Depicting the Consumer of Experiential Luxury: Identities, Values and Consumption Goals in Online Reviewer Discourse on Wine, Perfume and Chocolate 1137600799, 9781137600790

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Depicting the Consumer of Experiential Luxury Identities, Values and Consumption Goals in Online Reviewer Discourse on Wine, Perfume and Chocolate

Charlotte Hommerberg · Maria Lindgren

Depicting the Consumer of Experiential Luxury

Charlotte Hommerberg · Maria Lindgren

Depicting the Consumer of Experiential Luxury Identities, Values and Consumption Goals in Online Reviewer Discourse on Wine, Perfume and Chocolate

Charlotte Hommerberg Linnaeus University Kalmar Växjö, Sweden

Maria Lindgren Linnaeus University Kalmar Växjö, Sweden

ISBN 978-1-137-60079-0 ISBN 978-1-137-60080-6 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-60080-6 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2023 The author(s) has/have asserted their right(s) to be identified as the author(s) of this work in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. This project will contribute to knowledge in an area of present-day society that has increasingly affected lifestyles, attitudes and beliefs over the past few decades, namely the construction of humans as consumers. The particular focus of this book is the type of luxury consumption that involves complex interaction of the human senses. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. Cover illustration: © DrAfter123/Getty Images This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Limited The registered company address is: The Campus, 4 Crinan Street, London, N1 9XW, United Kingdom

Contents

1

Introduction

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2

Contemporary Luxury

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3

Field-Specific Competencies

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Our Study

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Attitude in Manifestos

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Judgement in Reviewer Self-Presentations

71

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Involvement in Reviews

99

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Composition and Reaction in Reviews

123

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Valuation in Reviews

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The Review-Based Consumer of Experiential Luxury

185

References

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Index

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About the Authors

Charlotte Hommerberg is Senior Lecturer in English Linguistics at Linnaeus University, Sweden. Her engagement with discourse analysis comprises both teaching and research, and her prior work involves application and development of the Appraisal model for the study of wine discourse. Maria Lindgren is Associate Professor in Swedish Linguistics at Linnaeus University, Sweden. She has a keen interest in and a longstanding experience with discourse analysis in both teaching and research.

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List of Figures

Fig. 3.1

Fig. 4.1

Fig. 4.2 Fig. 4.3 Fig. 4.4 Fig. 9.1

The scales of Acidity and Sweetness combined with the scales of Balance and evaluation, from Lehrer (1975: 904) The model of discourse semantics used in this study as a system of analytic categories (based on Martin & White, 2005) The subsystem of affect, highlighted in black The subsystem of Judgement, highlighted in black The subsystem of Appreciation, branched in Composition, Reaction and Valuation, highlighted in black The subsystem of Valuation in the reviews included in this study, highlighted in black

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38 39 40 41 180

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CHAPTER 1

Introduction

Online reviewer discourse on experiential luxury products is abundantly available online, offering advice to consumers so that they can make informed consumption choices. The issuing of luxury consumption recommendations online has developed from an amateur venture to a professional arena with numerous successful entrepreneurs followed by readers all over the world, and online reviewer discourse, therefore, occupies a powerful niche in the current luxury ecology. In this book, we explore online reviewer discourse on wine, perfume and chocolate in order to highlight how the discourse addresses the audience, thereby providing clues which allow us to depict the consumer of experiential luxury. The excerpt below, which is a review of the men’s perfume Citrus & Wood by Yardley, written by Colin Maillard and published on the perfume review website Basenotes, offers an illustration. The three paragraphs of this review compare the Yardley perfume with the more expensive bestseller Terre made by the French luxury goods manufacturer Hermès. Citrus & Wood by Yardley “Poor man’s Terre d’Hermès” indeed, but given the price, that’s definitely a plus. And it’s not the only one, actually. Citrus & Wood is definitely similar to Ellena’s bestseller to many extents, as it is basically the exact same “airy”, hyper-clean, very contemporary Iso-E infused woody blend with a zesty, classic eau de cologne-inspired top accord of citrus notes. But it © The Author(s) 2023 C. Hommerberg and M. Lindgren, Depicting the Consumer of Experiential Luxury, https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-60080-6_1

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has a couple of unexpected twists that make it quite worthy the purchase regardless of whether you like and/or own Terre already. First, Citrus & Wood is even cleaner and crisper than Terre d’Hermès, slightly more soapy and floral, a bit spicier at heart, and somehow overall less synthetic as well. I’ve tested it extensively in the past few days and that’s probably the feature I enjoyed the most – the fact that it smells very laid-back, very natural even if it obviously isn’t, not cloying and not “plastic” at all as one may expect. The citrus notes do smell like proper citrus, properly fading in a couple of minutes as proper citrus notes do, and the woody notes do smell like realistic, freshly cut, sharp wood (Ikea stuff, don’t expect any raw-dirty smokiness). It’s obviously that ubiquitous industrial cedar-pencil aromachemical again, but whoever created this on behalf of Yardley did a great job in infusing some life in it and making it smell smoother, softer, less dry and less blatantly artificial as many others did. Partially thanks to the use of the floral tones and partially to the quality top citrus accord, it all smells very uplifting, fresh, vibrant and classy. Shortly this is a great clean citrus-woody scent which can be perfect basically anythine and anywhere, more than safe and greatly inoffensive but classy and pleasant. A great alternative to Terre d’Hermès (and similar scents) with a smoother, lighter and cleaner presence. The projection is decent and the persistence is a bit short – as you’d fairly expect with this type of notes, but given the cheap price and the fantastic top notes, it’s a pleasure to reapply. 7/10

The review starts by referring to Citrus & Wood by Yardley as similar to Terre d’Hermès. The fact that the status luxury brand Hermès is mentioned projects the addressees as being familiar with the brand, and this phenomenon is reinforced by the naming of “Ellena” in passing, without further presentation of the perfumer Jean-Claude Ellena, who designed Terre for Hermès. The world of luxury brands is thus treated as part of the background competence that the reviewer shares with the addressees. The “indeed” in the first sentence brings to mind a general view that is dismissive of Citrus & Wood for being a less expensive version than the luxury brand perfume. However, this is a view that the reviewer deviates from, which is suggested by the following “but”. The aspect of being a poor man’s version is instead reframed as “a plus” by this reviewer. This construes a discourse community which, despite having knowledge of status brand perfumes, still sees the advantage of paying less.

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Specialist insight is indicated by the use of field-specific terminology, such as “top accords” and “Iso-E” (a fragrance molecule), in combination with specific olfactory words, for instance “airy”, “hyper-clean”, “zesty”, and intricate comparison with the corresponding perceptual experience offered by Terre: Citrus & Wood is “even cleaner and crisper…slightly more soapy and floral…a bit spicier at heart…overall less synthetic”, which the reviewer anticipates will make sense to the addressees. Furthermore, the reviewer construes a community that ultimately prefers the scents that natural ingredients give rise to, but appreciates the professional skills of a perfume designer who manages to create a fragrance that appears natural “even if it obviously isn’t”. In particular, “the top quality citrus notes” are appreciated: they smell like “proper citrus notes” and evaporate in exactly the same way as their natural counterpart would, “properly fading in a couple of minutes as proper citrus notes do”. The perfume is found by the reviewer to be “classy” despite its affordability and use of ingredients that are not altogether top notch, “(Ikea stuff, don’t expect any raw-dirty smokiness)”. In our understanding, the reviewer approaches the addressees as fellow members of an enlightened community that is comfortable with specialized terminology and expects substantiated arguments for as well as against the product. The addressees are construed as seeking refinement and optimization of the sensory experience in a product that is just right in relation to their personal preferences, without having to pay a fortune for it. ∗ ∗ ∗ To what extent can Citrus & Wood by Yardley be labelled as luxury? Traditional luxury values are described in the literature in terms of attributes such as exquisite quality, sensory appeal, uniqueness, heritage, scarcity and high price (see, for instance, Wang, 2021; Wong & Dhanesh, 2017). In the following, we reflect on how the review of Citrus & Wood relates to these luxury values. A central luxury value is exquisite quality, including design as well as artisanship. The value of exquisite quality is of clear relevance in the review, where the degree to which Citrus & Wood has exquisite quality is assessed as 7 on a numerical scale from 1 to 10. In addition, the comparison to a similar, more prestigious, brand product is a notable feature of the review, and it is found that Citrus & Wood is of equal if not higher

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quality. In particular, the degree of naturalness is found to be higher in Citrus & Wood, which is described as “less synthetic” compared to Terre. Naturalness, therefore, appears to be an important aspect of how this reviewer conceives of exquisite quality. The design and artisanship are referenced in the review; the designer behind the scent is praised as having done “a great job”, and the achievement of creating Citrus & Wood is indirectly equated with the famous nose Ellena’s artisanship. Another traditional luxury value is sensory appeal. The review devotes considerable attention to a minute description of how the perfume unfolds stage by stage to the perceiver’s senses. The sensory appeal of Citrus & Wood is approached by way of an artistic object, which enables appreciation of how a crafted work is intentionally structured to reward initiated perception. The degree of the fragrance’s sensory appeal is appraised at every stage, resulting in a multidimensional assessment of the scent, with its sensory strengths and weaknesses clearly laid bare, for instance the observation that the persistence of the fragrance is “a bit short”. The literature on traditional luxury also brings up the value of uniqueness. This value is addressed in the review in terms of the degree of originality of Citrus & Wood, which is found to have “a couple of unexpected twists”. The surprising element of the scent thus contributes to the reviewer’s positive appraisal, indicating that the reviewer expects the addressees to share this value. Another traditional luxury value is heritage. This value is related to the history and long-term prestige of the product. Heritage is present in the review of Citrus & Wood in the sense that the prestigious French luxury leather goods brand Hermès is mentioned in comparison with the scent that is being assessed. It, however, appears that the value of Terre’s heritage is overruled by the immediate sensory appeal of Citrus & Wood. Scarcity is a central value of traditional luxury, which implies that luxury goods are available in limited quantities and not readily accessible to everyone. Scarcity thus entails exclusivity. It does not appear to us that the reviewer of Citrus & Wood addresses the quality of scarcity. Rather, we can perhaps assume that there are no restrictions in the availability of the scent. Finally, the literature on traditional luxury refers to high price as associated with products that are luxurious. The price of Citrus & Wood is mentioned repeatedly in the review. First, the reference to the scent as a “poor man’s” alternative to Terre indicates that Citrus & Wood has

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a lower price than the Hermès scent. Second, the price of the scent is explicitly acknowledged to be “cheap”, which is presented as “a plus”, i.e. a positive rather than negative attribute of Citrus & Wood, and one which could outweigh weaknesses in the sensory appeal of the fragrance, such as its lack of persistence. In sum, we find that the review of Citrus & Wood by Yardley addresses several traditional luxury values. Exquisite quality, sensory appeal and uniqueness are values that are considered as the reviewer establishes the worth of the reviewed fragrance. Heritage is backgrounded as a phenomenon associated with the status scent that is mentioned as basis of comparison, but not an attribute of the reviewed fragrance itself. Scarcity appears to us to be absent from the review. Finally, the opposite of high price, i.e. the cheapness of the fragrance, is drawn on as part of the argumentation for the worth of this fragrance. We find that this review invites the addressees to profit from the luxury experience offered by this perfume, without excluding anyone due to scarcity or high price. The concept of luxury is composite and elusive, due to the complex of interlinked values. In addition, luxury is not stable for a particular individual and social group at a particular moment in time but can be understood differently depending on context. For example, a bottle of Château Margaux can be enjoyed by the consumer in quiet contemplation of its awe-inspiring attributes, while the same bottle can be used as a signifier of good taste and wealth when consumers seek social approval and status through their luxury consumption (Berthon et al., 2009: 56). In other words, luxury consumption can strive towards intrinsic goals, such as self-fulfilment through spiritual enlightenment, greater knowledge, peace, appreciation of beauty, culture, art and aesthetics (Danziger, 2005), while consumers can also engage in luxury consumption with extrinsic goals in mind, i.e. to confirm their social status (Wang, 2021). The existence of implicit forces may subject consumers to judgement based on the ideological and socio-cultural messages that their personal preferences and consumption choices send to others as well as themselves. Consumption choices, as well as how these are thought about, evaluated and talked about, function to position consumers with respect both to how they see themselves and to how they want others to see them. In his seminal investigation of social distinction, Bourdieu (1984) addressed the capacity of overtly manifested consumption choices to provide consumers with the social identity that they want to project. Bourdieu (1984: 57) observed that exposure of personal tastes of aesthetic objects to others

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can lead to anxiety of being classified by those who belong to the social group to which one aspires. In a similar vein, Silverstein (2004: 643–644) argues that consumers are subject to self-placement based on their articulated attitudes with respect to prestige products. We posit that luxury is presently more complex than ever before and that the group seeking luxury experiences is becoming more and more heterogeneous. To seek guidance through the growing number of available consumption choices and the increasingly complex role played by these in contemporary life, many consumers rely on recommendations issued by online reviewers when they want to make informed consumption choices (Vasquez, 2014). The articulated mission of reviewers of experiential products is to help consumers by describing the sensory perceptions and assessing the true worth of the product. At the same time, it is in the interest of reviewers to become widely trusted, not only because this means they are altruistically sharing their experiences and competencies with more fellow consumers but because being widely read and trusted can mean a profitable career. The arena for online reviewers is booming, and for instance perfume reviewer Robin Krug has attracted a large group of followers (La Ferla, 2008). The most renowned online reviewer is perhaps wine critic Robert Parker, whose reviewing was explored from a discourse analysis perspective in Hommerberg (2011) and has inspired this study. Parker was an amateur who developed his favourite hobby into a profession, which flourished with the advent of the Internet and the opportunity for reviewers to publish online. What made Parker particularly noteworthy was that he did not have a personal background including wine acculturation, but was raised on Coca-Cola in rural Maryland, USA. This lack of acculturation was overtly declared as part of how he presented himself to his addressees, and Parker’s background conceivably resonated with the ever-broader group of new wine consumers from countries without domestic wine production, who could identify with the critic (McCoy, 2005). Parker stands out as an exceptionally knowledgeable expert wine taster through his detailed descriptions of perceptual experiences which are consistently backed up by information about how the wine was produced, and the reviews’ extensive employment of specialized terminology indicates that the reviewer addresses his audience as fellow members of a initiated community with comparable insight into wine (Hommerberg, 2011). While Parker himself has now retired, the online review website that he launched still occupies the position as one of the most trusted quality

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judgement devices for consumers wanting to make informed choices of fine wines. Parker is present in this study too, although in a more backgrounded position as just one reviewer among several others. ∗ ∗ ∗ This book focuses on online reviewer discourse on wine, perfume and chocolate. Technically, these experiential luxury products are consumed by means of different physiological processes—wine is drunk, perfume is applied to the skin, chocolate is eaten—but they have in common that consumption of them relies essentially on other senses than the visual. These forms of experiential luxury products are, therefore, particularly difficult to assess and the need for trusted sources of evaluation especially urgent. Our study makes a contribution to the field of experiential luxury research by approaching the matter from a discourse-analytic perspective. We use the notion of the imagined addressee to analyse how reviewers involved in this practice ascribe characteristics and behaviours, luxury values and consumption goals to the audience of their reviewer practice. By drawing on the notion of the imagined addressee, our ultimate goal is to offer a depiction of the review-based consumer of experiential luxury, a discursive construct arising from our analysis. In line with general approaches to discourse analysis, we take the context to be of crucial significance. The next two chapters, therefore, situate the study with respect to different orientations to contemporary luxury and relevant field-specific understanding of wine, perfume and chocolate.

References Berthon, P., Pitt, L., Parent, M., & Berthon, J.-P. (2009). Aesthetics and ephemerality: Observing and preserving the luxury brand. California Management Review, 52(1), 45–66. Bourdieu, P. (1984). Distinction: A social critique of the judgement of taste. Routledge. Danziger, P. N. (2005). Let them eat cake: Marketing luxury to the masses—As well as the classes. Dearborn Trade Pub. Hommerberg, C. (2011). Persuasiveness in the discourse of wine: The rhetoric of Robert Parker (Doctoral Thesis). Linnaeus University Press, Växjö, Kalmar. La Ferla, R. (2008, April 17). Everyone’s a critic. The New York Times.

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McCoy, E. (2005). The emperor of wine: The rise of Robert M. Parker Jr. and the reign of American taste. Harper Collins. Silverstein, M. (2004). “Cultural” concepts and the language-culture nexus. Current Anthropology, 45(5), 621–652. Vasquez, C. (2014). The discourse of online consumer reviews. Bloomsbury. Wang, Y. (2021). A conceptual framework of contemporary luxury consumption. International Journal of Research in Marketing. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. ijresmar.2021.10.010 Wong, J. Y., & Dhanesh, G. S. (2017). Communicating corporate social responsibility (CSR) in the luxury industry. Management Communication Quarterly, 31(1), 88–112.

CHAPTER 2

Contemporary Luxury

In this chapter, we offer a thematic overview of contemporary luxury, which constitutes the context in which our study is situated, including different orientations to contemporary luxury and how these portray the consumer. The overview shows that the concept of luxury is in continuous transition and can no longer be discerned based on exclusivity and availability only for a privileged elite. A stable property of luxury that has remained constant is nonetheless the quality of being something extra that is “desirable and more than necessary or ordinary” (Heine, 2012: 40). As luxury has spread to new markets and consumer segments, luxury values have been replaced by sometimes unexpected forms of experiences, which may even stretch beyond consumption (Dubois et al., 2021: 83). The chapter draws on research carried out in other disciplines, marketing, psychology and sociology, and the depiction of different luxury consumers’ dispositions offered below is based on empirical research using experimental techniques, ethnographic approaches and theoretical conceptualizations of the luxury consumer. It is organized into four themes, traditional luxury, new luxury, ingroup-based luxury and competencies-based luxury, which represent different orientations to luxury and form the backdrop of our discourse-analytic approach to the topic.

© The Author(s) 2023 C. Hommerberg and M. Lindgren, Depicting the Consumer of Experiential Luxury, https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-60080-6_2

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2.1

Traditional Luxury

What we have chosen to label traditional luxury is associated with the core values of luxury generally described in the literature, which are exquisite quality, high price, heritage, scarcity, uniqueness (Wong & Dhanesh, 2017: 92), but also sensory appeal, exquisite design and artisanship (Wang, 2021: 3). Typical products targeted by consumers engaging in traditional luxury are for instance a Chanel jacket, a Hermès handbag or a Ferrari sports car, i.e. products that are generally well-known and thus recognizable by others as associated with long-term prestige, heritage and high price (Wang, 2021: 3). Traditional luxury is primarily associated with ownership and can confer on the user a sense of control and personal identification with the product (Wang, 2021: 8). According to Wang (2021: 3), it invokes the image of upper class, elitist lifestyles and ideologies. It is only available for affluent consumers and thus functions to exclude the masses that do not have the financial means to engage in this type of luxury. Traditional luxury can, therefore, be a means to signal social status (Cannon & Rucker, 2019: 768), and this orientation to luxury has also been labelled wealth-based luxury (Wang, 2021). Engaging in traditional luxury has been referred to by means of the label conspicuous consumption, the ultimate goal of which is to maintain high social status, while the actual experience of using the product is assigned less importance (Veblen, 1899/2009). Display of products easily identified as traditional luxury can result in tangible social benefits. For instance, designer labels such as Gucci or Prada in visible luxury attributes like shoes, watches and handbags can give individuals easy access to exclusive nightclubs (Rivera, 2010). Consumption of such products thus allows the users to differentiate themselves from consumers ranking lower in the social hierarchy. This lower-ranking group may experience envy and a desire to consume at a level that positions them higher than those that are in turn hierarchically lower on the social ladder (Eckhardt et al., 2015: 808–809). On this view, traditional luxury can be seen as extrinsically motivated in the sense that consumers seek social rewards (Wang, 2021: 6–7) such as affiliating with wealthy others (Mandel et al., 2006) or even competing with alternative partners in romantic relationships (Durante et al., 2014).

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Traditional luxury as a means to univocally display social standing is, however, going through a process of decomposition. While previously reserved for those born into inherited status and permanent wealth, traditional luxury is becoming available to increasing numbers of new consumers in emerging economies, including countries such as China (Wang, 2021: 1). In addition, new ways of using traditional luxury products have emerged alongside ownership. Rather than purchasing the products, it is now possible with short-term rental of expensive cars, designer couture and handbags; the meaning of traditional luxury has thereby been diluted (Eckhardt et al., 2015: 809) and luxury in its traditional sense has lost its lustre (Thomas, 2007).

2.2

New Luxury

In the wake of the decomposition of traditional luxury and thanks to innovations in the production chain, a new form of luxury has emerged, which is referred to as new luxury (Cristini et al., 2017: 101), democratized luxury or luxury for the masses (Danziger, 2005; Thomas, 2007). This new form of luxury is more affordable than traditional luxury and is specifically intended to make luxury accessible to the masses. As part of this development towards new luxury, brands associated with traditional luxury have extended their product supply to offer less expensive items that still carry the brand logo, for instance Dior sunglasses, Louis Vuitton wallets and Hermès scarves (Eckhardt et al., 2015: 809) or brand perfume (Thomas, 2007: 142–144). By means of these extensions of the product lines, less affluent consumers can buy into the prestigious associations of the brand, while the traditional luxury products that were the original signature goods of the brands are still reserved for the select few. Many traditional brands draw on the financial revenues of their new luxury supply to finance the production of traditional products, and consumers in emerging markets like China, Russia and the Middle East have become important targets of luxury brands extending their marketing to consumers of new luxury (Rahimnia & Arian, 2021: 41). While thus no longer in line with the core values of luxury, the display of brand logos is crucial in new luxury, and especially consumers from lower socioeconomic groups typically prefer prominent brand identifiers (Dubois et al., 2021: 83). Wang (2021: 8) notes that it is important for brands to exercise dominance over consumers engaging in new luxury. Sales staff have the role of

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experts who teach the consumer about how to adopt elite styles (Dion & Borraz, 2017) and may even treat the customer in condescending ways (Wang, 2021: 8). The desire for luxury among new groups of consumers with limited means can put vulnerable groups at risk. For instance, an individual may choose to engage in a short-term luxury experience at the expense of basic needs, even if the actual material quality and sensory appeal offered by the product might be mediocre (Cristini et al., 2017: 104). The rapid expansion of new luxury to diversified consumer segments has entailed shifts in the image of luxury, and the brands’ function to confer social status on the consumer can also have a backside, namely that consumers engaging in consumption of luxury goods can be perceived as too status-focused and lacking in warmth (Cannon & Rucker, 2019: 776). Another negative association with the growth of the luxury industry is environmental concerns, and the luxury industry thus needs to take new luxury consumers’ environmental consciousness into consideration; some consumers experience guilt about engaging in self-indulgent consumption of luxury and may feel more justified in their consumption when the brand is associated with charities and social causes (Wong & Dhanesh, 2017: 92). In addition, the conspicuous nature of new luxury risks conferring on the unaware user a stigmatized label in the eyes of more enlightened others (Eckhardt et al., 2015: 815–816).

2.3

Ingroup-Based Luxury

In contrast to the overt luxury signals functioning as status symbols for consumers engaging in new luxury, other groups of luxury consumers opt for products that are only recognized as high-end by the select few, i.e. the elite ingroup. This type of luxury may thus not be noticeable to unenlightened consumers, but those that have access to the adequate form of cultural capital will regard the ingroup-based luxury consumer as a fellow cognoscente in areas such as gourmet food or coffee connoisseurship (Eckhardt et al., 2015: 808). The cultural capital that is needed in order to successfully engage in ingroup-based luxury consumption presumably relies on a privileged upbringing and a fine education, as observed by Bourdieu (1984). Eckhardt et al. (2015: 812) go so far as to regard this form of inconspicuous luxury consumption as “the new conspicuousness”, even if it is not overtly observable.

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The products consumed by ingroup-based luxury consumers thus carry subtle signals or no identifiers (Dubois et al., 2021: 84). In addition, ingroup-based luxury may also be displayed in unconventional combinations of products, for instance pairing foie gras with a red wine instead of a Sauternes (Wang, 2021: 8) or even with downscale macaroni and cheese (Dubois et al., 2021: 84). These unexpected, unconventional pairings of luxury items and combinations of luxury and non-luxury products function as status-signalling that is only recognized by others that belong to the ingroup, and the rules governing this kind of ingroup-based luxury are not accessible to outsiders. Ingroup-based luxury thus functions as a code for elite consumers to differentiate themselves from the middle-class masses (Dubois et al., 2021: 84). Luxury researchers have identified a shift from the ostentatiousness of new luxury towards the more subtle nature of what we have labelled ingroup-based luxury, which is correlated with economic development. As nations become wealthier, upwardly mobile consumers seek to consume in more subtle and sophisticated ways to avoid overt displays of wealth. For instance, prominent logos may even be removed from luxury garments to avoid explicit status-signalling (Eckhardt et al., 2015: 812–813). In contrast to traditional luxury, which tends to focus on ownership of widely recognized luxury items, ingroup-based luxury consumption often involves transient experiential moments. Ingroup-based luxury consumers strive for uniqueness, but it is a form of uniqueness shared with other affluent and experienced consumers. Ingroup-based luxury is also exclusive, since there is a desire to dissociate from the mainstream (Dubois et al., 2021: 83–84). In contrast to new luxury, it, therefore, appears that ingroup-based luxury is less egalitarian, since a prominent driving force is to distinguish between those that are in the know and the outgroup, who do not have insight into the sophisticated cultural capital needed in order to fully master this form of luxury. Ingroup-based luxury thus relies on a complex set of competencies that are covert and not explicitly articulated, relying on presupposed cultural capital.

2.4

Competencies-Based Luxury

However, another luxury orientation holds that luxury competencies can be acquired through study, practice and learning of field-specific knowledge. This competencies-based approach to luxury is described by Wang

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(2021: 12) as horizontal rather than vertical in the sense that it is not focused on exclusion and social positioning. Consumers engaging in competencies-based luxury enhance their product knowledge through for instance interaction with sales staff and communication with other consumers (Wang, 2021: 4). Competencies-based luxury consumers do not see themselves as fully in the know to the same extent as ingroupbased luxury consumers; rather they are on a continuous journey through different stages of competence, from novice to connoisseur. According to Wang (2021: 2), luxury competencies involve expertise about design and artisanship, aesthetic taste as well as understanding of luxury symbolism. Rather than focusing on the extrinsic motive of positioning themselves as having higher social status in relation to outsiders that are not in the know to the same extent, competencies-based luxury consumers are intrinsically motivated to enhance their knowledge so that they can get maximum enjoyment from the luxury experience (Wang, 2021: 3). Products targeted by consumers engaging in competencies-based luxury are typically experiential and involve domain-specific knowledge of a cognitive, sensory and social-behavioural nature (Wang, 2021: 11). Research indicates that experiential products can give rise to higher levels of satisfaction and happiness, since experiences can enhance social relations and are less evocative of comparisons of social status (Gilovich et al., 2015: 152). Rather than striving to engage only with high-end status products in order to confirm one’s elite status, competencies-based consumers seek to enhance their competencies by pursuing diversity to learn how to distinguish different products and thereby expand their palate. This approach is referred to as taste engineering by Maciel and Wallendorf (2017: 734) in their study of craft beer aficionados. Instead of seeking the status that can be associated with certain brands and products, the goal of this kind of taste engineering is to acquire mastery of institutional practices, aesthetic principles and the specific linguistic registers required in order to communicate with others about the consumption experience, and many aficionados expand their field-specific knowledge by attending courses, discussing with peers and reading books (Maciel & Wallendorf, 2017: 734). Competencies-based luxury is thus characterized by intrinsic rather than extrinsic desires and pursues experiences beyond the materialistic aspects. It is believed that a state of flow and self-transcendence can be reached when the consumer encounters that which is ultimate and establishes a personal connection with the artisanship, aesthetic experience and

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cultural heritage of a luxury product (Wang, 2021: 11), i.e. the three spheres that Berthon et al., (2009: 47) label material, individual and social. This kind of intrinsic appreciation of luxury is closely related to the highest level of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs (Maslow, 1954). Competencies-based consumers are also conscious of the footprint of their consumption, which means that they tend to opt for environmentally sustainable products, and one reason to opt for a luxury alternative where similar generic products are available can be that the luxury option is more durable and hence sustainable (Wang, 2021: 12). Competencies-based consumers are also health-conscious and may shop at specialized grocery stores, which have become associated with a new form of privilege and status (Dubois et al., 2021: 84), a much more complex form of status than that associated with traditional luxury consumption (Eckhardt et al., 2015: 809). Whereas competencies-based luxury consumers do not employ overt demonstration of prestigious brand logos and symbols to signal status, they use other resources as tools to position themselves in the social hierarchy. A prominent role in status-signalling is the use of jargon to communicate about the product, and it is also perceived as important to socialize with other cognoscenti as well as convey to others that time and resources have been spent in order to optimize one’s consumption expertise (Eckhardt et al., 2015). In contrast to consumers that engage in new luxury, competenciesbased consumers have a more horizontal relationship with brands. Brands may even invite consumers to co-construct the brand’s storytelling and display their creativity in product use. Social media plays an important role in competencies-based luxury as a channel for consumers to engage with other like-minded aficionados in communication about their luxury experiences. Competencies-based luxury is ostensibly inclusive of everyone willing to perfect their consumption expertise, but it is a form of consumption expertise that favours the aesthetics of certain practices at the expense of others and can result in taste regimes orchestrated by a particular social group’s habitus (Maciel & Wallendorf, 2017: 733). 2.4.1

The Review-Based Consumer of Experiential Luxury

The overview of orientations to contemporary luxury offered in this chapter shows that the concept of luxury has evolved and become more complex and multifaceted as luxury consumption has spread from a small

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exclusive circle to new markets and consumer segments thanks to raised standard of living in the world and innovations in the production chain. This new luxury is more affordable and more accessible than traditional luxury and is consequently more inclusive. In contrast to new luxury, ingroup-based luxury is characterized by being exclusive in the sense that its subtle signals are only recognized by those who belong to the ingroup. Furthermore, the perspective of competencies-based luxury is attracting growing numbers of present-day consumers. The consumer engaging in competencies-based luxury can start out as a novice with the opportunity to continuously develop consumption competencies towards connoisseurship. Competencies-based luxury is thus inclusive rather than exclusive, provided that the consumer engages in competencies-raising learning activities adapted to the dominant taste regime. More people than ever before now engage in some form of luxury consumption with the goal to enrich their lives. However, the concept of luxury itself is elusive and diversified; it is associated with uncertainty in the material, individual as well as social sphere, because of the transient nature of luxury values. Experiential luxury products like different kinds of beverages, scented accessories and gustatory specialties are particularly complicated to assess since they rely on appreciation based primarily on other senses than the visual. Online reviewers offer guidance regarding choices of such experiential luxury products based on field-specific expertise, sensory capabilities and sensitivity to social luxury values. Such guidance is virtually accessible to everyone with a digital device and is only a click away. In contrast to the literature referenced in this chapter, which is primarily grounded in empirical research involving actual consumers in experimental or ethnographic designs and conceptualizations based on such empirical research, our study offers an alternative approach to understanding the luxury consumer. Our contribution to the study of contemporary luxury consists in a discourse-analytic approach to online reviewer discourse by which we strive to depict the luxury consumer in terms of a discursive construct. This construct is pieced together by means of clues accumulated by analysing a selected set of text data. Contextual understanding is crucial to such an analytic approach. In the next chapter, we, therefore, continue our account of the context in which our study is situated by presenting central areas involved in understanding, perceiving, finding pleasure in and communicating about wine, perfume and chocolate as experiential luxury.

