“

of

of

he

appealed Another passage from Aristotle may also here the one distinguishes the four requisites which character Poetics 1454a15 the requisite goodness every must taken mean moral goodness honesty including comedy— poem the exclusion and virtue kind

to is

If of

is

on an

.

as 50 )

fol .

(

to

,

in

,

do

in

is

54 ).

(

be

55 ).

(

fol .

),

to

'

,

(

,

of

must avoid the inclusion wicked people this un avoidable e.g. Aeneas Dido such persons must admitted only the episodes and not the central plot Corroboration this thesis found the fact that when poets actually introduce bad characters they always punish them the denouement thus creating effect differ comedy ent from that proper The argument character resolved

of

of

in

)55 .

.

of

is

It

(

an

,

of

:

as

all

poets imitate men not they are but they should be Since Ulysses prudence strength Achilles represents the perfect Idea improvement upon nature character must show the direction virtue and honesty fol only when these artistic conditions are met that dramatic works

similar

order

to

the listeners

, in

of

in

the breasts

lui

49 : "

arouses fear and pity fol .

134

... tragedy

pos

:

of

.

,

purgation achieve the end which they seek Del Bene offers several this effect sible interpretations

liber

)

di et

di

i

et

;

,

di

,

i

."

537

(

.,

,

.

di

et

,

interpretandolo queste della Tragedia ationi stesso dicendo quelle della comedia non sangue huomini uitiosi ma humili bassi peggiori per alcuno uitio ch'in loro sia ma per intelletto non intendendo bassi uili concetti d'animo Ibid huomini illustri

POETIC

THEORY

...

ate and purge them

of these same passions of fear and pity . it seems that the the comic poet is to delight and to move to laughter and gaiety in

of

end

...

order to purge them of the pleasure that they take in similar low actions and of the laughter that necessarily arises from them ; or perhaps in order to purge them through the laughter and the pleasure that they feel in comic actions , so that when later they see or hear other real ones of the same kind , they will no longer be moved to laughter or take delight in them.135

of

of

the Poetics

in

Bene's theory goes beyond that

of

,

,

its

The poet who violates these moral and artistic requirements by treating wicked persons - especially if he treat them publicly on the stage - should by Plato . In totality then Del suffer the banishment recommended

in the

seeking elsewhere

)

.

to

as

to

,

to it

;

in

to an in

the Poetics

terms

treat

a

to

an attempt

the same critical system

.

genre not mentioned Bonciani proceeds

of

which we have already seen several examples

,

.

of

the same year the same academy heard Francesco Bonciani's Lezione comporre delle novelle This was the kind Aristotelian exercise

il

In of

sopra

in

nature man the nature art the principles upon which the poet works but returns Aristotle for such artistic recommendations will enable him make poems conforming those same principles

of of

of

,

in

.

a

, in

.

he

in

so

as

his

as

.

,

to

he

as

in

orderly fashion following Aristotle's text quite closely attempts discover the particular rules and precepts the novella And just Aristotle had appealed constantly the practice principal model Certain Homer Bonciani uses Boccaccio general color the way Bonciani's presuppositions about poetry which treats the short story He turns Aristotle's statement about the delight found imitation into statement that imitation removes the pain from to

be

,

distinguish

162

This view will later determine

man's life and allows him

pleasures

false

).

and

( .p

true

of

learning relieves the ills tween

of

"

"

).

I

.pp

(

to by

it

to

,

as

as

so

is

;

of

annoy purgation since man's life Bonciani's understanding full literary their end works the novella will have ances and troubles such joy say literary works drive out sorrow and replace 183-84 ;

in

as

be

,

is

to

he

,

.

in

"

an

to

it

which verse

is

poetry

definition

in (

he

of of its

at a

arrive

,

as a

,

is

,

we

Hence

perhaps

ne

135

” ).

ment

he

its of

in

.

of

of

it is

,

classify the novella poetry for the advisedly since Bonciani refuses simple reason that prose All poetry says must verse the best interpreters Aristotle give the word Nóyos the exclusive meaning the verse Furthermore far from accepting the theory that imitation part resid poetry genus declares that poetry contains imitation argu ing plot which the summation action likens

)

di

ne le di

,

et

,

a

...

.

a di

et et

si

,

il

ò

è

(

,

si

, il

il

)

538

da , et

la

et

et

in

,

. o

et

rallegrino

."

,

si

da

,

la

: "

.

.,

...

il

.

petti delli auditori tragedia muoue timore misericordia Ibid fol 55v questi medesimi affetti purgarli miseri timore per questi medesimi liberare allegrezza pare che riso dilettare mouere fine del poeta comico sia cordia piglia esse necessaria del riso che per purgarli del diletto che similſi ationi uili piacere che essi sentono per per ationi riso forse perche purghino per mente nasce esse riso mouino udendo non piu altre poi ueramente ueggendone comiche

POETICS : VERNACULAR COMMENTARIES

he

of

,

he its

as ,

of

another and the refined distinctions which makes literary works the novella human actions But the men who perform these actions are either virtuous vicious and virtue depicted either supreme degree vice may

of

,

or

.

,

a

:

a

or in

is

seen that people usually maintain

certain middle ground

, ( in SO in

well

vice and that nevertheless our mind can conceive the Idea ,

as

But because virtue

as it in is

as it

be

or

,

is of

,

,

as

of

.

obscure the issue The general object well the epic tragedy and comedy

tend as

novella

,

kind

or

to of

.

its

its

a more essential element than imitation , although this he specifically denies ( p . 174 ) . objects The novella will differ from other genres in manner and objects changes means Bonciani's definition the thinks one

of

or

difference

or

better

”

“

to

thus transformed into

called

of

is

Aristotle's ethical distinction

be

,

as

136

a

.

“

"

or

,

it

we

them considerably

worse

,

exceed

in

or

,

)

who for this reason come

to

of

speak goodness never found wickedness their supreme degree any one person hence comes about that not only may imitate men endowed with that virtue that vice we see them every day but moreover those who

de

to

or

to

.

, .

of

of

),

(

"

“

.

.p

,

on

,

no

of

,

by

,

,

in

be

its

,

"

in

”

“

,

"

”

applying either better with worse virtue vice and meaning way everyday like the which these manifest themselves The novella especially since Boccaccio imitates any one these objects But they tragedy because actions when resemble those and the epic may handled the ways indicated Aristotle Bonciani finds need for discussing them and instead concentrates his attention those stories light and foolish which are like comedy These present actions 176

gree

of

).

.p

(

,

be

at

be

all :

.

of

,

of

.

we

;

in

as

as

be

ones which fall into the general category the ridiculous 169 Another division must made here for anybody may ridiculous the great and the poor well those between Since should not laugh the great proper and should pity the poor only men the middle station will objects for this kind novella But not

to

136My references

in

(

,

all

,

of

,

of

.

of

,

...

all

.

be

by

,

,

of

)

of

,

persons then who without being completely crazy smack rather That sort folly will more than less imitated novelle One should imitate vulgar stripe not their ordinary actions since these men theirs are foolish but those which are completely out kilter ... One may say that those who thinking themselves possessed great wisdom and sagacity lay themselves open

ne

;

si

di è, ) si

o il

...

di

;

,

, i

gli

o

si

di in

,

in

,

di

gli

,

o

(

.

, v , .

1727

: "

in

to

are

,

Florence

).

Bonciani

: e

I

.

II,

Vol

(

, , . le Pt

e ' by si

the edition published the Prose fiorentine founded pp 164–65 For the present passage Ma perchè persone ordinariamente osservare una certa mezzanità così nella virtù come nel veda vizio nondimeno può l'intelletto nostro immaginarsi l'idea per dir così della malvagità della bontà che qui niuno così supremo grado ritruovano che non solo possano imitare quella virtù uomini vizio dotati come tutto veggiono ma quegli ancora che gran lunga trapassano quali perciò migliori peggiori vengono

Dati

, o

,

da

: o

." .

)

539

(

di

di

,

si

in

: “

, i .p

. 'da "

,

o

da '

e o a

essere chiamati See also 178 Le azioni sono due maniere d'uomini adoperate malvagi quali virtuosi possono considerare due modi con quella bontà cattività che sono per l'ordinario onde simili da Aristotile sono chiamati veramente questi abiti nel supremo grado ciascuno

behavior

and

137

.

to

of

in

as

to

be

of in by of

As

is

,

as

,

,

of .pp a

acceptable

The hesitation results from doubts story such Lucian's should properly considered be purely dramatic manner the genre and hence whether

a .

to

which tell longing

favor among the whether dialogues

the manner resolved speeches and dialogues as

"

“

personages

by

,

After some hesitation the question mixed -narrative interrupted

the

when they

.

,

bad

is

the end sought

these

they bring sorrow men and hence they can never produce the

excluded

of

laughter that

is

of

Wickedness and vice must also give examples

the more

;

be

,

to deception , should be imitated by our novelle ; and have greater wit for the marvelous appears even more

so

THEORY in all

POETIC

;

it

).

in

,

,

in

is

,

all

recommendations for the handling their admitted source Definitions

to of

as

The specific the Poetics

of

138

.

"

.

of

by

“

as is

Verse

(

.

,

,

,

,

a

:

is

,

,

his answer

is

.

it

Bonciani decides that not 165–70 for the means unequivocal None the three means proposed Aristotle rhythm harmony and verse appears the novella uses stead fourth means prose and thus falls outside the general category poetry prose For the novelle use discourse which unmetered and known the authority writers whereas poems always employ imitation

the form also have the qualitative parts

,

by

in

of

).

be

:

of

is

,

at

we

is

It

,

“ è

(

of

”

,

.pp

”

: “

except that Bonciani adds

of

plot the definition summary this short clarification that brief which find written quel brieve raccolto che nella fronte loro scritto tro the beginning Magnitude plot viamo 184–85 the novella contrasted with tragedy and comedy the latter determined that considerations which Castelvetro echo closely those follow the text closely

be

be

do

to to

;

it

to

in

in

an

in at all

,

at a

it

,

to

part adapt itself But because tragedy has acted must the specta tors who cannot remain for several days time the theater nor would represented verisimilar that action which took many days should

137

.

tragedies

be

139

it

since these use the same means

as

,

comedies

;

of

.

just one For these reasons tragic poets are obliged include the whole action within one revolution the sun and seems that the same must said about

,

,

;

'

;

,

: “ si

.p

,

" ;

di

,

le

. . . .

in

,

di

,

le

."

,

e ' n

si

le

un

in

,

di

poichè esse adoprano

lo

,

)

(

540

si ne ' in

."

di

un

,

debba dire delle commedie

."

,

: e 'l

in in

un

a

medesimo pare che modo delle tragedie

quanta

si

i

;

,

nè

:

, i

, e

si

il

la le

,

è

: “

.

di

poesie adoperano sempre tutti noto laddove verso bisogna ch'ella tragedia dee rappresentare Ma perchè 186–87 quali non possono stare parecchi giorni per volta parte s'accomodi agli aspettatori opera solo molti condotta teatri manco averebbe del verisimile che girare Sole l'azione tutta tragici sono costretti chiudere rappresentasse onde .,

per l'autorità pp 139Ibid

: "

., p .

in

la

,

di

,

,

: e e al ,

di

,

nò ,

: “

., .p

persone che non essendo però pazze affatto Ibid 206 Quella sorte adunque questi sentiranno anzi che dello scemo sarà dalle novelle imitata Deesi adunque grossa pasta imitare non loro sieno loro ordinarie azioni comecchè tutte uomini può dire che tutti squadra and 208 tutto fuor sciocche ma quelle che sono sagacità stimandosi fanno luogo allo nganno dalle nostre coloro che molta saviezza novelle debbono essere imitati allora viepiù che essi maggiore ingegno avranno imperocchè maraviglia apparisce questi maggiormente prosa siccome imperocchè servono dell'orazione sciolta novelle 138 Ibid 173

stesso

COMMENTARIES

POETICS : VERNACULAR

The frank admission , on the one hand that the needs of the spectator must be considered , on the other hand of the poet's “ obligations , " should be noted . Like the epic , the novella is unlimited in time and hence achieves

of the dramatic forms ; at the same time , readily it more admits the marvelous since it is addressed to the ear ( p . 188 ) . freely invented popular actions may restrict the storyteller who only the laws decorum and verisimilitude and the admonition Aristotle

he

by

in

Bonciani finds

all

.

which are necessary listing plots basis for nine different kinds

of

use only those episodes

of of

is

by ,

by

of

of

by

be

to ed Its

greater verisimilitude than either

in

,

be

,

“

”

As

of

,

by

“

,

or

.

a

which illustrates examples from Boccaccio The style the short story will the loxvós prose and containing humble and minute because novelle being ordinary persons who are somewhat ridiculous they actions done clearly cannot use appropriately that grandness speech which tragedy

”

“

”

(“

,

) :

.

or

on

;

an

“

;

an

or

)

"

)

"

(

a

,

. ”

(

in

be

140 for the quantitative parts they will three combining prologue number various suggestions from Aristotle embroiling presenting the characters and the circumstances scom knotting which complicates the action and unfolding piglio unknotting which brings sviluppo the conclusion

and the epic would use

,

in

of

i

.

all

in

to

of

,

to

,

a

Giovambattista Strozzi delivered similar lecture also 1574 before apply the principles Accademia Fiorentina attempting the madrigali Poetics the lesser form the madrigal His Lettione sopra 1635. The definitions and the descriptions was published posthumously the

as

in

an

of

an

he

),

.p

, ”

be

.

of

”

(“

in

as “

of

a

.

to

we

,

an

he

develops are which within Aristotelian framework although they frequently record conclusions which should have consider hetero poetry general definition dox After imitation action inquires into the kinds verse Imitatione d'Attione versi 160 proper may subjects actions which constitute the for the madrigal

.

or

a

,

if

by

he

is

it

),

necessary others but certain extent depart from da

...

a

will

to

he is

(

to ,

of

for

proper

fact this way that such a

as

in are in

is

;

they describe things for him imitate them the truth , Ibid ., . to 141 .p

of

be

,

speech

140

,

of

representation and description those things which even they are lacking may nevertheless put before the eyes assigning action others them and this the proper function the poet for must not merely

a to in

;

be

—

,

,

as

-

,

,

,

to

:

,

There will two kinds human actions especially those revealing charac passions ter and and actions attributed nonhuman inanimate things really important genres Since human actions are the more the which treat epic tragedy comedy them will the great poetic genres such form the madrigal however may permit itself

e

, e

di

."

e

:

(

), , p si .

,

la

;

è,

,

in

le

: " et

In

se

141

prosa persone 210 essendo novelle contenendo azioni fatte ordinarie che abbiano del ridicolo chiara cosa che elle non potranno usare acconciata tragedia l'epopeja userebbono mente quella grandezza del favellare che quelle Orazioni altre prose 1635 161 vna rassomiglianza descrittione à

541

lui

fà à

,

partirsi dal vero

."

qualche parte

à

in

venga

)

(

che

e '

,

ad

,

è

fatta maniera imitarle

,

mestiero per

si

di

le

,

il

,

possono tuttauia mettere altrui dauanti gl'occhi cose che bene mancano del discorso col dargli operatione che proprio offitio del Poeta perciòche egli non dee semplicemente descriuere cose come elle stanno appunto perche questo altri appartiene ma

POETIC

THEORY

The apologue and the descriptive poem come to

be ,

of “things

in a strange way , the

as they are." Lyric poems in general may treat every thing in the world ; but they tend to leave the grand subjects to the grand opposites

and small , " such

genres and to exploit rather those which are " pleasant as love . This will be the case of the madrigal .

Poetry needs verse as well as imitation ; the two are indispensable . Therefore , according to Strozzi , Aristotle requires verse in his definitions of tragedy and the epic . Differences among kinds will relate to subject matter, manner , and the type of verse . On the basis of such differences we may constitute a definition of the madrigal : “ The madrigal is an imitation

to

, it

be

if

(

a

,

to

of

.

of

as

be

Its

.

if

,

be

for first place for he who would place lan plot would perhaps not depart from the truth Choice before words and texture verse may thus Strozzi's opinion legitimately the primary concern the madrigal poet especially since the form prosodic and rhetorical brief that every word must made count So

.

to

be

,

is

,

143

. "

(

“

in

of

,

of

)

(

it

)

;

between plot and language guage

so be of

a

,

)

”

“

)

for

(

of

it

In

any case plot will have that the correct translation for favola here and hence necessarily character and parts will thus discourse Giávoia and language the same grand genres those the reduced and less perfect But their order importance will introducing rivalry disturbed even the extent

.

metaphorical description

it

142

of a pleasant, small action , made by way of narration , with verses in rhyme which are not restricted in their number and kind of rhymes . " When objects through does not imitate human actions attributes action

pp we

versification

.

-

a

his

.

to

of ,

demand close attention and Strozzi offers specific advice with theory shows them The totality reorientation away from Aristotle and toward the old fashioned rules for language and matters respect

to

in

),

a

,

to

is

is ,

The problem

the correct

of

of

:

of

very imperfect instrument for the purpose behavior the whole citizenry

.

;

it

is

in

to

to

as .

of

of

.

,

see

(

is

It

to

perhaps the years 1574–75 that should assign Sperone Speroni's Chapter VIII Apologia dei dialogi addition which 304–5 defending his dialogues expresses his ideas the moral and political utility poetry These relate inter that the purgation clause Aristotle referring according Speroni preted such moral utility but

to

to

, ,

, a

on

“

be

it

,

. "

di

via

,

di

,

)

542

non

have something political

gentile picciola fatta per rimare maniera dipartirebbe forse dal vero

nè si à

,

antiponesse

to

if

à

è

chi ancora glie

citizens that purge two such

."

.

ab

,

of

Aristotle wished

Madrigale imitatione d'attione numero rima non sottoposti

(

: " e

173

But

passions which seem

le

: “

., .p

Ibid

., .p

143

Ibid 172 narratione con versi

tragedy

,

means

in Il

142

passions

...

two passions which are not very useful . . . .

of

ut

purged

horror and commiseration by

is ,

tragedy man

is

:

as

,

in

he

to

in

tragedy that behavior when the definition pleasurable proper besides certain other circumstances which are that poem might opposition that useful component whence called civil added seeing purgemur saying This means that huiuscemodi follows

Aristotle was well aware

POETICS : VERNACULAR COMMENTARIES about them and which are without doubt human , his suggestion was not so good as it should have been.144

Speroni objects because he believes that such spectacles as the death of gladiators would serve the same purpose more effectively . He thinks that by

it

he

:

to

,

,

to

to

to

145 lot —

.

by

,

in

of

”

of

on

in fact tragedy was invented for another purpose— “ to teach citizens to be bring quietly content with their humble try and not elevate ing mention and that Aristotle failed their fatherland the ruin distinguishes tragedy this end his definition For comedy too political criteria desirable and undesirable ends reference always

to

,

is

indecorous labor and

is

it

is

in

to

,

or

I

;

it

;

146

an

is

latter

an

on

to

in

an

I

it,

is

to

I

If

in

of

comedy the wearied mind rested and the laughter once said that say that such repose useful now again and say again that one thing laugh the theater for hour two another write order purpose the former gives repose and necessary the make people laugh antisocial activity.14

is

.

(

COMMENTARY

of

PICCOLOMINI'S

1575

)

at

of

of

.

he is

the latter category

, it

that

in

it

I

Speroni would include satirical and poetry Throughout carrying humorous and obscene clear that prejudices general over into discussion Aristotle the Platonic that inform his thinking this point his career take

as at it

late

the text

or

all

on

of .

an

)

,

(

as

that the annotations were already complete Coming does his commentary reflects advanced state work 1572

,

in

of ,

,

in

"

"

its

,

in

great commentaries The second the the vernacular Alessandro Piccolomini's Annotationi nel libro della Poetica d'Aristotile was published 1575 although author had declared the preface his translation

he

he

.

of

it

in

reject the sense that can discuss and accept the multitude interpretations that had already been suggested Piccolomini announces that will say nothing about those passages for which finds the remarks least

,

he

;

of

is

a

.

he

tal

144

or

.

of

of

,

does with Robortello

.

as

he

frequently disagrees with Vettori satisfactory but and Scaliger and Castelvetro Indeed revealing original pages some his most and were written under the stimulus such disagreement This does not mean that his approach personal inter essentially controversial fragmentary For does have

of

Maggi and

them

ut di

si

,

se

.

e

,

,

a ' il

fu si

...

...

.

di

per

."

543

)

(

."

è

un

;

in

e

è

è

.

a

a

; e

,

,

io

;

far

è

un : " tal

la

: “

356

ed

Ibid

gli , è ., , ., ed .p e .p

146

o e

,

non buono come dovea insegnare alli cittadini star contenti quietamente alla loro umile condizione non tentar d'innalzarla con ruina della lor patria già dissi che nelle risa della commedia riposa l'animo affaticato Ibid 357 se riposo torno anche che utile dirlo ridico che altro ridere teatro una due ore altro scrivere per ridere bello studio quello ozio necessità questo fatica indecora incivile operazione 148

umani son senza dubbio

:

,

,

si

,

,

di

si

: “

), I , ,

...

di

.

ab ,

(

In

Opere 1740 quando nella 355–56 Ben accorse decoro Aristotile difinizione della tragedia oltre alcune altre sue dilettevoli condizioni che sono proprie quel poema soggiunse contra quella dell'utile onde civile nominasse così dicendo purgemur qual vuol dire che nell'aspetto della tragedia purgò l'uomo huiuscemodi due affetti non molto utili cittadini ciò sono orrore commiserazione Ma Ari stotile purgar volendo colla tragedia due tali affetti che assai par che abbiano del civile

POETIC

THEORY

pretation of the Poetics — one might say , even , his own theory of poetry which determines how individual passages and their commentators will be considered . Some of this theory is explicitly stated in the “ Proemio , ”

in

.

of

a

of

;

it

or

all

which precedes the main body of the work ; much of it is found in the individual glosses . For these , Piccolomini uses the numbers and the text of Maggi's Explanationes . Unlike Maggi and the earlier scholars , however , philological his interest is almost not at textual lies rather the production consistent and complete reading Aristotle as is

"

as

“

he

;

importance

The relative

of

147

,

its

the world

. "

,

,

“

brings

it

which

to its

of

.

of

is in

of

of

of

One the cornerstones the theory expressed the Proemio conception poetry This early Piccolomini's the ends stated program general his announcement his for the work will treat poetry's form end and material and the profit and the pleasure

profit and is

: “

of be

-

—

to

."

148

to

in

,

,

by

,

or

of ,

to

,

of

by of

,

of

,

an

is

in

included the definition which comes soon after Poetry nothing but things either natural imitation not only artificial but mainly human actions characters and passions done mostly means language and give pleasure and diction taken universally order giving pleasure ultimately These ends benefit human life pleasure and utility with the pleasure made serve the utility will pleasure

so

,

its

“

as

149

by

to

by

,

or

no

,

a

be

of

be

.

explained and developed repeatedly throughout the text Good poems distinguished from those which merit the Platonic charge will effemi nacy and corruption made made that they would those imitations for single end either voluptuous and vain pleasure which was own end purpose and termination and served instead such pleasure would rendering bring damage our manners effeminate and cor our lives

...

be

,

so

)

in

to

. "

to

:

it

,

of

(

or

,

rupt doing poetry must some other means Rather than subordinated according Aristotle the Ethics the architectonic art politics and must serve these various specific ends ,

of

be

to

, in

if

,

to

be

.

to

of

through the imitation virtuous men and the expression their praise we aroused and excited virtue order like those whom we hear celebrated On the other hand we hear vices and wicked actions expressed come

,

by

be

,

to ,

to

,

by

so to

&

giouamento

our

,

il

&

, a

materia sua

,

la

&

,

, il

fine

of

.

la

: “

forma

great part

."

la al ) , .p

,

(

Annotationi 1575 7f4v mondo diletto ch'ella reca 148

il

do

to

if

,

no matter how effective we see horrible tragic events acted on the stage

147

,

admonition Similarly

as

through poetic imitation and they are expressed reviled and vituperated we dispose ourselves immediately begin hate vicious actions much flee and more incited such imitations than we would direct and personal

, ò

&

,

di

:

, ò

di

'

, à

,

&

,

di

."

149

, ò

;

,

: "

., .p

Ibid 115 Poesia non sia altro che imitatione non solo cose naturali fatta col mezo d'affetti humani costumi d'attioni artifitiose ma principalmente principalmente del parlare ver della locutione nel lor vniuersale fine dilettare dilettando finalmente giouare alla vita humana

)

(

,

; , ò ò di

di

,

in

, ò

i

544

si

à

à

ò si

,

' &

.”

,

,

se

,

: “

&

è

,

,

&

., .p

Ibid ft5v quelle così fatte imitationi che facessero solo fine voluttuoso vano diletto ch'in stesso finisse terminasse non seruisse nulla ver diletto corromper qual voglia altra maniera tale che con effeminare costumi nostri fusse alla nostra vita per recar danno

POETICS : VERNACULAR COMMENTARIES insolence , our temerity , our arrogance , our audacity , our pride disappears in us through this means ; and seeing the miseries and the perils to which are subject not only men of middle and low condition but even those who through their

tempered within us.150

for

He

these come

be

,

to

all

worldly things all

the fragility of

the

all

power and greatness are used to being happy , . . . we come to moderate our sorrow over the misfortunes which do happen and which can happen every day . Likewise the wrath , the envy , and the other passions which usually are fomented in us through the fact that we do not know well the inconstancy of fortune and

.

his

,

a

,

.

in

of

,

of

.

of

.

, it

it

If

we

a

to

;

tragedy Piccolomini here collects uses previously proposed degree will frequently make such compendia and work presents summation ideas about poetry current his time through utility follow the commentary this guiding principle interpretation we shall see how affects the various separate passages Primarily determines how Piccolomini will understand purgation He

what

,

in

connection with Poetics 1449b24 after repeating had said about the priority usefulness :

of

he

states his theory

...

his

be

on

no

be

,

of

,

;

of

since man cannot enjoy and obtain any more useful thing than the possession separated true tranquillity the spirit from which cannot virtuous liv ing and moreover since this tranquillity cannot spoiled except through the on

,

to

as

it

.

to

it of

,

in

,

of

so

of

fault the passions the soul hence arises that other thing have the philosophers exerted themselves order make the soul peaceful purge those passions the attempt

by

...

he

,

of ,

on to of

of

by

the

,

all

all

)

(

,

,

Developing then the theories the Stoics and the Peripatetics and re peating from the Rhetoric Aristotle's classification the eleven passions goes natural and moderated reason the specific uses purgation which profits men

is

so we to

it

.

,

of

,

,

these hopes we temper also our joys considering how fra Although tragedy takes into account the nature the

it ,

to

bring

to

intends

to

profit which

it

for

,

has undertaken

the

. . . .

is

, 150

,

it

crowd

to

as

...

vanity that we see gile their basis

in

,

it

of

compassion and the terror and the fear which brings means represents For when others with those events and those misfortunes which see the bitter misfortunes and the unhappy accidents with which the world full we come we see these things moderate our hopes and through the

purge

,

a

la

&

;

,

ad

,

&

, '

da

a

da

;

&

,

le

&

,

se ad i : “

& .

,

'

., .p

spressione delle lodi Ibid 177 con l'imitation degli huomini virtuosi con quelli che cele loro veniamo infiammarci escitarci alla virtù per diuenir simili vitij brar vdiamo scelleratezze dall'altra banda sentiamo con poetica imitation esprimere esprimendo vilipendere vituperare subito cominciamo disporsi alla fuga ,

à

.

gli ,

,

,

& li ,

,

in

in

'

à

“

se

'

&

,

;

si &

questo quanto all'odio delle vitiose attioni molto più incitati cotali imitationi che voglia efficace aperta particolar ammonitione Medesimamente recitarsi scena veggiamo horribili auuenimenti tragici vien per questo mancar noi gran parte dell'insolentia della temerità dell'arrogantia dell'audacia

gli

,

,

&

,

à il

a

,

la

,

, à

;

,

le

, & ò di

...

;

'

,

di

.

&

pericoli superbia nostra vedendo miserie che son sottoposti non solo huomini mediocre potentia bassa conditione gran ma quegli ancora che per dezza soglion esser felici veniamo moderare dolore negli infortunij ch'accascano

,

&

,

,

la

,

)

(

545

&

.

. "

,

'l

ò

giorno possono Vien parimente mitigarsi l'ira l'inuidia accascar tutto altri fragilità delle cose mondane affetti che dal non ben conoscere l'instabilità della fortuna fomento riceuer sogliono

POETIC

THEORY

all

. 1

,

all

the souls mainly of the excess of those passions which have as their object evil and fear , more than the others since these more than others disturb our lives 151

to

of

it

is

.

(

,

of

On

on

is

( .pp

);

,

of

:

be

is

in

on

in

,

is

of

in ,

.

in

)

to

(

of

such purgation which more useful when relates pity fear than thus multiple line with the multiple usefulness poetry general The theory completed the glosses other passages pity On Poetics 1453611 two new ideas are offered must not the pity spectators the participants reaffirming the action but the thus the orientation toward the audience and pleasure accompanies these passions because we learn about man's fate and such learning delightful 208

The function

to

“

is

”

to

;

its

,

,

us

to

“

is

be ,

to

,

a

is

. "

152

in

"

" ;

).

,

1449631 Piccolomini disagrees with Maggi the meaning tragedy any poem entirely ethical for him costumato which composed way honesty instructive and excite and virtue On 1459a27 Piccolomini tells that any pleasure connected with poetry extrinsic intrinsic end being profit indeed pleasure 211

he

so

153

,

,

as a

: “

is

merely serves this ultimate end To this utility pleasure given for com pany companion may servant and that man more willingly allow ,

we

,

of

of

(

"

a

“

as

to

a

it

,

,

of

.

),

the

.pp

benefit and

give pleasure to

virtue taught and benefited ,

be

order

to

, in

do

not need

of

to

,

.

tragedies are written mainly

to

:

referred

For people who are educated and judicious and friends

knowledge

of

all

to

the multitude 151

of

of

is

.

to

... like epic poems forms

definite conception

the nature multitude are ultimately told why poetry appeals

course

We have already seen

term used repeatedly and especially the crowd

and

Throughout the conviction that poetry determines the reading single

cited

.

be

.

in

such idea involves

the audience

be

,

is

;

Other passages might moral instruction the real end passages the Poetics together

Any

in

be

.”

to

disagrees with Castel himself receive that usefulness On 1450b24 produced separately vetro's statement that pity and fear may separate tragedies when the drama properly constituted produced both will

; in

,

'

&

,

i

,

.

,

,

gli

gli

&

.

da si

...

,

, in

di

è,

&

,

,

&

, di

&

, se

la

da

,

: "

'

.,

conseguir maggior vtilità che Ibid 101-3 non potendo l'huomo gustare posseder vna vera tranquillità dell'animo cui non può star separata virtuosa vita sua d'altronde non potendo riceuer macchia questa tranquillità non per colpa delle passioni qui dell'animo ch'in cosa alcuna non son tanto affatigati Filosofi per render tran quillo l'animo quanto purgarlo quegli affetti cercar col mezo della compassione del terrore timore che reca altrui con quegli auuenimenti casi che rappresenta ;

in

gli gli

,

& il

di

à

il

,

all '

&

,

à

ad

sia

. " ,

escitare

)

(

546

compagno

,

,

&

,

."

à

è

si

: "

il

."

: "

., & ., p . .p

,

153

in

107 tutto composto modo che atto instruire alla virtù alquale vtile dato per compagnia Ibid 372 diletto come ministro ponga accioche più voluntieri l'huom riceuer quel giouamento Ibid honesto

&

è

,

la

,

le

, à

le

,

in

,

,

la

di

152, si

di

,

in

;

...

,

.

,

la

il

...

&

ripieno vedendo noi acerbi casi infelici accidenti dei quali per talmente mondo veniamo veder queste cose moderar nostre speranze allegrezze considerando quanta vanità che veggiamo esse temperiamo ancor tragedia alla natura della moltitu quantunque hauendo riguardo fragilità sian poste purgar principalmente dinc habbia ella nel giouamento che recarle intende preso quegli affetti che han per oggetto animi dal souerchio male timor più tutti tutti inquieta vita nostra altri come più Conciosiacosache

POETICS : VERNACULAR COMMENTARIES 154

have the teachings and recommendations which are given to them seasoned with pleasure , as must necessarily be done in order to teach the multitude .

of

,

as

of

of

Castelvetro's and indeed we find Picco

of

,

this audience and how they affect the terms almost identical with those the earlier Tragedy must confined within artificial day since the needs

tragedy

“

.

commentator

an

be

,

in

of

lomini speaking conditions

thus the same

is

The audience

to

155

"

.

if

all

of

,

in

a

of

to

or

four hours which are allowed the imitation and the per represent day formance must the time whole order free the spectators the tedium and the boredom and also the discomfort which day would result for them the performance lasted The division those three

the actors are made possible

of

of

in

to

of

182

).

.p ,

for

(

rest

,

is

,

;

is a

of

performance into acts device for adjusting the time the time the action with the intermissions accounting for the difference this way settings and periods verisimilitude saved and incidentally change

:

is

.

an .

of

to

...

is

it

is

an

to

be

It

an

.

it

,

in

unlike Castelvetro's But one important way Piccolomini's audience imagination has knows that imitation not reality and that perhaps expect should not imitation identical with reality This theory poetry Piccolomini's most original contribution the

,

or

we

of

...

do

on

of

as

of

I

suppose tragedies and comedies have that the spectators awareness and knowledge the fact that the things that are done and said the stage not happen there and then true things and without any feigning but that they things which have already happened are imitations which could happen

of

is

be

of

,

,

on

,

it be

,

;

but these things

do

,

by

other actors

in

.

as

,

they walk and talk cover less space than people

not

do

do

... these

all ,

matter

the stage

asides are not heard

:

;

Actors real life

on

of

;

a

as

of

.

differently Therefore must not imagine that the cause that might dimin ish the pleasure the spectators would the happening the stage some thing that would make them realize that was not really taking place there but only fiction but the cause would rather the lack resemblance which required the imitation

at

by

is

,

... just

is

gli

.

of

,

,

an

be ,

it

so

is

as

if

in

so

(

.

imitation not truth itself but lacking lacking were not would not imitation necessary that imitating certain things should not accord completely with the truth the things imitated

do ),

done which 154

be

in

of

dered necessary art itself some part truth for but the real thing also

it is it

by

go

.

in

they and other similar things not offend the spectators nor any way disturb their pleasure This explained simply the fact that although these things really beyond verisimilitude nevertheless they are ren

,

,

è

;

,

spettatori dal giorno

tutto

'l

gli

se

per liberare be loro ,

,

giorno che seg

&

,

&

si

si

,

vn

,

)

,

di

(

547

&

, si

glidi

,

tre , ò

il

."

&

,

&

la

,

rappresentar tempo tutto dal fastidio ancor dall'incommodità rappresentatione

'

rappresentatione tedio durasse

". &

,

la

; 97 : "

155

., .p di

gli

,

&

.

: “

,

.p

di &

,

& .,

le

tragedie come epici poemi compongon principalmente per 415 cosi dar diletto alla moltitudine giuditiose Conciosiacosache alle persone perite per giouar loro amiche delle virtù delle scientie non faccia mestieri per instruirle condire col diletto ammaestramenti che auuertimenti dian loro come necessario farlo per instruire moltitudine quattro hore che Ibid douendo quelle concedono all'imitatione Ibid giouare

POETIC THEORY 156

The spectators ... grant and concede to the imitators everything far from the truth that the art of imitation necessarily brings and requires .

;

it

of

; it

is

of

it

;

a

thus

it

describes

in

do

to .

.

Piccolomini

by

the

...

by

:

which most commentators emphasized another context

is

in

of

poet the license

of

grants the certain unreal things works art and introducing such things There concept thus present artistic necessity which has nothing with the natural necessity

the necessity

of

of it

of

:

We should distinguish several important ideas here the audience never thinking that seeing reality recognizes import makes the mistake reality and the world ant differences between the world art admits

of

of

be

he

to

),

of

i.e. ,

[

to

if

at

plot and times the poet should forced the course some legitimate consideration not observe completely some one the aforemen being unable escape such tioned conditions the requisites character

An

,

an

as

be

it

in

to

be

violation order achieve something which might more important will deserve pardon and excuse and will not counted against him error.157

to

it

a

in

.

,

,

its

.

to

of of its

convinced the probability

, it it , is is in

to

,

not important important that truth but the action Resemblance truth

representation

ensue from

( .pp

in

the audience believe

;

to of

is

to

pleasure

If

please

that the audience should

be

all .

be

a

of

as

of

so

be

ready accept the endowed with imagination will the true the proper subject for poetry Poetry be comes kind leveler differences among men for whereas life thing may poetry pleasant some unpleasant others will audience

verisimilar instead

).

is a

of

is a

,

to in

be

,

of

.

in

if

,

is

not truth itself the real criterion 68-71 But there are certain diffi this principle For we accept the proposition that pleasure credibility and that credibility turn function closeness

culties function

is

.

the

led to

spettatori delle tragedie

delle commedie

,

che

,

suppongo

&

io

: "

.,

23–24

gli

156 Ibid

le .

.pp

,

he is

.

be

,

to

the truth then we shall soon driven the conclusion that true sub jects will ultimately those which are most effective This indeed the argument that Piccolomini pursues and inevitable deduction

il

,

,

,

sia La

. . . .

da

, ò si

; si

,

,

&

,

,

ò

,

&

habbian notitia conoscentia che cose che fanno dicon nelle scene non accaschin quiui allhora come vere senza fintione alcuna ma che siano imitationi delle già accaduto piacere che accascar potessero altrimenti causa dunque che possa offuscare la la

,

il .

ne

quale causa altre

Il o

:

,

in

,

,

gli

di

la

'

,

,

degli spettatori non s'ha stimar che l'accader qualche cosa scena per eglin possin accorgersi che ella quiui non veramente ma fintamente accaschi ma questo sarà queste mancanza della somiglianza necessaria all'imitatione

,

il

.

da

fà se di

.

;

; da

...

si

,

,

in

,

lo

è

;

,

,

spettatori piacer loro cosi fatte cose non offendon punto conturban punto che non d'altronde procede senon perche quantunque queste cose trapassin veramente veris simile nondimeno son recate necessariamente dall'arte stessa come l'imitatione non qualche parte mancante punto quel non stesso vero ma esso posciache

)

(

548

,

&

da

&

,

;

tal '

,

,

."

,

,

la

,

, ' il , à &

&

,

,

per errore

."

, : à “

., .p

gli

sarà attribuito

le

...

,

gli si

,

.

