A Corpus of Early Medieval Inscribed Stones and Stone Sculptures in Wales Volume 1. Breconshire, Glamorgan, Monmouthshire, Radnorshire, and geographically contiguous areas of Herefordshire and Shropshire 9780708319567

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A CORPUS

O F EARLY M E D I E VA L INSCRIBED STONES A N D STONE SCULPTURE

I N WA L E S Breconsbite,Glamorgan, Monmouthshire,Radhorshire,a n d

geographicallycontihucusareas

b eHerefordshire

M .Redknap & J.M .Lewis

A Corpus of Early Medieval Inscribed Stones and Stone Sculpture in Wales Volume I

A Corpus of Early Medieval Inscribed Stones and Stone Sculpture in Wales Vo l u m e I

Breconshire, Glamorgan, Monmouthshire, Radnorshire,

and geographically contiguous areas of Herefordshirea n d Shropshire M. R E D K N A P and J. M. L E W I S

With contributions by

Gifford Charles-Edwards, Jana Horák, Jeremy Knight and Patrick Sims- Williams

Published by the University ofWales Press in association with the University of Wales Board of Celtic Studies, the Royal Commission o nt h e Ancient and Historical Monuments of Wales and Amgueddfa Cymru--National Museum Wales

Frontispiece. Pigments applied ot the cast ofthe Houelt stone, Llantwit Major (St Illtud's Church) ,1 G63 ot suggest possible colour schemes.

CONTENTS

© The Contributors, 2007 British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN 978-0-7083-1956-7 Published by the University of Wales Press in association with the Board of Celtic Studies, the Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Wales and Amgueddfa Cymru--National Museum Wales All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without clearance from the University of Wales Press, 10 Columbus Walk, Brigantine Place, Cardiff, CF10 4UP

Preface

vi

Acknowledgements

ix

Notes to the reader Abbreviations List of Illustrations

x ii XV PA RT I

www.wales.ac.uk/vress

Prospectus

The right of the Contributors to be identified as authors of this work has been asserted by them ni accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 Typset by 4word Ltd, Bristol, UK

Printed ni Malta by Gutenberg Press Ltd

Earlier research

Recording methods

25

Physical environment and historical background Topography of South-East Wales

37

Geological sources and the selection of stone: .J Horák

47

Historical background to South-East Wales c.350-800 Historical background to South-East Wales c.800-1100

Distribution of potential source-material Factors influencing the selection and working of stone F o r m s a n d functions Latin-

59

a n d ogam-inscribed stones

Cross-carved stones Crosses

The inscriptions

69

A The Celtic language of theinscriptions and their chronology: P. Sims-Williams BThe palaeography of the inscriptions: G. Charles-Edwards Classification of cross types, motifs and ornament Crosses Incis ed linea r-cro sses Incised ring-crosses

Outline crosses

Sculptedcrosses Motifs and ornament

89

CONTENTS Abstract repeating patterns L i n e b a t t e r n s

Figural representations/iconography F a u n a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s

Sculpture: regional and local groups The introduction of sculptural techniques I d e n t i fi c a t i o n o f s c u l p t u r a l g r o u p s T h e C l a m o r o a n d i s c - h e a d e d c r o s s e s

The Monmouthshire group of cross-slabs

P R E FA C E

' T h e B r e c o n c r o s s e s

I w o late G l a m o r g a n g r o u p s T h e A n g l o - N o r m a n transition

10

121

P r o d u c t i o n

The historical and archaeological contexts: .J K . Knight

131

The inscribed stones and carvings of early medieval date tary, place-name and topographical) to establish earliest

Latin memorial stones

Fifth to sixth-century background

from Wales - over 500 complete or fragmentary examples are known - form one of the most important sources of

Text a n d c o n t e x t

Incised crosses and cross-slabs Later sculptured crosses

12

139

Chronologies PA RT I I

CATALOGUE

151

Form of catalogue entries Form of place-names

153 155

Breconshire (B1-B53) Glamorgan (G1-120)

157 261 503 517 529 537 541

Monmouthshire ( M N 1 - 5 ) Radnorshire ( R 1 - 6 )

Herefordshire (H1-7) Shropshire (S1-2) D u b i a ( D u b i a 1 - 11 )

PART ILI 559

GAZETTEER OF SELECTED SITES

BIBLIOGRAPHY

585

INDICES:

607

P l a c e . n a m e s in W a l e s

Personal n a m e s o n catalogued stones T a t i n w o r d s in f o r m u l a e

609 623 626 627

CONCORDANCES with ECMW, RCAHM and CIIC numbering

629

LIST OF ALTERNATIVE MONUMENT NAMES

632

the Board of Celtic Studies, which set in motion plans for a revised edition, under the joint editorship of the late W.

time field monuments, which functioned as memorials.

Gwyn Thomas. formerly of the Roval Commission of

religious foci or boundary-markers; historical documents, whose record of names, kinship and status reflects the social structure of early medieval Wales; and linguistic indicators, reflecting the contemporary stages of Irish and

Ancient and Historical Monuments of Wales, Aberystwyth (WGT), and John M . Lewis, then of the Department of Archaeology at the National Museum of Wales (JML). The primary aim of this project was to record the new

British, and the interaction of Insular Celtic with contemporary spoken and written Latin. The Early Christian Monuments of Wales (ECMW) by

Victor Erle Nash-Williams, stillregarded as alandmark in the study of this material, was published by the University of Wales Press ni 1950. tI was the first systematic, illustrated corpus o f the 415 inscribed and decorated stones of the period then known from Wales, and represented the fruits of fieldwork and study by the author over the best part of twenty years. It had been preceded by the same

monuments that had come to light since the first edition, but it was also decided to introduce some changes in form a t .w i t h t h e a i m o f m a k i n g t h e w o r k m o r e s e r v i c e a b l e a n d

easier to use. Thus, the catalogue entries were to be formularized and to include full references, location references

were to be by the National Gridrather then through the old 6-inch Ordnance Survey county sheets, county distribution maps were ot be included and numbering incounty series was to replace the running country-widesequence; NashWilliams's

introductory

sections

were

to

be

retained.

author's 'An inventory of the Early Christian stone mon-

t h o u g h with s o m e updating.

uments of Wales, with a bibliography of the principal notices', published ni two parts ni the Bulletin of the Board of Celtic Studies ni the 1930s (Nash-Williams, 1935-6),

responsibility for the bulk ofthe work, JML undertaking the south-eastern counties, while also looking into ways of facilitating the comparison of the formal designs. Work on the project proceeded at the pace the editors' normal duties allowed, and by the early 1990s JML had

which, even after the publication of his later work

APPENDIX

General Index

evidence for this period of Welsh history, their study contributing substantially to the bodies of archaeological, historical and linguistic knowledge. For they are at the same

known find-spots. When the stock of ECMW was exhausted in the 1970s, the Director of the University of Wales Press approached

remained an indispensable aid, containing as ti does the

bibliographieson which the authority of much of the latter depended. Many may initially have felt that, following the publi-

cation of ECMW, there was little left to do. However, as

new monuments came to light and known ones disappeared, the need for u p d a t i n g -

and i m p r o v e m e n t -

gradually became evident. For example, the archaeological context of the monuments had been given only brief

W G T was to u n d e r t a k e

completed a draft catalogue for t h e south-eastern counties.

However, in 1994 progress - never rapid - was interrupted altogether by Gwyn Thomas's untimely death. By then a

new generation of scholars had begun to enliven Welsh

early medieval studies, and the magisterial, multi-volume corpus of Anglo-Saxon sculpture had begun to appear, offering a new model of what was now required. Under this renewed impetus a greatly expanded revision in three vol-

treatment by Nash-Williams, and there w a sa need to re-

u m e s , w i t h a c o m p r e h e n s i v e l y r e v i s e d i n t r o d u c t o r y appa-

e x a m i n e the diverse sources archaeological, d o c u m e n -

ratus, was planned. Dr Nancy Edwards of the School of

PREFACE

vili | History and Welsh History, University of Wales Bangor, undertook the preparation of the catalogues ofthe western

a n d n o r t h e r n c o u n t i e s t h a t will constitute t h e r e m a i n i n g

two volumes. The present volume on the south-eastern

The a u t h o r s ' aim has been to turn the existing work i n t o a m o r e s e r v i c e a b l e t o o . f o r r u r t h e r r e s e a r c h a n dm o n -

ument

m a n a g e m e n t . T h e n e w e d i t i o n is i n t e n d e d to

update the original by theinclusion of the many new dis-

counties is the result of close collaboration between JML

coveries and identificationsmade over the last fifty years.

National Museum, who has been responsible for the orga-

has been made to modernize the presentation and to make the work more generally serviceable in several respects.

and Dr Mark Redknap, from 1988 his successor at the

nization of the work, for drafting much of the introductory matter (namely, chapters 1-4, 10 and 12) and for initiating many of its revisions. This new Corpus of Early Medieval Inscribed Stones and Stone Sculpture has been prepared under the aegis of the University of Wales Board of Celtic

Studies, Amgueddfa Cymru-National Museum Wales and the Roval Commission o n

the Ancient

a n d Historical

Monuments of Wales. This volume covers Breconshire,

Glamorgan, Monmouthshire, and Radnorshire, with contiguous areas ofHerefordshire and Shropshire. Volume II will cover Cardiganshire, Carmarthenshire and Pem-

A s far a s t h ec a t a l o g u e e n t r i e s a r e c o n c e r n e d , a n a t t e m p t

This has led to the inclusion of bibliographies with the

entries, the introduction of the metric system for mea-

surements and of the National Grid system for location,

bring them into line with the format adopted by the British Academy's Corpus of Anglo-Saxon Stone Sculpture, and the revision of the system for classifying the types of decoration used. Following Nash-Williams's corpus and the precedent of the Royal Commission inventories, the pre1974 counties have been retained, in order to avoid con-

Nash-Williams defined his 'Early Christian' period in its widest sense, as 'covering the period from the end of the Roman occupation to the Norman conquest of Wales (A.D.

fusion brought about by the subsequent local government reorganizations. The scope of the work has also been widened by enlisting the help of scholars expert in the fields of epigraphy, language and early history. The study and publication of ECMW followed in the footsteps of an antiquarian tradi-

(up to c.1150)has been adopted for this revision. Some of the later examples included ni ECMW also fall within the

centuries, when many of the morenotable examples were described and illustrated in Camden's Britannia, since

Sculpture, but have beenretained because of theirstylistico r linguistic continuity with the preceding period. As was the case with ECMW, architectural elementssuch as tympana

remarkable scholars, among whom the work of Edward

R. A. S. Macalister on the Welsh material remains out-

inscriptions) have been largely omitted from this volume.

adopted to record the stones.

brokeshire. Volume III will cover Anglesey, Caernarfonshire, Denbighshire, Flintshire, Merionethshire and Montgomeryshire.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

the greater standardization of the format of the entries to

The Corpus of Inscribed Stones and Stone Sculpture is theresult of many years of research. It is with great pleasure and much appreciation that we thank the many institutions and individuals who have made this first volume possible. Our principal debt is to the colleagues who have collaborated on

the preparation of the volume; ti has been a privilege to work with such experienced and dedicated scholars whose

sible for collections who facilitated access to material ni their care. These include David Moore, Brecknock

City &County of Swansea Museums Service; Rick Turner

400-1150 (Nash-Williams, 1938: 31). The same period

tion traceable t o as early as the sixteenth and seventeenth

commitment and contributions have expanded its scope with specialist chapters and catalogue information: Jeremy

remit of the British Academy's Corpus of Romanesque

when they had received attention from a succession of

Professor Patrick Sims-Williams (ProfessorofCeltic Studies,

and church fonts (withtheexception of those bearing

Many display stylistic details borrowed from earlier

sculpture and woodcarving, but are likely to be products of Romanesque workshops or craftsmen.

Lhuyd, John Rhys, J. O. Westwood, .J Romilly Allen and

standing. This past work si reviewed, as are the methods

Mark Redknap and John M. Lewis Cardiff, June 2007

We are also most grateful to the numerous incumbents and churchwardens throughout the region covered by this volume for permitting photography of the stones in their care and for their interest i n the project. Further thanks are due to the curators and staff respon-

Knight (former Inspector of Ancient Monuments for Cadw),

Department of Welsh, University of Wales, Aberystwyth), Dr Gifford Charles-Edwards, Dr Jana Horák (Collections Manager and Acting Head of Mineralogy and Petrology, Department of Geology, National Museum Wales). Deep

thanks go to Dr Nancy Edwards, author of volumes II and III in the series, for her resourcefulness and suggestions regarding content and layout. Discussion with colleagues has always been stimulating and rewarding, and in particular we should like to express

our gratitude to a number of colleagues for their much vale hope that the end result reflects the ued comments. W insights so generously given: Edward Besly, Diane Brook, Professor Rosemary Cramp, Professor Wendy Davies, Dr Jeffrey Davies, Professor Thomas Charles-Edwards, Gerald Gabb, Ross Trench-Jellicoe, John Kenyon, Dr Alan Lane, Dr Louise Loe, Dylan .J Roberts, Robert Silvester, the late Michael Stokes,Professor Charles Thomas, Professor Malcolm Thurlby, Dr Rick Turner, Peter White, the Revd Dr David Williams. We have also benefited from the advice

on stone-working from Dainis Dauksta, Richard Grasby and Paul Sullivan, and information from Stan Rendell.

We should like to acknowledge the support of the pro-

ject by the late George Boon, Professor Stephen AldhouseGreen and Richard Brewer, past and present Keepers of the Department of Archaeology & Numismatics, National Museum Wales.

Museum; Leslie Webster, British Museum; Bernice Cardy,

and Peter Humphries, Cadw.

We are most grateful to the following individuals and bodies for providing photographs and permitting reproduction: Bodleian Library, Oxford University; British Library; British Museum; CardiffCentral Library; English Heritage; John Heighway; Dylan Roberts, Michael D. Watson, National Library of Wales: National Museum of

Ireland; National Museum Wales; RCAHMW; Society of Antiquaries of London; Roger Tomlin. Photographs and

drawings are copyright: National Museum ofWales except w h e r e o t h e r w i s e s t a t e d

We are indebted for their skills to Tony Dalyof National

Museum Wales, who drew the maps, site plans and many of the line drawings; the Department of Geology, National

Museum Wales, who provided the base map on which Figure 38 is based; Colin Williams, former illustrator of the Department of Archaeology &Numismatics, National Museum Wales, who was responsible for some of the illustrations: Kevin Thomas and Jim Wild. National Museum Wales, for new photography; Gwenllian Jones, who gave

much valuable help ni the early stages of compilation; Nicola Roper, Elin Lewis and Dafydd Jones at the University of Wales Press and Julian Roskams of Etica

Press. The index was compiled by Sam Coles.

This volume has been produced with the aid of generous grants from the Board of Celtic Studies and National Museum Wales, and the support of the Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Wales.

N O T E STO THE READER

Llangyfelach. It can in fact be applied to many of the entries, availability of historical or other data being an important criterion. Others, such as the upland chapelries of Capel Brithdir or Capel Gwladys, belong to categories of site that in themselves seem worthy of comment. Other

NOTES TO THE READER

This book is in three parts, with an Appendix containing

the Bibliography followed by the various indices. Part I consists of introductory chapters that attempt to put the material

i n t o its c o n t e x t b y d e a l i n g w i d e l y w i t h b a c K -

ground matters. Part I contains the Catalogue, and Part IIII a G a z e t t e e r o f s e l e c t e d s i t e s

PA RT I

Chapter 1 puts the present study ni context, and this si

expanded by Chapter 2, which sketches earlier research on

the material from the sixteenth century onwards. Chapter

3 deals with the methods that have been used to record the inscriptions and sculpture - so crucial in their interpretation - up to the present day. Chapter 4 deals broadly with the topography of the area

tionship, on the one hand, to the formal alphabets of the

Roman world and, on the other, to cursive and book-hands (7B) offers insights into the cultural milieu of the letterer

and stone-cutter, the practical problems he faced and his skill in tackling them. Chapter 8 examines the range of

cross-forms and decorative motifs, and their typology, and on the basis of this, Chapter 9 suggests the several regional and chronological groups into which the material may

be arranged, while Chapter 10 looks into what seems to be implied about the way production was organized. The material having been presented, Chapter 1 concludes by placing ti in its wider historical and archaeolog.

ical contexts. Finally, record and description having been dealt with, Chapter 12 faces the difficult and contentious question of chronology.

under discussion, and sketches h te historical background PART I due against which the monuments must be seen, paying

a t t e n t i o n to the immediately preceding R o m a n period,

A n o t e on the format of the entries is given at the begin-

also essential for their understanding.Chapter 5 looks more closely at the geological setting from which they sprang, and the practical factors that might have influ-

ning of t h e Catalogue.

e n c e d t h e s c u l p t o r s

Chapter 6 is intended to give a broad conspectus of the

P A R T III

types of monuments involved. Chapter 7 examines the The Gazetteer si not exhaustive, sites having been selectinscriptions, their language and paleography, subjects

given separate commentaries, where appropriate, in the

individual catalogue entries. The inscriptions (7A) belong to a period of population movement and linguistic change,

a n d a close study o f the names they include, and their

forms, can throw light on the demographic mix of the population and the character of their society, while the phonological changes they exhibit offer an extra chrono-

logical guide. Close study of the epigraphy and of its rela-

ed on various grounds. The primary intention was to avoid

overloading the catalogue entries with repetitious material. In some cases. such as the outstanding one ofMargam, the sheer number of associated monuments seemed to demand comment. Some of the others, such as Llancarfan, though not rich in monuments, are known historic sites, mentioned in the records, and so warranting inclusion on

those grounds; this also applies to the one-monument site

of Llandough, and to the richer sites of Llandaf

and

sites, such as Cefn Gelli-gaer or that of Maen Madoc, have been included because over t h e years they have been the

subject of specialcomment. Separate indices of places, names and Latin words are included

ABBREVIATIONS

xiii

Cart. Glouc.

Hart, W . H. (ed.) (1865). Historia et Cartularium MonasteriiSancti Patri Gloucestriae (Rolls Series), vol. II, London. CIB

Sims-Williams, P. (2003). The Celtic Inscriptions of Britain: Phonology and Chronology c.4000-1200, Publications of the Philological Society, 37, Oxford a n dBoston.

CIC

. A . .S (1945-9). Corpus Inscriptionum Insularum Celticarum, 2vols, Dublin. Macalister, R CISP

A B B R E V I AT I O N S

Celtic Inscribed Stones Project, University College, London. Online database http://www.ucl.ac.uk/archeology/cisp DACL

. (1924). Dictionnaire d'archéologie chrétienne et de liturgie, Paris. Cabrol, F. and Leclerca, H De Excidio Britanniae

Gildas, The Ruin of Britain, ed. and trans. M. Winterbottom (1978). ECMS BL

British Library

C

C o r n i s h

depth diam.

d i a m e t e r

fo. / fos

folio/folios

h. in litt.

n e i g h t 1 9

t

o

r

Old I r i s h

ECMW

ORS

Old Red Sandstone

Nash-Williams, V. E. (1950). The Early Christian Monuments of Wales, Cardiff.

OW Pr. B.

Old Welsh Primitive Breton

Gents. Mag.

r e c r o

s

Mod. W NLW NMW

ОВ

M i d d l e Welsh M o d e r n Welsh

The Early Christian Monuments of Scotland, Edinburgh.

OC OI

RCAHMW

m a n u s c r i p t

MW

Old Cornish

Allen, .J Romilly and Anderson, .J (1903).

SAM

National Library of Wales

National Museum of Wales (now Amgueddfa Cym ru-N ation al

The Gentleman's Magazine or Monthly Intelligencer, London. June 1786: 473 July 1786: 581

Royal C o m m i s s i o n o n the Ancient a n d

Historical Monuments of Wales Scheduled Ancient Monument suh

thickness verso Welsh

M u s e u m Wales) Old Breton

Historia Brittonum

Historia Brittonum ni Chronica Minora saec. IV. V . V.I VI. (ed. .T Mommsen, 3vols, Berlin 1891-8) III: 111-222; Morris, .J (ed. & trans.) (1980). Nennius. Arthurian Period Sources vol. 8. British History and the WelshAnnals, London and Chichester; Dumville, D . N . (ed.) (1985). The Historia Brittonum 3.The 'Vatican Recension',Cambridge. IBC

Hübner, A. (1876). Inscriptiones Britanniae Christianae, Berlin. TEMB

Davies, W. et al. (2000). Commonly cited publications

Oakville and Aberystwyth.

The Inscriptions of Early Medieval Brittany / Les Inscriptions ed al Bretagne du haut Moyen Áge,

IHC (Suppl.) A n n C a m b .

'Ab Ithel' J. Williams (1860) (ed.) Annales Cambriae, Rolls Series, London.

Hübner, A . (1900). Inscriptionum Hispaniae Christianarum, Supplement, Berlin.

Anglo-Saxon Chronicle

Diehl, E. (1925-31). Inscriptiones Latinae Christianae Veteres, 3 vols, Berlin.

. N. Garmonsway Chronicle, trans. G

Journal of Roman Studies

I. Tucker (1961); The Anglo-Saxon The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, trans. and ed. D. Whitelock with D. C. Douglas and S. . Chronicle, trans. and ed. M -Saxon o (1986), London and Melbourne; The Angl

S w a n t o n (1996). L o n d o n Asser

. (1959) (ed.). Asser's Life ofKing Alfred, Oxford. Stevenson, W. H Bede

Colgrave, B. and Mynors, R. A. B. (1969) (eds). Historia Ecclesiastica, Oxford. Brut

Law Series, 1, Jones, T. (1952) (ed.). Brut yTywysogyon, PeniarthMS. 20 version, Board of Celtic Studies History and Cardiff.

BWP

Williams. .I (1980). The Beginnings of Welsh Poetry, 2nd edn, Cardiff.

ILCV IRS

KHJ

Jackson, K. H. Unpublished notes on his copy of CIIC. LHEB

Jackson, K. H. (1953). Language and History i nEarlyBritain, Edinburgh. Liber Land.

Evans, J. G. and Rhys, .J (1893) (eds). Liber Landavensis. The Text of the Book of Llan Däv, Oxford. Life of St Gwynllyw Vita Sancti Gundleii, ni Vitae Sanctorum Britanniae et Genealogiae (ed. A . W . Wade-Evans, 1944), Cardiff, 172-93.

xiv |

ABBREVIATIONS

ed Stones of Wales, Oxford. Westwood, .J O. (1876-9). Lapidarium Walliae: The Early Inscribed andSculptur Morg. Arch.

. . LI. (1983) (ed.). Rice Merrick, Morganiae Archaiographia, South Wales Record Society, vol. 37, Barry James, B OPEL

and Vienna. Lorincz, B. and Red6, F. (1994-2002) (eds). Onomasticon Provinciarum Europe Latinarum, 4 vols, Budapest

Parochialia

1909-11 Edward Lhuyd's Parochialia, published as three Supplements to Archaeologia Cambrensis,

LIST O F I L L U S T R AT I O N S

RIBI

. P. (1965) (eds). The Roman Inscriptions of Britain I, Oxford. . G. and Wright, R Collingwood, R RIB2

(inscribed Frere, S. S. and Tomlin, R. S. O. (1991) (eds). The Roman Inscriptionso f Britain II, Instrumentum Domesticum objects), fascicles 2-3, Oxford. TYP

. (1978). Trioedd Ynys Prydein, 2nd edn, Cardiff. Bromwich, R

Unless otherwise stated, the illustrations ni this work are reproduced with the permission of the copyright holders as follows.

Vita Cadoci

BL

= British Library Reproductions

= Llyfrgell Genedlaethol Cymru/National Library of Wales

(The Life of St Samson of Dol) Flobert, P. (1997) (ed.). Vita S. Samsonis, Paris.

N LW NMW

= Amguedda Cymru/ National Museum of Wales RCAHMW = Crown copyright: Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Wales

and ProfessorPatrick Contributions to the Catalogue are by Dr Jana Horák (JH), Dr Gifford Charles-Edwards (GC-E),

Figure

Page

. W. Wade-Evans, 1944), Cardiff, 24-140. Vita Sancti Cadoci, ni Vitae Sanctorum Britanniae et Genealogiae (ed. A Vita Samsonis

Copyrightholder

Figure

Page

Copyright holder

NMW

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Cardiff Libraries & Information

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NMW NIW NMW

B32a B326 B32c B 3 3a B336

N M W

NIW NMW NMW

181

NMW

181 182 182 183 183 184 186 187 187 188 188 189 189

NMW NMW NMW NMW NMW NMW

B L NMW

NMW RCAHMW

B20a

193 193 195 195 197 197

NMW NMW NMW NMW NMW NMW

B22a B226

B29a B296 B29C B29d B29e B30a

NMW

191 192 192

B 2 1 6

B28a B286

NMW

191

B21a

B27a B 2 1 a

B306 B30c

B18a B18b B19a B19b B206

NMW NMW NMW RCAHMW

168

NMW NMW NMW NMW NMW RCAHMW NMW

B16g NMW

165 166

B266

B34a B346 B34c B34d B34e

203 203 204 204 205 205 206 206 207 208 208 209 209 210

214 214

216 216

217

B34g

219 219 219 221 221 223 224 224 225 225 226 228

B396

B39c B39d

B40a B406 B40c B41a

229 229 230 232 232

B42a

233 234 236

B426

236

Page

B42c

237

B42d B43a B436 B43c B45a B456 B45c

237 241 241 241 243

B46a R a b o

B47a B476

NMW NMW NMW NMW NMW NMW RCAHMW NMW RCAHMW N LW

218

B37a B376 B38 B39a

NMW NMW MMW

212

B34f B34h В341 B35a B356 B36a B366 B 3 6c

NMW

Figure

NMW NMW

NMW NMW MMW NMW MMW NMW N LW NMW NMW

NMW MMW NIW BM BM

B48a B49a B50a B506 B50c B50d B5la B516 B51c

B52a B526 B53

Fig 86

G9c G9d G9e G10a

BEdS

156 158

Figure

B I b b

124 126

B l a

Copyright holder

B16a

113

Fi g 7 9 Fig 80 Fig 81 Fig 83 Fig 84 Fig 85

NMW

Page

588808388888888

Fig 64

Figure

NMW NMW NMW NMW

xvii

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

G14a

243 244 246 246 247 247 249 250

252 252 253 253 254

Copyright holder NMW NMW NMW NMW NMW

NMW NMW NMW NMW NMW BL N LW NMW NMW NMW NMW

255 255

RCAHMW

257

NMW

257 258

N M W

260 262

262 263

263 265 266 267 269 269

271 272 273

RCAHMW NMW RCAHMW RCAHMW NMW RCAHMW NMW RCAHMW

BL RCAHMW

RCAHMW

273 275 276

RCAHMW

276 276 276

NMW

278

N M W

278 279

NMW

281

281 282

NMW NMW NMW

RCAHMW RCAHMW RCAHMW NMW

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

xvili

|xix

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Figure

Page

Copyright holder

Figure

Page

Copyright holder

Figure

Page

Copyright holder

Figure

Page

Copyright holder

G146

282 283 283 2 84 28 4

NMW NMW NMW RCAHMW

G336

314

NMW

G50a G50b

349 349

G66b G66c

384

NMW

G51a

3 5 0

NMW NMW NMW

384

5 1 6

NMW

G66d

NMW NMW RCAHMW

G51b G51c

3 5 0

RCAHMW

G66e

3 5 1

NMW NMW NMW

321

321

MMW

322

NMW

2 87 287 287 289 290 291 291 291

N M W

RCAHMW RCAHMW RCAHMW NMW BL NMW NMW

G66f

285 285 286 286

NMW RCAHMW RCAHMW NMW

G14c G14d G14e G14f G15a G15b G15c

G15d G15e

G15f

G15g G16a

G16b G16c G16d G16e G16f G17 G18 a G18b G19

G20

G276 G27c G27d G28a G286 G28c

G29a G296 G30

G31a G316 G31c G31d

G32a G326

G33a

NMW

295 296 296 297 297 298 298 299

RCAHMW NMW

300

NMW

300

NMW

301

NMW NMW RCAHMW BL NMW NMW RCAHMW NMW

302 302 303 303 304 304 306 306

RCAHMW

NMW

RCAHMW NMW NMW

G41 G42a G426 G42c G42d G42e G42f

G42j G42k G421

G42m G43a G436

G43c G43d G43e

G44a G445

G44d NMW

G44p G45

308 310

NMW

G46a

RCAHMW NMW NMW MMW

G466 G47a G476. a G47b. b G47b. c

311

312 312 313 313 314

RCAHMW NMW RCAHMW

G53a

356

G53b G53c

356 356

NMW

G53d

BL RCAHMW RCAHMW

G53 e G54

356 356 357 358 359 360 361 361 361 362 363 364 364 364 366

NMW NMW NMW RCAHMW

367

IMW

323 324 325

NMW

326

NMW NMW NMW

326

326 328 329 330 330 331 331 332

MMW BL

NMW RCAHMW

RCAHMW NMW

333 333 334 334 335

335 338 338

338 338 339 340 340

NMW

341 342 343

G55a G556 G56 G57a G576

NMW

G57c G58

NMW NMW NMW

G59c

NMW

RCAHMW RCAHMW NMW NMW RCAHMW RCAHMW

G44c

307 308 311

351 351 351 352 353 353

322

G42g G426 G42i

G51d G51e G51f G52a G526 G52c G52d G52e

NMW NMW NMW

38838

G216 G22a G226 G23 G24a G246 G25 G26a G26b G27a

293 295

G36d G37 G38 G39 G40a G406 G40c

316 317 317

RCAHMW

G48

346

G49a G496

347 347

NMW

NMW NMW RCAHMW NMW

NMW

G65a

NMW BL NMW NMW

370

378 379

G716 G71c

G72

G77c G77d G77e G77f G78a G786

NMW

G78c

RCAHMW

G78d

NMW NMW NMW RCAHMW NMW NMW NMW NMW

G78e

N M W

379 380 383

G71a

G77a

RCAHMW RCAHMW

376

G69 G70

G776

RCAHMW

375

G66k G67a G676 G67c G67d G68a G686 G68c

RCAHMW NMW

368

374 374 375

G66h G66i G66i

RCAHMW

369

G64f 345 345

NMW NMW

RCAHMW NMW

G63a G636 G63c G63d G64a G646 G64c G64d G64e

NMW NMW

G66g

18688

G21a

292

NMW NMW NMW NMW NMW NMW NMW NMW RCAHMW RCAHMW

G34a G346 G34c G34d G35 G36a G366 G36c

G79a G796 G79c G79d G79e G79f

388 388 389 39T

NMW

392 392

NMW NMW

394 394 394 394

MMW MMW

395 396 396 396 397 398 399 400 401 401 403 404 405 406 406 407 409 409 410 410 410 412 413 414 415 416

G79g

4 1 8

418 418 418 418

G791 79k

NMW RCAHMW NMW RCAHMW RCAHMW NMW NMW NMW

391

G79h

N M W

BL

385 385 386 387

NMW NMW

IMW RCAHMW RCAHMW NMW RCAHMW BL BL BL NMW

NMW NMW NMW NMW NMW NMW BL NMW NMW NMW NMW NMW

NMW NMW NMW NMW

Xx

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

LIST O F ILLUSTRATIONS

I xxi

Figure

Page

Copyright holder

Figure

Page

Copyright holder

Figure

Page

Copyright holder

Figure

Page

Copyright holder

G791

419 419 420 421 •421 423 424

MMW NMW NMW

G946

455 456 457 457 458 458 461 462 463 463 464 464

NMW RCAHMW RCAHMW RCAHMW NMW NMW BL BL

G 11 7 a G 11 7 6

494 495

NMW NMW

R5a

525

NLW

495

NMW

496 496 497 497

NMW NMW NMW NMW NMW

526 527 528 528

NMW

G117c G117d G117e

R56 R5c R5d R5e Hla HIb H2a H2b H3

G79m G79n

G80a G806 G81a G81b G81c G81d G82a G826 G83 G84a G846

4 2 4

424

RCAHMW NMW BL RCAHMW NMW NMW RCAHMW NMW

G95 G96a G966 G96c G96d G98a G986 G98c G98d G98e G98f

425 425 427

CAHMW

428 429

BL NMW

G84c

430

G84d

430

RCAHMW RCAHMW

G84e

N M W

G84f

431 431

G84g

432

NMW

G84h G84;

432 433 435 436 436

NMW NMW BL NMW

437

RCAHMW NMW

G101b G102a

NMW NMW

G1026 G103 G104a G1046

8

§

a

8

s

h

G85c G85d

G85e G85f

G85g G86a

437 438 438 439

NMW

439

RCAHMW

G86c

440

G87a

442 442 443

RCAHMW RCAHMW

G87b

G896

G89c G89d G90 G91 G92a G926

G92c G92d

443

446 446 447 447 448 449 450 450 451

NMW NMW NMW NMW NMW NMW RCAHMW NMW NMW RCAHMW NMW NMW

G93a

451 453

G936

453

N M W

G930

454 454

NMW NMW NMW

G93d G94a

455

G99a

G996 G99c G99d G99e G99f

G99g G99h G1006 G l O l a

G86b

G87c G87d G89a

G98g

NMW

G105a G105b G105c G106a G1066

G107a G1076 G109 G 11 0 G111 G 11 2 G 11 3 a G 11 3 6

G114a G 11 4 6 G 11 4 c G 11 4 d

G115 G 11 6 a G 11 6 b

465 467 468 469 469 469 470 470 471 473 473

475 475 476 476 477 478 478 479

479

NMW NMW NMW NMW NMW BL BL NMW RCAHMW NMW RCAHMW NMW

NMW RCAHMW RCAHMW

RCAHMW NMW RCAHMW NMW RCAHMW NMW

RCAHMW NMW NMW NMW

479 480 480 481 481

NMW

G 11 8 a G 11 8 b

G118c G119a G1196 G120a G1206 G120c

Fig 87 MNla MNIb MN2 MN3a MN36 MN3c MN3d

MN4a MN46 MIN4c MN5a MN5b MN5c

512 513

NMW NMW NMW

482

RCAHMW

R26

483 484 486

NMW

R2c R2d R3a

487

4 9 3

493

R3B NMW

R4a

NMW NMW NMW

RAb

NMW RCAHMW

RCAHMW RCAHMW

MMW

513 514 5 1 6

518 519 519

530 531 531 532 533

H4a H4b

533

H5

535

SI

537

S2 Dubia la Dubia 1b Dubia 2

538 542 542 5 4 3

Dubia 3 Dubia 4a

545

Dubia 4c Dubia 4d Dubia 5a

546 546 547

Dubia Dubia Dubia Dubia Dubia Dubia Dubia Dubia Dubia Dubia

547 549 549 550 550 552 552 554 554 556

5 4 4

NMW

MNSe MN5f MN5g Fig 88

RZA

487 488 489 490 490 491

NMW NMW NMW

MN5d

NMW

NMW

507 509 509 509

RCAHMW NMW NMW NMW NMW NMW NMW NMW

NMW NMW

NMW

MMW

506 507

B I

511

Rla RIb RIc Rid

RCAHMW

498 498 499 500 500 501 502 503 504 505 506

5 3 0

NMW N LW NMW NMW

56 7a 76 8 9 10a 106 1la 11b 12a

5 1 9

§ e h

520 520 521 521

Dubia 12c 556

522 522 523 524

NMW

D u b i a 12d 556 Dubia 12e 557

Dubia 12€ 557 NMW NMW

NMW NMW NMW NMW NMW NMW N LW RCAHMW NMW

RCAHMW M D Watson, Reproduced with permission English Heritage MMW NMW NMW NMW NMW NMW NMW

NMW NMW NMW RCAHMW N M W

NMW NMW NMW

NMW NMW NMW NMW

All Gazetteer figures (89-101)

NMW

Plates 1-8

NMW

While every effort has been made to obtain the permission of the copyright holder and provide suitable acknowledg. ment, it has not always been possible to do so. The publishers would be glad to be contacted by any copyright holder and amend future acknowledgments as requested.

PA RT I

PROSPECTUS

While this volume has concentrated specifically on southeast Wales, it might be worth beginning with some general

experience of the years has tended to counsel caution ni matters of chronology, so that the possibility of long sur-

observations on what this study has sought to achieve,

vival has been taken i n t o account, and has generally been

w h i c h w i l l fi n d r e s o n a n c e i n t h ec o m p a n i o n v o l u m e s

t a v o u r e d

Nash-Williams's principal aims were: (1) to record (identify the monuments, establish definitive readings, decipher designs); (2) to place the monuments in their Continental

The greater attention paid to defining the relationship between forms and decoration, and to the local distributionsof related monuments, has aided the identification of

context (this was allied to his interest ni establishing the routes by which Christianity reached and spread through

contemporary regional groups, for example, a western, upland group contrasted with an Usk valley/Llan-gors g r o u p in B r e c o n s h i r e . a n d the two late groups of

Wales). He was aware of the Welsh/Irish linguistic variations

Glamorgan crosses - the 'panelled cart-wheel' and com-

exhibited ni hte names found ni hte inscriptions, and what

posite pillar groups - west and east of the Ogwr river

this implied in movements of population, but his analysis did not proceed beyond noting the more obvious instances.

Patrick Sims-Williams has here provided a full linguistic commentary, which shows the full extent of the Irish

respectively. This has emphasized the observation that

the sculpture is not an isolated phenomenon with a single evolutionary explanation, but reflects a variety of local responses with differing dates and meanings. The seg.

element. Analysis of the names (many inherited) and their possible origins also throws light on earlier preoccupations (reflected in particular in those relating to features in the landscape or to animals

mentary nature of the land and its politics, separated by mountains or water, probably had an impact on the way in which regional enclaves and traditions developed. Some monastic foundations, such as Llantwit Major. Llandough

As far as epigraphy was concerned, Nash-Williams

or Llandaf, appear to have had the advantages of wealth

saw the inscriptions as ranging between Roman capitals and later book-hands, but did not, by and large, concern himself with the means by which these might have been transmitted to the stone-cutter. Gifford Charles-Edwards

and resources via ecclesiastical and secular patronage to support the skilled execution of large-scale sculpture. Their products suggest that external contacts may sometimes

has here e x a m i n e d in detail the probable origins of the

have been mediated through such ecclesiastical sites. The localized system o f production reflected in such sites as

letter-forms, which turn out to contain a larger cursive

these offers a means of examining the transmission of

element than previously supposed, mainly the result of discoveries made since Nash-Williams'sday. She has also

ideas from further afield. Localized study on a broader archaeological front may

e x a m i n e d in d e t a i l t h e a c t u a l p r o c e d u r e s b y w h i c h t e x t

also be capable o f casting light o n old problems.

m u s t h a v e b e e n t r a n s f e r r e d t o s t o n e . w h i c h h a s i d e n t i fi e d

instance. the c h a n c e discoverv of

s o m e individual idiosvncrasies.

Saxon metalwork in Monmouthshire now makes ti possible to view the dearth of monuments in the county in a new light. The metalwork may be compared in date with

Much work has been done of late on the dating of graveslabs and high crosses of Ireland, but the accumulated

For

e x a m p l e s o f Anglo-

PARTI

a distinctive seventh-century blue glass beaker with trailed

father) at its find-spot suggests that the legend linking the

'trellis-pattern' decoration from Dinas Powys, probably manufactured in Kent, with related forms known from

two may not have been just the invention of the hagiographer (though the place-name could be post-Life). The

vessel together with the metalwork opens up the possibility of high-status gift exchange, and thus the operation of social obligation and 'mutual influence between south-

if with silver medals, who was seen to pass towards Gelligaer (Cefn Gelli-gaer) 1 (G27), is reminiscent of the tale

Essex and Suffolk (Evison, 2000: 69). The presence of this

east Wales and England at this period. This might indicate further that, despite some indictions of Anglo-Saxon penetration and pressure ni the area ni the sixth century, contact between the English and British following the

nineteenth-century tale of the soldier covered ni apparel as associated with the Mold cape, in which an old woman

saw an apparition 'clothed in a coat of gold crossing her road at '"Bryn yr Ellyllon," or the Goblin's Hill' (AbIthel', 1848: 98). It is interesting to note that Merthyr Maw 2 (G99) was known as the Goblin Stone, though one wonders

eme rg ence o f Meurig, whose dvnasty was to d o m i n a t e

whether this attribution may have a basis in the occur

south-east Wales, was 'not entirely hostile' (Davies, 1982, 112-13). Such contacts might in turn lie behind the

rence of the name Conbelin on Merthyr Maw I (G98). Thetheme of standing stones which move or go to drink

PROSPECTUS

5

neglect and accidental damage, as well as decay as aresult

Archaeological Areas Act 1979, or by listing under Section

of

1 o f the Planning (Listed Buildings a n d Conservation

natural agencies such as weather a n d atmospheric

pollution.

Active measures have been taken in some

Areas Act 1990 (in cases where stones or fragments of

by

them are built into the fabric of listed buildings). Scheduling

instances to remove stones from

immediate

threat

relocating them, but this response has tended to be a d hoc.

is administered by Cadw, the historic environment agency

Recognizing the numerous threats to these stones, in

of the Welsh Assembly Government; listing si undertak-

2000-1 the Ancient Monuments Board for Wales took as

en by Cadw, but the primary responsibility for its admin-

its annual theme the protection of this resource (Ancient Monuments Board for Wales 2001, 7), and in accordance

istration rests with local planning authorities. The future monitoring of the stones and the maintenance of an accu-

with its r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s , a 'National C o m m i t t e e for the

rate record of their condition will, no doubt, benefit from

Recording and Protection of Early Medieval Inscribed

the application where appropriate of new methods of pro. viding detailed, lasting records, suchas laser scanning and digital imaging.

Stones and Stone Sculpture' was established in 2002. This

non-statutory, advisory forum of interested organizations a n d i n d i v i d u a l s a i m s t o c o o r d i n a t e p r o g r a m m e s for t h e

We hope that this volume helps to promote a wider

w h e n t h e y h e a r t h e c l o c ks t r i k e t w e l v e ' o r ' w h e n t h e y h e a r

future recording a n d preservation o f these monuments.

u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d appreciation o f the stones. a n d assists

Monmouthshire and the rest of south-east Wales. In fact, reassessment of the material as a whole in the

the cock crow' is commonly associated with megalithic monuments in Brittany, southern England and Wales, one

Some stones may be statutorily protected, eitherby scheduling under Section 1 of the Ancient Monuments and

their preservation and management.

contact with the Anglo-Saxon world, as well as specific

springs when they hear thecock crow (Grinsell, 1976: 59). Folklore associated with prehistoric features could extend to early medieval inscribed stones ni their vicinity, such as the interpretation of the Latin on Cadoxton-juxta-Neath

evident

differences

in

monumental

practice

between

light of new discoveries reveals a more complicated situation, within what was a period of transformation and change. There was long-term interaction with Ireland and

English and Scandinavian interest in Wales between the ninth and eleventh centuries. The sculptural and metal work evidence shows that a wide range of external styles

reflecting some of these relationships was reaching Wales,

and being absorbed by local craftsmen. Of continuing and particular importance will be stylistic reassessment, in the light of the evidence provided by future volumes of the

such example being Maen Llia, Ystradfellte (Dubia 4). Its reputed visits to the river Neath fall within the category of stones that go to neighbouring rivers, streams, pools or

(Clwydi Banwen) 1(G7) as fairy language, 'for nobody ever understood them' (Westwood, 1865: 60-1). Two prehistoric burial-sites in Breconshire have indications of

Christianization: the robbed cairn or ring cairn known as

British Academy's Corpus of Anglo-Saxon Stone Sculpture, as

Bedd Illtud on Mynydd Illtyd, west of Brecon, and the

medieval sculptural traditions into the twelfth and early

the latter bear inscriptions and symbols, the majority being

wellas by future work on the decoration of artefacts and chamber tomb known as yT Illud, Llansanffraid, east of manuscripts. Similarly, the continuing legacy of the early Brecon. Both bearthe name of St Illtud, and five slabsof t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s will m e r i t

h i t u r e r e - e x a m i n a t i o n .

In addition to an examination of the evidence for the

original discovery of the monuments and their subsequent histories, t h ecatalogue entries will make some attempt to note the folklore and local tales that have become associ-

ated with them. Such anthropological considerations, which form part of a stone's total 'meaning', were

routinely noted in Victorian times, but have since tended to be neglected a s of n o immediate relevance. Most recorded traditions link certain stones with patron saints, such

as Llangennith (St Cenydd's Church) I (G47) with St Cennydd. Some tales seek to provide explanations for the situation of certain stones, such as the story of the

digging for gold leading to the fall of Crickhowell 1(B2),

crosses, either plain or within lozenges (RCAHMW, 1997: 32). While an early medieval date has been implied by

some (for example, Grinsell, 1976: 268; 1981: 131-9), the consensus appears to be that much of the graffiti is similar

in character to medieval masons' marks, and may be contemporary with the exploitation of the flagstone expo-

sure to the north of the cairn (RCAHMW, 1997: 32).

Research on such old associations, the classification of

the narrative elements involved, as wel as the recording of further oral-historical narratives relating to the stones, are

matters meriting further attention. Similarly, the significance of stones to contemporary communities - whether this is metaphorical (stones being regarded as living

things', as ni some folktale narratives), symbolic, social.

or the story of Will the Giant associated with Llantwit spiritual or otherwise, at local, regional and national levels Maior (St Illtud's Church) 3 (G65). The conjunction of - are also auestions deserving future consideration.

Catacus (Cadog) on Llanfihangel Cwm Du (Cae Gwynlliw) 1 (B21) with the name Gwynllyw (traditionally Cadog's

It will be evident from this corpus that over the centuries

many stones have suffered loss, vandalism, iconoclasm,

2

EARLIER RESEARCH

THE EARLY RECORDERS The antiquary, genealogist and historian Rice Merrick

(Rhys Meurug, died 1586/7), who lived at Cottrell in the

A n

a l l u s i o n

t o

a n

e a r l y

m e d i e v a

i n s c r i b e d

s t o n e

i n

Breconshire possibly occurs in the 'Vanity of Spirit' by the poet Henry Vaughan 'the Silurist' (1621-95), published in Silex Scintillans: Sacred Poems and Ejaculations (London

Vale of Glamorgan, provided one of the first records of an

' peece of much antiquity / with Hyerogliphicks 1650): A

early medieval inscribed stone in south Wales in his Booke

quite dismembred / And broken letters scarce remembered'

ofGlamorganshire's Antiquities (Morganiae Archaiographia) of c1578. The author was largely concerned with Norman and Tudor society, but he notes an inscribed stone near

(lines 22-24; Martin 1963: 419). A member of the

Vaughan family of Tretower, Henry found consolation from the politicalevents of the time in the tranquillity of

Eglwys uvunyd, or Eglwys Nynnid 1(G86) (Morg. Arch.: III

the Usk valley, and was to be buried at Llansanffraid. It has

102; Parochialia: III, 125). Merrick thought this was the gravestone of a legendary Morgan, whom he took to b e the

been suggested that the poem may refer to the pillar stone known now as Llansanffraid (Scethrog) 1 (B35), and the

eponymous founder of Glamorgan, and claimed that he

poet's attempts to reunite the pieces ni order to decipher

had been killed in a nearby battle by a cousin. He read the

the text (Boon, 19906). The outstanding Celtic scholar, philologist, botanist, antiquary and (from 1691) Keeper of the Ashmolean, Edward

inscription, which he assumed ot be in Welsh, fancifully, as Pymp bys vy kar ym tokkwys, as much as to say ni English, m ' y cousin's five fingers topped me.' This same legend was also communicated to William Camden by his collaborator, the Bishop of Llandaf, Francis Godwin, who reported in a letterdated 14 July 1603 that the inscription read: PVMP EIVS CAR AN TOPIVS. Other Welshmen wyll needes

Lhuyd (1660-1708/9; Fig. 2), was recruited by his friend Edmund Gibson ni 1693 to supply notes for arevised edition (1695) of Camden'sBritannia.At first Lhuyd was given three Welsh counties with which he was well acquainted

(Denbighshire, Merionethshire, Montgomeryshire), but, fol-

ob e r e a d t h u s P i m n h i s a n c a ra n t o n .

lowing the withdrawal of other would-be contributors, soon

ius, so altering two first words and adding the third which

agreed ot 'doe all Wales and to take a journey speedily quite

o s w a d e m et h a t t h e y a r e t

they assure that tase t o b e w o r n e out. although there b e n o

figure of any - . And not with standing thys alteration, rather by t r a d i t i o n t h e n t h a t t h e m o d e r n e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n b e n e a t h it.

they do suier it signifyeth, The 5 fingers of our owne frends or kinsfolkes h a v e overthrowne o r slavne u s

M o r e t h e y a f fi r m e

it to be t h e m o n u m e n t o f M o r g a n o f w h o s e d e ( a t h ) t h e w h o l e C o u n t y is t h o u g h t to r e c e a v e hys n a m e ( B r i t i s h L i b r a r y C o t t o n

MS. Julius FVI. fo. 297: Fig. 1)

through it, for ten pounds in hand; and twenty copies of ye Book' (Ellis, 1906-7: 9. He was to spend the summer of

1693 travelling around southWales gathering data. His outstanding entries transformed this section of the new edition, eventually published in 1695. This revised Britannia incorporated under Glamorgan his descriptions of the Latininscribed stonefrom Gelli-gaer (G27)t w o stones erected in the churchyard at Llantwit Major (Llantwit Major 4, G66;

collection forming the core of the epigraphic collection at

Llantwit Major ,5 G67),of which he had been informed by Sir John Stradling; the Bodvoc Stone (Margam (Margam Mountain) 1, G77); the Latin- and ogam-inscribed stone Eglwys Nynnid 1 (G86) mentioned above; the Latin-

the present R o m a n L e g i o n a r y M u s e u m

inscribed stone from Cadoxton-juxta-Neath (Clwydi

This reading was incorporated into Camden's Britannia (1695: 614). Godwin was also thefirst person to take a sustained interest in the Roman inscriptions at Caerleon, his

PART I

EARLIER RESEARCH

9

monuments (Roberts, 1986: 2),a s outlined ni A Design of a British Dictionary, Historical and Geographical; With an Essay entitl'd, Archaeologia Britannica; And a Natural History of Wales (Lhuyd, 1707). In themanner ofcontemporary antiquaries, he issued a questionnaireentitled Parochial Queries to gather information, and four thousand were distributed,

!

three to eachparish (ormore or less as required; Anon., 1857), to gentlemen, clergy and schoolmasters. Lhuyd

had included inscriptions and sculptures in the questionnaire, u p o n the replies to which his Parochialia is based,

which described inscriptions and ogam (without under-

standing the significance of 'Ye Stroaks'). Replies were often in amixture ofEnglish, Welsh and Latin, and notes

throng

in Llanstephan MS 185 (National Library of Wales) include the first mention of the monuments from LIvwel (Crai) (B41), Llanddeti (B12) and Llanlleonfel (B34) (see Morris, 1909-11; Emery, 1965). In 1696 Lhuyd was able

1 hpi.

to visit eight or ninec o u n t i e s between April a n d October.