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References Berthon, P., Pitt, L., Parent, M., & Berthon, J.-P. (2009). Aesthetics and ephemerality: Observing and preserving the luxury brand. California Management Review, 52(1), 45–66. Bourdieu, P. (1984). Distinction: A social critique of the judgement of taste. Routledge. Cannon, C., & Rucker, D. D. (2019). The dark side of luxury: Social costs of luxury consumption. Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin, 45(5), 767–779. Cristini, H., Kauppinen-Räisänen, H., Barthod-Prothade, M., & Woodside, A. (2017). Toward a general theory of luxury: Advancing from workbench definitions and theoretical transformations. Journal of Business Research, 70, 101–107. Danziger, P. N. (2005). Let them eat cake: Marketing luxury to the masses—As well as the classes. Dearborn Trade Pub. Dion, D., & Borraz, S. (2017). Managing status: How luxury brands shape class subjectivities in the service encounter. Journal of Marketing, 81(5), 67–85. Dubois, D., Jung, S. J., & Ordabayeva, N. (2021). The psychology of luxury consumption. Current Opinion in Psychology, 39, 82–87. Durante, K. M., Griskevicius, V., Cantú, S. M., & Simpson, J. A. (2014). Money, status, and the ovulatory cycle. Journal of Marketing Research, 51(1), 27–39. Eckhardt, G. M., Belk, R. W., & Wilson, J. A. J. (2015). The rise of inconspicuous consumption. Journal of Marketing Management, 31(7–8), 807–826. Gilovich, T., Kumar, A., & Jampol, L. (2015). A wonderful life: Experiential consumption and the pursuit of happiness. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 25(1), 152–165. Heine, K. (2012). The concept of luxury brands. Accessed from http://www.con ceptofluxurybrands.com/content/20121107_Heine_The-Concept-of-Lux ury-Brands.pdf Maciel, A. F., & Wallendorf, M. (2017). Taste engineering: An extended consumer model of cultural competence constitution. The Journal of Consumer Research, 43(5), 726–746. https://doi.org/10.1093/jcr/ucw054 Mandel, N., Petrova, P. K., & Cialdini, R. B. (2006). Images of success and the preference for luxury brands. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 16(1), 57–69. Maslow, A. H. (1954). Motivation and personality. Harper & Row. Rahimnia, F., & Arian, N. H. (2021). Luxury consumption and the moderating role of attitude toward counterfeits: The case of an emerging market. Journal of General Management, 47 (1), 41–55. Rivera, L. A. (2010). Status distinctions in interaction: Social selection and exclusion at an elite nightclub. Qualitative Sociology, 33, 229–255. Thomas, D. (2007). Deluxe: How luxury lost its lustre. Penguin. Veblen, T. (1899/2009). The theory of the leisure class. Oxford University Press.

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Wang, Y. (2021). A conceptual framework of contemporary luxury consumption. International Journal of Research in Marketing. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. ijresmar.2021.10.010 Wong, J. Y., & Dhanesh, G. S. (2017). Communicating corporate social responsibility (CSR) in the luxury industry. Management Communication Quarterly, 31(1), 88–112.

CHAPTER 3

Field-Specific Competencies

The competencies needed for initiated consumption of experiential luxury are extensive and manifold. For instance, information about the production process is crucial in order to understand why a scent can give rise to a particular perceptual experience. The hedonic luxury experience that wine, perfume and chocolate can give rise to relies on a capacity to appreciate complex sensory stimuli as a unified whole and fully understand the experience by relating it to cultural knowledge and past comparative experiences. Philosopher Cain Todd captures this mystical element of wine appreciation as follows: When smelling and tasting with the right kind of knowledge and experience […] we are truly representing the wine, and our taste experiences will constitute knowledge of it. (Todd, 2010: 42–43)

In addition to understanding the wine, experiencing it can also give rise to intense pleasure, “an incredible array of aromas that is like nothing else in the world” (Caballero et al., 2019: 33). The satisfaction derived from a luxury experience of this kind is dependent on a set of psychological processes that relate the material goods to the perceptions and emotions that they invoke (Gilovich et al., 2015: 152–153). The next section illustrates the background knowledge needed when engaging in experiential luxury consumption of wine, perfume and chocolate.

© The Author(s) 2023 C. Hommerberg and M. Lindgren, Depicting the Consumer of Experiential Luxury, https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-60080-6_3

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3.1

Cognitive and Socio-Cultural Competencies

To fully understand wine, perfume and chocolate, a level of background knowledge is needed. In this section, we offer a brief account of relevant cognitive and socio-cultural competencies. For wine, such background competence involves awareness of the different wine regions of both the old and new world and the different techniques used when the wine is cultivated and produced. For instance, not only does the grape type from which the wine is made have a significant impact on the resulting product, but weather conditions and climate more generally also affect the way in which the grapes mature. To have wine expertise, therefore, entails having a grasp of such conditions, both in general and of particular years, which result in distinct features of particular vintages. Wine aficionados, therefore, often take a particular interest in certain vintages, where the conditions are understood to have been optimal in certain regions. In addition to grape type, weather and climate, the age of the grape vines, the soil in which they have grown and the vineyard’s inclination towards the sun play important roles. Decisions made by the producer impact on the resulting grapes, for instance when and how the grape vines are pruned and at which moment in time they are harvested. Once the grapes have been harvested, they continue their further journey through the processes of fermentation, pressing, ageing and blending. Contemporary winemaking is a scientific enterprise, and professionals working in the wine industry often have a degree in the science of oenology. Yet, according to Stevenson (1988: 18) scientific expertise is not enough; truly successful winemaking requires the producer to have passion. The renowned wine reviewer Robert Parker is known for having elevated the winemaker to stardom, and to have been particularly fond of an oenologist named Michel Rolland, whose wines have been claimed to nearly always be favourably assessed by Parker (Nossiter, 2004). Besides these intricate steps of the production process, wine is also surrounded by an element of luxury symbolism such as heritage, and a well-known case in point is the Bordeaux region, where the wine estates were classified in 1855. According to the most prestigious classification of red Bordeaux wines, five estates were awarded the highest rank of Premier Grand Crus Classé: Château Lafite, Château Latour, Château Margaux, Château Haut-Brion and Château Mouton-Rothschild. The wines from Bordeaux are still among the most expensive wines in the world, and

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some vintages are worth a fortune. Having knowledge of Bordeaux wines is continuously important since they function as significant benchmarks in the wine world as a whole. Perfume is surrounded by a comparable field of knowledge. Truly understanding perfume entails having insight into the raw ingredients from which scents are made, being aware of the noses responsible for creating them as well as of the luxury symbolism of scents, including associations to famous wearers exploited in perfume marketing to spark dreams of beauty, success, wealth and fame. Just as the field of wine has grown immensely and become more and more diversified over the past few decades as more and more people worldwide have begun to take an interest in wine, perfume has also gone through a metamorphosis. Lantz (2020) describes the transformation of consumers’ desires as a transition from best-seller scents created and promoted by key luxury brands to unique perfume types, so-called niche perfumes. Being educated about perfume involves knowing about the various plants and animal ingredients from which the majority of perfume components are derived and understanding the dilution classes of scents, including the terms used to label them: pure perfume, eau de parfum, eau de toilette, eau de cologne, eau fraîche.1 It also involves understanding the difference between natural and synthetic ingredients of perfumes. Cristini et al. (2017: 103) deplore the perfume industry’s extensive use of synthetic perfume ingredients derived from petroleum, which they claim are unhealthy. According to Lantz (2020: 176), however, very few people can distinguish the scent of a real rose from synthetic rose extract. Traditional luxury brand perfume currently shares the stage with niche perfumes, and having cognitive competence regarding perfume entails having knowledge of both worlds. These worlds also involve being knowledgeable about famous noses such as Sophia Grojsman, Jean-Claude Ellena or Ramón Monegal. Like wine and perfume, chocolate is also associated with its own field of knowledge. Being initiated about chocolate entails knowing where cacao plants are grown, namely in the 20/20 zone, i.e. 20 degrees north and south of the equator (World atlas, 2022). Such insight can also involve the main cacao types, Criollo, Forastero and Trinitario, as well as the many subtypes and blended varieties (Uncommon cacao, 2020). Cacao

1 We use the label perfume in a commonsensical way for all dissolution types.

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aficionados may also take an interest in the soil conditions and accompanying vegetation creating the ideal conditions for premium quality cacao, and they may be aware of the different forms of fermentation, sweat box fermentation, heap fermentation, tray fermentation and box fermentation, which the cacao beans are exposed to after harvesting (DEA, n.d.). Moreover, having socio-cultural insight regarding chocolate entails being aware of the divide between industrial and fine chocolate as well as being mindful of the working conditions of people employed in the cacao agriculture sector (Cacaomama, n.d.). In the next section, we expand on the perceptual competencies needed to fully appreciate wine, chocolate and perfume.

3.2

Perceptual Competencies

While sensory stimuli are conceivably there to be detected, providing everyone with equal perceptual opportunities, the experience that the sensory impulses gives rise to will nonetheless differ based on our different abilities to interpret what we perceive (Smith, 2007: 45). According to Todd (2010: 173), background knowledge fundamentally affects our perceptions and is hence of crucial importance for our understanding of the experience. But this is a tacit type of knowledge, which conceivably emanates from a combination of a refined sensory apparatus capable of relating to a composite experience and an ability to relate the experience to the “right” kind of hedonic pleasure, memories of prior experiences as well as field-specific knowledge. Seen from this perspective, the products that we focus on represent objects that offer opportunities for aesthetic and cultural experiences. Approached as artistic objects, they may present opportunities to perceive and find pleasure in crafted work that is intentionally structured to reward such initiate aesthetic appreciation, but how to experience, appreciate and enjoy in the right way is an extremely complex procedure, which is complicated by biological shortcomings in the human perceptual apparatus as well as lack of socio-cultural insight. Research on the development of taste expertise shows that humans can get better at conceptualization of hedonic perceptual consumption experiences given appropriate training, and interest in such training programmes among consumers of experiential luxury is booming (Latour & Deighton, 2019: 1). For instance, Eckhardt et al. (2015: 808) found a desire among consumers to enjoy the tasting experience together with other vinophiles, and Lantz (2020) describes how she organized perfume testing circles

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as part of a research project on perfume, contending that perfume has become a way to socialize. Latour and Deighton (2019: 3) describe three stages in the development of expertise in the appreciation of hedonic products: the novice stage, the enthusiast stage and the expert stage. The novice experiences the product holistically, without the ability to analyse or interpret the experience. The enthusiast has acquired knowledge about the product and how to identify the component parts of the experience, which means that at this stage, the whole of the experience can be eclipsed by analytic processing. At the third stage, the expert is able to arrive at an informed holistic appreciation, which is not disrupted by the excessive focus on detail displayed by the enthusiast. This third stage is referred to as having “hedonic expertise”. Latour and Deighton (2019) postulate that hedonic expertise cannot be attained directly from the novice stage, without acquisition of the analytic skillset associated with the enthusiast stage. The enthusiast stage thus plays an important role for consumers eager to reach the level of hedonic expertise in their competencies-based luxury consumption practice. This desire among consumers entails that institutional practices for tasting and testing are no longer reserved for industry professionals but are in equal measure employed by consumers eager to enhance their insight so that they can reap maximum enjoyment from their engagement with the products. In the next section, we, therefore, lay out established procedures for tasting and testing of wine, chocolate and perfume.

3.3

Procedural Competencies

The tasting of wine and chocolate and the testing of perfume relies on more or less established rituals. These practices are used by professionals in the industry as well as by reviewers and initiated consumers, which blurs the boundaries between professionals and amateurs. This excerpt from Gluck (2003: 109) eloquently describes the level of detail that can be involved in the stages of the wine-tasting procedure: You pour out the wine. You regard its colour. You sniff around it. You agitate the glass to release the esters of the perfume and so better to appreciate the aromas, the nuances of the bouquet. You inhale those odoriferous pleasantries, or unpleasantries, through the chimney of the taste, the nostrils […] and then you taste. You swill the liquid around the mouth and

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breathe in air so that this liquid is aerated and experienced by up to ten thousand taste buds. The taste buds are arranged in sectors of differently oriented cohesion: one designed to recognize salinity, another alkalinity, another sweetness and so on. They connect with the brain which in turn provides the sensory data, memory based, to form the critic’s view of what s/he is drinking. Some of the wine is permitted to contact the back of the throat, but only a small amount is permitted to proceed down the gullet, so that the finish of the wine can be studied. Then the wine is ejected and several seconds are left to elapse whilst all these sensations are studied and written up as the impression the wine has left is mulled over. (Gluck, 2003: 109)

The procedure is described in individual stages, which are chronologically ordered. First, the visual impression is considered, subsequently distant smell and then as the wine is allowed in the mouth, the internal smell, taste and mouthfeel are observed. A procedure very similar to the one for wine, framed as instructions for chocolate tasting, is described by the chocolate maker Amano. The chocolate tasting starts with an assessment of the visual impression, considering aspects such as unintended marks, bubbles or matteness as well as the colour shade. Subsequently, the smell of the chocolate is inhaled and observed. The next step is breaking a piece of the chocolate and taking note of the aural impression of how it snaps. Finally, the chocolate should be allowed to melt in the mouth, not be chewed, so that the cacao butter spreads evenly in the mouth. At this stage, the taste and texture of the chocolate are studied. The flavours should be noted in relation to time so that the beginning, middle, end and finish of the experience are taken into consideration. Chewing up to three times is permitted but chewing more is not recommended. The chocolate tasting procedure involves noticing if the flavours vanish quickly or if they linger in the mouth (Amano, n.d.). Perfume testing is a bit different from wine and chocolate tasting, precisely because it does not involve tasting. Still, the procedure for testing perfume is just as complex. In perfume testing, different stages of the perfume’s scent should be observed; these are referred to as top notes, the first scents that are perceived, which are followed by the heart notes and subsequently the base notes. The top notes offer the first impression of the perfume because they consist of the most volatile compounds. The heart notes succeed the top notes and linger until the base notes become noticeable. Base notes are more persistent and can last for hours (Pairfum London, n.d.). The scent of a perfume has been referred to as

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a pyramid. This description is a simplification of the multifaceted structuring of modern perfumes, which can be arranged to allow for cycles of scents with different notes recurring during their lifetime (Bespoke Unit, n.d.). These descriptions of tasting and testing rituals have indicated that the perceptions of the different stages are chronologically ordered and can be experienced in a decomposed fashion. However, in reality, stimuli from different senses are transient and intertwined. For instance, in wine tasting, the initial, visual impression lingers and affects how the wine’s aroma is perceived and interpreted, and the internal olfactory experience cannot easily be distinguished from the wine’s taste and mouthfeel which are experienced simultaneously (Caballero et al., 2019: 30). The goal of these tasting and testing practices is nonetheless to learn how to decompose the experience into chronologically ordered component parts, as indicated by the procedures described above. Analytic processing of experiential products also relies on the adoption of a consumption vocabulary used to assist the decomposition of the sensory stimulus (Latour & Deighton, 2019: 1). The next section offers an overview of such terminologies used to capture the experience of wine, perfume and chocolate in words.

3.4

Linguistic Competencies

Connoisseurship encompasses familiarity with rule-based practices to cultivate the sensorium (Latour & Deighton, 2019) as well as the adoption of a specialized linguistic register (Lehrer, 2009). Capturing the perception of wine, perfume or chocolate in words is an intricate matter, especially given that most languages lack particular words to describe olfactory sensations (Majid & Buhrenhult, 2014). Professionals in the wine, perfume and chocolate industry nevertheless operate with terminologies used to describe the perceptual experiences of the products, and consumers eager to enhance their capacity for experiential consumption acquire such terminology as part of their acculturation towards becoming enlightened consumers. The conventionalized descriptors developed for wine, perfume and chocolate have a lot in common. For one thing, numerous “wheels” have been devised in order to organize the aroma and fragrance terminologies of all three domains to facilitate communication about ephemeral perceptual experiences among professionals. The vocabulary of the wheels is

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assumed to capture objective features of the products, while still drawing on descriptors relating to objects that are generally equally known to both professionals and laypeople. We offer a few examples of such terminologies below. The first fragrance wheel, developed in 1983 by perfume industry consultant Michael Edwards (1992), arranges perfumes into four families designated by means of the adjectives fresh, floral, woody and oriental. At the subordinate level, these families incorporate descriptors such as green and citrus under fresh and mossy wood under woody. The original fragrance wheel has been substantially expanded, and there are now versions that include as many as 14 different basic families. For instance, under balsamic, we find caramel, amber and light, categories which are in turn subdivided into more specific descriptors, for instance opopanax under caramel, cistus under amber and myrrh under light. A whole range of different versions of aroma wheels exist also for wine, the first of which was developed by the University of California, Davis (Noble, 2002). This original Aroma Wheel organizes aroma descriptors into three tiers of specificity. The general descriptors, found in the inner circle, are adjectives like fruity, nutty, woody and floral. In the next tier, the sectors of the general adjectival descriptors are subdivided into more specific sectors, which are in turn further subdivided in the third tier. A majority of the specific descriptors are nouns, and most of them refer to the semantic field of plants. As an example, lemon, strawberry and cherry are subdescriptors of fruity, and geranium, rose and lilac are subdescriptors of floral. Aroma wheels for wine have been adapted by the wine industries in different wine-producing countries, and similar wheels have been developed for other beverages too, such as coffee, tea, beer, whisky, gin. These are products which we have chosen not to deal with here even though they are also popular objects of experiential luxury consumption. Aroma wheels also exist for chocolate. The most complex of these chocolate wheels involves three tiers, just like the aroma wheel for perfume and wine. The general level offers descriptors such as earthy or dairy, which at the intermediate level incorporate terms such as mineral and wood under earthy and fermented dairy and fresh dairy under dairy. At the specific level, descriptors such as bark, clay and stone are incorporated under wood and mineral and terms such as rancid butter, buttermilk and fresh cream are grouped under fermented vs. fresh dairy (Zarfhome, 2017).

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In addition to olfactory sensations, taste and touch are relevant for chocolate and wine. For example, the British organization Wine and Spirit Education Trust proposes a wine-tasting template that provides terms organized according to the following properties of a wine’s gustatory and tactile impressions (WSET, n.d.): Sweetness, Acidity, Tannin, Body, Fruit intensity, Fruit character, Alcohol and Length. Specific words proposed for capturing the scale of Sweetness are for instance dry, sweet, luscious, and the scale of Acidity employs the descriptors flabby, balanced, acidic. Examples of descriptors for the scale of Tannin are astringent, balanced, soft, and the scale of Body is captured by means of the words thin, medium, heavy. Fruit intensity is also captured in terms of a scale of descriptors, weak, medium, pronounced, while Fruit character is expressed using specific references, for instance fruity, floral, smoky. Finally, expressions referring to the property of Alcohol have a scalar arrangement, light, medium, high, just as descriptors capturing Length: short, medium, long. The description of wine along such scales is explored by Lehrer (1975), who categorizes words for wine taste and mouthfeel into the scales of Acidity, Sweetness, Astringency, Age and Body. Lehrer demonstrates how the scales are coordinated so that for instance the scales of Sweetness and Acidity are combined to form a unified scale of Balance. According to Lehrer (1975: 903–906), the scalar systems employed by wine writers are coordinated with an evaluative scale of goodness. The scales relating to taste and mouthfeel, i.e. Sweetness, Acidity, Astringency, Age and Body, correlate with the scale of evaluation in such a way that the most positive descriptors are to be found somewhere in the middle of the other scales. Figure 3.1 exemplifies this feature of Lehrer’s early categorization of wine words. There are also terminologies to describe mouthfeel. Gawel et al. (2000) organize descriptors into two categories, Feel and Astringency, with groups of terms that are subordinate to these categories, such as for instance Weight, Harsh and Surface Smoothness. The descriptors viscous, full, thin, watery are subdescriptors of Weight, hard, aggressive, abrasive are subdescriptors of Harsh, and furry, fine emery, velvet, suede, silk, chamois, satin are subdescriptors of Surface Smoothness. These terminologies were originally developed by professionals working in the wine, perfume or chocolate industry for communication with retailers or by educational institutions. Nowadays, such terminologies designed to capture sensory experiences are also used by many

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Too much NEGATIVE SWEETNESS ACIDITY

cloying

Too little POSITIVE sweet

NEGATIVE

dry

sour

tart

flat

unbalanced

balanced

unbalanced

Fig. 3.1 The scales of Acidity and Sweetness combined with the scales of Balance and evaluation, from Lehrer (1975: 904)

consumers of experiential products to signal luxury competencies (Wang, 2021: 10). Descriptions of experiential luxury products are not only used to discuss the experience of a tasting or testing session where all participants are present, but just as often to communicate the experience in such a way that it makes sense to people who do not have first-hand experience with the tasting or testing session (Caballero et al., 2019: 29). This is the task of reviewers. When writing about these products, reviewers make use of professional terminologies, although as we note below, the range of words used by reviewers to communicate the experience has been extended considerably beyond the original sets. The lack of exact terms to describe smell and taste has led to the adoption of an abundance of figurative expressions, and many reviewers excel in the use of metaphors. Caballero (2009) as well as Caballero and Suárez Toste (2010) divide metaphorical frames used in wine descriptions into three main groups: first, those of living organisms, including human characteristics (forceful, weak, youthful, tired, aggressive, upfront, honest ); second, textiles (open-knit, velvety, tightly-wound) as well as other manufactured entities (musical pieces or buildings); and third, threedimensional geometrical bodies (layers, square, angular, deep, round). Lehrer (2007: 132) observes that wine reviewers tend to constantly add

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new metaphorical synonyms or near-synonyms, so that whole ranges of words are used to refer to approximately the same characteristic in a wine, for instance sturdy, big, fat, brawny, stout, muscular, big-boned and chunky, which are all used to represent a wine as being full-bodied. Furthermore, Caballero’s (2007) exploration of the metaphorical use of manner-ofmotion verbs in wine reviews shows that these verbs function to portray degrees of specific olfactory and gustatory qualities in the wine that is being assessed. As an example of this phenomenon, her study suggests that jump occurs in wine writing alongside other motion verbs, like for instance emerge, creep, glide, to express the degree of intensity and persistence of the quality that is being described. Metaphorical expressions associated with taste also surface in perfume discourse, despite the fact that perfume is not actually tasted. In her investigation of perfume reviewing discourse, Tenescu (2015) found metaphorical expressions, such as full-bodied, fleshy, balanced and bright, to be used to describe perfume along with human qualities, such as sexy, sensual, intelligent, soft-spoken, masculine as well as words associated with textiles, such as laced, velvety, silky. In addition, Tenescu (2015) as well as Faiers (2017: 316) note the frequent use of musical terms by perfumers as well as reviewers; examples given by Faiers are chorus, symphony, refrain, crescendo, melody. Many figurative expressions have become so established among professionals and cognoscenti that the source domains are no longer evoked for this group to the same extent that it might be for a novice (Caballero & Suárez Toste, 2010: 270–271). This also applies to the attitudinal meanings of such metaphorical expressions. As observed by Hommerberg and Don (2015: 181), metaphorical descriptors such as plump, corpulent, fleshy can be understood as subjectively evaluative terms by a novice reader, whereas the initiate reader understands these types of expressions as specific descriptors, referring to the compositional qualities of being concentrated and high in extract as well as alcohol. More apparently creative metaphorical turns of phrases are exemplified by Paradis and Hommerberg (2016), who take note of instances where metaphors related to sports cars, pushes the olfactory senses into overdrive, and bodybuilding, a wine on steroids, are used to evaluate the perception of the reviewed wine positively vs. negatively. Paradis and Hommerberg (2016) found that the imagery used in today’s wine discourse no longer invokes inherited breeding and traditional elitism, but draws on phenomena that are more or less accessible to

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everyone. As proposed by Lehrer (2007: 132), such linguistic creativity is a way for reviewers to make their prose interesting and colourful in order to entertain the addressees of their reviews. In addition, imagery enables gestalt-like rather than decomposed processing of sensory stimuli (Townsend & Kahn, 2014; Latour & Deighton, 2019). Creative deviations from the more established analytic terminology can, therefore, function to capture the experience more holistically, thus communicating hedonic expertise (Latour & Deighton, 2019).

3.5

Summary and Conclusion

In this chapter, we have offered an account of the multiple competencies needed in order to profit from the full potential of wine, perfume and chocolate as experiential luxury products. These competencies involve understanding of production-related factors, which contribute to the resulting properties of the experiential product, perceptual competencies, awareness of the procedures for tasting and testing the product and ability to understand and adequately use linguistic resources, such as professional terminologies and expert lingo. Such linguistic resources function to signal participation in communities of competencies regarding wine, perfume or chocolate. The jargon used by reviewers in particular is continuously reenergized by new vocabulary and creative imagery to invite the addressees to share their hedonic expertise and keep them entertained. We now move on to a description of the study that this book is based on. In the next chapter, we present the theoretical underpinnings, the empirical material collected for this investigation and the methodological approach in terms of analytic tools as well as procedures.

References Caballero, R. (2007). Manner-of-motion verbs in wine description. Journal of Pragmatics, 39, 2095–2114. Caballero, R. (2009). Cutting across the senses. Imagery in winespeak and audiovisual promotion. In C. J. Forceville & E. Urios-Aparisi (Eds.), Multimodal metaphors (pp. 73–94). Mouton de Gruyter. Caballero, R., & Suárez-Toste, E. (2010). A genre approach to imagery in winespeak. In G. Low, Z. Todd, A. Deignan, & L. Cameron (Eds.), Researching and applying metaphor in the real world (pp. 265–288). John Benjamins.

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Caballero, R. Suárez-Toste, E., & Paradis, C. (2019). Representing wine—Sensory perceptions, communication and cultures. John Benjamins. Cristini, H., Kauppinen-Räisänen, H., Barthod-Prothade, M., & Woodside, A. (2017). Toward a general theory of luxury: Advancing from workbench definitions and theoretical transformations. Journal of Business Research, 70, 101–107. Eckhardt, G. M., Belk, R. W., & Wilson, J. A. J. (2015). The rise of inconspicuous consumption. Journal of Marketing Management, 31(7–8), 807–826. Edwards, M. (1992). Fragrance wheel. Accessed 16 February 2022 on http:// theperfumedcourt.com/fragrance_families.aspx Faiers, J. (2017). Stinking to high heaven: Olfactory aspirations and discourses of desire. Social Semiotics, 27 (3), 310–322. Gawel, R., Oberholster, A., & Francis, L. (2000). A ‘mouth-feel wheel’: Terminology for communicating the mouth-feel characteristics of red wine. Australian Journal of Grape Wine Research, 6(3), 203–207. Gilovich, T., Kumar, A., & Jampol, L. (2015). A wonderful life: Experiential consumption and the pursuit of happiness. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 25(1), 152–165. Gluck, M. (2003). Wine language. Useful idiom or idiot-speak? In J. Aitchison & D. M. Lewis (Eds.), New media language (pp. 107–115). Routledge. Hommerberg, C., & Don, A. (2015). Appraisal and the language of wine appreciation: A critical discussion of the potential of the Appraisal framework as a tool to analyse specialised genres. Functions of Language, 22(2), 161–191. Lantz, J. (2020). Expedition parfym: näsor, noter & nischdofter. Bokus. Latour, K. A., & Deignton, J. A. (2019). Learning to become a taste expert. Journal of Consumer Research, 46(1), 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1093/jcr/ ucy054 Lehrer, A. (1975). Talking about wine. Language, 51(4), 901–923. Lehrer, A. (2007). Can wines be brawny? In B. C. Smith (Ed.), Questions of taste. The philosophy of wine (pp. 127–140). Signal Books. Lehrer, A. (2009). Wine and conversation. (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. Majid, A., & Burenhult, N. (2014). Odors are expressible in language, as long as you speak the right language. Cognition, 130(2), 266–270. Noble, A. C. (2002). Wine Aroma Wheel, copyright 1990, 2002, A C Noble. www.winearomawheel.com Nossiter, J. (2004). Mondovino. Goatworks Films & Films de la Croisade. Paradis, C. & Hommerberg, C. (2016). We drink with our eyes first: The web of sensory perceptions, aesthetic experiences and mixed imagery in wine reviews. In R. Gibbs (Ed.), Mixing metaphor (pp. pp. 179–201). John Benjamins. Smith, B. C. (2007). The objectivity of tastes and tasting. In B. C. Smith (Ed.), Questions of taste. The philosophy of wine (pp. 41–77). Signal Books.