157

&

non

...

la

non sarebbe l'imitatione ma cosa vera cosi parimente mestieri ch'alcune quali con facciano verità delle cose imitate pienamente non con spettatori cordino tutto quello che lontan dal vero reca richiede necessaria mente l'arte dell'imitare donano concedono agli imitatori poeta sarà sforzato dal corso della fauola qualcho Ibid 222 se alle volte legittimo rispetto punto alcuna delle dette conditioni non osseruar non potendo per saluar qualche cosa ch'importi più fuggir inosseruantia meriterà egli perdono scusa mancasse

cose imitando

POETICS : VERNACULAR COMMENTARIES the discussion occurs apropos

of of

Much subjects

of Poetics 1451619 , on the of Aristotle's suggestions . the degree of our belief and

tragedy , and is a development

Piccolomini establishes a proportion between when the actions of others are offered of our passions: “ to our soul and to our knowledge, they are apt to awaken in us passions

...

the intensity

on

;

"

:

, of

a

by

it ,

of

we

is "

158

proportionate to their quality . ... Hence it is that the degree of vehemence of the passions will correspond to the degree of certainty of such offerings certainty and cognitions . " The essential ratio vehemence the increasing credibility accompanied may suppose basis scale .

or

a

of

us

,

of

as

of

of

.

to

be

as

; a

to

,

of

a

we

of

increasing violence increasing delight Picco the passions hence only during the lomini explains that case know false will affect reading time result the force the poet's words his appeal the imagination intellectual examination will soon banish the impres deeper and more lasting sion One which we know true will produce So for tragedy

:

.

effect

we

of

of

;

of

a

at

so

,

it be

on

,

in

tragedy above

.

,

of

perfection and would consequently merit the absolute name others 159

all of

be at

)

it

is

its

,

persons known with clear and definite certainty were based this subject matter concerned would the highest level

as

it

if

as

far

(

whereas case

on

be

to

or

a

if

of

tragedy were persons ... some image based whom not only had no certain knowledge even belief but held the opinion that they were entirely invented this tragedy would placed perfection that low level only with the greatest difficulty could legitimately retain the name tragedy

"

or

is ,

a

,

or

its

.p

as a

of

of at

).

(

it

knowledge and beliefs about 392 These considerations lead Piccolomini

of

as a

Piccolomini distinguishes carefully between possibility function the audience's

the action itself and credibility

to

;

.

of

"

of

in

is

its

.

,

a

of

the audience

quality

"

leans toward the known rather than the new spite the fact that the intrinsic truth for tragedy This subject possibility impossibility are not proper con falseness credibility sideration for the poetic art But and this depends upon "

Piccolomini therefore

subject

is

in

a

gli

158

in

to

.

to

an

is

.

be

,

at

to

reject the theories times accept some his predecessors times the most traditional explana tions He rejects Castelvetro's notion that tragic subjects must historical wrong poetry He thinks that Scaliger and that history art prior maintaining that the epic poet sets out depict hero perfect some

di

se

,

il

,

, ò

,

,

,

in

è,

; di

,

." &

...

,

,

,

in

di

...

di ,

' :

: "

“

, di à ., .p ., .p

,

;

il

159

di ò

150 suegliar

&

nell'offerirsi all'anima nostra alla nostra cognitione altrui fatti quelli qui noi affetti proportionati alla qualità che secondo grado cognitioni nella certezza loro sarà parimente grado cosi fatti offerimenti degli affetti nella vehementia d'essi Ibid 152 se sopra persone delle quali non solo non s'habbia notitia creduta certa ma s'habbia opinione che sian totalmente finte sarà formata qualche immagin tragedia perfettione ch'à gran fatiga potrà ella così basso grado sarà ella collocata Ibid

son'atti

)

(

549

,

&

il

&

... è

si

,

.

tal

in

;

."

di

,

di

,

;

il

di

tragedia doue che sopra persone per chiara per ritener legittimamente nome risoluta certezza note sarà fondata caso trouerà per quanto appartiene alla materia sopra tutte l'altre sua nel suppremo grado 12 perfettione meriterà conseguenteme tragedia nome assoluto

POETIC

THEORY

or other , since this would imply the use of action to demonstrate " an opinion that is not very Aristotelian "-whereas character really exists for the purposes of the action ( p . 96 ) . One is thus surprised to find that his ideas of verisimilitude involve an expectation on the part of the audience that characters will always behave according to type ; the virtue

character—

imitation will be lacking in resemblance

if indications of

“

generosity

of

160

appear in an old man , or signs of temperance in a very low servant, or of shame in a prostitute, or of great knowledge in a maidservant, and so

of

to

to he

,

In

is

to

as

not

in

good

.

of

of

.

of

forth . " The old laws decorum are made equivalent the audience's conceptions probability fact Piccolomini's explanation the four requisites character derives from what believes about verisimilitude point out that characters are poetry He and about the ends careful so

,

,

or

,

,

: "

of

to

,

sesso

ò

conditione

, il

la

altra circon refers the characteristics commonly distinguished from appropriateness

,

;

known personage

decorum

to

“

for the same good the type which rank calling sex

it is

”

la

(

Similarity

“

”

).

a

the laws

qualità

“

,

to .p

,

219

to

according

other circumstance ”

appropriateness

means that their good qualities are proper

they represent

this way

to if a

,

,

to a

,

say that

man that that particular person the singular represent Achilles

or ,

to is of so

to

as

appropriateness concerns the universal prince that one subject this one

to a

...

the requirement this character belongs

of

:

in

But

,

of

"

;

. "

those misfortunes

characters

stantia assigned

161

,

of

worthy

”

to

”

“

order serve moral examples the spectators but pity and fear they are endowed with virtue and with praiseworthy qualities and deserving happiness and consequently un they may arouse

to ;

if

, as

of

,

to in

to

to

to

or

,

to

...

,

of

a

is

he ,

to

;

to

vn

vilissimo seruo gran dottrina

, o

in

,

di

, ò

liberalità vna ancilla

in

; ò

di

.

vecchio inditij pudicitia

,

vna meretrice

di

vn

in

in

the new ones whom the poet might invent

this theory

appariranno

temperantia

in

Ibid

inditij

;

of

difficulties , se ò

sees

23 : “

160

but

constancy

., .p

he

,

earlier poets

di

by

between them

by

another aspect

separate requisite not but merely similarity possibility distinguishing considers the saying that similarity applies characters already treated

for Piccolomini

,

Constancy

”

“

.

,

to

it

,

to a

one woman and forth without considering this similarity concerns the particular and the requirement say what character proper give one who has seeking qualify the persons form and the plot similar the character those who are being represented according the knowledge and the reputation associated with them 162

&

felicità

,

meriteuoli

di

,

&

di

&

,

: “

., .p

qualità dotate

virtù lodeuoli quelli infortunij

per

."

162

Ibid 218 conseguente indegne

la di di

161 ."

simili

)

,

di

la

la

le

,

&

la

,

,

&

di

,

...

,

' à

;

;

&

, , ò

,

vn

ad

si

,

550

(

' à

.

,

vn

' ' il à

...

."

di

da

, è

il ,

, ,

,

in

&

ad

: “

., .p

Ibid 220 conditione del conueneuole riguarda l'vniuersale com dire che quel costume conuenga principe quello suddito quello all'huomo quello alla questa particolar persona quella donna simili senza considerar condition del particolare singolare com porre simile riguarda ver dire qual costume conuenga per rappresentar Achille qualificar vno che habbia cercando formare quelle che rappresentano sone nella fauola simili costume secondo notitia fama che sene tiene

VERNACULAR COMMENTARIES

POETICS :

A similar persuasion about character produces Piccolomini's stand to ward the factors which differentiate literary forms one from another . He takes issue , first, with the commentators who have held that " better " and “ worse , " relating to the objects of poetry, mean of higher or of lower social station ; the distinction is an ethical one : " Aristotle is obviously speaking of goodness and badness with respect to virtue and to vice , whence man obtains absolutely the quality of being good or bad . "163 This differ ence would in itself be insufficient to constitute two species of poems. Nor would it be adequate to bring into play such factors as age , wealth , health ( these are components of decorum ), for genres must be differentiated by factors still ; the only one capable of doing so is social rank or qualities are sufficient to do it which diversify man's life and

greater

station

: “ Those

of

the reading

a

of

to

as

far

so

it

at

.

is He

to

;

agrees with his predecessors

of

Poetics 1448al Piccolomini dis finding basis for dis but the necessity adopt their essential tinguishing among genres ultimately leads him position comedy goes declare that Aristotle's definition incomplete and imperfect because 1449a31 includes only one differ

Thus

,

from comedy . "

on

164

his status from the very foundations , such as the difference between persons of illustrious and dominating station and persons of middling station and of private and subordinate condition , this diversity makes tragedy different

A

,

,

in

, &

,

&

("

90 ).

.p

"

,

poste

"

a

in

“

of

.

”

“

,

,

proper definition the worse and that not the essential one would call for the imitation civil and private persons and ones placed middling station persone ciuili priuate mediocre stato

entia

of

to

in

to

of ,

,

a

of

it

is ,

...

:

of

to

of

.

,

it

as

to

of

,

These distinctions are directly related for Piccolomini the ends purgation and problem credibility the whole and the effect upon the passions The audience composed will not believe the happi the high estate does not seem ness heroes unless they are person private and low condition no mass and the multitude that

;

,

be

is he

do

to

165 be

if

,

what wants and credibility Such essential hence the sharp line drawn between able

45 : "

draw from our soul the two tragic passions will

& lo

, &

&

,

la

."

, ò

,

&

ò

; la ,

soggetta conditione

qual diuersità rende diffe

.”

)

551

di

lo ,

,

&

&

,

;

,

di

,

&

, si

essi che sia nei principi

(

che stiman

ch'vna priuata bassa persona debbi domandar felice ponendo lor frå poter fare ciò facultà nominare

alla moltitudine

felice sia potentia

, & , la

,

vuole

'

che l'huom

&

,

' al

."

,

& ,

à

,

di

&

,

a

: “

voglia che virtuosa principalissime parti della felicità ; il

quanto

si . , .p

165 la

Ibid stato suo persone priuata stato mediocre tragedia dalla commedia rente volgo Ibid 195 non par

la

lo

,

euidentemente parla Aristotele della bontà malitia rispetto alla virtù qualità donde prende assolutamente huomo del buono del reo quelle qualità che posson dai fondamenti diuersificar vita sua signoreggiante stato son bastanti farlo come dir trà persone d'illustre 45 : "

Ibid vitio

di ; ., , ., .p .p

&

those actions which have

164al 163

...

to

:

to

be

in

found produced

the proper effects are tragic and comic subjects

to

and princes

determine

."

to

man

be

a

this they believe

to

the capacity

of

of

he

be ,

may matter how virtuous and happy should called happy since they include among the most important parts happiness the power and

POETIC

THEORY

have need of greater credibility than will those which must elicit such agreeable passions ( as those of comedy ) and ones which are so close to nature and to our sensibility . . . . since the circumstances and the actions which are imitated in

...

no sooner have comedies are based on persons of civil and middling status , the spectators understood the argument of the plot than they readily believe that it could have taken place . It is necessary , in order to bring credibility to the plots of tragedies, to attribute those imaginary actions to real persons , and the names should be used in order to cause in the minds of the spectators that form

...

of false deduction which we have

For comedy,

seen.166

there is a parallelism here to the decorum of will be credible because they are commonplace ; in fact, they will be most credible when they are such actions as have frequently been used by poets , " the avarice of old men , the tricks of prostitutes , the prodigality of young men , the cheating of servants , the madnesses of lovers ,

characters

then - and

167

— actions

of

,

to

of

is

-

is a

-

of

.

by .

in

of

be

,

of

a

, in

of soldiers, the lies of pimps, and so forth " ; the world word Plautus and Terence For tragedy the lack the commonplace quality will compensated the knowledge that the persons were real Another the cornerstones Piccolomini's theory and this again fixes him firmly the current tradition his insistence that verse the boastings

by of

he

of

on

.

of

the part the letter He remains closer the perfect poem Noyous text than did many his contemporaries the interpretation necessary

,

"

,

in

of

,

.

,

in

be

of its

21

) be .

.p

, “

,

il

”

(“

in

).

(

says speech not measured Vinois 1447a28 This means verse parlare non misurato dal verso ma fatto prosa prose but made Poetry may thus prose and the presence written imitation distinguishing characteristic will But Piccolomini introduces the

a

of

as a

is

“

becomes

not that

the true poet but da

,

to

the making

of

"

be

;

he

as a

,

).

consequence

,

“

...

("

20

"

,

.pp

,

166

element

facesse

...

that imitation which would made with speech quella imitatione che col parlar misurato dal

Verse which contributes essentially

si

verso

mean

verse

.p

perly taken measured

by to

,

he

.

,

to

be

,

it

in

in he

is

of

.

is

to (

.p

If

20 ).

we

;

in

of

of

poetry establishing matter the two natural causes means hierarchy perfection One these causes the pleasure which man takes naturally finds rhythm imitation the other the pleasure which way interpret song then becomes this the Poetics and possible say that the poem which adds verse imitation will more perfect than one which does not Piccolomini takes this position after Maggi and Vettori whom cites declares that troinois most pro

,

le

&

;

i

,

,

...

,

fà

si

,

& .

da

di

in

...

,

...

, si

)

(

352

di

,

."

."

di

&

,

,

di

,

di

,

si

& li

,

di di

,

di

,

di

., .p

90 : "

,

,

167

à

,

di

fà

bisogno che per recar credibilità alle fauole delle tragedie essere stato persone vere prendin attribuischin quelle immaginate attioni nomi esse per far paralogismo nascer negli animi degli Spettatori quelle forma che hauiam veduto vecchij inganni gioueni fraudi Ibid auaritia meretrici prodigalità serui pazzie d'innamorati vantamenti soldati bugie ruffiani simili

.

possa

,

al

, &

&

si

gli

,

,

,

: " di

.,

maggior crcdibilità haran bisogno quelle attioni che han Ibid 142–43 trar dal nostro animo quei due tragici affetti che non n'han bisogno quelle che così piaceuoli affetti amici alla natura senso nostro n'han cauare essendo casi attioni fingon nelle commedie fondate persone che ciuile mediocre stato non prima Spettatori comprendono l'argomento della fauola che facilmente lor credibile che

168

POETICS : VERNACULAR COMMENTARIES

on

of ,

.

in

of

to

,

it

as tic his

general position

as

only to making him perfectly so . " The question arises immediately increasing prominence during the latter years was arise with the comedy Piccolomini's answer contradicts century about the use verse

in

to is

is

(

in

.pp

he

,

be

,

as

as

it .

;

to

,

in a

on

of

).

,

;

so

,

no

25-28

,

of ,

.

;

as

)

in

(

verse He thinks that the comic poet and the drama general can make himself heard via the actor through prose through verse that the example Greek and Latin drama well conclusive since ancient verse was different from Italian that there comedy that Italian audiences prefer prose Italian verse adapted greater pleasure from believes that ulti Hence verse deriving comedy mately tragedy prose Italian well will written poet

,

of

of

in

a

is

it

,

of

of

in

of

to

taking 1447a16 He shows how wrong Castelvetro was really listing poetry whereas the species the

8 ).

(p .

indication

( .pp

an

poetry

be

to

by

of

)

(

as

not

.

of

,

as

,

a

passages such prose There are number the one which Piccolomini presents better readings than those his fellows He solves correctly the difficulty with respect the flute and the zither the arts pointing examples 1447a15 out that these are meant imitation

all

it to

,

).

(

.p

of

,

;

as

of

at

be

,

in

).

, in

as he as

of

to

,

9–10 He declares connection with 1450a15 that maintaining that character might Robortello erred the principal part play plot play the read the acted instead one must times regard plot the essential form the imitation 115 With reference properly distributes the qualitative parts among the cate 1450a12 differentiae

is

).

(

.pp

it

,

).

(

of .p

of in

of

,

,

of

object manner and means task taken 120 Castelvetro conception unity plot holding for his whole the both for that was depend upon the auxiliary not necessary the epic and for making considerations time and place 132–36 gories

makes his own mistakes His great part from ambiguities difficulties with the manner imitation spring use the term imitation 52–57 He offers debatable ideas about episodes removable without damage the work 156 and about ignorance the relationship hamartia 197 But the whole makes improvements his predecessors the reading the text ,

,

of

he

)

.

,

the Accademia degli Alterati

asked

di

,

Piccolomini's Annotationi Eleonora

of

a

.

of

,

)

of on

,

,

a

judgment

the

,

to

)

553

vero poeta

;

far

' il

å

che essentialmente concorre

"

“

by

quello

(

farlo perfettamente tale

,

non

." è

., .p

72 : "

;

of

168 à

Ibid

.

the new commentary The request was August 1575 and the judgment was presented made early the meeting August 16th although signed the Accademici Alterati the Dis

in

prepare

.

it is

,

, is

(

1575

Not long after the publication Toledo Medici member de to '

to

Castelvetro whom was most eager controvert His although independent and frequently far from less extreme than that Castelvetro

SASSETTI ON PICCOLOMINI

academy

(p

in

he

poetry

,

.

on

on

theory Aristotle

of

especially

).

(p

to

of

to

).

in

in

( .pp

”

“

of

his

of

,

.

Piccolomini

side

on

On the negative

ma solo

THEORY

of Filippo

corso containing it was the work

169

POETIC

Sassetti .

Sassetti charges

to

to

I

is

.

of

.

if

” : “

...

to

,

an

170

”

.

'

'

,

,

to

if

';

or

we

'

,

in

which see them every day without inventing anything beyond we will imitate the like but we add perfection the good ness that find commonly most frequently and imperfection the vices we will imitate the better and the worse There are thus only in

the way

we “

, ”

” “

“

,

of

on

;

,

as

is

of

.

as

,

most original with Piccolomini First Sassetti rejects the hypothesis that the distinction among the genres essentially one social establishing the difference status rather one must understand Aristotle the basis virtue and vice But Sassetti has his own way interpreting better like and worse we imitate the good and the bad to

pointed

of It

in

of

,

of

,

of

explain cer Piccolomini with imperfections translation with failure interesting tain difficult passages and with errors statement note theory that that the last category fall some those items have

in

be

,

.

on

of on

,

he

,

”

“

all

he

,

of of in

in

( .p

63 ).

Finally disagrees completely this conviction comedy prose citing the practice the ancients and

the matter

,

the light

of of

in

is

”

“

of

is

.

a

;

,

or in of

character good and bad but either may imitated superlative degree Second Sassetti discards Piccolomini's opinion that verse not necessary for poetry and that one may admit the perfect imperfect poetry distinguished existence and this basis indispensable and He himself thinks that verse reads Poetics 1447a28 two kinds ordinary

on

.

— be is

,

.

a

,

few

,

A

it

,

of

a

at

in

of

.

of

,

18 ,

29

Piccolomini between August and September 1575 just preparation judgment few weeks after the the for the Alterati but not many the marginalia concern matters translation for example way which would make 145165 Piccolomini has translated seem

of

reading

of

on

of

at

in

in

to

his

on

as

as

—

A

poetic forms Ariosto and insisting that Aristotle demanded verse much more complete and revealing expression Sassetti's ideas poetry Piccolomini well Aristotle and the theory marginal copy found the notes the Annotationi which may consulted the Biblioteca Nazionale Florence He himself dated the

,

,

is

comparing universal things with particular things rather that Aristotle poetry than with history and Sassetti claims that the text will not permit

do in on

.

of

,

by

be

to

,

,

).

to

For the most part however Sassetti objects what seem misunderstandings Piccolomini and his objections spring reading the Poetics The central ques essentially different way

139

an

( to .p

this him from tion

"

“

as a

he

,

).

182–83

,

1954

),

,

(

( .p

“

a

”

CXXXI

; rei

.

.pp

,

,

di

Giornale Storico

61 : "

Ed .

170

Argomenti See discussione letteraria and M. Rossi Filippo Sassetti 98-100

”

my , “

169

it

be

,

a

.

it

to

on

.

of

is

He has certain disagreements with Piccolomini poetic faculty and the nature the what Aristotle was trying the Poetics Whereas Piccolomini had classified habit which gives precepts for the poet Sassetti insists that habit does not give precepts Again and that hence should rather called method 777v Aristotelianism

,

i

,

si

lo

."

e

e ' )

1554

e '

i

, si

, .p

-

,

si

i

, si

a i

e

se

'l

in

, in

F.-L. Polidori the Nozze Riccomanni Fineschi imitando buoni veggono senza fingere più oltre giorno quella guisa che tutto imiteranno simili per più aggiugneremo alla bontà che comunemente suole ritrovare perfezione ma imperfezione migliori peggiori vizii imiteranno

POETICS : VERNACULAR COMMENTARIES is wrong in setting out ( p. 115) to treat poetry

that Piccolomini

believes

its

...

of

universally : in

no

“

it is

,

28

,

its of .)

(v .

its

of

his

,

as

of

,

,

in

in

own

cause

"

“

in

,

;

he

,

of

at

no

vita

:

of

”

,

alla

to

of

not belong the poetry his

”

,

which

of

do

"

"

to

“

passions

&

,

).

“

,

his

...

objects

.

of

it

;

”

and

As

“

characters

definition 775 for Piccolomini's statement the end definition dilettare dilettando finalmente giouare objection humana Sassetti raises this point but later poetry statement the four causes limits the final pleasure

.p ),

.p

(

”

,

of

disapprove

to

,

of of

its

it

it

( of or .p

;

:

,

,

of

)

in

the same general way

manners imitation Several things are wrong with the mentions only one the means language and omits the includes accidental differences such the imitation artificial objects adds human actions the unessential

and definition other two natural

poems

doubts about method lead Sassetti poetry and conception definition

Piccolomini's

elements

term but rather when does not say that

he

so , to

(

,

the Poetics

These general means

”

,

,

171

,

,

apparently conceived

of

he

speak

Piccolomini's statement that Aristotle however leggi precetti regole 777v and ammaestramenti

exception

give

“

to

He takes meant

Aristotle never used that

&

no

,

.

he

.

own And therefore wishes name the genus poetry but imitation nature

to

of

to its

be

species turn the from each which it is nothing unless considered in poetry precepts must which has derived and not from that general

considering

pleasure also with respect

,

With

it is

I

,

to

he

of

;

,

;

challenges Piccolomini's assertion although not without falling into am biguity himself nothing but because the imitation action tragedy the plot which Aristotle said was the soul and the end The problem the end remains unresolved Disagreement the objects imitation centers about Piccolomini's repeated stand that better and worse were not differentiating factor ,

these same causes

,

171

173

."

a

"

“

”

“

of

on

.

of

,

of

is

an

"

...

matter

of

“

;

that the actions are the

“

to

respect

,

;

it,

in

...

he

pleasure.172

,

final

is

say that

it

he to

the imitator think that neces the final cause for who imitates imitates for the pleasure doing that takes whence one might say that the efficient cause poetry was the poet himself the formal imitation the material verse and the sary

,

se ,

da

è

,

,

la

sia ne

,

,

se

i

, e

: "

.p in

si ,

,

la

lo

."

)

555

,

la

è

."

(

,

...

,

il

,

il

;

, e la

la

e'l

., .p

: “

,

si

173 la

, à e

)

(

considerato anche diletto quanto all'Imitante credo che sia necessario auuengache chi imita imita per diletto che prende onde efficiente della Poesia fusse stesso Poeta formale l'imita finale diletto l'Imitatione d'attione non altro che fauola laquale Ari fine della Tragedia

dire che egli causa finale potrebbe dire che causa tione materiale uerso perche Ibid ff5v stotile disse essere l'anima

il

., .p

Ibid

, sia 65 : " il

172. "

il

,

ha

,

à

to

of

All references are the copy the Annotationi the Biblioteca Nazionale Florence call number Postillati 15. For the present passage see 113 ella non nulla non con siderata nelle sue spetie dalle quali una questa una debbono cauare procetti non però Aristotile non comune Poesia che non natura propria serui mai anzi quando genere per dir cosi delle Poesie non dice che uuole nominare Poesia ma l'imita tione

POETIC THEORY among the genres and that to them must be added the element of social status . This Sassetti denies emphatically , stating that the position of Castelvetro and Piccolomini is completely false ( p. 44 ). In his note to the commentary on 1448624 , he says :

It appears that we may conclude from this text that the difference of characters is an essential difference , and not an accidental one as Piccolomini wishes . Not only does Aristotle hold this to be an essential difference , but the one which is more important than the others Nor can said that here the station

of

be

of it

be

.

all

...

as

,

;

be

to

to

is

the persons understood for the words the text are clear and Piccolo mini makes them even clearer through his explanation.174

to

,

in

in

;

to

of

”

“

of

45 ).

(p .

,

he

,

in

,

Moreover these are taken differences character virtue and degree vice rather than when Aristotle compares the poets the painters means that both groups make similar ethical distinctions among their objects goodness On the related question the

;

to as

all

,

,

as

,

, in

be

“

at

),

”

as “

be

.

of

(

it

good people character Piccolomini had limited Sassetti offers artistically unsound the notion some distinctions his own He rejects that the wicked may introduced provided that they are punished speaks 1454a15 Aristotle universals requiring that the persons who good are imitated should each one however only much his rank

a

,

,

in

175 ;

to

to

of

to

he

of

.

to

of

,

of

in on

all ,

in

).

(

.p

in

a

by

"

be

he

be

is “

"

,

,

it

if

permits with this reservation however that were necessary invent tragedy bad person should not made good and where accompanied goodness must fall misfortune the personage given only average goodness the action which the tragedy imitates 218 All the objects imitation Sassetti tries restore place clarify some the ethical distinction the social one and the misunderstandings about character

...

a

is

,

in

is

a

in

,

on

denied

method

passage

:

of

or

absence verse general remarks

its

is

depending upon the presence which also interesting for

or

of

.

of

:

is

,

passes over Piccolomini and returns On the means imitation the necessary com earlier commentators his general thesis that verse ponent poetry The possibility poetry greater less perfection

,

if

if

,

by

,

a

of

;

of

poets into perfect and imperfect seems completely useless and this division they belong outside Aristotle's intentions first because the imperfect poets species poetry should have been mentioned they under Aristotle and

if

,

,

of

;

it

,

de

74 : “

174

is

of

;

it

,

are not results that we should not mention them either next art never con finally siders any but the perfect form that thing which treats this same poetry are Piccolomini's explanation correct that the two universal causes

,

)

556

;

la

.

,

tuttauia

che

se

.p

le

."

,

grado suo con questo riguardo faccia buono

(

si il

buone ciascuna però quanto comporta fusse necessario fingere vno cattiuo non

le

,

."

la

in

il

: "

175 si , e ., .p le ,

,

....

le

il

,

si

,

,

e

è

,

., .p

possa cauare che Ibid Da questo testo pare che diuersita Costumi differentia essentiale non accidentale come vuole Piccolomini non solo Aristotile stima questa essere una essentiale differenza ma quella che piu uaglia che tutte altre puo dire che qui s'intenda dello stato delle persone perche parole del testo son Ne più chiare chiarisce Piccolomini con sua spositione See also 203 parla persone che s'imitano Ibid 221 uniuersale uolendo che tutte sieno

VERNACULAR COMMENTARIES

POETICS :

and verse , it follows that no poetry can ever exist without because no effect can ever come into being without causes

verse ,

176

.

its

all

imitation

,

in is

,

is

as

,

72 ).

.p is

(

of

a

by

;

:

,

all

,

The argument runs thus the means are three language rhythm and har mony and rhythm includes verse Poetics 1448620 cited the authority although Aristotle's meaning stretched the implication that verse rhythm part necessarily Sassetti would thus demand verse is

le .

,

his

,

on ,

,

;

,

he

,

(

.p

26 )

,

;

he

quotes Castelvetro and Horace against including comedy admitting Piccolomini however that reason sufficient without authority the authorities says are side beginning with Aristotle genres

is

all

,

a

in

it ,

69 ).

He does not instruction

.

.p

(

additional end

of

that there

to

in

on

to

indicate specifically

objects

pleasing

he an

anywhere

the representation

is

found

of

in of

,

be

;

poetry argues for Sassetti's definition roundabout maintaining that Aristotle's remarks the the pleasure found unpleasant objects are meant imitation stress the greater pleasure

way

by

belongs

he

to

of

.

of

to

of

(

.p

39 ).

;

be

as

“

As is

52 ).

.p

(

be

all

no

,

its

a

in

"

a

,

He rejects Piccolomini's statement that the imitation made con long attioni since this would make action means three poem fulfilled there basic conditions will means are present requirement that they used simultaneously poetry concern two subjects The marginalia relevant the ends purgation and credibility We have already seen that the end pleasure

of

as

it

as

on

.

,

an

)

is

if

.

it

by its

;

to

,

(p .

,

of

to

he

purgation speak But when comes characterizes the end tragedy meanwhile correcting Piccolomini 103 habituation giving moral effectiveness really tragedy purgation intrinsic end produce through quality then must effect and not through quantity tragedy are pity and fear But Sassetti contradicts The passions purged ;

in

to

The whole argument

like

on

:

.”

,

in

"

“

“

only the

the better whereas fear concerns given this passage

is

is

of

be

,

he

,

it is a

;

is

,

-

.

un

is

of

Piccolomini's contention that the more important the two fear this says frequently speaks pity without Aristotelian For Aristotle mentioning fear implying that the former may produced alone any passion proper given tragedy feelings this because our about

,

.

it

of

be

,

...

whereas compassion can fall upon those who are feeling compassion for the misfor we

because

,

,

is us .

Lastly

while de

176

for those like

20 : "

because fear are not like

us

,

do

a

.

,

,

,

to

us

us it to is

this text that not always true that those things which compassion also move fear and this for many reasons First because many times we have compassion for one who may have lost thing which losing we not possess whence we cannot afraid ourselves And another

We should note

move

questa diuisione Ibid Poeti fuor della mente d'Aristotile prima perche

la

,

, di e

di

se

e'l

,

se

se

,

al

et

,

in

e

,

."

le

la

ne

la

se è

In

le

:

,

; di

,

da

i

.

., .p

perfetti imperfetti pare tutto uana Poeti imperfetti sono sotto una spetie Poesia doueuano essere mentouati Aristotile non sono resta che anche noi non poi l'arte non considera mai perfetta forma quella debbiamo farne mentione non spositione del medesimo Piccolomini che vuole cosa che ella tratta ultimo buona che due cagioni uniuersali della Poesia sieno l'imitare segue che non possa uerso mai trouarsi Poesia senza'l uerso perche niuno effetto puo mai nascere senza tutte sue cause

)

(

557

POETIC

THEORY

tunes of someone , we do not have time to think about our own , but we continue to think about that evil which he is suffering . Therefore , since tragedy must always move compassion , as it seems that Aristotle supposes when he constitutes the personage fitted for tragedy , and since it is not always necessary that fear should follow compassion , one must conclude that tragedy principally arouses and purges compassion.177 Sassetti clearly sees factors tragedy .

of personal involvement as influencing

the effect

of

On the other hand , credibility depends rather on the quality of the poem itself than on the knowledge of the audience, and Sassetti attacks Picco lomini's subtle differentiation between comedy and tragedy on this score . His is an interesting position . He sees the situation as distinct from that in painting , where our pleasure is related to the knowledge of the subject , "whereas poetry makes us entirely capable of the things which it recounts , nor is it necessary that we worry our brain to ascribe this action to that given person ; for poetry tells us sufficiently who the person is who does to to ,

,

a

-

art

, ,

in .

its

in

178

that action , whence we derive a universal pleasure not dependent upon individuals . " This would make the more self sufficient less rhetorical general operation However Sassetti still finds need for the poet

of

is

to

is

,

).

(p .

to to

of

,

he

;

to

in

he

”

as

,

in

“

is of

;

to

credibility tragedy attend must use known names order make the marvelous actions better heroes acceptable the audience comedy where credibility just important avoids the use known personal criticism which keep from falling into the kind names proper two essential related this matter Indeed 143 satire be

his

)

in of

do

he

...

:

to

?

of

?

to

to

:

( or

history considerations about art How much should nature allowed supply particularities the poet And how much the audience marginal affect the work the poet Sassetti tackles these problems note Piccolomini on Poetics 1454a10

da

177

as

be

.

to

it

a

those terrible misfortunes which are demanded

in

,

to a

so ,

of

do

to

of

, is

,

it

says that the poets derived the plots for their seems that Aristotle when tragedies not from their own art but from fortune scolding them men who are not willing use the power their art but have recourse fortune When they they submit very uncertain thing because might that none tragedy have ever happened

,

.

de

è

il

,

a ' in

, di in e

ne

." il

, e

tal

fa

ci

la

,

la

la

si

la la ,

,

: “ la

la ne ci 178 fa , a di ., e , p .

,

,

a '

poter pensare casi d'uno non habbiamo tempo nostri ma perseueriamo tragedia muouer considerare quel male che colui patisce perloche douendo sempre compassione come pare che supponga Aristotele quando constituisce persona atta alla tragedia non essendo sempre necessario che alla compassione seguiti timore debbe tragedia ecciti purghi compassione conchiudere che principalmente Ibid 147 doue Poesia interamente capaci delle cose che ella racconta in

compassione

,

è

, la

à

,

ci in

la

la

di

,

à : “ E

ci

., .p

questo discorso che non sempre Ibid 105 notare uero che quelle cose compassione muouono muouano timore per molti rispetti vno perche molte quale noi non habbiamo uolte noi habbiamo compassione che uno habbia perso una cosa perderla noi onde non possiamo hauer paura l'altro perche timore simili compassione puo cadere doue non simili ultimo perche mentre che noi habbiamo che

)

(

558

il

si

,

è

."

ci

à

,

,

à

quella persona percho mestiere d'applicare col nostro ceruello questa attione bastanza dice chi colui che faccia quell'attione onde caua diletto uniuer indiuiduj sale non applicato Poesia

POETICS : VERNACULAR COMMENTARIES

,

to

to

all

to those men whom a people consider to be famous . Hence poets , if they wished to follow things which have actually happened , could not compose tragedies . Moreover, it might well not be proper for the poets of nations use with equal opportuneness the misfortunes which happened those ancient Greeks

.

he

,

so ,

he

rather than

takes into account the characteristics and the beliefs own potential audience number the remaining marginalia Sassetti corrects Piccolomini interpretation These concern largely plot what specific points plot simple plot meant 166 unity the epic 377 invention .

his

is

(

of

,

;

.p

in

;

,

.

,

pp

,

(

is

and character what meant ethical 114 115 116 "

.p

,

175

tragedy may

“

;

a

, .p

the stage

how

104

be )

the tragic act

Otroudaias

of

on ;

.p

,

;

250

,

by

.

of

by

.p

plot

does

of

a

on

In

of

,

and that when

179

of

in

that the poet makes his plots

legend

of

is a

as

,

in

,

so

of

The answer would seem taking them from history

be

a

or to

,

of

of of

not only because the great disparity time which reason why the customs greatly but and the opinions men vary well because the diversity very great difference places and humors laws also cause

between the third and fourth requisites for character These contribute less than the others an original Sassettian theory poetry and Aristotle Neverthe individual interpretation less theory and interpretation exist even these scattered fragments

,

.

of

.

used

the

approach

,

of

strict Aristotelianism

of

a

method that should

by

be

in a

providing

the fullest extent He believes .

to

in

do

as

,

Sassetti sees the Poetics

poet

to

do

an

of

220

).

.p

the real difference

he

of

by

.

,

;

to

of

but one contained within the text the Poetics and not dependent upon other works the corpus thus frequently reproaches Piccolomini with erroneous reading For the art itself pleasure rather than reference

is

(

discover whether these same ten own commentary the Poetics

.

on

to

Sassetti's

.

of

or

,

is

it

later date

,

under

dencies manifest themselves

in

,

opportunity

a

fit

or

)

,

an

,

is

instruction the end and achieved artistic devices verse one which themselves produce pleasure which operate upon the passions which the particular needs the audience We shall have them

CONCLUSIONS

on

to

of

a

in

in by

.

of

a

to

fairly distinct character The period from 1562 1575 thus presents the Aristotelian tradition during the Renaissance These are growing activity years marked the translation and commentary the student

179

,

of

;

the Poetics Italian the major documents are Castelvetro's and Picco lomini's extensive works and the vernacular translation Giacomini ,

si

,

,

si

,

à

si

,

si

,

in

,

;

se

i

di

,

,

, al

le

gli

i

,

: le “

., .p

Ibid 216 pare che Aristotile dicendo che Poeti non dalla propia arte ma dalla riprenda come quegli che non fortuna cauauano fauole per uoglion loro tragedie ualere della forza dell'arte ma ricorrono alla fortuna sottopongono che fare una cosa quegli huomini che uno popolo stima famosi non ben certa perche potrebbe essere che questi casi non fusse mai accaduto alcuno terribili che n'una tragedia ricercano onde Poeti uolesson andar dietro alle cose accadute non potrebbon comporre tragedie auuenga si

)

,

.”

la

,

si

la

di si

;

559

(

le

di

i

è

, à e

,

i

,

, e

de

è

de

,

che possa molto bene non conuenirsi che Poeti tutte nationi seruano cosi acconcia quegli antichi greci non solo per disparità dell'età lunga che mente casi auuenuti cagione che costumi pareri degl'huomini uarijno tanto ma ancora per diucrsità luoghi grandissima differenza d'humori delle leggi che anco questa causa

POETIC

THEORY

brings the number to three . Besides , the continued effort toward vulgariza tion is apparent . Orazio Toscanella presents a digest in his Precetti neces sari of 1562 and Giovanni Fabrini is much concerned with the Poetics in his Italian commentary on Horace . This was in keeping with — and indeed was partly stimulated by — the heightened intellectual life of the Italian cities , these groups

In various

academies .

of

gentleman - critics

and

of

of

the

amateur literati worked very seriously with literary problems, one

most prominent of which was the discussion of the Poetics . The Accademia degli Alterati stands out among them for the number and the intensity of these discussions, as well as for the quantity of manuscripts which have survived ; but one should not overlook the contributions of Maranta to the Accademia Napoletana , of Lapini and Strozzi to the Accademia Fioren tina, of Bernardo Tasso to the Accademia Veneziana . The removal of the

Poetics from the scholar's study and the university lecture -hall to the open disputes of the academies was a considerable factor in the growth of know ledge about it . One direct consequence translation .

is such a work as Giacomini's

Bonciani wrote his discourse on the novella and Strozzi lecture for presentation academies did Maranta his reflec epic Sigonio's Latin treatise the Aeneid the dialogue

as to is is

on

,

to

.

an

as

tions

as

:

the madrigal

on

on

works

his

There are other consequences . One of them is the repeated attempt to adapt Aristotle's principles to genres which he had not treated or to later

,

,

its

is

,

,

.

,

.

.

to

in

as

-

, to

is

century

.

,

a

,

in

,

;

Furthermore there into the interpretation documents

poems are subjected analysis contemporaneity occasional attempt introduce the Poetics itself Sassetti did several

sixteenth

of

certain number

early years frequently gives the growing polemic speeches Petrarch and Boccaccio are examined and an

academic

of

to

Divina Commedia rise

of

as

or

of

of

.

,

of

but was not intended for public presentation Another many the fact that the documents coming within this period tend include consideration Italian works and even contemporary ones examples theory The most striking case perhaps sources the the same kind

is a

,

in

.

in

,

is

or

in

of

in

activity Concomitant with this growth the vernacular there being decline the amount work done Latin No single new Latin commentary published during these years although translation

lec

.

we

on

.

no

,

of

,

,

,

a

to

in

Vettori's compendious volume was republished 1573. Nicasius Elle attempt paraphrase and commentary and bodius was the only writer this perhaps significantly remained unpublished So did Maranta's tures treating both the general content the Poetics and certain specific problems This does not mean that the scholars were longer working have traces

in

,

for

of

correspondence and controversy the between Maranta and Vettori and between Ellebodius and Sophianos but these did not bear fruit they had the past Perhaps this turn toward the present toward Italian literature toward Aristotle

]

(

560

in

.