During the years 1697-1701 he toured Britain extensively,

foret

dick

Mete

ae Lara sfl

prup EIVS

CAR N A TOPIVS

htaet they

Fig. 1. Letterdated 14 July 1603 from the Bishop of Llandafto William Camden (British Library, Cotton Julius E VI, fol. 297), concerning an inscribedstone: Eglwys Nynnid I (G86). (Copyright: British Library)

Banwen, G7) and the cross from Llangyfelach (Mynydd Gellionnen, G52); and, under Breconshire, descriptions of two inscribed stones: Pentre Yskythrog, Llansanffraid (Scethrog) 1 (B35), and the now-lost cross-carved stone at Vaynor (B48). Most cases were illustrated to show the inscription and letter-forms. Lhuyd dismissed the tradition identifying Eglwys Nynnid 1 (G86; see above) as Bedh

accompanied byh i shelpers William Jones, Robert Wynne and David Parry. The counties of Monmouthshire and Glamorgan were surveyed in 1697. Such was the vast store of information. that his details on Roman and later monuments were never published and remained in manuscript. Lhuyd was one of the earliest antiquaries to systematically record and illustrate early medieval monumentsi n Wales. Where the monuments can be compared with his records. ti is evident that his sketches, or those copied by his assistants, are on the whole both accurate and reliable. This si particularly true

Morgan Morganwg, or The Sepulchre of Prince Morgan as erroneous. In discussing the groove down the side of Llantwit Major 5 (G67), which he describes as a 'notable furrow or Canaliculus' (Camden, 1722: 736), Lhuyd considered the opinion of Dr James Garden of Aberdeen that circular

where inscriptions are concerned, though the drawing of decoration si highly simplified, and the proportions and designs less well understood: for example Coychurch 2 (G16; London, British Library, Stowe MS 1024: fo. 13) and Margam Cwrt-y-defaid 1(G84), where the wheel-cross

stones with cavities and grooves might have served for the 'Libamina or liquid sacrifices' at the temples of Druids. He astutely dismissedthis interpretation, however, on account of their dissimilarity, concluding that the stone (G67)

is too small. A number of these sketches are reproduced in the Catalogue under the relevant entries. Sadly, Lhuyd's original manuscripts perished in the eighteenth century, in a fire at the bookbinders to which Sir Watkin Williams

w ' as erected on some other occasion' (ibid.: 736). Regarding the inscription on the Samson stone (G66), he provided

Wyn had sentthem forrebinding (Campbell and Thomson, 1963: 304). Few of his papers, and only one of his note.

an accurate transcription, commenting that 'Samson had erected it to St Itutus or Ilhtyd; but that one Samuel was the Carver'.

books survive, but fortunately we know something of the stones seen by Lhuyd and his assistantsbetween 1697 and 1701,thanks to a copy in a different hand, probably that of

Fig. 2. Edward Lhuyd (1660-1709), from the Book of Benefactors of the Old Ashmolean. (Reproduced bypermissionof the Ashmolean Museum. Oxford)

Lhuyd was at this time already busy withpreparations

his assistant William Jones (Briggs, 1997: 196; for the

for a comprehensive work on the antiquities of Wales. His work for Britannia inspired him in 1695 to propose an ambitious 'Natural History and Antiquities of Wales' which was to contain a comparison of the modern Welsh

suggestion that many are Jones's own observations, see Emery, 1971: 67). These sketches, preserved in two volumes of manuscripts in the British Library (Stowe MSS 1023. 1024). were once attributed to the heraldic writer

with other European Languages and sections on customs,

and Garter king of arms JohnAnstis (the elder. 1669-1744)

inscriptions and prehistoric, early medieval and medieval

(Astle, 1800: 208, Daniel, 1967: 357). Anstis was not, in

PART I

111

EARLIERR E S E A R C H

A further advance in the study of stones in Breconshire was made in the lateeighteenth century by thediplomatist,

probably by William Jones, some may be in Lhuyd's hand (such as Bodvoc, Margam Mountain (G77): Stowe 1024, fo. 10, redrawn ni another hand ni Stowe 1024, fo. 16).

summer in south Wales in 1768. Subsequently, he con-

Some minor differences exist between Lhuyd's notes for

Britannia and theStowe MS entries. Forexample, ni those

relating to the Samson Stone, Llantwit Major 4 (G66), where Lhuyd had copied the inscriptions within their borders, dottingint h elast letter of line4 as R (to make crucem),

thisfigureappears as a dotted 'r' in Stowe MS 1024, fo. 15; in the latter, there si also an attempt to indicate the whole design, and not just the inscription. Twenty-five inscriptions fromsouth and south-east Wales are recorded by Lhuyd's project for the first time, many with short notes on location or size. Seven oft h e monu-

M A T E + 2

author and antiquary JohnStrange (1732-99), who spent a

tributed several accounts of stones in Breconshire to Archaeologia, which included engravings taken from draw-

ings of Llandyfaelog Fach 1 (B16; Strange, 1770: pl. opposite 294, fig. 3), the Latin- and ogam-inscribed stone from Crickhowell (B2; Strange, 1777: pl. II, fig. 2),

Ystradfellte (Maen Madoc) 1(B50; ibid.: pl. I, fig. 3), and the cross-inscribed stone Ystradfellte (Pen-y-mynydd) 2 B51; ibid.: pl. I, fig. 5), the latter two based on drawings by the antiquaryCharles Hayo f Brecon, wholater excavated the Roman villa at Maesderwen, near Llanfrynach (see Gazetteer and Fig. 3). The inscription on the cylinder stone

ments recorded have since been lost: Llanddeti (Tal-y-bont)

from Pentre Yskythrog, Llansanffraid (Scethrog) 1 (B35), si shown in full (Strange, 1777: pl. II, fig. 1), and is a more

(G58); Llanveynoe (Olchon House) 1 (H3). In some cases, the sketches provide information on parts of the monu-

his tour - the search for Roman inscriptions, roads and antiquities; as with the Lhuyd drawings, the inscriptions

1(B12); Llandyfaelog Fach 2(B17); Llywel (Crai) 1(B41); accurate rendering of the inscription than that reproduced Vaynor (highway) 1(B48); Llandaf 4 (G39); Llanrhidian 1 in Camdens's Britannia (1722). These reflect the purpose of

ments which are now missing, for example Llandough I

8

P I X DAAM3D

CIT

TURPILLICIA

CIPIVERITRIVnIOVYOCA

fact, responsible for the drawings, but had the material bound up, with his ownpreface. While many drawings are

(G42), Merthyr Mawr 1(G98). These records of lost stones

and accurate copies of inscriptions reinforce the importance of Lhuyd's contribution (and that ofhis assistants) to the studyof early medieval monuments in Wales.

have greater accuracy than do the representations of deco-

ration or sculptural form. It is also interesting to notethat Strange thought that the inscription on theLlandyfaelog Fachstone (B16)w a s 'of Danish antiquity', attributing the

stone to the fifth or sixth centuries (Strange, 1770: 304).

Fig. 3. Engravings ofLlandyfaelog Fach I (B16), Crickhowell I (B2) and Ystradfellte (Maen Madoc) I (B50), as publishedby John Strange ni

Archaeologia. (By courtesy of the Society of Antiquaries of London)

U S TR IES CATIRI

aO RP

NHICEY

Fig. .4 Engravings of bothsidesof cross shaft Llantwit Major (St Illtud's Church)4 (G66), and the cylindricalpillar Llantwit Major 5(G67), Glamorgan, a s published by John Strange in Archaeologia in 1782. (By courtesy of the Society of Antiquaries of London)

Fig. .5 Engravings ofLlandyfaeolog Fach (St Maelog's Church)I (B16) and other Breconshire inscribed stones, published by Theophilus Jones (1809, pl. VT). Thedepiction bottom right shows the form ofthe base of Crickhowell I (B2).

PART I

Major 3, G65). He concluded that 'int h emost material circumstances, we found a fidelity in the tale that doesgreat creditt o popular tradition',a n d he identified the stone as a 'silicious freestone, of the same kind as that found in the

In n o m

InE d i ru mImI IncI

P I E CRU. x . r a L

v a t o

p i rq u a

r e s

PREPa

ра-

D R O

a n i m a

Chane

MaLI:

thake hex

e t arts Mali

t

Similartreatment was given tot h eGlamorganstones in an account published in Archaeologia in 1782 (Fig. 4). Another historian and antiquary to explore the Breconshire stones (Figs 5. 6) was Theophilus Jones

(1759-1812), author of AHistory of the County of Brecnock,

Fig. 7.Copy of the Samson inscription (Llantwit Major .3 G65)by EdwardWilliams (Lol Morganwg), in a letter to Sir Richard Colt Hoare, 18 August 1797(Cardiff CentralLibrary MS 3.332). had already been published by Strange, but some engravings, executed by Thomas Price (Carnhuanawc). rector of

Llanfihangel Cwm Du (1787-1848), are three-quarter views which show more detail. That of Pen-y-mynydd

(B51) fails to show the ogam in the first edition, but it

in ingenuity what it lacked in accuracy J e n k i n s and

Jenkins, 1859). The advent from the 1740s of the antiquary traveller a n dt o p o g r a p h e r, interestedi n both landscape a n d monu-

ments, played a part ni the recording ofthe inscriptions and sculpture from the times of the 'early British saints' The naturalist and antiquary Thomas Pennant (1726-98) was to illustrate examples from west and north Wales

in his A Tour in Wales (published in three parts between 1778 and 1783), but his journeys did not extend into

222-3). Williams had been asked by Colt Hoare to provide

south Wales, with the exception of Chepstow. A Welsh

copies of all the ancient inscriptions at Llantwit Major,

squire with interests in natural history, antiquities and

gave details ofseven stones, including the Hywel (Llantwit Major 1, G63) andIlltud (G66) stones.

watercolourist Moses Griffith (1747-1819),who illustrat-

Later his son, Taliesin, made aselection of his father's

m a .

TECO

Fig. 6. Engraving of the 'NeuaddSiarman' stone, Breconshire (Maesmynis I, B39), published byTheophilus Jones (1809).

support the value of oral transmission (Suggett, 2005:

which he undertook with considerable care (Fig. 7). He

r u a G P

R O D N I m a iu

parishes of Coychurch, Coyty, etc. ni the county' (letter to Sir Richard Colt Hoare, 18 August 1797; Cardiff Central Library MS 3.332; Davies, 1997: 39). Perhaps the unverifiable tale of Will the Giant (whose burial was entered inthe parishregister) was one ofWilliam's romantic inventionst o

n r a p a C I

q u a

13

EARLIER RESEARCH

papers and published an account of the discovery of the Samson stone (G65), and his thoughts on the dating of the three Llantwit Major stones in the Iolo Manuscripts (Welsh Manuscript Society, 1848). A response tosuch musingsb yThomas Wakeman, lead-

inglight ofthe Monmouthshire Antiquarian Association ni

the 1850s and 1860s and collaborator with Octavius Morgan, attributed the lettering style of Llantwit Major 1

topography, he was accompanied by the draughtsmanand

ed his tours. A comparabletopographic account of south Wales is given in Benjamin Heath Malkin, The Scenery, Antiquities, and Biography of South Wales (London, 1804). Some oft h e comments by travellers provideinformation on the condition of the stones. Henry Penruddocke Wyndham's ATourthrough Monmouthshire and WalesMade in the Months of June, July, and August, 1774, and again in June, July, and August, 1777 (London, 1781) notes 'one of the stones mentioned by Camden; it is now placed upright, and the characters on it arestill perfectlylegible, Pumpeius

(G63) to the ninth century, and identified Hywel ap Rhys

Car Antopius' (G86; Wyndham, 1781: 33). Of a 'sepul-

as the king of Glamorgan referred to in Asser's Life of

chral pillar' in Breconshire (B35), he noted that, 'near the

King Alfred, dating the cross toc.880 (Wakeman, 1849:

five milestone from Brecon, the pillar, noticed b y Gibson,

18). Wakeman also linked the lettering to that on the Samson Cross, suggesting that Arthmail and Ithael can be

stands upright on the roadside, but Victorini is the only word now legible oni t ' (ibid.: 197).

identified as witnesses in the Llandaf Charters, suggesting a date for the Samson Cross of c.850. some 300 ears later

The topographer and poet Richard Fenton (1746/7-

1821), a native of St David's, and the antiquary Samuel

than the date suggested by Williams. This perceptive note

Rush Meyrick (1783-1848)recorded both inscriptions and

by Wakeman, providing achronological benchmark, was to have an effect on the dating of many early medieval crosses in Wales. Edward Williams also showed a genuine concern at the condition of many stones, illustrated by his correspondence with Sir John Nicholls (died 1838) regarding the state of Merthyr M a r 1 and 2(G98, G99):

stone sculpture. Fenton's Tours in Wales (1804-13) includ. ed comments onvarious stonemonuments seen during his travels. Visiting'Llendevailog' church on 23 May 1804. he saw•

The long Stone on the South side of the Church, 7F t . 9 inchesa n d 1/2 long. and 15 inches wide. with a very rude Figure sculptured in the middle compartment; on the upper a Cross

containing the Antiquities and Sepulchral Monuments and Inscriptions/...' the first volumeo fwhich appeared in 1805

appears in later editions. The work of Edward Williams (c. 1745-1826). better

and the second ni 1809, partI o f volume II beingparticularly relevant here. With diligent andcareful research, he

known as Iolo Morganwg, has been conventionally derid. ed because of his forgery of verse attributed to various

I amstrongly of the opinion that they are the very bestof any

w i t h r u d e o r n a m e n t sr o u n d i t a n d o n t h e l o w e r c o m p a r t m e n t

but within the last two or three years they have been most

rudeornaments.said but without theleast foundation to bet h e

incorporated notes on Llandyfaelog Fach 1 (B16; Jones,

Welsh medieval poets, intended todemonstrate the impor-

shamefully mutilated by persons who break off parts of the

tomb of Brochmail Yskythrog. (Llandyfaelog Fach 1, B16)

stones for whetting their scythes. Now Sir I wish that this

1809: pl. VI, fig. 1), the Latin- and ogam-inscribed stone

from Crickhowell (B2; ibid.: pl. VI, fig. 4), Ystradfellte 1,

the cylinder stone from Pentre Yskythrog (B35; ibid.: pl. VI, fig. 3), the cross from Maesmynis known as Neuadd Siarman (B39; ibid.: pl. VIII, fig. 1), the Latin-inscribed stones from LIanfihangel Cwm Du (B21), Maen Madoc

(B50; ibid.: pl. XII, figs I and 2) and the ogam-inscribed stone from Pen-y-mynydd (B51; ibid.: p.l XII, fig. 3). Most

tance of Wales and his native Glamorgan. He was, howev-

could be prevented ni future. . . (Nicholls archive, Merthyr

The naturalist and author Edward Donovan (1768-

er, an antiquary with aprofound interesti n the Welsh past,

Mawr House)

and his records regarding the Vale of Glamorgan cannot be ignored. Hecorrespondedwith the antiquary and artist Sir Richard Colt Hoare, who asked him in 1797 for information on the monuments at Llantwit Major, recounting a

1837)travelled through Monmouthshire and south Wales

Other contemporaries also took aninterest in their local

in the summers of 1800 and the succeeding years, publishing an account of his travels, Descriptive Excursions through South Wales and Monmouthshire in the vear 1804 and

tale told to him as a boy about 'Will the giant', buried atthe

foot of the large pillar cross then ni the churchyard (Llantwit

antiquities. The Baptist minister, theologian and publisher

John Jenkins (1779-1853), of Hengoed, Mid Glamorgan,

first recorded the inscription on the Capel Brithdir stone

the Four Preceding Summers, in 1805, illustrating it by

(G28)somewhat imaginatively, its interpretation ni 1822 by the credulous William Owen of Anglesey making up

engravings from his ownsketches. He illustrateda number

of stones from Llantwit Majorand Margam (Figs 8-11),

PART I

15

EARLIER RESEARCH

some pictured in Romantic settings, such as the pillar Llantwit Major 5(G67), and others as individual illustra-

tions (Lantwit Major 1, G63; Llantwit Major 3, G65). An

engraving of the 'Ilquici' and 'Ilei' stones from Margam (Margam, Cwrt-y-defaid 1-2, G84-85 shows both in use as a footbridge, probably the same one noted in Stowe MS 1024, fo. 14, 'On a ffoot Bridge at Margam, Glamorganshire. Transcribedby Mr Hancorn'. The nineteenth century saw an intensification of antiquarian scholarship. The Reverend Harry Longueville Jones of Llandegfan (Anglesey) and Manchester (1806-

70) issued the first number of Archaeologia Cambrensisi n

1846 with the assistance of the Reverend John Williams

In 1849, members at the Cambrian Archaeological Association's Cardiff meeting visited Llantwit Major Church, where they learnt that the parish authorities were destroying 'ancient tombstones'. Leading Cambrians, including Lord Adare, Archdeacon Williams and Bruce Pryce succeeded in halting this destruction, but sadly not before one (or two) sculpted stones had been destroyed

(Anon, 1849:326). The Irish antiquaryand painter George Petrie (1790-1866) was also present, and noted in his letter to the vicar that they had 'observed a large monumental slab presentinga sculptured cross of aninterestingcharacter and very early date being broken up into pieces at the

west door, one half ofi t cut into square blocks for building purposes, and the other grooved by a mason for a similar edt h eCambrianArchaeological Association (1847), there- operation' (Stokes, 1868). A similar fate appears to have by providing a national journal to draw together accounts been suffered by the monument now represented by previously dispersed, such as that in The Gentleman's Llanddewi Ystradenni (St David'sChurch)1 (R3). Magazine for July 1785 on the Conbelin Cross Margam 2 Another contributor to Archaeologia Cambrensis at this

(Ab Ithel', 1811-62), with whom he subsequently found-

Fig. 8. Amiscellany of 'British Antiquities' from E. Donovan's Descriptive Excursions through South Walesand Monmouthshire in the vear 1804 and the Four Preceding S u m m e r s L o n d o n . 1805). In the foregroundstands the pillarLlantwit Major5 (G67), with aprostrate shaft from thes a m e sitebehind.

Fig. .9 Illustrationfrom E. Donovan's Descriptive Excursions through South Wales and Monmouthshire inthe year 1804

and the Four Preceding Summers Condon. 1805). It shows the

'Ilquici'and 'Ice'stonesfrom Margam (Margam (Cwrt-y-defaid) I and2, G84 andG85)in use as a footbridge.

(G79) and Margam (Eglwys Nynnid, 1, (G86) (Fig. 12).

period was the antiquary Thomas Stephens (1821-75) of

LonguevilleJones'sduties as Inspector ofSchoolsi nWales (from 1849) enabled him to visit every corner ofWales, and hisn o t e s o ni t s antiquitiesi n c l u d e records of early inscribed

Merthyr Tydfil, author of The Literature of the Kymry (1849), who in 1862 contributed a note on the Capel Brithdir stone (G28). Some of the contributions aimed to

stones in Pembrokeshire, as well as Trallwng 1 (B45) and

edify and inspire rather than inform, such asthe'Lines on

Gelli-gaer (Capel Brithdir) 1 (G28) (Jones, 1862a; 1862b).

seeing the destruction of the lettered stone of Tor larl!' (Anon, 1853), that is, the Latin-inscribed stoneo n Margam

Tia 1.0.502.

Mountain ('Bodvoc', G77) then ni a precarious position: On Margam Mountain's drearyheighti tstood, A classicm o n u m e n t . wherev i l e r i m sc a m e Since Camden's pace the wanderers' Gotstens woo'd:

Ages swepto'er it - yet it stoodt h e same; Theflashing lighteningspared the recordlone, A n d temnestss c a t h l e s s left thel e t t e r e ds t o n e

Wrenchedb y destructivehands, now low it lies, Riven from its rest by b r u t a l force.- nom o r e

W e seeafar theantiquepillar rise, As erst it met the longinggaze, - and vain It soon will be to seek andponder o'er

The old sepulchralrelicaso f yore. No trace of it, alas! willsoon remain, Thus left a ruined wreck upon the plain. (written 8 September 1852)

The first systematic catalogue of early medieval

m a i

inscribed stones and stone sculpture wasp u b l i s h e d byJ. O.

Westwood (1805-93), a solicitor by training, who became Hope Professor of Zoology at Oxford in 1861. President of its Architectural and Historical Society, he was interested in the p a l e o g r a p h y a n d o r n a m e n t of Insular man-

scripts, and was for many years a prominent contributor Fig. 10. Earlyillustration ofthe 'Hywel' Cross from Llantwit Major

Fig. 11. Illustration oftheSamson inscription (Llantwit Major 3

ALlantwit M a i o r I( G 6 3 ) . f r o m E. D o n o v a n ' s D e s c r i n t i v e

( G 6 5 )f r o m E. D o n o v a n ' s D e s c r i o t i v e E x c u r s i o n s t h r o u g hS o u t h

R y c u r s i o n s t h r o u g h S o u t h Wa l e sa n dM o n m o u t h s h i r e in t h e

Wales and Monmouthshire in the year 1804 and the Four

year 1804 and the Four Preceding Summers (London, 1805).

Preceding Summers (London, 1805).

to Archaeologia Cambrensis, contributing papers on Fig. 12. The Conbelin Cross, Margam 2(G79), as illustratedin the

Gentleman's Magazine, July 1785.

Rhygyfarch's Psalter and the miniatures and ornament on Anglo-Saxon and Irish manuscripts(1846b). Writing from

16

PART I

117

EARLIER RESEARCH

Fig. 13. Thestones at Llantwit Majorbecamea popularsubject forartists. This sketch with watercolour was madei n July 1844 byMarcus Holmes (1803-54) ofBristol.

Hammersmith in 1846, his account, with asketch, of the

Pumpeius stone by thewayside at Kenfig (EglwysNynnid

1, G86)was thefirstformal publication of a Welsh ogam as such, though some had appeared in Archaeologiaa n d

elsewhere as uncomprehended marks(Westwood, 1846a:

182-3). Following Edward Lhuyd's discoveryo f anogam

stone at Trabeg, east of Dingle, Co. Kerry, and his stated belief in the 'primevalantiquity' of the ogam character, it is interesting how little impact the discovery of ogam letters ont h e Roman altar from Loughor (G76)had, though promptly reported by Longueville Jones (Report, 1858: 461; Anon., 1871). A few years laterWestwood published anaccount oft h e

cross-carvedstone at Baglan (G4)givingthe reading bran-

cuf. In the same article he usefully describesh i smethod of

creatingrubbings (1851: 148; see below). In the following

Fig. 15. Illustration from Westwood's Lapidarium Walliae ofCoychurch (St Crallo's Church) 2 (G16). Though at times inaccurate, thisplate conveys valuable information on the cross and its decoration, prior to its damage when thechurch tower collapsedo n it in 1877.

day (Fig. 15). His entry on the 'Bodvoc' stone (Margam Mountain) gives an insight into his fieldwork: the communication of EdwardLhuyd. . . induced metohunt

for thisinteresting monument, when I traversed the mountain in different directions for several hours, and met with many

year(1852) he published a description of the cross-carved stone at Llanhamlach (B32), in which he started the oftrepeated mistake of reading the inscribed text as a single

gation. I might indeed have lost my labour had it not beenf o r

sentence commemorating'Iohannes Moredic'. Oneof the

the information given me by a passer-by: for the stone itself

problems ofWestwood's entries in Archaeologia Cambrensis is that he worked from rubbings without reference to the

mark for observation (LW: 22)

interesting British earthworks, which require careful investi-

had been thrown down and no longer presented a striking

original stone, so that elements areoften missed. In1871, publication was a n n o u n c e d o fh i s Lapidarium Walliae. The

Fig. 14. .J O. Westwood (1805-93), author of Lapidarium Walliae

(1876-79).

Early Inscribed a n dSculpturedStones ofWales, long in preparation, which remains a valuable illustratedaccount to this

He had begun this study inorder tofi n d out howm a n y stones, 'which tradition had connected with the early British Church, agreed with the styles employed in and corroborated the dates given to the earliest religious MSS

known to havebeen executed inthese countries' (LW: iii).

It was to be published ni three parts, priced at 10s each,' and brought together for the first time descriptions and

drawings of most of the Welsh examples then known (forty-five from G l a m o rg a n , twenty-five from Breconshire.

two from Monmouthshire). Arranged in counties, it starts with Glamorgan, because it was the earliest seat of Christianity in Wales and the richest in respect of its lap¡dary remains' (LW: iv). While Lapidarium Walliae wasrecognized as a notable achievement, its faults were clear.

1Issuedby the Cambrian Archacological Association ni annual parts

between 1876 and 1879, andthen sa asingle volume: Lapidarium Walliae. The Early Inscribed and Sculptured Stones of Wales (Oxford, 1876-9).

PARTI

EARLIER RESEARCH

various stones aroundWales, andi n 1871 made a revised

and more accurate reading of the Turpill stone in Glan Usk Park, Crickhowell, B2 (Brash, 1871: 158; 1879: 330-1). He also gave readings of the ogam on the stones from Kenfig (G86), Trallwng (B45) and Loughor (G76; 1879: 343ff.). However, many of Brash's claims caused controversy, for he considered the nameso n the stones to bethoseo f Irish rather than Welsh or British persons, and of pagan character, which contributed to Sir John Rhys (see below)starting to examine the stones for himself, with

the advantage of his considerable philological expertise. The Celtic scholar and philologist Sir John Rhys

(1840-1915), a friend oft h e ManselFranklen family of St Hilary, near Cowbridge, seized every opportunity tostudy the inscriptions on stones in all parts of Wales while employed as an inspector of schools for Flint and Denbigh. A subscriber to Westwood's Lapidarium Walliae - hisfirst entry into thefield of epigraphy- by 1874 he was readyt o give his series of lectures at Aberystwyth entitled Lectures

on Welsh Philology, his first book ofthe same title being published ni 1877, followinghis appointment to hte Jesus professorship of Celtic at Oxford. His work ont h e development ofsound-changes and languages led toa series of discussionso n early inscriptions i n Archaeologia Cambrensis

that wast o continue all his life and gavethe journal aleadFig. 16. .J Romilly Allen(1847-1907) recording Llantwit Major 5

(G67)in 1887, at that timestill outsidethechurch. (Mansel Franklen Collection).

John Ward, writing ni 1913, noted: 1. It frequently includes later monumentsthan Pre-Norman. 2. It lacks adefinite and systematic terminology. .3 In the case of rough stones with inscriptions or other m a r k i n g s . it f r e q u e n t l y g i v e sn o i n f o r m a t i o n a s to t h e s h a p e o f t h e s t o n e a n d still less a st ot h ed i m e n s i o n s T h i s i su n f o r .

tunate. as information whether they are rude pillar stones. slabs, etc. corellated with the character of the letters and inscriptions. would probably lead to important conclusions as to sequence, etc. 4 M a n y o ft h e i l l u s t r a t i o n sa r e faulty. a n d in t h e c a s e o ft h e s e

ing position i nthis area of research, though he rousedt h e ire ofWestwood by complaining about the inaccuracy of many of the readings and drawingsi n Lapidarium Walliae.

H e provided trustworthy copies ofinscriptions 'previously caricatured', as well as new ones (forexample Rhys, 1899). He devoted special attention to the ogam inscriptions in Wales and Ireland, publishing in his 'Epigraphic Notes' careful readings of many examples fromsouth Wales, such

as Llanmadog (G55)and Loughor (Rhys, 1895a: 180-6), and Ystradfellte, Breconshire (B50, B51; Rhys, 1896: 126-8). Thepublication of Isca Silurum, anillustrated catalogue

of antiquities at Caerleon, Monmouthshire, by John EdwardLee (1808-87), included new illustrations of the stones from Bulmore (MIN3) and Caerleon (MIN1), with descriptions under the heading 'Early Welsh Crosses' (Lee,

1862: pl. XLIV). Lee drew together the collections of some

s t o n e s , t h e y a r e r a r e l y s h o w n in their entirety. (J.W a r d .n o t e s i nD e p a r t m e n to f A r c h a e o l o g y & N u m i s m a t i c s a r c h i v eN a t i o n a l M u s e u m Wa l e s .

18April 1913)

of his friends and in time persuadedthem tolend or donate specimens for the new Museum ofAntiquities at Caerleon.

S .W a l e .a

Edmund Jones of LittleBulmoreFarm was careful to pre-

nf r i e

serve all the antiquities o n his land a n d d o n a t e d t h e m

Richard Rolt Brash (died 1876), whose work The Ogam Inscribed Stones of the Gaedhil in the British Islands; with a dissertation on the ogam character, &c. (London) was posthu-

(including MIN3) tot h e museum (Jones, 2001: 7). Another member of the Cambrians t o offer notes on ornamented Glamorgan stones was G. E. Robinson

mously published ni 1879, had also contributed notes on

(f1.1876-88), including a report on the cross-stump at

Fig. .71 Sketch yb T. H. Thomas of a meeting ni 1890 of hte South Wales Art Society ni the Chapter House of Margam Abbey, where various stones areshown on display.

PARTI

EARLIER RESEARCH

Bridgend, G14 (Robinson, 1877: 62); he also drew attention to the cross-shaft built into a wall of St Cadoc's Church, Lancarfan(G35). Thework o f the early antiquaries tended to concentrate on inscriptions, and the decorated stones remained somewhat neglected, until tackled by the archaeologist John Romilly Allen (1847-1907; Fig. 16). From alanded Welsh family of some distinction in church and legal circles, he

was by 1877 a member of the General Committee of the Cambrian Archaeological Association, and brought

sculptured stones ot the public eyewith his comparison of

Celtic art in Walesa n dIreland." A regular contributor to

Archaeologia Cambrensis from 1873, becoming an editor in

1888, he developed aspecial interest in the early inscribed stones, a field which he was to dominate with Sir John Rhys. In 1878, Allen published a short paper 'Notes on Interlaced Crosses' in theJournal of the BritishArchaeological

Association, ni which he advocated the need to 'describe, illustrate, and catalogue the examples that are yet left', thus beginning his lifelong interest in ornament of this type. Allen's Rhind Lectures (1887)tackled Early Christian

Svmbolism in Great Britain and Ireland, and his paper on the

comparison of Celtic art in Wales and in Ireland (1893) tackled the principles oft h e analysis of ornament, and included examples from the whole of Wales. This marked a notable advance in the study of sculpture as a whole and placed Welsh decorative sculpture on an international stage. His research culminated in the magisterial

The Early Christian Monuments of Scotland (ECMS: Allen and Anderson, 1903: pts 2-3; Henderson, 1993). The artist and illustrator Thomas Henry Thomas (1839-1915), acontemporaryo fRomilly Allen, contributed a number of studies on pre-Norman inscribed and decorated stones from Glamorgan, followedb y studies of similar monuments in Breconshire and other parts ofWales. He finallysettled in Cardiffwhere he became heavily involved

11 9 0 .

ChapteHouse 1.Cunobelin, Outside The Gross

H i

interlaces

tat da lia l .higharisevered w s cross air bare standing " M tern. a lc i t t e side k h as h a l li sa s i

ribanpat

i a b r t i ng

con be lin suf.ti

Fig. 18. Drawing made by T. H. Thomas ni 1890 of the Conbelin Cross (Margam 2, G79), outside the Chapter House of Margam Abbey.

All monumental Stone al NASH. Fig. 19. Sketch of thecross Llanblethian (Nash Manor) I (G34),

sketched by the Rev. David Jones c. 1877 (Cardiff Central Library, MS 2.355. fo. 49).

1894b: 329). Pencil sketches and watercolours of monuments by Thomas in National Museum Wales (Figs 17, 18; Plates 1-4), include a 'reconstruction' in pencil of the Llandough cross (G42), in which he extended the upper

shaft by adding Llandaf 1(G36) to the top - a misconception held by many regarding the two stones (Fig. 24).

Thomas'sefforts led to themovement for obtaining castso f these monuments for theMuseum (seebelow), and he gave constant assistance to the scheme (Ballinger, 1915: 10). Professor Robert Alexander Stewart Macalister (18701950, first Professor of Celtic Archaeology at University College Dublin (1909-43), and chairman of the Irish

antiquities, a Herald tothe Gorsedd of Bards and friend of

National Monuments Advisory Council from 1930-43, was particularly interested ni the epigraphy of the Irish stones. Prior to the publication of ECMW by V . E. Nash-

William Goscombe John, the leading Welsh member of the nineteenth-century New Sculpture movement. Thomas

Williams in 1950, Macalister's Corpus Inscriptionum Insularum Celticarumhad been theonly attempt at a full cat-

with local affairs. His interests were diverse: special artist

correspondent for the Graphic and Daily Graphic, collector of

made his own records andrubbings of stones in Glamorgan

(NMWacc. nos 16.68/SR1-19), and publishednoteso na number ofstones, including Laleston (Llangewydd) 3 (G33; Thomas, 1894a: 327), Llantrisant 1 (G60; Thomas, 1893:

348), and Ystradfelle (Pen-y-mynydd) 1 (B51; Thomas, 2 The Monumental History of hte Early British Church and various arti-

eles on Welsh stonesi n Archaeologia Cambrensis.

alogue of the inscribedand commemorative stones in

Britain, including Wales."Volume I (1945) catalogued al

the ogam and early Latin inscriptions known from the British Isles, whilevolume II covered the later inscriptions 'written in Half-Uncial character' (1949: Introduction).

A work w h i c h has been criticizeda s lacking inm e t i c u l o u s n e s s , with m a n y inaccurate and. at times. imaginative drawings a n d readings

PART I

EARLY CHRISTIAN MONUMENTS

life' (Randall, 1956: 150 n. 4) - which perhapsaccounts for

TheEarly Christian Monuments of Wales(1950; 'ECMW^ in this volume) by Victor ErleNash-Williams remains a land-

the tenacity and devotion behind the production of his corpus. It is of interest that he took particular pride in his membership of the Governing Body of the Church

was born in 1897 at Fleur-de-Lys, Monmouthshire. He passed his entire professional career in the service of the NationalMuseum of Wales and of the University College of South Wales and Monmouthshire, as it was then known. He joined the army and was sent to the front in 1916. but was invalided because o f rheumatic

fever.

Following demobilization he gained first-class honours at

Cardiff University College, and in 1924 was appointed Assistant Keeper in Archaeology at theNational Museum of Wales, two years later succeeding Sir Cyril Fox as Keeper and lecturer in Archaeology at University College (Randall, 1956: 150-1). It had been recognized early, among others by John Ward (Curator of the Cardiff Museum and Art Gallery (as the predecessor of the National Museum was known from 1892-1901) that while Westwood's Lapidarium was a notable achievement, it was 'a very unsatisfactory work', as Ward was later to write (notes in Department of Archaeology & Numismatics archive, National Museum Wales, 18 April 1913)

Nash-Williams saw the opportunity for bringing together in one volume all the available evidence onthe monuments, which he saw as contemporary records

of the conversion of Wales to Christianity and of the

. E. Nash-Williams at theCaerleon Racecourse Fig. 20. V Excavations in 1954 (photograph by Michael Ashworth; by courtesyo f Donald Moore).

Macalister also provideda valuable review ofearlierwork in this field in the Centenary Volume of the Cambrian Archaeological Association (Macalister, 1946: 105-28). Thebulko f Nash-Williams's fieldwork i n Wales had been carried out much earlier than Macalister's, and he did not

see the second volume of CIIC, though published ni 1949 before the publication o f ECMW.

Anglican - one to whom religion was the foundation of

O F WA L E S A N D R E C E N T S T U D I E S

mark in thestudy of the period. Nash-Williams (Fig. 20)

establishment and development of the 'Celtic' church, as well as a reflection of 'racial and cultural movements' (ECMW: 1). Thefirst edition of ECMW was publishedb y the University of Wales Press in 1950 on behalf of the National Museum of Walesa n d the University ofWales's Board of Celtic Studies, and it formed thefirst systematic illustrated corpus of the early medieval inscribed and decorated stones of Wales. The composition of the book was t h e result oft h e best part of twenty years of study, and ti demonstrated the ability ofNash-Williams to analyse, condense and arrange diverse materials. The fieldwork was often accomplished with the assistance of his 1200cc motorbike, in particular in the years immediately before andafter the Second World War. He was thus able to incorporate recent work by others, such as Sir Cyril Fox's limited excavations around Ystradfellte (Maen Madoc) 1 (B50) in June 1940. Nash-Williams h a s been described as a stickler for the chain of command, through which every project had to be

filtered tohigher authority, possibly a reflection of his time int h e army. He was, above all, deeply religiousa n d a high

23

EARLIER RESEARCH

sions were similar to those of Nash-Williams. His workhas

only recently been superseded by Patrick Sims-Williams's

The Celtic Inscriptions of Britain: Phonology and Chronology, c.400-1200 (2003). Nash-Williamsused thesystem of classification of ornament devised by Romilly Allen and Anderson in their Early

in Wales, and to some extent the practising churchman in him motivated his researchi n archaeology. As others have pointed out, this background was important: he saw the inscriptions asevidence of the way in which his countrymen had developed intoliterate Christian people, through a direct link between the churches of Lyon a n d of Britain, anidea whichh a d its origins in Victorian church history.

Christian Monuments of Scotland (1903), founded on the belief that manuscript interlace was based on a diagonal grid. Subsequently it has been shown that a horizontal/ vertical grid of squares was employed in the layout of abstract ornament, and this has led to a reconsideration of the possible methods employed in their construction

The corpus had been preceded by his'Inventory ofthe Early Christian stone monuments in Wales, with a bibli-

(Dark, 1992; Edwards, 1983; Budny, 2001). Various definitions and descriptive terms for the complex interlace pat-

ography of the principal notices', published in twoparts in

terns, and methods of analysing and reading them, have

the Bulletin of the Board of Celtic Studies (Nash-Williams,

been proposed (for example, Adcock, 1978; Budny, 2001).

1935-6). These are useful as they contain theextensive bibliographies on which his corpus depended. Nash-Williams died suddenly in 1955.

In her Ph.D. thesis, Dr Jane Clarke discussed the decoraton on later stones, comparing the decorative patterns on those from Llanfynydd (Breconshire), Llantwit Major

Nash-Williams's scheme for the classification and

(the'Samson' stone), Carew and Never (see Clarke, 1981

mediating our understanding of the primary material (see chapters 6 and 12). His chronology relied heavily

the same craftsman. Nash-Williams was of the opinion

chronologyo f the monuments remains highly influential in

and 1984). This showed that they use identical dimen-

sions, suggesting to her that they might be the work of

on both epigraphical and art-historical arguments, based on

that 'masterpieces' were lacking in tenth- and eleventh-

form, decoration and epigraphy, and on comparisonswith Irish, Anglo-Saxon, Scottish and Continental sculpture.

century Wales - a phase of 'artistic sterility and technical ineptitude, expressed ni grotesquemonumental forms and

The corpus succeeded in putting language studies, once the primary concern of antiquaries but since overshadowed by studies ofform and decoration, back on a n equal foot-

harsh view is not supported by the fine designs evident in the fragmentary sculpture from Bulmore (MN3) and

mere t r a v e s t i e s o f o r n a m e n t a t i o n ' (ECMW:

31) -

but this

ing with sculptured art (Thomas, 1994: 219).

Caerleon (MINI),the Llantwit Major cross-shaft (G64)or the Neuadd Siarman cross (B39).

Kenneth Jackson (1909-91), Professor ofCeltic Languages,

views then held about the chronology of ogam script.

Epigraphic styles and the techniques of carving employed for the letter-forms have been the subject ofstud-

Literature, History and Antiquities at the University of Edinburgh from 1950, proposed ni his masterly Language

is by Carlo Tedeschi (1995; 2001) and Ken Dark (1992), who have independently reconsidered the chronology of

and History in Early Britain (LHEB, Edinburgh, 1953) the invention of ogam by an immigrantfrom Ireland, who had become familiar with Latin and the structures used by

the stones, though the classification and dating have remained largely unchanged (see chapter 12). Themost sig. nificant attempt to revise the 1950 classification hasbeen the

grammarians ni Britain before returning to Ireland. This

late W. Gwyn Thomas's addition of new classes for the

view of the matter was partially endorsed byNash-Williams (invented inIreland before the fifthcentury'). Morerecent-

RCAHMW's survey of the early medieval monuments of Glamorgan, which updated all the entries for the county

yl, invention ni southern Ireland, close to Latin-speaking Roman Britain, perhaps in the late third century has been proposed. Dr Damian McManus, in A Guide to Ogam

(RCAHMW, 1976). This RCAHMW survey redefined the

(1997), examines the nature of writing, the position of ogam within ti and the history of the many theories concerning its origin, correcting many readings. Jackson had independently worked out a chronology for the inscriptions from the British Isles based on their epigraphy, and though his work on LHEB had been concluded before the publication of ECMW (Jackson, 1953: 150). his conclu-

Thomas's thought-provoking And Shall these Mute Stones Speak? looked at documentary sources, place-names and epigraphy to plot the movement of people, and he proposed a typological development for ogam and bilingual inscriptions (1994: 68ff.). While not allhis interpretations are convincing, this important book demonstrates the potential of a multidisciplinary approach to early medieval studies.

Nash-Williams worked within the constraints of the

previous groups according to the form of the monument

and its decoration (see chapter 6). Professor Charles

3

RECORDING METHODS

The methods of recording inscribed stones and stone

care to draw the stones at Llantwit Major for the anti-

s c u l p t u r e a r e a n i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t o f their s t u d y, o f t e n

quary, artist and traveller Sir R i c h a r d Colt Hoare:

reflecting the type of observation ni the field. Theresulting record has i n fl u e n c e d the interpretation of the m o n u m e n t s

in the past and continues to do so. In cases where the monument no longer exists, the reliability of the record is c r u c i a l for its i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . w h a t e v e r t h e e x p e r t i s e o f t h e

observer.

The earliest visual records by Edward Lhuyd and his

T h e i n s c r i n t i o n s a r e a s e x a c t f a c s i m i l e s a s Ic o u l d n o s s i b l y m a k e

t h e m . I h a v e c a r e f u l l y c o p i e d e v e r y p e c u l i a r i t y. t h e f o r m o f e a c h c h a r a c t e r, its c o m p a r a t i v e s i z e , e a c h i r r e g u l a r i t y o f f o r m , size, d i s p o s i t i o n , etc. e v e n errors, or w h a t m a y d e e m e d t o be so. a r e c a r e f u l l y c o p i e d s o a s to r e n d e r t h e c o n y a s f a i t h f u l :

transcript of the original as possible (Letter dated 18 August

1797; Cardiff Central Library MS 3.332; Figs 22, 23)

assistants, and by others, were free-hand drawings of what could be discerned. Lhuyd was one of the earliest antiquaries to illustrate the early medieval inscribed stones and

The founder of the Welsh Manuscript Society, essayist and orator Thomas Price (Carnhuanawc), vicar of

sculpture of Wales, and his sketches, or those copied by his assistants, are on the whole both accurate and reliable, ni particular where inscriptions are concerned, though his

plished illustrator, and undertook many drawings of stones as well as of monuments for the historian and antiquary

representation of decoration is highly simplified (Fig. 21). Even when Lhuyd did not fully understand what he saw. such as an inscription of apparently meaningless letters, his descriptive records were sufficiently accurate to allow later

Theophilus Jones. Not surprisingly, some stones became the popular subjects of artists and antiquaries (Figs 13, 24). Drawing the inscriptions could be difficult, and in 1904 J. Illtyd D .Nicholl, squireof Merthyr Mawr, had Merthyr

scholars to make use of them. The sketches preserved ni two volumes of manuscripts ni the British Library, though once attributed directly to Lhuyd, or by others to John Anstis (p. 9), are now thought to be copies of sketches

made by Lhuyd or his assistants ni 1697-1701 (Daniel, 1967: 357). Unfortunately the originals perished ni a fire at the bookbinders. Comparison of the sketches with the monuments themselves demonstrates how reliably and accurately they have been draughted (see, for example, Merthyr Mawr 2, G99). Sometimes antiquaries and topographers would employ t h e s e r v i c e s o f a r t i s t s o r m a k e u s e o f d r a w i n g s e x e c u t e d by

others, such as those of the Breconshire stones by Charles Hay, or of the stones at Llantwit Major executed for John

Strange (Strange, 1770: 1777; 1782, pl. II, figs 1-3; p.l III, fig. 7; Figs 3, 4). Edward Williams (lolo Morganwg) took

Llanfihangel Cwm Du (1787-1848), was also an accom-

Mawr 1 and 2 (G98, G99) buried ni the ground so as to clean them of lichen (Rhys, 1905: 38). For many nineteenth-century researchers, and for the

present revision, rubbings formed a vital part of the recording and drawing process. In the past, wax, charcoal, chalk and other materials have been used. Westwood described h i sm e t h o d in d e t a i l . in a p a p e r o n G l a m o r g a n s t o n e s :

A few sheets of rather thin whity-brown cap paper, a rubber f o r m e d o t a n o l d leather g l o v e stuffed h a r d with t o w

a n d a

s m a l l b o x of p o u n d e d b l a c k l e a d , s u c h a s is u s e d for c l e a n i n g s t o v e s . a r e m y o r d i n a r y m a t e r i a l s . a n d w h i c h fi n d p r e f e r a b l e

to m o r e e x p e n s i v e p a p e r a n d h e e l - b a l l . F o r o b t a i n i n g facsimiles o r i m p r e s s i o n s o f s m a l l i n s c r i o t i o n s . o r c a r v e d w o r k . a n

equally simple plan has lately been adopted by the British M u s e u m . w h e r e c a s t s o f all t h e i n s c r i b e d

Nineveh marbles

have been made in the manner,) namely, by damping a sheet

PARTI

RECORDING METHODS

27

w o

26

of thick white blotting paper, and then beating it softly into

11

air

hcruC h

t h e i n s c r i p t i o n w i t h a s o f t h a i r b r u s h . a l l o w i n g it t o r e m a i n o n t h e s t o n e till a b o u t t h r e e p a r t s dry . .

(Westwood, 1851:

rAH

148-9)

Such techniques - drawings, rubbings and squeezes were all available to Romilly Allen, as well as the new medium ofphotography (see below). Allen's drawings have impact and are still very useful; blanks are left where he could n o tm a k e out designs, butt h e y are inaccurate in

some of the detail. Arthur G. Langdon, author of Old Cornish Crosses (1896), was another antiquary who took

SON

P R O C TJampon pojie hanessacem u r

haNcR

harr Ammia.

ejus. • Anon

rubbings of the Margam stones, and prepared drawings based on these and on photographs for Walter de Gray

Birch's History of Margam Abbey (1897). For rubbings, graphite, asmall chamois-leather rubber and large sheets of cigarette paper, obtained from the manufacturer, or acid-free tissue have been favoured for the present work. Best practice in terms of technique and performance are described by Kallhovd and Magnusson (2000), and by the Swedish RockCare project: www.raa.se/rockcare. Thedrawings for ECMW were mostly preparedb y o t h ers, andshow the styles ofseveral hands: the assistance of . Firth. .J V . Robertsa n d Harry Gear R . Howard Jones. B in preparing illustrations is acknowledged in the corpus. Some of theline drawings werenecessarily schematic and,

as Radford and Hemp recommended(1961: 144), many now receive more detailed illustration, some requiring correction in the light of recent re-examination. Many of the line drawings complement the plates, either as interpretationso r reconstructions. Int h i s volume, line drawings

Mih. on the other side a l the s iore f IL T4 brax Itati. 711. 3

ION J I S MR

220 6.