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Stevenson, T. (1988). Sotheby’s world wine encyclopedia: A comprehensive reference guide to the wines of the world. Little, Brown & Company. Tenescu, A. (2015). Olfactory metaphors in the online environment. Social Sciences and Education Research Review, 2(1), 67–80. Todd, C. (2010). The philosophy of wine. A case of truth, beauty and intoxication. McGill-Queen’s University Press. Townsend, C., & Kahn, B. E. (2014). The “visual preference heuristic”: The influence of visual versus verbal depiction on assortment processing. Perceived Variety, and Choice Overload, Journal of Consumer Research, 40(5), 993–1015. Uncommon cacao. (2020). Learn more about Cacao Genetics! Accessed 27 August 2022 from https://www.uncommoncacao.com/blog/2020/12/16/ learn-more-about-cacao-genetics Zarfhome. (2017). Flavor wheels of the world. Accessed 26 august 2022 from http://www.eblong.com/zarf/flavorwheel.html Wang, Y. (2021). A conceptual framework of contemporary luxury consumption. International Journal of Research in Marketing. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. ijresmar.2021.10.010 World atlas. (2022, May 3). Accessed 27 August 2022 from https://www.wor ldatlas.com/industries/the-top-cocoa-producing-countries-in-the-world.html

CHAPTER 4

Our Study

As announced in Chapter 1, the ultimate goal of this study is to arrive at a depiction of the review-based consumer of experiential luxury, and we do so by means of discourse analysis designed to explore how online reviewer discourse projects onto the imagined addressee particular characteristics and behaviour, luxury values and consumption goals. This chapter presents the theoretical assumptions that underpin our study of online reviewer discourse. We also account for the data collection procedures, the analytic tools used to penetrate the data as well as the procedures for analysing the texts and reconstructing the image of the addressee based on the clues from our analysis. These procedures allow us to accumulate clues which enable the depiction of the review-based consumer of experiential luxury as a discursive construct.

4.1 The Addressor, the Addressee and the Context Our theoretical approach to the study of text is grounded in Bakhtin’s (1981) notion of addressivity, which highlights the addressees’ role when the addressor shapes an utterance. Tindale (2004: 23) captures this phenomenon as “the way a speaker addresses an audience already anticipating a reply in the very words that are used”, and Martin and White (2005: 208) describe addressors as “locat[ing] themselves with respect to communities of shared feelings, tastes and values” and “present[ing] © The Author(s) 2023 C. Hommerberg and M. Lindgren, Depicting the Consumer of Experiential Luxury, https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-60080-6_4

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themselves as responding to, and anticipating responses to, members of these attitudinal communities”. In a discursive practice of online, worldwide mass communication, which is the setting of our study, we assume that reviewers have a mental image of a prospective addressee in mind. A basic theoretical assumption that permeates our work is thus that the reviewers are not engaging in their practice in a vacuum, but the addressees are co-constructors of the websites in the sense that the websites are intended to be visited by someone, the reviews read by someone and the consumption recommendations taken up and made use of by someone. This thought construct of the addressee has been referred to by means of various terms in the research literature. Literary scholar Eco (1979: 7) coined the term “model reader”, and philosophers Perelman and Olbrechts-Tyteca (1969: 19– 20) employ the label “ideal audience”. From the perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis, Fairclough (1995: 122) uses the term “ideal interpreter”, and linguists Martin and White (2005: 92) employ the term “construed” or “putative reader”. In our study, we use the label imagined addressee to accentuate that it is the image of the addressee that our design can reveal, not the real-world addressees, and it is by adding together clues drawn from the analysis that we can offer a depiction of the review-based consumer of experiential luxury. An exploration that goes beyond a naive reading of the websites’ content is not really possible without understanding of the broader context in which the review websites occur. In order to contextualize our study, Chapter 2 has presented a thematic overview of contemporary luxury, and Chapter 3 has outlined relevant field-specific requisites, including research on linguistic competencies in the fields. We rely on understanding of these dimensions of the context in our interpretation of the text, and the contextually situated discourse analysis that we offer in this book follows what has been described as a hermeneutic circle (Wodak & Meyer, 2009: 22). This means that the analysis consists in a constant movement between different levels of the target subject. In order to interpret specific instances of language use, we need to relate these specific instances to the surrounding context, and it is, correspondingly, the deepened understanding of the specific instances that gives us enhanced insight into our quest. We thus approach the study by exploration of text, and it is by close attention to text that we explore the imagined addressee’s characteristics and behaviour, luxury values and consumption goals.

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The Websites

This study is based on analysis of materials from 15 websites reviewing wine, perfume and chocolate. The websites feature a range of various types of resources, just as websites in general tend to do, for instance texts and graphics, such as typeface, size and colours, as well as images and a plethora of both internal and external links. While sound and moving images are not so common, we note that many websites are in constant transition, so that the visitors are faced with a slightly new environment each time they visit. As is common with websites more generally, the websites in our material include greetings in some form, contact information and presentation of the reviewers. The review websites also publish articles associated with the products that are being reviewed, for instance interviews with a particular winemaker who explains the production requisites of a particular vintage in their region, instructions regarding how to layer perfume and chocolate-based recipes. The websites were selected using both random and purposive procedures. Our first step was to run Google searches using the keywords “wine review”, “perfume review” and “chocolate review”, choosing the first ten hits resulting from each search. The strategy to use Google as a tool for selecting the data allowed us to compile a corpus of materials that is not biased by our own preferences. Because we let Google run random searches based on our keywords, the websites have no other required properties in common than that they appeared in the same search. As a result of this data collection strategy, we ended up with 30 websites with rather different designs. Some of them are extremely rich in content, whereas others are more restricted in scope; some of the websites are updated daily, whereas new postings appear more seldom in others. In addition, some of the websites review other products alongside the particular experiential luxury products we are interested in here, for instance other beverages alongside wine, other kinds of beauty products alongside perfume and other kinds of comestibles alongside chocolate. From the original 30 websites resulting from our initial Google search, we made a further purposive selection of 15 websites, 5 reviewing wine, 5 reviewing perfume and 5 reviewing chocolate. These websites were selected since they are primarily focused on our target products. Table 4.1 offers an overview of the selected websites.

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Table 4.1 Websites reviewing wine, perfume and chocolate, including titles and links Wine reviews

Perfume reviews

Chocolate reviews

Decanter www.decanter.com Jancis Robinson www.jancisrobinson.com

Basenotes www.basenotes.net Bois De Jasmin boisdejasmin.com

Robert Parker Wine Advocate www.robertparker.com Wine Enthusiast www.winemag.com Wine Spectator www.winespectator.com

Fragrantica www.fragrantica.com Now Smell This www.nstperfume.com The Scented Hound www.thescentedhound.com

Chocablog www.chocablog.com Chocolatiers www.chocolatiers.co.uk/ blogs/reviews Chocolate Codex www.chocolatecodex.com C-spot www.c-spot.com Seventy% www.seventypercent.com

The names of the websites as presented in Table 4.1 are subsequently used to designate excerpts in the presentation of results. The table also provides links to all the websites included in our dataset. The analysis of online data is associated with a number of problematic aspects, one of the most apparent being the transient nature. While Fairclough (1992: 73) describes text as a stable, observable object occurring against a backdrop of a fluid unobservable socio-cultural context, Internet-based data are not stable to the same extent. The websites we explore are like all other types of Internet data; they are subject to continuous modifications of the texts, images as well as the entire design. During our work on this project, one of the wine websites was completely redesigned and one of the five originally selected chocolate websites disappeared from the Internet. This site was replaced by Chocolate Codex after a second round of Google searches and purposive selection.

4.3

The Texts

In order to delimit this study in a practical way, we focus our attention on three distinct text types from the websites. The first text type is what we have chosen to refer to as the manifesto, which presents the review website’s fundamental philosophy or mission. These website manifestos

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are located in different places on the websites, for instance on the homepage or as an introductory declaration before the reviewers’ individual self-presentations. The second text type that we explore is the reviewers’ selfpresentations. The number of collaborators associated with each website varies from one to more than twenty. All of the reviewer presentations that were available in February 2020 have been included in our material, which resulted in a dataset of 153 self-presentations. In addition to names and contact information, the reviewers’ self-presentations include information about the collaborators in their capacity as reviewers as well as in their capacity as persons. Some but not all self-presentations include photos, which we took the decision not to include in our analysis. The third type of text included in our investigation is the reviews. An extensive number of reviews are available on the websites, and we made a random selection of 50 reviews of wine, 50 reviews of perfume and 50 reviews of chocolate, i.e. 10 from each of the websites in our material. Our procedures for collecting these resources needed to be adapted for each website, due to considerable variation across the materials. All of the perfume and chocolate reviews are freely available, but four of the wine review websites require subscription in order to access the full database of reviews. From these websites, we made a random collection from those reviews that were freely available as examples of what the website offers. Two of the subscription-regulated wine websites offer time-limited free trials, which we made use of in those cases to access the reviews. The reviews often include links that encourage further reading on other websites, for instance other reviewers’ pronouncements on the same product. Images are sometimes used to identify the products, for instance wine bottles, perfume packaging and chocolate labels, and the chocolate reviews include close-ups visualizing the texture of the reviewed chocolate. Some reviews include links to or information about sellers. All reviews include verbal texts describing and evaluating the products, and many offer a numerical score which comes in a 5-, 10-, 20- or 100-point scale. The ethics guidelines for research using Internet-based material as data are not completely clear (Taylor & Pagliari, 2018). We followed general ethical principles for the use of online material in scientific research (Markham & Buchanan, 2012) to guide our ethical considerations at the time of data collection. We have regarded the reviewers whose texts we explore as public figures and refer to them by their names as these are

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listed on the review websites, and we only included in our dataset reviews that are available freely or accessible via trial rounds. This means that no password-protected materials were included in our data collection.

4.4

The Analysis

Our analysis of the three text types draws on resources from the Appraisal model, originally devised by Martin and White (2005). The Appraisal model, which is located at the stratum of discourse semantics in Systemic Functional Linguistics together with Involvement, offers analytic tools that allow the analyst to capture attitudes, values and interpersonal positionings. The model provides a system of analytic categories, organized in terms of three basic interactive components: Attitude, Engagement and Graduation (see Fig. 4.1). Attitude concerns affect, judgement of human characteristics and behaviour, and appreciation of things. Graduation refers to the scaling of the intensity of an attitude or the degree of speaker investment in a proposition (Martin & White, 2005: 42–43). Engagement comprises a set of resources by means of which speakers adopt a position with respect to attitudinal pronouncements. The Appraisal system is adjacent to the discourse semantic feature of Involvement, which highlights the interpersonal effect of the presence of technicality and naming in texts. In the following, we describe in more detail the analytic tools of Attitude and

Fig. 4.1 The model of discourse semantics used in this study as a system of analytic categories (based on Martin & White, 2005)

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Involvement as these categories are employed in our explorations of the three text types. The original system of Affect proposes the subcategories Dis/inclination, Un/happiness, In/security and Dis/satisfaction (Martin & White, 2005: 51). This original Affect system has subsequently been challenged by researchers when applied to context-specific data. For instance, Folkeryd (2006) extended the Affect system and relied on seven subcategories in her investigation of attitude in student writing, and Ngo and Unsworth (2015) employed a model where the original subcategories of Affect were slightly rearranged in order to deal with the expression of attitude in discussions of Vietnamese students enrolled at university in Sydney. As indicated by the issues encountered by these researchers, it can be necessary to tweak the original Affect system in order to adequately deal with specific, contextually situated data. For the purposes of this study of website manifestos, we rely on three of the original subtypes of Affect, Un/happiness, In/security, Dis/satisfaction, and a supplementary subcategory which we have labelled Guilt/lessness (see Fig. 4.2). As shown in the overview of contemporary luxury offered in Chapter 2, consumers can experience guilt when they engage in luxury consumption (Hagtvedt & Patrick, 2016: 57), and Guilt is, therefore, a subtype of Affect that needs to be considered in our analysis. Since Guilt and its positive counterpart Guiltlessness do not have a clear place in the original subsystem of Affect, this category was added in order to

Un/happiness In/security

Attitude

Affect Dis/satisfaction Judgement

Guilt/lessness Appreciation

Fig. 4.2 The subsystem of affect, highlighted in black

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adequately deal with instances found in our data. It is noteworthy that the idea to include Guilt under Affect is not entirely idiosyncratic. From the perspective of other affect theories, not springing from the SFL-based Appraisal model, studies in computational linguistics have identified categories associated with guilt and shame in a corpus of event descriptions (Hofmann et al., 2020: 126, 128). The original system of Judgement involves two main subtypes, Social esteem and Social sanction. Social esteem is further subdivided into three categories labelled Capacity, Normality and Tenacity. Capacity refers to how capable, competent or knowledgeable a person is, Normality captures how ordinary or extraordinary a person is, and Tenacity relates to a person’s perseverance or dependability. Under Social sanction, the original Appraisal model offers the subcategories of Veracity, which refers to legality, and Propriety, which is associated with morality. Since legality is not at stake in the socio-cultural context in which our study is situated, we focus only on Propriety and incorporate under this label aspects related to integrity as well as benevolence. The system of Judgement that we draw on in our analysis is represented in Fig. 4.3. Research on Judgement carried out after Martin and White (2005) has rendered the system more complex. Ngo and Unsworth (2015: 17) propose refinements to Capacity and categorize the instances in their data according to three types of Capacity: Mental, Material and Social. While we profit from the ideas of these researchers, we needed slightly different ways to deal with our data. For our purposes in this study, we constructed the subtypes Cognitive capacity, Sensorial capacity and Communicative capacity.

Capacity

Attitude

Affect

Social esteem

Tenacity

Judgement Appreciation

Normality

Social sanction

Propriety

Fig. 4.3 The subsystem of Judgement, highlighted in black

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The original system of Appreciation proposes three subcategories, Composition, Reaction and Valuation (see Fig. 4.4). Composition relates to aesthetic evaluation based on sensory perceptions, Reaction concerns emotional appreciation of the evaluated entity, and Valuation refers to non-aesthetic evaluation of the social significance of the appreciated phenomenon (Hommerberg, 2011: 63; Martin & White, 2005: 56– 57). According to Martin and White (2005: 57), Valuation can vary considerably between different fields. The subsystem of Composition developed by Martin and White (2005) includes only two subcategories, Complexity and Balance, which are relevant for this study too. In addition, we make use of supplementary subcategories, which have previously been added to the model in order to deal with the language of wine appreciation. These are Intensity and Persistence (Hommerberg, 2011; Hommerberg & Don, 2015). The value dimensions that we operate with under Composition partly overlap with the general canons that have previously been established for the assessment of other aesthetic phenomena such as art, music and poetry. According to Beardsley’s (1981) philosophical account of aesthetic critique, these are unity, complexity and intensity. Since we draw on the Appraisal model, we use the label Balance, but acknowledge that it covers what we understand as the aesthetic value dimension of unity. The subcategory of Persistence is not found in Beardsley’s original account, Complexity

Attitude

Intensity Affect

Composition Persistence

Judgement Balance Appreciation Quality Reaction Impact Valutation

Fig. 4.4 The subsystem of Appreciation, branched in Composition, Reaction and Valuation, highlighted in black

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but for our purposes, it is relevant in the sense that it captures the extent in time of the aesthetic perceptions. The category of Reaction is subdivided into two subcategories: Quality and Impact (Martin & White, 2005: 56). While Quality focuses on the evaluated entity, Impact highlights the evaluator’s response. We have chosen to retain the original Reaction subsystem’s categories to capture emotional appreciation in our materials. In Ngo and Unsworth’s (2015) adjustment of the Appreciation subsystem, Quality has been moved from Reaction and forms a new subcategory directly under Appreciation. However, we understand the features that Ngo and Unsworth (2015) treat under their new Quality category as better captured under Valuation. The original Appreciation system does not propose subcategories under Valuation but offers the probing question Was it worthwhile? as a way to identify articulation of non-aesthetic values. In this study, the field we are concerned with is experiential luxury, and in order to capture the Valuation expressed in the reviews, we developed analytic categories inductively based on examination of the data. In this endeavour, we were inspired by Hommerberg’s (2011) study of wine appreciation and Ho’s (2019) investigation of luxury brand promotion websites. Examples of Valuation categories proposed by Hommerberg (2011) are Typicality, Naturalness and Affordability, and examples of categories from Ho’s (2019) study are Distinctiveness, Exclusivity and Tradition. Our analysis also makes use of analytic tools from the subsystem of Involvement (see Fig. 4.1). Involvement incorporates the discourse semantic features of Technicality and Naming and can be realized as for instance technical terms, exact numbers or proper names (Martin & White, 2005: 35). This dimension of discourse semantics is relevant for our study since the use of specialized lexis and proper names is a prominent feature of the discourse. The Appraisal system’s categories of Attitude and Involvement are used in several ways in this study: as resources to sharpen our attention to evaluative features of the text, as a means to systematize our observations and as a way to structure the analysis chapters of this book. While the Appraisal systems of Graduation and Engagement are not in focus in this study, they are actualized in our explorations of how Attitude is articulated in our data.

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The Procedures

The Appraisal model allows for both inscribed and invoked instances of Attitude (Martin & White, 2005: 63). Inscribed instances articulate the attitude overtly as evaluative lexis, while invoked instances make use of less direct ways to express an attitude. Attitude can be inscribed by means of various lexicogrammatical resources: adjectives, verbs as well as nouns that carry an overt articulation of the evaluative stance. The analyst, therefore, needs to be attentive to different lexicogrammatical choices as having the potential to inscribe Attitude. In addition, Attitude can be invoked by means of a broad range of discursive strategies. Don (2016: 9) proposes an invocation spectrum, encompassing discursive strategies that can function to invoke Attitude in texts. These strategies include but are not delimited to the use of lexical metaphors, attitudinal tokens, which are instances where inscribed attitude functions to invoke another attitude category, intensification and downscaling, negation, counter-expectancy, logico-semantic relationships of contrast or causality, intertextuality and also experiential meaning. In Don’s (2016) account of invocations, these are organized on a cline of explicitness, from lexical metaphor, which is the most explicit form of invocation, to experiential meaning, which is the least explicit form. Our analysis of the texts in our dataset targets both inscribed and invoked Attitude, and we draw on Don’s account of invocations in order to expose invoked ways of expressing Attitude. We thereby treat all invocation types in our data, including experiential meaning, as having the potential to invoke Attitude. In our analysis of Involvement, we use Martin & White’s (2005: 35) proposed list of lexicogrammatical features as resources to alert our attention to potentially relevant instances of Technicality and Naming, such as technical lexis, specialized lexis, precise reckonings, for instance exact numbers, slang and proper names. Our procedures for analysing the texts in our corpus rely on a qualitative approach to the data. Our analyses were conducted in an iterative fashion and consistently involved a critical discussion between the two analysts. We tracked our identification of relevant instances by means of the UAM Corpus Tool1 which was used as a resource to systematize the analysis. The accumulation of categorizations enabled by the UAM Corpus Tool allowed us to verify the consistency in our categorizations 1 See O’Donnell (n.d.).

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and functioned as a repository for the selection of illustrative instances in our presentation. The book’s division into chapters takes as point of departure the three text types that were included in the study. Chapter 5 focuses on the manifestos and relies on the Appraisal features of Attitude, including Affect, Judgement and Appreciation, which means that all the subcategories of the Attitude system are employed in the analysis of the manifestos. Chapter 6 is devoted to analysis of the reviewers’ self-presentations and is based on the Attitude subsystem of Judgement. In Chapters 7–9, we analyse the reviews, using the tools of Involvement in Chapter 7, Composition and Reaction in Chapter 8 and Valuation in Chapter 9. The subcategories relevant for each chapter are clarified in the introductions to the chapters. Each analysis chapter is introduced by an instance of the relevant text type in order to show how the addressees meet the texts. The analysis chapters furthermore include a considerable number of data excerpts, which serve two functions; first, they illustrate the discourse that we study, and second, they are intended to render our qualitative analysis as transparent and accessible as possible. To conclude each analysis chapter, we provide a summarizing interpretation, where we draw together the results derived from the analysis and reflect on how these contribute to the image of the addressee. We do not see particular results as being more relevant because they are based on frequent instances in our data. For example, it is fairly evident that reviews of experiential luxury include a description of the composition of the reviewed product, but the frequency of the Composition category in the data is not in itself of interest for our analysis. Instead, we are concerned with how the portrayal of subtypes of Composition project onto the imagined addressee particular characteristics, values and goals. The concluding chapter subsequently offers a depiction of the reviewbased consumer of experiential luxury, a discursive construct arising from clues drawn from our analyses.

References Bakhtin, M. (1981). Discourse in the novel (M. Holquist & C. Emerson, Trans.). In M. Holquist (Ed.), The dialogic imagination (pp. 259–422). University of Texas Press. Beardsley, M. C. (1981). Aesthetics: Problems in the philosophy of criticism. Hackett Publishing Company.

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Don, A. (2016). It is hard to mesh all this: Invoking attitude, persona and argument organisation. Functional Linguistics, 3(9), 1–26. Eco, U. (1979). The role of the reader: Explorations in the semiotics of texts. Indiana University Press. Fairclough, N. (1992). Discourse and social change. Blackwell Publishers. Fairclough, N. (1995). Media discourse. Edward Arnold. Folkeryd, J. W. (2006). Writing with an attitude: Appraisal and student texts in the school subject of Swedish (PhD thesis). Studia linguistica Upsaliensia, 5, Acta Universitatis Upsaliensis, Uppsala. Hagtvedt, H., & Patrick, V. (2016). Gilt and guilt: Should luxury and charity partner at the point of sale? Journal of Retailing, 92(1), 56–64. Ho, M. (2019). Evaluation in English and Chinese marketing communications: An adaptation of the Appraisal framework for the genre of luxury fashion promotional texts (Doctoral thesis). Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh. Hofmann, J., Troiano, E., Sassenberg, K., & Klinger, R. (2020). Appraisal theories for emotion classification in text. Proceedings of the 28th International Conference on Computational Linguistics (pp. 125–138). Hommerberg, C. (2011). Persuasiveness in the discourse of wine: The rhetoric of Robert Parker (Doctoral Thesis). Linnaeus University Press, Växjö, Kalmar. Hommerberg, C., & Don, A. (2015). Appraisal and the language of wine appreciation: A critical discussion of the potential of the Appraisal framework as a tool to analyse specialised genres. Functions of Language, 22(2), 161–191. Markham, A., & Buchanan, E. (2012). Ethical decision-making and internet research: recommendations from the AoIR Ethics Working Committee (version 2.0). Association of Internet Researchers. http://aoir.org/reports/ethics2.pdf Martin, J. R., & White, P. R. R. (2005). The language of evaluation: Appraisal in English. Palgrave Macmillan. Ngo, T., & Unsworth, L. (2015). Reworking the appraisal framework in ESL research: Refining attitude resources. Functional Linguistics, 2(1), 1–24. Perelman, C., & Olbrechts-Tyteca, L. (1969). The new rhetoric: A treatise on argumentation (J. Wilkinson & P. Weaver, Trans.). University of Notre Dame Press. Taylor, J., & Pagliari, C. (2018). Mining social media data: How are research sponsors and researchers addressing the ethical challenges? Research Ethics, 14(2), 1–39. https://doi.org/10.1177/1747016117738559 Tindale, C. W. (2004). Rhetorical argumentation: Principles of theory and practice. Sage. Wodak, R., & Meyer, M. (2009). Critical discourse analysis: History, agenda, theory and methodology. In R. Wodak & M. Meyer (Eds.), Methods of critical discourse analysis (pp. 1–33). Sage.

CHAPTER 5

Attitude in Manifestos

This chapter offers an analysis of the manifestos, mission or fundamental philosophy articulated on the websites in our material. These website manifestos are located in different places on the websites, for instance on the homepage or as an introductory declaration before the individual reviewer presentations in the about section. We explore how the manifestos construe the imagined addressee in terms of characteristics and behaviour, luxury values and goals when engaging in consumption of wine, perfume and chocolate. The Appraisal system’s categories of Attitude, including Affect, Judgement and Appreciation (see Figs. 4.2, 4.3 and 4.4 in the previous chapter), are used in the analysis of the website manifestos. This chapter thus draws on resources from the Appraisal subsystem of Attitude as a whole (Martin & White, 2005). As explained in Chapter 4, the subsystem of Attitude encompasses three categories. Affect concerns emotions, and inscribed illustrations of this category are cheerful and anxious. Judgement relates to assessment of human characteristics and behaviour, and this category is exemplified by items such as skilled and unreliable. Appreciation encompasses evaluation of things, and examples of inscribed Appreciation are beautiful and innovative. The manifesto from the chocolate review website Chocolate Codex offers an illustration of how we analyse this text type. This manifesto was retrieved from the general declaration introducing the individual reviewers’ self-presentations. © The Author(s) 2023 C. Hommerberg and M. Lindgren, Depicting the Consumer of Experiential Luxury, https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-60080-6_5

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Chocolate Codex is an informational resource for consumers looking to expand their chocolate knowledge and appreciate chocolate in-depth. We feature tasting notes and commentary on chocolate from around the world. We have developed our own (totally unscientific) tasting guidelines. These guidelines serve as a prompt to help our tasters and readers develop their own tasting vocabularies. The reviews we post are not ratings, but a system of cataloguing our experiences. We hope to grow our tasting team to represent a broad, cross-cultural spectrum of individuals.

We understand the Attitude subcategory of Judgement to be at play in this manifesto. Already in the very first sentence of the manifesto, the addressees are referenced as consumers that are “looking to expand their chocolate knowledge”, to “appreciate chocolate in-depth” and to “develop their own tasting vocabularies”. The addressees are thus positioned as consumers that have not yet reached their full capacity regarding field-specific chocolate competencies, and the site can contribute the missing pieces of chocolate insight. The capacity needed is multiple; it involves chocolate knowledge, sensory skills enabling in-depth appreciation and linguistic competencies in the form of tasting vocabularies. The difference in capacity between the website and its projected addressees is implicitly assumed to be hierarchical since the addressees can learn by engaging with the site. However, those responsible for the website are also portrayed as not having full mastery of all aspect of chocolate as a knowledge field, since they operate with “totally unscientific” tasting guidelines, and tasters and readers alike are invited to use the tasting guidelines to develop their tasting vocabularies, which indicates that both the website collaborators and the addressees may have gaps in their current expertise. Furthermore, the website explicitly opens up for diversity in order “to represent a broad, cross-cultural spectrum of individuals”. We interpret this approach as signalling an ideology that is generous and welcoming of all consumers, regardless of cultural background, into the world of fine chocolate consumption, an ideology that it is assumed the addressees will share. The Judgement of the addressees that emerges in this manifesto is largely invoked. There appears to be an implicit assumption regarding the addressees’ lack of capacity, which involves lack of tripartite fieldspecific competencies. The addressees are also positioned in terms of propriety in the sense that they are anticipated to embrace an inclusive

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luxury consumption community, involving cross-cultural diversity. This manifesto lacks apparent markers suggesting the presence of Affect and Appreciation; these types of attitude occur in other manifestos and will be illustrated further on in this chapter. ∗ ∗ ∗ The following sections, which deal with how the 15 websites position the addressees in the manifestos, are structured according to the appraisal system’s categories. In Sect. 5.1, we are concerned with Affect and reflect on the emotions that the addressees are assumed to feel. Subsequently, Sect. 5.2 focuses on how expressions of Judgement contribute to the way in which the manifestos position the addressees in terms of their characteristics and behaviour. In Sect. 5.3, we turn our attention to Appreciation and explore how the addressees are positioned with respect to evaluation of things. Finally in 5.4, we summarize the findings and offer an interpretation of how the imagined addressee is construed based on the results of our analysis of Attitude in the manifestos.

5.1

Affect

Categories from the original subsystem of Affect that are relevant for our analysis of the manifestos are Un/happiness, In/security, and Dis/satisfaction. In order to cover the Affect subtypes that surface in the manifestos, we also make use of the additional category labelled Guilt/lessness (see Fig. 4.2 in the previous chapter). A type of Affect that is promoted in the website manifestos is Happiness, which according to the original Appraisal system covers emotions such as love. For example, the wine website Wine Enthusiast approaches their addressees as lovers in (5.1) below, and the perfume website Fragrantica uses the label “perfume lovers” to refer to the community of reviewers and addressees, as illustrated in (5.2): (5.1) (5.2)

Our editorial ethos embraces wine and drinks lovers of all levels. (Wine Enthusiast) Fragrantica is an online encyclopedia of perfumes, a perfume magazine and a community of perfume lovers. (Fragrantica)

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Happiness is also invoked by the idea of being able to travel in time and space as in the excerpt from the perfume website Fragrantica in (5.3): (5.3)

Together we travel in time and space, where perfumes are the shining stars we use to navigate. We learn about their history, we discover far-away places and respectfully explore the life we see around us, always taking time to be amazed by Nature. (Fragrantica)

In Fragrantica’s approach, the state of bliss induced by engaging with perfume can bring us to other places and allow us to experience our natural habitat in different ways, just as envisaged by Victoria Frolova of the perfume review site Bois de Jasmin in (5.4): (5.4)

Scent is one of the simplest and most rewarding of enjoyments. By stimulating the sense of smell, you fantasize about another time and place, uncover a whole universe of new sensations and add splashes of color to the most ordinary day. (Bois de Jasmin)

According to this excerpt from Victoria’s manifesto, the happiness induced by olfactory pleasure can let us imagine ourselves in other times and places, and see ordinary life differently, because we are in a state of happiness where splashes of colour are added as we experience our everyday environment. Intense happiness also transpires in the excerpt below: (5.5)

Other than the Christmas tree, no tree on Earth brings as much hope & joy to a troubled world. (C-spot)

In (5.5) from the chocolate website C-spot’s manifesto, the cacao tree is compared to a Christmas tree bringing “hope & joy to a troubled world”. Another type of Affect occasionally addressed is Guilt. Victoria Frolova of Bois de Jasmin introduces the manifesto “In the defense of guilt-free pleasures”, which is further developed in (5.6): (5.6)

I often receive letters from women explaining that they feel guilty about their interest in perfume, because it’s “too indulgent” or “unnecessary.” It’s a luxury and we can live without

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it. Or so the argument goes. Except that it doesn’t make sense. Perfume is not a fundamental need for human life, but you could say the same for music, art, fashion, sports, restaurants or millions of other things that are not strictly necessary for survival but essential for a happy life. There is no reason to deprive yourself of something that gives you pleasure, and giving in to it shouldn’t be associated with guilt. (Bois de Jasmin) In this excerpt, Victoria Frolova suggests that luxury consumption guilt may be an emotion that the addressees experience and which her manifesto alleviates. This is accomplished through explicit guilt-rejection using negation: “shouldn’t be associated with guilt” and by means of the quotation marks, the idea that perfume consumption is “too indulgent” is attributed to another voice that is presumably neither the reviewer’s nor the addressees’. The idea that engagement with perfume could be associated with guilt also surfaces in (5.7) from the manifesto of Scented Hound: (5.7)

The bottom line is that I love fragrance and having a blog justifies my indulgent interest in the industry. (The Scented Hound)

In this passage, the idea that interest in perfume is “indulgent” and in need of justification is taken for granted by the reviewer as a form of guilt that he anticipates the addressees will share. We also see other traces of negative Affect that appeal to emotions of Insecurity. Example (5.8) speaks to readers’ insecurities about wine consumption: (5.8)

Hello there! I’m Dr. Vinifera, but you can call me Vinny. Ask me your toughest wine questions, from the fine points of etiquette to the science of winemaking. And don’t worry, I’m no wine snob—you can also ask me those “dumb questions” you’re too embarrassed to ask your wine geek friends! (Wine Spectator)

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In the excerpt above, the addressees are assumed to “worry” and to be “too embarrassed”. This proclaimed embarrassment is associated with the existence of other would-be expert consumers, the “wine snobs”, who unlike Dr. Vinifera, might judge less experienced consumers for their lack of insight. The website character Dr. Vinifera is the perfect antidote to feelings of insecurity; by engaging with Dr. Vinifera, the addressees can be in an emotional space where they do not experience worry, and where they do not need to feel too embarrassed about exposing lack of knowledge. A similar theme emerges in Wine Enthusiast’s manifesto: (5.9)

We invite audiences into the rich learning adventure that is wine, spirits and beer without intimidating or boring them. (Wine Enthusiast)

Excerpt (5.9) conjures up a situation where engaging with communities of wine knowledge might cause the addressees to feel intimidated, i.e. experience a sense of insecurity, a type of insecurity that is negated in Wine Enthusiast’s invitation. Moreover, Dis/satisfaction appears to be at play in (5.9) above from the Wine Enthusiast manifesto, since the negated expression “without […] boring them” projects onto the addressees a tendency to experience ennui, “boring them”, unless there is an element of entertainment involved. This idea resurfaces in other manifestos too, for instance in Dr. Vinifera’s announcement below: (5.10)

I hope you find my answers educational, empowering and even amusing. (Wine Spectator)

Dr. Vinifera’s message suggests that “amusing” is a quality of the answers that is likely to satisfy the addressees, who thereby appear to expect to be amused. In terms of Affect, we find that the addressees projected by the manifestos associate strong feelings of happiness and love with their luxury consumption, but they may also experience guilt because luxury is perceived as indulgent. Furthermore, the addressees can feel insecure about the adequacy of their field-specific competencies, and in addition, they may get bored unless being amused.