,

,

;

as

exchanges

POETICS :

VERNACULAR COMMENTARIES

the amateur academies , accounts in part for the fact that Plato and Horace

tend less to dominate conversation about Aristotle than they had in pre vious years . This tendency should not be exaggerated . For our study has shown that comparison among ancient authorities continues to be a favorite form of elucidation , that both Horace and Plato are still called upon constantly for solution of the most difficult problems in the Poetics . But the favorite game of parallelism seems to be played less vigorously , and there is a growing desire to find solutions to Aristotle within Aristotle , either within the one central text or by reference to the rest of the corpus . There are , as there had always been , attempts to discover and apply an Aristotelian method, to speak in terms of the four causes and to insist on syllogistic analysis — these not always with great success . One has , how ever , the sense of a fairly fresh approach , probably because the gentlemen of the academies were less limited by the tradition of the universities than their predecessors had been . As for the interpretation of the Poetics itself , certain problems persist , others tend to disappear, new emphases make themselves felt . Of the old problems , the most perennial is the text , and we may ask whether any forward steps were made by a group of men who were not primarily philo

I

(

the excellent

).

;

,

,

,

of

of

,

to

of

his

think that the answer is affirmative, especially if we recall some conjectures of Ellebodius and friend Sophianos un fortunately not published and hence unavailable the reading public These men were course philologists connected with universities but some their contemporaries also made on occasion useful suggestions logists.

,

,

. , In

as

we .

,

I

,

if

in

of

.

of

for the improvement the text More important still they made definite the translation the Poetics The three successive versions are believe successive ameliorations take our criteria clarity con

progress

,

of In

.

at

.

of

in

of

,

,

of

,

as a

is

of

language which cision and the use neither cant nor jargon the Latin well we find good solutions although these are Ellebodius frequently lost the context the paraphrase interpretation remains very much alive The issue least two cases

, to

,

we

.

of

,

of

those Castelvetro and Gratarolo the authority Aristotle and the general validity the Poetics are challenged Do need they ask take

as

,

a

is

of

.

of

he

he

in

to

on

,

of as

.

to

?

as

necessarily infallible this man and this document And they proceed quite complete rejection But this from there not general tendency explicit and without being Aristotle's defence was Giulio Del Bene most critics the period still assumed that was infallible and discovering what went the important business meant Part

in

in

,

as

it

.

,

of

in

that discovery consisted the reiterated controversy over given words and public phrases much now conducted Italian and discussed sessions Such stock passages those containing the words uiunois

by

to

,

as

it

so ,

)

if

do (

561

is

of

,

,

:

,

,

,

purgation veri ποίησις αμαρτία λόγοις ψιλοίς such central notions similitude plot and the four requisites character continue arouse they interest and debate and because they are regarded

POETIC

THEORY

of this period as the fundamental issues of the Poetics . I think that it is possible to generalize with respect to their findings, admitting always

men

-

a

of

.

-

in ,

its

that there was never any unanimity and that the generalization represents no single theorist. Poetry comes to be distinguished from imitation as a species from genus and the poetic imitations are separated from non spite poetic But poetry remains few dissenters and subtilizers

,

by

in

.

,

of

,

is

all

of

is

as

,

,

all

in

is

to

.

of an

as

,

and instruction

in ,

of

poetry remain what they have been throughout the century sometimes with pleasure standing end

The ends pleasure

to

inextricably linked with verse and the argument whether verse usually decided genres especially comedy required the affirm ative There some clouding these terms especially imitation reference Plato

it

as

,

is

It

.

-it

-

to

of

.

,

,

to

itself more usually with pleasure subordinated the utility moral exemplification and preachment Here purgation enters for taken was mean the expulsion undesirable passions pity and fear and others provides the most effective means for achieving usefulness still

to

an

to

of

be

is

to

of

if

.

to

of

.

in

on

;

,

to

Plato but less prominently than before discussion centers more directly the passions concerned and the ways plot and which purgation works Questions character are made poetry For unruly pleasure given relate the ends the answer which Aristotle gave

of

of

.

no

is

artistic necessity

at

is

in

this connection that there

,

)

of

least one

which would demand to

”

“

absent for artistic rather than for and the marvelous are also related ends the first establishing the condi hence moral effect the audience the second creating strong effect upon the emotions and hence pleasure

.

of

,

in

-

,

its

of to

,

a

of

tions belief the possibility

–

of

of

.

"

,

of

in

(

"

there

or of

be of a

But we should note

Piccolomini notion plot present that elements natural reasons Verisimilitude plot the capacities achieve

spite individual theorists organic conception poem from which nothing can

"

,

of

“

,

.

as

removed

In

be

to -

on

of or be of

removable depending the decision quotations about the soul tragedy plot the organizing element the

trace

as a

of

is

It

of

be

.

”

,

”

in “

or

and organized

of

the

“

of

vulgus plot must made certain known materials thought largely certain convenient ways kind argument scenario which episodes are added for purposes amplification and adornment episodes which may considered integral audience

although

,

"

“

So

.

of

in

to

,

Similar considerations affect ideas about character and Aristotle's four are studied over and over again the desire make them serve credibility and moral instruction better are his the purposes requisites

or

,

is

in

]

[

562

of

precepts

for

the multitude

.

set

of

a

it

audience

make

of

who would amuse and instruct

the Poetics

an

to

the poet

in

fests itself

is

the twisting

of

in

an

so .

,

in

a

to

;

the decision

as

,

worse

”

“

and to

,

”

“

this case there more controversy whether these involve an ethical social opt many distinction most critics for the latter but there are nuances their reasons for doing enduring Horatianism mani Perhaps the most subtle way which

like

relevant

POETICS : VERNACULAR COMMENTARIES Castelvetro is , of course , the prime example of this , since his theory is so completely directed to the masses . But he is not alone ; in almost every theo rist , one may ultimately see the audience as the primary determinant of poem's content and form . Audiences differ . Piccolomini's is more imaginative and intelligent than Castelvetro's . But are ever resent system that continues rhetorical essential workings Once this basic position has been taken less necessary than had been not long poetry compare since rise the defence and merits

Utility

has

and now the job

in

-p

to

it

—

its

—

(

it

.

its

in

or to

this time been established for each specific see how art may serve this utility The

.

.

,

audience

its

to

to

to

)

a

the other arts

be is by of , it to is

all

the

One has the impression

on

no

, ,

.

as

to

,

of

of

.

of ,

,

,

is

to

of

,

;

is

,

of

superior appeal accessibility poetry because the senses and the passions often stressed but the defensive even apologetic tone longer needed From Horace and the rhetoricians again stem the com plex and numerous components the theory decorum which still informs much the thinking about character about plot and about credibility both related

,

be

to

It

563

]

[

.

Aristotle

of .

by

is

of

of

on

the interpretation

, of

,

less

,

is

these years

in

it

in

,

the whole that the total interpretation rigid and more fluid perhaps more vigorous than had been the years immediately preceding remains seen justified whether this impression the events the following years when the influence the current literary polemics made itself strongly felt

Aristotle

CHAPTER TWELVE . THE TRADITION OF ARISTOTLE'S : IV . THE EFFECT OF THE LITERARY QUARRELS

POETICS

T:

THE EFFECT

of

the current literary quarrels upon the interpretation

of

to be perceptible in the materials studied in the last chapter . Only one quarrel had been involved , that over Dante's Divina Commedia . In the years to come , this polemic will continue to influence the thinking of the theorists, and to it will be added two other major literary debates : that over Tasso and Ariosto ( implicating the whole theory of epic poetry ) and that over Guarini's Pastor Fido (neces sitating a re - examination of the whole theory of dramatic poetry ). Im mediately after 1575 , the most prominent is still , of course , the quarrel over the Poetics had already begun

to

other academies and other cities begin

an

.

,

of

in

fact some the first documents that we shall chapter will echo the sounds earlier philologists Latin with rather more interest

the present

by

generation

of

offered

study

In

old problems are not forgotten and traditional solutions

be ,

be

to

continue have

sure

to

To

.

,

as

the dialogue ranges outward participate

.

of

its

Dante ; the others enter the picture at broadly spaced intervals . All this activity reflects increasingly the successive “ vulgarization " of the Poetics , spread into constantly broader circles discussion From Florence

in

,

,

in

is

by

.

,

of

we

it ,

in

.

in

is

,

it

.

of

—

in

-

works Horace than Aristotle and such works will appear constantly throughout years only major published commentary these The the decade Riccoboni's and Latin Alongside shall find several manu script translations and commentaries Italian manifestations the growing excitement within the academies

his

commentaries

In

, his

'

,

the early Horatian

of

,

returning

to

Portus

is

in

,

by

is

clearly represented The old tradition Franciscus Portus omnes Sophoclis tragoedias Mponeyoueva published posthumously son Aemilius 1584 probably written around 1575. One feels indeed that the beginning

an by

of

,

in

of

;

of

of

,

in

of

frequent citation spite the century Aristotle some the passages the Poetics but they the Prolegomena are direct translations

:

.

of In

he

.

a

of

by

some

them apply at

to

of

)

564

.

to

by

(

to

,

to

the former others the latter according the difference express them their talents tried means imitation This came about first ,

ing themselves

of

.

,

fortunate and unfortunate events And thus those first men

of

.

I

,

.

or

,

in

as

to it,

is

is

,

to

of

be

In

.

,

its

it

from

of

comedy and indeed every form poetry derived from nature and origin receives fact man born for imitation and adapted can immediately and easily seen children themselves who learn means imitation do whatever they do Now men imitate either happy sad things For human life revolves almost entirely about these two pivots mean ,

Tragedy

of

of

as

explanations which have distinctly medieval flavor We are followed may take example his treatment the Ajax one paragraph collapses much the content the early chapters Aristotle

POETICS : EFFECT OF LITERARY QUARRELS by chance , as even Aristotle affirms . Then , the matter having come to the attention of those who were more skilled and more capable through the sharpness of their

.

its

genius , both comedy and tragedy gradually grew and made progress , first modest , origin springs from divine things then considerable . It is believed that

:

of

an

its

of

,

is

,

on

is

.

so

of

entirely out Except for the last sentence the paragraph Aristotle and quantitative tragedy and the following section the origins parts But then Portus continues with array distinctions that recalls Donatus and Diomedes and Badius

,

.

,

In

; in

on

,

of

in

,

,

,

:

,

is

While there are other differences between tragedy and comedy this the prin cipal distinction comedy the circumstances men are middling the fears tragedy small small the perils the endings happy the other hand the per mighty great endings sons are the fears the mournful the one the first events

historical

its of

is

,

.

truth

up a

,

in

subjects tragedy often seeks them

.

to

be

.

in

in

in

,

to

be ,

;

,

tragedy instead the beginnings are happy and are disturbed the last are serene peaceful the endings are violent and sad And tragedy portrayed the kind comedy the kind sought Lastly comedy invents life avoided

to

is

.

to

of

to

of

it ,

,

,

an

is in

.

;

,

In

comparison between Euripides the same prologue Portus draws Sophocles and rhetorical criteria alternate with references Aris praised for being more accessible totle Euripides the ears the inducing people more like action This orator more capable

", ad

“

as

“

as

in

his

for

is

It

he

but poetry

.

severity with the sweetness

.

;

always tempers gravity This gives pleasure But pity and wonder ranslating Olktos "

grandiloquus

of

,

"

",

sublimis

", "

tragicus with gaiety

"

."

To

,

.

skill

he

the many sententiae

in

because

his

of of

and commonplaces which uses and disputation moving the passions skill meaning aptissimus that Aristotle calls him tpayIKÁTOTOs taken Sophocles are applied such epithets mouendos affectus grauis because

its

in

of

)

by his ,

of

(t

for

,

,

at

"

(

&

13 ).

,

(p .

"

of

)

in

of

he

also arouses the tragic emotions kai dažua and these vie with pleasure the general effectiveness tragedies The use the Greek phrase and translation misericordia admiratio the two tragic emotions makes one wonder how clearly Portus this point had the text the Poetics .

mind

: à id ,

,

,

illi in

.

.

vel

,

iis ,

,

,

:

re

ab

,

,

, )

,

&

,

vt

,

(

,

,

imitantur autem homines laetas vel tristes Vita enim hominum his quasi duobus vertitur cardinibus secundis inquam rebus aduersis Primi itaque homines alij has alij illas pro diuersitate ingeniorum sequuti eas imitando exprimere sunt conati casu primùm hoc accidit qui erant Aristoteles etiam testatur deinde notata ingenij acumine valebant vtraque res Comoedia Tragoediáque paulatim solertiores ,

agunt

vel

res

,

,

ad

,

11 : "

), .p

(

ea

ab

:

in &

1

Tragcedia Comoedia atque adeò omnis poësis Prolegomena 1584 natura quod fluxit suum ortum accepit homo enim imitandum natus aptusque est ipsis statim infantibus facilè cerni potest qui imitatione discunt agere quaecunque etiam

,

)

565

,

&

:

,

,

historica fide petit

.”

saepe

ab

Tragoedia

in

,

.

fingit argumenta

,

,

,

,

: in

in

&

:

in

à

.

,

&

In . :12 in “ ,

&

.p

Denique Comoedia

(

exprimitur

.

,

,

in

.

est "; &

,

,

progressus primùm modicos deinde magnos fecit Ortus eius rebus diuinis manasse and Inter Tragoediam Comoediam cum alia intersunt tum illud discrimen Comoedia mediocres fortunae hominum parui metus parua pericula Tragoedia contrà ingentes personae magni metus funesti sunt exitus exitus laeti sunt Tragoedia contrà principia laeta illa turbulenta prima tranquilla postrema pacata Tragoedia vita fugienda exitus turbulenti funesti Comoedia vita expetenda creuit creditur primis

THEORY

POETIC

In 1576 , the In Q. Horatii Flacci librum de arte poetica commentarius of Aldo Manuzio the Younger was added to the long list of such studies . It made the customary allegations of parallelism between Horace and

.

After

initial definition

of

does draw upon the Poetics

an he

and here poetry harmony

an

the

Aristotle , but in surprisingly modest number ( see Chapter V , p . 194 ). In the commentary itself there is very little of interest for the study of Aristotle . Manuzio prefaced it , however, by prolegomena in which he considers relationship between imitation and poetry essentially one problem —

He

by

.

in

he

,

of

be

may thus

called poetry

;

,

,

.

of an

:

of

;

of

or

,

,

he

a

as

to

,

.

He finds five genres enumerated Aristotle the epic tragedy comedy the dithyramb and the gnome and the question arises whether the last two contain imitation Manuzio derives the answer from series distinctions about the dithyramb the dithyramb says sings the praises Bacchus ,

logues

,

his or

—

,

,

as

rhythm imitation using language and the additional means singly together poetry may and meter states that exist position without verse thus taking the current quarrel thinks that Aristotle admits poetry with and without verse and that Plato's dia

of

as

,

.

be it is a

,

;

if

,

?

A

;

if

..

they are true history and not now praises are either true false they are false what imitation can there without the image truth double answer suggests itself For first concerns that part imita imitation

,

I

be

,

.

,

is

as

or

I

in

”

;

no

is

, “

is

which made through Nóyos concede that when true things are nar there imitation about the false things do not feel the same way they are such For false things are either verisimilar cannot happen Every imitation drawn from the verisimilar ones nobody imitates those which can tion

rated

, it

,

is

in

it

.

of

of

it

is a

,

no

to

.

as

,

of

,

.

of

place for the true but verisimilar things are more numerous poem because therefore believe that the dithyramb Bacchus some which are true but the majority which

I

...

than true ones praises consists

of

the epic there

is

, it

its

to

be

to

.

if

not done But with verisimilar things true ones are occasionally intermingled the imitation ceases exist insofar true things are being narrated Still does poetry because treat verisimilar that but since continues not cease things tragedy and takes name from the imitation The fact not that

are verisimilar.2

.

is

and harmony

to

the definition are satisfied

,

rhythm

, : ) , si .pp

.

,

of

because the dithyramb also argument then applied same The uses meter gnomic poetry Manuzio reiterates the same ideas on truth and verisimili

Other demands

fit ; in ,

:

,

in ob

ab

; ca ,

.

,

de

,

ad

;

ex

.

si

;

.

,

,

,

.

,

? si

** v : “

_

**

,

,

,

,

.

,

(

2

Commentarius 1576 nam laudes aut uerae sunt aut falsac uerae Duplex falsae quae potest esse sine imaginc ueritatis imitatio historia est non imitatio quae Aoyo occurrit responsio nam quod attinet primum eam partem imitationis falsis non idem sentio sunt enim imitationem non esse concedo cum uera narrantur falsa aut uerisimilia aut quae fieri non possunt uerisimilibus omnis ducitur imitatio quae fieri non possunt imitatur nemo quod uerisimilibus admiscentur interdum uera desinit esse imitatio quatenus uera narrantur nec tamen poesis non est eam caussam sed

...

,

.

)

(

566

,

.

,

ex

,

. "

,

:

,

quia uerisimilia persequitur tragoedijs aut imitatione nomen capit non enim aut Opinor igitur Poema epopoeia nihil ueri locum habet sed uerisimilia plura quam uera quia constet Bacchi laudibus nonnullis fortasse ueris plerisque tamen esse dithyrambum uerisimilibus

POETICS : EFFECT OF LITERARY QUARRELS tude in connection with lines 1-23 of the Ars poetica , on imitation as the distinguishing mark of the poet in connection with line 151 ( pp . 2 and 35) . Throughout , Manuzio reflects the concern of his contemporaries with the problem of truth ; but he differs from many of them in admitting the pos sibility of poetry without verse . Plato rather than Horace provides the point of departure for Lorenzo

he

of

.

his

Gambara's Tractatio de perfectę poëseos ratione ( 1576 ). As has already been pointed out ( Chapter VIII , pp . 305–8 ) , it is a document which Christianizes Plato in order to make an appeal for a new Christian poetry . Aristotle enters the argument in several capacities. First , he is the authority for the preference for what is verisimilar and necessary to what is true , and this preference is turned by Gambara to own purposes Whoever portrays in

,

of

to

is

A

as

to

of

—

of of

,

,

:

“

as

of

be .

,

says departs from the truth and moves the perfect model man the direction what might The poetic art becomes one meditation and pious and Christian episodes opened actions are used vast field writers not for inventing but for meditating piously many things and for drawing them from the springs theology things which are most useful and pleasant for the persuasion human minds and well adapted more 3

."

,

of

of

to

poetry

...

they

,

to

in

if

,

be

men gloriously accomplished

,

actions

of

and

in

,

the actions

and

.

in

to

poetry are deliberately Here Aristotle's distinctions with respect favor of rules which would further its didactic ends

aside

set

.

of

,

...

the very truth solid virtues in

,

,

.

a

of

of

good and happy life But life and for the promotion imitation must have regard for what we imitate and why and with what means and sought what manner certainly the rule for every proper imitation must

in in we

,

in

,

,

in

be

,

a

,

tion

down double end for poetry the one imitation the other instruc seeing whatever may adapted that the poetic power lies the imita any action passion character pleasant language for the amendment

of so

,

tion

set

:

of

a

.

of

of ,

Gambara uses these demonstrations the precedence Biblical writings over those the Gentiles Finally Aristotelian elements enter prominently into rather complex statement the ends and workings ;

rhythm

as

as

of

.

is

of

receiving the narration episodes over events inserted Aristotle's conception poetry thus completely reversed Second the Poetics gives poetry the desire the natural causes imitate and harmony and

ad

,

,

."

)

ad

, ad

,

,

,

, &

&

,

567

(

si

.

. . .

,

ex

beateque viuendum quid quare quo imitatione spectandum ipsa rerum veritate imitemur sane rebus hominum praeclarè gestis virtutibus petenda erit omnis rectissimae imitationis ratio

&

sit

,

,

in ,

At

est ad

sit

,

."

24 : “ ,

vt

., .p :

*

,

,

,

&

ex

&

23 : “

,

,

), .p

(

3

pijs Tractatio 1576 christianis scriptoribus latissimum patere campum theologię fontibus haurienda quae vtilis multa non confingenda sed piè meditanda sima iucundissimaque sint permouendis humanis ingenijs rerum autem narrationi inter positis illis tanquam episodijs valde commoda Duplicem porro finem Poëtices statuunt imitationis alterum alterum Ibid poëtica facultas Doctrinae videndi quodcunque accommodatum imitationem cuiusque actionis affectionis moris suaui sermone vitam corrigendam bene quomodo solidisque

POETIC

THEORY

ORAZIO CAPPONI AND TORQUATO TASSO ( 1576 ) The next set of documents to be examined returns specifically to the Poetics . It consists in a set of remarks on Piccolomini and on Castelvetro by two writers , Orazio Capponi and Torquato Tasso , who were engaged in 1576 in a correspondence about these very questions . Of the two manu scripts by Orazio Capponi, the first , his Censure sopra le annotationi della Poetica d'Aristotele del Rever , mo Monsig.re Alessandro Piccolomini , is found in the Biblioteca Comunale of Siena , MS C.VI.9 , folios 50–53v ; I have

to it the date of 1576.5 It contains a series of separate paragraphs on passages in Piccolomini which Capponi refers to by “ particella " and page numbers ; the general method is similar to that of Sassetti's Discorso . Capponi usually rejects Piccolomini's ideas in the particular passages assigned

:

rather with those of Maggi , Vettori , or Robortello , or own solutions Two major topics preoccupy him whether .

his

studied , agreeing

proposing

(

be

,

.

by

1448a16

,

He refers

on

to

50v

Why then did Aristotle include

he

:

(

a

to

specific differentia meant establish tragedy and comedy

).

fol .

by

.

to

of

)

”

“

,

”

“

good and bad for persons imitated constitute specific differences tragedy need among genres and whether the plots and characters previously known Both were discussed Sassetti On the first Capponi states firmly that the distinction between good and bad objects Aristotle

it

,

at

of

do ,

of

to

and not

of

them for

all

we shall reprove Aristotle

character

us , ,

of

one who enumerated only three

to

the worse with respect

those that

he as

in

,

if

is

?

... And

if

here

or it

the better

?

tween them which consisted

in

And there were another specific difference be the things imitated why would Aristotle not have imitating there another which does not consist

these two poems specifically mentioned

,

of

we

.

is

no

?

is

it

this place where seems indeed that treating the specific differences which exist between these imitations And things and there doubt that these differences instruments the man say that they ner are specific Why then should want not differentiate

to

or

The question

of

. 6

should have

,

he

,

a

.

.

to

a

in

of

is

how such goodness badness made known the audience involves Capponi discussion new and traditional plots and characters He tries steer middle course between the conflicting views previously expressed When both plot and persons are known says the

or

of

,

,

be

.

in

to

poet must conform every way the accepted opinions about them appear they lest his imitations false When are newly invented their good apparent only through ness badness character must made not their

, e

?

:

fra

si

di

,

è

ce

se fra

."

)

568

Arist come quello che n'habbia :

E

?

...

costumi riprenderemo non tutte quelle che deueua (

annouerate solamente

quanto

a

peggiori

in tre , e

migliori

o

i

:

se

? e

.

e

in

.

),

(

,

Rinascimento

51 : “

.

.

,

“

..

Nuove Attribuzioni MS Bibl Com Siena C.VI.9 fol .

6 5

III 1952 257-59 questo Perche dunque l'ha numerata Arist Juogo doue par pur che tratti delle differenze specifiche che queste imitationi ritrouano non dubbio che queste differenze d'istromenti cose imitate del modo non sieno specifiche per qual cagione dunque voliam dire che non diuersifichino specificamente questi due poemi altra differenza specifica fusse loro che consistessi nelle cose imitate perche non harebbe fatto qui Aris mentione altra n'è che non consista nell'imitar See my

POETICS : EFFECT OF LITERARY QUARRELS own choices and actions within the tragedy but also by expository reference ,

if

.

known through history He thinks that Aristotle tragedy declared that 1451619

no

a

,

at

he

their actions must also

was arguing inconsistently when

,

be

.

is

53 )

fol .

to their past actions . Here the various devices of the dramatist's art must Capponi's general position be used ( that characters are known

be

).

.

.

is

on

,

of

(

a

it ;

in

might exist with known personages such tragedy would less perfect than one presenting known persons fols 52-52v plot He argues Throughout one Capponi's main preoccupations ,

(

or

'

....

,

it

,

not present

the

.

his

for

observation

of

)

his

of

.

a

shrewd

somewhat enlarged

in

discussion

Capponi's

letter

to

.

145361

is

The area

fol .

(

"

“

of at

on spectacle

So is

?

.”

is

On other passages agreement with Maggi and views are less acceptable early tragedy must have been the one who Vettori that the one actor misunderstanding expounded the plot Aristotle 51v and for his

This

is

a

it

,

fell from how see they will also purge and diminish the other passions true that will move and purge very little since the interweaving

of It

on

hearing Oedipus happy state into

misery

whole action

fol .

be a

to

to

of

of

is

to

compassion he

“

to

through

at

“ a

of

to it .

a

a

If they are moved

:

a

than whole plot weeping coming

,

.

,

52 )

of

,

all

"

of

single for Robortello and against Piccolomini the interpretation relationship episodes action and on the Aristotle's statement single thing seems cogent 1451a30 that arts imitate him plot refutation those who would argue for multiplicity action necessity less moving He points out further that single episode

in

in

he

to

he

his

is

, .

for .,

)

his

(

of

;

on

a

by

,

,

27 ,

Lionardo Salviati dated September 1576 and now found the Ambro apparently answer sian Library MSQ.113.Sup folios 155–58 Capponi ing might use request Salviati remarks which own commentary the Poetics hence remains less closely attached Piccolomini although some the comments are repeated and expresses .

So

in

).

,

a

it

in

in

of

( as

)

in

as

(

on

ff .

in

of

is

more clearly own opinions about Aristotle He also more directly concerned with textual matters his notes on 1453626 and 1448637 parts and with general questions the order the Poetics his doubts whether 1454a3 should appear where does the text Some the problems the Censure reappear approached now from different

is to ;

of

a

,

.

1459b22

)

.

in

of

).

in of

"

Aristotle's statement

(

.

of fol “

(

as

”

of

“

of

,

all

of

of

to it

,

.

requisite angle goodness for the question character Capponi believes after comparison passages that Aristotle means require characters not only the one upon whom pity falls He willing admit bad characters when they are necessary for the conduct unity plot tragedy involves the tragedy 156 His discussion place interesting way Challenging considerations both time and an that the difference between tragedy and the

a

il

ui

si

, e

in

si

569

)

(

."

.

di

...

è

li

di

a

si

52 : “

.

.,

, e

7

compassione nel sentir pianto d'Edippo venendo Ibid fol Se moueranno veder per questo com'egli stato felice sia caduto miseria purgheranno ancora gl'altri poco affetti purgherà per non diminuiranno ben uero che poco moucrà tutta l'azzione essere l'intessimento

POETIC THEORY epic in length and complexity of plot results from the difference between a dramatic and a narrative form , he maintains that the tragic plot may be just as complicated , that events which occur off stage may readily be narrated , and that such events are just as much " imitations " as those

actually represented . The real difference , he says , is in the length of time involved , and he expresses surprise that Aristotle did not emphasize it further . Moreover , it is probable that the difference in place is also important : Perhaps it could be said that, while the epic can contain actions which are done in very remote places , and tragedy on the other hand can contain only those nearby , it would not be verisimilar to receive , within a matter of hours, informa tion about other deeds . Therefore the epic may contain a greater diversity of episodes because in very remote places more diverse actions may take place than in those nearby . 8

Capponi thus seems to be moving toward Castelvetro's position , if for different reasons . He disagrees with Aristotle , again , on the difficulty of perceiving a very small plot ( 1450b39 ) . The smaller the better, in fact, for a small plot ( unlike a small animal ) would have fewer parts and their

of

to

as

as

its

relationship would be easily perceptible. Finally , he thinks that at 1451a36 Aristotle is begging the question which he sets out to prove . We should interpretation note in this letter the serious attention paid to the text and question the authority and the method well the willingness

on

to

of

having written Torquato Salviati Capponi speaks Perhaps the subject was again Aristotle for we ,

this letter

,

the same day

.

Tasso

to

In

.

Aristotle

in a of

to he

of

it

to

.

di

.

on

of

,

,

;

or

of

of

,

of

his

,

in in a

us

,

of

is

at

.

to

in

he ,

,

,

to

a

to

Capponi dated 1576 speaks letter from Tasso which planned his objections Castelvetro objections which state projected treatise Tasso's jottings have come down manuscript published which also the Ambrosiana and which was 1875 under the title Estratti dalla Poetica Lodovico Castelvetro Using his copy the 1570 edition Castelvetro Tasso makes extracts from and them approval disapproval Most appends expressions these are brief some are quite pungent some also concern themselves with Aris have

of

If

,

.

,

.

a

directly From them emerge Tasso's ideas number central poetic questions He rejects first Castelvetro's thesis that the materials

totle

it

no

,

be

57 :

!

‘

.'

be

, it

of

: "

of

poetry and history are the same the material the poem were that history very thing would the same and therefore would not praise for similar Answer that one Besides the poet would deserve

.

uicinis

195-96

570

)

(

.

Guasti

, I,

,

Lettere

ed ." .

in

in

.

in

In

9

quam

,

“

.

in .,

8

MS Ambrosiana Q.113.Sup fols 156v Fortasse dici posset quod cum epopeia continere possit actiones quae remotissimis locis gestę sunt Tragedia autem eas tantum quae uicinis alias non esset uerisimile spatio horarum resciri Idcirco maiorem dissimilitu dinem episodiorum potest continere cum remotissimis locis magis diuersac fiant actiones

POETICS : EFFECT OF LITERARY QUARRELS it , since he would have made no effort to invent it . This is a better reason . " 10 If one thinks correctly about imitation , one will have the answer about the materials, for “ the imitation required of poetry cannot be called imitation directly ; but it can be called a rivalry of the poet with the arrangements of fortune or with the course of mundane affairs . "

11 As

for the end of such

imitation , Tasso believes that it is restricted to pleasure (without utility ) and that Aristotle meant to treat only such poems as are performed in the public square “for the pleasure of the people ” ( “per diletto del popolo ,” p . 285 ). Hence he quarrels with Aristotle for having introduced the whole question of purgation and for having treated it as he did , without proof and without cogent arguments .

,

tragedies which ,

the other kinds

be

all

at

of

all

it

much that because

of

;

of

no

,

he

,

is

of its

himself ; for having said earlier , where he is seeking the pleasure end now directs tragedy toward utility souls which utility account must taken

of be

so

least not

at

or

is ,

Aristotle contradicts origin of poetry , that that the purgation

to

in

.

so ,

to

as

?

of if

.

of

,

it,

rejected do not have will And indeed we are have some consideration utility for utility why not another kind those tragedies which contain good men from misery happiness which confirm the opinion the passage people providence that the has about God's And forth.12 : an “

is

;

is

13

Castelvetro

."

.

in of

of

a

is

in

quickly summarized you will The whole argument later passage pleasure and that poetry see that the end the poet not imitation history Read the text and the commentary you will find inconsistency

,

:

“

of

to

is

"

all a

"

.

,

of

,

of 14

, "

is

,

of

it

of

he

of

unity especi Tasso finds Castelvetro most unsatisfactory on matters ally when unity other than that plot advocates kinds Note that seems that Castelvetro holds that several actions may become one through place person the unity time not merely through dependency applied This most false The same epithet falsissimo Castel

of

a

.

of

a

,

ed .

,

10

;

tragedies and comedies have double plots this vetro's contention that variety personages from false supposition that multiplicity plots He believes that the whole

comes says Tasso necessarily means

il

di

."

è

.

.

della fortuna

,

della disposizione

è a 'l se

.pp

12

."

o

si

può appellare gareggiamento del poeta imitazione ma del corso delle mondane cose

e

si

la

a

a

si

.

tu a

,

la

: “

, I,

,

: “

. ; , .p

11

ne

, e

,

In

Prose diverse Guasti 280 Se materia del poema fosse quella dell'istoria perciò non sarebbe simile Rispondi questa Oltre poeta sarebbe quell'istessa ciò miglior ragione non meritarebbe lode perché non sarebbe faticato trovarla Questa poesia non può chiamare direttamente Ibid 284 La imitazione richiesta

,

in

,

di

,

.ec "

; de '

la

di

di

, , o

si

lei si

il

ha

,

,

,

di

a

la

,

o

'l

,

se

,

ne

E

di .

se

;

la

a

13 ; ne le ? ., .p

,

: “

là

.,

Ibid 283–84 sopra Aristotile contraddice stesso perchè avendo detto Tragedia dove cerca l'origine della poesia che suo fine diletto ora drizza l'utilità purgazione degli animi della quale utilità cioè non deve tenere conto alcuno Tragedie almeno non deve tener tanto che per rifiutino tutte l'altre maniere pur dell'utilità s'ha d'aver considerazione perchè non d'altra sorto che son prive quelle Tragedie che contengono d'utilità come mutazion buoni miseria feli quali confermano l'opinione popolo della provvidenza cità che Dio

."

è

la

, e

e 'l

)

(

571

."

.

la

,

'l

,

,

,

:

e 'l

'l

:

: "

., . .p

14

290 Leggi

il "

poesia non vedrai che fine del poeta diletto che imitazion testo comento troverai contrarietà nel Castelvetro Ibid 282 Nota che par che Castelvetro voglia che più azioni possano divenir dipendenza Falsissimo una per l'unità del tempo del luogo della persona non solo per Ibid dell'istoria

POETIC

THEORY

difficulty may be solved by admitting the possibility of greater or less simplicity within unity and that this will explain why the epic , while still unified , is more complex than other forms ( p. 294 ). On the epic specifically

form which interested him most personally ), he states that it is capable magnificence , of a more marvelous quality , than other forms of by ; p ( . 289 ) “ magnificence ” he means essentially the ornaments of lan peculiar conditions Vergil guage , justified in the epic by several of superior epic poet would thus seem Homer Homer particularizing was concerned with what proper poetry general proper that imitation Vergil universalizing had mind what the ( the

,

.

is

to

,

in

“

:

an

is

,

15

,

."

is ,

1576

us

of

)

BALDINO

the magnificent

(

,

that

in

,

;

is ,

epic

to

as

to

to

be

its

greater

to

.

of

is

de

a

,

it

as

The most curious document the year 1576 returns Aristotle himself presenting does translation the Poetics into Latin verse This Bernardino Baldino's Liber arte poetica Aristotelis versibus

is

.

a

, to of at

as

to

to

a

of

,

of

an

;

de

“

.

a in

in

us ,

,

in

,

of

an art

of

arte poetica

”

,

et

latine expressus published Milan The phrase Liber way prepares the title for the general form and tone the translation for Baldino makes the Poetics kind Horatian complete with poetry invocation the muses and not without occasional anachronism such reference Roman actor At times the original text followed fairly closely others there are rapid sum

fideliter

be

of

A

Et

,

,

:

,

.

or

complete gaps general idea Baldino's technique may had from the following lines corresponding the beginning Aristotle's text Plura loqui nobis opus est artemque poesis maries

Et

;

,

;

&

,

genera uires quo gratas texere pacto Fabellas deceat uatem qui ducitur arte

ac

.

;

;

,

quae membra sibi quas culta poetica dotes Vendicet ars cuncta tuo natura tenore notumque prius caput eloquar artis Educam

Vt

aliique poetae

.

,

Sunt imitatores alijque

;

,

usu

Vt

,

in

Atque alij quibus est plectrum queis tibia propriis Helenes expressa coloribus ora

.

, &

,

,

qui cantat epos tenui nec uoce tragoedus Comicus tenuis dithrambique inclytus author

.

,

ab

.

ut

à

;

Sunt Zeusi caput Veneris depinxit Apelles Hique uel ritu docti uel arte magistra ,

.

,

se ,

,

,

,

,

&

,

ut

&

,

in

Roscius scenis uerbis gestibus ore gestus effinxit Voces ora uirorum Sic rhythmis sic harmonia sic uoce canora Assimilant aliis alij ceu citharoedus Tibicenque aliique uelut queis tibia cordi

)

(

572

,

è

al

a

,

,

,

.

,

"

, : “

.

al

in . , .p

15

proprio della quel che Ibid 291 Omero particolareggiando ebbe riguardo proprio dell'Epopeia generale cioè l'imitare Virgilio universaleggiando Poesia mirò magnifico cioè

POETICS : EFFECT OF LITERARY QUARRELS

It

is clear that while the meaning

an

as

:

.

of

all

of the text is given fairly accurately now , and then the exigencies of the verse and the desire to create a given poetic tone preclude the possibility of any careful distinctions of meanings. Sometimes, instead, the translation reflects the current misconceptions example the verses presenting about the sense the text We may take the distinction between tragedy and epic ,

,

,

;

Inter epos tragicumque poema hoc conuenit ambo Reges magnanimosque duces genus atque Deorum epos metris sed pergit eisdem uariique pedes numerique cothurnis Aptantur tragicosque dies amplectitur una ,

:

:

calcem

;

Complectuntur

Ad

sed plures aeneis tenditur annos

:

:

Actus

quamuis extenderet ante poesis omneis Sed quas coepit epos sublime recepit Insuper alias inflata tragoedia partes

the definition

tragedy

,

for 144967

)

;

-

.Pp

B2v

:

those which translate

B2

de

Or

of

(

.

ac

,

&

.

se

Vtraque

,

,

fines porrecta

breui neque margine pressa

:

Ad

,

, , et

.

tragicis est rebus sermo futurus Nunc mihi Nobilis nitido spectanda tragoedia cultu Est grauis egregiique actus imitatio certos

;

B2v

for

1449624

)

;

,

( . P.

&

,

ut

,

;

,

Cui musaea mele cui mixta locutio rhytmis Addita quaeque metu pietateque pectora flectit Fluctibus uariis animos exoluat aestu

Filippo

,

or to

the text

.

of

to

no

to

of

a

,

1576

)

(

the exegesis

SASSETTI

as a

be

Baldino's translation may taken curious and unique exercise reflecting kind accumulated popular tradition with respect the Poetics but making serious contribution either the translation

earlier work with the Poetics both on Piccolomini's Annotationi for the Accademia degli Alterati and his marginalia the preparation for his own translation and same book may considered work

this

1575 and probably

,

(

untitled

.