Samo/n Redis,

IramIEsT Jamue l egijari HELIFEB

based on rubbings have always been checked against the original stones and photographs (Fig. 25).

Fig. 22. Copy of inscription on the Samson Cross, Llantwit Major (St Illtud's Church) 4(G66), by Edward Williams (Lol Morganwg), ni a letter to Sir Richard Colt Hoare, 18 August 1797 (Cardiff Central Library MS 3.332).

PHO TOG RAP HY The present revision relies on photography as a primary record. Photographs have been used from an early date for

research: the antiquary Thomas Stephens (1821-75)provided We s t w o o d with ap h o t o g r a p h o f t h e Capel Brithdir

stone before 1875 (LW: 35). By the 1880s, photography wasbecoming more common in archaeological recording: Sir John Rhys used themedium to illustrate his 'Epigraphic

Notes' ni Archaeologia Cambrensis. The zealous photogra-

Fig. 21. Sketch by E. Lhuvd or his assistants of Covchurch (St

Crallo's Church) 2 (G16) (British Library, Stowe MS 1024, fo. 13).

phy of Thomas Mansel Franklen (1840-1928), a relation of the photographic pioneer William Henry Fox Talbot (1800-77). alsoprovided J. Romilly Allen with an extensive reference collection (Photographic Surveyo f Glamorgan, 1889, 3vols). This survey provideda valuable visualrecord of their condition and early locations (Fig. 16; Romilly

Allen himself appears ni several taken at Llantwit Major, presumably c.1889). Many of his photographs of the Margam stones were published in Walter de Gray Birch's History of Margam Abbey (1897). The negatives (numbering about 150) were d o n a t e d to the National M u s e u m of

Wales ni 1925 (NMW acc. no. 25.486). Franklen, author of a paper on early photography (1924), took infinite pains withhis photographs, arranging tohave the originals, when movable, placed in a suitable light, and where necessary cleansed with soap a n d water before he t o o k them'

(Ballinger, 1928: 361). He worked with Fox Talbot and the

photographer John Dillwyn Llewelyn of Penlle'r-gaer (who married Emma, one of Fox Talbot's daughters), as well as with Sir John Rhys, who stayed with Mansel Franklen on occasion at St Hilary. In the 1890s, they

received invitations to see stones from owners such ast h e Prichards of Bryn-Tirion, Bridgend, who alsoenclosed a photograph of Laleston 2 (G32: letters in National Museum Wales archive). The antiquarian T. H. Thomas

also made useof Mansel Franklen's photographs, sucha s that taken in 1891 of Margam (Cwrt-y-defaid) 2 (G85), and was the first topublish half-tone plates of them, ni the

Transactions of the Cardiff Naturalists' Society (Thomas, 1892-3). Another person to take early photographs of the stones at Margam (c. 1885) was Mansel Franklen's

cousin, Spencer Nicholl. John Ward also recognized the importance of photography, recommending that casts of stones, ni some instances of just one face or simply of the inscription, 'be associated with permanent photographs of the whole stones' (J. Ward, notes in Department of

2 8

PART I

rinomine

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Sereturant

Si anc

r u c E m housl Ipr opE rucem. Houel rope с ы т р р о с п о NER.PC abit pro

WEZEN?

2 9

RECORDING METHODS

5 creshead

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SUrPaNES o r

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Fig. 23. Copy of inscription on the 'Houelt' Cross, Llantwit Major (St Illtud's Church) I (G63), by EdwardWilliams (Lolo Morgang), ni a letter to Sir Richard Colt Hoare, 18 August 1797 (Cardiff Central Library MS 3.332). Archaeology & Numismatics archive, National Museum Wales, 18 April 1913). Photographs of William Clarke of Llandaf preparing areport ontheLlandough cross in1898 (Fig. 26), a n d ofthe removal of Llantwit Major (St Illtud's Church) 4 (G66) from t h e churchyard in 1903, were taken by William Clarke's son Guy and G. E. Halliday. Those at Llantwit Majorprovidea valuablerecord of the now-concealed, u n w o r k e d base of the cross and the h u m a n remains

found beneath ti (Halliday, 1903: figs 1-3, 7-8).

Nash-Williams illustrated ECMW largely with photographs, backed up by simple line-drawings. He relied heavily onphotographs ofthe cast collection,formed over many years by the National Museum. His overreliance for illustration on these photographs, in which the

incised lines had been highlighted with chalk, or the print enhanced with ink lines, ratherthan on photographs of the original stones, has been the subject of past criticism. Notwithstanding such comments, casts do present certain advantages in allowing photography under controlled lighting, without the camouflage of lichen cover and changes in surface colour. The photographs in thisn e w corpus are by Kevin Thomas, Jim Wild and Tony Hadland of the National Museum, and staff of the Roval Commission on the Ancient andHistorical Monuments of Wales. Thecomposite image of the cross from Nash, Glamorgan, which digitally merges four different photographs, wasproduced by Tony Daly with the aid of Photoshop. The development of the laser scanner has now provid-

ed a powerful tool for the recording on computer of infor-

mation about boththe surface topography and colour ofa

stone. The three-dimensional scanned image can be a ver-

satile, very accurate and permanent method of recording. As a non-contact recording technique (in contrast to rub-

bing), the potential for harming the stone si reduced. In 2004 the firm Archaeoptics was commissioned by Cadw and the National Museum to use laser technology to recordMargam (Eglwys Nynnid) 2 (G87)a n d theplastercast of the same stone now in the National Museum Cardiff, made in 1898 (NMW acc. no. 98.11). The resulting images of the original, thought to have been moved into the schoolhouse at Margam int h e 1930s, werecompared with images of the cast and conventional rubbings

Fig. 25. Rubbingo f Merthyr Mawr 2 (G99), with superimposed inter-

pretation. Digital imagepreparedby Tony Daly, 2003. Tshi

irder stones (for a detailed description of the background tothis,

(Figs 27, 28).

see Pitt-Rivers, 1890: 176-81). Drawings were made to

scale in the field, depths measured and photographs and rubbings taken. In his paper, which concentrated on the

CASTS AND MODELS Few researchers ofthe earlymedieval inscribed stones and stone sculpture of Wales will not have come across examples of the casts now held by the National Museum. In certain instances these have provided the only surviving three-dimensional record ofstones, and the most reliable reference source. Indeed, as noted above, Nash- Williams relied heavily on the cast collection to illustrate his 1950 corpus, asthey were at that time easier tophotograph than manyo f theoriginals. It is appropriate to review the background to the casting programme, so that the collection can be seen in proper perspective. Prior to themanufacture of full-size casts, Augustus Pitt-

Scottish monuments, mention si made of 'models from Llandilo in Wales' (ibid.: 180). South Walesw a s visitedb y Pitt-Riversa n d his two assistants in 1888. and his assistants

es m e h T 9 4

place a representative collection of Scotland's sculptured

(Thompson, 1960: 108; 1977: 68). Some forty years before this, mention was made in the

Archaeological Association at Cardiff in 1849 of three 'models' of sculptured stonesa t Llantwit Major beingdisplayed (Report, 1849: 320). It seems likely that these are the three small models, each 23cm in height, of Llantwit Major (St Illtud's Church) 3-5 (G65-7) donated byRobert

Drane. Cardiff chemist, field naturalist and antiquary (1833-1914). to C a r d i ff M u s e u m (now in the National

the Ancient Monuments Act of 1882), and his assistants

marily inresponse to a Scottish request toassemble in one

of public access, Llan-gan being included in the itinerary

Report ofthe Third Annual Meeting of the Cambrian

Rivers (1827-1900), the first Inspector of Ancient Monuments (responsible forinspecting monuments under

had developed a system of recording stones and making models of them at a scale of two inches to the foot, pri-

returned in 1890 to register monuments, take measurements for models, make sketches and look into questions

Museum Cardiff) in 1879. The models were sculpted in

fine-grained sandstone by John Jenkins ofNeath (NMW Fig. 24. Fanciful reconstruction of the Llandough Cross (G42)by T. H. Thomas, in which he has superimposed therelated crosshead from Llandaf (Llandaf 1, G36).

acc. nos 1879.72-74: Figs 29. 30).

Plaster-casts w e r e a s s e m b l e d by m a n y E u r o p e a n museums from thes e v e n t e e n t h century onwards.a n d one of the

PART I

30

3 1

RECORDING METHODS

Fgi. 27. Laser scanning ni progress of hte cast of Margam (Eghvys Nynnid) 2(G87), by Archaeoptics.

achieve the complete illustration ofthose from Glamorgan, which was subsequently extended to the whole of Wales. Thepolicy wassteeredb y JohnWard (1856-1922), curator

of the Cardiff Museum and Art Gallery, and from 1912 first Keeper of Archaeologya t the new National Museum of Wales. It was recognized from the outset that the col. lection of casts would take many years to complete, and

outside help was sought (Ward, 1894: 253). Many casts Fig. 26. Mr William Clarkeof Llandaff makingnotes ot resetthe base and shaft of the Llandough Cross (G42), photographed by his son ni 1898. (Clarke Collection; National Museum of Wales)

most comprehensive collection was that in London at the Victoria and Albert Museum. The growth ofthe collection of originals and casts held by National Museum Wales

mirrors the growing interest ni early medieval visual art ni

Wales in the late nineteenth century. The collection of earlymedieval sculpture began in 1892 with the gift to the Cardiff Museum and Art Gallery of the tenth-century stone from Bryn Cefn-eithwyn (Baglan (Cwm Gwenffrwd)

were acquiredwith the assistance o f the Purchase Fund of the Victoria and Albert Museum. In April, 1894, the Committee engaged the London firm of Messrs Brucciani and Co., employed by both the British and South Kensington Museums. By 1866, Domenico Brucciani (d. 1880) had established himself as

Fig. 28. Laser-scanned image ofMargam (Eglwys Nynnid) 2(G87), producedby Archaeoptics ni 2004. employed. The programme for the year included twentyone examples from the area of Margam and Bridgend, as well as the Llandough cross (G42) (NIMW acc. nos 98.295

geographical area of the collection was extended to Pembrokeshire, and Mr Clarke ofLlandafwasengaged to make casts of the chief monuments in that county from

Wolverhampton, VAM 1880-117; the Ruthwell Cross, VAM 1894 61). In 1894, the firm was commissioned to

- 98.316), the total cost amounting to about £230, the

Nevern, Penally, St Ishmael, Carew, St Dogmaelsand St

make plaster-casts of hte Conbelinstone (Margam 2, G79)

and Art department, South Kensington, and by private

London'sleading producerofplaster-casts including many

Anglo-Saxon and Manx crosses (for example. Kirk

Braddan, VAM 1866-35, 36; the Mercian cross-shaft from

excess being met by a grant of some £58 from the Science

1, G6). It was to be twenty years before the acquisitionof

and the late ninth-century cross of Enniaun (Margam 1,

G78) at Margam, and these casts were placed ni Cardiff

donations fromlocal families (Annual Reportfor year ending 31 October 1898: 9). The cast of the Llandough cross

further early medieval sculpture, but during this time the Council of the Cardiff Museum and Art Gallery (from 1901 known as the Welsh Museum of Natural History. Art and Antiquities, later the National Museum of Wales)

Museum (NMW acc. nos 94.140-1). The firm wastaken over in 1922b y the Victoria and Albert Museum and con-

(G42), for example, was paid for by Messrs John, David and Alexander Duncan at a cost of £36 (Fig. 31). This episode mayhave led to theengagemento f the long-estab-

agreed on ap r o g r a m m e ofc o m m i s s i o n i n g plaster-casts of

tinued to make casts until the outbreak of war in 1939

(Baker, 1982: 104). Theoriginal plan was to add several casts annually to the

pre-Norman stones from all over Wales. In 1894 they adopted the suggestion fromT. H . Thomas to form a'com-

Cardiff Museum collection, but ni fact after the first year

plete collection of casts of the pre-Norman monuments of the district' (Ward, 1894: 250). The public galleries of the Museum had a Welsh focus, and the early collection policy

cial considerations. In 1898 Ward was instructed tomake the necessary arrangements for acquiring casts of certain crosses, but the cost was not to exceed £100 (Amguedda,

was concerned with obtaining specimens in order to

1976:

the work was discontinued for four years, owing to finan-

6).

The same firm (Brucciani and Co.) was

lishedbuilding firm of William Clarke ofLlandaf, whose priceswere cheaper, but the quality of whose casts was not noticeably inferior. Clarke was also instructed to search for

David's, the Bridell stone and the Cilgerran stone (NMW acc. nos 01.116-126) (Cardiff Museum and Art Gallery 1901: 9). In 1902 ti was decided to commission Clarket o

make casts of the Roman and pre-Norman inscribed stones and monuments of Anglesey, Caernarfonshire, Flintshire and contiguous districts, as well as the inscribed

stone from Capel Llanilltern, Glamorgan (St Fagans with Llanilltern .1 G119) (Cardiff Museum and Art Gallery 1903: 7). The moulds were made in 1903, and the castsset

up by 1905 (Cardiff Museum and Art Gallery 1905: 9;

a'ny as yet undiscovered or forgotten', and ni 1899 exam-

ples from LIantwit Maior. Covchurch and Llan-gan were added (NMW acc. nos 99 60_99.70: Figs 32. 33). By 1900.

NMW acc. nos 02.156-91). Clarke was also commissioned to make casts of all the Carmarthenshire and Pembrokeshire examples that had not vet been done. 'as

all the known Glamorgan monuments had been cast, with

soon as the weather permits' (ibid., 9). As a result of

the exception of a few in places difficult to reach. The

unforeseen difficulties and delays, this was postponed until

PART I

RECORDING METHODS

Inhom

In ed its

Tiere, Scampe

Fig. 29. Nineteenth-century model ni stone ofLlantwit Major 4 (G66) made by John Jenkins ofNeath. (NMW acc. no. 1879.72)

1907, but during the intervening period work began on casting the Breconshire examples. Most generously, the

cost of the complete Breconshire collection was defrayed by Miss Thomas of LIwynmadoc in the same county (NMW acc. nos 06.477-705; Cardiff Museum and Art Gallery 1907: 29). It was proposed to resume the programme of casting the Carmarthenshire monuments in the summer of 1908, and by 1913 (when Ward was recommending a resumption of the casting programme to

completethe work started ni Pembrokeshire, with casts of a further forty-four stones), about two-thirds of the known

monuments in Wales had been cast (letter toDirector, 9

April 1913). Ward's concern was (j) for theproposed new Museum building to have a complete collection of casts,

of war, the Museum had acquired casts of most of the principal stones, which have formed a valuable national reference collection.

The first stage of producing a cast was the taking of a

plaster 'piece-mould' from the original stone. Aseparating agent(foilso r other substancesimpermeable to moisture) would be used t o prevent the clay and plaster ofthe moulds making direct contact with the stone and sticking toi t s surface. All but the simplest casts had to be made in many

pieces. The piece-mould was assembled within the two halves of the outer casing, and wet plaster poured in. The casting process demanded specialist skills, and the high

quality of the final casts, despite the potential of the

Fig. 30. Small nineteenth-century models ni stone of Llantwit Major 3and5 (G65, G67) made yb John Jenkins of Neath. (NMWacc. nos 1879.73. 1879.74) wooden armatures, and in most cases they have a surface

fifteen of the casts, which were circulated in a travelling

coating of shellac and possibly wax. Whereas today there

exhibition. For many years a copy of the Bodvoc stone

is areluctance tosubject stones to therigours of the casting process, there were no such inhibitions in the nineteenth century. It was viewed as one of the methods by which obiects 'would beliberated to archaeologists, art historians. manufacturers and artisans, to be studied, described, imitated, copied and sold' (Burton, 1999: 88). Several more casts have been added to the collection since then, most recentlyi n fibreglass, whoselightness a n d durability make them useful for touring exhibitions. In 1971, the Museum in conjunction with the Welsh Arts Council produced an open-air exhibition for the Royal

from Margam Mountain (G77) could be seen in the visitor centre in Afan Argoed Forest Park (Neath Port Talbot). More recently Cadw commissioned a fibreglass replica of the Pillar of Elise from Cardiff University. A twopiece mould was made using latex, with a polyester and fibreglass outer casing. The cast wasmade from polyester resin reinforced with fibreglass tissue and matting. The

outerpigmented surface is no more than 2mm thick; fine detail and shading were added using powder pigments dispersed in industrialmethylatedspirit (Watkinson, 1982). Ward clearly recognized the value of the collection

National Eisteddfod of Wales atBangor, which comprised

gathered at the time of casting, for publication in a cata-

separating agent to mask detail, represents a formidable technical achievement. An indication of the process is

given by a mould made in 1902 of the Catamanus stone on Anglesey (ECMW: no. 13; NMW acc. no. 02.160),

collection. These were made of glass-reinforced plastic (fibreglass) by Michael Thomas and Associates, Industrial

for comparative study, as well as its attractive display potential. He defined an ideal collection asone including complete casts of all the stones, but accepted that ni some cases casts of their inscriptions and markings would suf-

casting was brought to an end ni 1914 by the outbreak

The larger plaster-casts taken from such moulds alsohave

Designers and Plastic Fabricators (Moore, 1972: 5; Amgueddfa, 1971: 39). The Museum subsequently acquired

fice. What marked the campaigns was his insistence on commissioning casts of all the monuments of a district,

(ii) for full and precise information on the stones to be logue. Plans were made for Clarke'so f Llandaf to undertake the work. By the time this forward-looking policy of

which is made of plaster. reinforced with wooden laths.

duplicate full-size casts of certainwell-known stones in the

PARTI

RECORDING M E T H O D S

Fig. 3. Casts of threeo fthe Llantwit Major stones prepared by W. Clarke of Llandaf in 1899, priorto colour being added. Being on

monochrome white plaster, hte details of the inscriptions anddecoration

are clear and distinct, in the manner of a modern laser-scannedimage

other markingsare more accentuated through t h e stronger contrast of the lights and shadows, and in consequence many details are now rendered visible which before were unnoticed' (Ward, 1894: 250). Until its moulding, the Conbelin Stone, Margam 2 (G79) had stood against part of the Abbeyruins, and the nature of the decoration of the base on one side (the 'hunt' scene) was 'not suspected'

(Ward, 1894: 253).

illegible, should be cast. These, he held, invariably show

The importance of the cast collection has grown with time,a s the monuments themselveshave been subjected to erosion, damage or theft. In some cases, the early casts are the only permanent visual record now in existence (for example. Ewenni (Priory Church) 1 (G18, now missing) and Margam (Penhydd-waelod) (G91, now missing), while in others they record detail that hassince been lost.

sense, indeed,theysurpass the originals. Thecarvings and

likely to increase with time.

Fig. 32. Acast of Coychurch (St Crallo's Church) 2(G16) being assembledi n W. Clarke's Llandaf workshop in 1899, prior to having surface colour added.

rather than aselection, and what was particularly perceptive was his belief that every inscription, no matter how

'lettering more distinct than in the original stone; ni one

Fig. 31. The cast ofLlandough I (G42) made by Brucciani & Co. on display in the Cardiff Museum andArt Gallery.

The significance and value of this impressive collection is

4

PHYSICAL E N V I R O N M E N T A N D HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

TOPOGRAPHY

lowland of the Dee in the north and the Vale of Pows and t h e river

S e v e r n in t h e c e n t r e . t h e s e r i v e r

valleys form

Wales si dominated by the mountains that form its core,

tongues o f lowland which became important routes i n c

and these peaks and plateaux and their geology have profoundly influenced human activity in the past. This

the interior from the east. An important factor influencing communications in the

volume is concerned with south-east Wales, an area that

early medieval period was the availability of a system of

c o r r e s p o n d s to the f o r m e r c o u n t i e s o f Breconshire.

R o m a n roads. T h e network in Breconshire is imperfectly

Glamorgan, Monmouthshire and Radnorshire, with outliers in Herefordshire and Shropshire. These counties

u n d e r s t o o d . b u t fi v e r o u t e s a r e c e r t a i n . a n d a f u r t h e r t w o

may be assumed (RCAHMW, 1986; 157-78). These were:

were reformed in 1974, those in Wales forming Pows, Glamorgan (South, West and Mid) and Gwent, but hte

(1) from the fort at Coelbren to that at Brecon Gaer (Sarn Helen), along which Maen Madoc (B50) was erected; (2)

historic shires, which formed the main divisions in NashWilliams's catalogue (ECMW, 1950), have been retained in this volume.

The historical county of Breconshire corresponds, but only approximately, to the early medieval kingdom of Brycheiniog (Figs 34, 35). There are two main mountain zones in Breconshire, which rise to over 700m: Forest Fawr (734m/2.409ft) and the Brecon Beacons (872m/

from the fort at Penydarren towards Brecon Gaer; (3) from t h e f o r t a t A b e r g a v e n n y t o B r e c o nG a e r , c l o s e t o w h i c h t h e Vi c t o r i n u s S t o n e ( 3 3 5 ) w a s erected• (4) f r o m B r e c o n G a e r

to Kenchester (Magnis in Herefordshire); (5) from Brecon Gaer to Llandovery; (6) a route north from Brecon Gaer; and (7) a road from the fort at Carmarthen to that at Castell Collen via Llandovery and Beulah. The boundaries o f Radnorshire were d e fi n e d by the Acts

2,863ft, forming an east-west block south of the river

of Union (1536-43). To the south, the river Wye forms

Usk, and the Black Mountains (719m/2,360ft) forming an eastern range. In the north lies the upland plateau of

much of the border; to the north this traverses an east-west extension of the Cambrian Mountains where

Mynydd Epynt, south of the rivers Irfon and Wye. At a it si contiguous with Montgomeryshire, before joining lower level, the rounded uplands are divided by steep, narrow valleys, forming dissected plateaux. The valley

lowlands form two main zones, hte Builth-Llanwrtyd

Depression and the Usk-Livnfi Basin. The main rivers are

the Usk, which flows from its source in Carmarthenshire

the river Teme,which forms its northeast limits. The county has considerable topographical variety,with contiguous uplands and lowlands. The uplands to the east of Radnorshire include the massif of Radnor Forest (660m/

Mountains, and the Wye, which forms the border with Radnorshire. Llan-gors Lake, through which the river Llynfi flows, fills a rock basin to the east of modern

2,166ft and the hills beyond the river Ithon (leithon); further east are the open flats of the Lugg and Teme valleys, and the Walton Basin. The mountains to the north of Builth are separated from those to the south by the broad valley of the Irfon. The mid-March region si characterised

Brecon. The Usk and Wye are linked by the Talgarth Gap, which lies to the west of the Black Mountain. With the

by east-running valleys, which could have provided routes for links with England. Offa's Dyke passes through east

eastwards

between

the

Brecon

Beacons

and

Black

3 8

PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENTA N D HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

3 9

lia's Dyke

PARTI

CE RE DIG ION

POWYS

Magohsaetan Builth

Ergyng

DYFED

BRYCHEINIOG GLYWYSING

Gwent

MORGANNWG

Fig. 34. Generalmap of early medieval Wales.

Fig. 35. Mapo fWales, showing the area ofstudy for volume ,I andthelocation of stones in Herefordshire and Shropshire.

Radnorshire south of Knighton, continuing across a Loughor (L/wchwr)to the west and the river Rhymni to the well-defined mountain mass, isolated from the Cambrian east (Fig.79). Thefertile lowlands fringing the coast com-

rivers east of the Tawe are the Neath, Afan, Ogmore (Ogwr) and Taff, with their many tributaries. The Vale of

mountains by the upper valleys of the Wye and Severn. The Dyke was aligned onthe steep-scarpedhills which front the plain of New Radnor, and from Rushock Hill it makes for

prise the Vale of Glamorgan (Bro Morgannwg) and Gower and its peninsula, whose flanks are defined by the valleys of the Loughor and Tawe rivers. The Vale and Gower

the lowlands of Herefordshire. There are some puzzling are sharply divided from the interior uplands (Blaenau fragments of Dyke across the Herefordshire Plain, and a Morgannwg) by steep south-facing escarpments. These stretch along the Wye Valleysouth of Monmouth. The historic county of Glamorgan was formed by the merger oft h elordship of Glamorgan with the lordship of

approach the coast between the rivers Neath (Nedd) and Kenfig (Cynffig), leaving a narrow lowland corridor some 2km wide between the sea and the steep escarpment of the

Gower under the Acts of Union. The historic county si

uplands (with Margam at its eastern end). This forms a

b o u n d e d by the Bristol C h a n n e l to the south, by the river

natural division between Gower and the Vale. The main

Glamorgan and Gower peninsula, while classified as lowlands, have an undulating relief withhills and valleys. The Gower peninsula h a s the elevated Cefn Bryn ridge, while the Vale is a plateau of about 61m (200ft) elevation, cut into blocks by rivers such as the Ewenni, Thaw and Ely.

River crossing was not easy ni medieval times: some required boats at times, but fords wereused wherever possible, and are frequentlymentioned in the LiberLandavensis. Especially hazardous spots, such as the quicksands at Neath, are mentioned by Gerald of Wales (Giraldus

Cambrensis, Journey through Wales Ich. 8; Thorpe, 1978: 130-1) in the late twelfth century. The main east-west route through Glamorgan in the

early medieval period, known during the medieval period as the Port Way, was part of the Roman road along the coastal plain from Gloucester to Carmarthen via Caerwent, Caerleon, Cardiff and Neath (Fig. 79). Roads ran south from the fort at Brecon linking the forts along their routes: one to Neath via Coelbren, another to

Cardiff via Penydarren (Merthyr Tydfil), Gelli-gaer and Caerphilly. Thecontinued use ofsuch roads in south-east Wales is indicated by charter references to properties

PARTI

40 whose boundar ies are sometim es defined in terms o f a

H I S T O R I C A LB A C K G R O U N D

be forddfawr (via magnalvialata), which in some cases can identified as a Roman road. The siting of some early inscribed stones besides Roman roads indicates their con-

South-east Wales c.350-800

tinued use,exemplified by Cadoxton-juxta-Neath (Clwydi

The lowlands of Wales have been areas of most intense

(Fox, 1939: 30 41). The existence of lesser lines of com-

the mid-first century placed forts strategically to block and

Banwen) 1 (G7)a n d Ystradfellte (Maen Madoc) 1 (B50)

munication may be indicated by later hollow tracks and trails, such as the 'British Trackway' over Mynydd

Margam, known as Heol yMoch ('the Pigs' Way'), possibly

even a prehistoric route, which continued in use through

PHYSICALENVIRONMENT AND HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

activity in the past. TheRomanmilitary system created in controlnaturalroutes of communicationi neast Wales. A

legionaryfortress was first established at Usk, Monmouthshire, but during the campaigns under the governor Julius

Frontinus, it was moved to Caerleon (Isca) tohouse the

SecondAugustanLegion;forts are known at Abergavenny 354). By the eleventh and twelfth centuries, newroads and(Monmouths hire), Pen-y-gaer and Brecon Gaer (Breconthe early medieval and medieval periods (RCAHMW, 1982:

routeswere being cut, as is suggested by the reference in his

Life to Llancarfan being impassable before Cadog cut four

paths acrossfour declivities ofmountains(Vita Cadoci: ch. 9; Wade-Evans, 1944: 46-7). Maritime communications,

local andlong-distance, must alwayshave been important,

shire), Coelbren, Penydarren, Gelli-gaer, Caerphilly,Neath

and Cardiff(Glamorgan) (Nash-Williams, 1969; Davies,

1994). The east margin of mid-Wales to the Hereford Basin

was occupied in the first century by the Dobunni. The

and were no doubt a significant factor in the transmission of ideas and styles, as well as of goods and people.

Cornovii, occupying Cheshire and Shropshire, had their civ itas at Viroconium (Wroxeter); much of the upper Severn

named after the river Mynwy/Monnow. The county is boundedb y the estuary of the river Severn and the Bristol Channel on the south, the river Rhymni to the west, the rivers Monnow and Wye to the east: on the north the

two principal civil centres (civitates)- ineffect tribalcapitals of civil administration - were established in Wales: those

boundary runs from Rhyd-y-Milywr (where it meets Glamorgan and Breconshire) eastwards over Sugar Loaf

of a pagan Romano-Celtic temple in Caerwent c.330

Monmouthshire takes its name from the shire town

and north Ceredigion was occupied by the Ordovices. Only

of the Demetae at Carmarthen (Moridunum), and of the

Silures at Caerwent (Venta Silurum). The construction

points to a continuation of corporate civic life late ni the

Mountain (596m/1,955ft) tothe Gwyne Fawr stream, up the Vale of Ewyas to the ridge of the BlackMountains, and

Roman period,while the discovery of a pewter bowl with a Christian chi-rho monogram scratched on its underside

thence to the river Monnow.

(Figs 36, 37) in agroupofvesselsand tablefurniture,buried in the late fourth century in a room of House IX. 7N, sug-

The mountains to the north-west, which skirt the Usk valley between Abergavenny and Newport, are a continu-

ation of the Breconshire range. Much of the county to the east of this range has undulating pasture, arable, moorlands and woods, with somesteep ridges. The Severnfringe bordering the Bristol Channel is wholly low-lying saltmarsh, known as the w e n t Levels, now a rich alluvial

plaindrained by reens (artificial ditches) which empty into the sea via the gowts (sluices) thatfeed the manypills (tidal

creeks). The system of drainage dates back tothe Roman period, and sea-rise has resulted in the encroachment of

areasutilizedfrom the Mesolithic period onwards, notable

evidence for Iron Age structureshaving beendiscovered ni

the intertidal zone at Goldcliff. Thethree main rivers discharging into the Severn Estuary are the Rhymni to the

west, the Usk towards the centre and the Wye to the east.

Apart from the Roman road along the coastal strip

through Caerwent and Caerleon. there was another which ran from Caerleon up the Usk valley and from there west along the Tywi valley to Carmarthen.

36. The fourth-century chi-rho graffito from Caervent.

gestst h e coexistence of aChristian community at this time (Boon, 1992: 16-18). Questions regarding the size of the Caerwent community and whether it was led by a bishop

are fundamental to an understandingo f late Roman and early medieval Christianity in south Wales, and are not yet fully understood. Boon was of the opinion that. before the

late fourth century, the Christian community may have been led by a non-resident, peripateticbishop, the church-

es being served by priests representing the bishop ni the fourth Diocletianic province (Boon, 1992). Knighthas sug-

gested that once the Christian community had become established in rural centres beyond the civitas, someone with at least the status of a bishop would have been required to lead the community (Knight, 1996b: 37). Beyond the military bases, vicus-type settlementsdevel. oped outside Caerleon, with possible examples at Cardiff, Abergavenny and Monmouth. Theagricultural economy in the fertile lowlands of Monmouthshire andGlamorgan, the heartland of

the Silures, appears to have been

prosperous, and the character of settlement ni thisarea

contrasts with other parts of Wales ni being closer in

character to the villa economy in southern England. At

the top end of hte settlement hierarchy, as homes of the

wealthy elite, were villas, several of which have been identified (for example, Ely, Llandough and Llantwit

Fig. 37. The fourth-century chi-rho graffito from Caerwent (detail).

Major in Glamorgan, Church Farm, Caldicot and the

recently discovered example at Croes Carn Einion, Bassaleg, in Monmouthshire). The diverse mix of settlement types included romanized farmsteads (such as those

at Biglis and Whitton, both ni Glamorgan) and, on the uplands, unenclosed hut-groups (such as Hendre'r Gelli, on high ground at the head of the Rhonda valley). Over half of the Roman sculpture from Wales -

including architectural fragments andbuilding inscriptions - comes from the legionary fortress at Caerleon. The fortress has produced forty-four funerary inscriptions

reused ni the civilian settlement at Bulmore ni the Roman period, including gravestones recycled as paving slabs

(Brewer. 1986: 20). In contrast, the quantity of sculpture from civilian sites is small. There are no surviving funerary inscriptions from Caerwent, where there is evidence that stone public buildings were embellished with sculpture. The tribal council did set up an inscription dedicated to Tiberius Claudius Paulinus, once commandant of the Second Augustan Legion (c.214-17), ' n e x t proconsul of the

(RIB1: nos 356-93; Wright 1956: no. 7; ibid 1960: no. 3; province of Gallia Narbonensis, [now] imperial governor ibid 1970: nos9-10: Hassall and Tomlin 1977: nos 14-15; ibid, 1985: no. 6; ibid, 1988: nos 4-5; ibid, 1990: no. 2; ibid, 1997: nos 2-3). The latest inscription records building activity under Aurelian in AD 274-5. Much masonry was

of the province of Lugdunensis'. The inscription pre-dates his return in 220, as governor of Britannia Inferior, and establishes that Caerwent was administered at this time by a council (ordo). Architectural decoration from Caerwent

4 2

PARTI

includes columns and Corinthian capitals, some cut in a style developed in the Rhineland and possibly made by immigrant craitsmen.

I s o l a t e d m i l e s t o n e s ( s u c h a sM a r g a m

1981) and Biglis (Parkhouse, 1988), appear to have been

abandoned by the mid-fourth century (Maesderwen being a n exception).

Abandonment

also occurred

a t lower-

(Port Talbot) 1, (G92), and gravestones, such as Maen y Morwynion ('The Maidens' Stone') close to the site of the

status sites, like Thornwell Farm, near Chepstow (Hughes,

R o m a n f o r t o f Y G a e r n e a r B r e c o n ( B r e w e r . 1 9 8 6 : 2 1 . no.

At Caerwent the Romano-Celtic temple to the east of the

27) - though there si the possibility of some surviving

forum, built c.330,was maintained ni good order until late

1996), and Caldicot (Vyner and Allen, 1988: 67-122).

stonework associated with cemeteries (for instance, in the

in the fourth century, despite Imperial edicts closing such

vicinity of the m a r t y r u m t o Julius a n d A a r o n at B u l m o r e )

p a g a n shrines. S o m e t o w n houses were a b a n d o n e d b y

- were the main forms of visible Roman monumental sculpture from the fifth century.

then, but activity in the early fifth century is suggested by the cutting of pits through mosaics and evidence for

Some villas seem to have been decorated with architec-

iron-working (for example House I.28N). Late Theodosian

PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT AND HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

prior to, the sixth century, perhaps as an offshoot from Dyfed/ Demetae (see, for example, Dark, 1994: 82). However, the evidence for the kingdom becomes clear only in the mid-eighth century with the record of several kings ni the Llandaf Charters,and Maund has suggested that the

kingdom may have come under the influence of Dyfed at

about this time (2000: 36). The Latin and ogam inscriptions of Breconshire, a notable concentration beyond the main concentration ni south-west Wales between the rivers Teifi and Tywi, support thetradition of a dynasty of Irish

extraction, and of connections with Irish settlement. It is also difficult to establish the origins or extent of

43

tence of an earlier dynasty in the area si assumed. The dynasty that supplied the rulers of Pows ni the ninth century was known as the Cadelling (the line of Cadell). Conflict between Powys and the Anglo-Saxons before and after the construction of Offa's Dyke si epitomized by

the text on the Pillar of Eliseg (ECMW: no. 182), where

Cyngen, king of Powys, could recall that his grandfather Eliseg had wrested land 'from the power of the English.

which he made into a sword-land by fire', probably during Offa's reign (interpretation by Sir John Rhÿs;ECMW: 123). Archaeological evidence for activity at this time is limited. A single radiocarbon date of cal AD 750-1040 (2 sigma)

tural sculpture. T h e villa at L l a n t w i t M a j o r p r o d u c e d a

h o a r d s f r o m t h e last d e c a d e o f t h e f o u r t h c e n t u r y h a v e

statuette o f Fortuna and a relief of a Genius (the tutelary

been found in the town. while the presence of coins of

the small kingdom of Builth (Buellt), which had a royal

from charcoal on a ground surface below an enclosure

line, b u t w h o s e rulers are little m o r e t h a n n a m e s . It

r a m p a r t at w r t Llechryd, Radnorshire ( M u s s o n a n d

deity of a person or place), both attributed to the second or third centuries, and stone roof-finials dated to the

Honorius in south Wales has been linked with the reorga-

was certainly in existence during the early ninth century

S p u r g e o n , 1 9 8 8 ) , i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e r a m p a r t w a s b u i l ta f t e r

late third or fourth-centuries (Brewer, 1986: 11, 12, 91,

nization of Roman defences ni Britain ni the late 390s by his general, Stilicho. The last regular supplies of bronze

('Fernmail, who now rules ni the counties of Buelt and

the tenth century. However, suggestions that the enclosure formed ahigh-status Welsh or Mercian stronghold remain

92). Few fourth-century inscriptions have been recognized

coin occurred c. 395-402, the failure to maintain coin sup-

from Britain (see R a v e n s c a r, Yorkshire, and civitates inscrip-

ply or minting signalling a wider e c o n o m i c disruption.

tions on Hadrian's Wall, post-369: RIBI: no 721), but none

The general consensus is that the everyday use of such coinage in Britain would have ceased by the 420s. Caerwent failed to operate as an urban unit beyond the early fifth century, unlike Wroxeter (1997) where Barker has demonstrated that occupation of the exercise hall of the Baths basilica continued well into the same centurv.

are known from Wales, though Handley has argued for a late fourth-century starting point for some of the early medieval Latin inscriptions in this volume (Handley, 2001a: 197). A few Roman inscriptions were reused for early medieval inscriptions, such as Margam (Port Talbot)

1 (G92), and robbed-out masonry was occasionally used

With the fifth-century collapse of central Roman admin-

for the production of early medieval sculpture, such as

istration, and hte breakdownof government expenditure

Caerwent (St Stephen and St Tatheus) 1 (MIN2).

Evidence of conspicuous consumption and of a peak of

and a tax system, security and the economy declined. Regional kingships and a new social order developed, as

p r o s p e r i t i n t h e e a r l f o u r t h c e n t u r r is i n d i c a t e d a t m a n y

i n d i v i d u a l

villas - such as Llantwit Major (Vale of Glamorgan),

councils established their authority over areas, thereby

Maesderwen, Llanfrynach (Breconshire),Whitewall Brake (Castle Tump) near Caerwent and Ford Farm, Langstone

providing ameasure of stability and rule. Some survival of Roman institutional practice may be indicated by what si

(Monmouthshire) - in the form of elaborate mosaics and

recorded of Patrick's father, who used the title o f a Roman

(in the case of Llantwit Major and Maesderwen) bath suites. Other settlements were humbler ni character, displaying little evidence of Roman influence. The early fort

municipal magistrate (deacon), but administrative fragmentation resulted ni different regions looking after themselves, their populations becoming heirs to the estates

at Cardiff was rebuilt in the late third or fourth century to guard against the threat of external raids up the Bristol

of the former Roman Province. The Llandaf Charters record several kings of Brycheiniog (Brecheniauc) in the

Channel from Ireland, and remained garrisoned until the reign of Valentinian (364-78), while pre-existing forts at Loughor and Neath also played defensive roles. Caerwent's

mid-eighth century, who are associated with properties in the upper Usk area near Llan-gors, Llandeilo'r-fän and Llanfihangel Cwm Du. As with the other early medieval

e a r t h e n d e f e n c e s w e r e s t r e n g t h e n e d w i t h a s t o n e town-

kingdoms of mid-Wales, it is difficult to establish the

wall (probably in the late third century; see Manning, 2003: 177) and later polygonal towers to the south and north walls (c.349/50); the quantity of late military equip-

origins or extent of this small kingdom. The territory of Brycheiniog takes its name from Brychan, dynastic founder of the royal line, according to the later origin-

ment and coinage from the town suggests that an army

garrison may have been stationed there. With growing

m e m h e r e

o f

t h e

a l t o

r a t h e r

t h a n

R o m a n

Guorthigirniaun/Guorthegirnnaim is the son of Teudubir; Historia Brittonum: ch. 49; Morris, 1980: 33; Dumville 1985: 101). Later regions within the county named in pretwelfth-century sources include the cantrets Elfael and Maelienydd.

The great linear earthwork known as Offa's Dyke

u n b r o v e n

Up to the tenth century, the area from Gower to the Usk was k n o w n as Glywysing (later Morgannwg), taking

its name from Glywys, the eponymous founder of the

(Clawdd Offa), whose construction si attributed to the Mercian king Offa c.757-96, formed a western boundary between Mercia and the kingdoms of the Welsh. While there si a broad correlation between the Dyke and the

dynasty and the reputed grandfather of Cadog. In preRoman times ti formed part of the region inhabited by the Silures, and a key site within this kingdom was the multivallate fort at Dinas Powys. The excavation of this site between 1954 and 1958, heralded a period of optimism

there si no reason to expect the limits of English political

of a settlement rich in artefacts, ni Mediterranean and

and military control in the eighth to eleventh centuries to

Continental pottery (indicating a different source for the

border of Wales as defined by the historic eastern shires,

in early medieval archaeology in Wales. The recognition

have remained static, or not ot have extended beyond the limited supply of fine pottery long after Romano-British

Dyke. It would appear that the stretch from Rushock Hill to the Severn - where there are many gaps and intermit-

manufacturing centres had ceased production), and in evidence for metalworking and otherprocesses, suggested

tent short sections of earthwork that have been claimed as a continuation of the Dyke - corresponds to an area

that at last parallels for the rich early medieval settlements of Ireland were being found in Wales (Alcock, 1963).

occupied by sub-kingdoms subordinate to Mercia, which

The site has since been the subject of several important

retained their own identities to varyingdegrees. It includes

reassessments, and is now regarded as a high-status resi-

dence with similarities to sites ni Somerset, suchas the late fifth- to late sixth-century Cadbury Congresburv, within a western social and economic milieu (Rahtz et al., 1992).

legend (whose prime authority is the tract De Situ

Ergyng (Archenfield), the northern part of which seems to have become English-dominated from about 850/874 (Davies, 1990: 63-4). To the north along the Marches, ni the area of northern Herefordshire/southern Shropshire, was the sub-kingdom of the Magonsate, which probably became subordinate to Mercia during the seventh century. These sub-kingdoms probably acted as buffer zones against the Welsh, relations with whom haddeteriorated through the eighth century (Brooks, 1989: 168-9). The concept of Wales as a unit being cut off from the English Midlands in the later eighth century cannot be maintained, and the

Brecheniaus, copied .c 1200 from an earlier source). Claims

passage of both people and goods must have continued.

insecurity and economic decline, most of the villas in

have been made. on the basis of the area's earliest medieval

south-east Wales, such as Whitton (Jarrett and Wrathmell,

Latin- and ogam-inscribed stones, for a foundation in, or

Powys does not appear associated with a kingdom until the ninth century (Ann. Camb: s.a. 808), though the exis-

Another high-status s i t e with evidence o f fifth- to seventhc e n t u r y o c c u p a t i o n is t h e hill fort o f H e n G a s t e l l . B r i t o n

Ferry, near Swansea (Wilkinson, 1995). A small subrectangular building in the south-east corner of the stvlobate courtyard of a Roman building at Glan-y-môr, Cold Knap, close to the shore on the east side of Porthkerry Bay, has produced aradiocarbon date of 1060 +-/ 60 (CAR 385; Evans et al., 1985: 68). Animal bone from one of its courtyard rooms gave a radiocarbon date of cal AD 600860, suggesting early medieval activity of some sort in part of the ruined building.

PA RT I

Glywys appears to be particularly associated with west

Caerwent gave its name to Gwent, so Ergyng took its

Glamorgan, where his name occurs in the place-name

name from the Roman town of Ariconium (Weston-underPenyard) on the east bank of the Wye near Ross. This minor kingdom was probably under the overlordship of

Merthyr Glywys (Merthyr Maw), and as Gliguis on the

PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT A N D HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

Brycheiniog, felt threatened by the power of the sons

of Rhodri Mawr of Gwynedd. By the time Asser, a

native of Wales, was writing his life ofKing Alfred ni 893,

45

English court: Morgan, Owain and Cadwgan of Gwent/

Glywysing all witnessed English charters, in which they are called subreguli, again implying a degree of client kingship (Davies, 1982: 114)). The first recorded raid by Vikings on north Wales was

of Meurig ap Tewdrig continued to rule Glywysing, and

Offa at the beginning of his reign (as was the sub-kingdom

all the rulers of south Wales had submitted to the lordship (dominium) of the West Saxon king, in return for protection

the consolidation of kingship and territory reached its peak there under Ithel c.715-45; subsequently, kingship

of the Hwice, which covered Worcestershire, south-west Warwickshire and Gloucestershire) and owed fealty to

from their enemies. Llan-gors crannog can be identified with the place known to the Saxons as Brecenanmere, which

ni 852, and their impact was eventually to extend to south east Wales. In 893 a large Viking force, led by Hástein,

Ogmore stone, St Brides and Wick 1 (G117). The dynasty

was shared until the mid-tenth century, when Morgan

Mercia, which gave Mercia access to the Severn Estuary

was destroyed during a military expedition into the king-

ravaged Mercia along the Thames valley, until ti came to

ab Owain (Morgan Hen, 'Morgan the Old'), the epony-

(for charters, see Hooke, 1981: 48). The Llandaf Charters, fi r s t compiled in the twelfth century, provide an insight into land management of the area,

d o m b y a M e r c i a n a r m y in 9 1 6 . A c c o r d i n g t o m a n u s c r i p t

t h e b o r d e r so f t h e W e l s h B r i t a n n o r u m ) . T h e y t h e n m a r c h e d

C of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, t h e l fl a d , Lady of the Mercians, sent an army into Wales after the murder of

up the Severn valley, but that summer an English force combined with the Welsh to defeat them at Buttington, on

implying the existence o f large estates in t h e sixth and sev-

Abbot Ecgberht and his companions. The crannog remains unique in Wales and represents Irish influence - a lys con-

the banks ofthe Severn nearWelshpool. Though this was

mous founder of 'Glamorgan', rose to power (Davies,

1982: 102). The region of Gwynllwg, between the rivers Rhymni and Usk, took its name from Glywys's eldest son, Gwynilyw. Like Glywysing, the historic county of Monmouthshire

enth, and recording the donation of smaller unitsof land to the Church from the eighth century.

ni pre-Roman times formed part of the territory inhabited

by the Silures. The early medieval successor-kingdom was known as Gwent (Venta), derived from the Roman name for Caerwent, first referred to in the Life of Samson (Flobert, 1997). In this early seventh-century Life, Samson's maternal grandfather was described as an official of the king of

South-east Wales c.800-1100

The complex politics of south-east Wales during the suc-

490-520: Knight, 1996b: 51). The survival of Venta as a

ceeding period are reflected in the surviving documentary sources, which include the Annales Cambriae, the AngloSaxon Chronicle. the Lives of the Saints and the Book of

a south Welsh kingdom, Ventia or Venetia (possibly about

s t r u c t e d in e m u l a t i o n o f a n I r i s h s i t e - i f n o t t h e p r e s e n c e

of an Irish craftsman at aroyal court (Redknap and Lane, 1994). It may have contributed to an assertion o fdynastic legitimacy, involving the origin legend in De Situ Brecheniauc, which features the so-called children of Brychan. In the raid of 916 the Mercian army is reported to have destroyed Brecenanmere and captured the wife of Tewdwrap Elisedd

(son of Elisedd), ruler of Brycheiniog, and thirty-three other persons. Patrick Sims-Williams (1993) has suggest-

a notable allied success, the Vikings were not decisively defeated, for their G r e a t Army marched from East Anglia to Chester, from where they were forced in 894 to move

into Wales for supplies, perhaps devastating the kingdoms of Brycheiniog, Gwent and Gwynllwg during theexpedition. They then turned back from Wales 'with the booty they h a d seized there' (Anglo-Saxon Chronicle) and returned to East Anglia by way of Northumbria.

Following the death of the charismatic Alfred ni 899, his

name suggests continuing awareness of the role of the

Llandaf. Rule of the kingdom of Glywysing was shared by

ed that this twinned crannog and monasterium has the best

son Edward the Elder (899-924), his son-in-law t h e l r a d of Mercia and his daughtert h e l fl a d continued the cam-

R o m a n t o w n w h e n the early medieval state w a s being

brothers or cousins until the mid-tenth century, and the

claim

the

p a i o n t o c o n q u e rt h e D a n e l a w t e r r i t o r i e s . A n o t h e r i n s t a n c e

formed, and someform of political continuity. According to his twelfth-century Life, Caerwent appears to have

ascendancy of Morgan ab Owain (Morgan Hen). The ninthcentury king of Glywysing, Hywel ap Rhys, was active

of military cooperation against the Vikings between the

become the seat of the Irish peregrinus Tatheus, possibly in the late sixth or seventh century. By the ninth century it

throughout the south-east, and it is hard to draw neat territorial divisions between his kingdom and the territories

Llywarch Hen cycle of saga englynion. Breconshire includes the medieval lordship of Buellt, north of Mynydd Epynt, physically and traditionally part

was still known as Cair Guent, according to Nennius (Rivet

of Brochfael and Fernfael, kings of Gwent. Davies, the term Glywysing was used for south-east Wales and was in some sense while Gwent was used for the eastern area

and Smith, 1979: 493).