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Judgement

We now turn our attention to the way in which the manifestos position the addressees in terms of their characteristics and behaviour, and we draw on the original subsystem of Judgement, including the subcategories of Social esteem, Capacity, Normality and Tenacity, and Social sanction, where Propriety is of most pertinent relevance (see Fig. 4.3 in the previous chapter). We find that references made to the judgement value of Capacity are present in the manifestos, as illustrated in the introductory example from Chocolate Codex. When the addressees’ capacity as consumers is referenced, it is generally the addressees’ lack of field-specific competence that is brought forth. For instance, the manifesto of Now Smell. This explicitly inscribes a consumer with no prior knowledge in (5.11), which features a question attributed to the addressees: (5.11)

I’m new to perfume—where do I start? (Now Smell This)

The addressees’ lack of field-specific insight is also referred to implicitly, for instance invoked by means of comparisons with the field-specific insight offered by the website, as suggested in (5.12) below: (5.12)

Fragrantica informs its readers about new perfume launches, famous fragrances, and less-known but wonderful scents. (Fragrantica)

In this excerpt, the addressees are positioned as being in need of the information that the website can deliver so that they can enhance their insight into the world of fragrances. The announcement from Wine Spectator’s Dr. Vinifera in (5.13), which was previously featured in excerpt 5.10 above, also positions the addressees as having limited field-specific insight and being in need of the expert knowledge that the website can offer. (5.13)

I hope you find my answers educational, empowering and even amusing. (Wine Spectator)

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In this passage, the presence of the adjectival processes “educational” and “empowering” suggests that the addressees are in need of being educated and empowered and that the website character Dr. Vinifera is in a position to contribute the missing education and empowerment. In order to complete their purpose, the answers from Dr. Vinny are dependent on the superior field-specific insight of this website character. We see a similar ranking of capacity in the manifesto of the chocolate website Seventy% in (5.14), where the addressees’ capacity is assumed to be inferior to the capacity of the website’s addressor. (5.14)

Seventy% is a world leading authority on fine chocolate, founded in London in 2001. Our aim is to raise awareness of the quality and origin of the chocolate we eat. (Seventy%)

We understand from this excerpt that the addressor of the website is an authority, i.e. has a higher level of capacity compared to the addressees. It can also be deduced based on the formulation of the website’s aim that the addressees’ level of awareness is lower than the addressor’s and can be raised by means of the insight offered by the website. In a similar vein, Jancis Robinson approaches the addressees with the following mission statement: (5.15)

We’d like everyone to know as much as possible about wine. Knowledge is power! There is a wealth of free background information on just about everything to do with wine here. Take your pick from the topics below! (Jancis Robinson)

Although not explicitly articulated, this announcement assumes that the addressees are in an inferior position regarding field-specific capacity, since they can enhance their knowledge by engaging with the free background information available on the website, which will give them more power as consumers. Based on the following announcement in (5.16), we understand that the difference in capacity between the website addressor and the addressees is not delimited to the product itself, but encompasses how the product can be consumed in a broader cultural context:

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We empower our readers with practical advice on how to incorporate alcohol beverages and adjacent interests into their daily lives. (Wine Enthusiast)

The idea that the addressees need the knowledge offered by the website to enhance not only their insight into the product itself but also the surround of consuming it resurfaces in this offer from Dr. Vinifera of Wine Spectator: (5.17)

Ask me your toughest wine questions, from the fine points of etiquette to the science of winemaking. (Wine Spectator)

The notion of etiquette implies that there is a world of cultural norms associated with wine of which the consumer has a lower level of understanding than the website character, who is able to contribute knowledge on the subject. However, the following passage from the manifesto of Wine Enthusiast does not position all addressees as having inferior insight into the world of wine compared to the addressor: (5.18)

Our editorial ethos embraces wine and drinks lovers of all levels. (Wine Enthusiast)

We understand the reference to “all levels” in this announcement as an indication that both novices and connoisseurs are invited. The addressees are furthermore construed as wanting to know, given the complexity of the supply on the wine market, that those in charge of the reviews are truly experts in the wine regions that their reviews deal with. This anticipated reader request is addressed in (5.19): (5.19)

Each editor generally covers the same wine regions from year to year. These “beats” remain constant, allowing each lead taster to develop expertise in the region’s wines. (Wine Spectator)

There are passages in the manifestos that could be said to invoke evaluation of the addressees’ capacity to be clever as a critical reader, which is illustrated in (5.20) and (5.21).

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(5.20)

(5.21)

We set stringent standards for ourselves and rely on the proven ability and experience of our editors as tasters and critics. (Read our Statement of Ethics.) Below are the guidelines we follow in order to maintain the integrity of our tastings. (Wine Spectator) You probably want to know if this site makes money. Well it’s only about 9 months old and it makes me very little. I’d be surprised if it was £100 in that time. I have other sites that I work on in the evenings that help pay the bills.[…] Are you Impartial? To be honest I would say I am. (Chocolatiers)

In (5.20), the description on the Wine Spectator website conjures the addressees as suspicious, requiring an ethics statement before being willing to trust the recommendations. In a similar vein in (5.21), it emerges from the description from Chocolatiers that in order to be convinced about the website’s accuracy, the addressees request assertions regarding the reviewer’s impartiality as well as financial disinterest in the reviewer activity. Furthermore, the addressees of the websites emerge as consumers who conform to the beliefs and attitudes held by many other consumers, i.e. consumers that are not inclined to diverge from the mass. For example, we see the judgement value of Normality as underlying the assumption that if the site is trusted by other consumers, the addressees will also trust the site, which is illustrated in (5.22–5.24) from a wine, a perfume and a chocolate website: (5.22)

(5.23) (5.24)

Decanter is the world’s leading wine media brand with a total monthly reach in excess of 2.2 million via our print, digital and social channels. Engaging with wine lovers in over 100 countries around the globe (Decanter) we have grown to become the largest fragrance information resource on the internet (Basenotes) with over 30,000 followers & subscribers, Chocablog is consistently ranked amongst the UK’s Top 10 food blogs. (Chocablog)

While functioning to portray the websites as widely trusted sources among consumers and hence as standing out among other sources, these

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announcements rely on the taken-for-granted idea that the addressees are more inclined to trust a website that many other consumers also rely on rather than to go only by their own impression. The addressees projected by the websites are thereby positioned as mainstream and normal rather than extraordinary or unique. The judgement value of Tenacity is also found in the manifestos. The addressees are construed as having tenacity in the sense that they are consistently eager to enhance their knowledge about the products. This characteristic of the addressees is overtly inscribed in (5.25) from Wine Enthusiast: (5.25)

It is the comprehensive source for curious readers. (Wine Enthusiast)

In the excerpt from the chocolate review website Seventy% in (5.26), the addressees are also positioned as consumers eager to expand their fieldspecific knowledge in order to enhance their consumption experience: (5.26)

Seventy% also runs experiential chocolate events for consumer and corporate clients and our Slow Chocolate series of workshops, which will help develop your connoisseur chocolate senses. (Seventy%)

The offer from Seventy% suggests that by taking courses, diligent consumers can enhance their perceptual capacity towards the level of connoisseurship. This idea is echoed in (5.27) below from the chocolate review website Chocolate Codex (which was previously featured in the introduction to this chapter): (5.27)

Chocolate Codex as an informational resource for consumers looking to expand their chocolate knowledge and appreciate chocolate in-depth. (Chocolate Codex)

This passage indicates that the difference in capacity between the website and its projected addressees is not static. Instead, by being tenacious in their activity to expand their capacity, the addressees can develop their insight so that they can experience in-depth appreciation.

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We see the judgement value of Propriety relating to morality and benevolence in the website manifestos, in passages where the websites approach the addressees as responsible and generous. Morality stands out clearly in the promotion of sustainable consumption, which ascribes to the addressees a desire to see themselves as responsible for the footprint of their consumption. In excerpt (5.28) from Robert Parker Wine Advocate, values of normality and environmental responsibility are intertwined: (5.28)

With more and more wine consumers actively seeking out wines that are sustainably produced, the team at Robert Parker Wine Advocate has added two sustainability filters/symbols to our database. (Robert Parker Wine Advocate)

What other wine consumers are valuing appears relevant for the addressees, which construes them as having a mainstream consumption ideology. In addition, the aspect that more and more consumers desire is that the wines should be sustainably produced, which suggests that it is important for the mainstream consumers to see themselves as mindful of the environmental footprint that their luxury consumption leaves. We regard this as a dimension of how the website manifestos project the addressees as good consumers. The idea of environmentally sustainable consumption is also echoed in the following announcement from the manifesto of the chocolate website C-spot: (5.29)

Together we can have our chocolate & eat it too. […] It not only tastes good, it’s good for the planet, & good for the collective soul. (C-spot)

In (5.29), we interpret the phrase “good for the planet” as referring to a claim that consumption of high-quality chocolate is environmentally sustainable, and by including this statement in the website manifesto the addressor projects the addressees as sharing the desire to do what is good for the planet by consuming in an environmentally responsible manner. In excerpt (5.30), the responsibility of the consumer is extended to the living conditions of the producers of the products, which is suggestive of a kind of solidarity between the consumer and producer that this website appraises as being “ethical”. The manifesto of Wine Enthusiast extends

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their recognition of responsibility to encompass several different areas, as declared in the following passage: (5.30)

We embrace our ability to […] change the dynamics of the industry as regards social change and our support of worthy causes like inclusivity in the drinks business, sustainable viticulture, wellness and vineyard workers’ rights. (Wine Enthusiast)

This pronouncement construes the addressees as finding it important to consume responsibly, not only concerning environmental impact but also as regards the working conditions of those employed in the industry. In addition, other passages indicate that good luxury consumers are mindful of the impact that their consumption has on those working in the industry. This dimension of the responsible consumer’s concerns is brought to the fore in the following excerpt from C-spot: (5. 31)

cacáo can play a role in creating a model for ethical capitalism that builds networks between the producing South & the consuming North based on mutual respect. (C-spot)

Furthermore, the good consumer is not only environmentally responsible, but also someone that strives to include others in their engagement with the luxury experience. We see this as another form of Propriety construing the addressees as generous and sociable. For example, the following excerpt from the perfume website Fragrantica, partly featured in (5.1) above, projects addressees as belonging to a community that is inclusive and where members of the community experience together with others: (5.32)

Fragrantica is […] a community of perfume lovers […] Together we travel in time and space […] Fragrantica is a place to learn from each other and relax in the company of your soul mates. […] We only ask you to consider each other to enable everyone to enjoy their experience. (Fragrantica)

A similar announcement is made in (5.33) by Bois de Jasmin: (5.33)

Weekly features include reviews, offer suggestions on sampling teas, creating spice mixtures, building fragrance wardrobe and

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discovering new books with the help of our warm and diverse community of several thousand readers. (Bois de Jasmin) While Bois de Jasmin characterizes the community as diverse, the addressees are simultaneously portrayed as sociable people appreciating a “warm community” which confers characteristics such as sociability, generosity and mutual respect on the addressees. Other websites construe the good luxury consumer as a sociable person in less explicit ways. For instance, even if the behaviour of being lively is transferred to the discussion forum in (5.34) from Basenotes, we can deduce that it is the participants’ engagement that makes it so: (5.34)

Basenotes also boasts a lively discussion forum, where fragrance aficionados can discuss all aspects of the fragrance world. (Basenotes)

The idea that product education and testing are seen as a social enterprise is also illustrated in (5.35–5.37): (5.35)

(5.36) (5.37)

Wine Enthusiast Media’s fast-growing and varied consumer and trade touchpoints include […] a robust virtual and inperson event series. (Wine Enthusiast) Decanter provides authoritative content, independent advice and inspirational events and competitions. (Decanter) readers with an affinity for drinks culture, global travel, modern food and dining and approachable wine education. (Wine Enthusiast)

The idea of consumer–trade touchpoints in (5.35) is indicative of opportunities to meet directly with those involved in the field. In addition, the mentioning of recurrent in-person events suggests that these meetings are arranged as social gatherings, which provide the opportunity to engage in field-specific activities in the company of like-minded others. In (5.36), the offer from Decanter includes sociable activities, such as events and competitions. The excerpt in (5.37) explicitly refers to the educational dimension of the websites’ offerings and provides a list of other forms of experiential luxury that the addressees are anticipated to take an interest in. We see this as a further indication that the addressees are envisaged

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as sociable people who enjoy engaging in consumption of experiential luxury together with others that have similar interests as well as engaging together in these other experiences too. Other resources on the websites confirm the idea that the addressees enjoy fun, entertaining and playful joint activities, such as product quizzes. As an example of how it is anticipated that the addressees make use of the knowledge gained by the quizzes, the heading “Sparkling conversation” in Wine Spectator suggests that the knowledge gained from their quiz on sparkling wine can be used in conversation with other aficionados. To conclude, our analysis of Judgement in the manifestos conjures up the addressees as consumers whose field-specific competencies are incomplete, but who are tenacious in their strive to expand their capacity and develop from novice to connoisseur. The addressees are furthermore positioned as mainstream and normal rather than extraordinary or unique, since the addressor anticipates them to be convinced by arguments related to beliefs and preferences held by other consumers. A critical capacity is ascribed to the addressees in the sense that they challenge the addressor’s impartiality and therefore have to be persuaded to trust the reviewer’s recommendations. The manifestos’ references to sustainable production and consumption project onto the addressees the characteristic of being responsible, while they are also projected as sociable and wishing to engage in field-specific activities together with other aficionados.

5.3

Appreciation

The subsystem of Appreciation is designed to deal with evaluation of things, processes and states of affairs and includes three subcategories (see Fig. 4.4 in the previous chapter). Composition refers to the aesthetics of sensory perception in terms of the complexity, intensity and persistence of the artefact and the balance between its elements. Reaction subsumes meanings related to the emotional effect a thing has on the experiencer. Valuation concerns non-aesthetic evaluation of the social significance of the appreciated entity. The manifestos do not refer to emotional reactions to or sensory perceptions of particular products. Instead, when Appreciation occurs, it is unspecified or in the form of non-aesthetic values. An unspecified form of Appreciation that is explicitly addressed in the manifestos concerns the quality of the products that are reviewed, and

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the reviewers consistently assure the addressees that the websites strive for the highest quality possible. This form of Appreciation is illustrated in the following excerpts from chocolate websites: (5.38) (5.39) (5.40)

our mission is to spread the word about quality chocolate. (Chocablog) By demanding premium chocolate we incentivize growers. (C-spot) Seventy% is a world leading authority on fine chocolate. (Seventy%)

The significance of high quality is also expressed in more implicit terms. In the following excerpt from Robert Parker Wine Advocate, it is clear that high quality is of central concern when the reviewers assess the wines: (5.41)

The Wine Advocate takes a hard, very critical look at wine, since we would prefer to underestimate the wine’s quality than to overestimate it. (Robert Parker Wine Advocate)

The pursuit of high quality is generally present in the rating systems, where a higher score is assigned to a product of higher quality. The following passage from Wine Spectator suggests that the precise degree of quality is crucial, and in cases where precision regarding the level of quality cannot be completely guaranteed, the numerical rating is deliberately provided as an approximation: (5.42)

Barrel tastings: Editors sometimes review unfinished wines in barrel tastings. These wine are scored in ranges (eg. 85–88 points) [our score ranges are 4-point spreads] to indicate that the ratings are still preliminary. (Wine Spectator)

In the excerpt from the perfume website Fragrantica below, we understand the metaphorical expression “shining stars” to invoke high quality: (5.43)

Together we travel in time and space, where perfumes are the shining stars we use to navigate. (Fragrantica)

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Furthermore, high quality is articulated by means of comparison in the following passage from the chocolate website C-spot: (5.44)

Theobroma cacao (Greek, literally “god-food”), the tree from which chocolate derives, stands above the world’s great specialties – wine, caviar, tea, cigars, etc. – rather than in the candy bin (where we’ve been snickered into adulterating it). (C-spot)

First, the reference to what a god would eat strongly suggests high quality. Second, the ranking of the cacao tree as “standing above” other acknowledged luxury goods positions the product as having high quality. In this excerpt, the consumer that ranks chocolate along with other luxury goods is contrasted with those consumers for whom chocolate is merely a form of candy. Even if the first-person plural “we” is used, we understand the addressees to be construed as consumers regarding chocolate as luxury. A form of non-aesthetic Appreciation is present in the manifestos’ references to the significance of the origins of the products. Examples (5.45–5.47) below highlight the significance of the place of growth, the origin and the raw ingredients from which the resulting product is made: (5.45) (5.46) (5.47)

Each editor generally covers the same wine regions from year to year. (Wine Spectator) Our aim is to raise awareness of the quality and origin of the chocolate we eat. (Seventy%) Seventy% brings consumers, professionals and industry producers together as a community to learn the finer distinctions of cacao and chocolate and the importance of a direct connection from ‘bean to bar’. (Seventy%)

In (5.45), we are led to understand that region plays an important role in the assessment of a wine’s quality, so important that there is a need for expert knowledge about particular regions of wine production in order to be able to adequately assess the quality of the wine. Similarly in (5.46), the manifesto of the chocolate website Seventy% highlights the significance of the chocolate’s origin as an important aspect of appreciating its quality. In (5.47) above, also from Seventy%, the expression “from ‘bean to bar’”

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emphasizes the importance of the original botanical artefact, the bean, for the resulting product, the bar. In addition to the place and artefact of origin associated with the resulting product, the artisanship of those responsible for all aspects of the production chain is brought forth as an important value, which is illustrated in (5.48–5.50): (5.48) (5.49)

(5.50)

We connect our audience to wine, spirits and beer through the interesting people behind them. (Wine Enthusiast) our mission is to spread the word about quality chocolate and the amazing chocolatiers, chocolate makers and cacao farmers who help create it. (Chocablog) we bestow recognition on the peoples & places – especially Amerindian communities – responsible for an incredible invention, bringing one of the world’s great plants to fruition. (C-spot)

In the first of these instances from Wine Enthusiast, the people contributing in undefined ways to the resulting quality of the product are labelled “interesting”. We take this attribute to emphasize the importance of artisanship for the resulting quality of the product. The following example, which is an excerpt from the manifesto of the chocolate website Chocablog, promotes the significance of skilful artisans involved in the production of quality chocolate, from cacao farmers to chocolatiers. Finally, in (5.50), the emphasis is on the skilled artisans that were originally able to make the cacao tree bear fruit. Another form of non-aesthetic Appreciation refers to heritage and tradition, as in the following excerpt from the chocolate review website C-spot: (5.51)

And cacáo, once literally sacred & noble, then massproduced & impoverished, regains its former glory. (C-spot)

The excerpt reminds the addressees of chocolate’s noble heritage as a luxury product and celebrates initiatives to reactivate heritage as an important value for consumers seeking out luxury chocolate. The value of heritage also appears to emerge in the following passages from the perfume review website Fragrantica’s manifesto:

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We learn about their history. (Fragrantica) Fragrantica informs its readers about […] famous fragrances. (Fragrantica)

The promotion of history in (5.52) sheds light on the legacy of the products in terms of historical heritage. In (5.53), a different form of heritage emerges. The expression “famous fragrances” alludes to the idea that some perfumes are iconic since they have acquired fame in some way. This could, for instance, be because they are associated with famous wearers such as film stars or royalty, which could be seen as another type of heritage of the product. In the following excerpt from C-spot, we see another non-aesthetic form of appreciation emerging, the quality of being rare: (5.54)

By demanding premium chocolate we incentivize growers to preserve rare heirloom cacáo strains. (C-spot)

In this excerpt, the rarity of the cacao is highlighted as a value that makes the strains worthy of preservation. It appears that the rarity of “the heirloom cacáo strains” can be preserved by increased demand among consumers for products based on these raw ingredients, and by their demand for this premium chocolate the addressees contribute to the preservation of the rare heirloom chocolate. The rarity of the cacao is thus not promoted as a value associated with exclusivity due to limitations in access. Such exclusivity is not present in the manifestos. Instead, we see instances where accessibility is valued, as in the following excerpt from Wine Spectator: (5.55)

Wine Spectator primarily serves a national audience, and we therefore prefer to review wines that are widely available. (Wine Spectator)

In (5.55), accessibility appears to be associated with positive connotations. The website concentrates on products that are accessible to the majority of the addressees rather than devoting attention to those products that are only accessible to a select few. Another non-aesthetic value that we see referenced in the website manifestos refers to the novelty of the reviewed products. In (5.56) below,

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the manifesto of the perfume review website Fragrantica indicates that, in addition to fragrances with heritage, attention is also devoted to those that are new, which suggests that novelty is a value that the addressees are anticipated to appreciate. (5.56)

Fragrantica informs its readers about new perfume launches, famous fragrances, and less-known but wonderful scents.

The range of offers in Fragrantica’s manifesto also includes “less-known scents”, which we take to invoke a form of exclusivity that is not related to the limited supply of the products but to the fact that the group of consumers that are familiar with them is limited. The countering linking word “but” positions the addressees as possibly having doubts about whether products that are known to fewer people can actually have sufficiently high quality. This scepticism is subsequently countered by the assertion that these scents are “wonderful”. The following example from Wine Enthusiast’s manifesto echoes the idea that lesser-known products are particularly desirable: (5.57)

We actively pursue untold stories, with the courage and confidence to focus on topics before they are mainstream in our industry. (Wine Enthusiast)

In (5.57), the announcement from Wine Enthusiast attaches value to that which is not widely known, which is articulated by means of the metaphoric expression “untold stories”. However, it is also announced that it takes courage and confidence to delve into the unknown and find such products. From this passage, we can deduce that the value of being less well-known is a transient phenomenon, since it is only present as long as the knowledge of these products has not become mainstream. The phrase “before they are mainstream” implies that being mainstream is a characteristic that necessarily follows the stage of being known to fewer people. The pricing of the products is a non-aesthetic form of Appreciation that appears in the manifestos, which is illustrated in (5.58) below: (5.58)

we promote premium pricing. (C-spot)

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Premium pricing is a strategy used by producers to make consumers believe the marketed product is of higher quality than its comparable competitors, and we, therefore, understand the passage in (5.58) to indicate that the website promotes high price. In the co-text where this passage occurs, it emerges that the website’s promotion of high price is associated with enhanced prosperity in the emerging economies where the cacao is grown and harvested. By promoting high price, the website does not express an intention to reserve the enjoyment of high-quality chocolate only for the wealthy but rather to contribute to the good cause of enhancing life conditions for those in the production chain. The pricing of the reviewed products is also referenced in the following excerpt from Wine Spectator’s manifesto, which signals a different approach: (5.59)

we spend thousands of dollars each year to buy wines that are not submitted, at all price levels. (Wine Spectator)

While occurring in a passage intended as an explanation regarding how the reviewed wines are obtained by Wine Spectator, the comment “at all price levels” indicates that the website engages not only with high price products but also with products that are reasonably priced or even inexpensive. Another non-aesthetic value that we found to emerge in the website manifestos relates to healthfulness, which is expressed in (5.60), where the chocolate website C-spot implies that chocolate can confer mental health benefits: (5.60)

It not only tastes good, it’s […] good for the collective soul. (C-spot)

Chocolate can also contribute to enhanced physiological health, which is illustrated in the excerpt below from the same website: (5.61)

Every year research sheds more light on its physiological, medicinal […] benefits. (C-spot)

In (5.61), the physical health benefits of luxury chocolate consumption are highlighted. Healthfulness is thus promoted as an important value

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in C-spot’s manifesto, but not so clearly present in the other chocolate website manifestos, nor in manifestos of perfume and wine websites. Our analysis of Appreciation in the manifestos has revealed that the addressees are construed as seeking high quality. The significance of high quality is expressed explicitly as well as metaphorically, and in exact terms in the rating systems. Aspects of high quality assumed to be of importance for the addressees are the geographical origins of the products as well as the artisanship of those responsible for the production chain. In some manifestos the value of heritage and scarcity surface as important in the search for products. We also find traces of the significance of pricing; both high price and affordability are addressed, but pricing is not related to exclusivity in the sense that only few consumers can afford the products. Another value that is referenced is the healthfulness of the product.

5.4

Conclusions About Attitude in Manifestos

Our analysis of the website manifestos has drawn on the Appraisal categories of Affect, Judgement and Appreciation to explore the image of the addressee. Based on our analysis of how the addressees are projected in the manifestos, we can sketch a preliminary outline of how the imagined addressee is construed in terms of characteristics and behaviour, values and luxury consumption goals. We have found that the imagined addressee is projected as associating strong feelings of happiness with the products, but also as experiencing guilt regarding luxury consumption and as feeling insecure as concerns luxury competencies. Furthermore, the imagined addressee is positioned as mainstream and normal in the sense that the consumption ideology converges with that of other consumers, but the addressee is also construed as having critical skills and being in need of persuasion in order to trust the reviewer’s recommendations. The analysis has moreover provided results regarding the second part of this study’s quest, i.e. to explore the luxury values that the imagined addressee embraces. The values of high quality and heritage are referenced, and it also appears that aspects related to design and artisanship such as raw ingredients and place of growth of the products are important values for the imagined addressee. Scarcity is referenced and high price surfaces, but these values are not portrayed as conferring exclusivity on the addressee, and availability of the product rather appears to be perceived as positive. Uniqueness could perhaps be understood to be

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implied in references to novel and lesser-known products, and healthfulness is also anticipated to be positively appreciated by the addressee. To conclude, the manifestos project an imagined addressee that finds several of the traditional luxury values to be important, in particular high quality, but who assigns less importance to other luxury values and who also embraces alternative values that are not regarded as traditional luxury. This chapter about attitudes in the manifestos has also provided results regarding the goals of the imagined addressee. We have found that the imagined addressee is construed as constantly pursuing enhanced knowledge about wine, perfume or chocolate with the goal to develop from novice to connoisseur and from an insecure to a confident consumer. Furthermore, the imagined addressee aspires to engage in field-specific activities together with other aficionados and wants to be included in the generous community offered by the websites. The addressee is projected as wanting to enjoy luxury as part of everyday life, including reading about the products on the websites and being amused by the online reviewer discourse. Another goal appears to be to alleviate the guilt associated with the excess of luxury consumption. Finally, the addressee also desires to contribute to environmental sustainability by choosing sustainably produced products. In this chapter, we have analysed the imagined addressee in manifestos of wine, perfume and chocolate review websites using the Appraisal system’s categories of Attitude. The subcategories Affect, Appreciation and Judgement have been valuable resources to identify evaluative features of the texts, and the subcategories have helped us to systematize our observations and to structure the chapter. However, this chapter only presents the results based on one of the text types in the discourse that we explore, and as a consequence, the presentation in this chapter is limited to the image of the addressee as construed in manifestos. To expand this image, we have also used the Appraisal system to analyse two other text types in the discourse: self-presentations of wine, perfume and chocolate reviewers and reviews of wine, perfume and chocolate. In the next chapter, we present our analysis of the reviewers’ selfpresentations using the Appraisal system’s Attitude category of Judgement, and we conclude the next chapter by reflecting on what the construction of the reviewer identities can tell us about the imagined addressee in terms of characteristics and behaviour, luxury values and consumption goals.

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Reference Martin, J. R., & White, P. R. R. (2005). The language of evaluation: Appraisal in English. Palgrave Macmillan.