25–26

)

573

(

.pp

Filippo Sassetti

,

See M. Rossi

,

16

.

as

a

of

and constitutes clarification and expansion what Sassetti had said writings his earlier Rather than taking the early commentators

its in

on

of to

-

of

as we

to

,

in

is

it is

as it is ,

.

a

of

,

a

a

)

;

but commonly called the Sposizione della Poetica the Biblioteca Riccardiana MS beginning on what was 1539.16 Sassetti made little more than have been compendious volume for the fragment forty five pages which have goes only from the beginning the Poetics 1449a2 and includes well fairly long preface Such original ideas full the Poetics it

the manuscript

in

He began

the following year

on

to

as

Aristotle

.

commentary interrupted

of

,

be

in

to

,

Sassetti's

POETIC

THEORY

occasional reference goes instead

Sassetti

,

to

the Poetics

elucidate

and the Rhetoric

.

by

to

the Politics

,

the Ethics

,

to

of

an

to

had been content

others

is

of

.

its

point of departure , it develops an independent analysis, discussing predecessors only when necessary Perhaps the distinguishing feature Sassetti's approach his determina tion find Aristotelian method for the analysis Aristotle Whereas the

,

)

,

to

,

he

,

of

of

.

of

of

as (

to

Organon and even the De partibus animalium for statements on such matters the constitution definitions the inductive method and the syllogistic structure Hence while others had been content with criticism discovering the order the parts the text wishes rather determine a

of

all

his hope

of

by

by

.

in

the philosophical reason for their presence the treatise Such wish may have been prompted his dissatisfaction with the method Piccolomini

improving upon

to

,

).

,

fol . ;

.

in

;

of

to

in

severely chided

be a (

his

for

is

example

,

his predecessors Castelvetro for logical deficiencies 115v This does every respect not mean that Sassetti proves sound Aristotelian for some his solutions are doubtful but his attention method does many excellent interpretations result and

a .

,

of

or

.

each one

may

these kinds

no of

of

,

of

,

of

representing

men that character from which perfect teachings

be

,

the true king and lord

in ,

of

“

us :

So

be

of

,

or

the middle state between the two badness high enterprise one poem will imitate valorous men the idea the proper knight the true captain and the

goodness

for goodness placing before

of

to

of

at

of

,

he

of

of by

paradigms

form

he

to

of

.

he

us

preface This attention allows understand why wrote the kind did for his commentary For the preface seems first reading poetry kind Platonic statement the didactic and political ends says but poems within each genre are dis Not only different genres tinguished persons they imitate and these persons are the kinds

,

17

,

;

,

.

the country

:

happiness

in

in

of

that this depends upon the general state

all

.

us

all

at

all

,

us

of

all

we

. "

of

with learning any ugly thing from that work Sassetti maintains poetry for the pleasure which they afford but that read kinds laugh weep some make others make We must wonder then places Sassetti answers whether kinds are good times and possibility

derived

in

,

in

be

,

of

if

be

,

17

so

to

might well not good show pleasurable spectacles which considerably from believing that that good fortune every well prepared heart should do.18

would distract their minds might some time change

as

these

it

such

as

to

in

of

,

.

if

in

to

be

This matter must decided according the various conditions which men great happiness whence the find themselves For some country abounds citizens derive the highest joy and the souls the good men must such joys they realize that they can fall into misery wise habituated that the midst

e

;

e

, e la

: “

.

)

574

no

si

gl

ne

."

felicita donde cittadini buoni che nelle allegrezze

de

gl

di

grandissima alcuna terra talmente assuefare animi (

e

;

peroche abbondando ritruouano somma letitia deriua douendosi

i

in

82 : "

.

.,

18

;

in

in

di

,

,

MS Riccardiana 1539 fol 81v luno imitera huomini valorosi dalto affare proponen doci l'idea del propio caualiere del vero capitano forma del uero Re signore fingendo queste maniere dhuomini quel costume onde perfetti ammaestramenti possano ciascuna quell opera appararsi trarsi senza che cosa laida possa varij stati quali Ibid fol ma cio debbe deliberarsi secondo huomini

for

POETICS : EFFECT OF LITERARY QUARRELS is

it

he

.

be

or

to

of

and the Poetics

contains nothing but

on

to ,

third category

poetics who will tell him how and the preceptor exactly the correct degree Aristotle falls into the

.

the effects

the precepts and the

“

—

the reigning achieve

in

art

—

:

to

.

to

he

by

,

to

of

unhappy states Now while The opposite would hold true the produce the desired effects function the poet neither decides which effects are wanted nor does know what precepts they may achieved He therefore needs receive advice from two experts whose decisions are prior his own the magistrate the prince who will tell good contemporaries politics thus becomes him what effects are for his

19

in

to

of

."

20

in

;

be

,

be

it

be

;

as

be

: "

a

.”

to

compose their poems well poets how Sassetti hierarchy among the three arts the order among these three arts will such that politics will the noblest and the most important poetry and the one that commands after will the third place put that faculty which shows poets will what way they must compose their poems instructions

establishes

preface separate the determina thus writing poems tion the ends from the the one hand and from the precepts on the other hand setting down dis second function writing light cover what method Aristotle uses the Poetics and for on is

to

Galen

.

,

by in

Its

a

:

,

,

of

; a

(

an

its

by

of

,

of

which he finds

methods method defini object analyses the definition into parts and then composition the opposite the successive parts method which division discovers each the component parts

tion which defines treats each

methods

three possible

,

,

Galen

of

the distinction

says had described

of by

he

this Sassetti turns

to

in

.

of

of

on

is

Sassetti's

of

The first function

a

;

or

of

(

of

to

an

of

;

of

of

a

:

to

of

is

a

,

on

to

of

)

is

by

to

I

,

resolution

in

the method

their

explain the things which are necessary showed that this found clear that this treatise the precepts will

poems and since , it ) is ,

of

means

i.e.

of

other purpose than [

has

for their composition

of

no

it

.

necessary components The case

the logical treatises which move from

study demonstration thus clear for the Poetics

of

,

art Aristotle's Ethics and certain knowledge the syllogism and

... since

an

.

its

,

)

or

of , (

;

synthetic

(

or

order Aristotle's treatises natural objects and syllogisms which moves from nouns and verbs and demon the third resolutive order Galen's writings the curative

the second his Organon

strations

on on

)

,

to

of

,

by

a

),

the first object and then combines them into conception the whole and proceeds method resolution which from the knowledge end the discovery example the means achievement As the first analytical order Sassetti cites Galen's own works the medical art

i

il

a

e

."

83 : "

si

la

."

;

le

)

.

.,

la

la

lei

a

in

;

575

(

a

riporrà

piu nobile tale adunque sara lordine tra queste arti che Politica sara come uella che comanda dopo nel terzo luogo sara Poesia quella faculta che dimostra poeti che maniera deono comporsi Poesie ,

e

le

si

: “ in

.,

Ibid fol princi

.

19

la 20

.'

i

a

di

potere cadere nelle miserie stimino costoro facilmente non istara bene mostrare piaceuoli spettacoli quali tanto maggiormente distrarrebbono lanimo loro dal riputare che possa quella fortuna per alcun tempo cangiarsi come pensare dourebbe ogni bene preparato petto Ibid fol 82v esso altro non contiene che precetti ammaestramenti Poeti per che bene compongano loro Poesie

POETIC

THEORY

be given through the method of resolution , insofar as the principal purpose is concerned . But because it is necessary , if we wish to write this or that poem , to know what it is and what it is good for , the demonstration of which is a result of

definition , it was therefore necessary in the first part of this book to use the method of definition , which is itself necessarily preceded by the divisive method ; for no definition can be obtained without

the latter.21

is

in

e

to di ,

of

,

its

up to “

(

,

”

in

it

",

“

fol

in

of

“

per

.

of

its

by

,

of of

;

of

its

As Sassetti sees the Poetics , main problem the early chapters giving precepts that definition before the for the correct composition poems precepts which constitute the must seek the definition art poetry inquiring first into matter and form then into the tragedy combination the two The initial section the definition poetry poesia general will treat and itself della insomma it

),

the same method

to a

Categories essentially

the

as

,

says Sassetti

,

in

followed

This

,

.

each kind

is

.

of

,

.

"

,

se

after which will discuss the species with respect omitting their natures for the time being their subject matter and other differentiating factors Afterward will come the detailed treatment 87v

for

search

that which Aristotle the genus through ,

.

of

on

of

indication

the

as

the second

is

;

the work

it at

he

)

(

to

,

,

to

on

follows

is

the imitation

action

in

the dance harmony

all

language

the above things and through them

either

together

time separately

at

similar

at

of the

worse

all

of the

better

of

of the

in in in

:

as

),

(

,

he

.

of

of

;

differentiae the fourth 1447a18 distinguishes the three means poetry makes possible the later defini tions the separate species When comes the point 1448a24 digresses from his which Aristotle summarizes the three differentiae passages and reduces the materials orderly commentary tabular form ;

the third lists the three

an

is

to

he

as

,

.

of

proposition

general

genus

”

“

of

in

a

of

,

induction passing from less universal more universal considerations discovery then the differentiae and the constitution the species plan constantly keeps Sassetti this mind comments the successive contain the said passages Thus the first sentence the treatise

one

different

times the poet

maintain

those

narrating

ing his Own

who are

person

as agents action

22

always

himself

imitated

in

and trans forming

and not

si

576

)

dimostro che cio

a

le

lo

spianare che cose che comporle ritroua per mezzo della resolutiua disposizione

non hauendo altro intendimento

hauendo

(

fol 84v

io

ricercano

: "

Ibid

., ; et .

si

21

changing

11

POETICS : EFFECT OF LITERARY QUARRELS Sassetti maintains that the definition of every poetic species may be derived from this table , and he offers some examples . But he qualifies Aristotle's treatment by insisting that it covered only the “ perfect " species : “ it

...

as

a

”

“

a

his

.

he

,

,

all

the others

,

;

method

does The elements

into the definition provide two the causes the material and the will come along later and we shall thus have four of

entering

all four causes Sassetti believes that .

consideration formal

in

treat poetry completely Aristotle must include

of

to

If

he is

.

so

to

his

should be clearly noted that since in this book the precepts of true and perfect poems are given , only those things are considered in it which belong to these poems, and the precepts for them are given . " 23 Thus Aristotle imperfect should not be blamed for failure treat form the pastoral

because poems are inventions

our intellect which imitates nature

)

which

(

...

of

causes

of

,

of

kinds and the

dif

matter and form are

in

as

all

matter and that which

to

,

in

...

,

to

,

proportion corresponds have that element which corresponds form which are the imitation common poetry just ferences these are causes which are

to

)

:

in

be

.

in [

all

of

as

be

four just the causes natural things are four which are composed matter and form and have the efficient cause which made them and the end poems ... since these also for which they were made These will found will

natural things.24

;

la

a

il

è

o

è et a ;

e

i

in

questo trattato precetti saranno dati con manifesta cosa che resolutiua dispositione quanto appartiene allo intendimento principale bisogna ma perche voler comporre quello che egli questo quel poema sapere quello che egli buono che dimostrare di

de

sopradette e

cose queste

e

non

i

co

si

i

."

in

questo libro precetti delle che dandosi appar queste esso considerano che a

si

: “

et .

.,

., &

loro che simi tano

Ibid fol 108v egli dee bene auuertire poesie uere perfette quelle cose solamente tengono precetti sene danno Ibid fol 118v lequali percioche sono imita natura saranno quattro sicome quattro 24

come adoperanti enfaccendati

persona

sempre mutando

tempo

separatamente en diuersi tempi

in ."

23

poeta

per

si

il

sua

la

conseruando

si

tra

e

narrando

mutandosi

tutte insieme vno stesso

in

le

attione

e o

d

l'imitatione

nell oratione tutte in

de

: "

.

.,

.”

si

la

ua

e

la è

effetto della diffinitione però stato mestieri nella prima parte d'esso libro adoperare potendo diffinitiua dispositione alla quale necessariamente innanzi diuisiua non senza essa procacciare alcuna diffinitione peggiori Ibid fol 115 de migliori simili nel ballo nella armonia

]

[

577

e la

la

si

a

il

, el

; e le

la

le

. le

le

le

et

,

e

di

;

.

di

e

...

."

...

(

: "

.

)

la

poesie inuentioni dello intelletto nostro che cagioni delle cose naturali quali sono sono composte materia forma hanno causa efficiente che fece fine per quale esse furono fatte hauendo esse ancora quello che proportionatamente risponde alla quello che alla forma che sono l'imitatione comune materia tutte quante differenze lequali sono cagioni che sono nella poesia come materia forma sono nelle cose naturali

POETIC THEORY As for

the efficient and the final causes , Sassetti finds them in the paragraph

on the natural origins of poetry ( 144864 ). To distinguish them , he must divide the paragraph differently from Maggi (whose divisions he normally follows ), breaking it after the parenthetical section ending with Tpctas . In this way the natural disposition to imitation becomes the efficient cause the pleasure derived from imitation becomes the final cause relationship between the two is stated by Sassetti as follows : and

The

.

of

, it

in

.

to

)

(

it

all

Since this power ( of imitation ) is one of the cognitive ones , which operate for pleasure or for utility or for what is honest , it follows that one or several or generate poetry But because Aristotle these things moved the human mind things which imitate says that the cause was the joy that every man finds

,

a

in

be

to

us

to be

the last parts

of

by In

us

.

...

it

be

is

to

follows that pleasure the end which moved the human mind create poetry even though this pleasure may such that can include the useful and the poems must way that they honest used which are composed such delight honestly.25 and bring profit

be

,

In of

.

the

to

or

is

obliged

,

is

.

is

,

”

"

the text

poems the genus whether another genus interposed between imitation and the individual species He

decide whether imitation poetry

of

it ,

of

,

to

us

Poetics Sassetti discovers own interpretation light what earlier commentators had done with

he

his

of to

.

at

his

of

his

,

this passage Sassetti allows himself influenced theory produced may preface the which and there some doubt about the solidity own method this point Applying these various methodological distinctions the text the

is ,

art

,

,

on

" :

“

in

and these are the same ones which ,

is

of

it

is

that one may say that the three differen through which one kind poem different from another are ,

,

25

Sassetti

is

by

which they are composed

divide the generic nature hence

them

their function the which one species different from another ,

of

“

but because those things

tiae named

as

be

,

26

In

. "

.

connection with

makes the following philosophical statement are those

;

or

a

in

of

is it ;

of

the differentiae which divide the genus

...

is

its

“ a

to

be

and affirms that the genus

its

,

his predecessors

it

imitation for single species considered altogether will name given having any proper differentia any proper nature which without species way distinct from each one these that they would possess one differentia more than and imitation will the true genus whence Object species the essence the derived manner and means are rejects

poetry

il

sia

sia

il

in

le

si

.

o

o

si

tre

di

;

e

la

a

el

e el ci

e

...

."

ci

dilettino

.”

si

578

)

(

il

lei e

di

o

da

: “

.

.,

giouino honestamente Ibid fol 89v uno nome posto alle spetie singolari dessa tutte insieme considerate una propia natura laquale sia diuersa senza che ella habbia una propia differenza ciascuna desse spetie perche elleno abbondino duna differenza piu limitatione sara piglia vero genere donde lessenza delle spetie 26

disposte che elle

ne

la

1

1 o

ne

: "

.

1

il

e

o

il

.,

Ibid fol 119v essendo questa potenza una delle cognoscitiue lequali muouono per piu tutte per utile per honesto egli seguita che una queste diletto cose poesia ma perche Aristotile dice che siano state quelle che hanno mossa allo ingenerare questa rallegrarsi ciascuno delle cose che imitano seguiterà che stata diletto poesia auuenga che questo diletto fine che mosse l'intelletto humano creare tale poesie adoperare maniera possa comprendere deono honesto utile che

POETICS : EFFECT

LITERARY QUARRELS

OF

In

the ones which divide the imitation . " 27

such judgments as these the

methodological concern is paramount . When he comes to the actual discussion of the differentiae , Sassetti finds himself on much more controversial ground . Means , object, and manner had been interpreted in many ways, and he must decide among them ; and

of

óyos especially

which are not to the means. nell oratione ; The meaning

.

all

almost everywhere he makes decisions of a partisan nature justified by the Poetics itself . So , for example , with respect He translates the terms for the three means as “ nel ballo ; e nell armonia " and provides a lengthy discussion of three

no ,

;

)

.

in

all

-

),

is

to

know what

."

,

"

",

,

worse and like Sassetti this point insisting that these

" on "

"

imitation

is

of

.

by

",

“

”

do

a

“

by

to

as

to

corroborate his thesis the objects The difficulty with respect good and bad meant better strong position against takes Piccolomini

a

at a

,

. , fol

(

.

"

-

,

,

“

way

( of

of

,

it

is

he

troubles him and after examination his predecessors that must include the concept verse fols 94–94v poetry possible without verse Hence later point the translation becomes ballo melodia verso 100 and the passages which traditionally aroused dispute 1447a28 1448all are interpreted such decides

of

,

to

,

" 28

or

.'

fortune

of

by “

as

a

to

in

which men have been placed any theory which ascribes them distinction the condition

be

or ,

and not Therefore

to

,

.

be his

,

a

capable distinguish distinctions constitute substantial differentia ing one genre from another He proposes theory own that however one interprets the terms themselves they must referring taken actions status

a

to

he

,

messer Agnolo Segni who believes ,

of

find much more probable the opinion by

or

he

.

,

of

,

)

publication

:

its

(

in

I

version before

in

,

station condition will false and Sassetti disagrees both with Piccolo mini and with the earlier commentators He finds solution rather his contemporary Agnolo Segni whose lectures read must have heard their original form 1573 -unless course had access the revised

”

“

,

it

it

—

of

of of

in

be

91 : "

27

,

to

be

to

in

in

-

of

,

”

“

that the better Aristotle here meant the heroes who are not called better because they were masters the others but because since was thought that they descended some way from those false and lying gods was probable body joined with that them were found greater vigor both mind and greater prudence than were found men Aristotle's time.29 è

e

.

in

e

e

i

di

sia

;

(

"

)

(

579

III )

la ,

: "

(

Pt .

of

letter 1573 MS Riccardiana 2438 bis egli stesso studia Segni's lectures

in of a fol . 2 ).

."

,

il

gli

."

da io

; e

e

da

;

e

di

si e

in

dAristotile non ritrouaua Note that Lorenzo Giacomini Sassetti speaks leggentela segni con bella frequenza to

la

le

e

le

si si

." ha

: “

: “

.

.,

.,

.

28 29

i

il

;

è

di

.

.,

Ibid fols 90v ma perche quelle cose per lequali una specie dall altra diuersa compongono questo sono sono quelle delle quali elle medesime che dividono natura generica qui possa che dire tre nominate differenze per lequali luna poesia diffe rente dall altra sono quelle che diuidono l'imitatione riguardo alle attioni Ibid fol 107v non allo stato nel quale sono huomini stati posti dalla fortuna loppinione Ibid fol 103v molto piu uerisimile giudico che ms Agnolo Segni quale per migliori crede che fussono intesi qui quali non sono chia Aristotele gl'eroi mati migliori perche fossono signori degl'altri ma perche stimandosi che discendessono bugiardi uerisimile era che qualunque maniera quegli Dij falsi loro fusse maggior uigore d'animo corpo aggiunta con maggiore prudenza che negl huominj del secolo Poetica

POETIC THEORY

runs afoul

Sassetti

).

103v

the old Platonic

his

(

actions

fol of .

in

,

In

considered ,

of

must

the manner

all

of

On the subject

be )

that these differences

.

fol .

Social station here seems to be replaced by qualities of body and of soul rather than by the accident of divine descent , although Sassetti does not go so far as to make of it an ethical distinction . “ Likeness ” would differ from the other two terms by referring to the present century ; for it is possible to imitate virtuous and good actions as well as wicked and bad any case Sassetti reiterates his insistence ones in our own time ( 104

,

to

in

poem can

an

how

see

be

cannot

the poet speaks constantly

his

.

But

a

as

,

he

,

on

the mixed manner

imitation

own person

.

,

.

a

as as

its

in

an

).

as

Others such ,

tradition

.

own method and from the pressures

the lengthy wonderings over the use

of

cies

of

of

his

of

.

(

as

or

,

,

by ,

it

;

if

poem

—

The pure narration other becomes imitation only because work such two means harmony and the dance are added And Vergil's Moretum spoken entirely the poet cannot rank either epic fols 107-112v poem deriving from the deficien We must regard some Sassetti's failures is a

and hence dithyramb

he

"

“

is a

.

to

”

“

imitation

to

mean dramatic representation and care for untangle the knot He discards Castelvetro's method does not enable him notion that there modo similitudinario addition the three discards Piccolomini's refinements manners usually distinguished use

of

,

in

of

,

at

,

,

.

of

—

of

of

as

be

to of

an

to

as

ĚTrotolia 1447a29 are ascrib scholarship able erroneous reading the text which the state his time did not permit him correct On the whole however his com regarded mentary must the period one the most remarkable especially because his careful study method and we can only

.

of

in

an

in

as

to

it

he

beyond the first few chapters did not push the Poetics His promises treat utility end connection with purgation and the pure narrative form connection with the dithyramb remain unful regret that

In

.

filled

in

, .

in

a

,

in

of

.

a

to

of

of

of

a

of

,

),

be

.

,

to

for this figure Imitation according objects the true the verisimilar the false

,

virtue

connections with Horace and Plato 310 this lecture belongs the development theory imitation four classes Bonciani may

VIII

.p

its its

Aristotelian tradition

by

.p

VI ,

see

.

of

,

as

,

,

called prosopopoeia Aside from Chapter 201 and Chapter

(

its

in

,

his

,

1578 Francesco Bonciani delivered before the Accademia Fiorentina the Biblio three manuscripts Lettione della prosopopea now found treating teca Riccardiana This differs from other works kind literary genre rather than rhetorical figure used various genres Orators poets and philosophers alike represent inanimate objects and animals human beings and such representations constitute the figure

,

of

to

-

)

(

580

is

—

;

,

,

we

us

.

:

,

and the impossible these prosopopoeia imitates impossible things and those false things which are not verisimilar Since this imitation generates pleasure the marvelous things teaches did not previously know Bonciani able con

An

his

POETICS : EFFECT OF LITERARY QUARRELS

.”

30

,

by

of it

by

to

,

,

or to

or to

to

or

of

“

:

in

,

is

to

, in

, , or in

an

of

prosopopoeia impossible definition imitation appropriate way made the simple narrative mode the delight persuade mixed the dramatic order teach point out that imitation here does not mean dramatic He careful representation but has rather that broader sense given elsewhere stitute thus

things

: " a

the Rhetoric

of

an

by

an

,

an

of

a

it

of

in

,

especially

." 31

person means words repre thing gives sents the form and the nature and motion The imita tion the impossible itself becomes possible through the workings the imagination which combines known parts into unknown and unnatural

Aristotle

is

of

,

be

to

.

or to

decorum

within the figure and they seem verisimilitude Of the three ends mentioned ,

are demanded

to

related either

.

as

,

appropriateness

in

,

”

In

:

. “

in

appropriate way explained the definition objects one must not animate which their natures are too far distant from animate things Petrarch did with his sighs Other kinds whole

example

is

it

of

,

of

( by

,

kind

“

of

as

is

,

Bonciani thus constructs

.

the orators

little .

at

,

&

is

1 ,

of

,

of

,

,

Il

of

”

to

he

speech which around the figure has chosen elucidate All the preliminary materials accompanying the editions Sforza d'Oddo's comedy L'Erofilomachia ouero duello d'amore d'amicitia August bear the date 1572 and the exact date 1572 found the

of

poetics

a

by

is

course

)

of

by

,

in

the definition pleasure the servant instruction although some persuasion prosopopoeia times used alone the poets means

al

of

I

it

of

I

it .

is

,

,

at

,

de '

of

da

Cagli's Discorso intorno componimento della Bernardo Pino printed treating tempi comedia nostri which with am the Discorso earlier have found no edition the present place however because end

is

a

,

its

he

,

wicked

,

of

:

and

or

their subjects

men who are more unfortunate

by

the imitation

be

Comedy must not

be in

in

the two dramatic genres lies the social status interprets Aristotle this light

of

,

.

of

,

in

, in

essentially than 1578. The Discorso the midst discussion which Horatian sources and theory calls upon Aristotle for enlightenment on two matters the distinction between tragedy and comedy and the limita tion the comic subject For Bernardo Pino the basic difference between

in

d'una cosa

,

, o

in

l'abito

, e

la

forma

maniera conueneuole fatta fine d'insegnare dilettare mouimento

de

ed .) , .p

con parole ritragga

a

cose impossibili nel rappresentatiuo , e

misto

of

of

in

Imitatione , o

: o "

.

altri

: “

fol . ."

134v

In ."

.,

Ibid dia

32

le

31

o

.

MS Ricc 1539. fol 134 nel modo narratiuo semplice persuadere

...

di

;

as

,

30

in

of to

in

,

as

would seem indicated the word paudotépwv which means viler and persons low and abject comparison with those who are in lower men but tragedy for tragedy princes and kings and other persons troduced highest station are introduced comedy men and humble condition are gentlemen and private citizens.32 introduced such

la

,

di

,

)

(

."

&

581

&

,

&

,

,

di

in

in

, &

...

,

la

: “

,

,

di

,

,

&

,

,

de

,

&

, o

(

L'Erofilomachia 1578 A9 non debbe esser Comedia imitatione piu ribaldi come par che noti parola paulotépwv che vuol dire huomini huomini piu tristi piu vili piu bassi ma persone comparatione quelle che sonno introdotte nella Regi Tragedia Prencipi bassi abietti essendo essa Tragedia introdotti altre persone grandissimi stati nella Comedia introducendosi huomini humile con 17 ditione come sono Gentilhuomini Cittadini priuati

POETIC THEORY

...

The point is restated later ( p. b ), and Pino adds the judgment that the actions of tragedy are , in the last analysis, more wicked than those of comedy, whose heroes are not necessarily characterized by greater vices , greater crimes , or worse actions ; they are merely of inferior station . The question thus arises with respect to the kind of “ badness " to be attributed to comic characters , and again Pino gives Aristotle's answer : is

is ,

by

,

.

its

,

of

(

),

by ,

,

comedy are developed more

of

a

or

this ugliness and

...

pleasure.33

definition

the following passage

by

Nor

fruitful

:

in of

generate any praiseworthy

The nature specifically

or

is ,

,

to

is

as a

is

of

if

in

even Aristotle the Poetics says almost openly that the subject upon which comedy rests the whole argument vice called him kakia such vice not result totally that which the contrary virtue but rather that which opposed beauty that ugliness deformity vice cannot nature

,

an

as

to in

is

to

.

of in

its

”

as

to

it of

...

. 34

,

terror

its

to

pity and

“

”

is

to

“

in a

;

of

as

by

"

“

ugly are we always understand what dishonest and obscene always have the themselves such words obscene and dishonest meaning ugly that which does not have parts evil but we must take proportion and proper relationship Comedy therefore imitation persons and actions lower and more abject than those which are described tragedy and laughter and pleasure just tragedy moves must move

for

in

in

its

is

.

, it is

of

;

it

is

fairly correct understanding Pino's Aristotelianism thus mixed wrong the ridiculous and the ugly affirmation that the differ ences between tragic and comic characters are exclusively social differences RICCO BONI

constituting appear

its

the Poetics

in

work

to ,

Antonio Riccoboni's

on

)

(

1579

totality

of ,

at ,

of

a

;

sit

:

by set a

to

a

to

in

,

in

in

in

"

the Cinquecento

.

,

resembles

it

in

“

of

the Latin Piccolomini's that was published two stages translation professed Padua and the Poetics first then commentary Riccoboni had 1579 he added volume which also contained his translation the following prefatory Rhetoric the items related the Poetics notice pars logicae entitled Quomodo ars poetica brief Variae quaedam the last

great commentaries

33

to

of

.

a

re

,

a

;

;

marginal topical lectiones translation into Latin accompanied headings and treatise De comica The lengthy commentary was not appear until 1585. But the preliminary notice 1579 examines the argu

il

,

,

,

( sic )

tal

lui

da

di

,

è

. . . .

, ò

la

,

è in

è'l

,

: “

., .p

Ibid A11 se bene Aristotile nella Poetica quasi alla scoperta dice che'l soggetto vitio non detto kanda vitio cui s'appoggia tutto l'argomento della Comedia perciò totalmente quello che contrario alla virtù ma quel che s'appone alla bellezza cioè brutezza deformità vitio non puo sua natura generare piacere alcuno

)

(

582

.

,

la

of

and full

:

di

,

&

piu

&

,

,

piu

al

di

e

&

al

very bad throughout

&

,

ha le

da

The text

is

."

&

,

,

a

il

di si

,

,

da

la

&

l'errore

.

alla misericordia errors

&

Ne

."

: “

,

.pp

,

. se ,

34

si E

...

&

fruttuoso per brutto Ibid A9v A10v dee sempre intendere dishonesto l'osceno che per stesse tali parole d'osceno dishonesto hanno sempre significato male prendere quel che non corrispondenti ma per brutto l'ha sue parti proportionate adunque persone Comedia vna imitatione cose vile abiette che piacere come Tragedia non descrivono nella Tragedia debbe muouere riso lodeuole

typographical

POETICS : EFFECT OF LITERARY QUARRELS those who had previously studied the relationship

of

ments

of poetry to

logic : Bartolomeo Lombardi, who had maintained that poetry uses both the enthymeme and the example , just as rhetoric does ; and Iacopo Zaba

authority

so

he

all

,

at

is

his

he

.

to

art

rella , who , in his Logic , had held that poetry teaches by using examples of things or actions ( rather than words ) and that any belongs which does logic Riccoboni astonished the latter argument since believes —

.

in

delimit further the role common with rhetoric

to

“

is

A

poetry

:

35

. "

of

in to

in

its

by

-

on

he

of

—

rhetoric helps him has certain things

Poetry indeed

“

cites Aristotle

the words which express

He

in

as

argumentation takes place that things rather than the things themselves agrees with Zabarella poetry uses syllogism and para one point purpose saying that logism but would revise the position reasoning powers comparison with teach the use imitation and

;

is

of

a

in

.

.

,

its

is

to

;

,

to is

of

,

as

,

to

of

,

of ,

of

to

". 36

is .

itself

to

proper The common ones are sententiae character and diction the proper plot present arguments one One the functions sententiae part but according the Poetics this function more properly aug appealing rhetoric are the other tasks the passions and menting and diminishing The only way which poetry will properly belong logic through one distinctive element plot Now Aristotle certain others

of

to

:

.

it is is

as

,

to

logic nevertheless called logic just also ;

be

may

to of

,

, .

in to be a

it is

;

of of to

,

it is

it of

over language and the order logic because one device

not belong

contains not only the demonstrative discourse logic but also character and passions and more parts nevertheless part said Similarly poetry demonstration addition

the case with rhetoric which through which assigned

its

in

it

has many things which some outstanding aspect

it do

a

of

is

of

a

is

art

;

For although sufficient that

,

of

that recognition and reversal are beautiful parts the plot that recognition involves syllogism which proper kind the art part logic Riccoboni concludes consequently poetry this indicates

is of

in of

,

,

;

ter

,

is

in

sententia which has common with rhetoric treats not only plot whose most important part which called recognition needs the syllogism but also charac and diction and harmony and spectacle nevertheless because one form

36 35

of to

,

,

it

a

be

it

to

to

in

is

in

plot construction and instruction reasoning which employed whose use pertinent the extreme the plot itself seemed the great philosopher part logic.37 Averroës and others that should called ."

in

: "

), .p

."

:

ad

.

&

,

,

: re “

,

,

:

Ac

: “

in .pp

ut .,

37

.

., .p

(

Aristotelis ars poetica 1579 378 docere vsum ratiocinandi imitatione Ibid 378 Poetica quidem habet quaedam sibi communia cum Rhetorica quaedam propria Communia sunt sententia mores dictio propria est fabula Logicam Ibid 382–83 Nam tametsi multa habeat quae non pertinent tamen

,

ac

,

;

&

,

&

,

.

:

,

ad

,

,

aliqua praecipua appellari Logica possit quemadmodum etiam euenit sufficit quae non solam continet oratoriam demonstrationem propter quam reducitur Rhetoricae Logicam praeterea elocutionem partium disposi sed simul mores affectus tionem tamen dicitur pars Logicae propter unum artificium demonstrationis Sic Poetica praeter sententiam quam ipsa habet cum Rhetorica communem cuius praecipua pars quae dicitur agnitio indiget syllogismo

, ,

&

,

,

)

ab

,

."

(

583

fit in ,

,

;

,

:

,

&

ad &

ab

&

,

,

,

non unam fabulam tractat sed mores quoque dic apparatum tamen propter unam ratiocinationem quae tionem harmoniam fabula cuiusque usum docere ipsam potissimum spectat videtur Auerroe maximo philosopho aliis fuisse pars Logicae appellata

POETIC THEORY The reference to Averroës indicates his continued influence , even late in the century , on the interpretation of the Poetics . The " variae lectiones" are few in number and not of any great originality .

of

justifies his choice, at various difficult points in the the solutions proposed by his predecessors , and he does so

merely

Riccoboni text ,

of

one

).

is

.

”

(p

in

of

;

as at

at

alij

of

to

to

a

of

.

it

,

of

“

is it by

,

as

he

cos

largely to explain why he translated as he did . Sometimes his decisions are good, as when he discards the troublesome Trépo 1448a15 elsewhere adopts đupotépois they are bad place when 1447a20 dià Tñs owvñs and translates autem vtrisque 386 Their total effect upon the translation small Riccoboni's translation itself charac vulgarization teristic his times for constitutes kind the Latin

of

of

of

.

.

He makes every effort render his version accessible the reader Marginal notations summarize the content passages the adjacent the kind notations that readers earlier translations and commentaries text

.

of

)

at

,

”

,

vel

(

,

,

”

,

“

,

.

"

;

by

,

a

—

in

to

running index had write for themselves and provide sort Moreover they frequently raise the problems which were most discussed the commentators for example opposite the sentence 1447a28 Epopoeia vero solum sermonib metris Riccoboni writes nudis Quidam exponunt uel pro Idest thus raising the moot question about

Immediately afterward the margin bears this query An Epopoeia possit fieri soluta oratione making the same question even more specific the times conveniently numbered lists are added 386 margins and wherever feasible Riccoboni inserts references works cited up

: “

.

,

to

to

At

.

).

(p

",

.

,

prose and verse

to

tragedy appears

as an

of

,

of

the definition

Est igitur Tragedia imitatio

.

):

(

.p

.

,

almost tabular effect For example follows 392

,

&

,

actionis probae perfectae

habentis

,

magnitudinem

in of

Many

.

.

agentib

&

,

metum inducens talium perturbationum

purga

.

tionem

were dropped when the text was

these mechanical devices

re

,

.

of

but some them were expanded and exploited may think that we state thus Riccoboni's principles for the translation To achieve Latin version simpler and more readable than those hereto adopt fore available means the translation itself firm stand on 1587

)

584

(

render apparent

The first

of

.

to ,

;

possible

the original work

of

,

as

the text

the order the parts and the method

,

a

of

by

disputed questions

of

the

,

;

of

as

many

to

a

:

I

printed

in

&

sed per misericordiam

partib

,

7. 6.

,

suaui sermone separatim singulis formis non per enarrationem

8.

5. 4. 3. 2. 1.

to

,

,

so

up

.

,

is

The text broken into major sections according Riccoboni's own division unnumbered but clearly titled Paragraphs and sentences are also produce broken sometimes with the addition numbers

these

1 POETICS : EFFECT

OF LITERARY QUARRELS

words

farfetched

bybe

a

as it is

)

(

Vt

& in

ita

sermone

.

& ,

Vt

;

.

,

,

dictis artibus accidit etenim omnes imitationem exercent numero dico harmonia hisque uel separatim uel promiscue

,

:

illi ,

,

,

imitantur

enim coloribus atque figuris pleraque quidam aemulantes quidem arte consuetudine quoque nonnulli etiam uoce 39 :

, , p hi .

Maggi

:

by

a

in

of

.

of

;

at

adopts

,

style

all

all

flourishes

uniform terminology ambiguity which eliminates and doubt The results this effort may passage following comparison handled 1447a18 the seen Maggi and Riccoboni useless attempts

variety and sonority

,

word order ; he eliminates

he of

of devices . Riccoboni simplifies Latin way word order in such a as to make it almost as straightforward as Italian all

ends is obtained through a number

figuris multa imitantur aliqui effi partim vero per consuetudinem alij autem vtrisque sic dictis artibus omnes quidem faciunt imitationem aut mixtis harmonia atq his separatim oratione numero

in ;

,

&

,

,

.

,

to

but something more palatable

the Italian reader

we

,

Latinity has suffered

.

;

&

&

,

:

in

,

:

,

.p

Riccoboni 386 enim coloribus giem exprimentes partim quidem per artem

of

”

"

at

“

and

"

meliores

humiliores

by

"

and

"

by .

,

praestantiores

"

Maggi translates

1448a4 and -a17

the first place

"

”

“

worse

deteriores

"

"

and

at at

,

.

,

of

terminology may take the case For consistency the crucial words Betiovas and xeipovas which Aristotle uses for better has been achieved

prejudicing the interpretation whereas Riccoboni throughout peiores As for the second the main objectives make the translation kind interpretation have seen that Riccoboni times obliged resort his marginalia for clarifications Thus 1448a4 having trans

(

to

is

,

,

of

).

,

.p

(

”

,

:

in

,

"

“

nos

id

'

nuãts

secundum

,

“

...

ñ

explains nos the margin est quàm homines praesentis aetatis uel quàm homines communes quales nos sumus 387 This course leaves lated

quàm secundum

he

by

.

at

—

to

kal

at

a

to

—

.

”

of “

and

we

”

“

meliores

of

uses

);

thereby

the second

ad :

"

,

:

-

,

on

,

,

.

,

vt

quam duplicem

,

.

magis

,

esse

quidam

& , &

.

&

,

&

,

simplicem

fabulam

dicunt

by

).

.

( p

habentem 401

ex

&

,

in

in

,

,

Est autem talis qui neque virtute praestat iustitia Neque propter vitium prauitatem mutatur aduersam fortunam sed propter errorem aliquem Eorum qui sunt magna existimatione fortunae prosperitate cuiusmodi Oedipus Thyestes qui talibus familijs illustres uiri sunt Necesse enim est egregie

se

as

a

in

I

;

.”

In

"

,

de

in

.

is

at

de

,

“

ad

,

405

;

of to

the reader other points the stand much clearer On page two the requisites for character are explained the margin quibus alij scripserunt Aequalitas Similitudo refertur eos quibus nos primum scribimus eos the text itself the renderings may seem unremarkable but such passage that the tragic hero the words that have italicized constitute decisions on much debated issues the choice

of

is

)

(

585

.

,

,

of

up

is

of

,

,

largely reached The third objective concerning order and method already means the mechanical devices mentioned the main one which the breaking the text into short numbered sentences

POETIC

THEORY

re comica ( expanded and republished in 1585 as the Ars , comica ) Riccoboni had before him the example of Robortello's De comoedia , printed as an adjunct to the 1548 commentary on the Poetics ; he could also consult , on a more limited subject, the De ridiculis which

For his De

a

to

on

it

.

in a

of

,

a

,

in

of to

of

in

,

to

its

Maggi added to his own volume in 1550. But whereas Robortello spends most of his time in a paraphrase of the Poetics , making a few alterations principles comedy and retailing to adapt the traditional saws Maggi about the form and whereas leaves these things aside order write treatise on laughter Riccoboni addresses himself the task constructing comedy He bases new art Aristotle's statements

is ,

,

the method are less well developed

1579 than they

in

,

,

of

of )

will

1585

his

be

qualitative parts quantitative parts and pointed out here that the conception and the

.

in

.