An earthworkon the cliffs above the lower Wye Valley may correspond to the boundary of the kingdoms of

Mercia and Gwent. The Book of Llandaf, mostly written in the twelfth century, includes copies of earlier charters

which provide a sequence for the main dynasty, thought to begin with Tewdrig c.555-625, who was buried at Mathern

According to the whole of pre-eminent, only (Davies,

1982: 103). At this time, control of the Gower peninsula may have been lost, and it is possible that it became part

of Ystrad Tywi (The Vale of Tywi'), the fertile region of the Tywi Valley in Carmarthenshire. (Merthyr Tewdrig), where his grave became the focus of a Lifris, in his Life of St Cadog, records that kings, leaders

cult (Davies, 1978: 18: Knight, 2004: 271). Some Gwent

and nobles of Gwynllyw's land (known as Gwvnilg) were

rulers, such as Gwrfoddw (a ruler of the Ergyng dynsty), Iddon (c.595-600) and Tewdrig (c.555-625), were ni con-

to be buried in Cadog's cemetery at Llancarfan (Vita Cadoci, 53; Wade-Evans, 1944: 25). Such claims were being

flict with the Saxons, but following the emergence of Meurig ap Tewdrig (active c.620-65) contact may not have

been 'entirely hostile' (Davies, 1982, 112-13). It has been argued that an area of south Herefordshire, east o fthe river Monnow and west of the river Wye, was known in the late sixth century as the small kingdom of

Ergyng (Ercicg), mentioned ni the Llandaf Charters, and containing dedications to Dyfrig (Dubricius); there is a possibility that the kingdom was the predecessor of Archenfield (Davies, 1982: 91, 93). As Venta Silurum/

made by many churches at this time (for the sake of burial fees and so on) and it is unclear to what extent real privileges were enjoyed in all such cases. Llantwit Major (St Illtud's Church) 1 (G63) confirms that royal rulers of Glywysing, such as Hywel ap Rhys were being buried at Llantwit Major in the ninth century. One of the few sites to provide a microcosm of life in early medieval Brycheiniog is Llan-gors crannog, on Llan-gors Lake near Brecon. It was constructed in the late 880s/early 890s, when Elisedd ap Tewdwr, ruler of

for

consideration

as

the

earliest

home

of

Welsh and West Saxons is illustrated by the events of 914.

A Viking fleet from Brittany, led by Earls Hrald (Harold)

of the ancient gwlad of Rhwng Gwy a Hafren ('Between Wye

and Ottar, ravaged the coast of south Wales and penetrat-

and Severn'), which was associated with Powys (Bowen, 1965: 197). The remainder of the Rhwng Gwy a Hafren was

ed the Wye Valley. They even captured Cyfeiliog, Bishop of Ergyng (Archenfield), and took him to their ships. According to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, it was Edward

grouped to form t h ecounty of Radnorshire. Two significant factors in the political development of

the Elder who paid xl. pundum (forty pounds (of silver)) in

Wales from the ninth century were, first, the changes ni the relationship with England, with the rise of Wessex and establishment of an English monarchy, and, secondly,

ransom forhim. Repulsed by the combined garrison forces of Hereford and Gloucester, the Vikings eventually fled to

the onset of Viking raiding, on top of internal pressures.

hunger. From Steep Holmthey eventually sailed to Dyfed

As with the kings of Glywysing/Gwent, the kings of Brycheiniog were present for a period at the courts of the

a n dI r e l a n d .

Anglo-Saxon kings as subreguli. In the ninth century, they, along with other southern Welsh kings, sought Alfred's protection from the oppression of the kingdom of Gwynedd. Thus Tewdwr ap Elisedd witnessed an English charter as subregulus ('sub-king'), implying a degree of client kingship (Davies, 1982: 114). The implication of the

south-east became known as Morgannwg/Gwlad Morgan ('Morgan's Land'). Control ofGower appears to havebeen lost to Ystrad Tywi, while intrusive dynasties appear, such

S t e e p H o l m in t h e B r i s t o l C h a n n e l , w h e r e m a n y d i e d o f

Under Morgan ab Owain (Morgan Hen, c.930-74), the

as the family of Nowy ap Gwriad, who claimed kingship

Mercian sphere of interest, and that this was a punitive expedition against an errant client kingdom. During the late ninth and tenth centuries contact was also maintained between Glywysing and England, and

of Gwent Iscoed, to be succeeded by his son Arthfael, and grandsons Rhodri and Gruffudd ap Elisedd. It was a group of N o w ' s familia who broke sanctuary at St Arvans and murdered the deacon Eli, in retribution for his murder of a rusticus (see under Gazetteer p. 581). Hywel ap Cadell (later known as Hywel Dda) united the south-west into the kingdom known as Deheubarth, and by his death (950)

for a period the kings of Glywysing were present at the

had taken control of Brycheiniog as well as Gwynedd.

attack on Llan-gors si that Brycheiniog lay within the

PART I

46

Viking raiding si recorded again during the second half the arrival of the Normans ni the 1070s, as William I of the eleventh century, linked to events leading up to the

pursued an aggressive policy in the western Marches. The

N o r m a n C o n q u e s t o f Wa l e s . F r o m t h el a t e t e n t h c e n t u r v,

formidable William fitz Osbern (d. 1071), foremost confidant of William the Conqueror (1066-87), was granted the

the Scandinavian presence grew ni the Severn Estuary, Bristol replacing Chester as the main focus for HibernoNorse

trading contact

with

Anglo-Saxon

England.

Following the plundering of Glamorgan by Count Eilaf (1018-24), a Dane in the service of King C u t , the clergy

5

earldom of Hereford and extensive lands in neighbouring shires. Castles were established by William and his Norman lords at key points such as Richard's Castle,

fled from Llancarfan with relics and the shrine of thesaint.

Wigmore, Clifford and Ewyas Harold ni Herefordshire, and at Monmouth and Chepstow. Even the king of

According to the Life of St Cadog, the Danes and English

Gwynedd, Gruffudd ap Cynan, led a raid of twenty-

GEOLOGICAL SOURCES A N D THE SELECTION O F STONE

attacked t h e m at M a m h e i l a d (Mammeliat) near Usk in

four ships up the Severn Estuary (c.1087), though Monmouthshire, one attacker succeeding ni cutting off a during their return, following their desecration of the 'gilded wing' (finial) of the shrine with his axe (Vita Cadoci: church of St Gwynllyw (now St Woolos' Cathedral, 40; Wade-Evans, 1944: 111-13). Newport), most of their fleet sank (Life of St Gwynllyw, The last of these intruder kings ni south-east Wales was compiled c. 1130).

Gruffudd ap Llywelyn, king of Gwynedd (1039-63), who succeeded in dominating most of Wales. Campaigning in the south-east in the mid-eleventh century, he effectively

There was an acceleration of Norman activity in Wales in the 1090s, with advances into Gwent from the base and gateway into Wales at Estriguil (Chepstow), passing across

e x t e n d e d his rule t o t h e e a s t e r n r e a c h e s o f t h e Bristol

t h e river U s k i n t o G w y n l l w g . a n d t h e n G l a m o r g a n .

Channel (the kingdoms of Morgannwg and Gwent).

motte and mint at Cardiff may have been set up by

Making use of rivalries in England during the reign of

William I at the time of his expedition to St David's in

The

Edward the Confessor and of the actions of Vikings, for a 1081,when he finally obtained the submission of Rhÿs ap short period, from 1055 until his death, Gruffudd eventu- Tewdwr (ruler of Deheubarth). In 1093, following the ally ruled thewhole of what si now known as Wales. The killing by the Normans of Rhys ap Tewdwr in Brycheiniog, river Wye, dividing Herefordshire into two, was the de facto boundary between England andWales. He sacked Hereford

William II granted lands in what was to become the

ni 1055 with the help of Leofric of Mercia's son, the out-

Lordship of Glamorgan to Robert fitz Hamo/Hamon (d. 1107), who established a primary castle at Newcastle,

lawed/banished Earl Alfgar, and eighteen Norse ships

Bridgend by 1106, by then t h ewestern extent of Norman

from Ireland, destroying the castle, one of the earliest ni

control. Shortly after 1100, Fitzhamon granted to the

crushing defeats at the hands of Harold Godwinson (later King Harold) and his brother Tostig. Harold's construction of a hunting lodge at Portskewett (Gwent Iscoed), on the

and his barons' lordships in Wales - tithes at Llancarfan, the villof Llandough (a former monastery), the churches of St Mary, Cardiff, Newcastle and Llantwit Major. The

England. Gruffudd was murdered in 1063 after a series of

newly founded abbey of Tewksbury the tithes of all his

Severn Estuary, in the 1060s suggests an attempt t o annexe

church of Llancarfan was granted to Gloucester Abbey

that part of south-east Gwent into the English kingdom,

(Cowley, 1971: 95). The area to hte west, including Gower,

though the building was promptly destroyed by Caradog ap Gruffudd (Anglo-Saxon Chronicle: s.a. 1065). In the late eleventh century, a combination of factors

was to be settled by the Normans under Robert of Gloucester (c.1113-47).

resulted in f r a g m e n t a t i o n rather

a n d interactions

than the consolidation

of the country into a single political unit. These include Gruffudd ap Llywelyn's success ni south-east Wales and

It is against such a backdrop of complex relationships b e t w e e n k i n o d o m s w i t h i n w h a t is n o w

Wales, and with their English neighbours, that the early stone monuments of Wales must be considered

BY JANA HORÁK DISTRIBUTION O F POTENTIAL S O U R C E - M AT E R I A L S

achieved only with the aid of a microscope thin-section; v i s u a l e x a m i n a t i o nc a n p r o v i d e o n l y a n a p p r o x i m a t i o n of the true composition.

The counties of Breconshire, Glamorgan, Monmouthshire

For

example. the ditterentiation

between matrix (fine-grained material deposited contem-

and Radnorshire, with the contiguous areas of Hereford

poraneously with mineral grains and lithic fragments) and

and Shropshire, are underlain by rocks of widely differing

cement (precipitated around grains and fragments at a later stage, binding them together) is not easily distinguished

ages, from Precambrian to Jurassic (Fig. 38). In contrast to north and west Wales, where igneous rocks are present,

w i t h t h e n a k e d eve. E x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e f a c t o r s c o n t r o l l i n g

the geology of this area is dominated by sedimentary

variations ni rock composition is not appropriate to this

successions, although the availability of suitable stone for

work, but it is important to appreciate that these can pro-

monumental purposes varies considerably throughout this

vide the detail by which a petrologist can differentiate

region. Whereas Radnorshire is relatively impoverished,

lithologies. Each petrological examination has been accom-

the remaining counties are well endowed with suitable

panied by an assessment of the local bedrock geology at the

source-material. Many of the sculpted and inscribed stones investigated in this volume are presumed to have been derived relatively locally to their find-sites. With the exception of stone from Triassic and Jurassic strata, iden-

find site. and the match between this and the stone under scrutiny. As mentioned above, in many instances the inscribed stones and sculptures are of the same lithology as the local bedrock, or the bedrock within a few kilometres

tification of the precise source, and therefore quantification of the extent of any transportation, is not easily achieved.

of the find-site. Although this may suggest strongly that the stones therefore have a local derivation, this point cannot

This lack of precision is the result both of t h e wide extent of some successions (in particular the sandstone-bearing Coal Measures and the Old Red Sandstone) and of the

be more strongly demonstrated without substantiation by more detailed or sophisticated petrological investigation Bearing these points in mind, the general conclusion

limited utility of simple visual methods in petrological data

reached in the course of this study si that although some

A s n o t e d by o t h e r p r o v e n a n c i n g r e s e a r c h e r s

rocks m a y have b e e n transported variable distances a c r o s s

(such as Hudson and Sutherland, 1990), unless particular-

the region from their source, only two samples (Llan-wern 1, MN4 and Coety(Ty-newydd) 1, G13) can be regarded

collection.

yl distinctive lithologies have been exploited, or there si documented evidence of quarrying, attributing a precise

as truly 'exotic' to the region.

source or making a precise lithologicalmatch is difficult. Each inscribed stone or sculpture has been examined Radnorshive

and a s u m m a r y description made. using standard termi-

nology, including grain-size, homogeneity of composition,

sorting (variation ni grain size), and approximations of

Radnorshire si poorly endowed with suitable stone, for

the composition and colour (both fresh and weathered, where possible). A precise petrological classification can be

much of its geology is dominated by mudstones of Silurian a n d O r d o v i c i a n age.

M u d s t o n e s in general d o n o t l e n d

PART I

themselves to being worked on a monumental scale, and these are no exception, being relatively soft and variably cleaved. Contained within the mudstones are sandstone horizons, some of which may occur in sufficiently thick

ground, providing a less readily accessible source of stone. Theoverlying Senni Beds and Brownstones Formation are sandstone-dominated and form the steep slopes of the Black Mountains and Brecon Beacons, continuing east-

beds and be of a suitable grain-size to yield reasonably

wards in Shropshire as the Brown Clee Hills (Plate 6d). The

sized blocksf o r monumental use. However, a lack of documented geological detail concerning many of these units (for no official geological survey maps exist for much of

Senni Beds are typically fine- to medium-grained sandstone, locally micaceous, gritty and pebbly, purple at the base of the sequence and green above. However, to the south of Pontypool all beds are purple or red-brown, and as such are indistinguishable from the Brownstones above. Although the Senni Beds have been used as a building stone, this lithology has not been identified in any of the early medieval stones studied. The Brownstones Formation reaches a thickness of almost 500m in Breconshire, and provides an important source of sandstone. It comprises red-brown, purplebrowna n d pinkish- brown calcareous andmicaceous sandstones, which range from fine- to coarse-grained, and includes gravelly and pebbly beds. The coarser beds often contain recycled fragments of mudstonea n d siltstone from lower beds in the sequence, and pebbles of quartz,

the c o u n t y ) h a m p e r s precise a t t r i b u t i o n to a particular

sequence of beds. Included within the Radnorshire succession are coarse-grained, thin beds of sandstone in the

Pysgotwr Formation (Llandovery); the Penstowed Grits Formation (Wenlock), with characteristic flute-marks; and conglomerates with pebbles and cobbles of calcareous mudstone (Ludlow Series). However, none of these has been categorically identified as a source lithology for any

Palaeogene

of the monuments.

Jurassic

Although minor in extent, two small areas of igneous rocks (one to the north of Builth Wells and the other just west of Kington) are also present within thisregion. The Builth rocks include altered dolerite, basalt and volcanic breccia, and dolerite from this area is considered tob e the source for one cross-shaft, Llanddewi'r Cwm (Erw-helm) 1 (B14), the only igneous record identified in the entire

P e r m i a n a n dT r i a s s i c Coal Measures &

Carboniferous Devonian Silurian Ordovician

CARDIGAN BAY

collection examined.

Cambrian

Precambrian

Breconshire

Igneous

4 9

GEOLOGICAL SOURCES

quartzite and (lesscommonly) jasper. The colour of the fresh sandstone surfaces may change considerably on weathering; for example, pinkish sandstone typically becomes pinkish-grey, and the red may change to a pink-

buff colour (for example, Defynnog 1, B4). Of the 166 monuments inspected, 42 had an ORS source, and the majority of these were attributed more specifically to the Brownstones. Not surprisingly, because oft h eabundance

D LAN ENG ES WAL

The geology of thenorth-west of the county is continuous with that of Radnorshire, being formed dominantly of

of this lithology and its large outcrop area, the Old Red Sandstone group encompasses stone worked from the

Ordovician rockso fAshgill, Llandovery andCaradoc age described above. Limitations analogous tothat experienced witht h e Radnorshirelithologies thereforeexist in defining the precise source-rocks. The coarse sandstone horizon

fifth-sixth century until the twelfth century.

is considered to be the source for Llanafan Fawr 1-4 (B6 9). This correlation is. however, made on the basis of

Glamorgan has an abundant supply of exploitable stone. Although minor outcrops of Old Red Sandstone are present

a logical comparison (or reasonable best match) to local

ni the southeast of the county and on the Gower peninsu-

from the Yr All Formation (Ashgill) near Llanafan Fawr

Silurian-Devonian boundary. The Raglan Marl, as its name suggests, is marl-dominated, whereas the overlying

la, ti is the Carboniferous rocks covering much of the coun tv that dominate. The Carboniferous succession hasthree main divisions: at the base of the sequence are Dinantian rocks, dominated by Carboniferous Limestone, followed by Namurian Millstone Grit and an upper sequence of Westphalian Coal Measures. These are folded intoa n eastwest elongated basin structure (Fig. 38), the limestone and Millstone Grit exposed around the rim of the basin containing a massive expanse of Coal Measure deposits. All

Formation) contains a maximum of5 0 per cent sandstone; consequently, these two formations tend to form low

To the south of theCarboniferous rocks, in the Vale of Glamorgan,lies a younger sequence of Triassic andLower

strata, and not by selection from a detailed inventory of 3'10"15 02 25km'

BRISTOL CHANNEL Fig. 38. Outlinegeologicalmap of Wales, redrafted with permission, from BGS 125,000 sheet.

Glamorgan and Monmouthshire

Palaeozoic lithologies. The remaining part of Breconshire is covered by the extensivesediments of the Old Red Sandstone succession (commonly referred to as ORS). Although dominantly Devonian in age, the lowest unit (Raglan Marl Formation,

locally known as the Gwynfe Formation) straddles the St Maughan's Formation (locally known as the Llandeussant

three units have potentially exploitablelithologies.

5 0 Jurassic sediments. Minor Triassic sediments are also present in coastal Monmouthshire, to the north-east of the Caldicot Levels.

Carboniferous Strata

PART I gy occur at the valley heads, the Pennant Measures formhave cut down. O f the 650m o f U p p e r Coal Measures

sequence, Rhonda quartzose dominant

most is sandstone. In the lower Llyfni and Beds both feldspathic Pennant Sandstone and sandstones occur, with the latter being more on the eastern side of the coalfield. In the upper

units of the Brithdir, Hughes and Grovesend Beds,

exceeding 2,700km' . The Lower Carboniferous is dominated by Carboniferous Limestone, a lithology of variable

Pennant Sandstone alone occurs acrossthe whole region. Although both the Upper Coal Measures Pennant and quartzose sandstones are commonly exploited lithologies for early medieval monuments, sources of sandstone are

monly recrystallized, locally replaced by dolomite o r(par-

ticularly in the Cardiff area) reddened by iron, derived

also present ni the Lower and Middle Coal Measures. The

from the overlying Triassic deposits. Just three examples of

sandstone units in this part of the succession are often dis-

limestone usage are recorded ni the present survey (Flat Holm, G11; Llanrhidian 1, G59 and Margam 3, G80),

continuous, but are capable of reaching adequate thickness to be a useful source for working. In particular, the Lower

r e p r e s e n t i n g locations a t t h e east, w e s t a n d s o u t h e x t r e m -

Coal

ities of theCarboniferous Limestone outcrop on the southern margin of the coalfield.

Farewell Rock, 'Cockshot' and Cefn Cribwr Rock. The first two often occur as a whitish quartzose 'grit' (coarse

Measures

contain

signiticant

horizons.

such

as

The Millstone Grit, the informal name for rocks of sandstone), whereas the latter is a pale grey quartzose Namurian age, is dominated by orthoquartzites (quartzose sandstone. It is possible that some of the non-Pennant sandstone) generally pale in colour (for example, the basal grit is white to yellow), composed of clean, mature quartz

Source rocks south of the coalfield

Quarella Stone a n d associated lower h o r i z o n s have a

ing a vast upland plateau into which the coalfield valleys

T h e C a r b o n i f e r o u s s t r a t a o f s o u t h Wa l e s cover an a r e a

texture and thickness of bedding. This lithology si com-

51

GEOLOGICAL SOURCES

Westphalian sandstone described in this work may have a Lower Coal Measures source.

restricted outcrop, stretching from Pyle, west of Bridgend,

The coastal belt of the Vale of Glamorgan and its eastward extension into Monmouthshire are dominated by postCarboniferous rocks of Triassic and Lower Jurassic age.

to Llantrithyd to the east, with the thickness of the Quarella decreasing significantly from a maximum of 1 miles (17.7km) ni the west to around 1 mile (1.6km) ni

The typical Norian (Upper Triassic) red mudstones of the Mercia mudstone group are soft, and lack the coherence

the e a s t . The frequent use of Rhaetic sandstone, and more specifically Quarella Stone, for early medieval sculptures

and durability for monumental usage. Locally these deposits are interdigitated with coarser clastic units. Most notable

and monuments is disproportionate to its geographical distribution, it being the fourth most abundantly used

are the red conglomerates of the Llandaf a n d Radyr area,

stone ( w h e n all Coal Measures sandstones are considered

north of Cardiff. These are limited in extent having formed was exploited as a building stone during the nineteenth

as one group). Twenty-two stones are worked from Rhaetic sandstone, with only four of these (G65, G89, G92, G100) being earlier than the ninth century. Lower Lias rocks, also termed hte Blue Lias, are dis-

c e n t u r y, but

t r i b u t e d w i d e l y a c r o s s t h e Va l e o f G l a m o r g a n .

as local canyon deposits, eroding and preserved within the

Carboniferous landscape. Radyr Stone is such a deposit; it n o early

medieval

m o n u m e n t s using this

T h e y are

stone have been identified. This may reasonably be attributed to the coarseness of the stone and the difficulty in inscribing or carving it. Triassic rocks are also present in Monmouthshire, to the east of the Caldicot Levels. These rocks are referred to as Sudbrook Stone (although the name has no formal stratigraphic basis, and occur as a sandstone lens within the Norian marls (Upper Triassic.

composed of bluish-grey, planar and nodular bedded clayey limestone, interbedded with dark grey mudstone. The Porthkerry Formation, exposed along the coast from Porthkerry and Dunraven Bay, contains both the highest

formerly known as 'Keuper'). The sandstone si yellow, has

Cardiff Castle; Brean Down, Somerset: Blagg, 1990), Lias

content

o f limestone and

the

thickest

beds.

some of

which are locally silicified, rendering them more durable. Although used in Roman construction (for example

g r a i n s i n d i c a t i v e o f a r e w o r k e ds o u r c e . T h e o r t h o a u a r t z i t e s

The Coal Measures sandstone si the most frequently

are typically medium- to coarse-grained and cross-bedded. Quartz-pebble- dominated conglomerate is also a common lithology. Both the orthoguartzites and quartz conglomerates are particularly durable, being dominated by quartz

exploited lithology in the production of early medieval monuments in the counties under consideration, having been used in fifty-seven instances (twenty-eight of Pennant Sandstone, twenty-nine of Coal Measures sandstone) over

ST 499 882), underlying much of the flat ground around

sets of intersecting joints, which dissect the stone into

g r a i n s a n d w i t h a q u a r t z c e m e n t , w h i c h c a n r e s u l t in a

a time-span from the sixth to the eleventh-twelfth cen-

Caerwent and out into the Severn Estuary as far as the west

blocks of asize suitable foruse as quoins, but small for use

composition of up ot 99 per cent SiO,. The sequence si

turies. Of these, Pennant Sandstone si more commonly

but has little other natural exposure (see Fig. 38). Only one monument has been categorically identified as being

the creation of cross-carved stones and crosses, but the quartzose sandstones surpass Pennant Sandstone in the

side of the English Stones, although inland exposures are poor. Although limited ni distribution, Sudbrook Stone si

as slabs; and the presence locally of two other exploitable lithologies (Rhaetic sandstone and Sutton Stone), more suitable for intricate working

sourced from the Millstone Grit (Llanddeti (Ystrad) 1, B11), and this is located on a Millstone Grit bedrock.

fabrication of the ogam- or Latin- inscribed stones. This frequency o f use can be attributed to the wide distribution

of high quality and was extensively exploited by the Romans. Only one example of its usage in early medieval sculpture is recorded, from Caerwent (MIN2). This lies

Glamorgan is Sutton Stone, a distinctive, massive to thin-

The Upper Carboniferous ni south Walescovers an area of over 2,000 km? and, although coal-bearing, it also con-

ofthese lithologies, but this abundance also precludes the attribution of detailed provenances. In the catalogue,

within the walls of the Roman town, and si therefore

ly bedded, white to cream limestone. This contains fossil

tains a vast thickness of sandstone horizons. The Upper Coal Measures (otherwise known as the Pennant Measures)

where a sculpture or inscribed stone has been identified as being worked from Coal Measures sandstone or, more

ni particular are dominated by Pennant Sandstone (Plates 5, 6a), although quartzose sandstone (or orthoquartzite) si

specifically, Pennant Sandstone, the nearest reasonable source of the lithology has been indicated, but this cannot

also present. Pennant Sandstone is typically micaceous, t i n e - t o m e d i u m - g r a i n e d a n d b l u e - g r e e n in c o l o u r w h e n

be taken as proof of the source. Differences in the composition of Pennant Sandstone that might aid more

fresh, rapidly weathering to a characteristic rusty-brown

specific provenancing can be obtained only from detailed

colour, which reflects the iron oxide content of the rock.

petrography. For instance, Heard (1922) identified varia-

at the base, to a grey/yellow /buff, medium-grained, planar and low-angle bedded sandstone above. The upper sec-

material. Conglomeratic horizons are also present towards the top of the Sutton Stone sequence, and stylites (highly serrated surfaces along which the limestone has been dissolved are characteristic throughout the rock.

T h e g u a r t z c o n t e n t is m u c h l o w e r t h a n t h a t o f t h e a n a r t .

t i o n s in P e n n a n t S a n d s t o n e t o t h e p a s t a n d w e s t o f t h e T a f f

t i o n is c o m p o s e d o f g r e e n i s h - v e l l o w a n d b u f f m a s s i v e

A l t h o u g h l i m i t e d in d i s t r i b u t i o n . S u t t o n S t o n e f o r m s a

zose sandstone, which is less inclined to this brown colouration. Pennant is present either as massive beds or

valley on the basis of the heavy mineralcontent of the rock but this was with the use of destructive techniques that are

sandstone. a horizon that was prized during nineteenth-

as more thinly bedded slabs, and commonly displays crossbedding. The derivation of the term Pennant is not clear,

clearly not appropriate ni an archaeopetrological study such as this.

weathers to a clean-looking quartzite, where individual rounded grains of 'twinkling' quartz are discernible.

low cliff in the area around Ogmore-by-Sea (NGR: SS 872 741). Of the monuments studied, twenty-five are of Sutton Stone, and with one exception (Ewenny 4, G21),

well-exposed in the upland areas and suitable for extraction,

but may be Welsh in origin; the exposures of this litholo-

used than the Coal Measures quartzose sandstones in

a calcareous matrix, and is medium- to fine-grained, although locally pebbly. The rocks have a limited distribution that borders the Severn Estuary from Rogiet (NGR: ST 464 878) to the coast east of Portskewett (NGR:

a s s u m e d t o

h a v e b e e n

t a s h i o n e d

t r o m r e w o r k e d

R o m a n

m a s o n r v .

The Rhaetic Penarth Group marginal facies, representing the uppermost part of the Triassic sequence ni southeast Wales, contains two main sandstone horizons, with Quarella Stone forming part of the upper unit (Plate 6b, c). It is variable in composition, ranging from abrown to buff,

fine- to coarse-grained, thinly bedded quartose sandstone

century quarrying. The least green (clay-poor) stone often

limestone has not been noted as a lithology worked to pro. d u c e e a r l y m e d i e v a l m o n u m e n t s in t h i ss t u d . P o s s i b l e rea-

sons for this might be the lack ofLias exposures in upland areas, thus limiting itsuse; the occurrence of well-defined

The remaining lithology exploited from the Vale of

fragments (bivalves, crinoids, coral and brachiopods, some derived from the C a r b o n i f e r o u s L i m e s t o n e below) and

clasts of chert and Carboniferous Limestone in a ground mass of crystalline calcite. The limestone often has an open, almost fibrous, texture, reminiscent of tufa, making t h e s t o n e light but s u f fi c i e n t l y s t r o n g t o b e a c o n s t r u c t i o n a l

t h e s e w e r e w o r k e d d u r i n g t h e t e n t h c e n t u r y o r later.

PART I

52

Shropshi re

153

GEOLOGICAL SOURCES Transportation

selection of a particular stone type may not have remained

t r a n s p o r t a t i o n o f t h i s s t o n e e x i s t s . I t is. h o w e v e r . r e a s o n -

c o n s t a n t .

a b l e t o a s s u m e that a f t e r e x t r a c t i o n t h e b l o c k s w e r e t r a n s

Although Shropshire constitutesa geographically contiguo u s a r e a . t h e g e o l o g y o f t h i s r e g i o n is n o t e n t i r e l y c o n t i n u o u s

with the adjacent Welsh counties. It is endowed with a variety of building stone with a documented use by the

Extraction

Romans. In particular, a narrow outcrop of Hoare Edge

In contrast to parts of England, there si very little recorded

Grit (Upper Ordovician) was used in construction work at

evidence for the use of stone in early medieval (that is, pre. Norman) Wales, apart from that provided by the inscribed stones and stone sculpture themselves. Settlements in this period appear to have been reliant largely on local lithologies for everyday commodities, such as rotary quernstones, and for the construction of dry-stonewalling (see Llanbedrgoch, Anglesey; Redknap, 2000: 76-9). Whether the sites of

W r o x e t e r ( Vi r o c o n i u m ) , a R o m a n l e g i o n a r v f o r t r e s s a n d

tribal capital. The much younger red and buff sandstones from Grinshill and Nesscliffe were also deployed for this purpose. Of the two monuments listed from Shropshire,

the lithology of SI is coarse-grained, buff coloured carboniferous sandstone, and Wroxeter (S2) is of pale Grinshill sandstone. A further yellow sandstone monu-

ment from Radnorshire (New Radnor 1, Dubia 10) si believed to originate f r o m t h e U p p e r Silurian, D o w n t o n

Castle sandstone from Shropshire.

Of the stones described within this corpus only two

the region has been deployed. The wheel-cross fragment at Llan-wern (MIN4) was worked from a cream oolitic limestone, and the late eleventh-twelfth-century lamp from

Llan-gwm Uchaf (Dubia 9) from a similar 'pale cream oolitic limestone of non-local origin'. Such limestones are t y n i c a l v t o u n d t h r o u s h o u t t h e h a s s i c r o c k s o f s o u t h e r n

Britain, but are n o t present in south Wales. Although the

p a r t i c u l a r l i t h o l o g y m a y h a v e b e e n t r a n s p o r t e d f r o m its

to reach

source in early medieval times. This stems predominantly

Llancarfan.

from the extensive outcrop area of some lithologies, and the great thickness of some sequences, in particular the sandstone from the Coal Measures and the Old Red S a n d s t o n e

s u c c e s s i o n s .

H o w e v e r .

t h e

m o r e

Llandough,

and

h a v e b e e n

s i g n i fi c a n t l y m o r e

r e q u i r e d

to reach

Properties of the lithologies

restricted

There is little indication of extensive quarrying in postRoman and pre-Norman England (Parsons, 1990b), and there is little reason to consider that the situation was

portation to be established, particularly as there appears to

significantly different ni Wales. However, none of the

missed, destroyed by later quarrying or hidden by later land modification remains to be established. An indication of the usage of local stone at earlier periods is provided by the

be negligible evidence of the Roman working and transportation of Quarella and Sutton Stone, and limited use of the Rhaetic sandstone. Sudbrook Stone has been used for just one decorated stone (Caerwent 1, MIN2). However,

lithologies described in this study would have been particularly difficult to quarry. Bedded lithologies dominate extant monuments thought to pre-date the tenth century. The more frequent selection of Rhaetic sandstone/

construction materials used in R o m a n sites t h r o u g h the

this lithology w a s extracted

f r o m c o a s t a l o u t c r o p s at

Quarella and Sutton Stone for stones dating from the late

Sudbrook Point (Zienkiewicz, 1986), from where routes by sea and river make for ease of transport over the short distance to Caerwent, and slightly further to Caerleon. Where the earliest inscribed slabs formed markerstones in upland areas, there is little reason to assume that they had been transported for any significant distance (for example, Gelli-gaer (Cefn Gelli-gaer) 1, G27). Such stones, their surfaces bounded by bedding planes, joint or fault sur-

tenth a n d eleventh centuries onwards m i g h t imply a r

stone extraction during this period ni Wales have been

S t o n e w a s u s e d at b o t h C a e r w e n t

and

Caerleon, where columns and blocks of stone up to half a

i n s t a n c e s h a v e b e e n i d e n t i fi e d w h e r e a l i t h o l o g y e x o t i c t o

a l t h o u g h s o m e o v e r l a n d t r a v e w o u l d

occurrence of the Triassic and Jurassic lithologies (Rhaetic sandstone, Quarella, Sutton and Sudbrook Stone) does enable in some cases an analysis of the extent of trans-

area. Sudbrook

Other Sources

ported initially by sea, and then by river to Llandaf,

As mentioned above, considerable difficulties are associated with attempting to establish the extent to which a

tonne ni weight have been preserved (Brewer, 1986; Zienkiewicz, 1986). Old Red Sandstone, as well as lime-

stone, was used extensively for walling, and unprovenanced Carboniferous or Devonian sandstone was used for flagstones. Liassic limestone was deployed both as a facing material and as paving. At the late Roman fort at Cardiff, Liassic limestone also provided the main fabric for the construction of the defensive wall. Carboniferous limestone was used in the construction of a villa a t LIantwit Major. (It is of note that there is no significant record of Roman work-

faces, may have received little modification of their natural form. In upland Glamorgan and across southern Breconshire abundant sources of Coal Measures (in particular Pennant Measures) sandstone and Old Red

expansion in the use, and so presumably the extraction, of these lithologies during this period. It would be simplistic to attribute this change solely to the acquisition of greater quarrying skills, as factors such as the development of e c c l e s i a s t i c a l c e n t r e s w i t h t h e r e s o u r c e st

o c o m m i s s i o n DiE

lar crosses, the ability to transport the required stone or the

raw material, and issues of patronage, organization and land ownership may have played a part. Both the intended form of the finished monument, as d i s c u s s e d a b o v e . a n d t h e i n t r i c a c y o f its d e c o r a t i o n prob.

ably influenced the selectionof the stone used. Whereas

ing of Quarella Stone, and none of Sutton Stone.) In addi-

Sandstone (Brownstones) were available, obviating the

the simple ornamentation of slabs required little modifi-

mined, they represent the importation of stone into south

tion to these local stones, others were imported from Bath,

Wales. The Middle Jurassic oolitic limestones, of which

Cheshire and Dorset. The variety of stone used indicates both an awareness of the properties of different rock types,

need for significant transportation. The later development of free-standing crosses with a composite pillar structure

cation to the natural form, the more complex and intricate composite pillar and wheel-headed crosses required a

precise provenance of these lithologies has not been deter-

and the ability to extract and transport them to supplement local stone, when this proved insufficient for the task in hand. Roman construction material thus provided a potential local source o f stone for reuse during the early medieval

necessitated the sourcing of a stone suitable for working ni three dimensions, such as Sutton Stone. Of the eight composite pillar crosses documented ni this corpus, four are

freestone capable of being easily carved, while at the same time having adequate durability. The material used for the majority of the early inscribed and cross-marked

carved from Sutton Stone and the remainder of relatively massive Rhaetic or Coal Measures sandstone with weak-

period (for example, Caerwent 1, MIN2, and the utilization

yl developed bedding, approximating to a freestone.

Arange offactorsis likely to have influenced the selection

(Eaton, 2000; Knight, 2004: 282).

Although present as thin and impersistent deposits (that is, unconnected lenses of rock) around the Vale of Glamorgan, Sutton Stone occurs in any significant thickness only in the

stones is derived from strata showing well-defined bed. ding lamination (for example, Carboniferous sandstone or sandstone from the Old Red Sandstone sequences) which yield slabs of varying thickness on extraction. Such stone, in general, does not lend itself to the construction of three-dimensional forms, which require astone lacking

o r

Although there may have been residual Roman quarrying skills present in the very earliest medieval population,

coastal area at Sutton, south-west of Bridgend, and con-

pronounced bedding or layering. Such 'freestone' lacks

sequently is considered to have been extracted only from

well-defined layering that would impart a preferred orien-

source material; the ease of extraction; t h e degree and

the simple nature o f the many early m o n u m e n t s does not

t h i s a r e a . T h e l i t h o l o g y h a s b e e n i d e n t i fi e d in s t o n e s a t

tation a n d strength to the stone. a n d can therefore b e

method of transportation required to the site of erection;

reflect this. With the much later development of the pillar cross, specific lithologies were required, necessitating

Llandaf (G36 and the grave-markers G37, G38), Llandough (G42) and Llancarfan (G35). These locations

worked equally well ni three dimensions. Three freestones are recorded from the regions under consideration inthis

extraction from specific sources rather than the oppor-

lie 28, 28 and 20km (17½ and 12 m i l e s ) from the source, respectively. No documented evidence of the means of

volume, allderived from the youngest rocks in the region. Sudbrook Stone and Rhaetic sandstones/Quarella Stone

B a t h S t o n e is t h e m o s t f a m o u s , r e p r e s e n t t h e n e a r e s t s o u r c e

of similar lithologies to the sites of these objects.

FACTORS INFLUENCING THE SELECTION AND WORKING O F STONE

t h e

s t o n e

d e s c r i b e d here.

u s e d

in

t h e

parly

m e d i e v a l

m o n u m e n t s

S u c h factors include: the location of the

the characteristics of the stone (freestone or otherwise), weighed against the form of the monument; and the ease

with which ti could be inscribed and carved. Throughout the early medieval period, the key factor driving the

of Roman columns in the Romanesque arch between the western church and the nave at St Gwynllyw's, Newport

tunistic selection of easily extracted slabs and blocks.

54 |

PART I

Table 5.2. Lithologies used in the creation of cross-carved stones from the Llan-gorsgroup.

Table 5. .1 Lithologies used in the creation of cross-carved stones from theBrecon ring-cross group. Lithology

A p p r o x i m a t e a g e

B 2 0

Old Red Sandstone

7th-9th century

B 36

O l d R e d Sandstone

B 34 B4 BS

Silurian s a n d s t o n e

Sth-9th century 6th-7th century

Old Red Sandstone

5th-6th century

O

R e d Sandstone

Ordovician sandstone

B9

O r d o v i c i a ns a n d s t o n e

B 15 B27

P e n n a n t Sandstone O l d Red Sandstone

55

GEOLOGICAL SOURCES

9 t h - O t h century

9th-10th century 9th-10th century 9th-10th century 9th-10th century

No. B36 B10

Lithology

A p p r o x i m a t e a g e

Old Red Sandstone

8th-9th centurv

Old Red Sandstone Old Red Sandstone

B16

Old Red Old Red Old Red Old Red Old R e d

B22 B26 B29 B 5 2

B33 B31

Sandstone Sandstone Sandstone Sandstone Sandstone

O l d R e d Sandstone

10th c e n t u r y

10th-11thcentury

l U t h - I t h century

10th-11th century 9th_12th c e n t r v

Table 5 . 3 . Lithologies used in the production o fd i s c - h e a d e d crosses from M a rg a m , Llantwit Major, L l a n - g a n a n d Western g r o u p s

are massive sandstones from the Triassic succession, and

influence the durability of a rock relate to compositional

Sutton Stone (limestone) is from the Jurassic. Sudbrook Stone is also a valuable freestone, a fact that did not go

variations between beds, particularly where the rock si

unnoticed by the Romans. Other lithologies, such as some Carboniferous sandstones, have been used like a freestone,

finely bedded (or laminated). For example, horizons with a high clay content may be susceptible to expansion and contractionwhen exposed to conditions of high humidity

which is possible where the rock si well-cemented and the

and dehydration, which may result in spalling, delamina-

bedding particularly massive.

tion and eventual splittingof the stone.

With one exception (Llanddewi'r Cwm, B14), all stones described from this region are composed of either sandstone or limestone. These rock types are relatively easily worked, compared with much harder lithologies, such as granite. The hardness of stone is controlled by its composition (grains and binding cement), and in general sandstone is harder than limestone, unless the former is cemented by softer carbonate, as opposed to quartz

cement. Most rocks, but particularly limestone and sands t o n e , u n d e r g o a p r o c e s s o f c a s e - h a r d e n i n g . or s e a s o n i n g .

No.

Lithology

TRADITIONS

Brecon ring-cross group The eight members of the Brecon cross-inscribed group (Table 1) are all composed of sandstones ranging from

once exposed to the atmosphere by quarrying. This process may take up to several years to complete, and is explained by the slow evaporation of the small amount of water contained within the pore spaces between grains (referred

Ordovician (B9) t o Carboniferous in age.The five Old Red Sandstone (ORS) examples show some variation in the way they have been worked with respectt o bedding. Finegrained samples generally show well-formed planar bed-

to as 'quarry sap' or 'quarry water'). w h i c h precipitates

ding (for example, Llanfeugan (Ty-newydd) 1, B20) which

a g e

M a r g a m g r o u p

G78 G79 G83 G96 G53

P e n n a n t Sandstone

Late Yth century

Pennant Sandstone

9 t h - O t hc e n t u r y

Pennant Sandstone

10th-11th century

P e n n a n t Sandstone

I t h century

Coal Measures sandstone

11th-12th century

P e n n a n t Sandstone

Mid-late 9th century

Coal Measures sandstone

lUth century

Llantwit Major group

SIMILARITIES AND VARIATIONS WITHIN THE WORKSHOP

A p p r o x i m a t e

G63 G66 Llan-gan

P e n n a n t Sandstone

9th-10th century

Western group G52

Pennant Sandstone

9 t hc e n t u r y

G51

Coal Measures sandstone?

9th-10th century

G I O

P e n n a n t Sandstone

O t h century

r a s

in which these sandstones were used in the production of

carved stones; ni fine- and medium-grained samples the bedding is generally planar, forming a suitable natural sur-

face to carve; with coarser-grained lithologies, however, the irregularity of the grain onthe bedding plane becomes an obstruction, and the advantage of using the bedding plane

which may have influenced their selection. Both stones are relatively massive, and both appear to have been relatively durable and, as such, suitable for forming into blocky

pillar shapes. It is likely that the sandstone of the Maesmynys stone (B39), would have been easier to work than the dolerite of the Llanddewi'r Cwm cross (B14).

the mineral content held within it (Schaffer, 1932). The process of precipitation is considered to provide a small but significant amount of additional cementation to the

has been oriented so that the main smooth flat surface is the one on which the cross is carved. In contrast, more coarse-grained stones show bedding oriented normally or

rock, thus forming a hardened crust on the outer surface of the stone. Working the stone soon after extraction there-

Builth group

fore makes for both ease of manipulation and enhance-

obliquely to the carved face (for example, Defynnog (St Cynog's Church) 1, B4, Llangamarch (St Cadmarch's

Church) 1, B27). The two stones worked from Ordovician

ment of durability, as the inscribed or carved surface then

sandstones (Llanafan Faw, B6, B9) range from medium-

The Builth group consists of just two stones, composed of

becomes coated by this crust. Although the properties of

to very coarse-grained, and have a relatively massive struc-

individual rock types vary, ni general stone can be worked

ture; this suggests that exploiting bedding planes was not

with greater ease while still unseasoned and hence slight-

of significance in the working o f these two examoles.

yl softer. Sutton Stone has particularly good qualities for

Similarly, the medium-grained Pennant Sandstone used

two different lithologies. Llanddewi'r Cwm (Erw-helm) 1 (B14), the lower part of the shaft of a pillar cross, consti- ding parallel tot h e cross-carved face. Theconsistent use of tutes the only igneous rock described within this corpus, this lithology is attributed to the location of their find-sites and is locally derived. This contrasts with Maesmynys within the ORS outcrop (see Fig. 38), which provided a (Neuadd Siarman) 1 (B39), a rectangular pillar-form supply of suitable local stone. Although a precise source worked from fine-grained sandstone of an unknown prove- for each of the Old Red Sandstone ring-crosses cannot be nance. although it is thought to be derived from local cited, the lithologies recorded match those found within a few kilometres of each find-site. An exception to this is Silurian strata. Even though these two stones have con-

both carving a n ddurability, and demonstrates hardening

for the cross-carved stone from Llanddulas (Tir Abad) 1

particularly well; being fairly soft when first extracted ren-

(B15) has been worked so that the weakly defined bedding

ders it relatively easy to work and carve. Such properties a s s u m e a g r e a t e r s i g n i fi c a n c e w h e n m o r e o r n a t e c a r v i n g

and shaping of the stone is involved. Otherfeatures which

lies parallel to the worked face.

The stones of the Brecon ring-cross group show clearly that both grain size and bedding have influenced the way

as a flat working surface is lost. Llan-gors group

All the stones in this group have been worked from fine-

trasting mineralogies, they do show some similarities,

to m e d i u m - g r a i n e d Old Red S a n d s t o n e a n d , with o n e exception (Llanddeti 1. B10), have been oriented with bed-

Llangamarch (St Cadmarch's Church) 1 (B27), which lies

56

PART I

Triassic

*Milstone Grti

CoalMeasures

Rhaecil Sandstone Silurian Sandstone Triassic Sandstone

Limestone

Rhaetic Sandstone

Sandstone

Coal Measures

5 7

Rhaefic Sandstone

Carboniferous

罟姿

Sandstone

GEOLOGICAL SOURCES

Carboniferous Sandstone

Silurian (?)Sandstone Sandstone

SutonStone

Pennant Sandstone

Sandstone

器 Carboniferous

Rheecit Sandstone OrdoricanSilvian s udrock S CoalMeasures onte Sandstone

Jurassic Limestone

adoricianmelade ile. sudorok Sutnet

%1 suotn S otne 31%

Sandstone

SutonStone

Fig. 39. Lithologiesusedi n the production ofearlymedieval carved stones, grouped b y maingroups la. Latin/ogam-inscribedstones. b. cross-

Ordovician Sandstone

carved s t o n e s a n dc . crosses).

approximately 30 km (18¾ miles) to the north of Llangors int h e Irfon valley, on a bedrock of Silurian strata. The nearest ORS sediments lie some 20km (12½ miles) to the south of this find-site.

(G51) differs slightly from the other stones, in being a white, coarse-grained, quartzitic sandstone that has been tentatively correlated with stratafromt h e Lower Coal Measures.

The Margam group stones (Table )3 showbeddingwhich

These eleven disc-headed crossesm a y be divided intofour sub-divisions, namely the Margam, Llan-gan, LIantwit

Major and Western groups. A common feature of all

Conbelin Cross, G79) shows use of a coarser variety of

these crosses is that they are worked from Carboniferous

sandstone; of those, eight can be identified as Pennant Sandstone,where there is a clear presence of lithic clasts. coal debris or a typical rusty-brown weathering crust. Othersare worked from Coal Measuressandstone, where

Coal Measures Sandstone

RhaeticSandstone

the lithology is more quartz-rich, and the brown weather-

ing crust si absent. Llangyfelach (St Cyfelach's Church) 3

iseither not prominent (Pennant Sandstone, although not a freestone, can have a massive structure where it is thickyl bedded), or si planar in form, and oriented parallel tothe cross-head. It is of particular interest that Margam 2 (the

Glamorgandisc-headedgroup

Coal Measures

Pennant Sandstone for the base than has been used for the disc-head. Thesingle sample fromLlan-gan (G43) has no features which distinguish it from the stones in the other discheaded-cross groups. It displays bedding oriented parallel

Fig. 40. Lithologies used in theproduction of early medieval carved stones yb approximate date (a. Sth-7th century( n = 26); b. 7th-9th century

(n = 32):c. 9th-10th century (n - 18):d. 10th-12th century( n =83)). Note that in 'a' all Carboniferous sandstones have been crouped together:

Coal Measures sandstone (7), Pennant Sandstone (2), Namurian sandstone (Millstone Grit) (1).

to the carvedface, and can be equated to lithologies within the Coal Measures succession a few kilometres from the

to the location of suitable materials close to thefind-sites.

find-site, suggesting a local derivation. The Llantwit Major group comprises just two stones (G63, G66), the lithologies of which are similar ni many

sites are within a few kilometres of, ors i t on, a bedrock o f

Coal Measures strata. Exceptions to this are Llantwit

respects, being homogeneous and quartz-rich, although G66is slightly finer-grained. In both instances the bedding

Samson Cross, G66), where the stones (worked or unworked) musthave been transported several kilometres,

has a planar form, and the face chosen for decoration si parallel with it.

As in the Llan-gors group, use of the same or similar lithologies to create disc-headed crosses relates primarily

With the exception of the Llantwit Major group, all findMajor 1(the Houelt Cross, G63) and Llantwit Major 4 (the

the nearest Coal Measure strata lying 13km (81 miles) to the north of Llantwit Major. A significant difference between the working of the Carboniferous sandstones and those of the ORS is that in the former the bedding is always

PARTI

58 oriented parallel to the carved face, regardless of the grain

massive, therefore being able to accommodate working ni

s i z e o f t h e s e d i m e n t .T h i s m a y i n p a r t b e a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e

a wider range of forms compared to the typically bedded ORS - and the availability of the stone. The deployment of local stone during this period is emphasized by all but one oft h e stones surveyed equating t o lithologies within a few kilometres of the find-sites. Although the sample size of stones from the ninth to tenth centuries is quite small (18 stones), it records a change from the prominent use of one or two rock types to the

m o r e h o m o g e n e o u s nature o f the coarser Carboniterous

sandstones, compared with the conglomeratic ORS, but is also likely to reflect the form of the disc-headed crosses, compared with that of the unshaped slabs upon which the ring-crosses w e r e inscribea.