CHAPTER 6

Judgement in Reviewer Self-Presentations

In the previous chapter, we explored how the addressees are construed in manifestos in the online reviewer discourse on wine, perfume and chocolate. In this chapter, we turn our attention to the reviewers’ selfpresentations, which we assume represent the reviewers’ conscious ways of describing themselves to appear in a favourable light in relation to how they believe the addressees will react. Our analysis of the reviewers’ selfpresentations thus emanates from the basic assumption that the purpose of these texts is to portray the reviewers as credible in their endeavour to offer the addressees advice regarding experiential luxury consumption. Previous research on online reviews has concluded that addressees pay attention to the identity projected by people who post reviews online when deciding whose opinions to trust (Vasquez, 2014, Chapter 3: 3–4). In this chapter, we use the Appraisal system’s Attitude category of Judgement. As described in Chapters 4 And 5, the subsystem of Judgement is divided into two main categories, Social esteem and Social sanction (Martin & White, 2005: 53). Under Social esteem, the category of Capacity is illustrated in the literature by means of the following inscribed instances: knowledgeable, stupid and powerful. Normality, which assesses individuals in terms of how mainstream or unusual they are, is exemplified by the inscribed instances eccentric, conventional and traditional. Furthermore, Tenacity, which refers to an individual’s psychological disposition, is represented by the inscribed items brave, tenacious and committed in the appraisal literature. The other main category under Judgement, © The Author(s) 2023 C. Hommerberg and M. Lindgren, Depicting the Consumer of Experiential Luxury, https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-60080-6_6

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Social sanction, which involves assessments of morality under which we subsume instances related to integrity and benevolence, is illustrated by the following inscribed instances: caring, reliable and dishonest. Although all the reviewers’ self-presentations are unique, we reveal general trends by viewing the data through the Appraisal system’s lens of Judgement. The Judgement subsystem we have employed is represented in Fig. 4.3 in Chapter 4. The information that the reviewers choose to include about themselves can include inscribed Judgement, but self-praise can also be expressed without explicit articulation of Judgement, i.e. it is offered as experiential meaning, which according to Don (2016: 9) is the most implicit form of invoked Attitude. Even if the surface form of the message thus does not convey any form of Judgement, our interpretation of the factual information offered in the reviewers’ self-presentations is grounded in the assumption that the reviewers need to position themselves favourably with respect to both Social esteem and Social sanction in order to be perceived as credible in the eyes of the addressees. The self-presentation of the wine reviewer Lisa Perrotti-Brown below offers an illustration of the materials analysed in this chapter. The presentation is found on the wine review website Robert Parker Wine Advocate among several others under the heading “About us”. The presentation is featured below. Lisa Perrotti-Brown Born and raised in rural Maine, USA, Lisa graduated from Colby College, ME, with degrees in English Literature and Performing Arts. Her wine career began by happenstance when, living as a struggling playwright in London after college, she was offered a job as the manager of a wine bar. Upon acquiring the position, she promptly enrolled for classes at the WSET (Wine and Spirit Education Trust) and continued her studies with them until achieving the institution’s highest accreditation level: Diploma. […] In 2008, Lisa moved to Singapore and began writing a column for Robert Parker’s website, eRobertParker.com. Later that year she achieved her Master of Wine (MW) qualification and the Madame Bollinger Medal for excellence in wine tasting. In 2013, she became the Editor-in-Chief for Robert Parker’s Wine Advocate and eRobertParker.com and remains the publication’s critic for the wines of Australia and New Zealand. In 2015, Lisa’s first book, Taste Like a Wine Critic: A Guide to Understanding Wine Quality, was published. In June of that year, she moved to Napa,

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California, to set up a new office for Robert Parker Wine Advocate. She now lives in Napa with her British husband, two young daughters and their mad Border Collie.

The self-presentation above construes Lisa Perrotti-Brown in a favourable light as regards her characteristics and behaviour as a reviewer and as a person. By studying the self-presentation from the perspective of the subcategory of Social esteem under Judgement, it is obvious that she is a highly competent and tenacious wine reviewer, but simultaneously a person living an ordinary life. Lisa Perrotti-Brown is portrayed as having strong Capacity to assess wine as she has been awarded “the Master of Wine-qualification and the Madame Bollinger Medal for excellence in wine tasting”. The exam and the award are guarantees for her background knowledge of wine. The self-presentation portrays her as successful in the capacity as writer as she has been “writing a column for Robert Parker’s website” for several years and is nowadays designated as “Editor-in-Chief for Robert Parker’s Wine Advocate”. In addition, “her first book, Taste Like a Wine Critic: A Guide to Understanding Wine Quality” has been published, which implies that a publishing company has judged her qualifications to be excellent. Lisa Perrotti-Brown’s self-presentation also portrays her with a high degree of Tenacity as she is described as hard working and well educated. She “graduated from Colby College, ME, with degrees in English Literature and Performing Arts” and was “a struggling playwright” before moving on to a career in wine sales and marketing. The zeal with which she approached her career in wine contributes to the construction of the reviewer as a tenacious individual: “Upon acquiring the position [as the manager of a wine bar], she promptly enrolled for classes at the WSET (Wine and Spirit Education Trust) and continued her studies with them until achieving the institution’s highest accreditation level: Diploma”. The reviewer’s tenaciousness is further reinforced by the mentioning of her long-term engagement with Robert Parker Wine Advocate, and the idea that she is a committed wine expert can perhaps be understood to be underscored by her decision to bring her family to the Napa wine region and settle there. The self-presentation invokes the idea that the reviewer is an ordinary person in her personal life, since the text mentions that she was “Born and raised in rural Maine, USA” and lives “with her British husband, two

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young daughters and their mad Border Collie”, i.e. as a family person who comes from and now lives in ordinary circumstances like many other people. The analysis of the self-presentation of wine reviewer Lisa PerrottiBrown offers an illustration of how the Judgement categories of Social esteem are realized in our dataset. The example thereby shows how the presentation is left without inscribed articulation of Judgement, thus leaving it up to the addressees to co-construct the positive evaluations on the basis of the reviewer’s description. We found no instances relatable to Social sanction in the self-presentation of Lisa Perrotti-Brown, but Social sanction will be illustrated by means of excerpts from other reviewer presentations below. ∗ ∗ ∗ This chapter is organized in four sections, dealing with the Judgement subtypes. Section 6.1 focuses on Capacity and explores how the reviewers are portrayed in terms of sensorial, cognitive and communicative capabilities. Section 6.2 deals with Normality and captures how the reviewers describe themselves as ordinary people in their personal lives. Section 6.3 attends to Tenacity and shows the reviewers as tenacious individuals, both as reviewers and in their personal lives, including their commitment to the products they are reviewing. In Sect. 6.4, we explore Propriety and show how the reviewers are portrayed as morally virtuous. To conclude the chapter, Sect. 6.5 summarizes how reviewer identities are portrayed in the self-presentations and what these portrayals of reviewer identities tell us about the imagined addressee.

6.1

Capacity

As illustrated by Lisa Perrotti-Brown’s self-presentation above, Capacity is in focus when the reviewers present themselves. The self-presentations portray high levels of sensorial, cognitive and communicative capability, which gives them credibility in their endeavour to review wine, perfume or chocolate. As explained in Chapter 3, being a reviewer of experiential luxury requires excellent sensory discernment and the ability to perceive a composite perceptual experience. This kind of sensory talent is introduced

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in the self-presentation of perfume reviewer Steve in (6.1). He invokes his sharp perceptiveness by comparing his sense of smell to that of a hound: (6.1)

Just an ordinary guy with the nose of a beagle […] To me, scents and smells are very visual. (The scented hound)

The comparison to a beagle provokes the idea that Steve has superhuman olfactory capacities. In addition, referring to smells as visual is suggestive of synaesthetic conflation of the senses of smell and vision. One way to interpret Steve’s self-presentation is that it implies that his capacity to identify scents is equal to the ability of most humans to distinguish colour shades. While explicit references to sensorial capacity are scarce in our dataset, the reviewers assert their capacity in other ways. For example, in (6.2) we can deduce that perfume reviewer Robin Krug is able to identify a number of specific perfume types, which she either loves, is very fond of, not so fond of or doesn’t care for: (6.2)

I love woods, incense, citrus, florals, spices, vetiver, and green notes. I am very fond of chypre perfumes, or anything with oakmoss for that matter. I am not so fond of patchouli or amber, and with a few exceptions, I don’t care for very “clean” perfumes, marine fragrances, or very sweet gourmand-dessert type perfumes. (Now Smell This)

This excerpt implicitly lets us understand that Robin Krug is well versed regarding perfume scent families and can adequately label these. The passage thus indicates that she has sensory capacity, even if she describes her qualifications as non-existent in the same self-presentation, as shown in (6.3) below: (6.3)

If you are wondering what qualifications I have for writing this blog, the answer is simple: none. (Now Smell This)

We also find assessments of the reviewers’ sensory capabilities and their field-specific knowledge merged in references to formal training and education by authoritative experts and institutions, as in example (6.4) about perfume reviewer Victoria Frolova:

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(6.4)

professionally trained perfumer and fragrance industry analyst […] I chose to […] acquire perfumery training at International Flavors & Fragrances. Inspired by my mentor, perfumer Sophia Grojsman. (Bois de Jasmin)

In this excerpt, Victoria Frolova asserts that she is professionally trained, referring to a renowned institution headed by legendary perfume nose Sophia Grojsman. By means of these appeals to authority in the field, we can deduce that Victoria Frolova must have excellent capacities in terms of sensory perspicacity as well as field-related knowledge, i.e. what we refer to as cognitive capacity. In example (6.5), the chocolate reviewer Dom Ramsey is presented as an authority himself in his roles as a judge and board member for renowned institutions: (6.5)

Editor Dom Ramsey is a regular judge at the International Chocolate Awards and Academy of Chocolate Awards and a board member of the Guild Of Fine Chocolate. (Chocablog)

Other self-presentations include information about international assignments alongside different awards, for instance wine reviewer Anthony Mueller, perfume reviewer Pia Long and chocolate reviewer Lee Mc Coy in (6.6–6.8): (6.6)

(6.7)

(6.8)

Mueller is an experienced wine judge, presenter and educator. He has judged wine competitions in California, Washington, Nevada and Arizona and has lectured at wine events across the US. (Robert Parker Wine Advocate) She won the first David Williams Memorial Award for her work on the IFEAT Diploma in Aroma Trade Studies, is a Council member of the British Society of Perfumers and has been nominated for the Jasmine Award twice. (Basenotes) [I] am/have been both a judge for the Academy of Chocolate Awards and The International Chocolate Awards. (Chocolatiers)

The self-presentations were found to include mentions of extraordinary capacity as reviewers. The following self-presentations of Jancis Robinson

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in (6.9) and Martin Christy in (6.10) invoke the idea that they stand out from the rest: (6.9) (6.10)

In 1984 she was the first person outside the wine trade to pass the rigorous Master of Wine exams. (Jancis Robinson) Martin Christy is one of the world’s foremost experts on chocolate tasting and is a leading voice in the fine chocolate industry. (Seventy%)

Jancis Robinson’s self-presentation tells us that she was the first of her class to accomplish the achievement as non-trade Master of Wine. This information makes Jancis Robinson stand out as a reviewer. Similarly, chocolate reviewer Martin Christy is described as being a world-class chocolate expert and a leading voice, which positions him as exceptional compared to others. Extraordinarily high-status awards are mentioned by Robert Parker and Jancis Robinson in the following excerpts: (6.11)

(6.12)

On March 29, 1999, President Jacques Chirac signed a decree authorizing Robert M. Parker, Jr. to be a Chevalier dans l’Ordre de la Légion d’Honneur. He was decorated directly by President Jacques Chirac at a ceremony at the Elysée Palace on June 22, 1999. (Robert Parker Wine Advocate) in 2003 she was awarded an OBE by Her Majesty the Queen, on whose cellar she now advises. In one week in April 2016 she was presented with France’s Officier du Mérite Agricole, the German VDP’s highest honour and, in the US, her fourth James Beard Award. (Jancis Robinson)

Although no specific capacities are overtly stated in (6.11) and (6.12), it appears reasonable to assume that these awards would only be attributed to highly qualified experts with composite skills in the field. The self-presentations also refer to diplomas issued by the British Wine and Spirit Education Trust, which is illustrated by the presentations of the wine reviewers Lisa Perrotti-Brown in the introductory example of this chapter and Tamlyn Currin in (6.13): (6.13)

She shone in the WSET Diploma exams. (Jancis Robinson)

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Another diploma that is referenced in the wine reviewers’ selfpresentations is the Master of Wine, which is a formal education for sommeliers. In (6.14) for instance, Julia Harding is asserted to have passed this allegedly highly challenging exam: (6.14)

As a relatively recent top pass in the punishing Master of Wine exams (she took them in 2003 and passed first time with flying colours, and gained a distinction for her dissertation in 2004). (Jancis Robinson)

Perfume and chocolate reviewers mention similar merits, for instance Kevin S. in (6.15), Jasmine in (6.16) and Annmarie Kostyk in (6.17): (6.15)

(6.16) (6.17)

As a young adult, Kevin continued his perfume studies at the University of Bullocks Wilshire in Los Angeles. (Now Smell This) She has a certificate in Chocolate making from Ecole Chocolat. (Chocolate Codex) I graduated with honors earning a Professional Chocolatier Certificate granted by the Professional School of Chocolate Arts Ecole Chocolat in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. (Chocolatiers)

All of these excerpts offer illustrations of different types of formal education, which underscore the reviewers’ capacity to assess the experiential target product. As mentioned in Chapter 3, the experiential luxury products explored here are complicated by the fact that it is extremely difficult to describe them in words. Being able to communicate the composite perception of experiential luxury is, therefore, a skill that reviewers need to master, and this communicative capacity is highlighted in the self-presentations by the fact that the reviewers were found to introduce themselves as writers, report on their writing awards and reiterate how others have appraised their capacity as writers. For example, in (6.18), perfume reviewer Victoria Frolova presents herself as a writer, and in (6.19), Jancis Robinson sees herself first and foremost as a wine writer:

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a writer, professionally trained perfumer and fragrance industry analyst. (Bois de Jasmin) Jancis views herself as a wine writer rather than a wine critic. (Jancis Robinson)

One way that the reviewers can implicitly promote their communicative capacity is thus to identify themselves as writers rather than reviewers or critics. Examples (6.20) about wine reviewer Jeff Jenssen and (6.21) about perfume reviewer Suzy Nightingale give further illustrations of this phenomenon: (6.20) (6.21)

Jenssen is a spirits, wine, food and travel writer. (Wine Enthusiast) A freelance fragrance and beauty writer. (Basenotes)

In addition to such labelling of the activity, the reviewers offer evidence of their capacity by way of mentioning prestigious media outlets where they have contributed, as wine reviewer Jancis Robinson in (6.22), perfume reviewer Suzy Nightingale in (6.23) and chocolate reviewer Mark Christian in (6.24): (6.22)

(6.23)

(6.24)

She writes […] weekly for the Financial Times, and bimonthly for a column that is syndicated around the world. (Jancis Robinson) Suzy divides her time between being Senior Writer for The Perfume Society’s magazine, The Scented Letter; […] trendforecasting for Stylus and writing a monthly column for Esprit. (Basenotes) Since then he has appeared on radio & TV, in magazine & newspaper interviews, spoken at conferences & shows such as the Northwest Chocolate Festival, & consulted for various projects including the World Bank’s COCOA-RAAN initiative in Nicaragua. (C-spot)

Another way to assert communicative capacity is actualized in the reviewers’ references to their published books, as in (6.25) where another extraordinarily famous wine critic is mentioned as the co-author of wine reviewer Jancis Robinson:

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(6.25)

She is editor of The Oxford Companion to Wine, co-author with Hugh Johnson of The world Atlas of Wine and coauthor of Wine Grapes – A complete guide to 1,368 vine varieties, including their origins and flavours, each of these books recognised as a standard reference worldwide. (Jancis Robinson)

The fact that Jancis Robinson’s books have been published by well-known publishing houses such as Mitchell Beazley and Penguin (although this is left unarticulated) and that the wine legend Hugh Johnson has chosen to collaborate with her positions Jancis Robinson as an appreciated, presumably highly skilled writer. In (6.26) below, wine reviewer Mike DeSimone explicitly mentions the publishing house responsible for the publication of his most recent book: (6.26)

Most recently he co-authored the book Wines of the Southern Hemisphere (Sterling Epicure…). (Wine Enthusiast)

Another way in which the reviewers assert their communicative capacity is to refer to prestigious prizes they have been awarded for their writing. For instance, in (6.27) wine reviewer Julia Harding and in (6.28) perfume reviewer Elena Vosnaki offer the following descriptions: (6.27) (6.28)

In 2009 she won a Special Award in the Louis Roederer International Wine Writers’ Awards. (Jancis Robinson) Her writing was recognized at the Fifi Awards for Editorial Excellence in 2006. (Fragrantica)

The following instances feature overtly articulated pronouncements on the reviewers’ communicative capacity. In (6.29), wine reviewer Mark Squires refers to reputable publications that have mentioned his reviews, in (6.30) perfume reviewer Victoria Frolova attributes direct quotes from widely trusted sources concerning her communicative capacity, and in (6.31) chocolate reviewer Lee McCoy mentions being featured in a radio show as well as reputable British newspapers:

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[his blog] got some nice reviews, being mentioned in publications ranging from the New York Times to the Philadelphia Inquirer, Business Week to Food & Wine. (Robert Parker Wine Advocate) “Our senses are teased by Victoria’s tantalizing description of fragrance and food,” The Huffington Post “She muses on the inadequacy of the language commonly used to describe perfume, while expanding it considerably with her own words and thoughts,” The Financial Times “Smart blog,” The Times (Bois de Jasmin) I’m lucky enough to have been featured in The Times, The Telegraph, and Steve Wright’s Radio 2 Show for my love of chocolate. (Chocolatiers)

Listing communicative merits thus contributes to the identity of these reviewers as having the cognitive, perceptual and communicative capacities needed in order to be authoritative and credible voices in the field of experiential luxury. By exploring the self-presentations through the lens of Capacity, we have found that the reviewers offer strong argumentation to underscore their credibility. They portray themselves as having highly perceptive sensory capabilities in order to be able to perceive and assess the products, excellent cognitive capabilities in terms of having field-specific background knowledge about for instance chemistry, grape varieties and growing conditions, and brilliant communicative abilities in being able to write in such a way that publishers want to publish, in the anticipation that there is an audience eager to read.

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6.2

Normality

A character trait besides Capacity that emanates from the analysis of the reviewers’ self-presentations is their ordinariness as people in their personal lives, a type of characteristic that we capture by means of the subcategory of Normality. They are not exclusive people, they have mainstream taste preferences, they are family people who live in ordinary circumstances in ordinary places, and as many other people, they generally find pleasure in culture as well as nature. The reviewers’ self-presentations include inscribed as well as invoked instances of Normality. While perfume reviewer Steve explicitly positions himself as “just an ordinary guy” as we saw in (6.1) above, Normality is also invoked, thus leaving it up to the addressees to infer Normality based on the information that the reviewer provides. In (6.32), the perfume reviewer Grant Osborne makes a point of telling his addressees how very ordinary he is by giving the following response to a staged questionnaire question regarding his food preferences: (6.32)

All the major food groups: Haribo, Tea, Bacon and Marmite. (Basenotes)

By listing these food preferences and humorously referring to them as “major food groups”, Grant Osborne characterizes himself as a locally anchored British person with clichéd British taste preferences, which confirms his ordinariness. We have interpreted this reference to his food preferences as a way of invoking Normality. The reviewers give us different kinds of information about themselves, which, despite their zealous engagement with experiential luxury, portrays them as ordinary people without acculturation or luxuriant budgets. For instance, wine reviewer Jancis Robinson describes her childhood and family relation as follows: (6.33)

After a virtually wine-free childhood and teenage years in a village of 46 people in northern Cumbria just south of the Scottish border… I’m a Cumbrian, married to a saintly Mancunian (a United fanatic since birth). (Jancis Robinson)

Similar descriptions are found in wine reviewer Tim Fish’s and perfume reviewer Robin Krug’s self-presentations:

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Fish grew up in small-town Indiana, helping his dad at the grill with steaks cut by his butcher grandfather and taking cooking lessons from his mom. (Wine Spectator) I am an avid perfume fan living in a small town in Pennsylvania, far from the nearest perfume store. (Now Smell This)

In (6.34), Tim Fish refers to a background in “small-town Indiana”, which, in combination with the specific mentioning of his grandfather as a workman and his mother as doing the family cooking, seemingly positions him as an ordinary person brought up in mainstream conditions. Similarly in (6.35), Robin Krug chooses to specifically mention that the town where she lives is small and far away from a perfume store. The presentation gives a humble impression of her everyday existence. The self-presentations also invoke the idea of having a limited spending budget for luxury consumption. When accounting for their first fragrance, the perfume reviewers mention unprestigious brands, as for instance perfume reviewers Elisa Gabbert in (6.36) and Jillie H in (6.37): (6.36) (6.37)

My first brush with perfume greatness came in the form of a bottle of White Linen lotion. (Bois de Jasmin) As soon as I got pocket money, I would save to buy cheap scent at Woolworth’s and ended up with a shoe box full of my precious possessions, which I would take out each day and sniff. (Bois de Jasmin)

As clarified in the excerpts above, the reviewers’ first meeting with the experiential luxury products they now review is not associated with selfevident access to an affluent lifestyle. In (6.36), even if White Linen is a brand perfume from Estée Lauder, Elisa Gabbert explains that she only had access to the lotion, which is generally cheaper than the perfume, and in (6.37) Jillie H. clarifies that her first fragrances were cheap scents from Woolworths, which she was only able to buy because she saved her pocket money. These descriptions portray the reviewers as having grown up in ordinary conditions, with limited luxury spending resources, a characteristic that we take to be associated with a mainstream life.

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The self-presentations portray the reviewers as family people. Perfume reviewer Grant Osborne describes himself in (6.38) as having two children, hence as being a family man. (6.38)

Grant has two children. (Basenotes)

Similarly, wine reviewer Luis Guitiérrez and perfume reviewer Raluca Kirschner offer the following descriptions of their family situations in (6.39 and 6.40): (6.39) (6.40)

He lives in the Spanish capital with his British-Irish-Italian wife and their three children. (Robert Parker Wine Advocate) She has a wonderful little daughter and enjoys family life. (Fragrantica)

The perfume reviewer Steve suggests a slightly different kind of family constellation. His two dogs, Dickie and Laika, are presented as the reviewer’s children, as illustrated in the following excerpt: (6.41)

Dickie was my first born; We even had Dickie and Daddy time which usually consisted of just the two of us…Laika…ruled the house from minute one; and she too was my baby. (The Scented hound)

Robert Parker’s self-presentation includes basset hounds and bulldogs besides his wife and daughter, and as exemplified in the introduction to this chapter, Lisa Perrotti-Brown has a border collie together with her British husband and two young daughters. Among their interests and hobbies, the reviewers mention cultural activities, such as literature, film, music and art as well as nature and health, which appear to us as mainstream interests. The reviewers also declare that they love reading and watching movies, offering specific preferences such as science fiction, historical novels or horror movies. Alternatively, they express that reading is something they would want to do if they had time. The examples below from perfume reviewers Erin T. in (6.42) and Persolaise in (6.43) illustrate these instances:

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her first love, reading: while working as a librarian… (Now Smell This) Movies. People watching. Moaning about not having enough time to read. (Basenotes)

In addition to the fondness for reading and watching movies, the reviewers mention preferences for other activities or places, as in (6.44), which presents perfume reviewer Laurin Taylor: (6.44)

She loves dogs, David Bowie, Angela Carter’s Fairytales and quiet places. (Basenotes)

An interest that emerges in Laurin Taylor’s self-presentation is music, in the mentioning of David Bowie. Music appears in various forms in the self-presentations, and the music mentioned is anything from “old music” to “metal and hard rock music”. In (6.45) and (6.46) below, a fondness for music is coupled with an interest in sports and outdoor activities in wine reviewers James Molesworth’s and Gillian Sciaretta’s self-presentations: (6.45) (6.46)

he’s usually listening to his vinyl collection or hitting the gym. (Wine Spectator) She enjoys traveling, cooking, playing drums and hiking. (Wine Spectator)

The references to “hitting the gym” and “hiking” are indicative of a physically active, healthy lifestyle. This kind of healthiness emerges from other self-presentations where a range of sports and outdoor activities are mentioned, such as “fitness”, “martial arts”, swimming”, “ice-hockey”, “fly-fishing”, “football (soccer)”, “hiking with her dog in the woods”, “spending many hours at the barn with my horse” and “riding his motorcycle”. The reviewers also refer to an interest in baking or cooking, based on ingredients they have grown themselves in their garden, which suggests knowledge of gardening and ecological awareness of the growing conditions of plants. We find reviewers who profess to a “vegan lifestyle” and describe themselves as “eating carrots”, which could possibly be interpreted as being health-conscious.

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By examining the self-presentations from the perspective of the judgement category of Normality, we have found that the reviewers portray themselves as ordinary people in their personal lives. The reviewers’ ordinariness or normality can be summarized as “positive ordinariness”. While real-life ordinariness can also involve negative elements, the reviewers appear to live completely harmonious and healthy ordinary lives, which can also implicitly connect the products to such good lives.

6.3

Tenacity

In addition to having high capacity as a reviewer while simultaneously being ordinary as a person, our analysis of the self-presentations shows that it appears to be of importance to portray oneself as having long-term engagement and commitment. We understand tenacity to be a characteristic that generally inspires credibility, which makes it important for the reviewers to find ways of demonstrating this trait. Our analysis of the self-representations through the lens of Tenacity makes it clear that being a reviewer is not a temporary impulse, but a long-term engagement. This type of Judgement is implied in mentions of the extent of the reviewer’s reviewing activity, which is illustrated in (6.47) below from the chocolate reviewer Lee McCoy: (6.47)

Having reviewed over 1,000 bars of chocolate, hot chocolate and various other products made from the cocoa bean. (Chocolatier)

Similarly, Robert Parker expresses tenacity in several ways in his selfpresentation in (6.48), by mentioning how many years The Wine Advocate has existed, how the size of the readership has increased and how many countries the review site reaches: (6.48)

The initial number of charter subscribers in August, 1978, was less than 600. Thirty-five years later, The Wine Advocate has over 50,000 subscribers, in every state in the United States, and in over 37 foreign countries. Today, virtually every knowledgeable observer agrees that The Wine Advocate exerts the most significant influence on the serious wine consumer’s buying habits and trends not only in America,

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but in France, England, Switzerland, Japan, Taiwan, Singapore, Russia, Mexico, Brazil, and China. (Robert Parker Wine Advocate) Parker’s self-presentation invokes a tenacious reviewer whose perseverance in the reviewing capacity has resulted in wide-spread acknowledgement. Further examples of Tenacity in the reviewer role are found in the selfpresentations of wine reviewers Susan Kostrzewa in (6.49) and Roger Voss in (6.50) below: (6.49) (6.50)

[Susan Kostrzewa] has written and edited wine, food and travel stories for the past 14 years. (Wine Enthusiast) Roger Voss a is veteran wine and food author, and a journalist and has been writing about wine and food for the past 25 years. (Wine Enthusiast)

Robin Krug addresses her perseverance in her role as perfume reviewer in a humorous way. (6.51)

I waste massive amounts of time online, mostly reading other people’s blogs. (Now Smell This)

While the reference to “waste” in (6.51) suggests self-distance, Tenacity is still invoked in the sense that she devotes “massive amounts of time” to the endeavour of keeping up to date with the world of perfume blogging. The reviewers’ self-presentations include other elements that are suggestive of Tenacity, besides spending plenty of time and energy working with reviewing of experiential luxury. For example, it is common knowledge that the education needed in order to become a qualified lawyer is both long and intellectually demanding. Therefore, we can deduce that those that are introduced as lawyers, wine reviewers Robert Parker and Mark Squires, and perfume reviewer Lucia Remigi, are the persevering kind. The following instances from perfume reviewers Naran Zorigt in (6.52) and Victoria Frolova in (6.53) provide further examples of successfully completed academic degrees in business and social sciences: (6.52)

She holds a Master’s Degree in Business Administration. (Fragrantica)

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(6.53)

After pursuing my graduate degree in political science. (Bois de Jasmin)

In addition to degrees in law, economics and political science, the selfpresentations include references to academic degrees in the humanities, as illustrated in the following examples: (6.54) (6.55) (6.56)

Laube grew up in Anaheim, Calif., and majored in history at San Diego State University. (Wine Spectator) Jola is a graduate of the film studies department at Jagiellonian University in Krakow. (Bois de Jasmin) He is a graduate of the Cooper Union in New York City where he studied fine art. (Fragrantica)

As indicated in (6.54–6.56) above, wine reviewer James Laube and perfume reviewers Jolanta C. and John Biebel have all chosen to include references to completed humanities degrees in their self-presentations. Other reviewers describe completed studies in journalism. This is exemplified by the self-presentations of wine reviewers Chris Mercer in (6.57) and Tim Fish in (6.58) below. (6.57) (6.58)

After a Masters in journalism in 2004. (Decanter) Tim Fish earned a degree in journalism from Western Kentucky University. (Wine Spectator)

There are reviewers that have been even more tenacious since they have completed a PhD, which is exemplified in (6.59)–(6.61): (6.59) (6.60) (6.61)

Rouu is a financial analyst who holds a PhD in Economics. (Fragrantica 13) Daisy Bow recently completed her doctoral degree in French Literature from New York University. (Bois de Jasmin) He holds a PhD in German Literature and teaches at a few colleges in New York. (Fragrantica)

The perfume reviewers Rouu Abd El-Latif, Daisy Bow and Zoran Cerar are three reviewers among others portrayed as having completed doctoral

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degrees. Rouu Abd El-Latif has a PhD in economics, while Daisy Bow and Zoran Cerar hold doctoral degrees in languages and literature. By examining the self-presentations from the perspective of the Judgement subcategory of Tenacity, we have found that the reviewers have long-term engagement in their reviewing activity. Their tenacity is also noticeable in that they portray themselves as having completed an extensive academic education. Tenacity is invoked by means of factual renditions in the self-presentations, leaving it up to the addressees to deduce that being a successful reviewer is an endeavour that takes a long time and requires tenacity in the same way as academic degrees. The reviewers thus appear as generally well-educated and hard-working people. We also found that the reviewers express their personal commitment to the products they are reviewing, thereby invoking perseverance in their role as consumers. We understand this dimension of Tenacity to be invoked in the reviewers’ articulations of the passion they have for the products they are reviewing, which is illustrated in (6.62–6.67) below from the self-presentations of wine reviewers Jancis Robinson and Stephan Reinhardt, perfume reviewers Raluca Kirschner and Miguel Matos, and chocolate reviewers Annmarie Kostyk and Chris, respectively: (6.62) (6.63)

(6.64) (6.65) (6.66) (6.67)

She loves and lives for wine in all its glorious diversity. (Jancis Robinsons) Stephan has a passion for Riesling, Port and Pinot Noir and all the people who craft serious and authentic wines. (Robert Parker Wine Advocate) Her devotion to the art of perfume led Raluca to the Fragrantica team. (Fragrantica) Miguel is a Portuguese journalist obsessed with art and perfume. (Fragrantica) I am a huge foodie and my passion is chocolate. (Chocolatiers) Chris has always enjoyed talking about chocolate as much as he loves eating it. (Chocolate Codex)

The reviewers love, live for, have a passion for, are devoted to and obsessed with the product on a personal level, i.e. they are strongly committed to and personally invested in the product they are reviewing.