,

definition should

53

.p

its

:

,

II,

of

.

to in

of is

to

application

comedy

be its

it

,

as

of

his

the ridiculous

It

its

a

to

(

to

he

of

as

general about poetry well about tragedy and the epic and springs conception from his total Aristotle's method the Poetics That apply Aristotle's basic distinctions attempts the treatment the quoted above Chapter comic genre statement intentions single chapter and devote each the major subjects the origin

"

:

“

,

to

,

by

of

,

language

means

the dance

,

of

by

made

,

a

on of

of

action

.

,

,

a

;

, “

it is is its

poem

defective

to

an

in

,

the theater

prose

instrument and fails

com

.

,

,

mand an audience assembled

all

in

is

He holds that any poem too weak

for comedy moreover prose

in is

39

vestment

."

or

of

,

he

,

.

is

in

,

of

38

his

."

to

he

of

,

on As of

matter consisting that Riccoboni elaborates his gloss this one the current debates concerning comedy the means imitation He states that prose not acceptable Distinguishing between usage which authorizes prose and reason which poetic genres argues that verse necessary does not not because proper instrument poetry but because verse constitutes the nature

,

and harmony

: “

in

is

is

, It

.

an

as

"

“

a

in

."

of

"

is

imitation which through the mode laughter vice which moves position definition reveals defined

of

as

,

,

of

to

point departure the laus vituperatio Riccoboni seems take classify hymns and encomia distinction Averroës which permits him then tragedy and the epic under laus iambic songs and comedy under subcategory Comedy belongs vituperatio forms which blame fairly rudimentary terms Comedy means the ridiculous defined

38

,

).

.p

:

he

,

",

” “

,

of

of

the

"

as

is

”

(“

of

Riccoboni's discussion the qualitative parts revolves largely about plot composition fabula defined the materials which imitates actions performed outside the stage Fabula est rerum com positio quae actiones extra scenam habitas imitatur 442 And for plot establishes eight requisites

sit

."

,

)

(

. "

586

,

,

fit

,

,

sit

vt

,

,

in

: "

: “

, . , .p

39

,

., .p

quae Ibid 438 Definitur Comoedia imitatio sermone saltatione har materia eius vitij quod mouet risum monia per modum actiuum proprium instru Ibid 439 non quòd versus constituat naturam poesis sed quia mentum uel uestimentum eius

POETICS : EFFECT OF LITERARY QUARRELS 1. Debet esse tota ;

habere ;

2. Debet congruentem magnitudinem 3. Debet esse una ; 4. Debet esse verisimilis ; 5. Non debet esse episodica ; 6. Debet esse admirabilis ;

7. Debet esse implexa ; 8. Debet esse affecta , vt moueat laetitiam , & molestiam

(pp .

442-45 ).

of

all

The list of requisites recalls the lists of criteria for plot currently being applied in the literary quarrels. For Riccoboni , the oneness and the whole ness are among the primary considerations , and they are conceived of in a way which shows his indebtedness to Castelvetro . A comic action may be many thought of, he says , as a larger one which contains the events .

of

)

is

).

It

.p

(

be

:

(

we

,

an

"

“

,

a

a

is

is

to

as a

,

or

days smaller one which contains only the events the last day The comic plot restricted this totum parvum -which nevertheless complete and has beginning middle and end 443 arguments essentially the audience recognize and here Castelvetro's which imposes these restrictions upon the plot to

,

of

.

,

or

of

is

en

we

.

it

their human needs And thus one the comic plot one two hours nor

hours because

must maintain that the time proper should exceed twelve hours

to

number

of

the theater after

a

of

.

in

to

,

in

a

It

must have suitable magnitude order neither too small nor too large but adapted viewing that time which the spectators can easily support For one must take into account the ease the public and the people must leave

so

of

of of

.

be

”

a

:

of

40

."

in

of

It

: “

“

of

Riccoboni then provides the most succinct statement have far countered the three unities -one which makes unity action depend upon the other two must one ... Moreover the time twelve place does not permit hours and the narrowness multitude actions comedy He distinguishes three kinds verisimilitude universal

),

in

a

of

",

“

at

,

of

at

.

by

).

.

fall into purgation

,

ad

,

ut

Debet congruentem magnitudinem habere nec perexigua nec per eius temporis prospectum quod fert commodum specta commodi popularis habeatur necesse habeat populus post aliquot

sed accommodata

&

actionum

)

587

(

multitudinem

&

,

,

. .

..

...

Comedia

."

in

.

,

.

de

,

cum ratio horas theatro propter humanas necessitates discedere Itaque tempus fabulae comicae accommodatum necesse vnius aut duarum horarum nec duodecimam praeterire censendum Tempus autem duodecim horarum angustia loci non permittit cst Debet esseuna ,

torum

(p

of

,

443

445

: “

. sit , , .p

40

Ibid

magna

wickedness

to

us

;

of

of

,

our marveling

wickedness teaches not The dual poetic ends and moral instruction are thus both served the marvelous similar forms

on

”

a

,

on

;

of

or

in

“

.

of

a

the other hand

),

a

in

be

(

lar

(

to

many persons particu those things which might happen verisimilitude which must nevertheless treated universal way and verisimilitude which consists the giving names befitting the qualities quality usually character The admirabilis marvelous peculiar function associated with tragedy and the epic has Riccoboni's conception comedy the one hand through our marveling some deception ridiculous deception we are purged that same kind verisimilitude

of

charac

,

as

a

,

goodness

”

thinks

the four

obsequiousness

“

of

harshness

"

. “

apparent that Riccoboni

in

-

to

a

as

.

of

:

in

—

—

term for the virtues The second requisite appropriateness the usual components decorum And the third likeness meaning conformity understood two ways either the

all be

cludes may

qualities

—such

.

general

is

.

It

boastfulness

badness

as

“

ter becomes

"

to

,

Just as the requisites for plot are drawn from the Poetics comedy Goodness requirements for character are adapted

so

all

POETIC THEORY

for

(

as

of

or

,

( .pp

”

. “

is a

to

a

,

,

)

-

a

literary tradition associated with given character implying present day personages conformity the conventions comic types Consistency warning against any Pantaleone Gianni Graziano ).

.

he

,

is

to

He begins

of

of

it .

.

he

, a

,

its

all

,

of

in

of

character throughout the course the play 446-47 Ricco average position for the boni represents regarding character kind period with says about the remain doubts and hesitations What ing qualitative parts and about the quantitative parts repeats the Poetics without interpreting On the subject the ridiculous Riccoboni somewhat more original change

is a a

it

"

as

,

of

,

a

41

be

no

of

of

:

.”

of

,

of

of

a

” : “

,

,

of

,

course with Aristotle's statement which adds laughter derived from very learned man ... joy which the soul makes through the dilatation sign the heart coming spirits longer from the liberation the which can contained the happy things triumphs image Such definition course departs

definition

of

.

,

,

a

know

;

:

of

of

those things that people ordinarily

turning

events against

of

from

a

or

,

;

456

).

from accident

.

another

(p

of

one that comes from the trickery

or

their author 4.

of in

,

a

One that comes from ignorance

one that comes from false opinion one that comes from misunderstanding ;

3. 2. 1.

;

in

,

it

to

,

on

,

from the materials the Poetics and Riccoboni admits that his sources the ridiculous are Aristotle's Rhetoric Cicero Maggi and Castiglione way not unlike that He finds useful enumerate Aristotle treating the tragic plot the kinds wickedness that will arouse laughter comedy each springs from deception kind

,

on as

.

on

,

so

be

first attempt and just the full commentary by

be

was merely

supplemented

the transla

to

.

a

;

of

at

of

a

re

so

the Poetics benefit from the same time comica was the De few years later his broader understanding his basic text the Ars comica 1585 becomes much more learned document

,

1579 was

to

of

,

, it

Riccoboni however tion

a

to

of

"

“

of

,

as

In

of

spite such adventures these into other topics and other sources Riccoboni follows closely the text his model creating thereby the first closely ars comica the century based Aristotle For

CA. 1580

)

(

DELLA POETICA

on

its

in

,

.”

rei

)

(

588

cordis

ex

of

an

,

: "

signum laetitiae quod facit animus per dilatationem 453 qui vincente imagine laetae contineri non possunt

., .p

Ibid

resolutione

,

41

,

in

manuscript The Biblioteca Nazionale Florence possesses anonymous translation Magliabechi VII 437 and commentary spirituum

POETICS : EFFECT OF LITERARY QUARRELS

of the Poetics , entitled simply Della poetica. I have not yet been able to assign even an approximate date to the work , although its

or of to its

the first part

,

an

by

a

is

unfair

there are

to

be

say

no

,

he

its as

have are clumsy and confused and would not author usually does less well than his predecessors decidedly superior suggestion passages makes which

tion

that

;

it .

of

)

is

it

(

we

,

to

,

to

.

or

of

it

It

of

procedure and method central preoccupations would lead me place giving either parts essentially paraphrase around 1580. the Greek text sections Italian translation followed more less extensive explanatory remarks The fragment covers the text from the beginning apparently one folio missing 1450a7 then since there from 1450a18 145064 where ends abruptly Such parts the transla

.

a

fair proportion

,

of

,

the commentary

.

of

a

occupy

, of

—

of

.

if

—

;

in

,

all

is a

his

in

On the other commentary very typical one for the period wrestling with many cases his arguments and analyses the current problems and are original not always completely convincing punctuation Linguistic matters meaning questions syntax and hand

The author's speculations

.

and

)

11v

if if

of

.

fol .

(

istrioni

33v

”

“

mean

”

mimi

),

said

( fol .

to

1448a23

1449631 means

“

at

MIMOUHÉVOUS

TTPÓTTOVTES

is

at

of

,

of

,

of of

words reflect the uncertainty which still prevailed even the century over the sense the text Many the meanings assigned affect directly the interpretation the Poetics Thus

about meanings toward the end

one will necessarily think

of

if

at

,

,

be a

to

in

“

,

at

.

fol .

'

21 ”; ),

co

,

"

at

so ).

depend upon syntactical matters copulative with the force tive

“

(

”

byis "

as a

“

.

"

(

in

se

un

in

“

by

of

"

is

as

.

be

as

as

of of

acted rather than written and the nature the object imitation may misunderstood Similarly aŭtooXEDICOUÓTwv meaning in rude verses 1448623 taken versi rozzi the author specifically rejects allo improviso translation then the poetry with verse identification further stressed The author's purely lexical difficulties are exemplified the word deukoy papnoas 145062 dipingesse translated bianco and glossed with come dipingere muro bianco fols 20–20v Elsewhere the work interpretations the tragedy

at “

is

Ñ

,

;

in

."

of “

is

At

;

it

in

a

,

"

taken correc length The author insists citing passage from the Nicomachean Ethics upon this meaning cor depends large part his thesis that verse roboration for upon indis 1447a29

or rather

di in

go

“

in

"

;

in

,

an

at

, of

.

,

of

is

suggestion for poetry least one excellent made for punctuation that separating OpcóVtWv 1449625 from the rest the independent phrase sentence making possible the translation coloro che negotiono scena but the author does not far enough pensable

arte poetica

",

"

and

"

poesia

,

" "

589

)

(

poema

,

, of

.

the old distinction among

"

,

a

In

to

,

of

in

32 ).

,

di

.

(

"

“

et la

,

of

reorganizing the sentence and the last part the definition still reads purgatione et facendo tali passioni non per narratione ma per paura misericordia fol The imperfect readings the Greek text many still account for hesitations and long passages the paraphrase are devoted their explanation prologue brief the author the paraphrase tackles two problems and

POETIC

THEORY

content and organization of the Poetics . The

the essential

poetica ,"

“ arte

as a treatise on the art , will have to offer a definition of poetry , one which will define the species by giving the genus and the differentiae ; it will also have to analyze completely the differences. The author believes is accomplished in the first part

of definition

task

of

that the

the Poetics, which is

to be taken rather as a “ propositione ” than as a “ proemio , ” since it does not attempt to gain the reader's attention . Because the work fails to define " imitation , ” an integral part of the later definitions , the author does so himself (relying , he says , upon Plato ) :

of one thing to another and of

“

Imitation then is an assimilating

a false one to a true . ” 42 In the paraphrase

itself , the author ( who here resembles Sassetti) is very sensitive to the kind of methodological questions raised in the prologue . He divides the work

into a proposition ( extending

to 1447a28 ) and a narration and finds that

the first part indicates

to

2v )

The universals are ones which are most known men but men already know the particulars from Thus Aristotle begins from universals assumes tragedies the epic the Poetics already knows comedies .

he

,

if

,

,

that the reader

,

of

: “

,

nature least known which they derive

;

(

to

the Physics

fol .

that Aristotle will treat of poetry - rather than of the “art ”—and that the whole of the Poetics will offer precepts for the poet . It will pass from the universal to the particular , which is the proper order of science as Aristotle himself distinguishes it in the Posterior Analytics and

;

of

43

,

to

."

is

it

of

and dithyrambs and the other species imitations whence one concludes necessary that have heard and read the poets otherwise one cannot approach this study .

,

of

).

4,

.

on

(

is

of

-

much

,

its

is

in

especially interested definitions He the constitution The author points out carefully how Aristotle first establishes the genus poetry tragedy then differentiae and later how the definition derived from preceding universals about genus and differentiae fols comedy 30v He warns the reader against taking Aristotle's statements

...

At

he

he

be

;

its

: “

at

as a

1449a31 definition this can seen because many things are lacking which should enter into does not do this when definition

to its

to

us

,

he

a

” 45

is .

,

it

: "

...

it

of

of

to

.”

,

he

to

44

but rather does not omit any single thing 1449631 calls the attention the reader the passage from definition discus sion the component parts and the reason why Aristotle now proceeds whole when we know all for we then know well the latter parts which parts make what Contrariwise warns not defines tragedy

si

,

e

de

e

,

et

,

ad

un

, ,

'

,

, le

sia

,

le

si

la

,

." un

)

590

(

fa

ci

,

31 .

sa

, . il

la

si

, le

."

si

: “

: “

fol .

."

, le

è

. 1 : “ :

. se "

ne (

à

.

) le

,

,

se

.,

. 3 : “

., .,

.

43 44

45

et

.

42

assimigliare una cosa MS Magl VII 437 fol L'imitazione dunque un'altra una falsa ad una vera Ibid fol cosi Arist incomincia dagl uniuersali presuppone che allo auditore tragedie l'epopeia dithirambicj della Poetica gia siano note comedie l'altre specie Poetj altrimenti non bisogno hauere udito d'imitatione onde caua che letto questa lettione puo accostare puo uedere perche quali douer Ibid fols 26–26v questo mancono molte cose tragedia non rebbono entrare nella sua diffinitione che quando diffinisce cosi anzi Cf. fol non lascia cosa ueruna indietro perche all'hora Ibid 33v bene tutto quando conoscono tutte sue parti quali parti sono quelle che fanno quale

fol .

POETICS : EFFECT OF LITERARY QUARRELS

a

to

do

.

is

of

a

19 ),

fol .

,

a

parts something which is not (

(

method

he

to

respect

36 .)

Finally with priori and distinguishes between Aristotle's keeping his reader again with posteriori arguments view organized and presented constantly aware how the text

of

take as a treatment

,

,

as

,

it

;

of

its

to

he

"

of

.

of

as

,

,

As was the case with Sassetti however these scruples about method not prevent the author from reading the Poetics pretty much his pre decessors had done The definition imitation was we have seen one the universals most needed for the understanding Aristotle's text yet does not hesitate take over directly from Plato without inquiry

.

,

is

"

”

or

)

(

,

1 ,

of

as

margin

).

”

( fol .

dramatic manner

of

a

totle's use the designation

“

of of

,

,

in

."

“

to

to

,

he

to

of

appropriateness into the particular circumstances the Poetics necessary for imitation Moreover declares that wūdos favola identify poetry with mythology following Plato and this permits him and find this identification the reason for Aristotle's insistence upon fiction He does not however fall into the usual confusion over the excluding from Aris various possible meanings the word imitation He

sees ,

;

The case

is

14 ).

(

of fol .

,

,

called efficient causes

he

)

of

.

in

be

them must

up

him : "

that both

of

of

(

in

,

is

,

he

poetry imitation one the two natural causes but the other one says rhythm not the pleasure found imitation Taking issue with the position found also Sassetti's manuscript Sposizione that one poetry the other the efficient argues these constitutes the final cause

clear

of

is

is a

,

in

is

46

of

."

;

of

in

us

these two natural causes are made

of ,

imitation and rhythm composed because imitation and rhythm are natural and poetry rhythm part poetry imitation and for rhythm verse which along with imitation for

so

as

,

in

is

by in

;

in

is

The last the preceding assertions line with the author's constant every relevant passage affirmation that poetry and verse are inseparable frequently been interpreted they had the Poetics this sense ,

: “

we

,

is

a

in '

“

;

3v )

is fol .

(

”

to

.

,

If

.

5v )

.fol

(

"

of

his contemporaries From the very beginning when the means imita imply verse quando dice oratione tion are identified language said parlar intende sempre metrica the phrase later becomes general statement may find one metrico needed

is

which poetry

47

distinguished

46

is

he

,

the

.

a

somewhat conventional way objects imitation These are

of

his

in

the author treats the means more original treatment

of in

If

.

Metrical language thus becomes the means from kindred imitations

by

.'

"

his

of

it is

,

be a

: “

connection with 1447b14 But we must not think therefore that the poet poet without verse because can one differences through which he becomes different from those who imitate without verse

da

'l

il

si

]

[

di ,

." et

et

è

la

, et

è

è

,

la

591

fa

: "

Tv : il “ rh [i ]

è

.,

. "

'I

,

47

,

in

. .

.,

queste due cagioni naturali siano fatte dall'imitatione Ibid fol 14v dal rhithmo perche l'imitatione e'l rhithmo sono poesia composta d'imitatione noi naturali rhithmo perche thmo nel uerso che parte della poesia insieme con l'imitatione Ibid poeta possa essere poeta senza fol Ma non bisogna però pensare che quale quelli che imitano senza uerso perche una sua differenza per differente uerso

.

set

order that examples

:

,

identified as “ passions , characters , and actions " ( we may know what these are the author gives

of In

THEORY us .fol a 3v )

POETIC

,

;

,

:

as

of

is

;

9 )

of

( fol .

“

or

“

of

,

he

,

"

:

is

to

"

of

by

.

.

as

of

the end

,

is

of

as

tragedy such comedy statement made about the ridiculous the end On both them the author makes fairly extensive remarks Having said that purga putting pity and fear into the souls tion operates the listeners obliged explain his meaning is

specifically identified

no

us .

"

"

"

or

"

“

” ;

.” : 48

,

of

an

of

,

of

,

,

;

,

,

,

,

,

”

-

,

to

an

,

“

“

While purgation

,

are fear hope love and the like the characters strong generous audacious just unjust prodigal temperate intemperate the perform timidity and the like actions act fortitude act interpreted Aristotle's three way division the objects follows men better than ourselves are heroes and sons the gods and semi gods men worse than ourselves are the very avaricious the very stupid comedy the very unfortunate men but we are not told who are like The passions

of

,

if

to

,

;

of

,

we

being

of

In

,

us ,

so to

by

.

us

how

we have formed the habit

much fear the second book the remove bad passions from our breast

to

Aristotle teaches

in ,

Rhetoric putting

us

,

so

do

terrible and horrible things happen they afraid and not give

by

,

In

us

.

to

,

,

;

so

,

.

by

it is a

to

,

be

... pity can good and bad and also fear for we are afraid certain things which virtue fear Tragedy therefore puts into our breasts the good pity which we drive out pitilessness cruelty and other similar passions which are contrary driving out from our breasts the good pity the same way get used being afraid whence certain passions which make insolent

.

good ones5.49

of

.

is

ff .

also derived from

of

in

.)

.

in

( of

spirit from that the body The latter opposition Plato the Laws fol 27v Perhaps the most elaborate set distinctions ,

—

of

.

is

,

of

—

its

at

by

of

-

in in

of

purgation are thus indirect and they make permanent changes the moral well being the spectator The ridiculous not considered laughter but the except terms effects for the general one author concerns himself rather with distinctions among the terms used Aristotle 1449a33 and with separating the ridiculousness the The effects

this anonymous

of

,

on

of

we

of if

,

:

: i

et

similj speranza l'amore costumi l'ationj operare temperato intemperato ,

timore prodigo

,

, il

di ,

,

5v : “

, .

,

.,

48

Ibid fol Le passioni sono forte liberale audace giusto ingiusto timidità un'atto fortezza uno atto

." , , la

,

a

of

.

be

to

of

paraphrase the Poetics relates the qualitative parts character and thought The initial distinctions will clearest assume the part separation between the world reality and the world the author

,

nel

)

(

592

,

.

ci

,

se ci

'

ci

buone

."

le

doci

' , le et

[ z ]

, ci

,

et ci

,

,

, et

la

ci

la

,

'

,

la

è

'

,

, le

et

&

,

– 33 : “ la

.

.,

ha 49

la si

di

simili paura perche Ibid fols 32v misericordia puo esser buona cattiua cosi qual temendo paura d'alcune cose tragedia adunque petto uirtù mette misericordia buona con laquale noi scacciamo l'impietà crudeltà simili altre passioni lequali sono contrarie alla misericordia buona cosi scacciando dal petto alcune passioni che sopraggiungono cose terribili fanno essere insolenti aue ziamo hauer paura onde spauenteuoli habbiamo fatto l'uso nell'hauer paura cosi non danno tanto spauento insegna cauar Nel secondo della Rethorica Aristotile cattiue passioni del petto metten

POETICS : EFFECT OF LITERARY QUARRELS

art ,

art , which becomes later a separation between things and words . The true actions of reality are represented by the feigned actions of a tragedy. Actions are performed by agents , and insofar as agents have habits of the soul which determine their actions, they have character ; in the work of

of

“

is

”

"

of

35

( of

,

,

.

in

,

is

it

,

ignorant

that these two ,

,

,

prudent imprudent sagacious

as “

in

agent will

necessary

the

is

is

,

of

is

in

An

tragedy be

or ."

be

there

malicious stupid

as

are actions

there

.

principles

the composite the actions intelligence speaking and taking counsel character

or

If

appetite

,

of

The plot

the intellect

50

action

act

: "

to

" )

“

). in to

-

.

to

,

of

is

to

(

of

tragedy

"

“

or

making fols 34v Another way thought appetitive the distinction refer character and the and the any intellective principles the soul which combine the production action These principles give respectively character and thought now intelligenza called and the author summarizes thus their relationship dianea

marginalia

,

in

,

.

of

”

“

”

or

,

be

character will manifested through language and this the char tragedy Agents also have habits acter orazione morata the soul which account for their reasoning and their speech and when these thought are expressed through language the work they become the

these qualities are present

in

a

of

.

,

”

in

"

“

,

his and manifest his actions Throughout the discussion the philosophical kind which author makes underlying assumptions intelligence

wise

his attitudes toward art and nature and toward the specific the Poetics

determine

.

of

problems

is

in

;

re

,

to

as a

of

is

of

study Plato rather than Aristotle the main topic Girolamo Dialogo poetico Frachetta's del furore 1581 but since Aristotle used rebuttal Plato's various charges against the poets some general

of

of

.

,

ideas about the Poetics emerge Moreover Frachetta examines and jects certain interpretations Castelvetro and Maggi and otherwise shows

no

.

;

to

its

,

of

,

is

.

in

himself touch with the Aristotelian tradition Unlike most those who pitted Aristotle against Plato Frachetta's principal concern not with poetry for moral education but rather with relationship the uses the truth Plato had condemned poetry for not representing the truth

as is as a

",

is

,

"

all ,

we

in

to

“

as

.

on be ,

to

“

as

,

if

“

in

as

to

it

supposed Aristotle says that has business with the truth For the poet things they they use his material should not are and rely thus we can no wise we want Aristotle designate good poet one who undertakes describe verse true things exactly a

a

is

,

in

.

,

." si

at

poet Indeed should not call him since truth apparently only different from probability and possibility This tenta tive position the dialogue for later the interlocutors argue that Aristotle they are

)

593

(

è

Se

ad

le

in

se ci

,

a

si

in

.”

.

è

Il

."

,

), .p

(

,

29 : “ ci

.

,

, è

le

51

,

è

il

35 : “

.

.,

50

componimento dell'ationi l'intelligenza fol La fauola l'atto dello come discorrere consigliarsi costume nello appetito nella tragedia sono ationi necessario che siano questi duoi principij Dialogo 1581 uogliamo appoggiare noi non potiamo modo niuno appellar buon poeta colui che prende Aristotele descriuere uersi cose uere per l'appunto come elle sono Ibid

intelletto

POETIC THEORY does permit the use

of known

events and real people in poetry . They go completely so far as to admit that the or even the partially invented plot , , epic tragedy in or in would be less desirable than that which was based on the truth : “ since the material of tragedy is things which can come

far a

...

the epic lead

"

;

by

or

to up

us

on

about , things which have already happened will be by more suitable imagined material than those thought the poet Aristotle's “

,

52

in

it :

of

in

of

. "

if

if

better

they are true than

it is

conclude that without doubt much they are not Thus the difference between poetry and history resides less the nature the matter than the way handling statements

of

...

it in

;

in or

in

and much more noteworthy

he

make

it

and

as

eliminations

to

means

as

of

,

by

polish

up

must strive

and otherwise

it

but

to

he

,

it

happened

additions

of

bit

,

,

an

or

of

which

in

in

things which happened the historian must write that exact manner any detail no matter how small which they happened without altering them without inserting the slightest his own invention whereas the tragic the epic poet taking event which occurred must not recount the way

can.53

opposition

he

,

of

of

rhetoric

by

in as

of

.

,

,

he

,

is

of to

a

in

of

poetry superior art The art this way becomes kind augment whose main function adorn and upon the ends necessity poetry Frachetta touches Plato and Aristotle and here finds the two authorities

seen

distinct

says proposes only one end for poetry and that

is he

us ,

in

)

of

(

54

."

if

as

by if

,

of

by

,

to

to

,

"

so

of

,

.

,

Aristotle everybody and give delight and recreation the minds poet people the common and the sometimes benefits supererogation and does accident He points out with insight acute historical that those who have found the double end pleasure and utility Aristotle have merely been concerned with making pleasure especially

,

Aristotle

:

by

,

?

of

be

.

,

us

do

to

do

,

us

,

,

be

it

of

86 : "

52

as

if

Nevertheless

recommended

say that horrible and pitiful things not only not make Plato thinks but rather bring about the exact opposite must understood that they this accidentally since through this kind which are placed before we become accustomed and

wished fearful and pitying the events

to to

which Plato had attacked seem he

as

passions

in

is

:

is

in

he

.

is

If

pleasure him agree with Horace the only end for Aristotle why then purgation tragedy does include the definition Frachetta's answer the standard one this done order contradict Plato and the very

,

" ;

o

sia ; o

in

,

da

le

in

,

di

le le

."

,

se

,

se le

88 : “

,

., .p

53

"

è

., .p

gran uantaggio piu Ibid essendo materia della tragedia cose aueneuoli pensate immaginate dal poeta conueneuol materia saranno cose già state che and senza fallo molto meglio son uere che non sono quella istessa guisa per l'ap Ibid l'historiſclo dee scriuere cose accadute punto che elle accaddettero senza uariare quanto che ella alcuna cosa senza tra

Et

.

quasi per accidente

. "

&

,

)

594

di ; , o

,

&

&

,

di

di

,

,

gli

ciò faccia per sopra derrata (

,

gioua

&

'

,

&

,

ci

che se'l poeta alcuna uolta

il

. la

di

,

&

90 : ." “

., .p

,

54

il

,

,

un

un

puntino poeta tragico l'epopeico pigliando metterci entro pur suo trouato oue ma dee sforzarsi con fatto auenuto non nel modo che succedette dec raccontarlo ripulirlo renderlo ragguardeuole con altro assai piu con aggiunte isminuimenti piu ch'ei può spetialmente del uulgo ciascuno animi dilettare ricrear Ibid

POETICS : EFFECT OF LITERARY QUARRELS little by little we free ourselves of such passions . And Aristotle's mind was so intent upon this matter , and he was so preoccupied with it , that he did not take care to include pleasure in that definition , even though he held it to be the prin cipal and almost the only end.55 the light

as ridiculous Maggi's purgation notion that Aristotle wishes to include the of anger , avarice , debauchery , and so forth . When he comes , finally to consider whether

In

of this interpretation , Frachetta brands

would or would not admit the presence of the divine furor in the poet, Frachetta expounds Aristotle's metaphysics to show that he would necessarily think of the poet's operations as natural , linked to the body and to the humors , and susceptible of a “divine " influence only in so far as the heavenly bodies which cause alterations in the humors Aristotle

may be said to be divine . CARRIERO AND BULGARINI ( 1582) contra l'opera di Dante

of Alessandro , Carriero ( 1582) is divided into two distinct sections the first entirely theoretical in nature , the second devoted to a discussion of the Divina Commedia . In the first , the Poetics supplies not only the essential theoretical basis but also the general plan of organization . However , Plato is frequently The Breve et ingenioso discorso

In

general

successively

examines

of

on

.

to

.

of

;

;

;

;

of

;

;

,

:

treatise

the narrative and dramatic manners

,

,

poetry

;

of

these matters divided respec tively into three and four kinds the qualitative parts the comparison comedy and tragedy the mixed poetry with history the use verse tragedy and epic manner divided into eight kinds and the comparison comparison history place The with serves and delimit the art the ends

outlines

his

its

consulted on points of detail and the doctrine shows many similarities to the current Horatian mode . Carriero is a lover of distinctions , and he tries everywhere to refine upon the divisions suggested by his authorities .

by

is

;

by

.

of

by

a

in

of

on

Carriero starts from Aristotle's differentiation between truth the one accompanied hand and verisimilitude and necessity the other this presentation difference order the events The second major

92 :

55

to

as ;

"

:

,

a

in

,

of

so

for

-

one should pass

the individual

,

of

stances and the minute particularities

;

he

as

be

he

of

,

of

he

in

of

he

if

poet

.

many actions lies the treatment the historian the one only This does not prevent the poet from being universal for way recounts the actions one man does such emphasize the general qualities example Ulysses that man nor indeed should considered was but leaving aside the circum difference

ci da

i il

,

ci

,

guisa sollecito hauesse per princi

fu in

&

,

.

il

)

595

(

di a

in

."

&

,

si

.

questo hebbe tanto Aristotile l'animo inteso cotai passioni ch'ei non curò mettere detta definitione diletto tutto che egli pale quasi per solo fine

lo

a

,

&

ci

,

,

,

ne a in

;

,

&

le

,

,

ci

Et

,

di

.

si

Il

,

& “

., .p

compassioneuoli Ibid Quasi dir uolendo che cose horribili non che faccino tementi misericordiosi come uuole Platone ma adoprano innanzi tutto con quanto che per casi trario che non dimeno dee intendere che faccin per accidente questa fatta che poco poco son porti dauanti noi auuezziamo liberiamo

THEORY

POETIC

on to the universal , in order to make this man prudent and shrewd as he is wont to be perfectly described by the philosophers . "56 The third difference ( supplied by Lucian ) lies in the writer's attitude toward his subjects ; the historian must not indulge in excessive praise , since this would be a depar ture from the truth , whereas the poet may make any changes he wishes in words or in deeds . Finally , the historian has many actions and hence he

is

genius

here that his admirable

is

It

poem

displayed

12–18

).

.pp

(

and adorn

.

his

fill

does not need to resort to the use of episodes ; but the poet , restricted to a single action , must invent and imagine many episodes in order to out

,

:

"

"

;

of

a

to

in

as

,

a

in

way for The distinction between truth and verisimilitude accounts poetry for the poet depicts things they should be ... whence we under order exert moral influence on his audience

the primary end

a

,

to

,

to

,

,

to

to

.

to

;

in

of

is

of

stand clearly that this the function the poets i.e. treat various and divers forms civil life their poems this brings not little profit those who read and consider them with care Indeed poems are not only public ones and profitable private persons but also cities them

: “

of it

to

to

to

, in ,

the readers and auditors poetic ornament The audience designation the vulgo

of

is

their not

52 ).

.p

“

otherwise specified than poems are determined jointly for Carriero Kinds

by ” (

as

. ” 58

of

its

by

every grace

means

is

aim all

give pleasure

of

by

first endeavor

to as

. In

of

,

of

. "

,

,

easily

poems

of

Tragedy may prevent

57

civil wars through the example the wicked persons comedy maintains the calm and the happiness the citizenry this pleasure the instrument Thus the poets having utility their order lead men obtain more selves

miserable end

famous deeds

,

.

,

illustrious ancients

;

of

,

,

.

,

their audiences and their subject matter and their ends He divides narrative poetry into three kinds called historical moral and dogmatic The historical sings the the moral treats subjects

which have

or

"

"

of

;

.

the instruction

of

to

the citizenry and the dogmatic teaches both the divine and the natural mysteries Of the four kinds active reference

, it is ,

,

its

;

of

,

to

to

in

sià

;

But comedy imitates pleasant things

16 : “

56

.

generate hatred for these same vices

nè

-

—

.

a

in

to

be

of

,

,

dramatic poetry the first the mime imitates the thoughts the actions any person whatsoever because obscenity and the gestures republic Satire scolds wicked people and their not tolerated essentially unpleasant things vices order arouse laughter and

,

,

,

si

si

), .p

&

,

,

de

il

:

i

,

ne

si

da

2 : “

& 1v

.pp

.,

di

57

i

."

,

&

le

(

et

ingenioso discorso 1582 già quale egli Breve stato considerar deue ma tralasciate circostanze minute particolarità dell'indiuiduo passar deue all'uniuer sale per formar quest'huomo prudente accorto quale egli suole esser descritto perfetta Filosofi mente da comprende questo esser l'ufficio Ibid che chiaramente Poeti cioè trattar uarie diuerse guise della vita ciuile lor poemi che apporta non mediocre le

di

' à

,

."

&

:

&

, li

,

i

.”

)

596

(

i

&

,

2v : “ ,

., p

gli.

à

58

,

à

li

giouamento legge chi con diligenza considera Anzi Poesie non solamente giouano alle Cittadi stesse alle persone priuate ma anco alle publiche conseguirlo più Ibid Cosi Poeti hauendo per suo scopo l'utile per indur porger facilmente huomini prima s'ingegnano con ogni uaghezza d'ornamenti Poetici Auditori de lor Poemi diletto Lettori

POETICS : EFFECT OF LITERARY QUARRELS “

as

be

it

of

Its

;

,

,

of

.

or

by

,

city dwellers peasants soldiers they are never illus heroic The latter characteristics are reserved for tragedy defined ,

ordinary condition trious

59

."

in

,

by

;

to

its

of

is

an imitation defined make people laugh and may uglinesses discovering obscenities and their their which the worst men subjects are common people induces laughter the spectators purpose

,

(

60

."

still baffled those who were to

he

how completely

the definition illustrates

it of

of

by

,

of

in , it ,

its

“

a

as

great and illustrious action made com Aristotle the imitation parts separate and distinct setting and sweetly written with forth and calming the troublesome accidents which happen not through narration but pity and despair means The translation pletely

,

:

as

,

;

through the variety prevents

the

bore

50 ).

, it

its

(p of .

of

,

it , in

Its

and complexity digressions

length

episodes and the pleasantness

,

,

,

at

.

of

,

is

its

to

its

it

he

.)

,

is

,

,

Of

.

,

of

,

it

compared with tragedy

of

,

not expert Aristotelian scholars When much later comes the subdivisions the mixed manner finds that contains eight kinds hymn and epithala epic melopoeia elegy dithyramb iamb epigram length and that for two reasons mium these only the epic treated because Carriero could find much material on Aristotle and because was pertinent his discussion Dante essential characteristic

in

.

in

of

;

— a

of

in

( in pp .

an

is

to

be

is

—

of if

all

to

he

,

of

dom and the lassitude the reader For the handling the qualitative and the quantitative parts Carriero suggest besides what has little had found the Poetics He does poetry commonplace necessary insist that verse forms his perfection poems which imitate without verse day achieved as is

to

.

of

fill

“

,

to of in it

).

are inferior order 18-19 The general rhetorical turn his theory becomes apparent poetry Plot the handling the parts belong such elements more important than character because recognition and reversal which are wont the highest degree move

.pp

of

,

if of

)

,

,

loro brutture

,

che co'l iscoprir

le

,

The poet must therefore

."

il

ne

., .p 9 : "

peggiori

.

of

the audience

gli

of

of

in

is

"

depends upon the belief

Ibid una imitatione huomini gli Spettatori oscenità s'induca riso

60

,

of

;

;

, "

decorum needed character the plot require verisimilitude because the achievement good manners and poetry the teaching refined charac de

62

”

ter ,

the ends

comedy sententiae concern one's possessions and one's poetry forms and

the government

,

parts

of of

all

.

family

59

, If of “

economy

matters

, it ( of . is in In all

and these are handled rhetorically

the subject

et

in

to

of

,

to

. ” 61

at

to

,

to

within our souls various and divers passions and them with wonder carry them away any direction and times affect them violently and whatsoever Sententiae are two kinds some them relate directly the central subject and these follow political precepts others are outside

, e

di

i

&

,

,

gli

ne

."

,

, e

si

.”

, o di

597

animi uarii diuersi affetti qual uoglia parte costumi gentili

rapirli

in

,

&

buone crcanze ]

di

muouer

uiolentarli

(

tall’hora documento , e

51-52

,

, , &

di

, e

ui

.”

10 : “ i

quali massimamente sogliono

ingombrarli : “ il

Ibid

.pp

Ibid merauiglia .,

e

62 di 61

, e

., di .p

,

le

'

: “ è

.,

Ibid 27–28 imitatione d'un attione grande illustre compitamente fatta acquetando dolcemente descritta con sue parti separate distinte dichiarando trauagliosi accidenti che concorrono non per via narratione ma per mezzo miseri sgomento cordia

the statement

THEORY ,

this way Carriero's theory poetry the ends

as

the achievement those ends

of

of

. In

of of

the people

theory

et .

in

Horatian

of its

as

all

times follow the opinions

in

just is

at

it is

POETIC

to

to

.

of

of to

have two purposes

it

;

of

in

to

he

,

is

in

of

of

ingenioso discorso which belonged The copy Carriero's Breve Bellisario Bulgarini now the library Harvard University con tains Bulgarini's marginal notations some them expressing ideas that develop was later his attack on Carriero His marginalia seem

.

of

to

,

“

”

be

,

”

his

10 )

(

the poet

p to .

the orator than

to

“

,

to

(

a

to

, ”

.p 3 ).

la

: e

of

appropriate

of

to

)2 .

he

“

,

(p .

of

to

:

condemn some Carriero's theoretical conclusions Bulgarini's own positions He blames Carriero for and state some not considering Plato's banishment the poets and for trying reconcile Referring Plato with Aristotle Carriero's three subdivisions poet any versifier narrative poetry believes that they tend make against Aristotle's opinion and against reason contra l'opinion ragione d'Aristo contra Carriero's statements about the effects recognition and reversal which carry the soul away would more and

distinction between is a

a

to

if

to ,

of

he

on

.

of

praise the poet and the historian with respect the expression false one For the poet were reveal his own feelings about character would the one hand destroy the verisimilitude his poem on the

"

of

28 ),

.

p

(

9 ).

is

it of

,

specific

of (.p of

).