CONCLUSIONS

being in the Jurassic strataof England. Although in most cases it has been possible to identify the general lithology from which a particular stone has been worked, unless this is a distinctive lithology with a restricted distribution (for example Sutton Stone, Rhaetic sandstone/Quarella Stone, Sudbrook Stone), the precise provenance could not have

been attributed without introducing an element of spurious

recorded prior to theeighth century. From the tenth centu-

precision. Given these caveats. it is still possible to gain a

ry onwards. Sutton Stone accounted f o ra third of all extant

general view that many of the Carboniferous and Old Red Sandstone monuments could have been derived from

sculptures and monuments, and a similar increase in the use of Rhaetic sandstone is also apparent, both lithologies

sources within a few kilometres of their find-sites.

being derived from the Vale of Glamorgan. Also significant

1, MN4; Coety (Ty-newydd) 1, G13)have a proven proven a n c e f r o m o u t s i d e s o u t h Wa l e s , their p r o b a b l e s o u r c e

The varieties of stone used vary, both with the style and f o r m o ft h e m o n u m e n t a n d t h r o u g h time. F o r in s tan ce. 7 8

sents the only confirmed monument derived from a source

outside the south Wales region.

s a n d s t o n e .a lithology t h a t d o m i n a t e s the upland areas of

Although the petrological data derived from this studyof early medieval monuments and sculptures must be viewed with some caution, as the data reflect those stones preserved and not total stones produced, some overall pat-

tion to the natural form, which is defined by planar bed-

ding intersected and dissected by joint planes. Outside the

although variations are seen between different lithologies.

/ Latin-inscribed stones.

Whereas the Old Red Sandstone reveals a progressive

T h et h i r t y - t w o s t o n e s a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e s e v e n t h t o n i n t h

d e c r e a s e f r o m a p e a k u s a g e in t h e fi f t h t o s e v e n t h c e n t u r i e s .

centuries show a greater representation of Coal Measures sandstones (66 per cent) and a significant reduction in the

Pennant Sandstone exploitation peaks after this, in the sev-

r e n c e s of

S u t t o n S t o n e a n d

R h a e t i c s a n d s t o n e

1. L a t i n - or o g a m - i n s c r i b e d s t o n e s :

A. I n s c r i b e d s t o n e s of t h e e a r l y p e r i o d

R h a e t i c s a n d s t o n e s . w o r k e d f r o m t h e earliest times. b u t

assuming greatest prominence with Sutton Stone in the tenth century onwards.

N a s h - Wi l l i a m s Group I

.1 Latin-inscribed stones

2. Ogam-inscribed stones 3. Bilingual stones 2. Cross-carved stones:

Group II

.1 Pillar types

B. Pillar-stones with incised cross

2. Recumbent cross-slabs

C. Recumbent grave-slabs with incised cross

G. Headstones and grave-slabs of the lateperiod

3. Grave-markers

Group III

3. C r o s s e s :

A: Slab-crosses (crosses of slab proportions) .1 Slab-crosses (straight/plain sides)

D. Standing sculptured slabs, including sub-types

2. Disc-headed slab-crosses

3. Panelled slab-crosses 4. Wheel-headed slab-crosses with sculptured heads

.5 Fragmentary slab-crosses 6. Cross-bases B. P i l l a r- c r o s s e s

E . P i l l a r- c r o s s e s . u s u a l l vc o m p o s i t e

.1 Rectangular pillars 2. Sculpted pillar-crosses 3. C o m p o s i t e p i l l l a r - c r o s s e s 4. F r a g m e n t a r v p i l l a r - c r o s s e s

sandstones, but a reciprocal relationship is seen in the

T h e f a c t o r s w h i c h m a v h a v e i n fl u e n c e d t h e c h o i c e o f

with some changes ni nomenclature, within these categories:

RCAHMW classification

enth to ninth centuries, decreasing to insignificance by the tenth. A similar pattern is mirrored by the Coal Measures

lithology include the specific properties of the stone - the Carboniferous sandstones are both bedded and relatively

lytic value. The monuments have here been classified,

Categories used here

terns can be discerned. A general trend si seen of decrease ni the use of lithologies from the upland regions over time,

upland areas, Rhaetic sandstone was the most frequently exploited stone, accounting for 10 per cent of all ogam-

use of Old Red Sandstone (25 per cent), with single occur-

stone sculpture as defined by Nash-Williams are still valid

as a simple system of classification, thoughof limited ana-

c r o s s e s f a s h i o n e d f r o m J u r a s s i c l i m e s t o n e . w h i c h repre.

per cent of all the ogam-/Latin-inscribed stones studied

p l a n a r s u r t a c e s t h a t c o u l d b e w o r k e d w i t h l i t t l e m o d i fi c a -

The three main groupings of inscribed stones and

during this period are the occurrences of two wheel-

were fabricated from Old Red Sandstone or Coal Measures Glamorgan and Breconshire. These lithologies provide

FORMS AND FUNCTIONS

use of a wider range of lithologies. Old Red Sandstone,

Pennant Sandstone. Coal Measures sandstone and Ordovician sandstone have all been exploited and account for 82 per cent of stones surveyed (Fig. 40). The stones from this period include both cross-carved and cross-forms and, whereas the bulk of these werederived from local strata, the mismatch between the bedrock geology and composition of the stones indicates that at least threeof these were transported more than 20km to their find-sites. From the tenth century the most significant change in the lithologies of the eighty-three crosses is the exploitation of Sutton Stone. Prior to this period only two instances of worked Sutton Stone have been recorded, with none

Of the 191 stones examined in the course of this project, all but one (Llanddewi'r Cwm (Erw-helm) 1, B14) were of sedimentary origin. Of these, only t w o stones (LIan-wern

6

4O t h e r stones

Group IV

R O t h e r decorated stones

1. Architectural features 2. Coped grave-slabs

In discussing form, the terms pillar and slab have been u s e d

throughout

as

non-technical.

descriptive

terms

with their normal meanings, namely, 'a usually slender

vertical structure' and 'a flat, broad, fairly thick, usually square

or

respectively.

rectangular

piece

of

solid

material'

60 |

PARTI

Latin- or ogam-inscribed stones

Llanfihangel Cwm Du (Cae Gwynlliw) 1

B21 B22 B2 5 B 30

61

FORMS AND FUNCTIONS

requires it. Perhaps influenced by this tradition, the Latin inscriptions are also in most cases arranged vertically, but

father, the great-great-grandfather is named. The function of the monument is frequently confirmed by the use o f the phrase hic iacit (in Llywel (Crai) 1, B41, the plural iaciunt);

These are memorials or funerary monuments, consisting

Llanfihangel Cwm Du (St Michael's Church) 1 Llanfrynach (St Brynach's Church) 2

of short inscriptions carved on 'rude pillar-stones or slabs, of natural shape or roughly hewn' (ECMW: 3). The major-

Llan-gors (St Paulinus's Church) 2 Llanlleonfel parish church

ity display regular outlines that may point to some attempt to shape the stone or prepare its surface, see Llan-gors (St

Llansanffraid (Scethrog) Llywel (Crai) 1

Paulinus's Church) 2 (B30), Margam (Margam Mountain)

Vaynor (Abercar) 1 Vaynor (Cornel y Beddau) 1

B 47 B49

Formulae

ing irregularities in shape are rare, see Gelli-gaer (Capel

Brithdir) 1 (G28). Two utilize pre-existing monuments: Loughor (G76) consists of an ogam inscription carved on

Ystradfellte (Maen Madoc) 1 Ystradgynlais (St Cynog's Church) 1 Ystradgynlais (St Cynog's Church) 2

B50 B52 B53

The language of the inscriptions i s discussed in detail elsewhere (see ch. 7). but a discussion of theformulae used is o fw o r d s e n c o u n t e r e d

Similarities have been noted with the Latin-inscribed

G3

s t o n e s o f s o u t h - w e s t B r i t a i n . in t h e i r u s e o f u n d r e s s e d o r

G7

is the use of t h e name of the deceased alone, in eitherthe nominative or genitive case, the latter implying 'the stone/

roughly dressed stone, capital letters, vertically set texts and

G27 G28

G55

memorial/monument/land of X,' with the antecedent omitted. This applies to most of the ogam inscriptions

some of the same memorial formulae. As with the examples from Wales, many inscribed stones from Cornwall and

in this area. More frequently the filiation of the deceased

G58 G77 G92

si also given, most frequently by the use of filius (or fili) followed by the name of the father ni the genitive: X* son of Y', little attention being given to 'correct' syntactical

Devon were commemorative or acted as grave-markers, as shown by the hic acet formulae (for example, Castle Dore,

1(G77), Merthyr Mawr (St Teilo's Church) 1(G100); strik-

Vaynor (Abercar) 2

B34 B35

Aberdâr (Hirwaun) 1 Cadoxton-juxta-Neath (Clwydi Banwen) 1

stone whose contemporaneity with the inscription cannot

Gelli-gaer (Cefn Gelli-gaer) 1

be ruled out (for example, Margam (Margam Mountain) 1, G77). More frequently, however, it is evident that the crosses found on monuments of this class post-date the inscriptions, perhaps in some cases merely to emphasize a religious connection (for example, Llywel (Pentre Poeth) 1, B42), in others possibly implying the reuse of the mon-

Gelli-gaer (Capel Brithdir) 1 Llanrhidian (lost) Margam (Margam Mountain) 1 Margam (Port Talbot) 1 Merthyr Mawr (St Teilo's Church) 1

G100

u m e n t f o r a v u r p o s e o t h e r t h a n its o r i g i n a l o n e ( f o r e x a m -

St F a g a n s with Llanilltern (Canel Llanilltern) 1

G 11 9

ple. Trallwng (St David's Church) 1, B45). The principal content of an inscription normally consists

of a personal name or names, suggesting that the function

of the stone was as a memorial or funerary monument.

in V a v n o r ( A b e r c a r ) I ( B 4 6 ) t h e p h r a s e i n h o c t u m u l o ( ' i n

unexpectedly for the most romanized of the inscriptions, Llywel (Aberhydfer) 1 (B40).

this tomb') has been added. Such formulae show that these stones were grave-markers, influenced by contemporary Christian burial practice. Though few examples remain in situ, the commemorative function issupported by the original locations where known (for example, Gelli-gaer 1, G27; Ystradfellte, B50), normally prominently displayed

i n c l u d e d h e r e

T h e s i m n e s t f o r m

usage.

For formulae with filius, see:

Ogam inscriptions (3)

Sometimes this is made more explicit by the presenceof the vulgar Latin phrase hci acit (for iacet), meaning 'lies here'.

Llanddeti (Ystrad) 1 Ystradfellte (Pen-y-mynydd) 1

The majority appear to be monuments to one person, but alate inscription, LIanlleonfel 1 (B34), exceptional in form

Loughor 1

B11 B51 G76

and content, c o m m e m o r a t e s two. Also, the stone at Llywel

(Crai) 1 (B41) appears to have been the gravestone of a

A m o n g the minority horizontally

a r r a n g e d a r e t h e a n o m a l o u s L l a n l l e o n t e l 1 ( B 3 4 )a n d , n o t

B41 B46

a Roman altar; Margam (Port Talbot) 1 (G92) is a bilingual inscription carved on a fourth-century Roman milestone. In a few cases these stones include crosses carved into the

Llanmadog (St Madog's Church) 1

reading downwards.

Bilingual inscriptions (4)

Llanfihangel Cwm Du (Cae Gwynlliw) 1

B21

Llan-gors (St Paulinus's Church) 2

B30

Crickhowell 1 Llywel (Pentre Poeth) 1

sions of the same inscription, one ni each language and

Trallwng (St David's Church) 1

alphabet; in one rare exception the two elements appear to be unrelated, see Llywel (Aberhydfer) 1 (B40). The inscriptions on the thirty-six monuments of this category from the area may be broken down as follows:

Margam (Eglwys Nynnid) 1

Cantref. Nant Crew 1 Crickhowell (Glan Usk Park) 1 Defynog (St Cynog's Church) 1 Llanddeti (Tal-y-bont) 1

B12

Llandyfaelog Fach (St Maelog's Church) 2

B17

B1 В3 B4

that some of the influences on the south-west Britain

B35

"Category 1' stones may result from both areas being subjected tosimilarIrish/Gallic influences (Okasha, 1993: 40).

Trallwng (St David's Church) 1

B45 B46

portion of bilingual inscriptions in Wales and the absence

Vaynor (Abercar) 1 Ystradfellte (Maen Madoc)1 Gelli-gaer (Capel Brithdir) 1 Llanmadog (St Madog's Church) 1 Margam (Margam Mountain) 1

B42

For fili, see: Cantref (Nant Crew) 1

B45 G86

Defynnog (St Cynog's Church) 1

Bilingual unrelated (1) Llywel (Aberhydfer) 1

Latin inscriptions (28)

B2

Hayle, Lancarffe, Lewannick II, St Endellion, St Just I and Worthyvale; Okasha, 1993: 16, 92, 118, 126, 152, 234, 244, 334), a reminder that south-west England and south Wales were linked by the 'Severn Sea'. While Welsh practices may well have migrated south, Okasha has suggested

Llansanffraid (Scethrog) 1

B50 G28 G55 G77

Vaynor (Abercar) 2 Cadoxton-juxta-Neath (CIwydi Banwen) 1 Merthyr Mawr (St Teilo's Church) 1

Divergence between the two areas, such as the higher proof ogam-only texts in the south-west, reflect differences in the linguistic backgrounds of the populations. The use of ogam as a vehicle for memorial inscriptions is referred to in Irish sagas which describe the burial

and attendant ceremonies of heroes and heroines: "Then

father a n d s o n . T h e inscriptions o n this c a t e g o r y o f stones

may be in Latin, in the Roman alphabet, or in Irish, in the ogam alphabet; sometimes they consist of two parallel ver-

besides roads or trackways, where they could have been

seen and read.

E t a r c o m o l ' sg r a v e w a s d u g a n d h i s h e a d s t o n e w a s p l a n t e d

BI BA B47

in the ground; his name was written in Ogam (Scribthair

ó a ainm n-ogaim) and he was mourned' (from Táin B

G7

Cúailnge: McManus. 1991: 154). In Aidedh Ferghusa, on the death of Fergus mac Leite, 'his grave was dug, his name

G100

w a s inscribed i n O g a m a n d his funeral g a m e s w e r e v e r.

formed' (ibid.). B40

Lavout of theinscrip tions The ogam inscriptions are confined to the front edges of the stone, reading up the left-hand edge, across the top

and down the right-hand edge, fi the length of the text

Exceptionally other means of expressing filiation are used: in Crickhowell 1 (B2) the word puueri may be a simple substitution for filli; in Vaynor (Cornel y Beddau) 1 (B49) filius /fili has been omitted, the father's name simply

Handley has argued for the commemorative function being accompanied in some cases by a land-marking function similar t o charters, citing in part the twenty-seven s e p a r a t e r e f e r e n c e s t o b o u n d a r y s t o n e s in

twenty-one

appearing in the genitive after the name of the deceased; ni Margam (Port Talbot) 1 (G92) filiation seems to have been expressed differently, pater Paulinus after the name of

clauses (13 dated to before 760) ni Liber Landavensis (Handley, 1998: 340-1). However, some apparent boundary stones may have been earlier (prehistoric), while cross-

the deceased perhaps to be read as 'his father was Paulinus'. In Margam (Margam Mountain) 1 (G77) in addition to the

marked stones may have performed similar functions (see below). The ambiguity of some inscriptions may reflect

62

PART I

theirmultifunctional nature, marking a grave (ofso-andso) as well as recording the boundary of an estate ('the

land of so-and-so' perhaps being implied ni some cases: Handley, 1998: 349). The deliberate location of some inscribed stones may suggestsuch concurrent functions as material indicators of the possessiono f land, as memo. rials of individuals and their filiation and as markers of burial sites. T h o s e f o u n d at the sides of R o m a n roads

point to an adopted continuity with theRoman practiceo f erecting milestones, if not monuments. Suggesteddiffi-

FORMS A N DF U N C T I O N S

6 3

Crosses (Figs 42, 43)

Genitive + filiation + hic iacit

Cantref (Nant Crew) 1 Crickhowell 1

Trallwng (St David's Church) 1 Vaynor (Abercar) 1 Ystradfellte (Maen Madoc) 1 Llanmadog (St Madog's Church) 1 Margam (Margam Mountain) 1

B1

B2 B4 5

In this group the cross si representedin termso f sculpture,

B46

subsidiary ornament. Af e w Breconshire crosses of com-

B50 G55

parable elaboration, namely, Llanddeti (St Detti's Church) 1 (B10), Llandyfaelog Fach (St Maelog's Church) 1 (BI6), Llanfrynach (St Brynach's Church) 3 (B26) and

in the round or in low relief, in all cases enriched with

G77

Llanhamlach(St Peter and St Illtud'sChurch) 1 (B32), have designs carved into their surfaces in the manner of the cross-carved series, only the complexity oftheir layout indicating that they are not to be classed withthis plainer group. Many include inscriptions, commonly in panels of more than one horizontal line on the cross-shaft. These panels

the sixth century would includet h e possibility that within a few generations the text would cease to provide a

Incomplete or illegible (four of which include thephrase 'hic iacit') Crickhowell (Glan Usk Park) 1 Llanddeti (Tal-y-bont) 1

useful proof of ownership (hence the more detailed

Llandyfaelog Fach (St Maelog's Church) 2

B17

Llanfihangel Cwm Du (St Michael's Church)1 Llanfrynach (St Brynach'sChurch)2

B22

are often d e fi n e d by a border, which in s o m e cases can be

B25 B53 G3

elaborate, (for example, Merthyr Mawr ,2 G99). Some panels occupy the whole face of the shaft (for example, Llantwit Major (St Illtud's Church) 3, G65; Margam 4,

G27 G58

G81; Merthyr Maw 1-2 G98, G99), andsometimes both faces (Ogmore, G117). Occasionally texts are arranged in pairs of rectangular panels which resemble sets of wax tablets (for example, Llantwit Major, St Illtud's Church 4 , G66). Vertically arranged texts are rare (for example,

culties arising from such boundary/estatefunctions from

inscriptions recording land ownership found on later monuments), and the fact that some stones with funerary inscriptions show clear evidence ofreuse. Some,s u ch as Margam (Margam Mountain) 1 (G77)m a y have been

Aberdâr (Hirwaun) 1

a d o p t e d as b o u n d a r y - m a r k e r s later in the medieval

Gelli-gaer (Cefn Gelli-gaer) 1

period.

Llanr hidia n (lost)

Ystradgynlais (St Cynog's Church) 2

B3 B12

Table6. .1 Formulae oninscribedstones insouth-east Wales.

Cross-carved stones (Fig. 41) Nominative alone (name)

Llywel (Aberhydfer) 1 Margam (Eglwys Nynnid) 1

B40 G86

This category consistso f'unshapedo r roughly shapedslabs or pillar-stones decorated with an incised or lightly carved o r n a m e n t a l cross and normally uninscribed' (ECMW: 17).

Nominative +filiation (name and kinship) B47 B49

Vaynor(Abercar) 2 Vaynor(Cornel yBeddau) 1 Nominative + filiation + hic iacit (name, kinship, lies here) Llanfihangel Cwm Du (Cae Gwynlliw) 1 Llan-gors (St Paulinus'sChurch) 2 Llangamarch (Llanwrtyd) 1 Margam (Port Talbot) 1 Genitivealone (the stone/ memorial of

The majority of these monuments are relatively talli n rela-

B21

B30 B28 G92

).

short ofthe centre (NMW acc. no. 2003.26H). Two sub-categories whose functions are less ambigu-

tion is not alwayscertain: some might have marked graves, but they might equally have servedsome other purpose - to demarcate land (as in Ireland, where some are thought to havebeen Christian estate-markers, signalling the Christian

B41

Slab-crosses

been supported in the ground. This points to their having

RECTANGULAR SLAB-CROSSES (FIG. 42.4)

of this type are inscribed crux xpi (Crux Christi), being alsodistinguishedbythe style of their crosses, which are composed

This form consists of a shaped rectangular slab, with the cross and its associatedornament carved onit ni low relief

of interlace and probably of Irish derivation: see Baglan (St Catherine's Church) 1 (G4), Llangyfelach (St Cyfelach's Church) 1(G49) and Margam (Upper Court Farm) 1(G95).

or cut into its surface. The cross itself can take various forms, which are discussed below. This category of mon-

consisting simply of a name, presumably of the person

G119

raw material available as by any cultural factor. Within each of these categories several types may be identified:

lain horizontally, suggesting that their function must have been to cover or mark a grave. ThreeGlamorgan cross-slabs

lintel-grave, shows that function could change with time (Edwards, forthcoming). A few carry inscriptions, most

St Fagans with Llanilltern (Capel LIanilltern) 1

Recumbent cross-slabs (Fig. 41.2) In these the cross is not confined too n e end of the stone but occupies most of its area, leaving no undecorated portion by which ti can have

being probably determined as much by the nature of the

faith of the landowner (Swift. 2001: 52)): or to serve as a

B52

Genitive + hic iacit Livwel (Crai) 1

ous may sometim es be identified:

In form the crosses fall into two broad categories, slabcrosses a n d pillar crosses, the choice of one rathert h a n the other

focusf o r worship; or as anon-funerary memorial of some kind. The discovery at St Ishmael, Pembrokeshire, in 2003 of a grave-marker bearinga small linear equal-armed cross,

Ystradgynlais (St Cynog's Church) 1

M e r t h y r M a w r (St Teilo's C h u r c h ) 1

Form

tiont otheir width, and canb eenvisaged as standing upright

which had been reused as a cover for an early medieval

B1 B35 G7 GION

for example, the upper quernstone excavated ni 2001 at

(as many of themstill are), especially where the crossoccupies the end of an elongated stone (Fig. 41.1). Their func-

B42

Genitive+ filiation

Margam 2, G79).

Llanbedr-goch, Anglesey, whichm a y originally have been incised withfour linesquartering a circle, the arms stopping

Llywel (Pentre Poeth) 1

Cantref (Nant Crew) 1 Llansanffraid (Scethrog)1 Cadoxton-juxta-Neath (Clwydi Banwen) 1

Fig. 41. The mainforms of cross-carvedstones.

responsible for setting upt h e stone, or commemorated by it: see Llan-gors (St Paulinus's Church) 1(B29), Cadoxtonjuxta-Neath (Neath Abbey) 1(G9). Margam (Lower Court Farm) 1 (G89). Merthyr Tvdfil (St Tvdfil's Church) 1 (G111); see also under recumbent cross-slabs below. In connectionwith their grave-markingfuction it is worth also noting that occasionally other cross-marked objects

have been found, apparently used for symbolic protection,

u m e n t is d i s t r i b u t e d throughout the area.

Grave-markers (Fig. 41.3). These may eb slabs or pillars, generally ametre or less high by half ametre or less wide, whose frequent occurrence inchurchyards identifies them

Llanddeti (St Detti's Church) 1 Llandyfaelog Fach (St Maelog's Church)1

as grave stones intended to be set vertically. The dissimi-Llanhamlach (St Peter and St Illtud's Church) 1 larity oftheir cross-forms to the rest of the series, togethEwenni (Priory Church) 1 er withtheir concentration at sites open to Anglo-Norman Llanblethian (Nash Manor) 1 influence - notably Ewenni and MerthyrM a w - point to these being a late development.

Llan-gan (St Canna's Church) 2 Caerleon (St Cadog's Church) 1

B10

B16 B32 G18 G34 G44 MN1

PA RT I

65

FORMS AND FUNCTIONS

Pillar-crosses

(0 RECTANGULAR PILLAR A single Breconshire monument, in which the design is carved intot h e plain surface of the stone, falls into this category: Llanfrynach (St Brynach's Church)3 (B26). SCULPTED PILLARS (FIG. 43.9) These form a localized Breconshire group, consisting of richly carved pillarsdecorated with interlace, their corners enriched with heavy baluster-mouldings, and terminating

ni a narrow wheel-cross confined within thewidth of the pillar. B14

Llanddewi'r C w m (Erw-helm) 1 M a e s m y n y s ( N e u a d d Siarman) 1 COMPOSITE PILLAR-CROSSES(FIG.

B39 43.10)

This is a local group apparently confined to the eastern

region of the coastal Vale of Glamorgan, between the rivers Ogmore and Taff. No entirely complete example has survived, even the relatively intact Cross of Irbic at Llandough (G42) lacking its cross-head. To judge by this example the form consisted of a pyramidal base, sur-

Fig. 42. Themain forms of crosses. Christchurch (Bulmore) 1

MN2

PANELLED SLAB-CROSSES (WITH SHAPED/DECORATED

St Arvans 1

MIN5 R5

SIDES) (FIG. 42.8)

Llowes (St Meilig's Church) 1

DISC-HEADED SLAB-CROSSES (WITH O R WITHOUTBASES) (FIGs 42.6, 42.7) In this category the head of thestone containing the cross

si shaped as asolid circular form, on which the cross si

carved in lowrelief. The shaft issometimes setinto a dec-

This si a local group confined to the western end of the

shaft terminating in a wheel cross-head; the shafts have heavily moulded corners. Llantwit Major (St Illtud's

coastal Vale ofGlamorgan, centred on Margam. The form

Church) 2 (G64) has only slight traces of a mortice hole

of the cross si distinctive, being of cross-formy type within a ring, the arms orinterspaces (or both) beingformed Fig. 43. The mainforms of crosses. The top fo no. 10is conjectural.

mentary attempt, in the form of transverse notches, to

A related series is represented by Ewenni (Priory Church)

tion. The sides of the slab sometimes show a rudi-

express a cross-form. This method of demarcating the

cut to take it. Some bases survive without their crosses

arms of the cross b ymeans of sunken panel can be seen in Baglan (Cwm Gwenffrwd) 1 (G6), which may be derived from an openwork book-cover decoration in metal.

G43

for a cross-head.

of sunkenpanels; below thecrossi sa panel fora ninscrip-

orated cross-base, the bottomo fthe shaft fitting into a slot a n dv i c e versa.

mounted by a lower shaft, a central knop and an upper

Coety (Carreg Fedyddiol) 1 Covchurch (StC r a l l o ' s C h u r c h ) 1

1(G18)and Llan-gan (St Canna's Church) 2 (G44). WHEEL-HEADED SLAB-CROSS WITH SCULPTED HEAD (FIG. 42.5)

Coychurch (St Crallo's Church)2 Llancarfan (St Cadoc's Church)1 Llandaf (Cathedral) 1 Llandough 1 Llangynwyd (Sychbant)1 Llantwit Major (StIlltud's Church) 2

G14 G15

G16 G35

G36 G42 G53

Llan-gan (St Canna's Church) 1 Llantwit Major (St Illtud's Church) 1

G63

design, a feature which persists in devolved form in all

A single example survives in which the top of a slab has been sculpted into across in the round: below the cross the

M a rg a m 1

G78

the examples.

G79

shaft si taken upwith a formal panel containingan inscrip-

FRAGMENTARY PILLAR CROSS

Margam 2 Margam 4 Margam 6 Margam (Upper Court Farm) 2

tion: Merthyr Mawr 2 (G99).

Shaft of pillar proportions, with inscription panel but lackinga cross-head.

G81 G83 G96

Cross-bases in this category:

Llan-giwg (St Ciwg's Church) 1

Llangyfelach (St Cvfelach's Church) 3 Llangynwyd (St Cynwyd's Church) 1 Merthyr Mawr (St Teilo's Church) 1 St Brides Major and Wick 1

w h o s e attaching rivets have been incorporated into the

Llantwit-juxta-Neath (St Illtud's Church) 1

Margam (Cwrt-y-defaid) 1 Margam (Cwrt-y-defaid) 2 Margam (Eglwys Nynnid) 2 Margam (Port Talbot) 2

G48 G51

M a rg a m (Port Talbot) 3 Merthyr Mawr (St Teilo'sC h u r c h )2

G54

MaerthyrMawr (St Teilo's Church) 3 Newcastle (Pen-y-fai) 1

€100

G 11 8

Tythegston (St Tudwg'sChurch) 1

G62 G84 G85 G87 G93

FRAGMENTARYSLAB-CROSSES These include several panels containing inscriptions but lacking their crosses, so that it is not possible to classify

G102 G 11 2 G120

G65

them with certainty.

с о л

G101

Llantwit Major (St Illtud's Church) 3

G64

Function

Llangennith (St Cennydd's Church) 1 Llantwit Major (St Illtud's Church) 4 Merthyr M a w 1

St Brides Major and Wick (Ogmore Castle) 1

G47 G66 G98

G117

The inscriptions, w h e r e they exist, m a k e it clear that their function

-or at l e a s t t h e i n t e n t i o n s o f t h e i r d o n o r s -

varied. There is scant evidence that they might have been

6 6

funerary monuments ni the strict sense, the only suggestion of this ni the area here under consideration resting on the interpretationof an incomplete word in a single inscription as requiescit: see Coychurch (St Crallo's Church) 1 (G15). Most inscriptionsname a donor or commissioner (none of

these names appear to be of women), the raising of the cross representing an act of piety performed by him. Most frequently, the inscription is in the form: X ' has set up this

cross for the soul or souls of Y , etc.: see Llanddeti (St Detti's Church) 1 (B10); Llantwit Major (St Illtud's Church) 1and 3 (G63 and G65); Margam 1, 2 and 4 (G78,

G79 and G81); Margam (Eglwys Nynnid) 2 (G87); and

Merthyr Mawr 1 (G98). Some of the inscriptions name

PART I

Cadoxton-juxta-Neath (Coelbren) 1fragment (G10). The baptism of Christ may be intended on Llanfrynach (St Brynach's Church) 3 (B26). The iconography on the base of Llandough (G42), though difficult to interpret, might be

biblical or ecclesiastical. In all these cases the function of

the stone might have been partly devotional and didactic. Others had more worldly uses: the inscriptions on Merthyr M a w 2 (G99) and St Brides Major and Wick

(Ogmore Castle) 1 (G117) record gifts of land or its ownership, marking the land ni question and providing a

6 7

FORMS AND FUNCTIONS

Three sites in the area - Llantwit Major, Margam and

pillars from Llantwit Major - one almost complete, the

Merthyr Mawr - have an abundance of monuments, which seems to indicate an atypical population, in which the churches' founders and owners might not have been the onlv individuals of wealth and importance (see

other only a fragment - appear to be decorative architectural features, perhaps to support panels for partitioning: Llantwit Major (St Illtud's Church) 5 and 6 (G67 and G68. Llan-ddew 1 (B13) lacks monumental scale, and

Stocker, 2000; Stocker and Everson, 2001: 225). Some of the monuments are of high quality, a fact that has con-

with its centrally placed cross may eb the panel ofan altar

tributed to their survival. Most of the remainder are obvi-

frontal(another internal feature). The forms of Llyswyrny (St Tydfil's Church) 1 (G75), whose single-sided decora-

visible statement of ownership by the church, as does

ously of poorer quality, suggesting the existence of a larg-tion is disposed horizontally, and Clyro (R1) suggests that they were lintels, though Llanrhidian (G59) may have had er population, still no doubt well-to-do, but of lower rank. The larger collections of stones may indicate the sites of a different function. All three - Llanrhidian perhaps in its

Newcastle (Pen-y-fai) 1(G112), on which an inscription

clas churchesor monasteries of the tenth and eleventh cen-

second phase of use - contain Romanesque elements sug

turies; a high proportion of surviving sculpture si associated with these churches of, presumably, senior status.

gesting that they are late, 'transitional' monuments. The same may be said of the grotesque corbel head, Llantwit to the Cambro-Norman transition. L I a r h i d i a n (St Illtud's

does not survive, but whose find-spot is compatible with

members of ruling dynasties (see the two Llantwit Major

such an interpretation. The three main secular functions -

crosses cited a b o v e , a n d t h e scale a n d e l a b o r a t i o n of t h e m

as b o u n d a r - m a r k e r s . c o m m e m o r a t i v e m o n u m e n t s a n d

suggest that they were memorials to the eminent.The positions of the inscriptions on Llantwit Major 1 (G63) and

records of ownership - need not be mutually exclusive, and some stones m a y have served more than one function

Monmouthshire lacks this kind of distribution, which may reflect differences in social structure and tradition. Some crosses may have acted as route-markers, wayside

Church) 1 (G59) is more problematical: it is far longes

Margam 1(G78) at the bottom of the shaft may have been

over time, helped by ambiguity ni their inscriptions.

c r o s s e s or p r a v e r s t a t i o n s , a s s u g g e s t e d b y t h e c r o s s - b a s e a t

t h a n o n e w o u l d e x p e c t for a lintel a n d m a y h a v e f o r m e d

St Brides Major (G117), if in its original position.

n a r t o f

Major (St Illtud's Church) 9 (G71), which may also belong

intended to reflect the devotional c u s t o m of kneeling or

The majority of the later tenth- to eleventh-century

even prostrating oneself before the cross (see Higgitt, 1986: 142). Some short inscriptions are placed high on the shaft

crosses are associated with parochial churchyards.Though one can never be quite certain about the original locations

(for example, Coychurch 2, G16; Llandough 1, G42),

of these monuments, the churchyard a t Coychurch appears

Other stones

ments of such elaboration are unlikely to have been

A s m a l l n u m b e r o f m o n u m e n t s in t h e a r e a fall o u t s i d e t h e

to c o n t i n e n t a l m o d e l s , b u t w h o s e i m m e d i a t e i n s p i r a t i o n

common. Some are likely to be memorials to the owners

general run, either in f o r m or in style.

s e e m s

where they might be read by admirers of the monuments. In one case the setting up was simply 'in the name of God' (Margam (Cwrt-y-defaid) 2, G85), ni another apparently

of the churches or their territories, or to their founders. As

Illtud's Church) 4, G66). In a few cases the statement X ' raised this cross' si made without dedication (Laleston 2, B32, and Baglan (Cwm Gwenffrwd) 1, G6), and in a few others a name appears alone (Llandyfaelog Fach (St Maelog's Church) 1, B16, Llandough 1, G42, and Margam 5, G84). In these cases the name si usually taken to be the donor's rather than the craftsman's, though this si not always clear (see chapter 10). nI one case the latter appears ni a separate statement at the end of the inscription (Merthyr Mawr 1, G98). Several carry biblical iconography. In a number of these the Crucifixion si depicted or implied with various degrees

long-term memorials of individuals, they may be regarded as definitive statements of the cultural and political groupings with which surviving kin wished to be identified (Stocker and Everson, 2001: 225). Some crosses, such as Llandough 1 (G42), must have acted as foci within their graveyards for worship and congregation, symbols enshrining and proclaiming the presence and authority of the Church, which was reinforced by the figural iconography bearing witness to Christ and his message. The combined

of literalness: the figure of Christ, with flanking figures of spear- and sponge-bearer, appears on Llan-gan (St Canna's

Church) 1, G43); ni others the cross si unoccupied, but the accompanying figures are present: spear- and sponge-bear-

power and patronage of Church and State are clearly

demonstrated by some inscriptions (for example, the Houelt Stone, Llantwit Major 1, G63). It has been sug-

gested that Llandough I (G42) may have been erected to mark the consecration of a bishop; that crosses sometimes

(with reference to the Resurrection narrative) on St Arvans 1 (MIN5), figures difficult to identify with certainty on Llanhamlach (St Peter and St Illtud's Church) 1(B32) and

formed part of such celebratory schemes si suggested by the West Cross (so-called Cross of Scriptures) at Clonmacnois, whose inscription names Flann, king of the southern U Néill (879-916), and Colmán, abbot of Clonmacnois (c.904-21), and which may have been erected as part of a building programme ni 908 that included a great stone

the Conbelin Cross, Margam 2 (G79). Angels flank

church (Henry, 1980; ¿ Murchadha, 1980). Occasionally,

er on Llanblethian (Nash Manor) 1, G34), seated soldiers

the cross on the C a e r l e o n and St A r v a n s crosses (MINI

crosses occur on farmland, and where more than one have

and MIN5). The Crucifixion may also be implied ni the been recorded (for example, Laleston (Llangewydd) 1-3,

close proximity of the praying figure below the cross on Llangyfelach (Mynydd Gellionen) 1 (G52) and the

COPED GRAVE-SLAB

to have contained two examples (G15, G16), but monu-

for the soul of the donor himself (Llantwit Major (St

G31-33), the former site of a church, chapel or cemetery

may be identified.

a trieze

A coped grave-slab is to be found at Newcastle (St Leonard's Church 2, G114) whose decoration harks back t o h a v e h e e n

H n o l i s h

it

h e a r s

a

s i m n e

i n t e r l a c e

ARCHITECTURAL FEATURES

motif that also occurs on Ewenni (Priory Church) 2 (G19) and St Teilo's Church 1 (G110) at Merthyr Mawr, which

These are of special interest ni view of the absence of surviving structures from the period. The two cylindrical

are presumably of similar late date and intrusive cultural background.

7

T H E INSCRIPTIONS

A: The Celtic Language of the Inscriptions and their Chronology B Y PAT R I C K S I M S - W I L L I A M S

The main linguistic evidence for the chronology of the inscriptions si provided by spellings that indicate phonol o g i c a l c o n s e r v a t i o n s o r i n n o v a t i o n s . S o m ei n d i c a t i o n s c a n a l s o h e d e r i v e d

t r o m t h e t v n e o r

n a m e s u s e d -

tor

e x a m .

ni Margam (Margam Mountain) 1(G77) CATOTIGIRNI, etc. See CIB: 115-32, 253-4, 281 and tables 3.1-3.2, col. 1. P e r i o d 3• l o l r a i s e d t o A n d h e f o r e n a s a l c o n s o n a n t s

f o r

example Margam (Eglwys Nynnid) 1 (G86) PVMPEIVS

p l e . I r i s h n a m e s a r e m o r e c o m m o n in t h e e a r l i e r i n s c r i p -

/w/ ni certain circumstances, as ni Margam (Margam Mountain) 1 (G77) VEDOMAVI for

of words and names borrowed into neighbouring languages, like Irish and English; and (d) the 'best fit' with the

sources including names cited ni Latin texts; (c) the form

earlier *Vedomasus or * Vedumagus. See CIB: 83-8. 251. 282 and tables 3.1-3.2, col. 5. Period 6: final i-affection, as perhaps in Vaynor (Cornel y Beddau) 1 (B49) CATIRI assuming that this shows affec tion of the / u / in *Caturix to /i/. See CIB: 70-3, 250-1,

evidence of all the Brittonic inscriptions of Britain and Brittany, taken as a whole. For a full discussion see CIB. On the basis of whether or not they show successive sound-changes, Brittonic inscriptions can be arranged in

282-3 and tables 3.1-3.2, col. 3. Period 7: /nd/ > /nn/, as in Aberafan (The Croft) 1 (G1) GELUGUIN (with -N not -ND), as opposed to St Fagans with Llanilltern (Capel Llanilltern) 1 (G119)

British and Welsh can be established on the basis of: (a) internal linguistic logic; (b) evidence from manuscript

twenty-eight periods. The criteria are as follows: Period 1: correct composition vowels still preserved in

compound names, for example o ni Cuno- as in Trallwng 1(B45) CVNOGENI (if this si not Irish), u in Catu-, etc.

VENDMAGLI where /nd/ remains in the same ele.

ment (compare Welsh gwyn < Celtic *windos 'white'). See CIB: 10-14, 73-83, 251, 283 and tables 3.1-3.2, col. .4

Period 8: /e/ > /i/ beforenasal consonant or (stressed?)

This can be misleading, since correct composition vowels

/rn/, etc., as ni Margam (Margam Mountain) 1 (G77) CATOTIGIRNI (rather than -ERNI). See CIB: 92-100,

were sometimes written by accident or tradition after the reduction (Period 2 below) had occurred.

251-2, 283-4, and Tables 3.1-3.2 col. 7. [Period 9: south-west Brittonic / u / > /o/, which does

Period 2: composition vowels shown in reduced form, for

not occur ni Wales. See CIB: 100-2, 252, 284 and tables

See CIB: 115-32, 253-4, 281 and tables 3.1-3.2, col. 11.

example Cuna- (for earlierCuno-), Cato- (for earlier Catu-) as

3.1-3.2, col. 8.]

PARTI

70 Period 10: s /-2-/ at the beginning of the second element of compounds weakened to h, as ni Llanddeti (St Detti's church) I (B10) GURHI. See CIB: 106-9, 252, 284 and tables 3.1-3.2, col. 9. Period 11: loss of final syllables (apocope), sometimes obscured owing to the addition or possible addition of

Latinate terminations, but note for example, Llanlleonfel 1 (B34) IORUERT (rather than *Ioruertus). See CIB: 109-15, 252-3, 284 and tables 3.1-3.2, col. 10. Period 12: /v/ > /i/ before /1, r, n/, as ni St Brides

Major and Wick (Ogmore Castle) 1 (G117) ARTHMAIL

(< *Artomagli), versus the older VENDVMAGLI at St Fagans with Llanilltern (Capel Llanilltern) 1 (G119). See

CIB: 154-77, 256, 284-5 and tables 3.1-3.2, col. 17.

Period 13: pretonic / u / > / ö / (sometimes obscured by

the writing of u for the latter), as in Margam 2 (G79)

CONBELIN, versus the older CVNIIAC at Aberdâr

(Hirwaun) 1(G3). See CIB: 146-52, 254-5, 285 and tables 3.1-3.2, col. 15 Period 14: syncope of composition vowels, as in Clodock 1 (HI) GVINN-DA < * Wind-o-tam- (or * Wind-o-

as ni Llandyfaelog Fach 2 (B17) CATVC. See CIB: 6-7, 197-204, 257, 287-8 and tables 3.1-3.2, col. 2 Period 22: /w-/ > /gw-/, as in Llanddeti (St Detti's Church) 1 (B10) GUADAN. Once this change had happened initially, medial / w / was sometimes written -GU-

by analogy, as ni St Brides Major and Wick (Ogmore Castle) 1 (G117) GLIGUIS, and medial -GU- thus has the same chronological significance as initial GU.; but as it was merely optional medially, the absence of medial -GU-

as ni Merthyr Mawr 1(G98) GLIUISSI is not chronologically significant. See CIB: 211-14, 257, 288 and tables 3.1-3.2, col. 24. Period 23: / n t / etc. > /n'h/, / n h / etc., as in Partrishow

1 (B43) GENILLIN, assuming this name si based on Latin Gentilius or similar. See CIB: 214-17, 257-8, 288 and tables 3.1-3.2, col. 25. Period 24: svarabhakti (vowel-insertion), as conceivably

in Aberdâr (Hirwaun) 1 (G3) ERECOR < *Erko- (probably Irish however) and Vaynor (Cornel y Beddau) I (B49) CATIRI (if = Welsh cadr). See CIB: 217-19. 288 and tables 3.1-3.2. col. 26.

INSCRIPTIONS: LANGUAGE

In view of the doubts that are sometimes expressed

about the validity of epigraphic and typological methods of dating the inscriptions, ti must be emphasized that the

relative chronologies already established by such methods

generally concur with the relative chronology produced by linguistics: the 'early' inscriptions of Nash-Williams and Tedeschi nearly all belong to the earlier linguistic periods

(excluding Lugobi), and should perhaps be dated soon after

can be given only tentatively, partly because of the short-

age of externally datable inscriptions. This si well ilus-

trated by the inscriptions in this volume of the corpus,

(G65) are probably identifiable with people who flour-

ished ni the mid-eighth century; unfortunately the lin-

guistic dating is uncertain: if the -H- in -HAHEL denotes

/v/ (see Period 25 above) it belongs to Periods 14-24, but if it denotes a hiatus ti belongs to Periods 25-6 (see CIB:

/2-/ > /h-/ but before /ö/ > /a/ was shown in the name HOUELT; (c) the GENILLIN of Partrishow 1(B43) flour-

Note that LIantwit Major 3 (G65) IUTHAHELO with

ished .c 1100, and this name belongs to Periods 23-8, that is, after the loss of the /t/ ni /nt/ (see Period 23 above).

Period 18: long close e /e:®/ > /ui/, as ni St Brides Major and Wick (Ogmore Castle) 1 (G117) BRANTUI. See CIB: 190-6, 286-7, and tables 3.1-3.2, col. 20. Period 19: long open e /E:®/ >/oi/. See CIB: 196-7, 287, and tables 3.1-3.2, col. 21. There is no example of either stage in this volume.

Period 20: /y/ lost (a) after /i:/ and back vowels final-

ly; (b) after /i:/ and before /a/ and /o/; (c) between back vowels; as ni Llandyfaelog Fach 1(B16) BRIAMAIL ver-

sus the earlier BRIGOMAGLOS in Northumberland

(CIIC: no. 498). See CIB: 207-11, 257, 287 and tables 3.1-3.2, col. 23. Period 21: long open o /3:/ > /au/, as ni Llanlleonfel 1 (B34) RUALLAUN. In south-east Wales the change seems s o m e t i m e s to have been to / u ( : ) / rather than / a u /

stage in this volume.

Period 28: /ö/ > /a/, as ni Llanddeti (St Detti's church) 1 (B10) NINID (< *Nonnitus), fi that si the correct read-

ing. See CIB: 231-3, 258, 290 and tables 3.1-3.2, col. 30.

Since few inscriptions provide enough names to show all the necessary combination of sounds. few of them can be

Obviously, a circular argument would arise if the lin-

guistic periods were dated by reference to dates for the sound-changes which themselves are based on epigraphical dates for the stones. (Jackson's Language and History in Early Britain needs to be used with care here; some of his dates are explicitly based on epigraphy; see CIB: 6.) Fortunately, there is some independent evidence, particularly from the spelling ofBritish names in Latin texts and, after c.800, from the spelling in Old Welsh manuscripts. On the basis of such evidence, the linguistic Periods may be dated roughly as follows (see CIB: 281-92. for more detail): Period 1 begins in the fifth century (or even the fourth) and ends before the time of Gildas (conventionally c.540), who has forms with reduced composition vowels, like Cuneglase.

Period 2 begins by the time of Gildas (c.5402) at the very

placed in a precise period such as 'Period 2' (meaning 'after

Period 3 intervenes at an uncertain date before

reduction of composition vowels but before raising of /o/")

P e r i o d 4 . w h i c h b e g a n o r a l l y in t h e fi f t h c e n t u r y b u t c a n .

change of /nd/ to /n/*). Moreover, because some criteria

not be proved to have been written in Wales before the earliest Llandaf charters (c.600?). which always have o rather

as opposed to, say, 'Periods 1-6' (meaning 'any time before are ambiguous, some uncertainties have to be recorded, giving rise to periodizations such as 'Period 1 (if correct composition vowel is significant)or (if not) Periods 1-2'.

d a t e so c c a s i o n a l l y c l a i m e df o r s o m e i n s c r i p t i o n s s h o w i n g

syncope in south-western Britain (CIC: nos 471, 486, 490,

493), but are not really necessary; the most troublesome of Conbéo). See CIB: 269-71, 277, 285, 291, 293-4 and 345-6. Periods 15-16 begin after c.625 fi that si the terminus post

church) 1 (B10) GURHI (versus Old Welsh Gelhig,

Period 27: /jü/ > /i-/, /-ü-/. See CIB: 230, 258, 289-90 and tables 3.1-3.2, col. 29. The earlier stage si illustrated by Llantwit Major 3 (G65) IUTHAHELO and Ystradgynlais 1(B52) ADIVNETI, but there are no examples of the later

in which syncope was notconsistently applied. Such expla-

nations would account for the sixth-century epigraphic

ni 886; unfortunately again the linguistic dating si vague, since it simply belongs to Periods 15-27, that is, after

syncope; hence the lack of syncope in, for example, Crickhowell 1(B2) DVN-O-CATI si not in itself an early

ple o ft h e EU stage in this volume.

Llangadwalad, Anglesey (ECMW: no. 13) (compare later

Welsh Cadfan with syncope). Note, however, the possibil-

the south-western inscriptions (CONBEVI on CIIC 493)

Period 20), and (c) finally after old short i (by now > / i : /

Period 17: Internal i-affection, as in Margam 1 (G78) ENNIAUN < Latin Annianus. See CIB: 184-90, 256, 286 and tables 3.1-3.2, col. 19.

c.625, if that is the date of the Catamanus stone at

277-80); (b) Llantwit Major 1 (G63, the Houelt Cross) was probably erected by the kingHywel ap Rhys who died

however, that composition vowels in some names escaped

Period 15: initial -s /2-/ > h-, as in Llantwit Major 1 HAHEL < *sagel- is ambiguous, since the second Hcould (G63) HOUELT. See CIB: 142-6, 286 and tables 3.1-3.2, denote either / / or a hiatus after its loss (see CIB: 222-3. col. 14. 279-80 and 365). Period 26: /öü/ > /ëü/. See CIB: 225-29.289 and tables Period 16: cht /xt/> ith /j0/, as in later WelshGwytherin, versus the earlier form VICTORINI on Llansanffraid 1 3.1-3.2, col. 28. The earlier stage may be illustrated by (B35). See CIB: 178-80, 256, 286 and tables 3.1-3.2, col. 18. Llandyfaelog Fach 1 (B16) FLOU, but there si no exam-

occurred before the seventh-century Llandaf charters

only three of which are externally datable: (a) IUTHA. ities that the spelling of CATAMANUS si deliberately HEL(O) REX and other persons on Llantwit Major 3 archaic and that Cadfan is one of the names like Cad(a)fael

Period 25: /v/ lost (a) between front vowels or(b) vow.