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We find reviewers confirming their long-standing interest in the products they are reviewing by being explicit about the age when their passion was sparked, as exemplified by Sophie Normand, Daisy Bow and Jillie H. in (6.68–6.70): (6.68) (6.69) (6.70)

Sophie Normand has always been a perfume enthusiast, ever since she was 13. (Fragrantica) Her love affair with perfume began with Dune at the tender age of 14. She has smelled great ever since. (Bois de Jasmin) I think I was born a perfumista! I toddled around smelling flowers and shrubs in the garden before I was two, and progressed to climbing up onto relatives’ dressing-tables to douse myself in their perfume. (Bois de Jasmin)

The reviewers also relate their long-standing interest in the product they review with their parents or grandparents. In (6.71) and (6.72) below, the perfume reviewers Yi Shang and Victoria Frolova describe their relation to perfume as springing from scented childhood experiences: (6.71)

(6.72)

Her interest in fragrance began at a young age when she became curious about her mum’s perfume while growing up in China. (Fragrantica) It is my fantasy tribute to one of my earliest scent memories: the heady aroma of jasmine vines wrapped around the wooden fence in my grandparents’ garden. (Bois de Jasmin)

Furthermore, the self-presentations include descriptions of how the reviewers came to take an interest in the product they are reviewing. Robert Parker, for instance, was acquainted with wine serendipitously as a young adult, during a trip to France, and his first acquaintance with wine is blended with his lifelong love and long-term wife, as rendered in (6.73): (6.73)

The origins of The Wine Advocate can be traced back to as far as 1967, when Robert M. Parker Jr. took a brief break from American college life to make his first trip to France on the heels of a young lady friend who was studying in Alsace. That lady was soon to become Mrs. Patricia Parker and remains

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so to this day. Apart from getting the girl, Parker had discovered wine during this first trip to France and developed a taste for it, which quickly turned into an obsession. (Robert Parker Wine Advocate) Wine reviewer Monika Larner describes her experience and acculturation with the product as grounded in her father’s passion for wine, as illustrated in (6.74), and wine reviewer James Molesworth presents a similar upbringing in (6.75): (6.74)

(6.75)

Her father fell in love with wine as a film student in Paris and Monica grew up in a household that celebrated a deep appreciation for the culture of wine. Road trips were to Napa and Sonoma and a good portion of the family kitchen was walled off to house her father’s cellar, after her mother begrudgingly surrendered the pantry space. (Robert Parker Wine Advocate) A native New Yorker, Molesworth was raised by parents who loved wine and entertained often. (Wine Spectator)

A somewhat different personal commitment to wine is offered by wine reviewer Aleks Zevecic: (6.76)

He was born and raised in Belgrade, Serbia, where his family table was home to traditional pairings of Montenegrin Vranac wine and Serbian cuisine. Wine has long been part of his family heritage; before World War II, his great-grandfather was a winemaker in northern Serbia’s Vojvodina region. (Wine Spectator)

We understand from Zevecic’s presentation that he has a long-standing commitment not only to wine consumption, but also to wine production. What all of these self-presentations have in common is that they indicate a close personal engagement with the product. We find the reviewers’ intimate personal attachment to the products to be conflated with the description of their family relationships, as in the self-presentations of wine reviewers Jancis Robinson in (6.77) and Gillian Sciaretta in (6.78).

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(6.77) (6.78)

We have three exceptional children vintage-dated 1982, 1984 and 1991. (Jancis Robinson) She…lives in Manhattan with her husband, Frank, and their three cats, Pinot, Brie and Croque Monsieur. (Wine Spectator)

Jancis Robinson links the birth-year of her children to the reviewed product by means of the expression “vintage-dated”. This conflation of the product and family members recurs in Gillian Sciaretta’s selfpresentation, where the names of her cats merge wine and food with family members. The self-presentations thus emphasize a personal commitment to the products. This passionate commitment is given as the reason for becoming a reviewer in the self-presentations of wine reviewer Anthony Mueller in (6.79) and chocolate reviewer Jasmine in (6.80): (6.79)

(6.80)

In 2019, he joined Robert Parker Wine Advocate as a reviewer, excited to share his passion for identifying the world’s best wines and presenting them to consumers. (Robert Parker Wine Advocate) Jasmine co-founded Chocolate Codex as a way to share her enthusiasm for chocolate. (Chocolate Codex)

In the excerpts above, Anthony Mueller and Jasmine Lukuku are described as having chosen to become reviewers as a way to share their personal passion so that others can enjoy the experience too. These instances show not only their personal commitment to the products, but also their benevolence in the sense that they want to share their passion and enthusiasm so that others get the opportunity to experience a similar relationship with the product. In our explorations of Tenacity in the self-presentations, we have found that the reviewers portray themselves as tenacious reviewers with longterm engagement in the role as reviewer. Besides describing how they spend plenty of time and energy working with reviewing of experiential luxury, the self-presentations tell the addressees that the reviewers have completed university degrees before becoming reviewers. We assume that such mentioning of prior education can contribute to portraying

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the reviewers as tenacious persons, i.e. as people with grit more generally. However, the reviewers’ consumer passion for the experiential luxury product they review is personal and goes beyond their professional activity. The reviewers’ personal attachment to the products and their desire to help others experience the same passion can be interpreted as an articulation of benevolence, which could be seen as related to Propriety under Social sanction.

6.4

Propriety

In the previous sections, we have seen how the self-presentations project the reviewers as socially esteemed by means of judgements positioning them as having a high level of capacity and tenacity and as being personally committed to the products that they review. At the same time, they are ordinary people in their personal lives. In this section, we instead focus on Propriety to show how the self-presentations portray the reviewers as morally unimpeachable by mentioning financial impartiality, environmental conscientiousness and charity work. Information regarding the reviewers’ financial impartiality is found in manifestos, as in the presentation of Chocablog: “we always endeavour to publish completely unbiased reviews and never accept payment for any review”. However, the reviewers’ self-presentations also comment on their integrity, which is exemplified in (6.81) below about perfume reviewer Victoria Frolova: (6.81)

Bois de Jasmin is a personal blog developed and written by me, Victoria Frolova. I am not paid to recommend anything by anyone and I only write about products that I have sampled myself. I do not write about fragrance brands with which I have been involved as part of my professional career. I do not accept any form of paid topic insertions, sponsored posts, payment for link insertion, posts or product mentions. I use Google AdSense, a third-party keyword based ad system, which reacts automatically to the content on the site. If the sample came from the manufacturer or its PR agency, the source is identified in the review. (Bois de Jasmin)

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As the example indicates, Victoria Frolova expresses her independence with considerable emphasis, thus promoting her integrity as reviewer. A slightly more lenient position with respect to producers is articulated by perfume reviewer Steve in the next excerpt: (6.82)

When reviewing perfumes, especially in the niche arena, I know how difficult it can be to launch and sustain a small brand. Therefore, I try to stay away from negative reviews. If a perfume doesn’t work for me, I just don’t write about it. (The Scented Hound)

Steve’s description implies that he is unbiased in his positive reviews, while he avoids negative reviews due to a perceived responsibility for the possible consequences that a negative review from him might have on consumer choices. The reviewers also express environmental conscientiousness, as exemplified in the self-presentations about wine reviewer Aleks Zecevic: (6.83)

An avid proponent of sustainable, organic and biodynamic agriculture. (Wine Spectator)

In his self-presentation in (6.83), Aleks Zecevic expresses a responsible predisposition towards wine production methods that are conceivably less harmful for the land where the wine is grown as well as for those who work directly with the grapes. This kind of information about environmental sustainability is found in other places on the websites too, as we took note of in our analysis of the manifestos. Besides proclamations about financial independence and environmental conscientiousness, the self-presentations include descriptions of other activities that contribute to characterizing the reviewers as morally virtuous. The reviewers mention charity work, which they do as part of their reviewing activity or as a part-time job in addition to the reviewing activity. In (6.84), wine reviewer Jancis Robinson lets us know that the wine events she conducts have some kind of association with the initiative Room to Read, which is a worldwide non-profit organization working to promote children’s and particularly girls’ literacy. The website of Room to Read is specifically linked to Jancis Robinson’s self-presentation, so that the addressees can read more about this charity organization.

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She travels all over the world to conduct wine events – often for the global literacy initiative Room to Read – and act as a wine judge. (Jancis Robinson)

In a similarly charitable vein, perfume reviewer Angela S. gives the following description of her professional activity alongside reviewing perfume: (6.85)

She works part-time writing grants for an organization dedicated to preventing the spread of HIV. (Now Smell This)

Wine reviewer Amy Wislocki is also described as having been engaged in charity work: (6.86)

After six months in Bosnia (a sabbatical working as a volunteer in an orphanage in Sarajevo). (Decanter)

Another example of the reviewers’ charitable nature is found in perfume reviewer Steve’s self-presentation. Steve tells us that his dog Dickie was a stray dog, which would have gone to the dog pound if Steve and his partner had not taken care of him. (6.87)

Dickie was my first born. He was found by a friend wandering by himself in the Georgia countryside and was about as big as my hand. Instead of going to the pound, he ended up at our house. (The Scented Hound)

In this self-presentation, Steve thus voices his willingness to invite into his home an animal that may have been mistreated earlier in life and does not have a licensed owner. As can be seen in this section, the reviewers include in their self-presentations proclamations related to Social sanction. The selfpresentations portray the reviewers as financially independent from producers and sellers and with engagement in organic farming and charitable activities. The inclusion of such information highlights their morality, which appears to add to their reliability as reviewers.

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6.5 Conclusions About Judgement in Reviewer Self-Presentations In this chapter, we have focused on how the reviewers introduce themselves in their individual self-presentations on the websites. By studying the texts from the perspective of the subcategory of Social esteem under Judgement, we found that the reviewers are ascribed excellent capacities as regards field-specific knowledge of the products they review. They have a high degree of sensory capabilities to assess the products, cognitive insights in terms of background knowledge and communicative abilities to capture the perception of wine, perfume or chocolate in words. They thus stand out as highly capable reviewers of experiential luxury. In their personal lives, they appear to be harmonious and healthy, with ordinary families including children and pets, devoting their spare time to mainstream hobbies and interests. The self-presentations portray the reviewers as tenacious, with long-term experience as reviewers as well as in their activity on the websites, and as having completed extensive academic educations; hence, the reviewers appear as hard working and well educated. Furthermore, the self-presentations portray the reviewers as personally committed to the experiential luxury products they review on the websites. The reviewers are described as having a true consumer passion for wine, perfume or chocolate, which is personal and goes beyond their reviewer activity. This gives them credibility as reviewers and underscores the goodwill of their reviewing activity. From the perspective of the subcategory of Propriety under Social sanction, we have shown how the reviewers appear morally virtuous in their self-presentations. The self-presentations display the reviewers as financially independent from producers and sellers, with an interest in organic farming as well as engagement in charity activities. By highlighting such moral virtues, the reviewers appear particularly reliable, responsible and benevolent. After this summary of our analysis of the self-presentations, we now reflect on what the construction of the reviewer identities tells us about the imagined addressee. Since we assume that the descriptions of the reviewers’ excellent capacities give them credibility as reviewers, one trait of the addressee’s characteristics and behaviour that we deduce from our analysis is deference for authorities in the fields of wine, perfume or chocolate, as regards both sensory capabilities to perceive and assess the products and cognitive capabilities of having field-specific background knowledge. This trait corresponds with the findings of Chapter 5,

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where we remarked on the imagined addressee’s lack of the field-specific competencies needed in order to adequately appraise the products. The portrayals of the reviewers as ordinary people in their personal lives provide further support for our reconstruction of the imagined addressee’s characteristics and behaviour. The self-presentations thereby project onto the addressee a shared identity as ordinary people, perhaps with families including children and pets, and mainstream hobbies and interests, taking care to live a healthy life. Ordinariness thus appears as a naturalized character trait of the reviewer–addressee community. The addressee’s ordinariness previously emerged as a result in Chapter 5, where we took note of the tendency to think and act like most other people. The proclamations of the self-presentations that portray the reviewers as financially independent from producers and sellers project onto the imagined addressee the trait of being critical and not easily convinced to believe in everything that is read online. This trait agrees with our findings in Chapter 5, where we characterized the addressee as a critical reader who needs to be persuaded in order to trust the reviewers’ recommendations. However, we take the descriptions of the reviewers as having completed long-term academic educations to project the imagined addressee as similarly well educated, which contributes a characteristic of the addressee that was not noted in Chapter 5. The reviewers’ declarations about engagement in organic farming and charitable activities resonate with an imagined addressee with the same moral values as the reviewers. The addressee wants to appear charitable and mindful of sustainability issues. The reviewers’ descriptions of themselves as health-conscious moreover project the addressee as embracing healthiness as an important value. This societal engagement and healthiness may relieve some of the consumption guilt that we took note of in Chapter 5. The descriptions of the reviewers as having a true consumer passion suggest that a goal of the imagined addressee’s luxury consumption is to experience equal passion. Strong feelings of happiness associated with wine, perfume or chocolate were also noted in the results of Chapter 5. The reviewers’ commitment and their long-term passion convince the imagined addressee that it is possible to be tenacious, continuously learn more about the products and thereby optimize consumption skills. We deduce from these reviewer presentations that the goal of the addressee is

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to optimize their consumption experience by being tenacious in the acquisition of consumer skills. This emerges as a luxury consumption goal that can be reached for consumers that are ordinary in their everyday lives. We assume that the descriptions of the reviewers’ communicative abilities, underscored by the fact that book publishers, magazines and the websites have given the reviewers the dutiful mission to write about their expert areas, enhance their credibility, since this is a capacity that the imagined addressee esteems. These descriptions of the reviewers’ communicative capacity guarantee entertaining reviews, and a goal of the addressee’s engagement with the online reviewer discourse is thus to be entertained. In Chapter 5, we also concluded that the imagined addressee wants to be amused. In this chapter, we have used the Appraisal system’s Attitude category of Judgement to explore how the reviewers’ self-presentations position the imagined addressee in terms of characteristics and behaviour, values and luxury consumption goals. Based on the results of this analysis, we have extended the image of the addressee that surfaced in the preceding chapter on Attitude in manifestos in terms of the three-fold quest that drives our study. In the next chapter, we turn our attention to the reviews and continue our quest.

References Don, A. (2016). ‘It is hard to mesh all this’: Invoking attitude, persona and argument organisation. Functional Linguistics, 3(9), 1–26. Martin, J. R., & White, P. R. R. 2005. The language of evaluation. Appraisal in English. Palgrave Macmillan. Vasquez, C. (2014). The discourse of online consumer reviews. Bloomsbury.

CHAPTER 7

Involvement in Reviews

In this chapter, we shift our focus to the review texts and continue our quest to lay bare the imagined addressee’s characteristics and behaviour, values and luxury consumption goals. The focus of this chapter is the passages of the review texts that present background knowledge. Such background knowledge can consist in facts about raw ingredients and production techniques or familiarity with names of estates, brands and people responsible for the production process. Discourse semantic features such as technicality and naming are not included in the Appraisal system charted by Martin and White (2005), but are referred to a category labelled Involvement, which is treated as a separate unit of discourse semantics (see Fig. 4.1 in Chapter 4). Lexicogrammatical features with the potential to realize Involvement are for instance proper names, technical lexis, specialized lexis, slang and precise reckonings, such as exact numbers (Martin & White, 2005: 35). Specialized lexis or proper names can be used to signal knowledge emanating from shared membership in a discourse community. Involvement can therefore serve the interpersonal function of including or excluding interlocutors (Martin, 2003: 146). For the purposes of this study, we have used Martin and White’s (2005: 35) proposed list of relevant lexicogrammatical features as resources to alert our attention to potentially relevant instances and found Involvement to primarily occur in fact-based information regarding raw

© The Author(s) 2023 C. Hommerberg and M. Lindgren, Depicting the Consumer of Experiential Luxury, https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-60080-6_7

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ingredients, regions of production, stages of the production process and names of estates, brands and industry professionals. The review below offers an illustration of the data that are analysed in this chapter. The review is written by wine reviewer Julia Harding and is one of the ten reviews retrieved from Jancis Robinson’s wine review website. The review, which assesses an icewine from the Inniskillin estate, is featured in its entirety below. Karl Kaiser, one of Inniskillin’s two founders, first made this in 2002/3. The colour is just from the time in the press. Whole berries. RS 240 g/l. Acidity is lower than in the Vidal and Riesling icewines but still around 8.5 g/l, with some tartaric addition. Beautiful deep rose pink. Lots of red fruit on the nose. Strawberries and cream. Tastes sweeter and simpler than the Riesling and Vidal icewines. Cab Franc less forgiving in this style—has to be a good year to be a good icewine, says winemaker Bruce Nicholson. Surprisingly gentle and less viscous than the Vidal.

Two proper names of people are introduced in this review: Karl Kaiser and Bruce Nicholson. These two industry professionals are referenced by both their first and last names, which indicates that this might be the first time the addressees are confronted with these names, in particular since their professional roles are included: “one of Inniskillin’s two founders” and “winemaker”, respectively. We notice that information is attributed to the winemaker Bruce Nicholson, “Cab Franc less forgiving in this style—has to be a good year to be a good icewine, says winemaker Bruce Nicholson”, which highlights the artisanship of winemaking and its fine-grained intricacy, such as the requisites of different vintages. The review includes precise information about the year that this type of icewine was first made by this estate, “2002/3”. There are no indications regarding how the addressees are expected to interpret this information, which means that there is room for the addressees to co-construct the potential significance of this factual information. The excerpt furthermore includes precise renditions of the sugar content. The abbreviation RS, which stands for Residual Sugar, assumes the addressees’ previous familiarity with the technical lingo of winemaking and the fact that residual sugar is measured in terms of grams per litre. The addressees are not given any clues to interpret the exact information “RS 240 g/l”, which

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means that they are anticipated to be able to contribute their own assessment as to whether this level of sugar content is high, low or average. There is also exact information about the level of acidity of this icewine, which is “around 8.5 g/l”. In the reference to the wine’s acidity level, the review appears to interact with addressees that have considerable prior insight, including experience with icewines based on other grape types and what the normal acidity levels of these wines are, and Riesling and Vidal are similarly introduced without accompanying specifications helping the addressees to understand that these are grape types that commonly form the basis of icewine. The grape type Cabernet Franc, from which this particular icewine was made, is introduced in terms of the slang form “Cab Franc”. The abbreviated slang form confirms the addressor’s and the addressee’s joint membership in a community that is familiar with in-depth knowledge about grape types. We contend that the sample review text makes extensive employment of Involvement resources, which contribute to the construction of the addressees as both already insightful regarding many production-related aspects of icewines and at the same time eager to enhance their knowledge of the artisanship behind this particular icewine. ∗ ∗ ∗ In the following, we offer an analysis of the sequences featuring background knowledge in the reviews in our material. Section 7.1 focuses on Technicality and explores how the reviews use Involvement in the background information about raw ingredients, regions of production and steps of the production process, while Sect. 7.2 is devoted to Naming and attends to how names of estates, brands and people in the industry are used to involve the addressees in production-related knowledge. Finally, in 7.3, we summarize the chapter and conclude how the Involvement features of Technicality and Naming contribute to the emergent image of the addressee.

7.1

Technicality

This section deals with the Involvement feature of Technicality found to occur in presentations of facts about raw ingredients, regions, growing conditions and steps of the production processes. All of these themes occur in the wine reviews, while the perfume reviews only draw on

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Involvement when offering facts about raw ingredients and chocolate reviews provide facts about regions and growing conditions as well as the production processes. Occurrences of Technicality indicate that precise information about raw ingredients plays an important role in the wine and perfume reviews, projecting onto the addressees an interest in this level of detail. However, the amount of prior background knowledge ascribed to the addressees by the reviewers varies. In (7.1) below, the addressees are expected to be in possession of background information regarding the properties of the grape type: (7.1)

This 80% Cabernet Franc wine may be massive, but it is also perfumed with swathes of opulent black fruit. It comes from a great year for Cabernet Franc, which forms 75% of this vineyard. (Wine Enthusiast)

The review text communicates exact information about the proportions of the Cabernet Franc grape, both in the reviewed wine and of the vines of the particular vineyard. By means of the modal construction “may be”, the review construes the addressees as holding the belief that an 80% proportion of the Cabernet Franc grape generally tends to make the resulting wine massive. However, in this particular case, the general anticipation is countered, and the great year for Cabernet Franc is explicitly given as a cause for the resulting quality of this wine. Although the addressees of (7.1) are expected to have some knowledge about the referenced grape type, the link between the grape type and the year is presented as previously unknown to the addressees. In the next example, which is another excerpt from a wine review, the background knowledge about grape types is presented somewhat differently: (7.2)

Composed of 75% Pinot Noir and 25% Chardonnay, with most wines from the 2014 vintage, this is very complex on the nose. (Decanter)

Example (7.2) can be read in different ways depending on the addressees’ previous knowledge about the grape types traditionally used to make champagne. The novice reader of (7.2) can acquire the information about

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the exact proportions of the two grape types and that the grapes were harvested in 2014. These facts may appear as unconnected information to the novice reader, and it is unclear how this information relates to the assessment of the wine’s nose as complex. However, the information regarding the exact proportions of the grape types Pinot Noir and Chardonnay can be understood as much more meaningful for addressees that are knowledgeable about the fact that these are two of the main grape types cultivated in Champagne (the third being Pinot Meunier), that Pinot Noir and Pinot Meunier are red grapes, while Chardonnay is white, and that the dominance of one grape over the others and the exclusion of Pinot Meunier can have an effect on the resulting champagne’s aromatics. For addressees that are aware that champagne does not normally have a specific vintage label but is made from blends of grapes from multiple vintages, the reference to 2014 may rely on joint understanding that this vintage gave rise to a complex aroma profile of these grape types. In cases such as (7.2), where the factual details are listed without any accompanying clarifications, the reviewer assumes that the addressees can draw on the bulk of prior background knowledge that they share with the reviewer in order to fully interpret the review. As a contrast, in the following excerpt from a perfume review, the description of frankincense projects the addressees as not having any prior familiarity with this raw ingredient. (7.3)

The challenge of an incense perfume is the momentum of the frankincense itself. Placing it at the center of a perfume can make the perfume simply follow the dynamics of the material, no matter how hard the perfumer might try to steer it in other directions. […] Frankincense’s origins are in Eastern Africa and the southern Arabian Peninsula where the boswellia sacra tree grows. (Basenotes)

The information that the raw ingredient frankincense originates from the boswellia sacra tree, which grows in Eastern Africa and the Arabian Peninsula, is presented as new, previously unknown information in this excerpt, which construes the addressees as not having insight regarding this perfume ingredient, but as nonetheless eager to know about the origins of the scented resin.

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A similar phenomenon is illustrated in (7.4), where the history of the raw ingredient sandalwood is explained in the perfume review: (7.4)

Since antiquity, the precious oil of sandalwood was sought after not only for its aroma, but also for its calming and restorative properties. Sandalwood would be ground into powders, macerated in oils for cosmetic preparations and made into pastes for incense sticks. Its oil would be co-distilled with various flowers and spices, producing fragrant attars. From the religious ceremonies to the beauty rituals, sandalwood and its scent are indelibly associated with the most intimate and spiritual of traditions in the East. Its rich fragrance envelops like an opulent silk wrap, clinging to the skin and melding with its warmth. (Bois de Jasmin)

In (7.4), the reviewer lays out the different historical uses of sandalwood to addressees that are not ascribed any prior knowledge of the history of sandalwood. The fact that this educational passage about sandalwood is included projects the addressees as keen to learn more about the precious raw ingredients of the reviewed perfumes, including historical uses of these raw ingredients. Background knowledge relating to raw ingredients can thus be communicated in different ways, which enable addressees with varying levels of prior insight to comprehend the reviews somewhat differently. In the following instances, excerpted from wine and chocolate reviews, details about the regions where the raw ingredients were grown and harvested and about particular growing conditions of these regions contribute to building a reviewer–addressee community. Such facts in the reviews let insightful addressees access detailed information about growing conditions and peculiarities in different regions, as illustrated in the wine review below, which refers to soil type: (7.5)

From old Cabernet Franc vines rooting on slate soils, the dark-red 2011 Anjou Villages L’Épicurien is a very well-made charming, generous, licorice-sweet, full-bodied and velvety textured wine with beautifully clear, floral and smoky perfumed aromas of perfect ripe black and blue berries loaded with cedar

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wood, mocha, chocolate, tobacco and speck. (Robert Parker Wine Advocate) The reviewer in (7.5) communicates the information that the vines have grown on slate soil but offers no further explanations as to what this might mean in terms of the resulting quality of the wine. This review thereby construes the addressees as already in possession of this prior understanding or prepared to consult additional resources in order to find out how slate soil might impact on the wine. A similar, purely factual, rendition is illustrated in (7.6) below: (7.6)

It is a blend of 70% Alicante Bouschet grown on schist and 30% Aragonez from clay soil, aged for one year in 100% new French oak. (Robert Parker Wine Advocate)

This wine review offers information regarding the exact proportions of grape vines grown on schist and clay soil, respectively. Here too, it is left up to the addressees to interpret what this might mean in terms of the resulting quality of the wine. The following excerpt from a chocolate review emphasizes the importance of region before cacao type and appears to be communicating with addressees that are already fully enlightened: (7.7)

Convention has it that you start off with unadulterated origin chocolate. You know, a range of Venzy, a Madagascan and perhaps a Dominican Republic—any origin that you can get beans from. (Chocolatiers)

By means of the addition of “you know” in (7.7), the addressees are explicitly referenced in this excerpt as being in the know about the fact that the listed regions produce what the reviewer refers to as “origin chocolate”. We also note that the slang form Venzy is used to refer to cacao beans from Venezuela, a region that is generally believed to grow the finest cacao beans in the world. This projects the addressees as comfortable with the field-specific slang that the reviewer uses to refer to cacao-growing regions.

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In the next chocolate review, the importance of region for cacao beans is mentioned, but unlike (7.7) above, the addressees are guided regarding how to rank regions in terms of worth: (7.8)

Anybody can get cacao beans from Ivory Coast, Ghana or Indonesia, and although wild cacao from the Beni region of Bolivia has become a touch more ubiquitous in the recent past thanks to the efforts of Felchlin, the differentiating aspect of this bar is the hands-on approach that Rasmus takes and that people and the terrain are viewed as just as important as the cacao itself. (Chocolatiers)

Based on the excerpt in (7.8), the addressees are led to the understanding that cacao beans from African or South Asian regions are less desirable than those from South America. The educational elements of this chocolate review position the addressees as having some prior knowledge regarding the different cacao-growing regions of the world, but not quite the level of qualified awareness that the reviewer has. In the excerpt below from a wine review, grape types are associated with French wine regions: (7.9)

Made by the traditional (Champagne) method, this one’s from the Loire, so mainly Chenin Blanc, with 15% Chardonnay added. (Decanter)

In (7.9), the connective “so” overtly construes a cause-effect link between the region, the Loire, and the grape type typically used in this region to make sparkling wine, namely Chenin Blanc. This excerpt can be read differently by the addressees, depending on their previous familiarity with French wine regions. Novices are offered the fact that 15% of the wine is based on the Chardonnay grape, which means that the remaining 85% must come from Chenin Blanc. In addition, the explicit causal connective helps to construe a logical link between the region and the grape type. Cognizant addressees are projected as already anticipating sparkling wines from the Loire to be dominated by the Chenin Blanc grape, and the logical connective thereby functions to confirm their anticipations. Our rendition of the technicality relating to region and growing conditions shows that the reviewers of wine and chocolate appear to have knowledgeable addressees in mind when constructing their message.