16

(p . “

worse

would speak

On more

in

he

his own person and would thus cease imitate matters Carriero completely mistranslates and tragedy misunderstands Aristotle's definition and his own comedy definition false because misconstrues the meaning other

,

,

10 ).

,

,

of

to

(p .

on

a

to

do

.

,

he is

,

in ,

,

as

A

Bulgarini's own suggestions refer poetic general matters few theory such his insistence that certain poetic genres like the lyric the plot elegy the epigram not need have But for the most part correcting Carriero interested the three major forms tragedy comedy and the epic He agrees that the poet should not invent new plots

is

be

.

to

,

.

.p

:

of

do

(

34 ).

,

of to

39 ).

( .p

it

;

a

as

”

“

to

of

,

of

for tragedy out whole cloth truth being necessary ingredient but plots possible those which are true but which the think new tragic poets have not previously treated These are permitted the poet When old plots are used the complication and denouement must altered Bulgarini admits the according Aristotle's recommendation exist tragedies with happy endings and says that some possibility the unified plot He has doubts about Aristotle's requirement ;

of

.

in

,

of

an

be

,

let

in

be

prevented from including his poem several and divers Nor must the poet Ovid's actions provided that they are well interconnected and interdependent many and example Metamorphoses this which although they are divers actions are still praised But Aristotle approves principally the poem

Poeta

si

it

Ne

al

), .p

15 : "

as

)

398

1582

(

ingenioso discorso

(

Breve

he

of

,

to is a

Carriero

et

copy

,

Harvard

of

63

it

a

to

is

the poet who has undertaken found because the genius which the single plot perhaps demonstrated more fully and plot varies imitate such pleasurably proper size.63 conducts

POETICS : EFFECT OF LITERARY QUARRELS of plot is especially desirable in comedy, where the double plot is to be preferred to the single ; example , Terence's Andria . Carriero errs when he uses Plautus ' Amphytrion as an example of a double comedy ; Bulgarini cites the opinion of those who regard this play as a monster be cause it combines tragic and comic characters and actions , and of those Multiplicity

of

;

4 ).

(p .

to

.

its

,

,

to

its

who think it is a tragedy ( p . 21 ) . His main concern with comedy centers object He would distinguish comedy which moves about end and laughter from satire which moves indignation The objects

be

,

of

be

of

,

"

comedy will

much

of

the

).

the marvelous than

a

in

not necessarily better adapted tragedy 50-51 ( .pp

of

the fact that

it is is

and

production

to

it

be

,

( .p

,

of

of

,

audience

an

is

grave disturbances

22 ).

it

if

and not merely Concerning the epic Bulgarini speaks only ridiculous events may greater length which results from the fact that recited sittings and does not depend upon the comfort number assembled its

preceded

the best interpreters

of by

by

.

more pleasurable

this

He thinks that the happy ending

9 )

(p .

the Poetics

says

is

he

,

least

of

,

of

;

of

the opinion

as

at

or

-

mind

“

,

of

,

as

comedy are not Carriero wishes obscene and wicked persons but middling good should worse condition Aristotle's rather men meaning the condition understood fortune not the quality the

.

of

to

not spring from the rules does not follow them

,

talent art and Poetry does

."

,

,

in

of

,

he , is he

,

teach others who could well different equal similar and greater diverse genius

64

be

or

of

to

Bruno holds that those rules were meant only epic poetry like Homer's Homer's poetry

to

,

‘

an

of

"

a

of

.

the rules Aristotle representation give

and not inspiration

of in

a

is

it

an

to

to

of

“

di

in

his

to

(

),

is

to

There little pertinent the present discussion Giordano Bruno's gl'heroici essentially dialogues devoted De furori 1585 since set amatory analysis poets the and the various passions love Dialogue digress But the first interlocutors make attack upon regolisti the Poesia who examine and reject the great poets according

says but rather the rules from poetry

;

,

,

is

It

all . (

a

of

both

at in

or

criteria this singing

se

or

but rather through delight profit

to his do

setting

up

not

by )

."

“

It

.

comes

is

no

which

to ,

we

means

he

,

verse

of

by

kind that

at "

"

by

to

set

to

individual genius recognize the true poet

those who have

of

,

.

of

,

,

Homer Moreover such rules are good only for those who are more capable imitating than inventing poet interesting they and were down one who was not They are useful only for see this meaning given the verb imitate their source

."

,

599

)

(

,

ad

presa

non per instituir altri che potrebbero maggiori diuersi geni de

: , " et

et

che una tal fauola

s'è

a

del Poeta

,

,

), .p

(

A.2.v

,

,

1585

più l'ingegno

furori equali simili ;

, et

gl'heroici furori

con altre vene arti

, e

.

il

:

di

,

le

;

,

dimostra perauentura

De ."

64

grandezza imitare

la

, , si e si

di

, e

il

, e

comprender nel suo poema più dee uetare diuerse azzioni purche sieno infra loro dependenti siancene essempio ben colligate Trasformazioni d'Ouidio che pur essendo molte diuerse azzioni uengon lodate Ma Aristotile approua maggiormente Poema nel qual troua fauola una perche nel uariarlo condurlo con delettazione conueneuol

essere

POETIC

A.3 ) .

once ( p .

There follows an attack upon the

time who exclude

certain

have failed to observe

anti - Aristotelian tian influences. course

PATRIZI AND

THEORY poor pedants

“

of

”

the

writers from the ranks of the poets because they one of the prescribed rules . Bruno's stand is of

Hora

and it has traces both of Platonic and of

,

TASSO ( 1585)

Another anti-Aristotelian document of the same year ( 1585 ) is Francesco Patrizi's Parere in difesa dell'Ariosto ; but this time the attack upon Aristotle is the direct result of the publication of the first work in a new literary polemic , Camillo Pellegrino's Carrafa . We can thus see the immediate impact upon Aristotelian theory of one of the great literary quarrels. If it is a negative impact , it is because Pellegrino had used Aristotle's rules to

attack Ariosto's Orlando Furioso ; now , rather than interpreting the rules in another way in order to defend and justify Ariosto , Patrizi says that the rules themselves are without value . His conclusion involves a general reappraisal of the Poetics — and , incidentally , of Horace . The point of view is unequivocally stated ; Pellegrino was wrong

...

in taking the poetical teachings of Aristotle as comparable , in this matter , to the clear , proper , and firm principles of the sciences ; for those of Aristotle are neither proper , nor true , nor sufficient to constitute a scientific art of poetry , nor to form any poem whatsoever , nor to judge it ; nor are they made according the practice of either the Greek or the Latin poets.65

to

in

, to "

to to

which and Plato assign the term amount four more and his first task should have been discover the meaning pretend proper poetry have how can did not Since developed useful and scientific approach the art L8v Another to

he

-

M ) ?

.pp

;

an

is no , a of di

ne à

Latini

."

,

nè

Greci

,

de '

]

(

poetici d'Aristotele pari non essendo questi poetica formar

;

, e

, e

ne

,

,

, a i ,

à

600

can make imitator the

of

,

insegnamenti

propri chiari fermi delle scienze ueri bastanti constituire arte scienziale giudicarlo poeti sono fatti secondo l'uso

nè di

prendere

gli

: “

in

The epic poet was

we

.

of

of

-

L6

as LSv

: “

), .p

,

1585 principi

this

nè

,

nè à

(

,

ne

in

definition

ne

a

of

the heroic poem have not been supplied

Parere Ferrara questo affare propri Aristotele poema alcuno

.pp

(

of

of

,

of

65

sense

and such

his

is a

L7 .) he

it,

is

of

of

poetry

to

designate epic poetry nothing sign knowledge Aristotle does about and this both that Greek was imperfect and that did not actually know the whole Greek epic literature The inadequacy definitions corollary the lack distinctions Since the prior definitions imitation example

the confusion among the terms used

(

a

to

so ,

do

he

.

to

,

or

because the meanings

his

,

of

of

“

his failure

Aristotle's insufficiencies the adequately treat the term imitation

he

distinctions

is

of

field

to

The best example

.

with lesser emphasis

.

of

his

,

to

to

his

Having made this comprehensive statement , Patrizi proceeds to attack Aristotle on three grounds : failure make proper distinctions produce proper definitions and the lack conformity between failure precepts and the practice poets the best Other arguments appear

POETICS : EFFECT OF LITERARY QUARRELS actions of illustrious persons nor what an imitation is .

( p. M ) ; for

”

we know neither what a poet is

is

of

,

of

be

to

,

is

of

is

It

(

of

in

imitation

.

,

,

and indeed none were found before the advent clear that Patrizi and the other dramatic genres

comedy

,

using

of

of

.

no imitations tragedy

;

all

Patrizi sees Aristotle as having formed for himself an Idea of epic poetry ; unfortunately , it is one which is in no way related to the epics obviously poems are imitations but this that we know . He says that Orpheus contained and Hesiod Homer not true For the works

the Platonic senses that

;

,

of

,

,

"

we

to

,

single action

should get very strange

by

,

,

,

it

,

a

of ,

the shells and shellfish that were

or

all

,

formation trumpets and shouted that they should gather in

as

to

says but one single action take for imitation not actions Emperor most illustrious person who having led his army the shore the ocean had the signal for battle given the the

poet were

Caligula to

...

of if a

...

:

to

along with the restriction results indeed

a

,

if

of

.

In

M )

(p .

no

is

it

.)

,

“

dramatic representa plot tion Moreover Aristotle asserts that not verse makes the poet practice poets whereas clear from the the themselves that there are many poems which have plots and many plots which are not poems apply the definition just given the case the epic we were one

,

I

,

do

;

66

I

ad

. "

“

be

to

be

up in a

;

on the shore when Domitian caused the flies that were going through the air captured and shut paper prison say whether these not know heroic poets and poems should called as a

as

,

all

of

.

,

-

in

,

in

of

of

,

of

in

no

is

—

;

of all

.

a

,

bya

of

is

of

is ,

of

misunderstanding This course reductio absurdum well single action Patrizi challenges the necessity for what meant unity plot and even the requirement that poems must cases have plots the practice Vergil Lucretius the Georgics Lucan support epic poets his thesis More damagingly still Homer's cited

a

,

,

.

,

up all

set to

In

,

to

.

of

great epics have central unified action but are composed rather episodes Similarly Patrizi calls into question everything that multitude say about the requisites for character Aristotle has the first place poetic genres but they are even the these are not only common

He

,

his is

of

,

.

?

.

, is

,

,

,

.

for

in all ?

those they are false

.

,

In

as

the historian and the panegyrist Goodness But Homer the perfect gods and heroes only example presents many wicked people and absolutely good many places the demand one Nestor also violates for appropriateness Likeness The precept which both Aristotelian and same requirements the second place

66

is

so

,

to

to

of

it

of

in

or

;

is

,

very shaky for requires the likeness persons Horatian their history reputation counterparts establish the and how are we character the counterparts when history uncertain and public ,

,

.”

da

]

[

,

601

, e

carta

;

vna prigion

di

in

chiuderle chiamarsi

, e a

le

, e

, se

a

prendere facea mosche che per l'aria andauano poemi sariano Eroici questi poeti dico sò ,

. ò di

,

in

, e

le

,

in

,

il il

,

a

: "

. M di -

si in

.

..

.,

poetare non azioni come ella dice ma azione Ibid pp Mv s'un poeta togliesse Caligola Imperadore quale condotto l'essercito vna sola illustrissima persona segno battaglia gridare suo sul lito dell'Oceano ordinanza fece dar nelle trombe raccogliessero tutte conchiglie calcinegli ch'erano quando Domiziano che sù'l lito non

POETIC

THEORY

,

,

of

,

,

).

.

il

(

.

of

-

a

his own

up

,

his

in

di

in

,

to in

objected

,

objections were answered point for point and with great Torquato Tasso Discorso sopra Parere fatto dal Sig Patricio difesa Lodouico Ariosto 1585 What Tasso most Patrizi was the general anti Aristotelian position and hence Discorso becomes serious defence Aristotle Starting with by

,

Francesco

be

;

later date

Patrizi's firmness

prepares

and

standard for later way the develop

.

his own theories

it

it

at a is

is

.

,

of

ment

the reason

as in a a

will not stand the examination

hence there reason why should epic poets Patrizi's rejection complete

set

.

existing before

It

no him

opinion so variable ? Finally , the demand for constancy (Horace's “ sibi constet " ) is belied by our common human nature and is everywhere violated by Homer , from whom Aristotle derived his theory ( pp . M7 M8v ). Aristotle's Idea of the epic poem is thus without basis in any such poems

.”

to us is

in to

in

to

,

in to

us

,

as as

(

such

discourse such

by

,

the other arts

(

to

or

)

). “

the other imitative arts

of

of

painting and dialectic and Besides this they have those conditions which are appropriate

sculpture

of

to

”

"

“

,

. ” 67

he to

of

,

"

"

,

),

(

: “

any

any

are not common rhetoric

he

Patrizi's initial statement quoted above affirms that the opposite principles proper true Aristotle's are and true and sufficient teach poetry and the art form poems and show the way which judge them proceeds Then show what ways the principles are proper They true and sufficient are proper the sense that they

be

;

or

on

,

of

of

all

by

,

to

proper ones since they are the first nature and the clearest and they propositions poetry may are those which the other demonstra separating poetry they capable ted and are from every other species ,

, it

;

),

or

(

is

.

" is

“

is

of

,

imitation

.” 68

of

says The argument truth less cogent Poetry distinguishing Tasso not concerned with true from false this the field rather imitates verisimili dialectic but rather with imitating truth genus

no

',

“

.

As

.

of

a

is

tude which itself kind truth Aristotle's principles are not false since they consider verisimilitude and truth for their being sufficient

of

is

,

in

of

69

us .

he

be

be

“

is

good other one needed nor there any species discovered through the differentiae that Aristotle given sets down and for which correct judgment cannot the way that

Tasso insists that poetry which cannot

.pp

"

,

to

to

,

to

,

of

by

is

it

his

,

,

to

of

"

teaches He insists moreover that not the business the precepts from usage but rather preceptor derive the art considering the reasons why some the things used merit praise and others separate choose teach how the ones from the others and blame

ad .

,

."

, e a '

si

ciascuna altra specie

,

Poesia

da

la

possono separar

di

, e

, co si ' la

,

a

E

.

, e

della Poesia

c'è

ne

69

ò

."

tutte l'altre propositioni genere d'imitatione

&

,

i

à : di " i

&

, e

: "

., .p

68

,

),

(

67

principij d'Aristotele sono proprij Discorso 1585 100-101 veri bastanti poemi insegnarci l'arte della Poesia giudicarne formar mostrarci maniera proprij per conuengono Ibid 101 hanno oltre ciò quelle conditioni che quali posson dimostrare cioche sono primi per natura sono piu chiari son quelli

)

,

di

, e

, le

602

(

." le

,

ce

: "

., .p

,

in

Ibid 102 non n'è necessario alcuno altro alcuna specie buona poesia quali pone Aristotele darsene dritto giudicio differenze che non possa ritrouarsi con quel modo ch'egli c'insegna

POETICS : EFFECT OF LITERARY QUARRELS

his

of

do

removing poetry from the genus music where because use verse But verse not adequate basis for distinction among genres the poet poet through imitation and even both genera were possible places classification should

be ,

,

one

.

significant way his attitu

his

...

.

Iliad

Patrizi's attacks

and the Odyssey incorrect

a

the

Homer reveals all

,

Tasso's own final estimate art

defends Homer's epics

his readings

in

,

Aristotle and

him unjustified

of

he

,

finds

of

he

.

seem

more necessary

the more noble and the

the rest Tasso defends both the definitions and the distinctions

in

,

For

to

which

of

if

,

as

imitation chosen

an

,

is

is a

.

of

,

its

of

to

it in

argument here consists put others might wish

A

.”

“

”

,

“

of

,

its

all

the good from the bad in the same way that this has come about in medicine . ” 70 As for the principles themselves , Tasso re - establishes poetry under the species imitate even those which genus imitation , for not have plots and the name part poet itself means imitator

a

is

." 71

;

of

“

: to

of

he

,

of

poetry nothing else but des toward the according testimony praise great virtue the the Basil himself whence has risen above death and above envy poetry

1585

)

(

RICCOBONI

, in

.

),

.

a

(

,

,

on ”

on to

as a

of

-

a

on

of

to

a

re

a

in

“

of

I

it ,

as

of

The skirmish between Patrizi and Tasso over the position Aristotle may serve prelude have just outlined the publication great commentary 1585 Antonio Riccoboni's the Poetics After having published 1579 first set materials the Poetics including translation into Latin and the De comica see above pp 582-88 Riccoboni added these full scale commentary and revised version .

ex

,

&

a

in

,

,

comedy These appeared separately without the transla volume entitled Poetica Antonii Riccoboni poeticam Aristotelis per paraphrasim explicans nonnullas Ludouici Casteluetrij captiones the treatise

tion

in

.

,

of

”

he

) a

in of

a

.

a

dedication and

De

,

, “

a

.

to

Eivsdem

the works only

, in

Aristotele ars comica The volume contained addition very brief index After short introduc tory section fifty natura poeticae the commentary itself presented numbered paragraphs much briefer analysis the Poetics than those refellens

he

as

of

of

,

in

of

is

,

so

a

the general

.

to

;

Riccoboni's immediate predecessors wished treat Aristotle's ideas rather than philological questions the text degree Riccoboni's commentary polemical To tone since interpretation reacts not against much against Castelvetro's errors general

disparagement

,

,

in

il

le

&

in

of all

in

an

is

.

le

quali alcune delle cose vsate meritano lode sceglier quel modo buono dal cattiuo

."

la

)

603

, e

,

è,

sua poesia altro non ch'una lode della virtù per testi superata onde morte l'inuidia

(

: la la

: "

.,

Ibid 116-17 tutta monio del gran Basilio istesso

hà

.pp

71

."

,

: “

,

., .p

cagioni per Ibid 102 considerando insegnar altre biasimo separar l'vne dall'altre ch'è auenuto nella medicina

à

.

His own commentary

of

to

70

text

of

with which Castelvetro had treated written the spirit one who believes that the text provides the ultimate answers on matters poetry Before embarking on analysis related the art the tone

the Aristotelian

his

of

of

of

,

the genus

an

the general

end may organic habit

In

;

and

an

discipline

the

organic habit in

a

an or

):

"

or

art an

he

.

is an a

,

“

to

it is

as

instrumental

it as it

as a

,

in

it

faculty

the causes through which

it

,

.

its

its

is

of

of

,

,

.

of

in

;

as

he

,

.

is

,

:

in

,

he

,

in

its .

the art are four number end matter and the way which the subject treated discusses the differentiae the reason for the multiple genus becomes apparent and other works especially with the end the solutions philosophers are rejected Aristotle's favor Surveying the various ends proposed for poetry Riccoboni concludes subject

function

As

The differentiae

,

,

its to it

of

syllogism

of ,

or

faculty insofar serves something else

art

ideas

for the most art making

instrument the last sense rhetoric both because makes use sententiae and because produced by enthymeme most beautiful devices recognition

because belongs

one

seeks

either equivalent given matter

; a

be

achieved

.

is

taken

” ”

organic

sense that

an

he

says that

,

poetics

("

“

of

,

to do

"

“

to ),

general dividual passages , however , Riccoboni presents art in the section called De natura poeticae and these part have nothing with Aristotle He means treat the poems themselves poems rather than For when seeks

on

THEORY

POETIC

;

,

in

,

in

;

in

)

3

, (

( 2 )

.

,

of

as a

of

by

,

)

:

of

an

in

of

)

, ( 5 )

, (4

(1

in

utility utility and pleasure pleasure that they are five number imitation the plot The first three are found Horace support arguments Zabarella who makes the first are found utility and pleasure instrument those critics who interpret utility common opinion corroborated Aristotle's purgation form

jointly

is

is

by

,

in

of

it

fly in

to

as ,

,

, an

is

.

is

it

to

,

as

on

;

is

,

,

.

;

by

,

argued most Cicero approves the second The fourth Scaliger but Aristotle and which the fifth which Riccoboni adopts Against the other positions Riccoboni maintains that proper sought the first utility the philosopher end and pleasure per poet only such extremes leads second that the accidens the may good mores and Plato's ban the poets since the face statements

effectively

;

to

,

,

,

is

;

,

may justify wickedness and obscenity that the third utility and pleasure impossible because the two ends are mutually exclusive that the fourth imitation fails account for many poems which have no imita

jointly

,

an

is

;

to

. or

4 ).

( .p

.

to

however Riccoboni attempts show how the fifth end agrees lose their sharpness his distinctions the others with each plot may agreement with the first insofar useful through the be

,

of

,

as

There

is

disagrees

"

"

fabulosa delectatio

,

When

,

as a

,

is

as

end

is

,

all

to

.

,

fully acceptable tion Only the fifth plot for this internal end poems having necessary consequence the pleasure common and always attributed poetry which Hence one may properly state the

,

an

is

in

.

he

of

.

a

, is

,

In

.

)

604

the very structure

of

by

fear and ,

to

pity and (

itself leads men

to

For tragedy

in

following reasons

:

is

is

,

in

be

;

its

utility per accidens Good moral lessons disagreement because this poetry need not studies the question this connection useful interesting purgation His general conclusion results Aristotle with some per accidens for the purgation end useful that whatever

POETICS : EFFECT OF LITERARY QUARRELS the events it causes the spectators , who feel discomfort as they see misery unjustly visited upon others , to recognize that they themselves are good , and they learn that no hope is to be placed in the course of human affairs ; and we shall under stand that this is the pleasure appropriate to tragedy . But at the same time, through frequent example and by placing before their eyes many cases of mis fortunes , it causes the spectators to become strong and magnanimous , and in this way they also derive utility . Indeed , by habituation to pity and terror, they purge pity and terror , that is , they temper and moderate them . And in this way they become , not excessively pitying and timid as Plato believed , but rather magnanimous and strong.72

...

The construction of the plot has , per se , pleasurable consequences ; the utilitarian results are accidental . Riccoboni's thesis agrees with the second proposal for the end , since the plot is followed by pleasure ; but rather than expressing the end of pleasure overtly, it includes it tacitly . Moreover , since other things beside poetry give pleasure , to say that pleasure is the end is not sufficiently specific and proper . On the third proposal , agreement insofar as plot gives both utility and pleasure , the one per accidens , the other per se ; disagreement , because Riccoboni's thesis makes a distinction between them . On imitation , finally , a similar acceptance of plot as an imitation , but again he distinguishes , saying that imitation is a genus which includes many other species besides poetry , whereas plot is a single species . The other three differentiae are treated summarily . The “ munus " or function is to imitate in verse , the subject matter is human actions , and these are handled in such a way as to become useful for the plot . Having made these various distinctions , Riccoboni is now in a position to define poetics as an art , as a faculty , and as an organic habit : “ Poetics is the art

of

executing

habit of

plot ."

plots ; or the faculty

of imitating in

verses ; or the organic

seeing , in human actions, whatever is suitable for fashioning a

73

Most of the significant passages in the commentary itself are develop ments of the principles stated in this introductory section . If we take the

of “ fabulosa delectatio ,” we find important glosses concerning both origins the of poetry and the nature of plot. In connection with second chapter 144864 poetry into divine Riccoboni separates the origins

,

se

,

&

ex

in vt

se

& ,

), .p 5 : “

per adducit homines misericordiam spectatores alterius miseria iniuste exorta rebus humanis spem ponendam non esse con voluptatem Tragoediae intelligemus sed simul frequenti

,

(

Poetica 1585 Etenim Tragoedia metum atque ipsa rerum constitutione efficit molestiam percipientes bonos agnoscant

ad

).,

ff

(

72

of

his

end

vt

, . in "

,

&

fit ,

,

&

,

ars fabularum

)

(

605

ad

,

humanis

:

;

vel facultas versibus imitandi conficiendarum quod appositum est fabulam con

actionibus

. ”

Ibid Poetica vel habitus organicus videndi formandam

in

sit

.

;

,

of

& .

,

&

...

to

,

,

,

id

&

, vt

., .p , to , 7 : is & “ vt

73

,

.

,

,

&

:

;

discant quam esse propriam exemplo crebra miseriarum ante oculos subiectione spectatores magnanimi fortes efficiantur atque hoc modo adiuuentur Nam per consuetudinem misericordiae terroris perpurgant misericordiam Itaque non nimis terrorem est temperant moderantur misericordes timidi Plato existimabat sed potius magnanimi fortes efficiuntur References the commentary are the second pagination the volume the first smaller type used for the translation

THEORY

POETIC natural

and

( or

human ) , and

give

further subdivisions

the

following

schema :

Origins Divine

Human

all

in

Now

this schema

ars ”

harmonia

ars poetica

"

" “

imitatio

" "

Plato

"

(

“ natura ”

)

cf.

“furor divinus "

the elements under human origins are productive

,

is

it

74

. "

so

of

,

“

),

a

In

.

"

( as

it

“

by

to

is

it

”

,

:

", “

of ,

"

of

imitatio because the genus under which plot found supplies verse and the other pleasurable accom harmonia because paniments and the ars poetica we have seen because furnishes way making plot correctly way harmony general the the was given men nature that they might bear the labors human life pleasure

of

be

a

delectatio

. "

,

much for the end

“

poetry

of

So

from the pleasure

.

,

accidens

of

of .

of

,

,

is

suggestion We may even ask therefore whether there not here one perfectly the utilities springing from artistic pleasure This would utility naturally but per consistent with Riccoboni's usual derivation

is he he

as

;

,

,

by

of

-

of

is ,

,

on

.

be

,

is

,

”

“

,

is

fabulosa

of

and since the plot the internal end the plot among qualitative parts pre poem the excellence and eminence the must established This course done Aristotle Riccoboni comments 1450a15 multiplies the arguments and among others But since this

we remember

that the same elements are

at

If

recognition and reversal

.

of

.

it

a

of

poem which most vigorously attracts our minds insists that that part the most excellent Plot satisfies this criterion since contains the elements once the most beautiful and the most pleasurable

of

on of

.

of , (

:

as

of

,

),

as

of

,

we may then establish plot recognition some such series effects the because gripping producing effectively and reversal the soul most hence the greatest pleasure hence achieving the proper end the art plot always involves consideration Consideration the objects the following

,

or ,

.

,

of

verisimilitude

:

a

by

)

(

in

elaborate system various passages constructs schema which we may again represent

,

be

of

is a

an

(

.p

52 ).

; it is

he

.

be his

of

he

of

.

,

imitated insofar these are human actions Riccoboni this matter departures thinking contemporaries makes several from the First tragedy need not declares that the action based upon history upon legend sufficient that some similar example found among events which have occurred This sort verisimilitude Next

of

Objects

common opinion to ad

est

natura

)

606

(

hominibus

common opinion

humanae vitae labores tolerandos

."

”

verisimilitude à

necessity data

Supernatural according

to

contrary

according

to

)

19 : "

., .p

74

fieri

potuerint according

Ibid

ut

“

"

=

history

(

“

Natural facta

to

Imitation

POETICS : EFFECT

LITERARY QUARRELS

OF

In each major category , one of the alternatives is eliminated ; history , not poetry , treats those events which have actually happened ; and supernatural events which have no acceptance in public opinion are not usable . Of natural objects , those " which could come about " are the proper province the art; they are divided , in turn , into necessary objects and verisimilar objects, and Riccoboni explains the distinction by examples . A man wounded in the heart must die : the cause - and - effect relationship is , in nature , necessary and inescapable . A man wounded in the head may die : there is a probability , but no necesssity , that the effect will follow on the cause . Of actions which run counter to nature , the poet will choose only

of

be noted that belief in poet must main ingredient For great heroes present the characters and actions tradition has brought them down his public otherwise sins against verisimilitude Finally the poet treats them universally and thus the objects with respect

.

its

verisimilitude

or

:

of

,

.

,

as

he

;

to

to

another kind

achieves

a

It should

.

of

those which most men would believe cludes traditional belief, perhaps as

in as

a

as ,

he

of

,

.

in

it

;

is ,

Poetry treats universal things that considers single facts universally they might have come about through many causes and many ways For partic stance the deed Orestes when killed his mother Clytemnestra was is

it

,

as

of

, in

to

at

.

in

;

,

a

it in

might have ular deed nevertheless the poet considers universal way happened through numerous causes and numerous ways And poetics con cerned precisely with this universality order invent causes and ways dis they seem capable providing greater pleasure.75 cretion according is

,

a

.

.

,

of

in

Section

singularia

in

est ,

"

44 : “

"

75

the phrase

(

of

to

an

why the poet must have eye the beauty the characters appears de spectanda morum pulchritudine the title

,

;

.

in

;

,

ex

&

in

. id

&

,

&

." vt

,

,

]

607

[

ex

Tragoedia oportere voluptatem quaerere sed pro metu per imitationem poetam efficere oportet volup

in

66 : "

quoniam

." , &

tatem

videantur

Non enim omnem misericordia rebus efficiendum esse

, ; id & . , , in .p

Ibid priam

, de

,

,

à

76

delectationem

vt

id

&

,

de

,

Poesim tractare vniuersalia vniuersum considerare plurimis modis euenire potuerunt singulare scilicet plurimis caussis factum fuit Orestis cum Clytemnestram matrem interfecit tamen vniuersum considera poeta quatenus plurimis plurimis modis potuit euenire tur caussis hoc vniuer sali versatur poetica caussas modos arbitrio fingat prout affere posse maiorem ., .p

Ibid quatenus

is to

,

." 76

of

,

be

by

,

of

;

:

, of

In

, in

,

of

accompaniment fear and pity itself the correct pleasure tragedy one must not seek every pleasure but the proper one pity and since the poet must bring about pleasure through imitation out and fear this must achieved the actions However utility seems spring more directly from another part the object character That

“

purgation fact

an

all ,

.

,

of

.

its

of

to

in

by

;

is

as

all

,

,

in

.

its

of

,

of

It

as a

Consistently with the general position universality itself regarded operation pleasure and the end pleasure directs source would seem then that the actions chosen and represented poem are above such will contribute the pleasure audience But plot this not exclusively true for Riccoboni's view the pleasures are always followed some utility Various moral lessons are learned Above actions which are terrible and pitiable will bring about the

POETIC

THEORY

XVIII ),

,

to as or

to its

is

is

of

.

is

in ", it is

.

,

"

of of is

actually written for the purpose character more important than

tragedy the morata the kinds presenting good characters and action ,

.

of of

,

a

.

to

of by

of

no

,

Of

.

( .p

80 )

it,

an

,

or

which means that each passion must be represented in best complete supreme manifestation For each passion most serve example for the men who witness and the role imitation embellish and enhance the four requisites for character Ricco boni singles out propriety for special recommendations which are more than the standard rules decorum Presumably kind verisimilitude giving obtained each personage the characteristics his type One

is

says

,

,

.

verisimilitude

:

contributes

to

poetry because

is of

he

,

he

proclaims the necessity

reasons are somewhat different Verse

it

;

in

but the proper instrument verse

his contemporaries

of

most

poetry

his

With

of

it

.

utility

.

to

he

,

of

of

Although the greater part Riccoboni's commentary centers about the objects say about the means imitation does have some things appear pleasure Here would that his concern with rather than with

in

is

in

,

of

so is

be

to

or

be

as

so

it

(

in a

in

to

it

:

an

of

poetry That this has the greatest importance for the verisimilitude seen ample and elevated tone this fact since poetry itself requires voice order readily because scarcely probable that men that the audience may hear prose high and ample should speak one another tone

,

to

is

,

of

of

it

be

to

us

it

”

the three genres

;

in

Of

( all or

13 ).

.p

“

)

,

in

(

all

,

he

of

;

choral

others

of

the dance

the same ones

will appear

poetry

will appear some harmonia

metrical language .

(

”

oratio

or

as

“

the proper instrument

or ) in

in

)

”

saltatio

( or

,

it

authorizes means only “

in

”

,

a

of

“

is

tragedy because verisimilar lends itself the loud recita public performance Riccoboni does not tell would how merely calls upon Aristotle who other more intimate genres

in

tion justified

music

of

is

is

,

,

If

verse

),

it to

—

to

intelligible stupid the spectators unless those who speak either deaf particularly adapted and thus obliged raise their voices verse then this purpose because proffered with elevation and amplitude the voice almost prose.77 half sung and the opposite the low and humble tone

of

In

its

on up

of

It

all is

it

:

.

of

a

certain amount restraint into Riccoboni's commentary reintroduces the Poetics the shortest the great commentaries for the historical the philological and most two reasons eliminates the study

it

,

a

a

of

,

.

to it

on

by

is

,

,

to , it

.

on

be ,

.

predecessors way this makes which had cluttered removing Secondly Castel oversubtleties the insists less useful directly fairly simply reading returning and the text and vetro frequently done referring To sure this outside sources especially materials

608

eo

ex

.est " 9

&

&

,

,

illi ,

,

,

à

,

vt

ad

ac

:

,

oppositus

)

solutae orationis

(

que humilitati

&

,

,

missioni

ad ,

,

,

vt à

se

,

,

,

, vt &

: "

.pp

.,

77

perspici quodque valere plurimum verisimilitudinem Poesis Ibid 13-14 populo audiri amplitudinem commode tur quia cum ipsa vocis postulet elationem ample queat quemadmodum parum verisimile est homines soluta oratione tam elate colloquantur spectatoribus intelligantur qui loquuntur aut surdi aut inter nisi eam rem maxime accommodatus est stulti sint qui vocem extollere necesse habeant sic amplitudine vocis sub dimidio quodam cantu profertur versus qui cum elatione

POETICS : EFFECT OF LITERARY QUARRELS Horace , for clarification . But in certain notable aspects it does return to Aristotle . The most striking of these is the attempt to re - establish the plot

of

,

of

.

own position typical the

.

of

)

(

1586

of

on

In

SALVIATI

a

with the others Such thinkers his century

is ,

by Riccoboni's eagerness to reconcile preoccupation course

all

spoiled somewhat

his

as the end of the poem , according to Aristotle's own statement , and to com bat the specious arguments of those who argued otherwise . This attempt is

Salviati completed his work the first four parts major translation and commentary the Poetics Italian He had been engaged the project for least ten years this time The manu script some two copies drafts the Biblioteca Nazionale

in

.

by

.

in

of

we

in

, is

or at

in

Of

,

it

of

on

a

of

,

1586 Lionardo

it

as

is a

,

seems that little

it

the best—

“

thinks that Vettori's

” 78 is —

.

these

on

Of

taries

be he

of

,

.

'

,

it

in

,

to

on

a

of

;

di

.

Florence the sections for which have two copies one short note questo libro della Poeticha entitled Delli interpetri we may regard prolegomenon kind the rest since Salviati examines the earlier scholarship the Poetics Beginning with Averroës commentary which suffers from the differences between Greek and Arab customs he reviews the translations Valla and Pazzi and then the later commen

he

.

,

,

of

,

to

.

he

,

he

is

more light can desired this work and that Castelvetro's not entirely acceptable although does credit Castelvetro with the best translation into Italian Throughout his own commentary finds many reject Castelvetro's solutions whereas frequently praises occasions those Robortello Maggi and Vettori it

-

of

all

)

,

in

,

the extant

manu

translation into

an

”

comento

. ”

”

parafrasi

gives the Greek text then

a

only the first fifty are covered

particella

he

all ;

in “

.

numbering 320 script For each

.

its

,

of

.

of

,

of

e

( a

Salviati's translation and commentary title page added later calls Poetica d'Aristotile parafrasata comentata extends from the beginning the text through 144969 thus treating most but not the first five chapters modern editions All the initial definitions and distinctions are handled but unfortunately the commentary stops before the definition tragedy and development Salviati divides the text into short sections

,

."

)

609

(

is

It

.

be

to

its

,

,

to

.

of

lume

a

poco piu auanti pare che

desiderarsi

di

372

find more current and more clearer version We may compare comedy both the object

on

a

to ,

achieve

: "

fol

.

of

general

Aristotle's statement 11 ,

II,

MS BNF

II,

their versions

in

starting point attempts

accurate terms and

to

.

of

as a

in

Castelvetro

78

,

to

to

.

in is

,

of

“

“

in

is

a

,

,

which extended and expanded translation Index reference numbers are generously inter spersed the translation providing the link with sections the com mentary bearing the same numbers The translation Salviati's own closer Castelvetro than Piccolomini especially conciseness and using the use certain constructions But Salviati who seems Italian then and finally the

questo libro possa

THEORY

POETIC

indicate how Salviati works and to show what difficulties were still be setting the translators . The passage is Poetics 1449a31 : Castelvetro : Hora la comedia è , come dicemmo , rassomiglianza de piggiori, non gia secondo ogni vitio . Ma il rideuole è particella della turpitudine . Percioche il rideuole è vn certo difetto , & turpitudine senza dolore , & senza guastamento , come , per non andare lontano per essempio , Rideuole è alcuna faccia turpe , & storta senza dolore ( 1576 ed . , p . 91 ) . Salviati: Ma la commedia è si come habbiam detto imitazione di piu cattiui certamente non gia secondo ogni cattiuità , ma del brutto è il ridicolo parte , per cioche il ridicolo è una certa fallenza , et bruttezza senza dolore et non corruttiua , come di fatto il ridicolo uiso brutto alcuno , e trauolto senza dolore ( fol. 350 ). Since he has tried to be brief in the translation and to remain as close as possible to the Greek text , Salviati uses the paraphrase as a means to clarification ; thus the above passage is expanded as follows :

Parafrasi : Ma la commedia , come addietro dicemmo è imitazione di persone piu cattiue che le moderne comunali non sono . Cattiue dico non però in ogni maniera di cattiuità : percioche non ogni maniera di cattiuità è ridicola , come

ridicolo alcun uiso brutto , a trauolto

(

, che sia senza dolore

350v

).

è

fol .

uuole essere quella della commedia : ma solamente alcuna parte della bruttezza , o uogliam dir la cattiuità è ridicola : percio che il ridicolo tra le cose , che stanno male , e tra le cose brutte è solamente quell'errore , e quella bruttezza , che non arrecano , ne dolore , ne graue danno a chi l'ha , come, per darne pronto esempio ,

as

as

to

to

as

well

provide

is a

. of It

be

to

he

,

his

.. of

.

reveals

is

he

,

in

as

well the commentary itself Salviati fully his attitude toward the text on which writing curious and complicated one Rather than sharing the skepticism some contemporaries judges the Poetics

In

the preliminary materials

the Poetics

as .

on

of

the major divisions and subdivisions glosses individual words and phrases

as

,

,

of

.

, it

,

is

quite extensive perhaps The commentary itself extensive Castel vetro's Frequently calls upon examples from contemporary Italian point out literature discusses the opinions earlier scholars attempts

to

—

so ,

;

in

,

in

for

limited both not writing

the fact that Aristotle

is

book

is

perfect

method

it

day.79 ,

up to

our

by

to

be , a

.