254, 285 and tables 3.1-3.2 col. 12.

Period 13 begins ni the seventh century and is complet-

Absolute dates for the twenty-eight linguistic periods

els of different quality (other than /i:va/ and /i:vo/ =

etc.). Se CIB: 220-3, 288-9 and tables 3.1-3.2, col. 27.

very early seventh century.

(see CIB: tables 1.5 and 3.3)andthe few disparities can be

resolved without difficulty.

Llanilltern (Capel Llanilltern) 1 (G119). It is a problem,

sign (compare later Welsh Din-o-gat). See CIB: 115-32,

sixth century, assuming thatLugobi in the Book of Llandaf is an Irish name (later Luigbe) rather than a native one. Periods 6-12 are completed before or possibly during the

ed in the eighth century. Period 14 (syncope of composition vowels) has already

dag-), versus the older VEND-V-MAGLI at St Fagans with

or, after the accent shift, /ì/); as in Llanddeti (St Detti's

have been established in native spelling in Wales in the

t h a n a

Period 5si first attested ni a reference to a Lovocatus < (

*Lugukatus) ni Brittany ni 509 x 521, and may already

may well contain a name with Irish syncope (later Irish

quem for Period 14 (see above).

Periods 17-19begin in the eighth century. Periods 20-4 begin c.800. Period 25 begins c.900. Periods 26-8 all begin in the first half of the ninth century but are not fully established until later. The above dates for the linguistic periods are broadly

compatible with the dates for the inscriptions and monuments that have been suggested by Nash-Williams,

Tedeschi, and others on non-linguistic grounds (see CIB: 292-5); this suggests that the two dating approaches can be profitably combined, as attempted ni this corpus. IRISH INSCRIPTIONS

The Irish inscriptions ni Britain can be placed in periods according to whether they show the following soundchanges (references by $ refer to sections in CIB: ch. 4):

Period 1 (§19): before raising of stressed /e/ and /o/ to /i/ and /u/, as apparently ni Wroxeter 1(S2) COLINE versus Old Irish Cuilinn (but compare Period 5 below and

see CIB: 333-4). Period 2 (819): raising, as Trallwng 1(B45) ILVVETO < *elu-.

Period 3(§20): /rw/> /rv/,/lw/> /lv/,/8w/> /8v/, /nw/> /nv/, and /hw/> /f/, as ni Gelli-gaer (Cefn Gelli-

gaer) 1(G27)NEFROIHI with /f/ < /hw/

PART I

|73

INSCRIPTIONS: LANGUAGE

Irish/ possibleIrish names

8B1

&B51

8 B49 • 846

Fig. 44. Distribution of Celtic names ni earlyinscriptions(approximately fifth and sixth centuries)occurring in Breconshire.

Period 4 §( 21): loss of /-h/, unless already transferred to following word beginning with vowel, etc., as ni Llanddeti (Ystrad) 1 (B11) DIEICIEIDA rather than *DECEDAS. Period5 ($22): /-e/ and /-i/merge as a (in due course palatalizing) schwa sound (-i), asi n Wroxeter 1(S2) COLINE < *Kolini(:). Period 6($25): /æmb/ > /Imb/ and so on( n oexamples in this volume).

Period 7 (828): /k™/ > /k/, /g™/ > /g/ before /u(:)/, /o(:)/ or/ a / , as ni Wroxeter 1(S2)MACVS < *mak"ah. Period 8 ($29): lowering by /a(:)/ and /o(:)/, as in

St Fagans with Llanilltern (Capel LIanilltern) 1 (G119)

VENDMAGLI (if this has Irish VEND. < *Winda-
/nn/, is Brittonic) or (if it is not) 1-11 (i.e. on the basis of the preserved G in RVGN-). Irish Period 14 (if VENDONI is Irish, but it may well be an old Celtic(?)-Latin (*)Vendonius). (R)VGNIAT(DO is probably

acephalous in view of the loss of [FIl in line 2 of the

inscription, and Thomas (1994: 119, 121, and 128, n. 13) restores [D]RVGNI- on the analogy of CIIC: no. 31,

DRUGNO, 165, [DIROGNO, and 167, DROGNO, a namemeaning 'nose' (like Latin Naso), as in the Old Irish population name Ui Dróna. On the other hand, one could

PART IIC ATA L O G U E

BRECONSHIRE

|167

Theupper design recalls that onLlanwnda(ECMW: no.

330), and the decoration on the shaft oft h e ninth-century Houelt Cross (LIantwit Major (St Illtud'sChurch) 1, G63).

The name of the dedicatee of the church, Cynog, si also linked with the Breconshire parishes Merthyr Cynog, Ystradgynlais, Penderyn and Llangynog, and with Boughrood.

DATE Latin inscription: fifth or early sixth century; later ring-cross: ninth-tenth century.

REFERENCES CISP: DFNG/1; CIIC: no. 328; IBC: no.

49; LW: 65-6; Westwood, 1853: 333; Westwood, 1858a:

164-5; Westwood, 1860: 224-5; Rhys, 1873c: 10; Rhys, 1874a: 332; Rhys, 1879: 381; Rhys, 1896: 125-6; Macalister, 1922: 203-4; 1928a: 297; Jones-Davies, 1956:

5; Thomas, 1994: 153; Tedeschi, 1992-4: no. 7; RCAHMW, 1997: 285 (ECM 10); Tedeschi, 2005: 92-3. Cast: NMW acc. no. 06.481. SAM no. BR182.

DEFYNNOG (St Cynog's Church) SN 925 279 2. C r o s s - c a r v e d s t o n e

B4c. Latin-inscribedstone, Defynnog (St Cynog's Church) 1, detail of the inscription.

also restore a British form, [TJRVGNI-, also meaning

' n o s e ' (W. t r w n ) . A m o r e attractive alternative is to

restore [BJRVGN- (the preform of OI brón, MW brwun 'sorrow'), which appears in thepersonal names OW and MW Bruin, Brwyn and Brwyno, OB Broin and Broen and OI Brönach.

(In view of

the location of the stone in

DISCUSSION Rhys read RUNNIAUTO, RUGNIAVIO, RUGNIAVO.

The first surviving letter appears to be an R, also read by Macalister (CIIC: no. 328)a n d Jackson whoexamined the

surviving cast in the National Museum of Wales ni July, 1947 (KHM. It seemslikely that theinitial lettersof the sec-

Brycheiniog it is interesting to note a 'Bruin o ond line were FI for FILI. The name Vendoni also occurs

Bricheinauc' in Englynion y Beddau, CIB: 162.) Therest of the name, ifi t is -IATIO, correspondst o theadjectival suf-

fix that appears in Welsh euraid, 'golden', or, if it is -IATO

(soThomas), is probably thesuffix * jatisthatgivesWelsh

-ad and OI -ith, -id (i-stem), both common in personal names (though neither an Irish *Broinidn o r a Welsh

*Brwyniad seems to occur). The phonetic preservation of

on Clydai 2 (ECMW: no.307). According to Macalister, an

ogam inscription had been trimmed away by masons, leav-

ingthe tips of three letters, which he suggested formed part

of the name MTI-MINI-MLI- (Macalister, 1945-9: 318). This is doubtful. An alteration to Macalister's reading, 'Rugnatio/(fi)li

Vendoni', si suggested by Charles Thomas, who, on the

the -IAT- suggests that]RVGNIAT(I)O is a Welsh name;

basis of the spacing of the letters, argues 'D?)RVGNA.

fi it is, the-O will probably be the Vulgar Latin or

TIO/(FILI VENDONI' as a better reading (Thomas.

Brittonic nominative ending -O( o r -OS)seen elsewhere in

1994: 119, cf. Sims-Williams above). Thomas considered

Wales (ECMW: 13, and LHEB: 192,n. 2) and not aunique

that there may have been an ogam above this, but any

survival of the old i-stem genitivei n-OS. VENDONI (cf. CIIC: no. 429/ECMW: no. 307VENDONI)may be Irish, a later form of the name on CIIC: no. 422/ECMW: no. 298 VENDOGNI, but there are phonological problems.

possible letters havebeen trimmed away anderoded, leav. ing only a few possible stroke-ends above the V oft h e

It may instead be a spelling of the old Celtic name Vindonius. The spelling VEND. 'white' (rather than VIND) is typical of the Irish ogam inscriptions, but also

occurs i n Romano-British sources. (PS-W)

References: CIB: 60-1, 74-7, 116, 149, 161-3, 171, 211, 309-10, 316-18, 343, 347-9 (no. 328/44).

first word.

Nash-Williams attributed the inscription to the fifthearly sixth centuries, while Tedeschi has dated it to the

fifth or early sixth century on palacographical grounds

B5

PRESENT LOCATION In the church, serving as thelin-

mined. There appear tobe traces of another pecked design

tel ofa doorway into the ringing chamber on the first floor of the late fifteenth-century west tower.

on the right side of the slab, below the cross (not noted by Gwyn Thomas, 1984). This design continues into the wall.

EVIDENCE FORDISCOVERY/PROVENANCE First noted by Canon J. Jones-Davies in 1955.

DISCUSSION The presence of a double-grooved outline to the main panel, which gives the appearance of crude edge-mould-

Visible length: 78cm (31in.) exposed X w. 51cm (20in.) narrowing to 31cm (12in.) MEASUREMENTS

× d. 14-11cm (4½-5½in.).

STONE TYPE Coarse matrix-supported red to brick-red sandstone containing a minor component of altered

feldspar grains. A paler zone ni the centre and bottom

stones. The closest parallel to the cross-form is in the same church, namely Defynnog(St Cynog's Church) 1(B4). In

view of this coincidence, Gwyn Thomas thought that the carver oft h e smaller stone might have been imitating the larger one (Thomas, 1984: 153).

right sector of face A indicates a more highly weathered

Thepecked design below the cross is difficult to interpret.

domain. Petrological observations on this stone are limited by acovering of mortar and extensive weathered crust.

It si placed to the right of a central vertical line through the

The stone could be derived from the local bedrock (mudstone-dominated GwynfeFormation) but red sandstone is

more common in the St Maughan's (or Llanddeusant) and Brownstones formations. (JH) PRESENT CONDITION

Part of a slab, the left-hand

edge trimmed away up to the edge of the panel, removing some of the cross; some weathering of thesurface on left belowt h e cross; therest oft h e stone is not at present visible, beingbuilt into the wall.

cross above, and resembles two upside-down, out turned feet, within an incised border. It may represent an unfinished design intended to fill the shaft. Inverted figures on

crosses are rare, such as the bird-headed figure on the Norse Grim'sCross, Michael (Kermode, 1907: no. 100, pl. L), and thecross may subsequently have been inverted,i n the knowledge that the unfinished work would lie largely

hidden. DATE Probably ninth-tenth century.

REFERENCES RAHMW, 1997: 285 (ECM11). Jones-

(1992-4: 71). The cross is clearly considerably later in date, anddated by Charles Thomas tot h e ninth/tenth centuries (1994: 119). The groove crossing the inscription between

DESCRIPTION Large incised ring-cross outlined by a double groove, with a central boss formed by two incised rings, and with a plain panel (also outlined by a double groove) conjoined below (Fig. 64.45). Whether the origi-

andbelongst o a panel below thelater cross.

nal head was squared or rounded cannot now be deter-

the I and A of the first word was cut after the inscription

ing, suggests a date late in the series of cross-decorated

Davies, 1956: 5; Jones-Davies, 1975: 6; W. G. Thomas, 1984: 152-3, fig. 2.

168

PARTI I CATALOGUE

BRECONSHIRE

B6b. Cross-carved stone, Llanafan Fawr (St Afan's Church) I, the cross design.

DESCRIPTION Decorated at the topof the broader face with an equal-armed ring-cross in low relief, surrounded bya n outerg r o o v e ,a n d with as u n k e n annulet at t h e inter-

section of the arms (Fig. 62.42). The top of the stone immediately a b o v e the cross has been dressed away, as has the left-hand edge; thel o w e r e n d of the stone is roughly chamfered.

DISCUSSION

Anal

According to Rodger, this stone was at LIaneleu (Rodger, 1911: 30). Similarforms ofcross are represented in agroup

of grave-slabs from the Dublin area(see ÖhÉailidhe, 1957:

B6a. Cross-carvedstone, Llanafan Fawr (St Afan's Church)I .

75-88; id., 1973: 51-64), which also include the motifs

found on the other Llanafan stones. Nash-Williams attribthe vicinity of Llanafan Fawr, but those from the Yr All Formation (Ashgill, Ordovician) most closely resemble thosea t thissite. These sandstonesoutcrop on Y Gamriw, a few kilometres to the north-west of thechurch. (JH)

B5a. Cross-carved stone, Defynnog (St Cynog's Church) 1.

B5b. Cross-carvedstone, Defynnog (St Cynog's Church) I,

PRESENT CONDITION Edges trimmed for building. Although the stone si free oflichen it has an extensively

intervretation.

developed w e a t h e r e d patina, which obscures the petro-

L L A N A FA N FAWR (St Afan's Church)

utedt h e s t o n e to his m a i n p h a s e of c r o s s - m a r k e d stones,

i.e. seventh-ninth centuries, but the attempt at relief sculpture that it exhibits suggests that it might be later. DATE Ninth-te nth century.

REFERENCES Price, 1911: 124-5; Rodger, 1911: 30; Knight, 1977: 60-4; RCAHMW, 1997: 286 (ECM 16).

Cast: NMW acc. no. PRO 162.

logical detail.

SN 969 5 5 7 1. C r o s s - c a r v e d s t o n e

SN9 6 9 557

MEASUREMENTS h. 89cm (35in.)X w. 26cm (10in.)

E C M W no. 45

PRESENTLOCATION Standing loose int h e chancel. EVIDENCE

LLANAFAN FAWR (St Afan's Church)

B6

FOR

DISCOVERY/PROVENANCE

Visited by the Cambrian Archaeological Association in 1910, when it was loose in the church. A comment by Price suggests that it may have been found embedded in a

wall of the church during its restoration in 1887 (Price, 1911: 125; Haslam, 1979: 326).

X d.1 8 c m (7in.).

STONE TYPE Mid-grey, darker-grey weathering medium-grained sandstone, showing a relatively homogeneous

2. Fragment PRESENTLOCATION

composition dominated by rounded quartz grains and

east wall

The moderately well-sorted texture includes sub-rounded

EVIDENCE

minor lithic fragments (includingrounded dark grains).

torounded pebbles upto3mm in size. Bedding si not clear-

yl visible. There are several sandstone horizons present in

B7

Inside the porch, built into the

MEASUREMENTS h. 48cm (19in.) X w. 21cm (Sin.).

DISCOVERY/PROVENANCE

STONE TYPE Pale-grey weathering, coarse-grainedsandstone. Showing poorly defined bedding oriented parallel to

F o u n d built into a wall of the church during restoration

the o r n a m e n t e d face. Therea r es e v e r a l sandstone horizons

(c. 1887).

in the vicinity ofLlanafan Fawr, but those from theYr All

FOR

PART I CATALOGUE

1171

BRECONSHIRE

B76. Fragment, Llanafan Fawr (St Afan's Church)2, interpretation.

DISCUSSION The herringbone motif on the stone may be compared with thoseo n some decorated slabsfromRathmichael and

B7a. Fragment, Llanafan Fawr(St Afan's Church)2.

Formation (Ashgill, Ordovician) mostclosely resemble that

used at this site. These sandstones outcrop on YGamriw, a few kilometres to the north-west of the village. (JH) PRESENT CONDITION

The stone has an extensively

developed weathered crust a n d is lichen-covered.

DESCRIPTION

Smooth surface with pecked decora-

Ballyman, Co. Dublin (ÓhÉailidhe,1957: 78-9, nos 5, 8, 15). Concentric circles and 'shading' with parallel (herringbone) lines can also be seen on Merovingian sarcophagi of the seventh-eighth centuries (e.g. at Nantes; Costa, 1964: nos 220, 223-5). The design does not appear to be a crudely cut fret pattern, as on ECMW:no. 412.

tion consisting of across with short horizontal and long

DATE Ninth-tenth century.

herringbone patterns.

REFERENCES Price, 1911: 124-5; Knight, 1977: 60-4; RCAHMW, 1997: 286 (ECM 17).

vertical arms, each ornamented with a series of opposed

B8a. Fragment, Llanafan Fawr (St Afan's Church) 3.

B8b. Fragment, Llanafan Fawr (St Afan's Church) ,3 interpretation.

L L A N A FA N FAW R (St Afan's Church) SN 969 557

4. Fragment (probable cross-slab) PRESENT LOCATION Inside the porch, built into the

LLANAFAN FAWR (St Afan's Church) SN 969 557

3. Fragment

B8

east wall.

EVIDENCE FOR D I S C O V E RY / P R O V E N A N C E Found built into a wall of t h e church during restoration c. 1887.

MEASUREMENTS h. 36cm (14in.) X w. 22cm (9in.). STONE TYPE Pale grey weathering, very coarse-grained massivesandston e with av e r y homogeneous composition dominated by rounded to sub-roundedquartzgrains. There are several sandstone horizons present in the vicinity of Llanafan Fawr, but those from the Yr All Formation

DESCRIPTION

Carved in relief with an equal-arm

cross, with a circular hollow at the intersection, and with each of the interspaces decorated with parallel diagonal ribs (Fig.6 2 . 4 4 ) .

DISCUSSION

The design is reminiscent of that found on rotary quernstones, further suggested by the drilled hole in the centre of the cross. There are few reliably dated examples of such decoration. The radiating lines are similar to those on a stone from Ballyman, Co. Dublin, but this is undated,

though assumed to be post c.600 (O hailidhe, 1957: 83, no. 15: 85-6).

(Asheill, Ordovician) most closely resemble that used at DATE Ninth-tenth century this site. These sandstones outcrop o n Y G a m r i w. a few kilometres to the north-west o f Llanafan Fawr. (JH)

REFERENCESPrice, 1911: 124-5; Knight, 1977: 60 4; RCAHMW, 1997: 286 (ECM 18).

sandstones outcrop on YGamriw, a few kilometres tothe

east wall.

north-west of Llanafan Fawr. (JH)

EVIDENCE FOR DISCOVERY/PROVENANCE Found built into a wall of the church during restoration

PRESENT CONDITION The stone has an extensively developed weathered crust and si lichen-covered.

c. 1887.

MEASUREMENTS Approx. h. 36cm(14in.) X w. 18cm

PRESENT LOCATION Inside the porch, built into the

B9

(7in.)

STONE TYPE Pale-grey weathering, very coarse sandstone to conglomerate showing a moderately homogeneous composition d o m i n a t e d by r o u n d e d to sub-round-

ed quartz grains (2-3mm), butcontaining a lithic compo-

nent. The stone hasa massivestructure. There are several sandstone horizons present in the vicinity of Llanafan Fawr, but those from the Yr All Formation (Ashgill,

Ordovician) most closely resemble that at this site. These

DESCRIPTION Decorated with acarved spiral, asymbol found on the prehistoric chamber-tombs of Atlantic Europe, Ireland and western Britain. Similar to incised stones from Co. Dublin and Co. Wicklow, which appear tohaveh a d symbolicmeaning and were attributed onslender grounds to the early medievalperiod (sixth century or

later; Ó hÉailidhe, 1957: 85-7). See also Llangamarch 1 (B27).

DATE Ninth-tenth century.

REFERENCES Price, 1911: 124-5; Knight, 1977: 60-4;

RCAHMW, 1997: 286 (ECM 19).

PART I

Bla. Fragment, Llanafan Fawr (St Afan's Church) 4.

CATALOGUE

BRECONSHIRE

BIb. Fragment, Llanafan Fawr (St Afan's Church)4, interpretation.

L L A N D D E T I (St Detti's Church) SO1 2 8 202

1. Cross-carved stone ECMW no. 46

PRESENT LOCATION Now repaired and set u p inside the c h u r c h , in the blocked d o o r w a y o n the south side towardsi t s east end.

EVIDENCE FOR DISCOVERY /PROVENANCE Once built as t w o quoins intot h e tower o f the medieval church.

where they were noticed by Rhys (Report, 1872: 386; 1873c: 14). Therewere restorations in the 1870s (Haslam, 1979: 328), and the church was further restored in 1912 (Henderson, 1958). By 1922t h e stones had been removed

from the wall (Macalister, 1922: 199). MEASUREMENTS

Visible height: upper fragment

65cm (25.5in.), lower 56cm (22in.) Xw. 15cm (6in.) x d. 13cm (5in.).

STONE TYPE Pale buff/pink-weathering, mediumgrained sandstone with a quartz-dominated composition and a minor mica component. The lithology is very wellsorted and homogeneous. Bedding is poorly defined but can be discerned oriented vertically, cutting the crossinscribed face of the stone. The stone is derived locally from the Lower Devonian. Lower Old Red Sandstone sequence, most likely originating from the finer-grained component of the Brownstones Formation, which represents the bedrock at the find-site. (JH)

B10

PRESENT CONDITION Incomplete: fractured in half with sometrimming by masons at thebreak, now repaired. Traces of mortar on face D. DESCRIPTION Pillar stone with picked decoration on all four sides, with inscriptions on three, twoo fthem form-

ing a single statement. 1.

Latin ring-cross with two pairs of unidentified motifs (each including semicircles) in the interspaces. In the spandrels above are two further unidentified motifs, largely trimmed away. The shaft o ft h e cross extends d o w n w a r d s into:

An oblong panel containing an inscription, the space at the end filled with a fret-pattern (GIc;

Fig. 74). Between the ring-cross and the top of thepanel the shaft si flanked bya pair of lobes, the

lower pair wider than theupper, somewhat resembling (though not necessarily meant torepresent) a neck and shoulders, in which case the inscrip-

tion would occupythe robed body (Fig. 62.35). 'Fish symbol' (its tail partially missing) set vertically, enclosing a linear cross in a rectangle. Latin cross in rectangular panel. Elongated panel, defined by scalloped line on the left and a curved line on the right, containing an

BI0a. Cross-carved stone, Llanddeti (StDetti's Church) I, facesA-Dandtop (E).

173

PARTI I CATALOGUE

BRECONSHIRE

D: .1

175

Area probably unfinished, the surface beingproud

lematical they had to make them biggerthan other letters,

Cross motif made up of a double outline with

angular forms, but, determined toexecutea curvilinearS, cuts aletter twice the height of the T following it. This

as we see in B21, where the cutter is comfortable with

opposing T-shapes (K1)inside (Fig. 62.27).

T-shape enclosed in adouble outline. At thispoint

would haveoccurred in Guadan's inscription had not the the design is interrupted by the fracture, but the T carver lain the letter flat; overall, it is reminiscent of the

may extend downward to complete a cross-shape

seventh-century 'Abecedarium' stone at Kilmalkedar,

at the head of:

wheret h e 'localised Roman minuscule' (Stokes, 1928: vol.

An oblong panel withcurvilinear base containing

2, 3) is rendered in an angular style, with rectangular A, E, M, N, Q, R, T, and lozenge O. As a solution tot h e problems ofrendering written lettering instonethis had stayingpower, andi sa strongcontender for theoriginal source

an inscription.

E (top):

of the scribes' geometrical alphabet, borrowed fromepigraphy into calligraphy. (GC-E)

Linear c r o s s

Inscriptions

The three surviving Latin inscriptions are alli n simplified

F E (

angular half-uncials and read vertically downwards. The first two on D4 and A2 form a single statement. † GUADAN SACERDOS

1 0 4 5 8 0

42

reading is disputed), and the 'mole' element appears o n a

+G u a d d a nt h epriest

stone ni Scotland, CIIC: no. 520, BARROVADI, 'mole

F E C I T C R U X PA N N I

(but slightly doubted by Ifor Williams), must represent

IDLJANI GURHI

Mod.W. Nunnid < Latin Nonnitus/ Nonnita, a masculine

= fecit crux p(ro)an(ima) ni(n)id (et) ani(ma) gurhi

or feminine name. A seriousobjection, however, is that in

o r

FECIT CRUX P ANM ID÷IANI GURHI

= fecit crux p(ro)a n i m a id est ani(ma)gurhi madethis cross for his soul, that is, for Gurhi's soul [GIUADAN

Comments on letter-forms:

Crude half-uncials, cut by a

stone-carver who has rotated the letter-forms to suit his

patterning of strokes. He has turned the Ss of SACER-

ü

'Fish symbol' setvertically, tail downwards.

awav. r e m o v i n g t w o a r e a s o f linear d e c o r a t i o n .

Reversed Z-shape within panel, its middleline set

o n e o n each side o ft h e shaft, o f which only unintelligible traces remain.

vertically (JI).

Unidentified motif.

'man' or *Wer, 'super'. (PS-W) References: CIB: 37 n. 92,51, 91, 107, 111, 116, 120 n. 664, 128, 140, 176, 212, 213 n. 1317, 222, 232 (по. 979/46). DISCUSSION

. He mayhave strokes angular, boxing the forms of C, U, A

The ring-cross with elongated stem, the basic form behind the elaborately modified cross on face A, occurs on sever-

taken these liberties after a more literate-looking model, Central oblong panel divided down the middle.

"Pro ANiMaI D est [with Insular ' ÷' abbreviation for est ANIma GURHI' (for idest in an inscription cf. CIC: no. 516). This was published too late to be considered by Nash-Williams. GURHI (MW Gwrhy) is one of various Welsh masculinenames ending in hy,'bold, victorious'.

DOS to lieflat, in orderto sit within the writing-line of the

other six letters. As far as possible he has made curved

Linear Latin cross inside an outline cross. The

written-T rather than -D. InCIIC: vol. I Macalister, influ-

enced by Ifor Williams' criticisms, adopted the reading

The firstelement, according toIforWilliams, si *Wiro,

Guaddan

ends o f the horizontal a r m have been trimmed

head'. The name NI(n)ID,i fcorrectlyread by Macalister

made this cross for the soul of Ninid and the soul of Gurhi theOW period one would expect thefinal consonantto be

B3

B10b. Cross-carved stone, Llanddeti (St Detti's Church)I , faces A-D andtop (E).

Comments onthe linguistics: Brittonic Period 28. GUADAN

si a diminutivein -an based on Wgwadd(gwa-dden) 'mole'; cf. the OW name Guodon from the variant *gwodd(OB guod). The name may be spelled GUADGAN onthe Twyn stone, CIIC: no. 1033/ ECMW: no. 287 (but the

perhapso n a tablet, had been provided by a scribe. The P has the scribal contraction for pro, NINID has a contraction mark, and there is what has been taken as anunusual rendition of a n 'et' sign, which may be a contraction for est. The inscription exemplifies the difficulties that had to be overcome by letter-cutters who could not easily cut

curves and who found the double bows of an S so prob-

al Breconshire cross-marked stones, suggesting that this monument also may have begun as a pillar bearing an unmodified ring-cross and nothing else. Further, the cur-

tailment of the decoration flanking the cross on face C, and

of the right side of the cross on A, show that at somestage the stone was wider than it is at present. However, the presence of decoration on both edges and the uniformity of style in design and execution suggest that these

176

PART II CATALOGUE

BRECONSHIRE

anomalies may be no more than the result of a change of (sorex), perhaps emblematic of his name. Could the figu-

intention during manufacture.

Interpretation of the motifs around the cross on face A is difficult. The suggestion that the cross hasbeen modified in order to represent aface, neck and shoulders of a human figure, the inscription being contained in a rectangular tabard-like garment covering the body, in the manner of the figure on thestone from Mynydd Gellionen (G52), is

rative changes around the cross on face A2 also represent a mole, rather than a man? The 'fish symbols' onB a n d C can also be read as crude representations of 'chalices'

The stone was attributed by Nash-Williams to the ninth century on the basis of the elaborate decoration and epigraphy, which he considered transitional in date from his Groups I and III. The linguistic attribution to Brittonic

not totally convincing. In outline, the design recalls the form of some large free-standing crosses, such as that at

Period 28 indicates a ninth-century or later date.

Nevern, Pembrokeshire (ECMW: no. 360).

Llanddeti lies s o m e six miles north-west of Crickhowell, n e a r ther o a d to Brecon; the c h u r c hi s set w i t h i n a circular c h u r c h y a r d beside the river Usk.

The name Ninid is found in the place-names Eglwys

Nynnid, Glamorgan (see G86-88) and Llanddewi Ystradenni, Radnorshire (see R3). The readingsgiven are those ofMacalister (1922 and in

CIC) and Williams (1935). Williams identified the name 'Guadan' as an Old Welsh diminutive meaning little mole', and drew attention to the decorative figure that

enclosesthe name on B.3, in whichh e saw a certain resemblance to that animal; in this connection, compareRIB: I no. 1821, a building stone recording work by the century of Sorio, which includes the image of a shrew-mouse

D AT E

Ninth century.

REFERENCES CISP. LDDTY/1; LW: 60; IBC: no. 42; CIC: no. 979; T. H. Thomas, 1906: 104-5; Macalister, 1922: 199-201, fig. 1; Williams, 1935: 87-94; Macalister, 1936: 154; RCAHMW, 1997: 287(ECM 39); CIB: 37 n. 92, 51, 91, 107, 111, 116, 120 n. 664, 128, 140, 176, 212, 213

n. 1317, 222, 232 (no. 979/46). Cast: NMW acc. nos 06.485; 06.503.

BIla. Ogam-inscribed stone, Llanddeti (Ystrad)1, as recordedby Lhuyd (NationalLibrary of Wales, Llanstephan MS 185, fo. 51). (Copyright: National Library of Wales)

BIlb. Ogam-inscribedstone,Llanddeti (Ystrad) .I

Bllc. Ogam-inscribedstone, Llanddeti(Ystrad) .1

BIld. Ogam-inscribed stone, Llanddeti (Ystrad) I, the inscription.

L L A N D D E T I (Ystrad)

BI1

Ogam-inscribed stone ECMW no. 67a

small sub-rectangular earthwork enclosure, marked on the

OS map as Buarth-y-caerau.

FOR

DISCOVERY/PROVENANCE

.c 1695 by or on behalf of Edward Lhurd (National Library

of Wales, Llanstephan MS 185, fo. 51; published in Parochialia: I, 90). The location subsequently became lost

to memory until its rediscovery by Webley ni 1957, Macalister (CIC: no. 336) and Nash-Williams (ECMW: no. 67a) having to rely solely on Lhuyd's account.

. MEASUREMENTS h. 120cm (47in.)above ground X W 38cm(15in.) × d. 36cm (14in.).

00000 0

Age) within 300m, and on thevalleyslope to the north a

EVIDENCE

Recorded and sketched (includingt h e ogam inscription)

0000 00°

PRESENT LOCATION On open moorland at 455m (1500ft) above sea-level, west of the track from Merthyr Tydfil to Talybont. It is not 'on Ystrad Mountain' as statedb y Lhuyd, but lies below it to the west in Cwm Criban. It stands, leaning towards the south-east, in a hollow in slightly elevated ground (upcast). Webley described it as 'set in a socket o flarge slabs' (Webley,1957: 120),b u tthis is no longer evident. There are substantial packing-stones at its base, but whether these are original is open to question, in view of the stone'ssituation in a hollow, which sug. gests that the ground in the vicinity may have been disturbed. There are three ruined cairns (probably Bronze

o0о

SO 073 132

STONE TYPE Pale grey, darker-grey weathering, coarsegrained sandstone showing a homogeneous composition dominated by quartz and displaying laminar bedding which intersects the ogam-inscribed face. Similarly weathered blocks have been noted near the site, and

178

PART I CATALOGUE

a l t h o u g h these are generally coarser-grained a n d less

finely bedded, the stone is considered to be locally derived from the Millstone Grit (Namurian , Lower

Carboniferous). (JH)

BRECONSHIRE

179

PRESENT CONDITION

the precedinglabiovelar /k'/. nI hte present case the spac-

ing supports [I] butone cannot rule out [U] or [O], espe-

cially if followed by a slight space.

i hshi

Williams, 2002: 22-3.

Pangattrog

References: CIB: 126,306,311-12, 314 (no. 336/67a); Sims-

PRESENT CONDITION

Badly weathered, the outline

of t h e c h a r a c t e r s r o u n d e d a n d s o m e c o m p l e t e l y o b l i t e r a t -

ed. DESCRIPTION 1 : Inscriptions We b l e y d e t e c t e d a series o f w e a t h e r e d h o r i z o n t a l

lines cut into theface, which he suggested might b e the r e m a i n s o f a vertical L a t i n inscription

(Webley, 1957: pl. xxvi (b)). ni

Along the left-hand edge a worn ogam inscription reading upwards: [M]AQ/I]D[E]C[E]D[A] Maqi Deceda [The stone]of Magas-Deceda

Comments on the linguistics (PS-W:

Irish Period 4-9 f

preservation of Oi n formulaM[A]Q[I] is significant) or (if not) 4-12. M[A]OII DEICE|DA is the same popular

r o n n

The present location is high, and may be that described by Lhuyd, though the possibilitythat the stone may have been transported down the hill and re-erected has been raised (Webley, 1957: 118). Geophysical surveying in 1993 identified no more than previously recognized features adjacent to the m o n u m e n t (Hamilton, forthcoming).

DESCRIPTION A plain cross, the horizontal arm somewhat longer than the vertical, with an inscription apparently cut over it, though this is uncertain (and unlikely).

Talybont. within

DISCUSSION

former

Inscription: Not legible from the transcription, set horizontally. It has been read as 'hic-ieti' (Macalister, 1949: 139), and 'HIC I A C I T / ? ' in mixed Roman capitals and halfuncials (ECMW: 81). The H and t h e T / C letter-forms appear tob e half-uncial. The sketch appears to show the inscription over the cross, whereas at Trallwng (B45)

I L A I E C I :

the c r o s s is l a t e rt h a n t h ei n s c r i p t i o n .

Lane and M a c D o n a l d .

Comments ont h e linguistics (PS-W):

Dekans* >OIMacc-Deichet) as si found elsewhere in Britain

(Anglesey) and CIC:no. 492/Okasha 1993: no. 59, MAC-

CODECHETI. Note also CIIC: no. 440 /ECMW: no. 335 (Pembrokeshire) where Lhuyd's sketch, MACVDEbETI (sic), probably has b in error for h=( ch). In these other

The reading is only known from the Lhuyd sketch, which Nash- Williams described as'highly uncertain'; on thebasis

mula. The vowelshave largelybeen worn away,but the relative sizes of the spaces suggest this reading. Relying on

of this transcription he dated the inscription (which he

Lhuyd's sketch, Macalister read the letters Q T_C_D

took to be cut before thec r o s s ) to the sixth century, a n d the

(CIIC: no. 336).

r o s s t o t h e s e v e n t h - n i n t h c e n t u r y.

Attributed tentatively by Nash-Williams to the fifth-sixth

DATE

centuries on the basis of the Lhuyd sketch and inscription.

REFERENCES CISP: TALYB/1; CIC: no. 989; Parochialia: II, 91 and fig.;N LW Llanstephan MS 185, fo.

DATE Fifth-sixth century. CISP.,

53; RCAHMW, 1997: 288 (LECM7). 336;

B12. Latin-inscribed/ cross-carved stone, Llanddeti (Tal-y-bont) I, as

Report, 1872: 386; Webley, 1957: 118-21; James, 1978-9:

recorded by Lhuyd(NationalLibrary of Wales, LlanstephanMS 185, fo. 53). (Copyright: National Library of Wales)

PONTS/1;

Inscription: fifth-sixth century; cross: seventh-

ninth century.

Attribution by Sims-Williams to Irish Periods 4 9 sup-

REFERENCES

Illegible.

DISCUSSION

The ogam inscription is probably a commemorative for-

Irish name (*Mak'* sa Dekantos 'son of (the divinity ports afifth- or sixth-century date.

as CIIC: no. 326/ECMW: no. 39 MACCVDECCETI

Unknown.

CIIC:

no.

Parochialia: II. 90:NLW Llanstephan MS 185, fo. 51;

22, ref. no. 11/43; RCAHMW, 1997:286(ECM22). forms hte genitive ending I-has been rounded to U orObv SAM no. B141.

L L A N - D D E W (St David's Church)

LL AN DD ET I (Tal-y-bont)

SO 0548 3074

1. Cro ss-c arve d ston e

SO1 2 0 220 1. L a t i n - i n s c r i b e d / c r o s s - c a r v e d s t o n e ECMW no. 69 PRESENT LOCATION Lost.

EVIDENCE

B12

a mile of y° former' (National Library of Wales, Llanstephan MS 185, fo. 53; published in Parochialia: in,

91).

E C M W no. 46a

PRESENT LOCATION Inside the church, built into the

south wall of the south transept (recorded there ni 1985; in the vestry c. 2000).

DISCOVERY/PROVENANCE

MEASUREMENTS Unobtainable.

'by y° high way side from Talvbont to Llangatwg, within

EVIDENCE FORDISCOVERY/PROVENANCE First published in 1885. According to Macalister, it wasfound

STONE TYPE Unobtainable (JH)

during restoration work (started in 1883) when it was found built into the wall of the south transept, and was 'lying in the vestry' c. 1949 (CIIC: no. 980).

FOR

Noted c. 1698 by Edward Lhuyd or one of his informants

B13

MEASUREMENTS h. 71cm (28in.)× w. 36cm (14in.) × d.14cm (5½in.).

STONE TYPE Pale grey/pink, very fine-grained sandstone, w h ic h does not a p p e a r to s h o w a significant colour

change on weathering. This lithology is very well-sorted

and showslaminar bedding oriented parallel to theworked face bearing thering cross. The smooth front face has been worked on a bedding plane surface. The sides oft h e stone show cavities and a 'honeycomb' texture, possibly resulting from the dissolutiono fa carbonate cement in the sandstone. This rock is derived from the Lower Old Red

180

PART I CATALOGUE

Sandstone sequence, but not directly from the bedrock at Llanddew which is composed of siltstone. (JH)

PRESENTCONDITION

BRECONSHIRE

181

On palaeographical grounds Nash-Williams attributed the inscription, whose meaning and readingh e considered t o beuncertain, tot h e eleventh or twelfth centuries. The present writersfavour Radford's reading and an earlier date.

Incomplete: the edges of the

slab and the baseo f thes h a f t arem i s s i n g . There is serious cracking o n the s t o n e , r u n n i n g from the back towards the front.

REFERENCES CISP:

Westwood,

1885:

LDDEW/1; CIIC: no.

148-9; Macalister,

1922:

RCAHMW, 1997: 286 (ECM 30).

980;

205;

DATE Eighth-ninth century.

DESCRIPT ION Approximately rectangular slab, lightly

L L A N D D E W I ' R C W M (Erw-he lm)

incised with a n o u t l i n e r i n g cross, t h e vertical a r m s e x t e n d -

ing above and below the ring (Fig. 62.43).

SO0 3 4 9 4940

Inscrintion

1. Cross-shaft known as the Erw-helm Cross

The inscription in the lower leftq u a d r a n t o ft h ec r o s s con-

sists of a word of six thinly cut letters, reading vertically: SSLINGUIE S S Ligue

B14

BI3a. Cross-carved stone, Llanddew (St Davids' Church) I E C M Wn o . 47

Nash-Williams in 1937 it was lying in the farmyard, near t h e e n t r a n c e . M o v e d t o B r e c k n o c k M u s e u m s o o n a f t e r.

Comment on letter-forms (GC-E): Minuscules in asix-letter

PRESENT LOCATION

Brecknock Museum, Brecon

inscription with a confusing opening four-line character that has been taken for a twelfth-century W. From the manner in which the cutter has both put the letters on the stone andcut the terminal E, it does not seem that he was

(acc. no. 160)

awriter himself. He does, however, have a concept of a

(Brecknockshire six-inch OS Sheet XI SE); when seen by

EVIDENCE FOR DISCOVERY/PROVENANCE Formerly at Erw-helm farm, whereit was first recorded in 1906

writing-line, putting the G within it, so that the double descenders of the opening character are intended. The four-stroke W of twelfth-century scribes expands above the line rather than below, and Ralegh Radford's suggestion thatthe cutter isrendering two overlapping minuscule

wards.

MEASUREMENTS h. 103cm (40½,in.) overall (visible height81cm), face A 61cm (24in.) × w.39cm (15½in.) x d. 32cm (12'in.), excluding butt 48 x 20cm (19 × 8in.).

a b l e if t h es t o n e - c a r v e r , not al e t t e r - c u t t e r, is the s a m e m a n

who cutthe associated cross, making avery good fisto fthe four mirrored quadrants.

B13b. Cross-carvedstone, Llanddew (St David's Church) ,I hte cross

desion a n di n s c r i n t i o n

Comments on the linguistics (PS- W):

Brittonic Period 22-8

(on basis of Radford's reading). WLIGUE

(Nash-

Williams'sreading)makes no apparent sense. fI Radford's

reinterpretation is right, LIGUE should not be equated with Mod.W. Lligwy as in Din Lligwy (Anglesey), earlier Llugwy, but with MW Llywy, 'fair, fair one', which si spelled Liugui, Legui, Leui in Old Welsh and Louni, Leugui in Old Breton. Macalister's readings were probably influenced by nearby VVLMERo n Llan-gors 2 (B30).

References: CIB: 51, 104-5, 111, 132, 148, 193, 212-13, 216 (no. 980/46a).

DISCUSSION

For the site, see Gazetteer

Thesurfaceof the stone is undressed and unworked. It has been suggested that this may be the central panel of an

inscription probably belonged to the twelfth century (further relevant discussion by Nash-Williams under ECMW:

no. 281, Llanfihangel-y-Traethau, Merionethshire).

C. A. Ralegh Radford, however, read it as s s ligue, for signum sancti ligue or signum scribaeligue (i.e. 'the sign ofthe

holy Liguy' or 'the clerk Lliguy') suggesting (mistakenly: see PS-W's comment above) that the same name might

occur in the place-name Din Lliguy; he considered the

inscription to be contemporary with the cross, and todate from c.800, representing thedonor or thesaint whose relics were preserved in the altar (in litt. 3 August 1984.

Department of Archaeology & Numismatics, National Museum Wales). Knight has suggested (inlitt.) liene

183-90). The inscription has

(lignum, gen. ligni, 'wood') as an alternative reading ('the sign of the holy wood'), suggesting that this might be appropriatei nthe case of an altar frontal (cf. also Thomas.

been read variously as Walmie (Westwood, 1885); Wvmer, Wolmere, Wilmere or Walmere (Macalister, 1922 and CIIC); and Wligue (ECMW: 73). Most have assumed on the

1971: 183-90). The inscribing of personal names on altar frontals, possibly before sea-journeys, si illustrated by the slab from Ballavarkish, Kirk Bride (Manx Archaeological

altar front (Thomas. 1971:

grounds of what was taken to be the initial W that the

MOLVELA

Ss makes much more sense of the twostrong descenders,

even though the letter-form is reversed. This is unremark-

Survey III. 1911: 33 4).

. B14a. Crossshaft, Llanddewi'r Cwm (Erv-helm) ,1face A

B14b. Crossshaft, Llanddewi'r Cwm (Erv-helm)1, face Aand oblique view of face B.

BRECONSHIRE

0 80 6

PART II CATALOGUE

Bl4e. Cross shaft, Llanddewi'r Cwm (Erw-helm) I, top.

D: Three registers of a double row of Stafford knots (E7.1; Fig. 68). E:

B14d. Cross shaft, Llanddewi'r Cwm(Erw-helm)1,face C.

DESCRIPTION Lower part of the shaft of a moulded

STONE TYPE

Medium-grained, dark green metado-

lerite, extensively covered by aweathered crust. In general little petrological detail is visible but altered feldspar crystals can be observed on small polished areas on the rear of the stone. The nearest exposed igneous rocks to Erw-helm farm occur to the north, close to Builth Wells (Builth Volcanic Group. Llanvirn, Lower Ordovician). Although petrological detail for this stone is limited, a local provenance is not consideredunreasonable . (JH) PRESENT CONDITION condition.

What remains is in good

patterns. A:

-

. , face B B14c. Cross shaft, Llanddewi'r Cwm (Erw-helm) L

pillar-cross with rough butt below, which is unworked except for possible rough tooling on the side. Quadrangular in section, with heavy angle-mouldings enriched with plain straps. Each face is filledwith carved interlace

Double-beaded plaitwork: Lower part of an eight-strand plait with breaks, m e rg i n g into:

Complex four-strand plait (Fig. 70.5). | A t the foot, a looped snake.

There si arectangular mortice-hole cut into the topo f the shaft, in a slightly off-centre position (11cm/ 4½in. from front face, 8cm/3in. from back face). It measures 17.5cm x 12cm(7in.× 5in.); survivingdepth 3ст.

DISCUSSION

The remains of the mortice-hole imply that, unlike Maesmynys (Neuadd Siarman) 1 (B39), this was a com-

(ECMW: pl. XLIT).

Siarman Cross (B39), whose relationship is further con-

nal site to mark the parish b o u n d a r y between Builth and

mouldings and carefully controlled interlace-patterns relate this monument to the more complete Neuadd

firmed by their provenance, both being in the northern foothills of Mynydd Epynt to the south-west of Builth Wells. Their formal characteristics point to influencefrom southern England (see under B39). Theplain straps, which are 2.5-3 cm wide, arespaced from 10-14cm apart on the angle-mouldings.

B : Two registers of simple double-beaded F inter

The cross-shaft hasn oknown connection with St David's

lace (F7.3; Fig. 68), with a pellet ni the lowest central

Church, which on t h e evidence of itscurvilinear churchyard (now anearthwork) may have been an early medieval site (Clwyd-Powys Archaeological Trust Survey). Fox visited the stone in 1929, when it was 'on the Builth-

inter-space.

C: Tworegisters of double-beaded, double-row simple F interlace (F 7.2; Fig. 68).

BI4f. Cross shaft, Llanddewi'r Cwm (Erw-helm) ,1 showing base

posite monument. The cross-strapped baluster corner-

Llanddewi'r Cwm road, probably removed from itsorigiLlanddewi'r Cwm' (Western Mail, 20 October 1929). N a s h - Wi l l i a m s d a t e dt h e s t o n e tot h et e n t h c e n t u r y o n the

basis of the style of decoration, and this remains valid. DAT E

Tenth century.

REFERENCES T. H . Thomas, 1906:

105-6;

Williams, 1935-6: 187; Nash-Williams, 1939a: RCAHMW, 1997: 287(ECM 33).

Nash-

149;

PART I CATALOGUE

184

LLAN DYFA ELOG FACH (St Maelog's Church)

SN 874 416 (?893 418)

SO 0340 3238 B15

E C M W no. 48

National Museum Cardiff

(NMW acc. no. 29.291/1).

. 41cm (16in.) MEASUREMENTS h. 83cm (3lin.) × w max. X d. 20cm (8in.)max.

DISCOVERY/PROVENANCE

STONE TYPE (JH) Mid-grey, brown-weathering, medium-grained sandstones, bearing minor white mica and

Reported to have been found at 'Pen-lan-wen, Tir Abad, Llangamarch'. Pen-lan-wen is at SN 893 418; Tirabad,

ding isparallel to the worked face andcross-bedding si pre-

EVIDENCE

FOR

185

L L A N D D U L A S (Tirabad)

1. C r o s s - c a r v e d s t o n e

P R E S E N T L O C AT I O N

BRECONSHIRE

1. C r o s s - s l a b

B16

E C M W no. 49

PRESENT LOCATION Fixed against the north reveal of the tower arch inside the church.

w h o s e n a m e ('Abbot's land' often associated with former

sent to the rear of the stone. Pennant Sandstone (Upper

EVIDENCE FORDISCOVERY /PROVENANCE First recordedb y Lhuyd. Am o r e detailed record of its location (Strange, 1770: 304)describes it as'[serving]t o cover a low

monastic lands) suggestsa morelikely origin for thestone, is at SN 874 416.

Coal Measures, Upper Carboniferous); the nearest out-

crops of Coal Measures lie over 30km to the south of this

wall contiguous to the outside south wall of the church'.

find-site (Fig. 106 c, d).

383-4), but was apparently moved outside again, for

lithic/altered feldspar grains. Poorly defined planar bed-

PRESENT CONDITION

Some pitting tooriginal sur-

face in the vicinity of the r i n g - c r o s s .

(c) Bottom left As (a), but triple-beaded thoughunfinished, one vertical strand being left plain. (d) Top left Triple-beaded triquetra knot (Fig. 69.2). Thefull heighto f this panel is occupiedb y a standing male figure (Fig. 76.11). The figure wears a straight. knee-length tunic, the right arm across the chest and holding a club, mace or spear which rests on the right shoulder (restored as a club), the left arm half-bent acrosst h e body and holding a dagger whosepointed end extends into the diagonal fret-pattern; both feet areturned to the figure'sleft. Theshouldersa n d upper arms occupy the whole width of the panel, leaving four separate fields, each of which is decorated:

By 1872 it was fixed inside the church (Report, 1872: according to church records it was 'moved from the inside of the steeple [sic] tothe wall o f the Penoyre vault [i.e. back into the churchyard]during the nineteenthcentury' (in litt.