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We now move on to consider technicality relating to the steps of the production processes of wine and chocolate, for instance measurements and various forms of production technologies, and we find that the reviewers appear as insiders that invite the addressees to share the facts that they present, as in (7.10) below from a wine review. In this excerpt, the reviewer approaches the addressees with information about the production process, which they may not previously be knowledgeable about: (7.10)

AR Lenoble stores most of its reserve wines in barrels and casks, but some are now kept in magnums under cork, which gives greater protection from oxidation. (Decanter)

In (7.10), the addressees are informed about how the wines are stored at this Champagne estate. The fact that most of its reserve wines are stored in barrels and casks is given no further explanation, which suggests that the addressees are already knowledgeable about the effects of these storage techniques. However, the review includes an educational element explaining why magnums with corks are used as an alternative storage method. The addressees are thus construed as already being familiar with certain storage techniques, but as nonetheless lacking complete insight into why it may be preferable to opt for alternative ways of storing wines. The next excerpt from another wine review has a more pronounced educational element, taking the addressees through each developmental stage of an apparently unusual wine: (7.11)

There is a need to explain this wine a little bit because the 1980 Cuva Vella is a bit unusual now, and it will be different in the future. Apparently the 1980 harvest was outstanding for Moscatel so they decided to keep a vat of it. Not a small quantity, some 50,000 liters! And apparently the wine was kind of forgotten in a corner (we’re talking about a very big winery where 50,000 liters can go unnoticed). The vat was made of chestnut wood and at one point recently, it had to be dismantled and moved to a different location, when they really had to think what the hell the content was. The content was a very old Moscatel that had been aged very slowly. (Robert Parker Wine Advocate)

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In (7.11), the reviewer tells an extensive background story explaining the somewhat haphazard steps of the production process affecting this wine. The addressees are informed that the wine was stored in a vat of chestnut wood and that the prolonged storage time was unintended as the vat remained forgotten for a long time. The story is spiced up by swearing, “they really had to think what the hell the content was”, a lexicogrammatical realization of Involvement which tends to confirm group membership. The addressees of the review are thereby attributed with a fascination for that which is unusual and an eagerness to know the particular details of such cases. This is a type of knowledge that the reviewer is in a position to confer due to inside information presumably emanating directly from the producer. The following excerpt from a chocolate review also recounts part of the production process: (7.12)

I had the great privilege of seeing these brownies being made in his kitchen below his Islington shop and when you see the process of them being made and compare it to your own mistake-laden attempt as I did making my own, you fully appreciate the quality of the ingredients used and the expertise of a master craftsman. Each square of chocolate brownie measures about 2.5,, (6.5cm) wide but contains an immeasurable amount of chocolate satisfaction. (Chocolatiers)

In (7.12), the reviewer explicitly recounts experiences from being present at the production scene in the chocolate maker’s shop and witnessing the artisan at work as the brownies were manufactured. Because of this close attentiveness to the artisanship behind these brownies, the reviewer is in possession of special insight into the production process that the addressees are assumed to be eager to take part of. Considerable background knowledge is expected of the addressees in order for them to make sense of the reviews. In the champagne review below, the description assumes background understanding regarding the measurements used to define the wine’s degree of sweetness: (7.13)

Equal parts of Chardonnay, Pinot Noir and Pinot Meunier from this grower in Rilly-la-Montagne. Based on 2015 with one-third reserve wine. Disgorged after three years. Dosage a

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relatively high 12 g/l. The wine does indeed taste quite sweet. (Jancis Robinson) In (7.13), the addressees are assumed to be knowledgeable about the traditional champagne method and the procedural stage of disgorgement when the sediments are removed from the wine and sugar added. The description of the sugar dosage as “relatively high” implies an understanding of what the standard dosage would be for champagne, and the emphatic do-periphrasis coupled with the pronouncement “indeed” in the last sentence of this excerpt construes the addressees as acutely aware of the ideal sweetness of champagne. Just like the reviewer, they are projected as holding a sceptical view of the relatively high dosage of 12 g/l, which leads to the joint anticipation that this champagne must be quite sweet. In a similar way, (7.14) below assumes joint understanding of the basics of fermenting and conching techniques in order to make sense of the assessment of these chocolate making processes: (7.14)

This is a demonstration of definitive fermenting and conching techniques at their ultimate, and makes a case for the idea that roasting is perhaps an utterly superfluous step. (Seventy%)

In this chocolate review, the reviewer engages in dialogue with addressees, who are projected as knowledgeable about these processes as well as how they might impact on the need to roast the cacao beans. By means of the engagement marker “perhaps” the text opens up the space for alternative viewpoints regarding this potentially controversial statement, which construes a reviewer–addressee community with considerable insight into how alternative chocolate making processes can interact. To sum up, the analysis in 7.1 has shown that the addressees construed by the presence of Technicality have considerable prior insight into general field-specific knowledge about wine, perfume or chocolate, including an ability to make sense of implicit logical relationships. However, we also took note of explanatory and educational sequences, where the addressees are not expected to be in the know to the same extent. Such instances were found to refer to unusual cases that stand out from that which would normally be expected, and the addressees are thus construed as being curious about such unusual instances and

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eager to be educated about them by the reviewers, who are in possession of a higher degree of expertise about the artisanship involved in the production process, due to their direct contact with producers. We see Technicality as functioning to position the reviewer and addressees as fellow initiates in a culture of discriminate and sophisticated consumption, where insight into the exact details of design and artisanship is crucial.

7.2

Naming

In this section, we turn our attention to the Involvement feature of Naming. Three areas of Naming are considered: estates in wine reviews, brands in perfume reviews and chocolate reviews, and people in the industry for the three product types. We see Naming as having a general function similar to Technicality in the reviews, i.e. to position reviewers and addressees as fellow initiates in a culture of discriminate and sophisticated consumption. In the following, we consider slight variations in the use of proper names in our dataset and explore how these variations position the addressees. Many wines use the estate names to name the product, and proper names of estates therefore play an important role in wine reviews, as illustrated in the following instances, where the estate names are accompanied by explanatory notes, indicating that the addressees are envisaged to lack complete background knowledge about these estates: (7.15)

(7.16)

Ormanni is a small estate south of Castellina in Chianti that makes wines that are characteristic of Chianti Classico tradition. (Robert Parker Wine Advocate) Boutari is one of Greece’s old line wineries, famed in particular for its work in the North with Xinomavro. It should be noted that Boutari does a fine job with whites elsewhere (i.e., Mantinia and Santorini), producing reasonably priced wines with fine balance and some distinction. (Robert Parker Wine Advocate)

In (7.15), the reviewer explains that Ormanni is a small estate, and this may be the reason why it is not expected to be known to the addressees

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that this review projects. The addressees construed by (7.16) also have some gaps in their knowledge about Greek wineries, which the reviewer fills with the explanatory notes regarding the history and extent of this winery’s production. We might speculate that the addressees are expected to have more limited insight into Greek estates and wineries, since Greece, despite being one of the world’s first countries to produce wine, is not currently among the world’s top wine-producing countries. In other cases, estate names can be complemented by other elements of Naming as well as Technicality, offering insider knowledge about the estate, which is backed up by attribution with the producer as the source of information. The following instance offers an illustration from another wine review: (7.17)

The 2011 Monte Branco-Adega do Monte Branco is the best red yet from this winery. […] This winery is owned by Luis Louro, who also helps run his family’s estate, Quinta do Mouro, perhaps Alentejo’s finest winery. Like Mouro, Adega do Monte Branco’s terroir is also in the Estremoz subregion. Luis Louro said, “I have 26 hectares of vineyards leased around Estremoz, completely separate from Mouro. Two small parcels with 4 hectares each in clay soils, and one with 18ha in schist soil.” (Robert Parker Wine Advocate)

The addressees of (7.17) are not assumed to have any prior knowledge of the Monte Branco winery. Explanations related to the winery involve the name of the owner and the sub-region where the estate is located. In a direct quotation, the owner of the Monte Branco estate offers further technical details about his activities, the exact size of the terroir that he manages as well as the soil types that his parcels include. These explanations construe the reviewer and the addressees as jointly interested in learning about these kinds of details. The facts are attributed to a source that is external to the reviewer, and in this case, the reviewer acts as transmitter of the producer’s exact words about the technical details of this estate and hence the producer’s artisanship. Other instances in our dataset appear to rely on already established background knowledge in order for the addressees to make complete sense of the review. In the following instance from a wine review, the grammatical construction is suggestive of a logical connection, which

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the addressees need to reconstruct in order to understand the meaning completely: (7.18)

Predominantly sourced from the Discovery and Champoux Vineyards, this wine offers aromas of scorched earth, cassis, cherry, bay leaf and whiffs of green pepper. (Wine Enthusiast)

The addressees are informed that the wine is made from grapes harvested at the two named estates. This information is introduced in an elliptic construction that appears to establish a link between the estates from which the grapes were sourced and the aromatic qualities of the resulting wine. It is not further clarified whether it follows naturally that grapes sourced from these estates display these particular aromatics or whether the wine’s aromatics could be due to the soil or location of the estates. The addressees projected by this review do not appear to be in need of further elaboration, which suggests that they have enough insight into these estates to be able to infer the logical connection. Brands are similar to estates in the sense that they are often part of the product name. Yet, brands are different since they can produce other items alongside the products that we focus on here. We found brand names occurring in the perfume reviews and chocolate reviews. Excerpts (7.19–7.21) from perfume reviews illustrate how reviewers assume that the addressees have previous familiarity with perfume brands. (7.19)

(7.20)

(7.21)

the house has been playing mad scientist by combining or embellishing popular designer tropes for years, making mashups of YSL, Jean-Paul Gaultier, Chanel, Dior, Viktor & Rolf, Tom Ford, and Burberry since their inception. (Basenotes) Even today, while I might have qualms with Bleu de Chanel, Chance and too many Allure Homme flankers, I remain inspired by the impeccable quality I smell in Chanel No 5. (Bois de Jasmin) The green florals like Chanel No. 19, Balmain Ivoire, Chanel Cristalle Eau de Toilette, Parfums Grès Cabotine and Hermès Un Jardin en Méditerranée […] Even the new Chanel Bel Respiro, from Les Exclusifs collection, shares a bloodline with Vent Vert and its verdant intensity. (Bois de Jasmin)

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In (7.19), the addressees’ familiarity with a whole range of high-end perfume brands is drawn on in order to make sense of what the mashups of these scents made by the perfume house English Laundry might be like. In (7.20) too, the text excerpt from this review involves a qualitative comparison to other Chanel products, which is assumed to be meaningful to the addressees. Finally, in (7.21) the text enumerates perfumes from a number of high-end brands that are said to share properties with the reviewed perfume, i.e. Vent Vert by Balmain. In order to fully grasp these comparisons, it is anticipated that the addressees can imagine what the resemblance between these brands might be. A similar reference drawing on the addressees’ previous familiarity with brands is illustrated in (7.22) and (7.23) from chocolate reviews: (7.22)

(7.23)

Reaching back in my memory I would actually compare this to European makers like Amedei or Pralus or US maker Ranger. (Chocolate Codex) The bar’s sweetness reminded me of some French makers— like Cluizel—though it had a more casual feel to it overall. (Chocolate Codex)

In (7.22) and (7.23), the comparisons to chocolate brands Amadei, Pralus and Ranger as well as Cluizel rely on the addressees’ prior experience with these brands in order to be fully meaningful. The excerpt below from a perfume review, however, projects the addressees as not having any prior knowledge regarding the brand that is introduced: (7.24)

10 Corso Como is the fashionable Milan boutique of “style guru” Carla Sozzani. Since opening in 1991, the business has expanded to include a design gallery, bookstore, restaurant, and even a small B & B called 3Rooms. The eponymous fragrance was created by perfumer Olivier Gillotin and launched in 1999, and features notes of rose, geranium, vetiver, musk, sandalwood and Malay oud-wood oil. (Now Smell This)

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This review has educational elements as the addressees are not expected to have any background knowledge about the brand 10 Corso Como, i.e. that it originated as a Milan boutique and has now expanded to encompass other services, including a fragrance that carries the brand name. The addressor of this review thus appears to be in possession of more insight than the addressees concerning this brand, and the addressees are thereby positioned as learners, eager to access insight about new brands that they may not have prior familiarity with. On par with the example above, (7.25) below from a perfume review also introduces the brand as new information for the addressees: (7.25)

Brand creator and namesake, Phuong Dang, has launched a debut collection of ten perfumes, primarily created with perfumer Bertrand Duchafour. Raw Secret is the only perfume that steps outside the Duchafour collaboration and was created by perfumer Marina Jung Allegret… and it’s one of my favorite in the line. In all, the entire collection is comprised of extraits which are incredibly smooth, refined and easy to wear. (The Scented Hound)

The reviewer of (7.25) does not anticipate the addressees to have any prior knowledge of this niche perfume brand, recently launched by the Vietnamese artist Phuong Dang. In this review too, the addressees are construed as learners eager to be fed with information about this new niche perfume brand. The following excerpt from another perfume review also offers educational elements, even if the addressees are assumed to have some previous insight into the brand: (7.26)

According to an oft repeated story, the iconic Chanel No 5 fails miserably in fragrance market tests, with the derived conclusion that the success of this great fragrance is based on the clever marketing strategy and carefully maintained brand image. Considering that today’s market tests have produced some of the worst excuses for perfumes, I do not find this to be the logical inference. Although an elegant brand image is an important part of the story, it is not enough to explain the mystery, the draw and the timeless beauty of Chanel No 5. (Bois de Jasmin)

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In (7.26), some facets of this Chanel brand perfume are presented as already known to the addressees, i.e. that it is iconic and has mystery, draw and timeless beauty, but the review introduces information from the insider fragrance world that is framed as possibly not entirely familiar to the addressees, namely that Chanel No 5 is known to fail in fragrance market tests. The presentation projects the addressees as generally familiar with the basics of brands, but as still eager to enhance their insider knowledge regarding the fragrance industry, a type of insight that the reviewer is in a position to share. The following excerpt from a chocolate review is similar in the sense that it relies on the addressees’ basic prior knowledge of the major chocolate brand Cadbury, but imparts new knowledge, which appears to have been only recently obtained by the reviewer, about the ownership structure involving subsidiary brands: (7.27)

Jameson’s is actually a brand of a company called Monkhill Confectionary. A little bit more research reveals that Monkhill is actually a division of Trebor Basset Ltd., which in turn is a wholly owned subsidiary of Cadbury Schweppes plc. Yup, that’s right. This weird little bar of chocolate is made by Cadbury—not that it says so anywhere on the wrapper. (Chocablog)

In (7.27), the addressees are projected as familiar with the large industrial chocolate brand Cadbury and simultaneously as sharing the reviewer’s astonishment regarding the news that the smaller brand, named Jameson’s, is owned by Cadbury. The reviewer’s exclamation “Yup, that’s right” is indicative of addressees that are inclined to question this information, i.e. who are sceptical and not easily convinced. It nonetheless appears important for the addressees to have this kind of insider knowledge about ownership structures of the chocolate world. The next example from a perfume review is curious. It starts out by assuming the addressees’ familiarity with the brand, but subsequently drops clues that are educational: (7.28)

It was only a matter of time before English Laundry tackled a fragrance that smells like Creed Aventus (2010), and that’s because English Laundry as a house seeks to democratize

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the British/UK luxury male fashion aesthetic for the US and other audiences abroad, so taking a shot at the leading masculine perfume from one of the most popular luxury perfumers sold in the UK with claimed ties to English nobility (despite being French) is a no-brainer. (Basenotes) This review mentions two brands, English Laundry and Creed, both of which are introduced in the first sentence without further explanations. However, in a subordinate clause, the addressees are given the clue that Creed is “one of the most popular luxury perfumers sold in the UK with claimed ties to English nobility (despite being French)”. The addressees that have no prior familiarity with Creed can feel included and educated thanks to this parenthetical information. For the addressees that are already familiar with Creed, the background information regarding the brand can be understood as part of the reviewer’s argumentation for why English Laundry’s attempt to copy Creed Aventus is “a no-brainer”. In addition to estates and brand names, the review texts involve names of people in the industry, as in the following instance from a perfume review. The excerpt illustrates how the names of two famous noses are introduced in the comparative review of two different versions of the Balmain scent Vent Vert: (7.29)

Balmain relaunched Vent Vert in 1990, entrusting perfumer Calice Becker with the reformulation of the legendary original. It was not an easy feat, since many of the materials available to Cellier have long since disappeared. A master of crystalline floral accords, Becker has amplified the floral aspect of the original composition, toning down the aggressive punch of galbanum. (Bois de Jasmin)

The excerpt in (7.29) includes the names of the two famous perfume noses, Germaine Cellier and Calice Becker, thereby confirming the relevance of knowing not only the name of the nose behind the current version of Vent Vert but also the name of the original creator of the scent, launched in 1947. The inclusion of the names of these artisans emphasizes the human endeavour behind the resulting product and positions the addressees as having an interest in the artisans responsible for designing

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the product and the requisites that constrain their design work, such as lack of access to raw ingredients. The following example from the chocolate review website Chocolatiers signals the importance not only of the names of people in the industry and their current activity, but also of these people’s “back story”: (7.30)

As Amarachi Uzowuru and Andy Clarke have only been making chocolate as Lucocoa since December last year there is very little information about to get a ‘back story’, but as with anything chocolate-related, the key factor is the chocolate itself. (Chocolatiers)

The mentioning of the names of chocolate makers Amarachi Uzowuru and Andy Clarke in (7.30) suggests that it is relevant for the addressees to know the names of the people in the industry and be informed of elements of the background story related to producers. This background story is portrayed as largely missing, a potential downside regarding the available information about this chocolate which is suggested by the following countering linking word “but”. The following instance offers a more detailed image of the person responsible for making the reviewed chocolate, including his three professional titles: (7.31)

Oialla, a Spanish girl’s name with an unknown meaning, is a specific brand from the fine chocolate maker, chef and entrepreneur Rasmus Bo Bojensen. The bar is made with cacao from 26 islands in the southern reaches of the Amazon basin in the Itenez region of Beni department of Bolivia. As you can imagine this is a difficult to reach part of the world and Rasmus reportedly has to take five flights, a day in a canoe navigating the Amazon and then fifteen hours hiking across the jungle to get to the source of the cacao. (Chocolatiers)

In (7.31), the addressees are not only informed about the chocolate maker’s name and titles. In addition, the review includes elements of the producer’s own story, which is indicated by the engagement marker “reportedly” attributing the information to the producer. We note that the addressees are not anticipated to have prior knowledge

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of this producer initially, but later on in the review text, the producer is referenced only by his first name, Rasmus, suggesting familiarity. The addressees are thereby invited into a world where they are on equal terms with producers, a reviewer–producer–addressee community. Elements of producer back story are communicated in the following excerpt from a wine review: (7.32)

The Escudero family started making wine in 1852 and, four generations on, it is still very much a family business. They own a total of 150ha of vineyards, of which 120ha are located on the southern slopes of the Monte Yerga mountain range, where the grapes for this wine are produced. (Decanter)

In (7.32), naming is used to refer not only to the current producer but to a whole succession of wine makers from the same family, and the exact year when production started is mentioned. The inclusion of this description assumes that the addressees take an interest in how the producer’s artisanship has developed. The following instance from a perfume review uses naming and a title to refer to and attribute an announcement to a professional in a different role: (7.33)

“You can tell the potential of a celebrity fragrance brand in its first few days in store. This is off-the-chart”. That’s Terry Lundgren, CEO of Macy’s, noting that Beyoncé’s debut fragrance, Heat, is already flying off the shelves. Coty, who hopes that Heat will “re-energize the celebrity category”, must be thrilled. (Now Smell This)

In (7.33), it is not the perfume maker behind Beyoncé’s Heat but the CEO of the biggest department store in the US that is referenced. This involvement of the sales perspective adds to the image of an insider viewpoint that the reviewer invites the addressees to share. The analysis has shown intricacies regarding Naming. Names of estates are accompanied by explanatory information, which indicates that the reviewer takes care to educate addressees that are not fully knowledgeable about these estates. Large perfume brands are however introduced without further explanation, which suggests that the reviewer anticipates

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the addressees to have prior familiarity with the names of these. Smaller or newly launched chocolate and perfume brands are accompanied by additional explanations, which educate the addressees and perhaps also justify to the addressees why these brands are reviewed. Some form of additional description accompanying the names of the people in the industry suggests that the reviewer does not anticipate the addressees to have previous familiarity with these professionals. The review texts imply that the role of the reviewer is to introduce the industry professionals to the addressees, highlight the artisanship of these professionals and invite the addressees into a reviewer–addressee–professionals community, where they can become just as immersed in the professionals’ artisanship as the reviewers.

7.3 Conclusions About Involvement in the Reviews In this section, we draw together the clues resulting from the analysis offered in this chapter and reflect on how the imagined addressee is construed explicitly and implicitly in the parts of the review texts that present background knowledge. The imagined addressee is projected as interested in the insider background knowledge that the reviewer is able to share, but also as already having enough prior insight into general field-specific knowledge about wine, perfume or chocolate to make sense of implicit logical relationships. However, explanatory and educational sequences suggest that the addressee is not expected to be fully knowledgeable and is thus also construed as a learner. The educational elements of the reviews position the addressee as having some prior knowledge regarding the different technologies and mentioned estates, brands or people, but not quite the level of qualified awareness that the reviewer has. The addressee may also need to be prepared to consult additional resources in order to understand the reviews in a discerning way. The amount of prior background knowledge ascribed to the imagined addressee by the reviewer varies. Wine reviews ascribe to the addressee insight regarding the properties of the grape type and the effect of different proportions of the grapes as well as various vintages and estates. In perfume reviews, the addressee is assumed to be familiar with high-end brands, and in chocolate reviews it is taken for granted that the addressee is aware of the growing conditions and regions of origin of chocolate.

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Some of the findings regarding characteristics and behaviour deduced from the analyses in the previous chapters are reinforced by the results of this chapter. A trait that emerged from Chapter 5 was deference for authority in the field-specific areas of wine, perfume or chocolate. The contours of this trait have become somewhat more blurred and complex in this chapter, where we find the imagined addressee to be construed as having considerable prior insight into general field-specific knowledge about wine, perfume or chocolate. Still, having less expert knowledge than the reviewer is a characteristic that is projected onto the addressee, since further explanatory and educational sequences, sometimes with the producer as source of information, are assumed to be of interest. Regardless of prior level of insight, the imagined addressee is consistently construed as being curious about unusual instances and eager to be educated about these by the more knowledgeable reviewers. The main character trait of the imagined addressee that can be deduced from the findings of this chapter is curiosity and eagerness to learn more from authorities in the field-specific areas of wine, perfume or chocolate. Another character trait of the addressee that we took note of in the preceding chapters is the possibility to identify with the reviewers, thus seeing oneself as included in the online community of experiential luxury. In this chapter, we have found that the addressee is not only welcome to the online community but is also invited into a reviewer–addressee–professionals community. Our analysis in this chapter has also provided insight regarding the second part of our quest, which concerns the luxury values that the imagined addressee embraces. In Chapter 5, we found high quality to stand out as central, and the analysis in this chapter adds a dimension to this value in the sense that the material aspects associated with the product are foregrounded. It emerges from our explorations of the Involvement features of Technicality and Naming that the imagined addressee assigns importance to the design and artisanship of the experiential luxury products. Furthermore, the value of uniqueness that we took note of in Chapter 5 is confirmed by the special attention to unusual cases that we remarked on in this chapter. This chapter about Involvement in the reviews has moreover enhanced our understanding regarding the third part of this study’s quest, which concerns the goals of the imagined addressee’s luxury consumption. Despite already having a high level of field-specific knowledge, the addressee is projected as still eager to learn more about the details of

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the design and artisanship of wine, perfume or chocolate. The addressee aspires to receive product-related information pertaining to the design of the product from the producer and also get to know the producers’ back story, the goal being to join and interact with the highly specialized reviewer–addressee–professionals community surrounding the luxury products. Perhaps we can deduce that the high level of specialist insight indicated by the analysis in this chapter contributes to alleviating luxury consumer guilt as noted in Chapter 5, since cognizance makes luxury consumption appear like an intellectual activity rather than a superficial waste of time and money. In addition, we may speculate that the addressee pursues extrinsic goals by having initiate insight into design and artisanship in the sense that overt displays of such knowledge to for instance other aficionados and sales staff can confer status. In this chapter, we have focused on the discourse semantic feature of Involvement exploring Technicality and Naming in the passages of the review texts that present background knowledge. By drawing on Involvement, we have been able to contribute to the image of the addressee that is emerging based on our analysis of the data and highlight the significance of artisanship and design. In the following two chapters, we continue to elaborate on the image of the addressee by analysing the reviews using the Appraisal system’s categories of Appreciation, beginning with Composition and Reaction in the next chapter.

References Martin, J. R. & Rose, D. (2003). Working with discourse. Meaning beyond the clause. Continuum. Martin, J. R., & White, P. R. R. (2005). The language of evaluation. Appraisal in English. Palgrave Macmillan.

CHAPTER 8

Composition and Reaction in Reviews

By means of the Appreciation categories of Composition and Reaction, we continue to explore the imagined addressee in terms of characteristics and behaviour, values and luxury consumption goals. This chapter focuses on the passages of the reviews that capture the aesthetic experiences offered by the luxury products. Since we are concerned with experiential products in this book, the sensory appeal of the products is a key dimension of their luxury aesthetics, and we investigate how the reviewers communicate the experience of tasting or testing the product and share this experience with the addressees. For the analysis presented in this chapter, we draw on the categories of Composition and Reaction in the Appraisal model (see Fig. 4.4 in Chapter 4), while the category of Valuation is used in the next chapter to capture non-aesthetic values. As clarified in Chapter 4, Composition is associated with perception, and Reaction has to do with emotion (Martin & White, 2005: 57). Following Martin and White (2005), Hunston (2000) and Lehrer (1975), we do not make a clear-cut distinction between descriptive and evaluative components. Instead, we see the descriptive components as part of the reviewer’s evaluation in the sense that descriptions can invoke evaluation without explicitly evaluative lexis. Composition relates to aesthetic evaluation of things as they are perceived by the senses. Examples provided in the Appraisal literature are harmonious, discordant (Bednarek, 2008: 15). We rely on four subcategories of Composition, which highlight different dimensions of the © The Author(s) 2023 C. Hommerberg and M. Lindgren, Depicting the Consumer of Experiential Luxury, https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-60080-6_8

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perceptual experience; these are Complexity, Intensity, Persistence and Balance. Reaction concerns emotional appreciation, and we make use of the two subcategories Quality and Impact, which cover subtle differences in the evaluative approach. Quality focuses on the evaluated entity, and examples of this category are beautiful, ugly; Impact targets the evaluator’s response, and examples of this category are appealing, uninviting (Martin & White, 2005: 56). The excerpt below offers an illustration of how the Appreciation categories of Composition and Reaction are realized in the data analysed in this chapter. The sample review is one of the reviews retrieved from the chocolate review website Chocolate Codex. The review is written by the reviewer Chris and targets the chocolate bar Parliament q’eqchi. Parliament’s Guatemalan Q’eqchi blends dark bitterness and candy-like berries together. […] It smells sweet and just a little bit acidic. Like how some types ciders or kombucha are a bit sweet and sour. In this case think “kombucha candy”. In other words: it smells awesome.This is another one of those bars that opens up differently depending on how you approach it. If you let it melt the flavors mingle together for more of the time you’re eating it. If you bite it however the bitterness doesn’t really approach until the end. Whichever way you go you’ll find flavors close to strawberry and those sweet mini-mandarins or orange blossom. Fruits and sugar can ratchet the other up pretty quickly in an arms race of high notes. This doesn’t overpower but it is very, very sweet. But there is bitterness too and it’s dark, green and charred like some espressos seem to me. I found the bitterness hung around a bit too long in the aftertaste. […].

All the four subcategories of Composition are referenced in the review of the Parliament q’eqchi. The complexity of the flavour is captured by means of specific words: “strawberry, sweet mini-mandarins and orange blossom”, which invites the addressees to co-perceive with the reviewer. Both the fruit flavours and the sweetness of this chocolate are portrayed as intense by means of the metaphorical expression “ratchet the other up in an arms race”, which confers vividness on the assessment. The balance between the fruit flavours and the sweetness is captured by means of juxtaposition of gustatory elements “kambucha candy” and the negated assertion that the sweetness “does not overpower”. The bitterness of the

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chocolate flavour is negatively assessed as overly persistent since it “hung around a bit too long”. In this review, the category of Reaction is realized in the reviewer’s holistic reaction to the chocolate as smelling “awesome”, and this emotional reaction is underscored by the detailed renditions that invoke compositional values. The analysis of the Parliament q’eqchi review illustrates how the compositional subcategories can be articulated in the reviews, for instance by means of lists of descriptors, juxtaposition of gustatory elements and metaphors. The addressees are thereby not given a simple verdict of the chocolate’s composition, but they are allowed to co-experience the aesthetic qualities together with the reviewer and thus to understand the grounds for the reviewer’s subjective reaction to this chocolate as “awesome”. ∗ ∗ ∗ In the following, we offer an analysis of the text sequences devoted to the appraisal of sensory appeal in the reviews included in our dataset, where we show how the addressees are invited to engage with the reviewer’s perceptions of and emotional reactions to the evaluated product. We have organized the chapter in two sections, dealing with Composition and Reaction, respectively. In accordance with the original Appraisal model’s divisions, Sect. 8.1 on Composition treats appreciation related to perception, and Sect. 8.2 on Reaction deals with emotional forms of appreciation. Finally, in Sect. 8.3, we draw conclusions regarding how perceptual and emotional appreciation contribute to the image of the addressee.

8.1

Composition

Composition is articulated in different ways in the material, suggesting slightly different approaches to inviting the addressees into the perceptual experiences. In the following, we show instances of inscribed Composition, invoked Composition and Composition as located in the reviewer’s perception, with reference to the four different aesthetic values that are used as analytic categories. We first deal with appreciation of the compositional value dimension of Complexity, which has a particularly prominent role in the appreciation of

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olfactory perception. Example (8.1) below from a perfume review shows an instance of inscribed Complexity: (8.1)

While Pleasures captures a scent that soap and water leave on the skin, it is also luxurious and memorable. The rose absolute notes are honeyed, warm and complex. (Bois de Jasmin)

In this excerpt, the rose absolute notes of the Estée Lauder perfume Pleasures are described as complex, which appears as a positive dimension of the scent due to the co-occurring assessments that the perfume is luxurious and memorable. In (8.2) below, which is from a chocolate review, the lack of perceived complexity is negatively evaluated by means of the item “plain”, which we regard as an instance of inscribed Complexity: (8.2)

It doesn’t bode well, nor does the aroma which is basically a plain cocoa with vanilla. Occasional traces of brown sugar and coconut, and a vague earthy background seem more typical of an ordinary bulk-bean chocolate than anything more distinguished. (Seventy%)

The reviewer assesses this chocolate’s lack of complexity as a trait that places it on a par with industrial chocolate, “bulk-bean”, i.e. chocolate that is not regarded as luxurious. The compositional value dimension of complexity is also found to be communicated implicitly. In the excerpt from a wine review below, Complexity is invoked by means of purely descriptive items: (8.3)

Cedar, pipe tobacco, black-skinned fruit and balsamic aromas shape the nose along with French oak and iris. (Wine Enthusiast)

In (8.3), the addressees are offered the specifics of the complexity of the olfactory properties of this wine. However, in order to confer the evaluative dimension, their co-construction is needed, and it is thereby left up to the addressees to assess whether the combination of olfactory components gives rise to a sufficiently complex olfactory experience.