-6v in

But one must not take content method and 79

all

the volumes which have been written about this art

the moderns

In it

by

than from or

-

,

so

ill -

by so

treated

the ancients

as

in it

;

to

,

a

precious book and not only most useful but necessary anyone who there are most wonderful teachings and write poetry properly for Maggi most subtle considerations compressed marvelous brevity whence small and says well one may derive greater benefit from this book alone wishes

si

,

i

."

,

a

)

a

(

610

da ,

il

,

, e .

, e

ci

.

in

, o

da

,

,

e

7 : “

.

.,

fols poetare

a

prezioso libro chiunque uoglia non solo utilissimo ma necessario sottilissime considera Peroche hanno bellissimi ammaestramenti marauigliosa breuità Onde come ben dice Maggio maggior profitto zioni ristretti uolumi che questo cosi picciolo tutti puo ritrarre mal trattato libro solo che hoggi sono stati composti questa arte infino d'antichi moderni dietro Ibid

dirittamente

POETICS : EFFECT

LITERARY QUARRELS

OF

dithyramb and auletic applicable not be

. to to of fol

comedy

,

tragedy

His principles would therefore the

the

.

and citharistic poetry

,

epic

,

genres

:

which pertain to

,

six

about a science and hence does not need to observe the same rigor of exposition that would be required in a scientific treatise . Thus in the very first sentence he speaks of the composition of the plot , which is only one part of a poem , whereas a “ proem " of this type should treat only general matters ( fols. 30v – 32 ). In content , by the fact that Aristotle does not mean to treat the whole of the art of poetry but only those parts of it

,

(

he

two kinds ,

of

to

investigate

the epic and tragedy the low

as

by

,

as

wanted

we

make

the Poetics

a

we are

of

to

these restrictions mean that

if

.

by

,

he

of

for

represented

;

in

.

a

to

he

,

that literature

the magnificent comedy represented

All

,

all

he

).

part

a

only

poetry

,

,

,

as

as

parody the satire and mask the epithalamium Petrarch's Trionfi and Boccaccio's Amorosa Visione 252 This means that did not consider the possible differentiae partial one Moreover Aristotle based imitations and his art remains say upon the literature available what had his time studied such kinds such poems

useful to

be

it

of

of

as

is

all

.”

of

have been interpolated

,

.

of

if of

it

of

of

,

include

it of in

be

to

be

”

“

reasonable

the

to

Salviati occasionally points

incompleteness

.

,

).

345v

by its a "

reservation

the text and

in ;

is

( it .fol

,

;

way

would not

of

by

a

of

of

,

Finally

it

,

of

which are not sung hence spoken parts tragedy state

it

, ”

us

.

an

is

:

of

,

"

of

is

poetry Authority forms this same statement two kinds the practice the poets and undoubtedly the writers poetry the theory the wise men arts rhyme and the critics Reason tells what reasonable for example accompaniment poetry song must not used those parts

is in

justifications for the insistence upon verse

is in 80

it is

if

by a

,

it

,

,

.

in

it

a .

“

to

,

by

,

as

,

,

to

of

poetry must supplement various ways We must appeal authority and usage Usage again when reason does not cause any harm brings with itself not little authority and must revered very long period and observed law especially confirmed Usage time and the authority wise men invoked one the art

the corrupt

He thinks that some passages .g. 1448al that others are not ),

,

in

" (e

),

to

,

,

of

in

,

presume

that

he

:

it

discourse

(I

two special kinds

of

;

general

80

in

as

.

,

,

or

in

.

by

,

or

in

.

he he

of

,

(e

in

corrector .g. 144864 their proper place that still others the disagreements among the manuscripts make the determination the proper text impos sible The text used was course less satisfactory than our own and many cases problems which have since devotes lengthy discussions been solved eliminated better readings Salviati distinguishes three major divisions the Poetics the prologue proposition the treatise itself and the epilogue The treatise turn subdivides into four major sections examines four problems poetry means

the

se

e

]

."

, e

de '

611

[

, e

da

, e si

,

,

: “

.

.,

Ibid fols 137–37v L'usanza ancora quando alcun male non cagioni porta seco medesima non picciola autorità dee riuerirla come legge osseruarla massimamente molto lungo spazio dall'autorità saui huomini confermata

POETIC

THEORY

wishes

derive so ,

to

;

rules since poems

the species

do

these rules from the definitions

of

of

teach how to make the poem and to give

he

its

magnificent and the low ) ; criticisms and defences of the poet ; the priority of tragedy over the epic ( fol. 15 ) . The end of Aristotle in this work is “to —

he

-

of

,

,

of

", " “

;

of

81

In

,

it

as

)

.”

as [

in

be

and will clearly seen the course the work will give the latter definitions first the achievement this end one may distinguish qualitative parts presentation were Aristotle's these are demon

will

,

,

be

" "

,

" "

.”

“

, ”

;

of

in

he "

, "

or

strative declarative narrative definitive instructive dubita tive and confirmative For example the narrative parts will those which traces the origins and development the divers species the ”,

in

“

;

"

in

”

of

an

of

, an

82

."

of

“

,

“

;

;

, ”

as

,

all

"

“

of

tragedy the definitive such sections the definition instructive parts containing precepts the the dubitative those which accusa tions and defences are offered the confirmative ones which the tragedy with heroic precepts are reinforced through the comparison parts implies analysis poetry Such enumeration Aristotle's

of

83

a

to

( .pp

),

his

of

Robortello

II .

'

;

the interpretation

These

decade

4-5 who attributes them Analytics Posterior the Poetics Salviati brings three basic supposi

on in

earlier they appear early Philoponus commentary

in

of

.”

so

exerts himself much without advantage for the present work are the same distinctions method that we discovered Sassetti

To

a

in

,

,

,

,

of

: “

is

be

a

in

general way method and order which Salviati approves the fol lowing statement required And this the order which may philosophy not only the resolu book which does not treat the secrets compositive tive definitive and divisive methods over which Robortello

.

in

to

, ;

in

an ,

is

.

of

of

.

( 2 )

of

Its

in It

of

;

of

an

a

in

( 1 )

is

,

he

commentary say tions and these color everything that has Poetry imitation verisimilar objects this supposition involves lengthy debate over the nature him imitation over verisimilitude and over the identification the objects imitation verse the reading Aristotle hand this supposition requires much sleight

to in

of

to

,

his attempt

use them

81

of

imitazione del uerisimile espresso col easy not matter

,

define imitation

a

“

the verisimilar expressed so

an

“

is

imitation

is

10 ).

.

"

,

through ornamented language fauellar condito fol But

”

poem

to (

)

For Salviati

a

.

in

extent Salviati departs from Aristotle basis for understanding the Poetics

(1

as a

what

an

.

in

of

;

to

to

( 3 )

profit and please this supposition introduces many extraneous elements into the consideration both matter and form poetry turn we shall discover As we examine these suppositions ends are

paragone

le

,

, si

della tragedia per rispetto

un

da

."

]

[

612

Filo

,

, e

i

,

,

,

,

è

: " E

i

di

il

,

.

.,

83

questo libro che non tratti segreti della l'ordine che Ibid fol 42v diuisiui cotanti metodi risolutiui diffinitiui compositiui sofia puo richiedere non questa opera cotanto s'affatica quali Rubertello senza pro

all '

fortificano

ne '

col

."

ne

precetti

si

,

: “ i

42v

."

.,

Ibid heroico

fol .

82

si

, e

le

di

, e

il

: “

.

.,

d'insegnarne poema regole quali regole Ibid fols 41-41v fare darne percioche dalle difinizioni delle spezij del poema uuol ritrarre farallo come nel processo dell'opera uedrà manifesto prima quelle darà

POETICS : EFFECT OF LITERARY QUARRELS since he finds many meanings

confusion both in Plato and in

and much

,

,

the

or

or

,

;

an

is

he

,

or

,

,

imitation

present

The second kind

is

here

.

for

is

making speeches

no

, is

to

is

.” 84

;

,

or

,

or

or

,

or

or

first attaches

is ,

in Aristotle reduce to two . The poet imitates that to simple narration , wherein “ represents continuously anything whatsoever either actions expresses tempests places persons battles seasons characters anything else that can fall under imitation and does this without introducing anybody who speaks acceptable form This what giving judgments and for the poet intervene himself not acceptable Aristotle . He thinks that the meanings

is

by

an is

is

;

of

it .

is

it

,

an

.

in

;

as

imita actors and speakers this light tion the Platonic sense Further thrown upon the term the comparison which Salviati makes between poetry and history History things listed but represents the kinds less imitation for are introduced

present when persons

,

of

.

),

is

(

:

in

is

of

a

in

,

,

of

it

so

imitation than poetry because does less vividly We may thus distin which imitation one within poetry itself between two kinds general way this represents the principal action universal the other particular parts which found guish

of

in

;

we

by

in

of

or

or

or

or

in ,

;

by

,

or

or it

,

in

Then receives particular imitations especially the parts which either these other things compounded times movements bodies sounds thoughts are feigned the poet which either characters the mind passions which are not true but verisimilar are depicted this special way wher ,

,

,

in

to

to

by

,

,

augmentation distinct narration comparison diminution are made ever almost touch with our hands the things invented the poet and they almost appear visibly their verisimilar form.85 :

,

by

,

by

,

by

consist the enhancing rhetorical devices

of

in

to

imitation seems by

or

,

by

by

,

,

,

,

the latter contexts

of

.

narration

of

In by

by

by

in

of

partial imitation are found separately These kinds different poets descriptions Petrarch Dante imitates character Euripides and Vergil thoughts passions Homer comparison the mind Vergil augmentation Ariosto Terence diminution Lucan distinct

of

it

to

it

,

;

,

or

in

on

by

no

is

.

.

the use the materials the heightening This impression confirmed Salviati's remarks imitation the lyric Since the lyric has plot action will not display that kind imitation which accompanies narration hence will not conform the

or

is

a

,

,

68 : " il

84

as a

.

be

"

is “

"

,

a

requirement that poem imitative throughout But that not neces sary for poetry present whenever one makes with verse any poetic part imitation whatsoever no matter how brief and compressed

,

, o

, o

."

'

a

, o

, o

, o

,

, o

E

.

, o

.

, o

o

.,

poeta imiti cioè esprima rappresenti sempre mai che che sia Ibid fol azzioni persone luoghi stagioni tempeste battaglie cheunque altro cader costumi possa sotto l'imitazione questo faccia senza indurr alcuno parlare

,

."

]

[

in

,

,

,

,

:

,

o

di

, o

di

, o

, o

è

le

613

un

, " o

:

.

, , o .,

corpi

, ci si si

si

fols

, o

89

Appresso particolari imitazioni riceue spezialmente nelle parti 70––71 tempi queste mescolate dal poeta suoni mouimenti altre cose ouunque passioni non uere ma uerisimili costumi concetti mente dipingono ouunque comparando cotal modo diminuendo accrescendo partitamente recitando fanno cose trouate dal poeta quasi toccar con mano quasi nella lor forma uerisimile uisibilmente apparire Ibid ouunque fingono

POETIC

THEORY

,

parcel of a composition which may not be a poem .” 86 It will thus be possible to find imitation , and hence poetry , even in the minute sections words or phrases - of works which are not imitations in the more general sense . Salviati here comes close to the position of Averroës , who saw imitation essentially in the rhetorical figure ; and he departs radically from the position of Aristotle . He expresses the same idea in a modified way when he says that “ imitation is thus only of appearances , of appearances I

of those same senses to which imitation has as show itself we compare poetry with nature then we find nature the cause and effect relationship follows

The objects may

[

,

:

as

]

>

pleasure

senses

).

> [

imitation

>

>

pleasure

:

> or

it is

appearances

>

objects

follows

senses

it be

in

poetry

as

objects whereas

is

,

If

-

-

that

. ” 87

to

end

in

its

say which are the objects

,

.

of

But imitation itself

not

statement that imitation makes the take that statement absolutely would follow poet and every imitation poem that every imitator should called Similarly painters and monkeys would poets and statues masks and ,

.

a

,

,

,

be be

a

be

,

to

if

“

:

it

Aristotle's

.

sufficient He discusses poet For one had

imitation

is

or

the other kind

.

of

we have one

or

is

as

of

,

on .

in

,

be

of

is

;

a

, in

actions which case the imitation informs the whole poem things they may work and makes which case the fragmentary and partial and produces poetry only occasionally imitation There are two further consequences this theory imitation First relationship general the between imitation and poetry Salviati holds that parts imitation poems according essential and that we have poems

in

,

is

;

of

:

to

,

is

is

in

,

in

its

,

88

be .”

is

in

)

(

of

be

“

to is it

to

is a

in

.”

be

puppets would poems What must added verse which does not necessary adjunct itself make the poet but which imitation enough say that imitation Nor the form the poem for order make the composite form itself not sufficient but there must also the matter and not every matter but the proper matter which poetry any con speaking the extrinsic one verse Second

86

in

to

he

as

it :

to

of

.

,

,

of

of

ception poetry imitation must proper the ends reduced importance Salviati finds that there are four ends for poetry stated ways which come closer and closer the definition the art sees

un

,

o

da

si

sia .”

,

si

.

la

la

da

...

,

.

è la

,

ma

ne

,

."

il

, e i

materia propria

il

, a le

."

)

,

si , e è'l [

614

]

la

:

, e

le

et

,

, se a i

: “ di È : “

è la , e le ui

non ogni 15 materia uerso

stessa sofficiente ma uuol materia qual parlando dell'estrinseca nella poesia

(

,

, e

si

.

.

i

se il

,

: “

sia .

.,

.,

,

87

88 ,

,

.,

fols

si

ogni hora poeti che 244-45 faccia col uerso qualunque poetica uoglia breue pur quanto compresa come parte come particella che poema non adunque l'imitazione Ibid fol 276 solamente dell'apparenze delle apparenze quali ell’ha per fine mostrarsi quei sensj dico che oggetti sono Ibid fol 131v Percioche assolutamente douesse prendersi quella sentenzia seguirebbe che ogni imitatore poeta ogni imitazione poema dir douesse Cosi poeti poemi dipintori Ne uale fraccurradi statue maschere scimie sarebbono composto non per dire l'imitazione forma del poema percioche fare forma Ibid

imitazione componimento

POETICS : EFFECT OF LITERARY QUARRELS Artists have two ends : one of them proximate , and that is the work itself ; the other ultimate , and that is what follows upon it . The proximate end of the poet is truly to imitate , the ultimate to bring profit and pleasure , which is the same as

...

saying to offer utility and enjoyment by imitating . The poem , therefore , has mainly four ends : To imitate ; to imitate with verse ; to profit and delight by imi tating ; to profit and delight by imitating with verse . The first is the proximate general end , the second the proximate special , the third the ultimate general , the fourth the ultimate special . 89

In this analysis, imitation

an element in a composite of ends

becomes

fol .

of

,

of

a

.

,

,

or

Its

rather than a simple end in itself . Poetry is an imitation , but of verisimilar objects. objects we have large variety characters but also seen are not merely actions things animate and inanimate We have seen what some these things ,

. or

to

,

to

,

is

It

,

in

or

.

a

(

).

classify them and compare also possible moreover 202v Salviati's classification gives first answer the relationship between objects and imitations The poet may imitate objects which are true improbable false and the latter category those which are probable are

.

is

of

by

be

;

90

."

to

“

,

is

,

;

be a

,

to

poetry since they come from nature and poet without invention not demand invention the poet cannot Those which are false and improbable are also excluded because they prevent the poet from achieving his end which move the passions along with profit and delight this cannot achieved the imitation the improbable The assumption that emotion depends upon belief do

But true objects are improper

or

,

be

.

77 )

( . It fol

it , is or

,

or in

:

“

of

in

of

is

(

,

is

,

.

)

is

it

of

and belief upon probability Hence the third category false in objects which are probable the only one left for the poet and this one which Aristotle considers exclusively Salviati also suggests the sources our notions the probable cannot denied that the probable found either nature the sempiternal Idea vented

he

;

the

(

in

).

,

,

:

-

...

or

,

to

.

the poet inventing what formed equal that which exists un

is

way that

it

such

a

in

,

89

—

his work makes everything himself

does not exist and

gli

in

the poet

is

he

elements

all

;

a

of

in

expresses them proper order and rhetorical words invention disposition and elocution are clearly present Of these things unlike the historian maker and creator

them

...

he

a

of

. " 91

by

,

or in

,

be

it

in

of

the mind the poet the universal and being found there taking clear that can imitated The poet invents his subject probable materials and fashioning them into likeness disposes truth

Giouare

,

è

, e

, e

:

è

.

.

,

,

a

.

il

.

. , . e . .

il

,

, e

,

è

ne

.

.,

: “

arteficj hanno due fini fols 151-51v l'opera stessa uno vicino cio segue Prossimo fine del poeta che cio che ueramente l'imitare ultimo l'arrecar giouamento piacere che medesimo uiene dire che porgere utilità dilettazione imi poema quattro fini massimamente Imitare tando Ha adunque Imitar col uerso Ibid

ultimo

si è

."

il

,

, e

,

il

,

di

]

[

615

nell'Idea

mani

.

è

, e

si

, o

, o

,

si

, o

: “

."

,

festo che

negar non puo che'l uerisimile uogliam dir nella natura ritruouj nella mente del poeta nell'uniuersale non ritrouandosi puo imitare

fol 76v

si , o

sempiterna

.

Ibid

.,

91

."

è

76 : “ il

,

il

.

, , e

.

il

.

.,

90

Il

dilettare imitando Giouare primo prossimo dilettare imitando col uerso quarto ultimo speziale fine generale secondo prossimo speziale terzo ultimo generale quale Ibid fol commuovere con profitto diletto che l'imitazione del non uerisimile non puo adoperare

POETIC

THEORY

even better , by himself makes the matter , by himself disposes it ; and not content with this , since he must make it appear as it were in the mantle of speech , he does not wish to borrow the latter , either , from somebody else ; but he forms a new and excellent one by himself , so that no part shall find a place in his work that he himself has not made . 92

Verisimilitude is the resemblance of what the poet produces to the world of reality ; insofar as it is “ better," it resembles the world of Ideas ; and the process of creating or inventing such resemblance is called imitation . ( 2 ) Poetry is an imitation in verse . Salviati has established , in passages already examined , the necessity for verse as the proper matter of poetry ( and he has called this the

“ extrinsic ” matter to separate it from the intrinsic ” matter or “subject matter ” or the objects as imitated ). He recognizes the philosophical (and Aristotelian ) principles concerning form and matter in imitation : “

... the imitation is of the form alone ; so long as this is expressed by the imitator , it is of no importance through what matter or with what instrument he presents it to us . And since the matter of the thing imitated and the matter of that which imitates must be different , this difference ought to be , as the logicians say , not specific but of number .

For it

guage , but that the san

would be important not that the same sort of lan words arranged in the same way , should not be used .93

But his argument for verse is not based on principle ; it consists in a triple appeal to artifice, to pleasure, and to usage . By " artifice " he means the skilful use of the potentialities of language ; this is pleasurable because it the greatness of the poet's genius, and moreover it serves to " magnify " the poem . Pleasure itself is a part of the end - or one of the

reveals

insofar as verse adds an element of pleasure to the poem it is desirable . The usage of the best poets in the past should convince the poet that verse is indispensable . These arguments are not without their difficulties . On the one hand there ends

— and

are such works as Sannazaro's Arcadia , which is to be blamed for not

being entirely in verse rather than for mixing verse with prose . On the other hand , Boccaccio's Decameron , although it is a plot and should require verse , is so good in prose that one would not wish it otherwise : perchance no composition either of the moderns or of the ancients poeta fingendo quel da se

il

...

,

se ,

,

in

da

da , ne

,

formato medesimo contento cio quella douendo fare presto anche quella vuol altrui torre per acciò niuna parte nella sua fabbrica non

."

forma

ogni cosa ancor meglio

,

la

apparire ne

se

, et

,

lui

da

,

al

,

se

da

,

fabbrica quasi col manto della locuzione ma una nuoua eccellente fatta habbia luogo 93

di

: " il

poeta nella sua fabbrica 167 quel ch'è par maniera che dispone materia medesimo

di è .

è la , et fol . in

92 Ibid ., che non

, fa o da ne se

...

ce

,

, o di ,

616

)

(

. di "

locuzione

ma

:

di

,

le

i

,

,

, e di

,

a

la

importerebbe non che stessa maniera modo ordinate non douessero adoperare si

la

e

di

: "

la

si

.

E

,

.

.,

qual pur che dall'imitatore Ibid fol 136v l'imitazione della forma solamente l'appre uenga espressa nulla rilieua per uia qual materia quale strumento auanti posto che quella che imita esser douesse differente senti materia della cosa imitata fatta differenza harebbe essere come dicono loici non ispecifica ma numero che medesime parole nel medesimo

POETICS : EFFECT OF LITERARY QUARRELS

if

and so beautiful : and woe to the author

was ever made so graceful

he

had made it in verse ! ” 94 Salviati solves the dilemma by stating

the

, in

:

its

.

for

all

:

it

the

.

.

,

to

it

if

,

of

deprived

praise and

of

,

be

,

if

:

it is

;

on

is

in

the

the way that has been indicated the the mind the ears and

it

,

to

if

to in

of

all

lest the author

,

neglected

no

will bring

use

given comedy not made measured language any other and the reason which the aforementioned languages this artifice which even did not only the listener did not bring harm and damage

title And one makes verse unpleasantness and harm .

of

his

should not no

,

be

is

is

law based common afford utility and profit him

a

,

or

it

must the Greek language

privilege

of

a

,

thorough case and Salviati develops comedy Italian He summarizes thus be

Italian verse

is

of

.

of

,

it

,

needs

to to

to

poets have invented kind verse particu always appears and this Piccolomini's arguments

prose are rejected

The law that

to

homespun conversations would demand the

but instead

in

of

prose

,

medium larly suited

comedy and to

of of of

actions

is a

.

it

If

thorny

passage

its ;

dictates

for

ascendency taste and preference over principle and argument The problem especially comedy poem permits any must have verse Aristotle never popular might prose that the think One the Poetics the use

of

nevertheless , one senses

of

the

that the fault is with respect to the species , but that the particular work is excellent ;

spectator.95

mind not only his principle about verse but also another context that Art one and has certain removed must not firm essence from which form its own and perfectly consistent way maintains that verse does not necessarily justification for rhyme involve rhyme There Italian tragedy and . "

is

an ,

,

in

to he to

,

.

be

In

),

49

è

(“

II,

.p ”

see

.

—

(

”

gli

da

, se da '

ne

a

.

in

be

found the various genres Two cor pleasure resulting from given literary ne

the kind

of to

to

talk largely about the pleasure siderations relate

intorno

he

is

,

)13 .

"

neglect

concerned with mores

neither subordinates pleasure present Instead insist that utility must always the concern with mores almost completely and Nevertheless

he

.

, ”

to

a '

seems

“

Salviati declares that the final cause

94

in

of

its

).

—

his ( )3

(

of .

,

rhyme any spoken verse indeed reason tells that the use improbability fol 345v poetry The ends ultimate ends are utility and pleasure Chapter initial statement about the four causes above costumi fol utility nor does

96

a

be

it

us is

no

,

he

a

a

In

.

is

“

)

in

(

stated

of

in

Salviati obviously has

his conviction

, e si

si

."

in

è

, o

a

è

la

,

, gli il

la

: e la

si è

:

,

in

: e

,

La

ad

: , “ o

è

le

.

.,

95

fu

.

.,

Ibid

: "

grazioso fol 140v niun componimento moderni antichi guai all'Autore uersj fatto per auuentura l'hauesse fatto legge che legata locuzione debba farsi Ibid fol 189v data alla commedia ragione sopra quale predetta legge non alla greca lingua altra fondata lingue quale come che utile giouamento all'uditore tutte comune cio l'artifizio bello

, e

.”

una ferma essenza onde ,

et

,

)

617

,

il

E

una sua certa forma

(

ha

et

una

,

.

.,

Ibid fol L'arte trarla non conuiene

è

, e

69 : . " "

,

96

, et

.

,

, o

,

,

non recasse solo che noia disutile non arrechi per non ispogliar l'autore della lode del priuilegio del suo titolo non douerrebbe trascurarsi chi farà uerso nella guisa che njun danno all'orecchia s'è detto niun fastidio all'animo dello spettatore porterà

POETIC form

for which it

: the audience

THEORY

is written and the objects which it repre

sents . The end of comedy , for example , is pleasure alone — the pleasure which comes from laughter ( fols . 146 , 200 ). It has nothing to do with teaching, with using other people's lives to better our own , although this has sometimes been ascribed to it as an end ; at best , it avoids presenting positively harmful examples ( fol. 355 ) . Its audience is of two kinds : some men (the common people ) care only about their laughter and their pleasure ; others (the educated men ) are more discriminating :

... since pleasure is sufficient for men , they care about nothing else , nor are they bothered by the obscenities , or the lack of verisimilitude , or the other errors of the art , or the improprieties and the impertinences of which these plots [ in the " commedie di zanni " ) are everywhere full , so long as the laughter and the plea sure last continuously . Grave men also find extreme pleasure in them , because of their admirable imitation ; but on the other hand , they feel greater annoyance at the absurdities and the other defects than if this were not so . From the striving

for pleasure nothing but praise can come to these plots , because pleasure must be said without any doubt to be the end of comedy.97 The same is true for certain

“

joyous writers

whose works give even greater pleasure

”

to the

...

“

in Italian , such as Berni , giudiziosi ” and the “

di

they are heard with greater screti ” than they do to ordinary men : “ pleasure by men of merit because they recognize in them , better than the

multitude , the beauty of the sayings , the grace of the witticisms , the sharp of the conceits, and the appropriateness of the language . " 98

ness

In order to achieve this effect , to please this audience , comedy must treat men of low social station . Salviati insists throughout that the difference between comedy and tragedy is not a difference badness

goodness , but uniquely

and

between vice and virtue , or

common and illustrious

between

people . This is the “ specific ” difference :

For the fact that the persons are good or bad in a given tragedy or comedy will make them more or less commendable , indeed , or more or less perfect ; but it will not make them change species. For if popular subjects were taken , no

diletto

niente altro

hanno

cura ne

bastando loro

il

huomini

, ne , di gli

lor

fa

il le ne

97 Ibid ., fols . 145v_46 : "

gli

matter how much “ better " the persons of such a story were made to be , we should not have a tragedy ; and on the contrary , if kings were taken for the imitation , even if their actions were as abominable and as wicked as possible , from such a

,

,

i

ui

:

di

,

,

a

,

il

)

la

, e

,

." 618

de

,

il

il

, ' la

de ' da '

riconoscono

(

proprietà della fauella dentro

, et

,

:

se

...

ui

: la “

.

." .,

,

è

98 da

:

,

di

degli altri difetti imitazione coloro ma degli assurdi all'incontro quelle questo non fosse del cercare diletto altro che lode noia che fauole non potrebbe uenire impercioche diletto fine della commedia senza alcun fallo dire Ibid fol 298 sono ualent huomini con piu diletto ascoltate quanto eglino meglio che'l uolgo mottj grazia degli scherzi l'acutezza concettj bellezza la

per l'ammirabile senton maggior

il

e'l

,

, e le

,

le

noia sconce cose ne'l mancamento del uerisimile altri errori dell'arte sconueneuolezze scede che per tutto ripiene sono quelle fauole pur che continuo piacere quale eziandio gustano oltr'à misura riso duri seueri huominj grande

no

other poem

distinction

ethical

do in

are interpreted

such

we

or

in

,

Aristotle that make the passages Hence between goodness and badness are explained away

—

dramatic representation

an

all

it were forth tragedy would ever result.99

as a

- provided

set

plot than

a

POETICS : EFFECT OF LITERARY QUARRELS

re

"

is

of on ,

his

,

of

.

"

in

it

,

a

his

of

as

,

of

of

to

by

of

).

168v We result from the spectacle laughter are produced (

on

,

highly noble subject magnifies every extraordinary audience marvelous and compassion and terror know that the effects the misfortunes illustrious men just those

chooses

doing gives

of do

,

,

therefore so

that way and ones

pleasure

be

fol . by he

;

he to

on

.

to

as

a

justify Salviati's basic contention Unfortunately not purgation tragedy specific have his remarks the effect and the judgment pleasure obtained from that form But Dante vealing holds that Dante writes for wise men rather than ordinary way

).

,

”

“

as

,

of

its

,

"

of

of

in be

.

of

,

to

is

of

as

;

of

a

10 ).

(

.

of

.

of

its

of

”

(“

of la

the spectacle

" . his fol

ridiculous men who are per ridicoli loro condizione 209 poetry and kinds reflect attitudes objects toward the use verse and toward the pleasure essential end We have already seen poetry defined an imitation the verisimilar expressed through ornamented language language both fol The presence verisimilitude and the use relationship between poetry and rhetoric since rhetoric treats establish poetry both some knowledge rhetoric thus prior the practice through their condition Salviati's definitions toward imitation and

a

is

of

is

lie

is

of

,

of

,

it .

of

,

of

;

of

,

its

:

.

a

to

,

if

an

is a

of

.

to

"

“

,

,

insofar costumi are involved there will also link with establishing moral philosophy But Salviati refuses follow Castelvetro priority history over poetry The reasons are clear although history object the true and also imitation lesser degree than poetry not the verisimilar neither the imitation prose the truth nor the use poetry and hence history would satisfy the basic conditions essen tially different from The notion fiction falsehood the Besides

of

is a

“

:

.

of to

,

is

,

, is

It

. "

giving

100

,

with the ornaments sometimes separated laughter and witticisms

means

of

the soul

of

by ,

recreation

a

,

a

to

with ornamented language

99

,

).

,

of

is

on

to

.

to

(

in

as

contained such terms uïdos and Nóyos and these inevitably accom pany poetry fols 70–70v 76v By definition then poetry more closely history The definition akin rhetoric and moral philosophy than comedy tragedy Comedy modeled Aristotle's definition representation happy ending and magnitude low subject having

tra

, ò

,

, o

, o

le

,

,

si

,

, e

si

di

auuenimento disparte per ,

in

,

."

]

619

[

, e

di

è

La

: “

, e

, e .

.,

.”

tragedia non uscirà giamai rappresentazione Ibid fol 351 commedia basso sollazzeuole grandezza con fauellar condito coi condimenti alcuna uolta hauente fine uia del riso delle piaceuolezze l'animo ricreante 100

et

,

si

se

,

,

se ,

le

di

.

, di

ad

si

i

, o

, : le “

.

.,

, o

, o

personaggi fol 200v Percioche l'essere buoni cattiui d'una qualche piu commedia farà bene piu meno commendabili men perfette ma can giare spezie non gia Conciosia cosa che soggetti prendano popolareschi facciansi quanto persone uuol migliori cotale argomento tragedia mai non s'haurà all'in uogliano abbomineuoli contro tolgansi Re imitare sien pur quanto scelerate loro operazioni per maniera rappresentazione cotal fauola distenda altro poema che Ibid

gedia

POETIC

THEORY

it ,

we

.

of

a

It

.

;

its

It

It

of

on

as

.

of

,

Aristotle's text and

a

clarification

as

is

—

,

as

of

a

nevertheless

-

,

is

of on or

,

as

it of to

,

,

as

.

.

in

is

,

;

language

of

the concern for the audience and for certain problems but not completely oriented these directions discards the contemporary supposition that poetry has moral instruction end hence the Platonic the Horatian element much reduced remains close Aristotle some points but frequently the matter verse imitation the objects far distant from him One can only highly eclectic perhaps not fully achieved but regard seeking

it as

theory such

.

or

,

is

to

in

of

of

of

as

his

notable that no ethical end is here stated for comedy , as was so frequently done in this period ; but otherwise the definition shows many incompre hensions of the Poetics . Throughout commentary have Salviati indicates his inde pendence the earlier students the text He examines their positions accepting rejecting accordingly That the light his own theory theory difficult describe succinctly has some elements rhetorical

removal

accumulated

.

error

a

,

a

is

.

Its

.

-

be

,

,

by in

a

),

(

to it

represented One should not conclude from Salviati's position that tendency the period For the next document studied pamphlet Parigiuolo short Lorenzo entitled Questione della poesia clearly anti Aristotelian stand 1586 takes central thesis that verse general

of

is

,

,

in

.

,

.

,

,

of

an

.

of

makes the poet We have seen most the apologists recent years main taining that verse was poetry along with imita essential ingredient precisely tion but we have not seen them discarding imitation That Parigiuolo proposition rejects what does He Aristotle's that imitation not verse makes the poet and this constitutes the first point his program :

for the work

to

it

,

a

he

in by

:

) : is “ I

be

I

,

.pp

is

,

of is

,

;

by

...

101

merely

do

,

of

all

by

of

is

(

rapidly

.

in

is

,

,

,

disposed

it

no it .

”

saying that proof for and that antiquity only Plutarch offered the writers accepted Cicero's oratory For the rest the basic distinction only Parigiuolo not one condition prose poetry states verse say though that the poet made mean the good poet which good verse which can written only through but verse alone

“

Aristotle's proposition

poet.101

by

another

is

he

is

to

shall remove the accessory that made this that when the poet and that one who speaks through his own person not is a

the mouth

of in ,

.

tion Finally poet speaks

all to

we

,

of

.

,

.

In

We shall therefore first deny Aristotle's proposition addition this we shall will follow that the prove that verse makes poetry not imitation From this writers verses without imitation are true poets contrary Aristotle's deduc

A

)

in

.

la

di

.

la

il

.”

fa ,

vi si (

620

.

la

fa : la “ Si

il ), ,

la

, e

si

i

di

.

si

(

neghera dunque prima proposta d'Ari Questione della poesia 1586 6–7 prouera che poesia non questo seguitara stotele Oltre accio verso imitatione consequenza che compositori versi senza imitatione sono veri poeti contra Aristotele giunta che poeta fauellando persona sua non Vltimamente torra via che sia quello che per bocca d'altri fauella sia poeta

OF LITERARY QUARRELS

POETICS : EFFECT

not without art , and eloquence , and a knowledge of Imitation may also included the poetic faculty but accidental use depending upon the ends sought the poet composers poetry have directed their The ends are simply stated profiting others but along different routes according road the end their minds and their and appropriate certain things were pleasant to

,

as

“

.

by

;

in

be

of

all

103

to

to

of

:

,

102

,

its

is

it

miracles of nature universal things . ”

is on

art

of

he

.

of

of

In

to

."

powers many other ways Parigiuolo returns the beginning the tradition Etymologizing the principal terms connected with the the century

of

,

to a

a

in

to

'

to

,

be '

,

of

for

...

:

“

in

on “

"

“

”

;

to

of

"

"

,

fingo finds that one them and that this means both and form hence the question fiction which brings allegory poetry feign consideration the poet this will and simulate parables and stories and other similar things order de light and profit others with those fictions under which are always hidden feign

,

,

into religious Christian poetry

,

.

of

of

no

in

of

. "

,

thousand fine secrets about nature and about customs 104 This course repeats one poetry But the essential arguments the early defences Parigiuolo adds the caution that one must introduce such fictions with which fables

the pagan gods must

,

a

of to

,

is

be rei , as a

19 .)

( .p

to

”

.

is

in

as

,

of

it

of

1586

que

'

à

il

comedia

et

tragedia

,

che

poema

(

he

the Poetics

,

producing pleasure are defined and described

in

.

, is he as is he a

.

,

.

by

of

of

we

,

is

),

.

.

a

) is

(

pp

,

102

capable

civile

da '

governatori delle already have seen Chapter primarily concerned with the relationship VIII 316–19 Denores between poetry and moral and civil philosophy and with the various peda gogical ends served poetry To this extent Platonist He believes pleasure everywhere present auxiliary and accessory that the end that instruction follows upon pleasure Insofar holds that the devices As &

heroico ricevono dalla philosophia morale republiche 1586 indeed curious one

Discorso intorno

, ' , la &

accrescimenti

la

Giason Denores

in

Aristotle

,

et

,

,

The position principii cause

of

)

(

DENORES

of

as

Aristotle and consideration

in

,

est by

“

these arguments

,

is .

,

cuiuslibet versibus comprehensa dictio should noted are offered contradictions proofs that the concept any unnecessary imitation poetry the art

Poesis

,

formula

All

to

.

of

:

be

intermingled Horace not his Ars poetica forbids such monstrous compositions Many others the standard arguments for poetry are intro retrogressing duced Indeed the extent which Parigiuolo distant time indicated his final use definition for poetry the Latin

il

a

,

di

se

,

di

."

le

.”

&

, e

.'

, e si

, e

, e di

di

]

[

621

,

al

,

,

&

il

gli

a

e

la le

si

,

il

, il e

...

&

13 : “

., .p

,

., , p . & 9 : "

...

il

., .p 8 : “

poeta intendendo Ibid Non dico pero che semplicemente verso basti fare quale far non puo del buon poeta ma buon verso non per miracoli natura eloquenza cognitione delle cose vniuersali senza arte giouare altrui ma per diuersa 103 Ibid hanno drizzato lor camino fine strada secondo che piu cose animi alle forze loro aggradano confanno per parte del poeta sara fingere 104Ibid simulare parabole nouelle giouare altrui con quelle fittioni sotto altre simili cose per dilettare quali stanno sempre coperti mille bei secreti ammaestramenti natura costumi

POETIC

THEORY

is an Aristotelian . This means that he goes to Plato for a statement as as its

of

ends of poetry , to Aristotle for information about themselves work two ways some them such

.

means

of

the

The means ,

.

;

or

to

, .

all .

of

be

in an

or to

, of

an

to

,

)

of in to

).

is

1v

by .p

(

of

(

;

)

of

.

at

(

to

be

was the wish

be

,

to it is of

one

was the wish

he

best intermediate end matters fully discussed according the Poetics For poetry the two bases and the earliest for the origin give pleasure through imitation the other coming later useful the public Art itself the reduction the means

will

to to

,

,

;

as

, to

,

pleasure

pertaining Aristotle

:

in

,

he ,

it

If

,

:

in

character and sen produce instruction directly others such plot and diction produce pleasure directly and instruction ultimately One may sum marize the total situation this way The poet himself wishing benefit mankind seeks his goal instruction about ethics about nature hence turns Plato for indication the proper ends But realizing that his audience which seeks only pleasure must moved and delighted before precepts will learn turns Aristotle for the art tentiae

."

on

of

be

“

,

la

as

,

.

in to

all

,

of

he

method and precept those devices which poets have succeeded pleasing their audiences For Denores considers the sources marauiglia pleasure reduce one word the marvelous— Each poem capable causing the devices used the must wonder and is

,

it ,

achieve

he in

in

familiar commonplace

.

those matters which are well worn

, to

;

the poet ,

must avoid

The marvelous depends

for

of , all

,

of

.”

that pleasure which the audience desires part upon the selection the materials

by 105

it

.

if

so ,

“

.

in

admiration the audience Therefore every poem founded the marvelous For this were not would not engender our minds

of

as

,

as

.

of

to

an

be

(

of

is

,

,

-

of

.

as

,

a

in

of

its

,

of

a

,

in

: “

it

in

of in , it;

;

in

unexpected and extra and this change must contrived comedy example way this that man ordinary consists for ),

adversity

of

,

,

in

it

depends greater part upon how they are handled therein lies artistry the the poet First and foremost course the handling plot and Denores sees each element plot construction well the Every arousing contributing totality admiration the form plot consists change fortune the two poles being prosperity and

But

he

it

,

of

grows

Wonder

even

if

,

the conditions are almost identical

,

.

is

reversed

tragedy

as

at ,

,

a

106 in

."

he is in

,

,

in

most happy conclusion

these things accomplished within the limited time

16 : “

105

sees

For

hours tion

of

,

achieves

the twelve

the situa

:

ever

audience

a

he

, -

of

low estate finds himself some predicament and does not seem that the poets following the orders nevertheless can ever get himself out way through their poem such the law givers arrange this kind beginning although the end how trouble the inventions that

in

."