(a) Top right Three double-beaded, linked Stafford

15 February 1985, Department of Archaeology & DESCRIPTION Deeply incised ring-cross, flattened to conform tot h e shape of the pillar, withgroups of dots in the interspaces (probably originally three p e r quadrant); below the ring is a conjoined rectangular panel with round-

knots (E7.3) with a free ring. (b) Bottom right Diagonal fret-pattern (N2; Fig. 75). (b) Bottom left Two-strand twist with free rings (Fig. 70.7). (d) Top left Restored; the unrestored areas appear to

Numismatics, National Museum Wales). It was finally moved inside thechurch .c 1952.

ed corners,c o n t a i n i n g ad i a g o n a l cross, its a r m s extending

MEASUREMENTS h. 243.5cm (96in.) × w. 41cm (16in.) at cross, narrowing to 35.5cm (14in.) at base and

beyond the panel on the left side (Fig. 63.47). There si a

37.5cm (15in.)a t top X d. 12cm (5in.).

he undecorated

Rectangular panel outlined by a cable-pattern, con-

small shallow dot above the ring-cross (top right). DISCUSSION Attributed by Nash-Williams to the seventh-ninth centuries, but could be slightly later. Merovingian parallels

have been suggested (see Azzola, Elbern and Schaberick, 1971: 130-2; Böhner, 1944-50: 67), but the design seems more likely to represent a locally devolved version of a ring-cross with decorated panel below or above: see Fig.

taining an inscription.

STONE TYPE Pale red, grey-weathering, fine-grained sandstone, much covered by mortar. Topleft of face Ais

4.

greyer in colour and slightly coarser-grained, suggesting

Inscription Half-uncial inscription in two lines, preceded by aLati n cross with neatly squared expanded ends,reading:

that ti is not part of the original stone. Planar beddingon

40-50mm scale, is present, oriented parallel tot h e worked face. The stone is derived locally from the Lower Devonian, most likely the Brownstones Formations. (JH)

PRESENT CONDITION

DATE Ninth-tenth century.

from one side since the late seventeenth century (see drawing in British Library,Stowe MS 1023, fo. 166), which has

Azzola, Elbern and Schaberick, 1971: 130-2; RCAHMW, 1997: 284 (ECM 6).

Incomplete: piece missing

been replaced. Some of the plain border at the bottom of the face has been removed by a chamfer.

DESCRIPTION The face is filled withincised or lightly carved decoration, divided vertically into four panels: .1 Double-ribbon Latin cross with the arm-ends forming

Stafford knots (E7.3; Fig. 68), the knot at the foot

BISa. Cross-carvedstone, Llanddulas (Tirabad) .I

+BRIAMAIL

FILIOU Briamail Flou/ Filius Lou

63. 45-6.

REFERENCES Rodger, 1911: 30; Nash-Williams, 1930: 394, fig. 1; Macalister, 19336: 374; Böhner, 1944-50: 67;

Panel of double-beaded, ten-strand plaitwork.

being double-beaded. Theinter-arm spaceshaveinterlace decoration: (a) Top right Double-beaded 'figure of eight' incorporating a free ring (Fig. 69.5). (b) Bottom right The same, but incorporating a Stafford knot (E7.3) at the top.

The letters are carefully cut, withcharacteristic triangular

serifs. The L is not as preciselyc u t as the other characters, and may have been altered from an .I

Comments on letter-forms: Half-uncials with very unusual

sharply cut triangular serifs within a clear writing-line; the style is not completely homogeneous, as some letters do have angularity - in the finishing of the L a right-angle turninstead ofa curve, andi n the turningo f thefirst stroke

of the U to join with thesecond. The workof a cutter who is very familiar with letter-form,t h e botching of the L of FLOU may be a later expansion, or accidental damage.The

second o f the two As shows a flat topr e l a t e d to the scrib.

al type clearly seen on the earlier 'Brancu' Stone at Baglan (G4). The flat-topped minuscule A is a Welsh characteristic. (GC-E)

PARTI I CATALOGUE

BRECONSHIRE

§

§'оЦ

B16a. Cross-carved stone, Llandyfaelog Fach (St Maelog's Church) I, as recorded on British Library, Stowe MS 1023, fo. 166. (copyright: British Library)

B16b. Cross-carvedstone, LlandyfaelogFach(StMaelog's Church) I,

B16c. Cross-carvedstone, Llandyfaelog Fach (St Maelog'sChurch)I ,

as illustrated in twosections by Westwood ( W : plate 33, figs 2, 3).

cast.

188

PART I CATALOGUE

BRECONSHIRE

189

0000001: C000 000 0291

Romanot

B16g. Cross-carvedstone, Llandyfaelog Fach (St Maelog's Church)I ,

*Lugus,but could perhaps be intended as an abbreviation for a non-mythological name containing this theonym,

such as Old Welsh Loumarch (Llywarch) or Loubran. On the other hand, could F be an abbreviation for FILIUS?

The possibility that F[LJOU isaltered from F[JOU suggests that the engraver at first intended FILIVS LOU or F I (LOU. and that hedecided to shorten his task by not writingo u t fili(us) in full. Note, however, that the abbrevi-

ation F forfili(us)would beunusual at this period. (PS-W) References: CIB: 69, 85, 111, 127, 172, 208, 221, 225, 227-8 (no. 978/49). DISCUSSION

For the site, see Gazetteer. Early illustrations all show a piece missing from the left-

hand edge of the stone, whichincluded the upper arm and

B16f. Cross-carvedstone, Llandyfaelog Fach (St Maelog's Church)I, detail of inscription andlower shaft.

Comments on the linguistics: Brittonic Period 20-5 (if loss of G in BRIA- is significant) or (if not) 12-25. BRIAMAIL is a Welsh derivative (OW Briauail, MW Briafael) of

the name attested ni Northumberland on CIIC: no. 498, BRIGOMAGLOS. FLOU may derive regularly from Latin Flavus, and could be an epithet from flavus (compare OW Tudual flaui in De Situ Brecheniauc = Tutwal pefir in Cognacio Brychan, CIB: 227, n. 1424). Alternatively could

ti be a non-Welsh attempt at spelling OW *Llou (MW BI6d. Cross-carvedstone, Llandyfaelog Fach (St Maelog's Church) 1. (Copyright:RCAHMW)

BIbe. Cross-carvedstone, Llandyfaelog Fach(St Maelog's Church) I, detail of figure.

Lleu), like Shakespeare's Fluellen for Llywelyn? Lleu is a mythological name derived from the Celtic theonym

the rightshoulder of the figure with the spaceabovet o the left of the head (see ill. B16a; Camden, 1789: vol. 2, pl. 1.15.1; LW: pl. 33.2). The Stowe MS suggests that the inscription should read FOU. Theplate i n Camden (1789) shows acrack between the Fa n d O inthe inscription, and the same appears in Strange (1770), facing page 294. It is not known when the restoration was carried out, though

the repair post-dates Westwood'sillustration andisevident

in a photograph by Mansel Franklen .c 1889. The obiect carried in the right hand may not originally have been as reconstructed. The decoration in 1(c) was interpreted by Nash-Williams (ECMW: 73) as a version of the 'Jellinge beast' but this seems doubtful; the unfinished interlacestrands provide important evidence for the method of

PART I CATALOGUE

190 stone-cutting - first, the blocking-out of the main shapes, then the cutting of detail.

The slab provides a rare example of a depiction of the deceased, and thus of dress and weapons. It was illustrated by Strange (1770)next tothe Roman tombstone known locally as Maen y Morwynion ('The Maidens' Stone': RIB1: no. 404), which was found close to Y Gaer hill-fort in the sixteenth century and later moved to a positiono n thenorth

side of theRoman road from YGaer toBrecon. Westwood wondered whether thesculptor oft h e Llandyfaelog Fach stone might have been influenced by this surviving Roman

monument (LW: 58), which depicts full-length figures of the deceased and his wife. Traditionally the Llandyfaelog Fach stone marked the grave of 'Brochwel Yscythrog'; Jones thought it more likely tob e that of 'Rain, or Drem Dremrhudd, one of the sons of Brychan Brycheiniog'

(Dawson, 1909: 101). Dated by Nash-Williams to the late tenth century on the basis of the decoration, which he believed to represent

BRECONSHIRE

191

Northumbrian influence onBrycheiniog during this period.

LLAN ELEU (St Ellyw 's Churc h)

The full-lengthfrontal treatment of the figure, bearing arms,

can be compared with the incised human figure on Middleton 2A, eastern Yorkshire, attributed to the tenthcentury. The anonymous Middleton figure, however, wearsconicalheadgear, and as well as carrying a knife is alsoarmed withspear, axe and sword, whilet h e ornamental repertoire ont h e stone is Anglo-Scandinavian (Lang, 1991: il. 677).

ECMW no. 51

likelv to originate from the

DATE Late tenth century.

PRESENTLOCATION Fixed against the outside of the

(Lower Old Red Sandstone, Lower Devonian), which

EVIDENCE FOR DISCOVERY/PROVENANCE Cic u m s t a n c e s o f d i s c o v e r yn o t k n o w n

east of the find-site. (JH)

SO1 8 4 9 3418 1. C r o s s - c a r v e d s t o n e

B18

west wall of the porch.

REFERENCES: CISP: LDYF/1; British Library, Stowe

MS 1023, fo. 166; IBC: no. 40; LW: 58; CIIC: no. 978; Strange, 1770: 294, 304; Jones, 1805-9: II, 174; Theophilus Jones, Notebook, fo. 8('copied Camden');Fenton, 1804-13: 24; Westwood, 1858b: 306-9; A.H., 1872: 167; Report, 1872: 383-4; Rhys, 1873a: 77; Rhys, 1873c: 13; Report, 1903: 175; Macalister, 1922: 199; RCAHMW, 1997: 286

( E C M 28). Cast: N M W acc. no. 06.484.

.

LLAN DYFA ELOG FACH (St Maelo g's Church)

ECMW no. 50 PRESENTL O C AT I O N EVIDENCE

FOR

Lost.

DISCOVERY/PROVENANCE

Strange was informed by 'Mr Jones of the Exchequer' of

thisinscription (Strange, 1770: 305). First recorded in the

MEASUREMENTS Visible h. 82cm (32in.) X w. 42.5cm

STONE TYPE Pale red/brown-weathering, mediumgrained sandstone. Homogeneous and well-sorted, with a

is e x t e n d e d d o w n w a r d s i n t o a l o n g s t e m .w i t h c r o s s - b a r s

This cross-carved stone was attributed byNash- Williams toh i sbroad seventh-ninth centuryGroup II. Thestone is

DATE Seventh-ninth century.

REFERENCES Dawson, 1909: 116; Rodger, 1911: 30;

RCAHMW, 1997: 288 (ECM 43).

Cast: NMW acc. no.P R O 161.

development, typical of south-east Wales, to -wg rather than -awg (cf. MW Cadawc. Cadwe and Cattwe). (PS-W)

References: CIB: 68, 111, 135, 201 (no. 333/50).

MEASUREMENTS Unobtainable.

DATE Uncertain.

DESCRIPTION Carved on one face with inscription: CATVC (Cadwg).

Fort h e site, see Gazetteer.

u n u s u a l l y s h o r t . a n dm a y have b e e n s h o r t e n e d to s e r v e as

Comments on thelinguistics: Brittonic Period 21-8. CATVC is s t a n d a r d M o dW . Cadog < Celtic *Katakos (cf. Llanfihangel Cwm Du 1 CATACVS) with the dialectal

(Anon, 1862: 156)

PRESENT CONDITION Unobtainable.

just below the outer ring and at the foot (Fig. 62.34). DISCUSSION

ag r a v e - m a r k e r

B17

porch of the parish church, where it served ast h e threshold of thedoorway into the church. The church was rebuilt in 1831. Sometime before 1833 the stone was built into the tower arch, with the inscription concealed. STONE TYPE Unobtainable. (JH)

PRESENT CONDITION Back of stone ni contact with

(17in.) at base, 29cm (11'in.) at top X d. 11cm (Ain.) DESCRIPTION Incised cross-potent, w approx. ith single dots ni the interspaces, enclosed in adouble ring. The vertical arm

SO 0340 3238 2. L a t i n - i n s c r i b e d s t o n e

f o r m s the m a i n e s c a r p m e n t a f e wk i l o m e t r e s to t h es o u t h -

wall; patches oflichen; extensive weathered crust; top missing; exfoliation on top of ornamented face.

composition dominated by sub-rounded quartz with a grain-supported structure. Bedding (5mm scale) oriented parallel to the ornamental face. The stone is locally derived. The bedrock at the churchis mudstone (Silurian/ Lower Devonian) and therefore the stone is much more

SAM no. B120.

Brownstones Formation

DISCUSSION

A reading of the inscription was given asCVNOG in the a n o n y m o u s note published in Archaeologia Cambrensis

REFERENCES CISP: LDYFL/2; CIC: no. 333;LW: 59; IBC: no. 39; Strange, 1770: 304; Jones, 1805-9: I, 174; Lewis, 1833; Westwood, 1853: 333; Anon., 1862: 156; Report, 1872: 384; Dawson, 1909: 101; RCAHMW, 1997: 286 (ECM 29).

B18a. Cross-carved stone, Llaneleu (St Ellyw's Church) .I

B186. Cross-carved stone, Llaneleu(St Ellyw's Church) I, the cross

design.

192

PARTI

193

BRECONSHIRE

L L A N E L E U (St Ellyw's Church)

LLA NFE UGA N (Tÿ- newy dd)

SO1 8 4 9 3418

SO0 8 4 8 2615 B19

2. C r o s s - c a r v e d s t o n e E C M Wno. 52

PRESENTLOCATION Fixed against the outside oft h e west wall of the porch. EVIDENCE FOR DISCOVERY/PROVENANCE Circumstances of discovery not known. MEASUREMENTS

CATALOGUE

Visible h. 108cm ( 4 2 ½ i n . ) X w.

24cm (9'/in.)× d. 16cm (6in.) approx.

STONE TYPE Pink-grey weathering, medium-grained sandstone. Very homogeneous in composition and very well-sorted, showing a grain-supported, quartz-dominated structure. This lithology contains a minor lithic component not seen in Llaneleu 1 (B18). Both planar bedding, parallel to the worked face, and cross-beds are present. Small pits are attributed to natural causes. Locally derived stone. The bedrock at the church is mudstone (Silurian/Lower

Devonian) and the stone si much more likely tooriginate from the Brownstones Formation (Lower Old Red Sandstone, Lower Devonian), exposures of which form the main escarpment a few kilometres to thesouth-east of the present location. (JH)

PRESENT CONDITION In contact with porch wall; top capped in cement; partial lichen cover. DESCRIPTION Deeply incised (pecked)ring-cross, flattened at thesides to fit the width oft h e stone, with ringand-dot devices in the interspaces, and with the vertical arm projecting beyondt h er i n g at the top(Fig. 63.50).

1. C r o s s - c a r v e d stone

B20

ECMW no. 53 PRESENT LOCATION (NMW acc. no. 36.321).

EVIDENCE

FOR

National Museum Cardiff

DISCOVERY/PROVENANCE

Found by Frederick Hall c.1935, ni a field 200 yards

(180m) north-west of Tv-newydd farmhouse. Pencelli, close to the hedge on the west side. It was immediately beneath the surface, embedded face downwards i n rough stonework (possibly either a paved floor or the ruins o f a stone building; Nash-Williams, 1936a: 134). . 29.5cm MEASUREMENTS .h 165cm (65in.) × w (11'/in.), tapering at base to 23.2cm (9in.) X d. 5 - 1 0 c m (2-4in.).

STONE TYPE Dull purple-red, fine-grained, grain-sup-

ported quartzose sandstone showing a homogeneous composition and well-sorted texture. Millimetre-scale lamina.

tions are present, parallel to face A but the intersection of low-angle cross-beds produces a slightly irregular surface to the face. The Senni Beds form the bedrock at T§newydd, but, as int h e case ofB20, are not micaceous; the

Brownstones Formation, which lies a few kilometres to

the south-west, si a more plausible source lithology

(Plate 6d). (JH)

PRESENT CONDITION Good.

DESCRIPTION Incised ring-cross with the horizontal arms extending beyond thering; thelower vertical arm is bent to avoid an irregularity in the surface, thus b e c o m i n g aligned with af r a c t u r e line, which has been t r i m m e d to

give the appearance of a stem (Fig. 62.40). DATE Seventh- ninth century.

REFERENCES Nash-Williams, 1936a: 134-7; RAHMW, 1997: 286 (ECM 25).

DISCUSSION The form of the cross is similar to Llangyfelach

(St Cyfelach's Church)2 (G50)and Llanwonno 1 (G72) where t h e form i s discussed more fully.

Attributed by Nash-Williams tohis Group I of broad seve n t h - n i n t h century date.

DATE Seventh- ninth century.

REFERENCES Dawson, 1909: 46; Rodger, 1911: 30;

RCAHMW, 1997: 288 (ECM 44). Cast: NMW acc. no. PRO 159.

B19a. Cross-carvedstone, Llaneleu (St Ellyw's Church) 2. (Crown copyright: RCAHMW)

B19b. Cross-carvedstone, Llaneleu (St Ellyw's Church) 2, the cross

B20aCross-carvedstone, Llanfeugan (Ty-newvdd)I , after discovery

(bedded face downwards ni the rough stonework ni the foreground).

B20b. Cross-carvedstone, Llanfeugan (T§-newydd) I (base not shown).

194

PARTI I CATALOGUE

BRECONSHIRE

195

ECMW no. 54 PRESENTLOCATION Built into a buttress on the south side o f the church sincec . 1830 (Dawson, 1909: 193). E V I D E N C EF O R D I S C O V E RY / P R O V E N A N C E The earliest record is in a letter o f 29 M a r c h 1 6 9 8 / 9 from

Edward Lhuyd to Bishop Humphrey Humphreys (Jones,

1956-7: 110), where ti si described as 'standing] on end

PRESENT CONDITION Cemented intorecess of buttress; small amount oflichen cover. DESCRIPTION Pillar stone with bold but neatly picked inscription on one face.

Inscription

Latin inscription in two lines,reading vertically upwards: C ATA C V S H I C I A C I T

in a Feild call'd Kae Gwynlhiw within two miles of Lhan

FILIVS TEGERNACVS Catacus hic iacit filius Tegernacus Catacus lies here, the son of Tegernacus

Gattwg Krig Howel'. Camden (1789)refers to it as having been at the Gaer, Cwmdu, ni 1773 (the inscription had been copied at the site by M r Maskelyne, brother to the

Astronomer Royal, and communicated to the Society of Antiquaries by DainesBarrington on 18 November, 1773).

An annotated plan of 1803 describes it as lying under a hedge about 264 yards east-south-east of the 'Roman Encampment' at Gaer (Payne MS, Brecknock Museum; 'Mortimer'MS, National Museum Wales;Randall, 1950:

22), while TheophilusJones (1805-9) describes ti as lying ni a field about 200 yards (180m) to the east. The military nature of the Romanfort at Pen-y-gaer, which stood on a small knoll (110m above ordnance datum) about 2.2km south-west of St Michael's Church, Cwm Du. was confirmed in 1966 (Crossley, 1968: 92-102; RCAHMW, 1997: 146-9). A bronze plate at itspresent location records that it was moved from a field called Ti'r Gwenlli (presumably

' ae Gwynlhiw'), about 1 mile (1.6km) southLhuyd's K south-west ofthe church, by theincumbent, Thomas Price ('Carnhuanawc'), the antiquaryand Celtic/Welsh historian, in 1830.

. 28cm (11in.) MEASUREMENTS h. 163cm (64in.) × w

max., narrowing to 10cm (4in.). STONE TYPE Coarse, grey, apparently massive, quartzose sandstone showing a clean, well-sorted, quartz grainsupported structure. The local bedrock consists of micaceous grey sandstones of the Senni Beds (Lower Old Red Sandstone, Lower Devonian). However, the stone under consideration lacks mica, and alternative sources may be the Basal Grit of the Namurian (Upper Carboniferous) or the coarser components of the Grey

Grits Formation (Upper Old Red Sandstone, Upper

Devonian). These lithologies are exposed within 6km to the south-west of the find-site. (JH)

H E L IM E IE

B21

1. L a t i n - i n s c r i b e d s t o n e

Mixed capitals, having a general similarity to insular geo-

metricforms. The As have angled cross-bars, the uprights intersecting at the top; similarly the uprights of the Vs extend below the body of the letter, and have aforked serif at t h e base; the Cs are rectangular; also enlarged Ss with exaggerated curves, the final S of Tegernacus reversed; quasi-minuscule F and H (of rectangular form); N with horizontal middle stroke, and R withtail angled above the horizontal.

Comments on letter-forms:

H P E S 6 5 11 8

SO 1720 2190

S I O A I C I H S U S O S ENS

LLANFIHANGEL CWM DU (Cae Gwynlliw)

Geometrical capitals. a boldly

worked inscription in fairly h o m o g e n e o u s style. T h e cut-

ter has not used the reversed Z form of S. or the three-

stroke angular form used by the cutter of the Saturnbiu

B21b. Latin-inscribedstone, Llanfihangel Cwm Du (Cae Gwynlliw) I (taken from ECMW, fig. 46).

inscription from Ramsey Island (Okasha, 1970: 68-70).

TheG remainsrecognizably half-uncial, asi n the Lichfield

Gospels(St Chador St TeiloGospels)amongcarpet pages

Comments on the linguistics:

using geometrical capitals. His Ss are perhaps a special demonstration of skill; he reverses the final S of TEGERNACUS. The inscription suggests an experienced stone-carver unused to lettering, for he shows noawareness of the parallel bands ofa writing-line, or the repeat patterning of an alphabet with a rectangular core-form. He persistently, three times, renders the rectangular T with a

Brittonic Period 1-3. Irish

Period? CATACVS (cf. CATVC at Llandyfaelog-fach (St

Cynog's Church) 2) and TEGERNACVS (cf. CIIC: no. 404/ECMW: no. 270, TEGERNACUS) are both Latinized nominatives of Celtic names in * akos, formed from stems meaning 'battle' and 'prince'. Thesuffix could be Irish (cf. Cathach, Tigernach)or Welsh, although the further into the seventh century the inscription is dated the

horizontal foot as half the depth of the E or C, which ti

harder it becomes to believe that

should match. The ligatured ITi s executed in themanner of B1. Despite the irregularity these letters are monumen-

-ACVS can be Welsh

(where -ACVS changed to -OCVS) rather than Irish. The vowel ofTEG- points to Welsh (cf. MW teyrn) ratherthan Irish (tigern)b u tcould be the result of Welsh influence on the spelling, assuming the name isIrish. fI thenames are

tal: noone couldhave used them for handwriting. The date of the monument, c.600, at which time surviving insular manuscripts show nosign of an angular capital alphabet, suggests t h a t the alphabet was initially solely epigraphic:

Welsh (later Cadog, Teyrnog) a conservative spelling of -acus

ti came intofavour withscribes as a display alphabet at the end of the century. (GC-E)

may have to be assumed, perhaps due to familiarity with the -acus spelling in Latin contexts. (PS-W) References: CIB: 57, 98, 220, 272 (no. 334/54).

B2la. Latin-inscribedstone, LlanfihangelCwm Du (Cae Gwyniliw)l.

196

PARTI I CATALOGUE

DISCUSSION

Fort h e site, see Gazetteer.

name 'Catacus' (Cadog) on the stone with the field-name 'Gwynlhiw' of itsfind-spot, St Gwynllyw being tradition-

Early readings of the inscription by Maskelyne were: CATXCVS HIC IA. CP, expanded as +' Eata Abbus hic iacet Epitaphium', and FILIVS PSSESE RHACVS.

the Catacuso f the inscription being St Cadog, it shows the pseudo-historical legends connectingt h e two being borne

expanded as ' P r i n c e s illius possuit sumptu suo et suis

out by topography, suggesting that they were not simply the invention of the hagiographer.

For the use of the nominative for the genitive case

DATE Early seventh century.

Tedeschi (1992-4: 209-10; ibid., 2005: 94) dated theinscription tot h e seventh century on palaeographical grounds.

197

LLANFIH ANGEL CWM DU (St Michael's Church)

ally the father ofS t Cadog; while there is noquestion of

erexit + Macus' (Society of Antiquaries. 1773).

(Tigernacus), see Jackson (1953: 621). The stone wasdated by Nash-Williams to the late sixth-early seventh century, and by Jackson to the seventh century (LHEB: 621).

BRECONSHIRE

REFERENCES CISP: LFIC1/1; CIIC: no. 334; IBC: no.

SO 1805 2385

.1 Cross-carved stone E C M Wn o . 54a

PRESENT LOCATION Standing loose in thesouth-east porch of the parish church.

B22 DISCOVERY/PROVENANCE EVIDENCE FOR Removed to the churchyard from a windowsill in the church sometime before 1852. (The church was exten-

sively rebuilt during 1831-3 for the Revd Thomas Price.)

S letter Edw. Lhuyd 35; LHEB: 291, 621, 623; LW: 55; M

1698/9 (NLW MS Penrhos V, No. 237):| Society of

Antiquaries, 1773: inset between pages 138 and 139; Camden, 1789: II, 475-6; Jones, 1805-9: i, 499;

tI is possiblethat the stone was in situ when its positionwas Theophilus Jones, Notebook, fo. 59; Report, 1853: 311; recorded in 1803, but the fact that it was noted under a Gents Mag. 1861: 41; Westwood, 1871: 261-2; A.H., 1872: h e d g e suggests t h a t it may have been reused in a field 162; Rhys, 1905: 49; Dawson, 1909: 193; Jones and Bailey, boundary at some time, like Cantref (Nant Crew)1 (B1). The position of the stone on high ground about 1.6km fromt h e church of Cwm Du and 200m outsidet h e Roman fort of Pen-y-gaer suggests erection in a position visible from settlement in the valley below (Knight: 2001b). Knight further comments (in litt.)o nt h e conjuction oft h e

1911: 180; Nash- Williams, 1935-6: 68-9; Randall, 1950: 22;Jackson, 1953: 291, 621; Jones, 1956-7: 110; Tedeschi, 1992-4: no. 98; RCAHMW, 1997: 287 (ECM 40);

Tedeschi, 2005: 93 .4

Cast: NMW acc. no. 06.478.

B22a. Cross-carved stone, Llanfihangel Cwm Du (St Michael's

Church) 1. face A.

B22b. Cross-carved stone, Llanfihangel Cwm Du (St Michael's Church) 1, face C.

198

PART I I CATALOGUE

Comments onthe linguistics:

STONE TYPE Red, darker red-brown weathering, medium-grained sandstone with a quartz dominated composition with a minor component of white feldspar/lithic

This stone hasbeen twice reused -first having an inscrip-

locally derived red sandstone from the St Maughan's

(Llanddeusant) or Brownstones Formation (Lower Old Red Sandstone, Lower Devonian). The latter forms the bedrock

DISCUSSION

tion cut on the back, then being dressed as a windowsill. Nash-Williams attributed the inscription on C to the twelfth or thirteenth centuries, and mis-read the dressing as a raised cross-design post-dating the inscription. He

attributed the cross on Atentatively to the seventh-ninth centuries, comparing the form with splayed terminals to

PRESENT CONDITION The inscription has been partially removed in the subsequent dressing oft h e stone into a windowsill. End of inscription by window-opening worn.

one on a stone from Llanychâr (ECMW: no. 337). However, a later date is possible:a similarcross in outline, attributed to the late tenth to twelfth century, occurs on a slab from St Paul-in-the-Bail, Lincoln, though this has a superimposed ring around the cross-head (Everson and

DESCRIPTION A: O n one side a deeply pecked outline Latin cross; splayed

ers of late eleventh-/twelfth-century or later date (ibid.:

just 2km to the east ofLIanfihangel Cwm Du. (JH)

terminals with straight outer ends (Fig. 61.19). C: Inscription O n t h e reverse is a L a t i n i n s c r i p t i o n reading:

Stocker, 1999: il. no. 276). The cross-type si not necessarily early, later examples occurring on grave-covers or mark-

218). The absence of a ring on the present example may

support a later rather than earlier date. In view of its subsequent reuse, perhaps ti datesfrom thetenth or eleventh

B23a. Cross-carvedstone, LlanfihangelCwm Du (St Michael's Church) .2

century. The Lombardic lettering of the second stage sug-

DESCRIPTION Incised linear Latin cross, the ends of the arms expanded in outline, with a suggestion of bifurcation, the form resembling a cross-moline (Fig. 61.15).

gests a date in the twelfth or thirteenth century. Parallel

H I C I A C E I T- 1 hic iacet [-1 Herelies . ..

formsfor some letterscan befound on datedseals (e.g. let-

ter A,1123, 1143, 1189; open C, 1123, 1161, 1199, 1203; Kingsford, 1929: 166-7).

Lombardic capitals; the A has an angular cross-bar and a

long horizontal bar at the top. Further characters to the

DATE century.

C o m m e n t s on letter-for ms:

REFERENCES LW: 56; IBC: no. 36; CIIC: no. 335; Westwood, 1852: 272; Report, 1853: 333; RAHMW,

a n d t e r m i n a l s h e v o n d t h e skills o f t h e parlier c u t t e r s t o

produce, possibly on account of poorer tools. (GC-E)

1997: 287 (ECM 41).

Cast: NMW acc. no. 06.479. SAM no. BR109.

SO1 8 0 5 2385

2. Cross-carved stone PRESENT LOCATION Standing loose in the south-east

B23

porch of the parish church c. 1985. Missing in 1998.

MEASUREMENTS × d. 7cm (3in.)

EVIDENCE FOR DISCOVERY/PROVENAN CE First recorded c.1985; not recorded by Clwyd-Pows Archaeo-

STONE TYPE Unobtainable. (JH)

logical Trust's churchyard survey in 1996. The churchyard

had undergone significant clearance .c 1981/2.

h. 53cm (21in.) X w. 38cm (15in.)

PRESENT CONDITION Top broken away. Now known only from a photograph and rubbing taken c. 1985.

DATE Seventh-ninth century or later.

LLANFRYNACH (St Brynach's Church) SO 075 258 B24

1. L a t i n - i n s c r i b e d s t o n e

PRESENT LOCATION Reburied in thefoundations of

PRESENT CONDITION Unknown.

the present church.

DESCRIPTION 'Of considerable size with an inscription

EVIDENCE

L L A N F I H A N G E L C W M D U (St Michael's Church)

B236. Cross-carved stone, Llanfihangel Cwm Du (StMichael's Church)2, thecross design.

This form of cross is difficult to date.

A: tenth eleventh century; C: twelfth-thirteenth

right have been removed by subsequent dressing.

Lively Lombardic capitals cut lightlyb y an experienced letter-cutter, showing stroke-ends

199

CIB: no. 335/54a. (PS-W)

MEASUREMENTS h. 128cm (50'/in.) × w. 39cm (15in.) × d. 19cm (7'/in.).

grains. and a grain-supported structure. T h e stone is

BRECONSHIRE

FOR

DISCOVERY/PROVENANCE

Discovered c. 1855 by workmen during the demolition of the old parish church, which was replaced by thepresent building. The workmen 'interred it in the foundations of the new church' (LW:70). MEASUREMENTS Unobtainable, but 'of considerable size' (LW: 70) STONE TYPE

Unobtainable. (JH)

running down ti for about 2 feet [0.6m]'. INSCRIPTION Unobtainable. DISCUSSION

The church lies within a large roundish churchyard and may have an early medieval origin.

DATE Unknown.

REFERENCES LW: 70; Westwood,1856a: 52; Macalister,

1922: 207; RCAHMW, 1997: 288 (LECM 4).

200

PART I CATALOGUE

BRECONSHIRE

LLANFRYNACH (St Brynach'sChurch) SO 0 7 5 258 2. L a t i n - i n s c r i b e d stone

B25

ECMWno. 55 PRESENTLOCATION Lost. DISCOVERY/PROVENANCE FOR EVIDENCE Found .c 1855 during the demolition of the old parish church. Missing b y 1922 (Macalister, 1922: 207). MEASUREMENTS STONE TYPE

Unobtainable.

Comments on thelinguistics: CIB: no. 982/55. (PS-W)

Unobtainable. (JH)

PRESENT CONDITION

B25a. Latin-inscribedstone, Llanfrynach (St Brynach's Church)2

(from LW, pl. 39fig. 1).

DISCUSSION

Unknown.

DESCRIPTION Fragment with incised outline 'Maltese' cross a n d inscription.

'Small portion of[a] stone with portions of two letters CO

on it.'

The lettering wasdescribed by Nash-Williams as indeterminate, and he tentatively suggested aseventh-ninth century date for this stone. The only record of it is the drawing published by Westwood, and further comment is difficult. D AT E

inscrintion

Reads vertically downwards:

Uncertain.

REFERENCES CISP: LFRYN/1; CIIC: no. 982; IBC: no. 47; LW: 70; Westwood, 1856a: 52; Macalister, 1922: 207;

(W: p.l 39, no. RCAHMW, 1997: 288 (LECM 5). alf ofthe O appears ot have broken away L H 1; Macalister, 1922: 207). LLANFRYNACH (StBrynach's Church) SO 075 258 3. C r o s s - c a r v e d s t o n e

B26

ECMWno. 56

erogeneously distributed white mica and coarser-grained

PRESENTLOCATI ON In the church, fixed tot h enorth wall of the nave.

quartz. The stone is e i t h e r unweathered or has experienced

EVIDENCE

FOR

DISCOVERY/PROVENANCE

Found c. 1855 during the demolition of theformer church,

buried in afoundation beneath the door leading from hte

chancel to the vestry'.

MEASUREMENTS h. 177.5cm (70in.) X w.18cm (7in.) atbase, 19cm (7'in.) at top × d. 7cm (3in.). STONE TYPE

Deep red, medium-grained sandstone

generally showing a well sorted texture, with areas of het-

little change in colour during weathering. This is derived locally from the Lower Devonian (Old Red Sandstone)

succession, either the St Maughan's (Llanddeusant) or Brownstones formations. (JH)

PRESENT CONDITION

Two fractures have been repaired, one below the lower cross, and the other across the central area of interlace.

DESCRIPTION

Narrow pillar-stone decorated on one

face, with an inscription on thereverse: A:

Pecked linear designs:

B26a. Cross-carved stone, Llanfrynach (St Brynach's Church)I(from LW,pl. 39, figs 2, 3).

Cross with wedge-shapedarms of equal length (Fig. 61.21). Unclothed (bearded?) figure with arms raised abovehead (Fig. 76.4): above head to theright

B26b. Cross-carvedstone, Llanfrynach (St Brynach's Church)I , with interpretation (basedo n rubbing).

At the foot of the plait, the strands separate to enclose an elongated outlinec r o s s w i t hw e d g e -

shaped arms, havingfour symmetrical dots a t

t h e crossing.

as u n a n d a c r e s c e n t m o o n

Group of three motifs, two inline above and

Four-strand plait, beginning as doublestrands on each side of the figure's legs, flanked by

one below, consisting o f two triquetra knots

wavy lines o n each side.

(Fig. 69.2)a n d a bird.

PART I CATALOGUE

202 ü

Inscription

height, and on a font at Lenton, Nottinghamshire, he si

On the back, not now visible, Westwood read an

shown ashere, with both hands raised in the oransposition

inscription in Anglo-Saxon minuscules. [iohis

(=Johannis)

Macalister doubted this (Macalister, 1922: 207). DISCUSSION

The peckingtechnique is similar to that onLlanhamlach 1 (B32), while the dimensions of the stone recall

Llanhamlach 2 (B33)a n dLlanddeti (B10). Sun andmoon

s v m b o l s a r e f o u n d f r o m t h e s i x t hc e n t u r v o n w a r d a s s o c i .

ated with representations of the Crucifixion (cf. ECMW:

76), but also of the Good Shepherd and the Baptism of Jesus (DACL: see under lune, soleil, croix and crucifix). The

figure at the top of the shaft can be interpreted as Christ

beingbaptised; ni Norman sculptureheis generally shown

203

(Allen, 1887: 289). According to the Gospels, all three of

the personsi n the Trinity werepresent at Christ's baptism, and this may explain the triquetra motifs and bird at the base of the shaft. It is not possiblet o determine the type of bird represented here, though the dove is commonly identified with the Holy Spirit. Irish representations of Christ's baptism tend to showa full figure flanked by atten-

dants (Harbison, 1992).

Nash-Williams dated this stone to the tenth or eleventh

centuries

DATE Tenth-eleventh century.

REFERENCES IBC: no. 46; LW: 69; Westwood, 1856a: 51, 139-40; Allen, 1887: 128; Macalister, 1922: 207; RCAHMW, 1997: 286 (ECM 24).

c o v e r e dw i t h water u pt oh i s waist. h e r e r e p r e s e n t e db yt h e

Cast: N M W acc. no. 06.486.

extension of the interlace crossing the figure at waist-

SAM no. BR122.

L L A N G A M A R C H (St Cadmarch's Church) SN 9350 4730

1. Cross-carved stone

B27

ECMWno. 57 PRESENTLOCATION Built into the gable oftheporch.

EVIDENCE

FOR

DISCOVERY/PROVENANCE

Formerly built into thechurchyar d wall, and later intot h e west wall of thechurch when it was restored c. 1870. The

church was rebuilt by W . D. Caröe 1913-16 (Haslam, 1979: 343). MEASUREMENTS (18'/in.) approx.

STONE TYPE

h. 77cm (30½in.) × w. 47cm

Mid-brown, weathering pale orange-

brown, coarse-grained sandstone with bedding oriented to intersect to the carved face. No obvious correlative for

this lithology is present within the local area, as the bedrock is dominated by Silurian shales. An Old Red Sandstone sourcei s amost likely provenance, although the nearestexposures lieover 20km to the south. (JH) PRESENTCONDITION

Some of the ring-cross

has laminated away, areas of the original slab being now missing: namely, thet o p left, much of the right edge and

the left side below thefigure.

DESCRIPTION Carved with aring-cross with sunken quadrants (Fig. 62.41). Beneath the cross are several

pecked devices: a human figure with arms outstretched; a spiral; (c) sunken squares, rings and a triangle.

B27a. Cross-carved stone, Llangamarch (St Cadmarch's Church)1.

LLANGAMARCH (Cildu Farm, Llanwrtyd)

DISCUSSION

The disposition of motifs is strange, and suggests that the stone might be anarchitectural fragment such as an altar front or tympanum. However, the original edges of the slabo n the topright corner and lower leftsideindicate that it originally had an upright rectangular form, like other cross-slabs.

The same cross- and spiral-forms occur at Llanafan Fawr

SN 907 466 B28

1. Cross-carved stone E C M Wno. 58

present. The bedding is not apparent. The source of this

PRESENT LOCATION Brecknock Museum, Brecon (on loan from National Museum Wales).

(StAfan's Church) 1 and 4 (B6a n d B9), and thecross-form at Llanspyddid (St Cattwg's Church) 1 (B36), and can be paralleled (with other motifs occurring at these sites) on stones from Co. Dublin and Co. Wicklow (O hEailidhe, 1957: 75-88). Nash-Williams attributed the stone to the seventh-ninth

cm (6 6'/in.) at top). 12.5-15 cm (5-6in.) at bottom).

centuries. DATE Ninth-tenth century. REFERENCES Westwood, 1853: 334; LW: 77; RCAHMW, 1997: 285 (ECM 15). Cast: NMW acc. no. 06.488.

B27b. Cross-carvedstone, Llangamarch (St Cadmarch's Church)I , interpretation.

s t o n e is n o t e a s i l v a t t r i b u t e d

inated by mudstone and shale. One possibility lies in the Foel Formation (Ashgill), exposed approximately 6km to

the south-east ofthe find-site, which contains dark grey to

FOR DISCOVERY/PROVENANCE EVIDENCE From Cildu Farm (ruin) in the parish of Llanwrtyd.

buff sands tone. (JH)

MEASUREMENTS h. 109cm (43in.) X w. 26.5cm (10½in.) at top, to 34cm (134,in.) near base X d. 14.5-16

the right-hand side is missing.

STONE TYPE

desion

Dark grey, buff-weathering, medium-

grained sandstone with scatteredcoarser (1-2mm) grains o f q u a r t z and a porous texture. P r o m i n e n t cavities u p to

30mm ni size, have probably formed by the dissolution of

other clasts or fossils. Fragments of brachiopod shell are

a s t h e l o c a l b e d r o c k is d o m .

PRESENT CONDITION Fairly good. A small area on D E S C R I P T I O N The flattest face has b e e n chosen for the which

has

been

nicked

(diameter

o f

indents

4 5mm). Incised ring-cross (Fig. 62.33) with a roundel at

the centre a n d in each quadrant; the stem is flanked by a pair of vertical bars, converging towards the base.

PART I CATALOGUE

BRECONSHIRE

205

B286. Cross-carved stone, Llangamarch (Cildu Farm, Llanwrtyd) I, the cross desion.

DISCUSSION Nash-Williams a t t r i b u t e d this stone to the seventh-ninth

centuries. The ring and roundel decoration recallsthat on Ystradfellte (Pen-y-mynydd) 2 (B51), which may be late

within thisperiod on the groundso f the elaborate placing of its dots and the extension of its ring into an outline

shaft. A comparable date may be proposed for the Llangamarch stone.

DATE

Eighth-ninth century, or later.

REFERENCES Rodger, 1911: 30; Report, 1853: 334;

RCAHMW,1997: 285 (ECM 13). M Wacc. no. 33.466; Brecknock Museum acc. no. 158. Cast: NMW acc. no. PRO 160. B28a. Cross-carved stone, Llangamarch (Cildu Farm, Llanwrtyd)I.

B29a. Cross-carved stone, Llan-gors (St Paulinus's Church) I

LLAN-G ORS (St Paulinus' s Church)

the Lower Old

SO 1350 2762 1. C r o s s - c a r v e d s t o n e

B29

E C M Wno. 59

PRESENT LOCATION

MEASUREMENTS

Inside the parish church.

FOR EVIDENCE DISCOVERY/PROVENANCE Discovered sometime before 1874, when the chancel arch

wasdismantled during restoration by T . Nicholson.

h. 63.6cm (25in.) × w. 27cm (10'in.) at base to 28cm (1lin.) × d. Scm (3in.).

STONE TYPE Pale grey, pink-grey weathering, finegrained sandstone showing a very homogeneous quartz-

dominated composition with aminor white mica component and a well-sorted texture. Centimetre-scale, planar

. This si locally derived, from bedding si parallel to face A

Red Sandstone

within either

B29b. Cross-carved stone, Llan-gors (St Paulinus's Church) ,1 cast

showing arean o wmissing .

the

On each side of the shaft are areas ofdegenerate fret-pat-

St M a u g h a n ' s ( L ' l a n d d e u s a n t ) or B r o w n s t o n e s f o r m a t i o n s ,

terns, that on the right the more easily recognizable as a

both of which are exposed less than 4km to the north-east

zigzag flanked by T-shapes (KIb; Fig. 74). A fragment of

of the find site. (JH)

what appears to be similar decoration survives above the

ad. PRESENT CONDITION Fractured into three pieces; cross-he D: Insc the lower part of the slab (present c. 1985)i s now missing,

ription

and the top damaged. Small areas o f m o r t a r on faces A

On theright-hand edgei s an inscription reading vertically

and D. Both specimens spattered by whitewash.

downwards•

DESCRIPTION

A: Pecked outline Latin cross, the horizontal arms not crossing the vertical, its head encircled by a single ring (Fig. 62.37).

[+] GURCI BLEDRUS Gurci. Bledrus

Comments on letter-forms: Angular minuscules, and mixed capitals and half-uncials in two inscriptions, the earlier

206

PARTI I CATALOGUE

BRECONSHIRE

207

is perhaps coincidental. The differences betweenthe let-

teringsuggest that they are not here contemporary (Davies,

1979: no. 251, 126). Nash-Williams dated thestoneo n palaeographic and stylistic grounds to the seventh-ninth centuries. The same form of cross can be seen at Llanspyddid (B36), dated to the t e n t h / e l e v e n t hc e n t u r i e s on the basis o f similar cross-

formsfrom Dalkey, Co. Dublin (ÓhÉailidhe, 1957: 80. 83.

87-8; ibid.: 1973: 58-9) and Isle of Man, cf. Kermode, 1907: 25 and 130 (Maughold, no. 55). Thetechnique of

production of the inscription, with thin incised charac-

ters, contrasts with other i n s c r i p t i o n s in the area of study,

with the exception of Llan-gors 2 (B30). DATE

Tenth-eleventh century.

REFERENCES CISP: LGORS/1; LW: 60; IBC: no. 41 and p. 89; CIIC: no. 984; Westwood, 1874: 232; Brash,

1874: 335; Rhys, 1875a: 370; Rhys, 1875b: 186; Brash, 1875: 285; Dawson, 1909: 121; Rhys, 1918: 185; Macalister, 1922: 201; RCAHMW, 1997: 287 (ECM 36). Cast: N M W acc. no. 06.489.

. B29e. Cross-carvedstone, Llan-gors (St Paulinus's Church) I, face A

LLAN-GO RS (St Paulinus's Church) S O 1350 2 7 6 2

B30

2. Latin-inscribed stone

B29c. Cross-carvedstone, Llan-gors (St Paulinus's Church) I, face D.

B29d. Cross-carvedstone, Llan-gors (St Paulinus's Church) 1, faceD.

GURCI beinglarger and more homogeneous. Well-spaced angular monumental minuscules in an exact writing-line. followed by a later, smaller and irregular inscription in mixed capitals and half-uncials BLEDRUS. If it was intended to indicate that Bledrus set up thestone for Gurci

that dd was not yet provected to d; cf. OC Bledros versus Mod.W. Bledrws). It is not clear whether ti derives from OW Bledruis or should be connected with OW Bledris (assuming that those aredistinctnames). (PS-W)

ti si difficult to understand why thesame cutter did not exe-

References: CIB: 45, 71, 85 n. 419, 111, 128, 134, 141, 148-9, 193, 212, 294 (no. 984/59).

likely thatBledrus was alatecomer and hanger-on. (GC-E)

DISCUSSION

c u t eb o t h n a m e s a t t h e s a m e time:i t a p p e a r s . t h e n . m o r e

Comments on the linguistics: Brittonic Period 22-8. GURCI (Gwrgi) is a compound of gwr 'man' and ci hound', attest-

ed ni all the Brittonic languages (OW Guurci, OC Wurci, OB Gurki, cf. OI Ferchú). BLEDRUS can represent Bleddrws or Bleddrus in modern spelling (the D suggests

Fort h e site, see Gazetteer The small initial cross, which figures in previous drawings

ofthe inscription, is now largely missing. The fact that the

names Gurci and Bledrus occur several times in Llandaf Charters (as bishop and layman) from the ninth to the eleventh century, appearing together ni one dated c. 1005,

E C M W no. 60

rently displayed) are natural in origin. This stone has a

PRESENT LOCATION Kept at the west end of the nave.

provenance from within the Old Red Sandstonesuccession, most likely from the St Maughan's (Llanddeusant) or

DISCOVERY/PROVENANCE FOR EVIDENCE Foundi n the churchyardi n 1881 in the digging of a grave, 7ft [2m] from theeast wall of thesouth aisle . . about 2ft 6in. [75cm] beneath the surface of the ground' (Westwood,

1890: 224-5), and more specifically in' front of the east end

window of LlangorseChurch' (note onphotographenvelope, c. 1903; National Museum Wales archive).

Brownstones formations (Lower Old Red Sandstone.L o w e r

Devonian), exposed less than 4km to the north-east. (JH) P R E S E N TC O N D I T I O N

Good.

DESCRIPTION Large boulder, roughly dressed on one

face, which has a thinly cut Latin inscription ni two lines reading lengthwise:

Inscription

MEASUREMENTS h.118cm (46'/in.) × w. 32-3cm (11in.) X d. 39cm (15½in.).

HIC IACE[T SJI[WER[DF]ILIVS VVLMER H i c i a c e t S i w e r d fi l i u s V u l m e r

STONE TYPE Mid-grey weathering, fine-grained, homogeneous and verywell-sorted sandstone. Poorly developed

planar and cross-bedding surfaces, which intersect the inscribed face. Striations, present on the front face (as cur-

Herelies Siwerd, son of Vulmer

A C-shaped arc of pecking just in front of the inscription

may be associated with the levelling orregularizing ofthe

208

PARTI

CATALOGUE

ICTRO

BRECONSHIRE

MICTACEPSI N ERHRIVS

209

B30c. Latin-inscribedstone, Llan-gors (St Paulinus'sChurch) 2, theinscription (based on a rubbing).

B30b. Latin-inscribed stone, Llan-gors (St Paulinus'sChurch)2, detail

of the inscription.

LLAN-G ORS (St Paulinus 's Church)

Williams read siulerd (1950). The grammatically correct

iacet (instead of the more usual iacit) and the style of the lettering point to amedieval date.