.

,

di

i

."

,

si

le

,

]

622

[

è in

, un si

,

da

,

in

,

: “ ,

,

de '

gli

se

è

), .p

(

,

.pp

.,

è

106

se

1586 Pertanto fondato ogni poema nella marauiglia Percioche propone l'auditore tale non partorisce negli animi nostri quel diletto che questo che trouandosi bassa fortuna huomo consiste 16–16v Ibid poeti seguendo quella nondimeno vna qualche molestia non pare che possa mai rileuarsi legislatori fattamente questa tal poesia loro inuentioni acconciano con ordini disturbo all'vltimo tuttauia sortisce felicissimo fine che ben nel principio egli Discorso

non

POETICS : EFFECT OF LITERARY QUARRELS

...

while some powerful man is in a state of the highest happiness , it does not seem , because of his great power and authority , that he can ever fall into misery . Nevertheless , the poets , through their most skilful plots , weave the tragedy in such a way that although in the beginning he is in a state of extreme contentment and prosperity , at the end , however , he falls into many misadventures . Such marvelousness is rendered even greater by the very brevity and shortness of time , since it is necessary that the poet bring about this great transmutation from good to bad fortune within one revolution of the sun.107 the epic , similarly , a great prince is returned to a state

fill

to

be

in

at

,

of

;

.

in

at

of

us

of good fortune . , plot kinds of “ revolution " if to the A will be still more marvelous already indicated , it adds the devices of recognition and reversal. For both of these go counter to our expectations , surprise us , with wonder not only the turn events itself but the poet's skill putting them together this way The episode may also added the list marvelous devices for the poet displays both his genius and his In

,

a

, in

21 ).

”

of ,

of

as

“

as to

.

is

it

in

of

be

+

(

.pp

”

“

its

plot

to

a

extend

he

finds those episodes which verisimilar way correct proportions 17v Verisimilitude and the proper handling time are two considerations which must everywhere Vergil observed these matters From such passages his discussion apparent that Denores gives meaning verisimilitude the when

inventiveness

,

"

"

“

to

, of

.

of

"

as "

“

;

per natura natural probability such phrases and contraria alla ragione are used criteria for actions As for time not only does the limitation for tragedy and comedy permit the display the poet's powers epic gives scope while the freedom the his invention but somehow the a

in

for

is

a

on

be

on

of

a

;

9 )

it

,

,

of

be

combining means and end may exempli tragedy the usefulness for Boccaccio's novella plot Decameron has

IV ,

(

fied his remarks Rosciglione's wife

,

.

his

it

plot Denores way on '

ness

.

by of

,

to

an

of

;

it

.

to

varying lengths are adapted the differing moral lessons The king long time tragedy may quickly fall into misery but will take the epic regain position hero lost Indeed since the moral lesson the ultimate end will never omitted from judgments the effective

...

punishment last and receive desperation and death .

by ,

;

,

,

& la

i

,

in

, in ,

in

tal

,

in le

,

&

,

-

.,

la

,

provi

essendo qualche potente huomo vna somma felicità non pare signoria che possa mai trabocar poeti miseria nondimeno tragedia mira alle cose predette tessono con loro prudentissime fauole prosperità che quantunque nel principio egli sia vna supprema contentezza

16v sua gran potenza

hauendo tal guisa

through these secret ways from eternal

17 : “

Ibid

per

.pp

la 107

,

dence

108

,

as

at

it is

,

of

,

of

which can equally well receive both the change fortune and the reversal and the recognition and the revolution one single day and the morality which demonstrated that these furtive and illegitimate loves are discovered

il

si

,

la

.”

di

di

&

,

morte

,

si

la

quale dimostra questi riceuer per queste occulte vie

.”

,

,

per

& & , la

&

)

vn

in

la

&

la ,

sol

di

,

& il

,

la

623

(

,

furtiui

&

&

l'agnitione

vn

: "

., .p

108

giro giorno moralità non legitimi essere finalmente discoperti desperatione dalla prouidentia eterna per castigamento ,

petia amori

,

, e

di

.

in

marauiglia molte disauenture Vna rende ancho maggiore tempo essendo necessario che poeta faccia risultar dalla medesima breuità strettezza questa gran tramutatione dalla buona fortuna alla cattiva giro Sole peri Jaquale parimente puo riceuer Ibid 29v tramutation fortuna

all'vltimo nondimeno cade

POETIC

THEORY

The devices of the marvelous contribute to the achievement gogical ends .

of

peda

the

Diction and verse constitute another qualitative part capable of pro ducing the marvelous . In comedy and tragedy the audience is astonished by the fact that verse can so completely resemble prose and that it can so well be adapted

to the conditions of the personages . In any genre , the use of speech will in itself be pleasurable . Denores thinks of diction in terms of the “ figures ,” or the traditional styles , each of which is adapted to particular kinds of subject matters .

of

all

figures

in

,

of

so

by

,

a

in

of of

to

of

of

,

of

,

in

The marvelous of words in these poems but especially the heroic and poetic figures and forms the tragic consists this that they are accompanied speech and raised above the way speaking private persons that the language appropriate the condition their illustrious persons has itself certain royal dignity and grandeur which stems from the choice the words and

,

,

of

of

.

of

to

of

on

plot Denores appeals attaches himself the

.

,

of to

is

to

It

interesting note that whereas matters questions style the authority Aristotle medieval tradition

he

on

is

it

,

. be

of

from the artful ordering and succession the same The figure lowness next private must used for comedy since the imitation the actions citizens 109

order that his which will

each

language is

it

.

.”

“

is

be

to

in

delineated accordance with the laws decorum The special used for this delineation called oration morata Here

be

the various types

in

specifically

of

He does

of

may obtain knowledge

,

.

the imaginable types and nationalities and so

in

each

of

,

,

via imitation

all

as

.

in

,

"

of

"

poet presents

the good and the bad audience

an

,

The two remaining qualitative parts character and what Denores calls present their moral lessons even more direct way He affording great delight because the speaks character and decorum sententia

another to

is

.

,

of

so

no

to

32v

. & , , & .pp

109

a

in

is

)

if

“

.

(

”

)

(

di

,

,

&

il

continuation delle alla comedia essendo ,

&

,

et

."

de '

La

.

,

che deriua dalla eletion delle parole dalla prudente ordination figura poscia dell'humilta douera essere accommodata medesime priuati ella imitation delle attion 624

&

se

, a

tal

,

,

in

,

in

in

,

di

,

: “

35–35v nel tragico

La

marauiglia delle parole tutti questi poemi ma sopratutto questo che siano con figure consiste con maniere dir ragionar delle persone private parlar secondo inalzate dal modo che grandezza conditione delle sue persone illustri habbia una certa dignità regia Ibid

nell'heroico poetiche la

be

to

all

or

no

is

,

,

as

such

as

plot and diction are marvelous and hence produce delight and such others character and thought achieve moral end directly would deter which structural criterion formal there more parts among relationship one wishes the these Aristotle's mine the poetic composition any beautiful 1447a10 not represented

If

parts

).

.

(p

in

eloquence

is

—

of

he

'

in

a

of

—

the rules

of

decorum the rhetoricians that called upon procedure poet basis for the The rhetorician also upper utility most Denores mind when considers the sententiae for these many lessons arguments and appeals the emotions are more than tradition provide

LITERARY QUARRELS

POETICS : EFFECT OF

an

,

,

.

a

of of

,

on

its

way , and there is no substitute for it . The only general conception that would permit one to see a given poem as a totality is the conception of moral lesson and indeed genres themselves are distinguished the basis conception Tragedy for example must teach such ethical lesson

, .

it

In

.

;

in

the social station necessary

but

,

sure to

to

enters

be

to

Moral character

,

.

accompaniment

to

an

:

be

be

of

of

be

, is

he

,

is

it

be

of

, its

,

—

,

its an

,

,

of

the unhappy denouement

cause

its

,

a

specific kind having the required social and political implications plot might Hence whatever the particular form revolution recognition reversal general form must always the same must unhappy ending else the lesson will not taught have the same public figures way personages must illustrious rank social posi tion not character the only basis distinction which Denores finds imply the necessity Aristotle and believes that Aristotle also meant

be

arouse the

,

of

,

in

at

;

a

of

.

,

proper passions Moderately good men high station who fall rapidly pity into misery and final state misfortune will arouse the passions and terror and these were the only ones useful and necessary for Greek preparing the citizens for military life and for the tragedy which aimed as a

,

of

we

.

of

-

)

of

(

of

.

by ,

).

.pp

in

we

of ,

(

of

peda defence their country 10–14v Hence purgation itself gogical instrument takes the form required the lesson poetry itself and The definitions the various genres some which Chapter VIII are little more than combinations have already seen although they have the various elements that produce the moral lesson the external form Aristotelian definitions One need only compare them

is

of

:

,

by

to

,

,

of , in to

or , in

to

marvelous complete and fortune either from prosperous adverse presented the listeners through language

some human action

a

,

of in or

to

in

.

in

imitation

sizeable which has itself change from adverse prosperous which

is of

of

in an of

,

,

then

is

Poetry

'

is

as

with such definitions have the Poetics discover how basically poetry different Denores total orientation His general definition tragedy found modeled on that the Poetics

to

to

,

,

of

,

of

of

,

in

purge them verse either narration dramatic form order means pleasure the most important passions the soul and direct them to ward good living toward the imitation virtuous men and toward the con good republics.110 servation

,

.

:

on

,

of

of

of

;

of

a

be

pleasant action private therefore will the representation between the good and the bad which through some human error 36 : & “ E

,

110

an

of

to

Comedy persons

by of

,

on

of

he

is

in

By the comedy The same general pattern followed the definition very abundance elements which includes and their specificity Denores shows the one hand the eclecticism his sources the other grasp the essence Aristotelian definition his failure

.

,

,

)

[

&

da '

,

."

625

;

in

'

; ò

di

si

in

,

al

,

;

& è

,

è

se

la

,

,

dunque

grande

; ò

,

., .p

Ibid compita

di

poesia rassomiglianza vna qualche attion humana maraui che habbia tramutation fortuna dalla prospera nell propone agli ascoltanti con parlar auuersa dall'auuersa nella prospera che versi piu importanti affetti rappresentando per purgargli col mezzo del diletto narrando per indrizzargli dell'animo ben viuere alla imitation degli huomini virtuosi alla conseruation delle buone republiche gliosa

POETIC

THEORY

stupidity , beginning from hardship , ends in laughter and happiness ; in the space of one revolution of the sun ; composed in short verses and with low words ; in order to purge the spectators , by means of pleasure and of the ridiculous, of

which they will find themselves .

111

those hardships which disturb their calm and tranquillity , through the love affairs of wives and daughters and sons , through the deceits and treacheries of servants , pimps , nurses , and others of that kind ; in order to make them become enamoured of private life ; for the conservation of that well - regulated popular republic in

re ,

,

to

of

of

of

,

as

a

,

of In

definition this one may work back from the Platonic statement through subjects the ends the medieval enumeration the kinds through rhetorical elements style verse and certain Aristotelian such

,

a

:

,

to

of all

through means whose

.

in

,

ends whose statement derives from Plato conditions are outlined Aristotle's Poetics ment

in of

;

In

of

.

by

of

quirements for the constitution the poem but even these latter are warped extraneous considerations this sense the definitions generous eclecticism Denores are symptomatic his total method ingredients general which other are made serve two aims the achieve

in la

his

himself states

it

(

Platonic instruction

Giacomini

on

of

an

in

of

,

315–16

).

,

.pp

ultimate end

the

this

:

,

latter way

and pleasure and see Chapter VIII

an

is a

,

beauty

of

,

in

of

'

of

departure There are striking affinities between Denores general point Sopra purgazione della and that Lorenzo Giacomini lecture tragedia delivered before the Accademia degli Alterati 1586. For Giaco duality mini also there ends consisting immediate end

to

to

the poem itself

”

which

,

“

,

as

;

a

,

of

.

to

.pp

in

111

it

.p

”,

is

lo

it

è

(

“ il

further Giacomini indicates that also the formal end He defines poetry an imitation figurative language reduced verse human action made istesso

deals with

is

,

, “

he

112

to be

to

the art

as

poema

of

the proper end

to ,

the

is

,

is to

a

of as

it .

these

33 ) ;

quale

or

The first

is

of

,

—

of

,

,

of

poet The end the poet construct the poem correctly according the rules and the end the tragic poet form the tragedy according the general idea tragedy the art which like any poem may used for many ends whose consideration with respect their causes belongs the politician who forms the city who governs

...

di

,

&

,

,

di

un

gli

di

di

la

,

in ,

&

: “

&

, & la in ,

da

,

,

da

di

fra

.,

Ibid 36-36v Sara per tanto comedia rappresentation una attion piaceuole persone priuate sempietà comin buone cattiue che per qualche errore humano trauaglio finisce allegrezza nello spacio giro ciando riso Sole composta spettatori col mezzo del diletto con uersi corti con parole humili per purgar del ,

."

33 : " il

,

si

a

di

de '

,

de '

&

,

,

&

&

,

,

de '

,

'

di

&

,

112

,

,

que trauagli che turbano tranquilità per gl'inamoramenti delle ridicolo loro quiete figlioli per gl'inganni mogli delle figliole tradimenti seruitori ruffiani delle per fargli inamorar della vita priuata quella nutrici altri simili conseruation tal ben regolata republica populare nella quale troueranno la il

, è

il

in

)

[

."

,

la

,

al

626

la , la

è

.p

& il ) ,

si

le

de

, la

,

(

e

quanto poeta Orazioni discorsi 1597 fine del poeta fabricare poema con retta ragione fine del poeta Tragico secondo l'idea del arte formare Tragedia quale considerazione come ogni poema per molti fini può essere adoperata quali per politico che forma gouerna loro cagioni pertiene Città overo

POETICS : EFFECT OF LITERARY QUARRELS

, in

,

in

is

be

,

is

,

,

of

efficient cause

part

is

language the the formal cause the material cause poetic the last that indicated the art the final cause

the four causes

is

of

113

according to the poetic art ; proper for purging , for teaching , for giving recreation or noble diversion . " Now the human action imitated terms

or

to of “

the diction with strange and wonderful forms

he

,

114

,

uses chosen words

of

,

forms the verse which flatters our ear

he

of

he

“

,

of

.

is

it

it

."

,

he

,

The form itself must beautiful and pleasurable directly and indeed achieves one the ends that recreation noble diversion Hence that the poet always aims make the work de lightful and therefore invents the plot out marvelous things ... the definition

speech

adorns ,

is

of

-

of

art ."

by of .

his

of

is

,

is ,

to is in

of

.

to

is

—

,

a

of

an

thus proper area for the operation poetry for Giacomini based the beautiful the creation on the Poetics we may assume and this according the rules form But Aristotle also provides for him the best statement the pedagogical purgation subject ends and this the clause which the lecture ,

There

be

all

.

,

,

,

to

its

in

,

,

of ,

to

-

of

.

,

,

of

.

it

of at

of

length because the many difficulties the three alternative meanings proposed earlier commentators The first theory holds that tragedy purges only the pity passions less audience and fear causing the men two oppo pitying theory fearful and less The second holds instead that the joy confidence envy hate wrath sites these passions are purged According theory tragedy through passions the third moderates the He moved consider interpretation and because

us

that the passions are purged any given passion within his man who suffers general way

for

, of an is ,

of

,

or

to

.

its

A

.

of ,

a

by

less

it

example outward expression lightening purgation Moreover this the soul accompanied feeling pleasure tragedy presents just such opportunity for exteriorization Giacomini likens effect that medicinal purgatives which drive out certain humors from the body

soul will suffer through weeping

gives

as ,

he

a

that

as

. it ,

exteriorization

a

.

, in

these He believes

,

of

none

by

is

.

,

of

it

gives the spectacle that the instability human affairs makes accept our own misfortunes with greater equanimity Giacomini's theory

To of

,

is

,

in

sympathy with others the same time the spectacle ,

At

).

ff .

36

feel these passions

moral teachings

.

full

them

( .pp

of

.

Hence our souls are relieved

we

compassionate

as

,

;

.

.

of

to

provided that the purgatives have some natural appropriateness the humors Tragedy presents vividly before our eyes the spectacle terrible and pitiable events As we see misfortunes impending over men like our selves we fear for their safety when misfortune actually occurs we are

,

a

,

a

33 : "

35 , :"

,

., .p ., .p

114 113

of

pleasure this seemingly divided poetics divided between two ends and utility between formal cause and final cause Giacomini gives

." )

,

,

ci

(

il

,

e

627

di

. di "

, e

la

, o

.

di

, a in

ad

,

a

,

il

...

di

di

la

Ibid imitazione con parlare fauoloso ridotto versi azzione humana purgare fatta secondo l'arte poetica atta ammaestrare dar riposo nobile diporto poeta intende sempre far l'opera dilettevole perciò finge Ibid favola lusinga l'orecchio usa sceltezza parole adorna cose maravigliose forma verso che favella maniere dire pellegrine mirabili

POETIC THEORY unity by making pleasure a necessary condition of purgation . That is , the form of the poem itself produces not only the pleasure but also the utility . He expresses this notion elaborately in a passage which offers at once a psychology of aesthetic pleasure and a statement of utilitarian ends :

...

his

the spectator of the tragic act , although he knows as long as he has recourse to his intelligence for assistance that what is represented is not true , nevertheless fooled by the artful imitation accompanied by flattering sweetness , especially

he

of

to

in

he his

,

it ,

of

imagination phantasms when present objects strike his view and create within capable moving feels within himself fear and compassion and weeping and spirit which addition the pleasure coming from the lightening ,

to

,

;

it

is

by

.

,

by

is

it

operating according achieves while these passions feels still other pleasures First tragedy pleases teaching the action represented since learning among the things which are joyful pleases through the mar their nature ;

it we is us of

,

,

by

he on

.

...

115

do it

of

is

us

.joy

,

.

is ,

this respect The second that informs that we indeed are free from such grave misfortunes which cannot otherwise pleasure and salutary lessons than give The last the learning in

tragedy can bring delight also

... its of

is

is an

,

it is

...

or

to

.

is in

.

,

a

to

thing not believed can readily come pass velous demonstrating that delightful through the imitation To these delights not improper that should add order three others even though they are somewhat external and remote One that since compassion act virtue and since every operation according resembling virtue virtue nature joyful the compassion

,

of

to ,

be

it

of

an

.

of

al of

the questions raised

,

his

in

its

a

it

,

of

of

.

to

115

in

that occupies ,

,

is

Aristotle the Poetics that Torquato Risposta truth and verisimilitude Tasso Discorso del Sig Oratio Lombardelli also 1586. And although this work sets out contradict Lombardelli essentially develops thesis own

It

another

by

(

1586-87

of

TASSO

)

of

,

to

.

a

,

of

to to a

;

refers also

in

on

,

purgation are not derived exclusively will clear the Politics on the effects music general and theory the passions and their effects upon the soul These elements are welded into doctrine which uses Aristotle defend the poet against Plato and which achieves almost complete identification poetry the pleasures and the utilities Giacomini's ideas from the Poetics poetry Plato

si

,

se

ad

,

da

,

,

: " lo

.pp

,

.,

rap spettatore dell'atto tragico benchè conosca quello che Ibid 240-41 presenta non esser vero mentre all'intelletto ricorre per aiuto nondimeno ingannato dall'arti lusinghevole dolcezza accompagnata fiziosa imitazione massimamente quando oggetti in

,

è .

,

il

è

è,

.

,

la

, e

. . . .

è

.

)

(

628

,

, o

,

da la si

,

, e

fa

ne

,

"

....

è ci ,

.

il

...

la

virtù essendo ogni operazione secondo virtù alla virtù somigliante per può anche per questo riguardo compassione della tragedia apportar diletto L'altro che conoscere che pur fiere disavventure siamo liberi noi l'apprendere documenti salute gioia L'ultimo porgere piacere che non può non voli , di

compatire atto natura gioconda

A

,

; in è

,

,

lo

tragedia insegnando l'azione rappresentata poichè imparare tralle cose per natura gioconde aggrada colla maraviglia proponendo cosa non creduta poter agevol questi diletti non mente avvenire dilettevole per l'imitazione disdicevole che accompagniamo che essendo remoti Uno ischiera tre altri benchè alquanto esterni la

piace

,

la

,

,

ed

, e

, e

, e

la

presenti feriscon vista crean nella fantasia fantasmi possenti alterarla sente compassione pianto compiacenza dell'alleggerimento dell'animo che timore oltre mentre secondo questi affetti opera egli consegue prova ancora altri diletti Primieramente

POETICS : EFFECT OF LITERARY QUARRELS with respect to necessity , probability , credibility , and the marvelous . Much of what Tasso has to say is of course influenced by his intention to defend his own poem , and the thesis becomes a justification of his own practice . Throughout his argument, he uses the art of history as a point of com parison with the art of poetry ( answering Lombardelli's views ), and the following

conclusions result from the comparison : History and poetry differ essentially in the absence and presence of imitation . Tasso has some difficulty with the term , since , at times , he tends to use it as meaning dramatic representation . But in a broader sense it seems to mean the vivid placing of things and actions before our eyes , and this occurs in poetry ; whereas history gives merely a simple narrative of events . One consequence of this distinction is that the customary statement to the effect that history treats the truth and poetry treats verisimilitude is not valid . For Tasso , both arts are equally concerned with the truth . In fact, he sees truth as a genre , and the hierarchy which

necessary foundation for poems in whatever

descends from genres which are based entirely on the truth to those which represent it only slightly . He puts it this way :

all

...

he establishes

is

to

,

,

its

so

.

,

,

of

in

it

,

be

.

to

to

be

as

is or

truth some more and some less according perfection We must nevertheless note that just perchance the whole action the whole structure not the foundation part does not need true but must leave the verisimilar which proper the poem 116 as

poems have some foundation they participate more less

,

be

of

;

)

as

;

of

of

.

of

)

or

,

”

.

9 )

(

.p

distinguishes

117

is

to

a

is

"

:

.

a

he

which things and events are not well composed together We what necessity and probability consist But know that the poet must add something the truth otherwise there would opportunity for his necessary and that the marvelous invention

of

perfection when these

poemi habbiano qualche fondamento meno participano della perfettione

)

629

(

,

. gli '

, e

le

è

,

,

, il

la

, ." à

è

al

la

è

la

;

, i e

si

,

10 : "

., .p

117

,

,

(

), .p

della uerità chi dee nondimeno hauersi auertenza che come tutta fabrica non fondamento cosi per aventura tutta quale proprio del poema l'attione non dee esser uera ma lasciarsi sua parte uerisimile quello non poema Ibid cui manchi forma nel quale cose auenimenti non siano ben composti insieme piu

1586 tutti chi meno secondo che piu

no

be

is a

(

to

" )

"

poem reaches the highest degree 18 : “

“

.

, 116 e

Risposta

do

The

we

ingredient

.

are not told

of

."

in

lacking

to

, of

;

,

to

,

“

he

elements

says

.

—

“

other

”,

added The mode and not the poetry history matter from For one thing necessity and proba the poet must organize his materials according bility for another must give them proper form Perhaps Tasso reduces poem both these one procedure That not which form them

must

or a

-

of

a

be

of

is

.

in

(

is a

( or

in

no

;

on

the epic

and

the truth

,

would the highest genres being wholly comedy and the pastoral would the lowest since they have poems whose only foundation truth Tasso thinks little reality truth truth cities and countries somewhat more those which present true real persons well and most those whose actions are true the sense that they are historically verifiable retailing falsification historical facts Since poetry not merely Thus tragedy

founded

POETIC THEORY

?

in

,

.

is

.

to

be

,

of

:

of

,

is . in

do

be

of

,

,

of

...

as

of

118

two things [ the marvelous and verisimilitude ) are joined together, and they may be conjoined in various ways ." ' He thinks the marvelous con sisting those events which not enter into natural probability How then can they credible and acceptable the poem The answer the beliefs even the faith the audience For Christians believe the miracles the Bible know them true even though they are improbable This credibility which the poet seeks the only kind from Cicero we may deduce that the credible belongs rather

,

he

so

he ,

lie ,

at he

;

so

if in

be

,

119

.

it

se

,

,

is

it

,

if

and

it in

color

; to

at

as

I

believe that

many ways that even known least the poet ever takes the credible into consideration per does not consider but per accidens

least

blamed he

it or

be

it to

hide

will not

to

to

,

he

;

,

to

if

part

of

a

it

is

the orator the probable but the verisimilar belongs the poet who persuade only does not seek can please nor does care whether things are believed but that they should give pleasure nor does much avoid lying the inappropriateness which may the and seeks because frequently

a

to

.

”

“

of

,

at in

by:

,

in

it

it in

”

.

be

be

as in

of ,

"

is

as

"

by

.

to

be ,

an

to

spite

,

of

,

the poetic form

of

acceptable and hence give pleasure they will belief the audience Tasso's protestations the element important factor and may seems remain truth well some thing which the audience believes something true for which there historical evidence

In

beauty

to

;

to

be “

to

.

.

we

to

be

There seems much confusion these terms and the general posi Perhaps clarify way poet tion can this The his best takes historically true subject He develops elements that the addition probably given necessarily seem flow and from the materials These may inconsistent with natural probability and with normal credibility but the extent which they contribute the totality and the

in

It

'

,

of

In

,

,

in

to

.

is

of

given Some further clarification these points Tasso his little pamphlet entitled Delle differenze poetiche was written sometime after response Orazio Ariosto's Difese dell'Orlando Furioso dell 1585 published the work until 1587. the final pages Ariosto but was not

,

.

no

be all

in

in

i.e. ,

,

,

A

.,

.,

:

is

it

.p , pp e . 19 : si “

118 119

,

.

a

in

to

to

is

in

to

an

by

"

“

so

he

on

of

he is

plot Tasso throws discussing the relationship episodes necessity meanings and verisimilitude attaches which the analogy proposing which there are nature He does episodes but necessary which everything which the parts have fixed order and interdependency similar order would desirable impossible poetry but where light

,

è

;

."

il

,

; e

:

;

,

)

(

630

pur conosciuta

non sia almeno ch'egli no'l consideri per ,

stimo

,

, è io

,

al

."

: e

há

, ò

se ,

:

in

molti modi accioche s'ella almeno colorirla credibile mai consideratione biasimata se'l poeta ma per accidente

tarla

ne

,

è

,

le

il

nè , si

la

,

;

la ,

di

è

si

da

in

:"

il

14–15 all'hora poema nella somma perfettione che queste cose insieme piu modi congiungere possono può raccorre che'l credibile appartenga piu all'Oratore lbid Cicerone quale molte uolte non cerca perche egli parte del probabile ma del poeta uerisimile persuadere pur che diletti cose sian credute ma che elle piacciano cura che cerca d'occul menzogna quanto sconueneuolezza ch'è nella menzogna tanto fugge Ibid s'accoppiano

its

its

POETICS : EFFECT OF LITERARY QUARRELS

120

.

it

to

do

, it

in a

sometimes does necessarily

verisimilar way that which

not permitted

to

perfection

it is

.

to

to

an

to

all

of

art also would like to demonstrate conclusively riches and ornaments and reduce the parts the poem almost certain order and give each attain such one the necessary disposition and dependency But not being able

of

.

of .

in

is

here

;

of

all

)

"

“

to

of

any

the three finest

this one We must not .

in

of

,

on

, in

any work which has been written we not have languages any greater light poetry than the art

in

do

Orazio Ariosto's assertions

:

of

.

,

ones On the first score denies his total estimate the Poetics

...

so

be

a

to

it

;

justify the value and the usefulness the distinguishing insist that Aristotle's ways differenze poetiche are the only proper

he

(

between

,

a

in

general way and genres these are the

of

:

twofold

is

main problem Poetics

to

is

of

be by

,

in

,

imply Verisimilitude this context appears looser connection necessity parts than that required loose that must not but removal the part could effected without spoiling the whole structure Tasso's concern with these matters incidental the pamphlet His

121

is be

,

is

rank

persons

,

bases

-

of

number

which they are intermingled

-

in a

is or

the way

of

to

,

on

.

be

distinguished

their moral character

,

or

that objects may

,

of of

,

-

.

of

,

of of

,

he

similarity speaks are the definitions the bases which primarily the distinction and the differentiae the species the object imitation manner and means usually more rigorist On the interpretation this distinction Tasso than his contemporaries For whereas they are frequently willing admit

of

The principles

the ground

.

,

to

Thus Aristotle's principles remain sound and not thrown

.

,

go

;

by

as

,

in

or

by

,

to

take poetic teachings more willingly from any other nor allow ourselves apparent reasons for every little error that false persuasions beyond becomes very great toward the end the principles we

deceived committed

and

,

if

,

it of

,

A7 :

a

or

be

,

; .

it

of

a

120

in

be a

tragedy The dramatic take part will still only two genres tragedy and comedy any mixture manner will admit tragicomedy comitragedy would impossible since the two in it ,

popular persons

a

.

,

as

of or

an

,

,

is

of

as

,

of

:

a

of

possible within each manner Tasso reduces genres number characterizing objects the severely the possibilities the only valid basis popular and hence general nature the total action illustrious only two genres are possible under each manner imitation As conse quence for example tragedy will present illustrious action and even that

à

"

;

le

di

,

l'è

à

,

fà

.pp

da

;

.,

è

121 .”

, .p

(

& ; &

gli

&

,

à

& le

proua Delle differenze poetiche 1587) l'arte vorrebbe anch'ella dimostrar parti del Poema sott'ordine quasi certo sue ricchezze ornamenti ridurre tutte dependenza necessaria ma non potendo peruenir dare ciascuna dispositione tanta perfettione verisimilmente alcuna volta quel che non conceduto fare necessaria mente

)

(

gli

ne ' da

i

si

,

:

,

."

631

:

il

:

,

in

ne

,

'

da

,

in

,

in

: "

-

,

&

,

;

in

opera che sia stata composta non habbiamo alcuna delle tre questa non debbiamo prendere luce dell'arte Poetica che ammaestramenti Poetici più volentieri alcun altro lasciarsi ingannare false per ragioni apparenti imperocho ogni piccolo errore che suasioni principij commette procedendo oltre diuiene grandissimo verso principij d'Ari fine rimangano dunque stotele saldi non gettati terra Ibid A4r A5 lingue più belle maggior

POETIC

THEORY

would violate the essential nature of either action . The narrative manner will also give two forms, serious epics like the Iliad , the Odyssey , and the Aeneid , and comic epics like the Margites and the Moretum ; again , mix tures of the two are unthinkable in Aristotelian terms . This integrity of the essential action is a condition of and product of the unity of plot . But Tasso insists that unity does not mean singleness of action ; rather, unity implies a

of things to be unified , and in a poem this multiplicity is by constituted the various elements which contribute the realization the central action Tasso's view represents return aside some the irrelevant subtleties which proclaims the primacy unity plot and the object manner and distinctions with respect other ways less sound methodologically For

It

it

,

.

.

In

of

Tasso admits his use

of to

of

of

in

music

.

of

is

of

.

,

, of

of

to

certain ideas

actions

and the notion harmony Plotinus on

of

;

styles

of

,

of

is

,

it

of

different kinds

of

ture

purity

Aristotelianism sets others were insisting adequacy Aristotle's means imitation the dictum against mix little more than Cicero's principle the unity out multiplicity goes back on a

some ways

to

In

.

of

to

all

multiplicity

these external

.

he is ,

of

sources which are basically irreconcilable with the advocating stern Aristotelianism that some

we

CONCLUSIONS

, re of an

.

I

no

a

if

in

,

of

During the years have been discussing the effect the literary quarrels made itself felt upon the Aristotelian tradition only real way growing body occasional mean that there was continuous and by

as

in

;

art

of

.

a

in

of

to

do

,

.

fact these

of

to

of of

what Aristotle had said

contribution the study Aristotle than they literary the debates the estimates the polemic spirit manifested itself

works make more the furthering Something

of

fresh and significant appraisals

In

,

,

of

polemical materials whose vital arguments involved interpretation and interpretation Bulgarini the Poetics yet such works those literary quarrels brought Carriero Patrizi and Tasso the current about

Salviati The importance decade the question his

of

of

,

.

a

Tasso

the preceding

of

by

,

in

of

,

.

.

or

a

in of

as

,

that

to

procedure

is

the vigorous defences

a

,

of

,

at

, as it

of

.

of

or

to

in

of

as a

on

poetry Once Aristotelian argu Aristotle's worth writer the ments had been used defence Dante Ariosto was natural that part those who wished attack these Italian poets should least their attack deny the validity Aristotle's principles Such was the case with writers like Patrizi and Lombardelli They were answered turn the whole Aristotle's

in

,

,

,

its

,

of

)

632

we

Aristotle's method

(

the attention (

,

.

the text now result First

to

.

to

-

placed principles arguments the over view the text relationship poetical realities Two broad orientations with respect

re to its

be

its -

to

—

in

to

all

by

of

.

of

a

merits leads much more searching analysis text the broadest terms The minute exegeses earlier times which had already accomp lished most what they were achieve this century tend

have seen

POETICS : EFFECT

LITERARY QUARRELS

OF

of it in Chapter XI ) continues to provide some of the most original As it motivates Riccoboni, Sassetti , or the anonymous writer of the Magliabechi MS VII , 437 , it leads to fruitful discoveries of principle and useful interpretations of detail . Second , a new criterion appears with frequency : How useful is the Poetics as a guide to the poet who wishes to examples

ideas .

write today ? The theoretical approach, perhaps under the impact of the quarrels, gives way to a much more practical attitude. Should Ariosto , one asks, have followed the demands of Aristotle in the Poetics ? To what be

well

of ,

the level

actual

the quarrels

).

and

the later chapters

on

a

on on

?

recent pages

)

in

?

we have seen shall see

Will Tasso

And what about man who The questions are put two levels the on

performance

tragicomedy

as

write theory

( as

of

wishes level

these principles

respect

in

to

advised

we

ill -

or

( a to

extent ? Are ancient principles valid for modern times ?

.

of ,

in

of

be

to

;

,

enthusiasm

go

or

and

off into other

.

So

is ,

a

In

.

in

much less often encountered

is

lecture

a

to

publish the only universitarian Latin trans new one appears Italian similar way the

or

discourse

on

academic

the

,

is a

in .

,

of of

,

of

.

do

I

is

in

a

of

of

in

,

Horace which discussion Aristotle might play think only Aldo Manuzio the Younger whose work highly very secondary indeed Aristotle's part What we have miscellaneous group works some them connected with the polemics highly varied subjects others presenting independent views ;

commentary secondary part

These seem the result the great but not only has public interest waned the

70's

no is

.

Riccoboni the Poetics ;

of

lation

the

lose courage

authors themselves adventures

them never continued beyond the early

.

is

of

activity

academic

two

published '

Italian

but none

—

chapters

in

are written

-

of

;

is

in

.

of

in

of

part for the nature These diversified orientations may account the documents written during these years Certain types work are con spicuously absent there only one major commentary Latin among the printed volumes the period none Italian Three lesser commentaries

,

of ,

be

to

,

In

.

but some new suggestions are have great difficulty with the notion

still the same text

—

is

after

all , it

—

same ones

for interpretation Theorists still .

made

.

is

on

in

,

of

in

Since the great commentaries are few number we find this period rather than total analyses the text discussions detailed points isolated from their context the Poetics this sense Lorenzo Giacomini's lecture purgation typical The main problems discussed continue the

of

as

,

of

.

to

to

a

of

.

so

,

;

of

imitation but although many meanings are given the term Aristotle's often confused with Plato's Increasingly writers see one heightened and vivid the necessary components imitation kind portrayal which appeals the senses rather than the intellect The are not

]

[

633

,

of a

to

artistic quality

of

indicating

an

as

,

or

nature

a

is

as

,

to

is

.

-

in

.

-

if

be a

cause and effect sequence -

,

of

of

complicated matter the inter relationship truth verisimilitude and draws much attention Most critics believe that the object must credibility true one result that verisimilitude kind referring second best truth But they interpret necessity variously necessity

POETIC THEORY poems which justifies the way in which certain devices are handled . Aris totle is sometimes challenged on his requirement that plots be unified ; but more usually the problem is how they should be unified —to what extent “ double ” and “ multiple ” plots are permissible , in what way episodes may be integrated into the whole . Such theorists as Tasso , in their insistence on of the period . a high degree of unity, are perhaps most representative , recognizes by , the existence which Riccoboni There is at least one statement

of three unities.

his story

,

gives

the dicta which constitute the sententiae

.

to

he

.

in of ,

of

in

,

in

,

or in

the characters

the general form which

realized presents

he

the poet may

be

or all

On some major issues there is relative unanimity of attitude . Almost everybody thinks that verse is inseparable from poetry , and (just as before ) many ingenious interpretations of the Poetics are offered to prove it . In the poetry agreement that the ends same way , almost the critics are immediately ultimately either are utilitarian The moral intention

of

to

as

.

.

was

For

in

he

to

be

More generally Plato seems less omnipresent than former times So do Horace and Cicero and the rhetoricians ,

of on is

to

“

",

of

, in

is

;

.

of

.

of

in is a of

,

of

.

an

;

or at

of

,

,

This theory determines for the most part the way which the four requi goodness sites character are understood least the first that generally given meaning juxtaposed ethical Aristotle Plato this matter moral instruction and both the statements the ends poetry and the discussions purgation are seen answers Plato's banishment None these new idea all echo the earliest expressions the Aristotelian tradition the sixteenth century the

in

The question now

agreement

or

.

of

, in

of

.

in

,

of

,

to

documents studied here while they make the customary references other authorities are more closely concerned with the problem inter preting Aristotle part from the fact and for himself This may result comparison and conflation has long since been done that the work part from the concentration upon specific passages the Poetics itself

of

,

he is

.

is

—

)

(

634

is

in

of

of

,

is

.

to

of .

It

of

.

of

in

.

of

in

be

of

disagreement

disagreement

as

the element

is

with Aristotle's principles should not overlooked such Capponi and Parigiuolo writers for the purpose discovering the poetry Aristotle truth about the art the guide But not infallible and writers now feel justified setting up their own theories against those the master The commentary on commentaries much less conspicuous the study perhaps this kind Aristotle himself more direct spirit which gives rise the last great defences Aristotle the closing years the century

--and

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