Comments onletter-forms:

Light capitals of a decorative alphabet, whichis Lombardic-influenced, with marked line-

ends. Freely placed on the stone with no writing-lines followed. Though competent, the craftsman is completely . As the unfamiliar with the construction of the letter W IACET is correctly spelled, we might guess that the cutter was accusto med to Latin inscriptions and had not previously met with any Siwerds or WImers. When Welsh scribes first used the W they made afour-stroke character that was extremely prominent among its neighbours. (GC-E) Comments onthe linguistics:

Brittonic Period 11-28. SIW.

ERD and VVLMER are both English names. Cf. Siuerd
OI. cliu, gen.

fifth-sixth centuries, and the cross was attributed to the

CLIUCUNAS (sic leg.). (PS-W)

seventh-ninth centuries. Theelaborateplacing of the dots, and the extension of the ringinto an outline shaft suggest al a t e date within this period. The vowelsof theinscription

cliach). an element which has been seen in C I C : no. 86,

References: CIB: 70, 121, 306, 309, 314 (no. 345/74). Incised cross with two dotsflanking theends of each bottom, from which a long, tapering outline shaft

zontal stroke on the fourth character from the bottom, whichh a sclearly been beentruncated by the circle around the cross. This confirms that the cross is later than the ogam inscription. Nash-Williams dated the ogam to the

ADONNET

are guesses.

DATE

1. Inscription: fifth-sixth century; .2 ring-cross:

eighth-ninth century.

REFERENCES CISP: YFLL2/1; CIC: no. 345; IBC: no.

DISCUSSION Close examination of the ogam suggests a fourth hori-

257

51; LW: 70; Strange,1777: 24, pl. 1.5; Camden, 1789: I,

473, pl. 14.4; Jones, 1805-9: II, 644, pl. 12.3; Westwood, 1853: 334; Thomas, 1894b: 329-30; Rhys, 1896: 126-8; Report, 1901: 60-5; Macalister, 1922: 210; Macalister, 1945-9: 331-2; RCAHMW, 1997: 284 (ECM 7).

Rubbing (T. H. Thomas 14 March, 1901); NMW acc. no. 16.68/S.R.7.

АD I

arm, and asingledot in each angle. The crossi s encircled by a single groove, which is open-ended at the

BRECONSHIRE

STRADGY NLAIS (St Cynog's Church) SN 787 100 B52

PRESENT LOCATION

FOR DISCOVERY/PROVENANCE Discovered among the foundations of the old church during its demolition (Dawson, 1909: 238). It was then built into the outside east wall oft h e church. The nave, north and south aislesa n d chancel were rebuilt in 1861 (Haslam,

ADIVNETI

Commen ts on letter-forms: Simplified capitals with a tendency toavoid joining strokes. It is very unusual for a cut-

STONE

TYPE

Medium-grained, pale grey, brown-

ter to begin A and V with a vertical, almost as though he

quartz-dominated composition and well-sorted texture. Layering is poorly developed, although weakly developed oblique laminations are visible on the inscribed face. The stone is derived from the Coal Measuressequence, possibly the Lower Coal Measures, such as that exposed on hillsides to the south-east of the find-site. (JH)

downwards, and hanging off a horizontal bar. Confusion has been caused by the first six letters ofADIVNETI being re-cut. (GC-E)

PRESENT CONDITION

the masculine equivalent of which occurs on the Breton

Weathered, laminated. The

1992-4: no. 37; RCAHMW, 1997: 284 (ECM 1); Tedeschi,

2005: 107-8.

(Thestone) of Adiunetus

MEASUREMENTS h. 117cm (46in.) X w. 22cm (9in.).

u n d e r s t o o d the letter-shapes sideways. reading vertically

Comments on the linguistics:

Fifthc e n t u r y.

REFERENCES CISP. YGYN/1; CIIC: no. 346; Westwood, 1855: 7-8; Dawson, 1909: 238-9; Tedeschi,

Latin inscription in one line, reading vertically:

Capitals; the first strokes of the A and Vare vertical rather than oblique; the I si horizontal.

weathering sandstone. T h e stone is h o m o g e n e u s . with a

D AT E

DESCRIPTION Upper section of a pillar, with a Latin

1979: 387), so that when Westwood noted it c. 1855 it

w o u l d h a v e b e e n at its p r e v i o u s location .

DISCUSSION Witht h e exception of the last two letters, the inscription has been recut, hence its consistent misreading asADIVNE (Knight, 1978). Thus in A, D, V and N the gaps between the vertical strokes and those adjoiningthem may not be

beADIVNE (Tedeschi, 1992-4: 111).

At the church, built into the

EVIDENCE

References: CIB: 35 n. 75, 36, 149, 187, 230, 234 (no.

346/75).

Nash-Williams dated the inscription to the fifth or early

or after Westwood'sn o t e is uncertain.

at t h e s o u t h - e a s t c o r n e r.

VNETI (genitivesingular masculine) points to the derived name Eidduned, OB Ediunet. (PS-W)

sixth century. Tedeschi dated it on palaeographical groundst o the fifthcentury, though hetook thereading to

first six letters appear to have been recut, whether before

retaining wall of the steps leading down to the boiler-room

stone IEMB no. F3, ADIVNI. Knight's reading ADI-

o r i g i n a lf e a t u r e s

1. L a t i n - i n s c r i b e d s t o n e ECMW no. 75

, the B52b. Latin-inscribed stone, Ystradgynlais (St Cynog'sChurch) L

Brittonic Period 1-16. W h e n

the inscription was read ADIVNE this was regarded as a Latin genitive of a female Welsh name Eiddun, 'Désirée', B52a. Latin-inscribed stone, Ystradgynlais (St Cynog's Church) .I

PART I CATALOGUE

258

DIS CUS SIO N

YSTRADGYNLAIS (St Cynog's Church)

Nash-Williams dated the inscription to the sixth century, while Tedeschi (1992-4: 182) has dated it on palaeographical grounds to the second half of the sixth century.

SN 7 8 7 100 B53

2. L a t i n - i n s c r i b e d s t o n e ECMW no. 76

PRESENT LOCATION At thechurch, set above B52i n the s a m e wall.

E V I D E N C E FOR D I S C O V E RY / P R O V E N A N C E Like B 5 2fi r s t n o t e db u i l t i n t ot h e o u t s i d e o ft h e e a s t w a l l n e a r

the south-east angle of the parish church. MEASUREMEN TS h. 59cm (23in.) X w. 16cm (6in.).

STONE TYPE Pale-grey weathering, medium-grained,

laminated sandstone. Composition dominated by rounded quartz grains with a noticeable grain-supported structure.Laminations, ona 5 m m scale, representbedding oriented parallel toinscribed face. This stone is provenanced from the Coal Measure sandstone and a more specific source may be the quartzitic sandstones of the 'Fairwell Rock' from the Lower Coal Measures, whichi s exposed on hillsides tot h e south-east o f the find site. (JH)

PRESENT CONDITION Fragmentary, but legible. The stone is extensively weathered, showing no areas of fresh stone. Exfoliation is noticeable towards the topleft of the . stone, around the letter A DESCRIPTION

Lower section of a pillar with a Latin

insc ript ion.

Inscription

Inscribed on its edge with a single line ofLatin, reading verti cally d o w n w a r d s :

[-HICIACIT - l i e s here

Comments on letter forms: Irregular light Roman capitals with one geometrical letter. HIC IACIT with angle-bar A and small, geometrical terminal T, which is not aRoman monumental capital. T h e unusual cutting of the finalT o r

IT of IACIT very small may be afashion (cf. B1 andB21). Squaring the foot of the T was a deliberate choice: a half-

uncial T has a bowed stroke curvingout from a horizon-

tal cross-bar, which the cutter was perfectly capable of

doing in the case oft h e C. (GC-E)

B53. Latin-inscribedstone, Ystradgynlais(St Cynog's Church) 2.

259

BRECONSHIRE

DATE

Second half of the sixth century.

REFERENCES CISP: YGYNL/2; CICI: no. 347; IBC:

no. 56; LW: 63; Westwood, 1855: 7; Report, 1886: 341;

Tedeschi 1992-4: no. 84; RCAHMW, 1997: 284 (ECM 2); Tedeschi, 2005: 108-9.

A B E R A FA N ( T h e Croft) SS 7633 8998 G I

1. R e c u m b e n t slab CRU

ECMW no. 260 PRESENT LOCATION ( M W acc. no. 25.505). EVIDENCE

FOR

National Museum Cardiff

DISCOVERY/PROVENANCE

Discovered in 1869b u i l t into a wall '8 ft. in thickness and

composed of river drift, beneath several layers of whitewash' duringt h e demolition of The Croft, an old farmstead and possibly the site of a medieval chapel, on the west b a n k of the river Afan in w h a t is now Port Talbot

(Richards. 1925: 424). The Croft stood on the site of the former Palace Theatre near Pritchard Street, beside the oldroad between Margam and Briton Ferry. MEASUREMENTS h. 28cm (11in.) X w. 25cm (10in.) × d.10cm (4in.). STONE TYPE

Grey, extensively brown-weathered,

medium-grained sandstone. The face shows no sign of

XPI

To theright an inscription in the same style, consisting of a single vertical linecompletedb y a single letter below GELUGUI = crux Christi Geluguin Thecross of Christ. Geluguin (is buriedhere)

Comment on letter-forms: Half-uncials in one of the few inscriptions freely put on, by a scribe writing a good hand withsome kind of edged tool, perhapsa 'pen' made from a verylarge-bore, hollow-stemmed plant, or a flat brush. The cutter aimed to cut serifs and wedge-shaped terminals on the cross. This is also o n e of the few Welsh inscriptions

toshow that a cutter understood theinterplay of V-section

dressing, and the stone is bounded by flat-bedding planes.

with dished, as is so clearly seen on the Berechtuine Stone

The stone is derived from the Upper Coal Measures,

at Tullylease, Co. Cork (Okasha and Forsyth, 2001:

Measures sandstone is also exposed in a landslip scar

chip-carving knife or chisel, cut a V- section with a right andleft cut. At the highest level of stone-cutting skill, for

Pennant Sandstone, comparable to an extensive succession which outcrops 1km to the east of the find-site; Coal 1.5km to the north of the find-site. (JH)

PRESENT CONDITION Incomplete (lower part of slab missing); good.

Probably originally recumbent, with

curvilinear lines a dished section was used, and for geometrical a V-section, with wedgeterminationsa t line-ends. This is an important factor when distinguishing between letters used by woodworkers and bystoneworkers. (GC-E)

-

DESCRIPTION

119-21). The pecking technique preferred by stoneworkers gave a dished section, whereas woodworkers, using a

incised cross and inscription.

N

tig. so. Countymap of Glamorgan showing distribution of early medievalinscribedstones and stone sculpture. The major routes followed by Roman roads areindicated.

G47b

G55-57

•G58-59

G49-51

G8-9

6112

G 6 3 - 7 1

•G/2-73

GLAMORGAN

T o t h e left o ft h e c r o s s a n i n s c r i n t i o n in r o u n d e d

Comment on linguistics: Brittonic Period 22-8. The name GELUGUIN is probably identical with GLGVEN on the eleventh- or early twelfth-century grave-slabNewcastle (St Leonard's Church)2 (G114) (see below). Both could

half-uncials in three horizontal lines, with a further vertical linet o the right of it.

represent a Welsh male name Gwelw-wyn, 'pale-fair', with gwelw- dissimilated to *gelw- ni GELUGUIN but

Latin cross (25cm/10in.) × 14cm/5½in.) with slightly enlarged (almost wedge-shaped)terminals (Fig. 61.6).

A pecked inscription in three widely spaced horizontal linesof rounded half-uncials, the first level with the top of the upright, reading:

assimilated to *gwlw- in G L G V E N (unless V in the first syllable of the latter is merely orthographic for

UE). Compare the spelling of OB Gulugan, which Loth . Gwelwgan, 'pale white' (Chrest. bret.: 134)equated with W The variation between -GUIN and -GUEN need not

262

PART I CATALOGUE

263

GLAMORGAN

ABERAFAN (St Mary's Church) SS 7629 9011 G 2

1. Recumbent slab 4:

ECMW no. 263a

PRESENT LOCATION

church porch, Port Talbot.

Standing loose ni St Mary's

EVIDENCE FOR DISCOVERY/PROVENANCE First noted in St Mary's churchyard. The church was rebuilt in 1858-9 (Newman, 1995).

MEASUREMENTS h.65cm (25'/in.)X w.30cm (12in.) × d.7.5cm (3in.).

STONE TYPE

Coal Measures sandstone. (JH)

PRESENT CONDITION Some surface weathering. DESCRIPTION Gla. Recumbentslab, Aberafan (TheCroft) .1 (Crowncopyright: RCAHMW)

signify masculine and feminine (as ni later Welsh gwyn

GIb. Recumbent slab, Aberafan (TheCroft)1.

References: CIB: 79, 105, 112, 129, 147 n. 878, 214, 294 (no.

aninth-century or later date (CIB: 294).

DISCUSSION

While the break in the slab suggests that letters may be missing after GELUGUIN (as suggested ni RCAHMW,

m a n n e r occur in Ireland at Clonmacnois. Co. Offaly. O n e

withtriangula rterminal s has an inscription commemorat-

ing Snédreagol, identified by Lionard asSnedriaghail, abbot

1976: pt 3, no. 884),the compositionsuggeststhat allletters

(?made it' (ECMW:163). The Brythonicn a m e 'Geluguin' may be interpreted as either the(male) person commemorated orthe one responsible for having it made or set it up; the same ambiguity occurs at Baglan (St Catherine's

ogy and its reliance on identified individuals (Swift, 1999:

Church) 1 (G4). Macalister concluded that the t e x t was 'of

the nature of a palimpsest', originallybearing only thecross and the words CRUX XPI, the name being added later (Richards, 1925: 426), citing LIangyfelach 1(G49) asa parallel. There is nothing in the letter-forms tosupport this.

111-18).Other slabs from Clonmacnois havelinearcrosses

similar to that on the present example (ibid.: fig. 1, nos 2, 13).Swift concluded that those Irish inscriptions which do nothave patronymicsare the most likely to belong toecclesiastical personnel (ibid.: 116-18).

A piscina dated to the twelfth century wasalso found con-

cealed in the wall of The Croft in 1869, leading Richards to s u p p o s e that it may have been a chapel, or t h a t ane c c l e -

Wales, and dated the stone to the seventh-ninth centuries,

siastical building must haveexisted in thevicinity; he also drew attention t o a tradition 'some little time ago' that the Palace Theatre was haunted because it stood ont h esite of a cemetery (Richards, 1925: 424).

noting the Irish origin of the formula (e.g. Wakeman,

DATE Probably ninth century.

Nash-Williams thought that the slab represented the earliest instance o f the use o f the formula crux Christi in

1893: 81, 83, 84; ECMW: 163). For other examples of the crux Christi formula in Wales, see Llangfelach (St Cyfelach's Church) 1(G49), and theEnniaun and Grutne

crosses, Margam 1 (G78) and Margam 4 (G81). These

recumbent, and a fresh cross carved on the back of it, w h e n it could have served either as ar e c u m b e n t or vertical

Small linear crosses associated with inscriptions in this

of Clonmacnois, d. 781 (Lionard, 1961: figs. ,1 4): Swift has drawn attention to some problems with Lionard's chronol-

may bepresent. Nash- Williamstranslated this as 'Geluguin

DISCUSSION

The way the bottoms of the cross-shafts have been left incomplete suggests that this might have been intendeda s a headstone. In support ofthis, slabs with two decorated faces serving as headstones are known from Irish sites (O hEailidhe, 1967: 123). However, the greater degree of weathering on Csuggests that it might originally have lain

form a small but distinctive group of Glamorgan cross-

or Ei n Old Welsh. (PS-W)

1004/260/884).

the u p p e r arm-ends incomplete through w e a t h e r i n g

g r a v e - m a r k e r.

slabs. Sims-Williams has attributed the text linguistically to Brittonic Periods 22-8, which begin c.800, pointing to

and gwen); the masculine could be written with either I

Roughly shaped slab with slightly

r o u n d e d h e a d a n d a n incised cross o n e a c h face:

Outline Latin cross with intersecting a r m s a n d open-

ended foot, the three upper arms ending in circles of slightly greater diameter than the widths of the arms, with centre dots (Fig. 62.25). C: Cross ofthe same form but with slightly wider grooves,

REFERENCES RCAHMW: 1976: pt 3, 21 and no. 884; CISP: PRTT3/1; CIIC: no. 1004; Richards, 1925: 424;

Macalister, 19336: 374.

G2a. Recumbent slab, Aberafan (St Mary's Church)1 ,face A. (Crown copyright: RCAHMW)

G26. Recumbent slab, Aberafan (St Mary'sChurch) 1, face C.

(Crown copyright: RCAHMW)

264

PARTI I CATALOGUE

Cross-arms terminating in circles occur on Irish slabs of the

ninth-eleventh

centuries

(so-called

Group

Expansional Crosses, with circular expansions at termi-

nals; Lionard, 1961: 128, fig. 21); the terminals of the cross on Bryngwyn (St Michael's Church) 1 (RI) are

also similar. N a s h - Wi l l i a m s attributed a broad d a t e

GLAMORGAN

FRECOR

(seventh-twelfth century (?)') to this stone; the broad daterange for the Irish examples has been followed here. DATE Ninth- eleven th centuries.

265 DISCUSSION

It is possible that the terminations of ERECOR and CVNIIAC aremissing, either through damage tot h eedge of the stone or because thetranscriber failed to recognize

MARLORI

REFERENCES RAHMW, 1976: pt 3, no. 887.

horizontal I as aletter. 'Erecor' c o u l d well be a n o n - R o m a n

personal name, cf. Irish Eracobi and Eragetai (CIIC: no. 84).

MAGL is also an element not uncommon in personal

names, cf. StFaganswith Llanilltern (Capel Llanilltern)1

ABERDÄR (Hirwaun) CVN (or CVNI) is also a common element (cf. Trallwng (St David's Church) 1, B45, and ECMW: nos 9, 105, 142,

S N 95 0 5

1. L a t i n - i n s c r i b e d s t o n e P R E S E N TL O C A T I O N

G3

Lost.

EVIDENCE FOR DISCOVERY/PROVENANCE Reported in 1827 to be on 'ros Hirwaun Wrgan' or Hirwaun Common, west of Aberdâr, presumably near an earl route between the Neath and Taff valleys. The area si named on the MS OS map of1812 atthe location given above. Not reported seen since 1827. MEASUREMENTS

STONE TYPE

Unobtainable

Unobtainable. (JH)

PRESENTCONDITION Unobtainable.

Comments on linguistics: Brittonic Period 1-3. Irish Period 1-7. MAGLORI may be either the Celtic nominative *Maglorix, 'prince-king, king of princes', having lost its

final consonant (cf.later Welsh Meilyr), or else the genitive *Maglori of Maglorius, a Latinization of *Maglorix found already in the Romano-British perioda t Leintwardine as

MAGLORI[S] (see under Margam (Eglwys Nynnid) 1, G86 below). It does not seem to have an Irish cognate. ERECOR looks like another *rix name. If so. -I(nominative) or even -IGA(S) (genitive) should be restored fi it is Irish, and if it is Welsh I- must be restored, since if the

Welsh -I had already been lost we would expect to find *ERECIR with final i-affection. The first element is probably Celtic *Erko- 'speckled' (also a theonym) with a svarabhakti vowel between the two consonants; this

DESCRIPTION

epenthesis si rare ni Welsh (e.g. Middle Welsh meirych for

Inscription

Latin inscription in four (?horizontal)lines, reading: ERECOR MAGLORI

CVNIIAC FICIT

ERECOR(I/MAGLORI/CVNIIACIVSI/FICIT OfErecorlius?] /son offMaglorius. Cuniac/us) madelit]

Roman capitals with cursive forms for the G and L. Otherexpansions (RCAHMW, 1976: 39): E R E C O R ! /MAGLORI/ CUNI /HIC IAC/IT

ERECORI/ MAGLORI /CVNI/ FILI /IAC/ CIT

Comments on letter-forms (GC-E):

Wide-spaced capitals

with two cursive forms occurring together in the GL of MAGLORI. It is impossible to tell fi thegradual enlargement in letter size is part of the original layout, or was a defect of the 1827 record. The inscription appears to

have been ranged right, possibly to a marked line, and MAGLORI CUNIIAC could have been put on before ERECOR, asi f they weret h em o r esignificant names.

meirch) but occurs in Irish inthis very stem in the names ERACOBI and ERAOETAI in CIIC: no. 84 and ERACIAS in CIC: no.32, andi n Heric for Erce in Tirechán. As this element is characteristically Irish, it is probable that ERECOR[ is an Irish name ERCAR[, 'speckled king, king of the speckled goddess', written with the composition vowel O(ratherth anIrish A) under British influence. It is not impossible that ERECOR was a misreading in 1827o f

ERECOBI, in which case the O could be due to the fol-

lowinglabial consonant and not due to Britishinfluence.

EROCAVI in Sancreed, Cornwall (CIIC: no. 1057/

Okasha, 1993: no. 54) may be thesame name. CVNIIAC is presumably a derivative of Celtic *kuno- ('hound') with the popular Celtic -âkos suffix (compare CVNACI at

Penmorfa, Caernarfonshire, ECMW: no. 105). A similar

*kunio- variant on *kuno- is seen in CVNIOVENDE at Spittal, Pembrokeshire(ECMW: no. 402), versus Romano-

British Cunovendus, andin Ireland ni CIIC: no. 289, CUNIA

(compare also no. 286, CUNEA- couldt h eHirwaun II be the old form of the letter E?). Rhys (1879: 397) compared

CANTIORI at Penmachno, Caernarfonshire (ECMW: no.

103) versus G a u l i s h Cantorix. If C V N I I A C is Irish the

fecit), though (assuming some crowding at the end of the inscription, necessitated perhapsb y theshape of the stone) thereadings hic iacit or fili iacit (with fili ligatured) might be , lost butrecorded ni G3. Latin-inscribedstone, Aberdar (Hirwaun) L 1827.

possible.

On thebasis of theuseo f Roman capitals except for G and

double I could reflect the Primitive Irish development of /i/ > /i¡/. The reading FICITc a n be accepted, since ti is

unlikely that anineteenth-century copyist would guess at such a non-classical form. FICIT appears for fecit on the

Tintagel inscription (CIB: no. 2028) and according to Macalister on CIIC: no. 1029; cf. CIIC: no. 508, FICT.F o r FICIT on the Continent see e.g. Le Blant, 1892: nos. 54 and 90. (PS-W)

L a n d thep r o p e r n a m e elements, T h o m a s suggested a late

fifth-century date (RCAHMW, 1976: pt 3, 39). Sims-

Wi l l i a m s p l a c e s t h e text l i n g u i s t i c a l l y in his Brittonic

Periods 1-3/Irish Periods 1-7, supporting a fifth-century date.

Extensive opencast mining has reduced the possibility of rediscovering the stone.

DATE Apparentlylate fifth century.

References: CIB: 33, 60, 77-8, 103 n. 552, 112, 116, 122,

EFERENCES , 171, 186, 218, 307-8, 315-16, 319, 321 (no.2029) R 1p.4739i). HIRWN/1; E.J.,

RCAHMW, 1976: pt 3, 39; CISP:

1827: 160.

B A G L A N (St Catherine's Church) SS 7535 9228 G4

1. C r o s s - c a r v e d s t o n e ECMW no. 191

The stone wasremoved by the careo f G. G. Francis' when the church was being rebuilt, and first fixed to the tower

PRESENTLOCATION Reset int h einternal vestry wall of St Catherine's church at SS 7527 9223.

(LW: 24). It was subsequently relocated in the new church, built 1875-82 on a new site down thehill.

EVIDENCE FOR DISCOVERY /PROVENANCE Found by Westwood before 1851 lying face upwards as one of the coping stones of the churchyard wall, close to the stile forming thesouthern entrance tot h e churchyard (Westwood, 1851: 145). Westwood, who was first made acquainted with the stone 'several years ago' by Col. George G. Francis, visited the old church prior to its restoration (presumably c.1850) and recommended its removal to a safer position.

MEASUREMENTS h. 70cm (27.5in.) X w. 43cm (17in.). STONE TYPE Pale cream/grey; brown-weathering, finegrained homogeneous, well-sorted quartzitic sandstone, showing no evidence of bedding. The stone resembles borizons within the Coal Measures sandstones

(Westphalian, Upper Carboniferous), althoughthis cannot be attributed to a specific unit. (JH)

PART II CATALOGUE

267

GLAMORGAN

nant was already starting to disappear at the beginning of the Old Welsh period c. 800. (PS-W)

References: CIB: 112, 128, 183, 214, 227-8, 236 (no. 1005/191/886).

For a close Glamorgan parallel, see Margam (Upper Court Farm) 1 (G95); both probably copy late ninth-/early tenthcentury originals (cf. Lionard, 1961: 129-31, 142). The slab issimilar to the crux Christi group of Glamorgan crossslabs, a cross in placeo f the formula.

DISCUSSION St Catherine's Church is a Victorian rededication dating

For the site, see Gazetteer.

fromthe rebuilding of thechurch in 1875-82 on a new site,

It has been suggested that the final letter may read as a + (Anon, 1876: 244; CIC: 152), or as the end of a name 'Brancuf' (ECMW: 130), but there is clear punctuation

lower down the hill, to the west of the medieval church which was dedicated to St Baglan.

between the U and the F.

DATE Late ninth or early tenth century.

Nash-Williams dated the stone to the ninth century, and

REFERENCES RCAHMW, 1976: pt 3, no. 886; CISP: BAGLN/1; CIIC: no. 1005; LW: 24; IBC: no. 78; Gents

likened it ni type to the Glamorgan 'crux Christi' cross-

slabs (ECMW: 130). Its interlace decoration shows Irish influence: examples of tenth-century 'expansional' crosses with interlace within square terminals occur at Clonmacnois and Durrow, Co. Offaly (Lionard, 1961: fig. 17, no. 6 andfig. 18, no. 2, commemorating Aigidiu, dated c.950).

Mag., 1861:41, Rhys, 1873c, 8; Westwood, 1851: 145-6; Westwood, 1857: 61; Macalister, 19336: 375. Cast: NMW acc. no. 1899.71.

B A G L A N (St Catherine's Church) SS 7535 9228

2. Upright cross-carved grave-marker PRESENT LOCATION In the churchyard on the south

side of the former parish church of St Baglan (now

ruinous), on the slope above the present St Catherine's

G4a. Cross-carved stone, Baglan (St Catherine's Church) I. (Crown copyright: RCAHMW)

PRESENT CONDITION condition of carving good.

G4b. Cross-carvedstone, Baglan (St Catherine's Church) ,I cast.

Trimmed for building, but

DESCRIPT ION Incompleteslab with an equal-armringcross formed of interlace carved infalse relief (Fig. 64.69).

+ Brancu (made this cross)

Comments onletter-forms: Half-uncialswith BRANCU fluentlywritten, despite the lack ofa writing-line. Serifo n B. aflat-topped A that we see i n the hand of the scribe Nuadu of the Cambridge Juvencus. The N shows the second

The t w o h o r i z o n t a l a r m s h a v e b e e n largely t r i m m e d a w a y

and end ni triquetra knots (E7.3; Fig. 68). The upper and lower arms consist o f rectangular panels o f C1 interlace

(Fig. 68). The main strandsformingt h e cross are doublebeaded, but not all those of the interlace panels. Inscription

To the right of the lower arm is an incomplete Latin

inscription with pecked letters in rounded half-uncials, reading vertically downwards: + BRANCU:F + brancu flecit]

s t r o k e c o m i n g o u t o ft h e d o w n - s t r o k e a t t h e c o r r e c t p o i n t

forthe penman. Thereappears to be a double stopbetween the end oft h e name and the letter F that begins 'F[ecit]'. (GC-E)

Comments onthe linguistics: Brittonic Period 14-28. BRANCU is an Old Welsh name from Celtic *Brano-koimo'raven-dear'. In Old Welsh one would expect the second element to be spelt -cum and later -cu. While a spelling-cuf under Anglo-Saxon influence is not impossible (compare Old Cornish names like Wincuf), that si unlikely here if there isa punctuationm a r k before the F. The final conso-

Church.

EVIDENCE FOR DISCOVERY/PROVENANCE Noted by RCAHMW investigators. MEASUREMENTS h. 61cm (24in.)aboveground X w. 40cm (16in.) X w. 13cm (5in.).

STONE TYPE Pink-weathering, fine-grained, very homogeneous, moderately well-sorted quartzitic sandstone,

showingfine scale bedding parallel to the ornamentedface. The stone has an extensively developed weathering crust and lichen covering which precludes description of its unweatherednature. Theprovenance of this stone is uncertain but may be derived from the Coal Measure sandstones (Westphalian, Upper Carboniferous). (JH) PRESENT CONDITION

Weathered but intact.

G5a. Upright cross-carved grave-marker, Baglan (St Catherine's Church) .I (Crowncopyright:RCAHMW)

PART II CATALOGUE

268 DESCRIPTION Shaped rectangular slab, on the east face anincised equal-arm outline cross40cmx 37cm (16in.

line cross is similar to that on a stone at Kenderchurch (H2), also attributed to thetwelfth century.

× 14'/in.) with slightly expanded arms (Fig. 61.17).

DATE Probably eleventh-twelfth century.

or twelfth centuries (RCAHMW, 1976: pt. 3, 64). The out-

REFERENCES RCAHMW, 1976: pt 3, no. 961.

According to Thomas it probably dates from the eleventh

GLAMORGAN

D R O P

BAGLAN (Cwm Gwenffrwd)

4051.2

SS 8045 9696 G6

1. Cross ECMW no. 265

PRESENT CONDITION shaft broken away.

P R E S E N TL O C A T I O N

DESCRIPTION

s t i r r u p - s h a p e d arm-pits with raised edge-mouldings,

the whole within a sub-rectangular double-beaded ring. The cross hasa mouldedring-and-pellet device in low relief at the centre, and there are six ring devices cut into the inter-arm surrounds, four as pairs flanking the vertical arm at top and bottom, and two in the lower corners (Fig. 65.79).

..standing in the yard of the house of the resident manager of the colliery on the tramroad at Bryn Cefneithan

(recte Bryncefneithwyn] having beenremoved from a small

holy well in the vicinity'. (He later (LW 1879) unaccount-

ably, and inaccurately, described this as being 'at Resolven',

which is in fact some miles away.) The locations cited lie above Cwm Gwenffrwd on the W. slopes of Mynydd Blaenavon, the house in questionbeing that marked on the

general area being known locally as 'Stad Gwen Gai'. Subsequently removed to 'thegarden of a Miss Parsons [a r e l a t i v e o f t h e f o r m e r o w n e r o f B l a e n a v o n l at

Neath'

(LW:26). Donated to the National Museum of Wales in 1892.

ni

Farm lying some 460m N.; the well may be identified as the spring that lies between them higher up the slope at the head of a declivity known as w m Ffynnon, the

Incomplete panel, truncated by fracture, its sides defined by a continuation of the outer moulding of the head, doubled by an innermoulding, containing an incomplete inscription in three horizontal lines, withtrac es of afour th.

Inscription Incomplete inscription in pecked simplified half-uncial letters, in three horizontal lines with traces of a fourth: PROP ARAVI

MEASUREMENTS h. 86cm (34in.) surviving X w.66cm (26in.)narrowingt o45cm (17'in.) × d. 20cm (8in.)max. STONE TYPE This fine-grained, highly weatheredmoderately well-sorted homogeneous sandstone has a welldeveloped w e a t h e r e d crust w h i c h precludes a m o r e

It is derived from the Pennant

Sandstone succession (Upper Coal Measures, Westphalian), similar tot h e manyexposures in the surroundingarea, in particular on Cefn Morfudd to the west and Mynydd Blaenafon to the east of the find-site (Fig. 103a). (JH)

the Book of Llandaf in the ninth and early eleventh centuries (Liber Land.: 212, 262), and recurs as Gallgwn in later Welsh genealogies. It is acompound of* Gallo- (either 'Gaul, foreigner' or 'able one',a s in the Breton inscription GALLMAU, IEMB, no. F2), and *kuno- 'hound' (as in

equal-arm ring-cross ni low relief, defined by broad

later (Westwood, 1865: 65-6) as 3' miles E. of Neath

6in. O.S. map as 'Blaenavon', the site of Bryncefneithwyn

Panelled cross-slab, decorated o n one

Rounded head (56cm/22in. wide) filled with an

DISCOVERY/PROVENANCE Recorded by Westwoodi n 1846 and published some years FOR

detailed description.

G6b. Cross, Baglan (Cwm Gwenffrwd) :1 theinscription.

Now in the National M u s e u m

Cardiff (NMW acc. no. 92.63) EVIDENCE

Incomplete; bottom half of

TGALC [U...I

proparavit Galc(un) Galc(un)prepared(this cross) Comments on letter-forms:

Debased half-uncials, crudely

written with noguide-lines or spacing. This was a text evi-

dently transferred to stone by a stoneworker who was a free-formpattern-makerwith no ideao f writing-lines, reg. ulation of letter size or spacing. Completely haphazard and crude lettering that in the space of fourteen letters

Welsh Maelgwn). (PS-W) References: CIB: 48 n. 164, 71, 130, 218 and n. 1358 (no. 1027/265/923).

Goa. Cross, Baglan (Cwm Gwenffrwd) .I

DISCUSSION Proparaviti s amisspelling of preparavit. Thepreparavit formula, sometimes varied as posuit or fecit, isfound on several Glamorgan crosses, see Llantwit Major (St Illtud's

Church) 1, 3 and 4 (G63, G65, G66), Margam 1 and 4 (G78, G81), Margam (EglwysNynnid) 2 (G87),Merthyr

like a tablet, the cutter tried to render what seems to be a

M a w 1 (G98).

long out of date. His leaning is towards the curvilinear , which rather than the geometrical, so that the first A of hapresult e h t be must features, angular have to seems

Macalister concluded(CIIC: 164) that Westwood's reading PROPARAVIT G A I C [ - ] was wrong, and proposed PROPARAUIT GABALA, on the grounds that the letter following GA appears to be an ascender with a faint

'double C' form of A belonging to Phase I half-uncial,

hazard accident rather than design. (GC-E)

Comment on linguistics: Brittonic Period 14-28. With PROPARAVIT for pr(a)eparavit compare PROPARABIT

curved linebottom right.This si not convincing as aB, and the following letter is not an A. The incomplete letter at the

beginningo f the fourth line was consideredby Rhys to be

on Margam 4and PROPARARET on Margam (Eglwys Nynnid) .2 The confusion of pro- and pra)e- may be a feature of Insular Latin; compare Middle Irish procept
OW Petyr, Mod.W. Pedr) rathert h a n a mistake forpetra, 'stone', as suggested by Thomas (RCAHMW, 1976); the C of HANC is cut on the angle-moulding. Comments on letter-forms: Well-spaced and rounded halfuncials. The stone is very worn but it can be seen that there was once seriffing at the heads of down-strokes.

noted by the Nash-Williams drawing, on the L and terminal I of ILOUICI. Quite likely to have been put on the stone by a scribe. (GC-E)

Firstnoted by EdwardLhuyd (BritishLibrary, StoweMS 1024, fo. 14): 'a footbridge at M a rg a m consisting of two

stones of this form which seem to havebeen crosses; the other stone in question was the Ilci Cross (G85). This reuse

accounts for the wear noted onA2. T h e r e have been various attempts at reading the worn

inscription, by Rhys (1899), Macalister (Report, 1928; CIIC) and others.

The cross belongs to the characteristic group of Glamorgan 'panelled crosses' defined by sunken inter-arm spaces: see Chapter 9. Nash-Williams dated the stone to the eleventh century on stylistic grounds (ECMW: 152), whileT h o m a s gave it aslightly broader tenth- or eleventh-

century date(RCAHMW, 1976). T h e n a m e Iluic (or Iliuc) o c c u r s in a Llandaf charter dated

to c.860 (Davies, 1979: 174). D AT E

T e n t he l e v e n t h century.

REFERENCES RAHMW, 1976: pt 3, no. 919; CISP:

MARG3/1; CIC: no. 1018; Radford, 1949: no. 10; LW: 29; Strange, 1782: 24; Report, 1861: 343; Rhys, 1899: 136-8; Report, 1928: 392-5. Cast: NMWacc. no. 98.306. SAM no. GM011.

PART I CATALOGUE

434

435

GLAMORGAN

MARG AM (Cwrt- y-defa id)

501.

ы в Maranhouse. b 2

approx. SS 80019 8545 2. C r o s s also k n o w n as the Ilci C r o s s ECMW no. 237

G85 On the shaft, a vertical zigzag (weathered).

PRESENT LOCATION Margam Stones Museum. EVIDENCE FOR DISCOVERY/PROVENANCE Recorded c. 1693 (with G84) at Cwrt-y-defaid (British Library, Stowe MS 1024 fos 14, 62). Donovan illustrates the bridge, with t h e s e t w o s t o n e s s p a n n i n g t h e s t r e a m c l a p p e r- s t y l e

Inscription

In a panel framed, as in Al, by an edge-moulding

in false relief, a four line Latin inscription in mixed geometrical capitals and simplified halfuncials reading: ILCI. IFEICIT

HIANCI. CRUCE

(1805: ii, 5). Subsequently moved to Margam Abbey, where it was in the chapter house in 1899.

MEASUREMENTS h. 165cm (65in.) above ground X

w . 79cm (31in.) at head,narrowing to 63cm (25in.) atfoot

M .IMMINIOIMIN

E. DI.SUMMI Ilci fecit hanc crucem inn o m i n e d[e]i summi Ilci madethis cross in the name of God the most high

X d. 25cm (10in.).

It si possible that other lines may havebeen lost through

STONE TYPE

wear; the words areseparated by single dots.

Pale grey, extensively weathered to a buff colour. Coarse-grained sandstone. The stone is derived from Coal Measure strata. Lower, Middle and

Upper Coal Measure rocks are all exposed less than 5km

from here, including the Cefn Cribwr Rock (Lower Coal Measures), amassive, palegrey, quartzitic sandstone. (JH)

PRESENT CONDITION

The inscription is worn from

use as a footbridge, and in parts difficult to read.

DESCRIPTION Slab carved with a cross on both faces.

The upper section occupied by the cross si approximately

square, the lower section, below a distinct angle in both

I Rec frit

Comments on letter-forms: Angular capitals and simplified half-uncials with squared Cs and T. Asign that the letter-

er may be thinking ofa homogeneous inscriptioni n capi-

tal forms is the majuscule R in CRUCEM. which closes with the three vertical bars and at o p horizontal form of . In SUMMI theS is the right-angle minusgeometrical M

cule form. Aconsistent overall pattern, evenly spaced, yb ac o m p e t e n tletter-cutter. (GC-E)

Comments onlinguistics: Brittonic Period 14-28. ILCI is a compound of 1I- (a variant of El-, as ni ILQUICI nearby on Margam (Cwrt-y-defaid) 1) plus ci, 'hound'. It was

A N R hC U E M.Innomin F . dl

Lane Gucem m nomine d. summi

rummi.

edges, forming a narrower, slightly tapering shaft. A: 1. Within an irregular border formed by a pair of rightlycompared by Rhys (1899: 138-9)with OW Elci, in parallel incised lines si aring-cross with slightly the Book of Llandaf, but he wrongly equated ti also with splayed armsand wider interspaces, all sunken so OW Elcu, which in facthas the Brittonic element cu 'dear' that the ribs separating them stand out in false

relief (Fig. 65.80). In the centre a moulded ring surrounds a (missing) boss. Incorporated intot h e border in the upper and lower left spandrels are ni B : .1

in

.1

37

single incised rings. Panel within a similar border witha ringi n t h et o p right corner, containinga ninscription(see below). At the top, an incised ring, from the vicinity of which springs an incised vertical zigzag. Similar zigzag line on shaft. Similar layout and cross to Al, but lacking the

(cf. OC Illcum) not Goidelic cú, 'hound', as he thought. ILCI is probably a completename, as -ILCI is not easy to explain a s an acephalous name. (PS-W)

References: CIB: 45, 71, 112, 128, 129 n. 736. 234 (no. 1019/237/920).

DISCUSSION Theinscription is farclearer thanG84,though i t mayhave

suffered some wear. Readingsby Westwood (LW: 30). Rees

(1899), Macalister (CIIC: no.

1019).

Nash-Williams

incised rings; boss intact.

(ECMW: 152-5) and Thomas (RCAHMW, 1976: pt 3, no. 920) are fairly consistent. For the form of the cross,

by side, from the smaller of which (left) avertical

Glamorgan examples of the in nomine and dei summi for-

Similar framed panel to A2. but blank. At the top, two incised rings of unequal sizes i d e

zigzagproceeds toa larger double ring below.

which closely resembles G84, see Chapter 9. For other mula,s e e under Margam 4 (G81).

G85a. Cross, Margam (Cwrt-y-defaid) 2, as recorded on British Library, StoweMS 1024, Jo.62. (Copyright: British Library)

PARTI IC ATA L O G U E

GLAMORGAN

G85c. Cross, Margam (Cwrt-y-defaid) ,2 faceC. /eleventh-century contextsi n the Llandaf Charters (Davies, 1979; Rhys, 1899: 138-9). Nash-Williamsd a t e dt h estone tot h e eleventh century on

stylistic grounds (ECMW: 154), while Thomas gave it a slightly broader late tenth- to eleventh-century date

(RCAHMW, 1976). DATE

G856. Cross, Margam(Cwrt-y-defaid) 2, face A, showing base (Mansel Franklen, .c 1889).

The name Ilci appears to be complete, and can be equated with the OW name 'Elci' which occurs in the tenth-

Late tenth elevent hcentury.

REFERENCES RAHMW, 1976: pt 3, no. 920; CISP: MARG3/2; CIIC: no. 1019; LW: 30; IBC: no. 75; Radford,

1949: no.9; Rhys, 1899: 138-9;Rhys, 1905: 35; Macalister,

G85d. Cross, Margam (Cwrt-y-defaid) 2,faces B and C.

(Crown copyright: RCAHMW)

1928: 309; Report, 1928: 395. Cast: NMW acc. no. 98.307. SAM no. GM011. G85e. Cross,Margam (Cwrt-y-defaid) 2, facesB and A.

GLAMORGAN

439

9

PART I CATALOGUE

CRUCEI Momma.din

• dI

G85f. Cross, Margam (Cwrt-y-defaid) 2, faces Band D(cast).

G85g. Cross, Margam(Cwrt-y-defaid)2, the inscription.

M A R G A M (Eglwys Nynnid) SS 8030 8442

G86a. Latin- &ogam-inscribedstone, Margam (Eglwys Nynnid)I, in situ (ManselFranklen, 1889).

G86

.1 Latin- and ogam-inscribed stone also known as the Pumpeius Stone E C M W no. 198

PRESENT LOCATION Margam Stones Museum.

EVIDENCE FOR DISCOVERY /PROVENANCE First recorded near Eglwys Nynnid .c 1578 (Morg. Arch:. VIII, 102; also noted ni Parochialia: III, 125, fo. 470), but

site. In the eighteenth century the stone was noted at 'Water Street', i.e. by the side of the road (SS 8033 8446). Described in the 1870s as standing upon the grass-sward at the side of the road' (LW: 19). Rhys advocated placing

ti with others in the church at Margam, as it is a little

damaged, as it is a target for boys to throw stones at

(damaging initial letters of the names Pumpeius and

whether it was erect or recumbent at that timei s not clear.

Carantorius), and to be mutilated in other ways' (1899:

It is mentioned ni a letter of 14 July 1603 from Bishop Frances Godwin, Bishopof Llandaf, to William Camden,

136). Moved toMargambetween 1928 and 1945. MEASUREMENTS

Approx. h.

135cm (53in.)

X

(British Library, Cotton MS Julius F.VI. fos 297-8, olim 282; Haverfield, 1911: 376). The site lies near the pre-

w. 35cm (14in.) X d. 52cm (20½in.)max. tapering to45cm

and Neath, and was a grange of Margam Abbey, though its name points to its being a more ancient ecclesiastical

STONE TYPE Grey, coarse-grained sandstone, showing intense iron-staining on all surfaces and weakly developed

sumed line of theRoman roadbetween the forts ofCardiff (18in.).

beddingparallel to the inscribed face. Pennant Sandstone. It is possible that this is locally derived, as although this

lithology is extensively exposed throughout the region. a b u n d a n t e x p o s u r e s a r ep r e s e n t o n t h e s l o p e s 1km to the

north of the find-site at Eglwys Nynnid. (JH) PRESENT CONDITION Complete; some damage on one upper angle. The ogam inscription is worn and chipped. DESCRIPTION Inscrintions

In o g a m and Latin:

Latin inscription in two lines reading verticallydown-

G866. Latin- & ogam-inscribed stone, Margam (Eglwys Nynnid) 1. (Crown copyright: RCAHMW)

PART I CATALOGUE

PVMPEIVS CARANTORIVS Pumpeius Carantorius (lies here) Mostly Roman capitals, but with uncial form of E, and Ps with the vertical strokedescendingbelow the line; Rs with

open loop and tail approaching thehorizontal; enlarged S; VMligatured.

ni

An ogaminscriptionbegins atthe upper left corner of the face and continues down the right-hand edge:

PIOIPIIAST / R(Oor A)L[ … ..INMI ... JOI. . . . ]LLI • INA

The gaps are large enough tohave carried more than one letter, and need not haveconsisted of vowel-notches only;

the gapbetween M and Q is wider thanwouldb e expected ni the common word MAQI; thepresence ofa forfid U (suggested ni RCAHMW, 1976: pt ,3 no. 849,which si com-

paredwith CIIC: no. 240, from Teeromoyle, C o . Kerry) si doubtful (cf. McManus, 1997: 79).The Latin Pumpeius (for Pompeius) seemslikely to have beenrendered int h e ogam, but thereseems to be no correlationi n the remaindero fthe twoinscriptions. The Ps appear tob e represented bycrosses of three lines, a variation on one of the forfeda signs (restored by Macalister; CIC: II, 387-8). Comments onletter-forms: Light and quickly written mono-

line capitals. There si a ligatured UM, an uncial E and quickly executedhorizontal finishes to the capital Rs, sug. gesting that capitals were used with rapidity in written form, and not restricted to monumental use. Perhaps worked from a tablet exemplar: on the stone the letterer has started enlarging the letters in too small ascale with what looks like a lower-case P. but has scaled up - in a rising crescendo - to full capital for the second P in PUMPEIUS. Similarly, the scale oft h eS hasgiven some difficulty, the inscription ending with an S twice the size of the preceding letter V. (GC-E)

G86c. Latin- &ogam-inscribedstone, Margam (Eglwvs Nynnid) I.

showing ogam. (Crown copyright: RCAHMW)

Comments onlinguistics:Brittonic Period 3-5 (but 3-13i fthe lacko f i-affection in CARANTORIVS isattributedt o conservative spelling). Irish Period 13-14. PVMPEIVS for Pompeius may show the Welsh development of / u m / < /om/. Alternatively,i t mayhaveVulgarLatinu foro. The ogam P[O]PI, if correctly restored (O or A are possible, but the latter wouldmake no sense), may preserve the original vowel of Pompeius. The omission of the m (if we rule out Macalister's extraordinary reading PAMPES) has been explained in terms of an Irishdevelopment of / b / < /m p / and it is also possible that / p / mayb e being substituted for

441

GLAMORGAN

the difficult combination /mp/, which did not existin Irish. Most probably, however, the omission of / m / is due to Vulgar Latin, as in SEPRONIVS (RIB I: no. 686), and

Continental forms such as Popeianus and Popeia. Already Rhys (1879: 202) compared P O P E (hisreading) with Latin

forms such as Poponi and Seproni. fI POPIAS is the correct

ELUNA in Ireland (Ziegler, 1994: 176 and 188). The lack of endings to ROLACUN and MAQ (according to Macalister'sreadings) would imply a late date (Irish Period

13 or later). (PS-W)

References: CIB: 33-4, 54, 71, 90, 94, 116, 133 n. 774, 147,

186, 214, 216, 304, 309-10, 312, 315, 319, 348-9 (nos

reading, the -AS may be the Irish nominative ending corresponding to Latin -us and IA rather than EA could be a

409/198/849).

hypercorrect spelling, following the Primitive Irish sound-

DISCUSSION

change /ia/ > /ea/. The forfidfor P is one of the additional ogam letters invented for this un-Irish sound (see SimsWilliams, 1992: 39-40). CARANTORIVS isdefinitely not

. Cerennhyr < Irish; it si the forerunnero f OW Cerenhir, W *Carantorix (cf. the Breton parochial name Carantoir). Such names in -orius have been much discussed. According to Ifor Williams (1980: 8), Latin -us was added to British *ori < *orix, while according to Jackson (LHEB: 626),* ori < *

orix was mistaken as aLatin genitive, leading to the construction of a nominative -orius. Note, however, that Latinized -orius/-oria forms were already current in Roman Britain, e.g. a lead curse-tablet from Leintwardine, Herefordshire bearing the name MAGLORIV|S]