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The excerpt below, also from a wine review, offers an illustration of how inscribed Complexity co-occurs with an enumeration of the specific components that make up the aroma and bouquet of this champagne: (8.4)

this is very complex on the nose, with delicate notes of spring flowers joined by elegantly toasted, smoky, woody touches. (Decanter)

In (8.4), the perceptual value of complexity is overtly articulated, and the wine assessed as having a high degree of complexity by means of the intensifier “very”. The olfactory complexity is subsequently described as consisting more specifically of “spring flowers” and “toasted, smoky, woody touches”. This presentation can be read somewhat differently, depending on whether the addressees are novices or initiates. Novice readers can gather from the text that the wine has good complexity, and that this is a complexity that involves particular aromatic components. The initiates, on the other hand, can deduce that the spring flowers most likely emanate from the aroma of the grapes while the toasted, smoky, woody touches are conceivably related to the wine’s bouquet, which can be traced back to production techniques such as whether barrels made from wood were used for ageing. Example (8.5) below, which is an excerpt from a chocolate review, also illustrates inscribed Complexity in combination with an enumeration of the specific aroma components that make up the complexity: (8.5)

On the nose there is an immediate and strikingly balanced complexity in the form of refined high notes of raspberry/strawberry and lime on a bed of fresh tobacco leaves, subtle mint, tarragon and other fresh herbs. With time and upon snapping some deeper notes of blueberry, plumb and a light woodiness also begin to show themselves. (Seventy%)

This review captures the complexity of the chocolate by means of detailed, olfactory descriptors such as “raspberry/strawberry”, “lime”, “tobacco leaves”, “mint”, “tarragon and other fresh herbs”, “blueberry”, “plumb” and “woodiness”. In addition to enumerating the specific components that make up this chocolate’s olfactory complexity, the reviewer also hints at the relative presence of these components, “high notes”, “deep

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notes”, “subtle”, “light”, as well as the succession of the components over time, “immediate”, vs. “with time”. The renditions of complexity in these examples construe a reviewer–addressee community with acute attentiveness to this compositional value as an important aspect of luxury aesthetics. We find instances where the reviewer locates the perception of complexity in their own experience, which they invite the addressees to share. In the perfume review in (8.6) below, the reviewer offers a descriptive recount of the olfactory components that are experienced throughout the perfume’s aromatic cycle, from the top notes through to the base notes, as perceived on the reviewer’s skin: (8.6)

On my skin, it opens with a citrus smell, sweet orange, not the peels, but the juicy flesh. On the top there is a hint of fresh, bright lemon, which fades in about an hour. When it dries, freshness transforms into delicate sweetness of orange and caramel, maybe with some peach. An hour later I start to smell a bit of cardamom. (Fragrantica)

The reviewer takes care to be precise about the particulars regarding the top notes, describing the scent of orange as being without any elements of peels. This preciseness construes the addressees as expecting this kind of detail. The time lapse between the olfactory phases of the perfume is given; it takes an hour for the heart notes to emerge. The addressees are invited to share the reviewer’s attempts to capture in words what the heart notes are like, the “maybe” indicating potential uncertainty regarding the presence of “peach” in the perfume’s heart. Finally, after another time lapse, the lingering base note of cardamom is reported. This account of the stages of the perfume smelling experience invokes rather than inscribes the idea that this perfume’s aromatic profile is complex. By letting the addressees follow each stage of the olfactory experience, the review offers a recount that leaves it up to the addressees to co-construct the assessment of this perfume’s complexity. A similar phenomenon is present in the chocolate review below: (8.7)

First, I was hit with a burnt sugar sweetness, next it was kinako (roasted sesame flour) and cocoa powder. Finally, a dark espresso aftertaste. Notice a theme here? All these flavours are

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in the “roasted” family. Some bars take you on a journey, but this one followed a very straight path. I would have liked a few twists and turns along the way. Still, the journey was pleasurable (if a little one-note). (Chocolate Codex) Example (8.7) expresses lack of rather than the presence of the compositional value dimension of complexity. Several specific descriptors are used to capture the aromatic profile of the chocolate, “burnt sugar”, “kinako”, “dark espresso”, ostensibly suggesting that the reviewer found it complex to some extent. However, it subsequently appears that the chocolate is still “one-note”, since all of the identified olfactory components belong to the “roasted family”. In the review, the addressees are explicitly addressed by means of the question “Notice a theme here?” and invited to co-construct the negative evaluation of this chocolate’s complexity together with the reviewer. We contend that Complexity plays an important role in the assessment of the luxury aesthetics of the reviewed products. Another important compositional value of luxury aesthetics is Intensity, and as with Complexity, we find this value articulated in different ways, inscribed, invoked, for instance by means of graduation resources or metaphorical phrasings, and framed as the reviewer’s experience. The following instance from a wine review makes it clear that Intensity is a desirable value in the olfactory profile of the reviewed wine: (8.8)

Offers an intense display of cherry, kirsch, rose, sandalwood and spice aromas and flavors. (Wine Spectator)

In (8.8), the value dimension of Intensity is applied to the olfactory qualities of the reviewed wine. In the following instances from wine reviews, graduation items are used to express olfactory and gustatory intensity: (8.9)

(8.10)

A deep, lush palate deals a ton of berry fruit, with flavors of blackberry, cassis and dark plum transitioning seamlessly onto a long finish graced by lemony oak. (Wine Enthusiast) It offers glorious levels of fruit and lots of body. (Robert Parker Wine Advocate)

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In (8.9), the hyperbolic quantifying expression “a ton of” is used to invoke Intensity of flavour, and in (8.10), the quantifying items “levels of” and “lots of” invoke Intensity of smell as well as weight in the mouthfeel, qualities that are portrayed as desirable by means of the item “glorious”. In the following instance from a perfume review, we find Intensity expressed by articulating the opposite by means of negation: (8.11)

Homme L’Eau Boisée opens with lime and mint (these are vibrant notes, not wishy-washy); next comes a resin-y, dense wood note—made buoyant by some of the promised “rum” and a pinch of (what smells like) nutmeg. Slowly, rich vetiver rises to the top of Homme L’Eau Boisée. (Now Smell This)

In (8.11), the intensity of the top notes is appreciated by means of the metaphorical expression “vibrant” complemented by the explanatory, negated opposite “not wishy-washy”, which it is assumed the addressees will co-assess with the reviewer as a negative attribute. The instances below from a perfume review and a chocolate review offer further illustrations of how Intensity is invoked by means of metaphorical expressions: (8.12)

(8.13)

As Intoxicated starts to develop, it becomes a bit nuttier, richer and it begins to rise and jump off the skin, growing with projection each minute. (The Scented Hound) Flavour is like an explosion in a fruit-packing factory, with raspberries and redcurrants competing for attention. (Seventy%)

In (8.12), the reviewed perfume’s intensity is captured by means of the metaphoric expression “jump off the skin”. In (8.13), the intensity of this chocolate’s aromatic profile is articulated by means of the analogous expression “like an explosion” as well as the metaphorical expression personifying the olfactory components as “competing for attention”, which suggests that both the raspberry and the red currant aromas are equally intense. The instances below also draw on metaphor to capture the lack of intensity vs. the intensity of the olfactory ingredients of the evaluated product:

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The heart is light florals—there is a brief whiff of the promised angelica—but once you’ve gotten there, it’s nearly game over. (Now Smell This) The bar smells intensely floral, like roses. Right off the bat, those floral notes hit your tastebuds. (Chocolate Codex)

In (8.14), gaming is used as a source domain to articulate the lack of intensity of the perfume’s smell, which is assessed as similar to the idea of “game over”. By means of the inclusion of the generic personal pronoun “you”, the review text positions the experiencer in focus of this evaluation of the chocolate’s perceived intensity and the perfume’s lack of this quality. In (8.15), the reviewer draws on a metaphorical relation between physical violence, “hit”, and the intensity of the floral notes. In the excerpt below from a perfume review, the perception of Intensity is explicitly located with the reviewer: (8.16)

I get moderate sillage, good projection and eight hours of longevity on my skin. (Basenotes)

In (8.16), the reviewer invites the addressees into the perception of the Gucci perfume Guilty’s degree of intensity, assuming that the addressees can make sense of the fine distinction between the sillage and the projection of a fragrance, sillage referring to the length of the trail left by the wearer of the perfume and projection signifying the extent of the radiation around the wearer. Evaluating the intensity of a perfume thus involves an intricate assessment, which the addressees are anticipated to be able to deduce from the reviewer’s presentation. At the end of the sentence presented in (8.16), it is the perfume’s persistence that is in focus, which we now turn to. The compositional value of Persistence can apply to olfactory as well as gustatory perceptions. As pointed out in Chapter 4, Persistence has to do with the extent in time of the aesthetic perception, a quality that is present in the assessment of all of the three products, but applies somewhat differently to perfume compared to wine and chocolate. We find Persistence to be inscribed, invoked and at times framed as a perception located with the experiencer. The examples below from a wine review and a perfume review illustrate inscribed instances:

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(8.17)

(8.18)

Liquorice and dark fruit, compact, quite complex, framed by muscular tannins, underlying depth that unfurls in the glass, and really good length. (Decanter) despite its muted nature, it has good lasting power. (Now Smell This)

In (8.17), the reviewer references the persistence of the wine by means of the univocal expression “really good length”, which signals to the addressees that persistence is a desirable aesthetic quality in a wine and that this wine from the Spanish Rioja region possesses this quality. Example (8.18) is equally straightforward in its appraisal of persistence of the perfume 10 Corso Como, which is described to have “good lasting power”. The reviews employ graduation resources to invoke the compositional quality of Persistence, as in the perfume review in (8.19): (8.19)

This perfume […] stays close to skin, but remains there for more than 6 hours. (Fragrantica)

In this excerpt, the reviewer offers an exact description of the perfume’s persistence without evaluative cues to guide the addressees’ understanding of whether the perfume’s persistence is satisfactory. The addressees thereby need to rely on their prior experience in order to co-construct the evaluation with the reviewer as to whether six hours can be regarded as sufficient persistence. However, the reviewer’s use of graduation resources, “more than”, leads the addressees towards the idea that the reviewed perfume has adequate persistence. The examples below offer further illustrations of the use of graduation resources to express the compositional quality of Persistence: (8.20) (8.21)

Illicit’s green accord smells great, and it lasts and lasts. (Now Smell This) And this just lingers and hangs tantalisingly on the tongue afterwards. (Seventy%)

In (8.20), graduation by means of repetition, “lasts and lasts”, is used to express the adequacy of the quality of Persistence in the reviewed perfume. In (8.21) two near-synonyms, “lingers and hangs”, are used

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to invoke the idea of Persistence. The following example uses hyperbolic expressions to capture the Persistence of the reviewed chocolate: (8.22)

One piece seems to take an eternity to disappear (if you treat it more like a lozenge) and the flavor hangs around forever. (Chocolate Codex)

In (8.22), graduation resources in the form of maximization, “eternity” and “forever”, are used to capture the compositional value of Persistence in the flavours of this chocolate. In addition, we find instances of inscribed and invoked Persistence captured from the perspective of the experiencer. In (8.23), excerpted from a chocolate review, the use of the generic second person pronouns “you” and “your” indicates a generalized experience of Persistence, available to the reviewer as well as the addressees: (8.23)

A sharp bitter floral that brought to mind orange blossom, lavender and cilantro. It stays with you for minutes, just clinging to your tongue. (Chocolate Codex)

By means of the generic second person pronouns, the reviewer invites the addressees into their experience, without inscribed items leading the addressees towards an evaluative reading. Instead, the addressees are allowed to be in the perceptual moment with the reviewer and are invited to co-construct the evaluation of Persistence together with the reviewer based on the upscaled descriptions, “for minutes” and “just clinging”. In the perfume reviews below, the perception of Persistence is specifically located with the reviewer: (8.24) (8.25)

I get moderate sillage, good projection and eight hours of longevity on my skin. (Basenots) While both have a good tenacity on my skin, 10 Corso Como lingers longer like a soft calming breeze that always seems to be around. (Bois de Jasmin)

In (8.24), previously rendered as (8.16), the reviewer’s perspective is explicitly announced by the presence of the first person pronouns “I” and “my”. In a similar vein, example (8.25) uses the first person pronoun

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“my” to relate the aesthetic quality of persistence as the perfume lingers on the reviewer’s skin in particular. These descriptions capture a property that is particular of perfume, namely that it reacts chemically with the molecules of the wearer’s body, meaning that its persistence may be different for different wearers. In (8.25), this chemical phenomenon is acknowledged by means of the reference to the reviewer’s skin as the location for the perfume’s persistence, “good tenacity on my skin”. In the comparison to a “calming breeze that always seems to be around”, the persistence of 10 Corso Como is nonetheless intersubjectively confirmed. Our analysis has shown that Persistence is an important compositional value articulated with a range of linguistic resources in reviews of all of the three products, offering the addressees the opportunity to co-experience the aesthetic value of Persistence together with the reviewer. We now turn our attention to the compositional value of Balance, which refers to how the properties of the evaluated entity hang together. From this perspective, Balance straddles all of the other aesthetic values explored in this section and can apply to olfactory as well as gustatory perceptions. We illustrate the value of Balance by means of inscribed and invoked instances. Example (8.26) below shows an inscribed instance of the compositional value of Balance in a wine review: (8.26)

Showing finesse, charm and good concentration, it is a wellstructured and beautifully balanced red with fine flavor on the finish and rather gorgeous fruit. (Robert Parker Wine Advocate)

The red wine’s aesthetic quality of being balanced is explicitly articulated by means of the adjective “balanced”, which is further reinforced by the intensifying adverb “beautifully”, signalling to the addressees that balance is an appreciated aesthetic quality of this wine’s taste. The example below offers a further illustration of inscribed Balance in a wine review: (8.27)

Full bodied and elegant, the savory palate has nice weight, doling out mature Marasca cherry, black plum, espresso, orange zest and spice while fresh acidity keeps it balanced. (Wine Enthusiast)

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In (8.27), the gustatory sensation of this wine is described by means of the expression “full bodied”, a specialized term that it is anticipated the addressees can relate to. Furthermore, the review text explains that the palate of this wine has “nice weight”, which also relates to the sensation of feeling how heavy the wine is in the mouth. The following enumeration of elements captures the complexity of the olfactory sensations experienced by the retronasal passage when the wine is in the mouth. The reference to these elements as “mature” might lead attentive addressees to arrive at the idea that the internal aromatics of the wine appear sweet, an idea that is subsequently countered by the information that there is an appropriate level of acidity, which results in a balanced taste. The description construes the addressees as familiar with the specialized terminology used to describe the taste and mouthfeel of a wine as well as with the tasting procedure of weighing the wine in the mouth to assess its body. In addition, it is anticipated that the addressees are familiar with how acidity can interact with ripeness of fruit flavours in order for the wine’s taste to be assessed as balanced. The following example correspondingly illustrates how the compositional value of Balance is articulated in a chocolate review: (8.28)

The finish takes a turn into rich mocha, tobacco leaf and malted toffee with just the faintest of tannins. This is a sweetly fruity, honeyed profile then with a superbly balanced, well integrated range of flavours that are rich and intoxicating, while still calm and harmonious. (Seventy %)

In (8.28), the inscribed instances of Balance, “superbly balanced”, “well integrated” and “harmonious”, lead the addressees towards the reviewer’s assessment that the flavours of this chocolate are balanced. While the examples above have offered illustrations of inscribed instances of the compositional value of Balance, the following chocolate and perfume reviews illustrate how Balance is invoked by the juxtaposition of descriptive elements. (8.29) (8.30)

The filling is soft and smooth, and neither too sweet or too alcoholic. (Chocablog) gorgeous layers of floral absolutes set against the crisp green notes. (Bois de Jasmin)

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In (8.29), the level of sweetness and alcohol is compared, but it is left up to the addressees to co-construct the aesthetic value of balance resulting from adequate levels of these elements of the taste. In (8.30), the expression “set against” invokes the idea of opposites that are in balance; however, the aesthetic evaluation needs to be supplemented by the addressees. We find that the reviewers devote attention to the appreciation of Balance and use both inscribed and invoked ways of capturing the balance of the perceptual experience. Example (8.31) below, excerpted from a perfume review, offers an illustration of such combinations of lexical expressions: (8.31)

While the bright note of frankincense disappears into the warmth of the base, like raindrops evaporating under the sun, its resinous tonality colors the arrangement, making the sandalwood and oud accord of the base more vivid and multifaceted. Perfectly balanced between the resinous woody elements, the dark rosy sweetness and the ethereal smokiness. (Bois de Jasmin)

The text first offers a descriptive recount of how the different olfactory elements take turns as the fragrance evolves, a recount that leads up to the assessment that the elements of this perfume are “perfectly balanced”. The addressees are thereby allowed to co-experience how the olfactory elements interact with one another and thereby follow the reviewer’s reasoning behind the aesthetic assessment. The descriptive part leading up to the assessment of the perfume’s balance includes analogous and metaphorical phrases, which contribute to the vividness of the description that the assessment is based on. In excerpt (8.32) below from a wine review, the aesthetic value of balance is invoked exclusively by means of metaphorical expressions, which the addressees need to decipher in order to fully comprehend the reviewer’s assessment: (8.32)

A toasty version, laced with vanilla, pastry cream and spice notes, this is enlivened by racy acidity that creates a mouthwatering frame for the poached quince, apricot and candied ginger flavors. (Wine Spectator)

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The complexity of the wine’s composition is described as “enlivened by” the wine’s acidity, which, along with the statement that the acidity constitutes a “frame” for the flavour components can be understood to invoke the idea that this wine’s taste is balanced. A considerable degree of insight is required by the addressees of this review in order to reinterpret the description as an evaluative account. The following instance from a chocolate review offers a negative assessment of the reviewed chocolate’s balance, also relying entirely on metaphorical expressions: (8.33)

Chocolate inconsequential & helpless. Coffee communicates poorly with it, which just feels lost in the brew despite comprising 66% of the mix. Cacáo feebly tries to stand its ground but gets steamrolled in the process—literally, as soggy coffee beans, probably pre-steamed for “their roasting”, annihilate the cocoa. (C-spot)

The metaphorical expressions in (8.33) invoke the image of a competition between the cacao and the coffee, apparently the two main flavour components of this chocolate. The review explains that the coffee “communicates poorly” with the chocolate, drawing on communication as a source domain to invoke the idea that the unity between the taste components is lacking. The expression “tries to stand its ground” subsequently invokes a fight between the chocolate and coffee, which the chocolate does not only lose, but it gets “steamrolled” by the coffee. As the description offers considerable entertainment value due to the creative use of metaphors, it projects the addressees as potentially bored by a straightforward assessment of the chocolate as unbalanced. Articulations of the aesthetic value of Balance sometimes make use of contractive engagement resources to capture the contest between different elements of the composition, which is illustrated in the following wine review and perfume review: (8.34) (8.35)

the tannic grip still persuasive, but acidity is wrapped around the black fruit core with subtle conviction. (Decanter) It was lush without being heavy, floral without being dowdy, and full of chiffon-like depth and light. (Now Smell This)

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In (8.34), the metaphorical description of the tannins as “persuasive” suggests that the wine’s mouthfeel can be experienced as overly astringent. However, the following countering connective “but” places more weight on the fact that the acidity and black fruit are in balance, which is articulated by the metaphorical expression “wrapped around”. In (8.35), negation is used to introduce and immediately deny undesirable properties, which the reviewer claims are not in evidence in this perfume’s composition, hence inviting the idea that the perfume is balanced. These negations rely on the addressees’ co-assessment of the denied properties, “heavy” and “dowdy”, as attributes of an unbalanced fragrance. We also find the aesthetic value of balance expressed by means of graduation resources, used to capture the relative presence of the different aroma components that are part of the olfactory experience. In the perfume review in (8.36) below, a range of linguistic expressions are used to capture the relative presence of the various olfactory components that are combined in the Tom Ford perfume below: (8.36)

On skin this perfume smells like sandalwood shavings soaked in rose water. A dash of brown sugar and a few swirls of incense complete the picture. But within moments, the toasted notes unfold, and that’s the coffee part of Café Rose. The coffee is a delicate whiff, as if you were to crush a couple of grains between your fingers, but it’s pronounced enough to give a toasty, warm sensation to the fragrance. Don’t expect the richness of espresso–coffee notes are notorious for being hard to use in large amounts. (Bois de Jasmin)

This description of the fragrance profile of Café Rose introduces a proportional relation between the sandalwood and rose scents: “shavings” could be taken to indicate that the sandalwood does not have an overwhelming presence, while “soaked in” suggests that an abundance of rose water has been allowed to drench the sandalwood shavings. Perhaps this description can be understood to invoke the idea of a balanced fusion of sandalwood and rose, which results from the soaking. The text goes on to explain that the aroma component of brown sugar is present as a “dash”, which can conceivably be understood to indicate a moderate degree of presence, and another ingredient of this perfume’s top notes, incense, is present to the degree of “two swirls”, thus a rather backgrounded element of this

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perfume’s opening stage. The perfume’s heart notes of toasted coffee are only just noticeable, “as if you were to crush two grains between your fingers”, i.e. they are not allowed to overwhelm the entirety of the perfume’s fragrance profile, which could be seen to invite the idea of a balanced scent. The reviewer’s description of the different components of this perfume is thus combined with a rendition of their relative presence, which could be understood as a way of capturing the aesthetic value of balance in this perfume’s fragrance profile. This minute account of the unfolding of this perfume construes the addressees as equally attentive to these kinds of details, which it is assumed they will consider meaningful in order to co-assess the balance of Tom Ford Café Rose with the reviewer. To sum up, the analysis of Composition has focused on how the reviewers evaluate perception in terms of luxury aesthetics using the subcategories of Complexity, Intensity, Persistence and Balance, which were found to be inscribed as well as invoked, in which case it is left up to the addressees to co-construct the assessments. We have found that Complexity has a prominent role in the appreciation of the luxury aesthetics of the reviewed products. The reviewers substantiate their assessments of complexity with exact renditions of the components, thus construing the addressees as equally attentive to this level of detail. Intensity is found to be a desirable value, expressed by means of graduation and metaphors, thereby relying on the addressees’ capacity to co-construct the evaluative meaning. We found a range of linguistic resources used to articulate the compositional quality of Persistence and took note of how graduation resources and analogies were used, offering the addressees the opportunity to co-experience the aesthetic value together with the reviewer. The compositional quality of Balance, which refers to how the properties of the evaluated entity hang together, was furthermore found to be articulated in minute detail, speaking to addressees who request this level of detail in order to determine whether they themselves would regard the product as having good balance. The addressees are thus construed as consumers that require tangible evidence in order to be convinced to agree with the reviewers’ assessments. We also took note of creative ways of capturing the compositional values, which render the reviews entertaining and allow the addressees to be entertained while co-experiencing the perceptions with the reviewer.

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8.2

Reaction

As illustrated in the introductory analysis of the review of the Parliament q’eqchi chocolate bar, Reaction can portray the emotional appreciation as generalized, “it smells awesome”. This way of articulating Reaction suggests that the addressees’ shared emotional appreciation is taken for granted, but the expression of Reaction can also give the addressees the opportunity to disagree. In the following, we first illustrate instances where the reaction is presented as general and is not ascribed to either the reviewer or the addressees. Both Quality and Impact are used to portray the reaction as shared by the reviewer and addressees. Examples of reaction articulated as Quality are illustrated in (8.37) and (8.38) from two wine reviews: (8.37) (8.38)

this will be a remarkable wine as it develops. (Wine Enthusiast) This killer Zinfandel should drink well for 5–7 years. (Robert Parker Wine Advocate)

The following instances, (8.39) and (8.40), from perfume reviews also offer examples of positive and negative Quality: (8.39) (8.40)

Bandit remains a gem, confident, strong and elegant, much like its avant-garde creator. (Bois de Jasmin) As a fragrance its generic character and egregiously synthetic nature defines it as the epitome of mediocrity. (Basenotes)

Examples (8.41) and (8.42) from chocolate reviews offer further illustrations of the expression of reaction through Quality: (8.41)

(8.42)

Disappointingly though, the chocolate itself isn’t that great. Although the wrapper states that it’s of Peruvian origin, it neglects to mention what percentage of cocoa solids it is. It’s rich and chocolatey, with a lovely smooth texture, but it’s not particularly complex. In fact, there’s really not much to it at all. (Seventy%) It looks great—but somehow doesn’t quite live up to the promise. (Chocablog)

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What all these instances have in common is that they appear assertive, leaving little room for divergent emotional reactions to the experience of the product. They are pronouncements made by a confident reviewer, assuming the addressees’ agreement. By means of selections from the category of Impact, the assertiveness can be attenuated. While still portraying the reaction as shared, the presentation leaves room for the addressees’ imagination, which is illustrated in the next example: (8.43)

It’s a bit of a curiosity, a synthetic oud done in a bright and brisk manner, topped with citrus and with a light vein of candy sweetness running through it. There’s little that’s offensive about it but, by that same token, there’s little that compels. (Basenotes)

The formulations “offensive” and “compels” in (8.43) locate the reaction with the experiencer rather than with the product, i.e. the product does not cause the experiencer to be either offended or compelled. Reaction realized as Impact relies on co-construction from the addressees in the role as co-experiencer. The example below from a perfume review uses a combination of inscribed evaluative lexis and metaphor related to Impact to spark the addressees’ imagination: (8.44)

The interplay of contrasts and harmonies in the composition is simply breathtaking. Vent Vert is a ruffian dressed in transparent chiffon. One cannot help being mesmerized by her. (Bois de Jasmin)

In (8.44), the expression “breathtaking”, an instance of inscribed Impact, invites the addressees to share the experience of being out of breath caused by the perfume Vent Vert. The addressees’ imagination is further called for in order to transfer the idea of “a ruffian dressed in transparent chiffon” to the experience of smelling a perfume, along with the idea of being “mesmerized”. A similar phenomenon is found in the chocolate review below:

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(8.45)

And the melt on this? An oral sex bomb—the hot ‘n sultry foreplay to getting laid. A Chuao on par with Monica Belluci. (C-spot)

Just like in (8.44) above, the expressions of Impact in (8.45) rely on the addressees’ capacity to imagine the similarity relationship that is construed between the chocolate that is being reviewed and the idea of a sex bomb and of Monica Bellucci, considered one of the most beautiful actresses in the world. In (8.46) below, Impact is expressed by means of references to bodily reactions: (8.46)

a cacophony assaults the senses, dizzy really... eyes roll up into the head, the world blurs… just feel the endorphins & tryptophan surging… better then hot shots… this legal crack (so good it should at least be limited if not illegal). (C-spot)

The sequence in (8.46) compares the experience of the chocolate to the bodily reactions to a narcotic drug. We also find instances of Reaction that are explicitly located with the reviewer. When using this presentational option, the reviewers invite the addressees into their reaction to the product quality or the holistic emotional experience that engagement with the product gives rise to. Example (8.47) below from a chocolate review illustrates instances where the reviewer explicitly positions the opinion as subjective: (8.47)

I think that by now my opinion of this chocolate will be fairly clear. To say there are niggles would be nitpicking. For me it’s almost perfect, and I could easily eat it every day, save for the disappointment of having none left. (Seventy%)

In (8.47), the reviewer makes room for the addressees to disagree, given that the reaction to the chocolate is located in a subjective experience “for me”. In the following excerpt too, the negative holistic verdict is softened by leaving some room for the addressees to react differently to this chocolate: (8.48)

They’re certainly not moreish, at least not to me. One was enough, and the second one ‘to be sure’ just confirmed that

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what I was eating was not in any way high quality chocolate. (Chocablog) In (8.48), the reviewer moves from the negative impact of this chocolate on the experiencer, proclaiming that it did not give rise to a desire for more, “not moreish”, to a more objective assessment beyond that of the individual experiencer, which it is assumed the addressees will agree with given the reviewer’s negative reaction. A similar phenomenon is found in the perfume review in (8.49) below, although in the case of this review the mediocre spiritual impact that the perfume has had on the reviewer is not followed by a negative holistic assessment of the perfume’s quality: (8.49)

It does not, for me at least, evoke the same kind of spiritual reaction as Diptyque Tam Dao or the Comme des Garçons Incense series. All the same, it is beautifully done. (Now Smell This)

Instances like (8.49) suggest that there may be a discrepancy between the high quality of a product and the impact it has on the reviewer, in the sense that high quality does not necessarily evoke a “spiritual reaction”. A similar idea of spiritual reaction, but expressed in terms of how the body experiences something that is truly exquisite, is found in the review of the perfume Chanel 5 below: (8.50)

I get a shiver running down my spine whenever I smell the parfum with its incredible rose and jasmine absolutes from the Grasse region. (Bois de Jasmin)

In (8.50), the reviewer alludes to an emotional response to the perfume, so strong that it affects a bodily experience by sending shivers down the spine. The ultimate, spiritual luxury experience described by the reviewer is enabled by complete understanding of the perfume in terms of the raw ingredients, the design and the heritage of Coco Chanel’s original signature scent, and the addressees are thus invited to imagine themselves as having an equally enlightened emotional reaction. A different form of Impact is illustrated in the following excerpt from a wine review:

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(8.51)

Not subtle—an arriviste hedonism and lavishness, that makes me think of black silk sheets and big gold jewellery. (Jancis Robinson)

In (8.51), the reviewer adds an associative comment to the holistic verdict of this red wine from Côtes de Bourg as “not subtle”, comparing it to “black silk sheets and big gold jewellery”. While the addressees are ostensibly free to infer their own interpretation of what kinds of associations “black silk sheets and big gold jewellery” would invoke for them, the co-occurring notion of “arriviste hedonism” construes the reviewer and addressees as non-arrivistes that prefer subtle wine styles, even if other consumers, not the reviewer or addressees, might have different taste preferences. In some cases, the addressees’ taste preferences are explicitly referenced in the review text. As shown in examples (8.52) and (8.53), this is achieved by means of affect-related expressions, e.g. “fans of” and “love”, which position taste preferences as individualistic. The following examples illustrate instances of this phenomenon in wine reviews: (8.52) (8.53)

Fans of bold, full-bodied and saturated reds are going to love this. (Wine Enthusiast) A great Christmas gift for Rioja lovers, or to serve with roast lamb or beef. (Decanter)

In (8.52), the expressions “fans of” and “going to love this” ascribe a taste preference for the reviewed wine type to at least some of the addressees, while at the same time not excluding addressees that may not share this taste preference. Similarly in (8.53), the phrase “Rioja lovers” also brings to mind the possibility of the existence of different taste preferences regarding wines from the Spanish Rioja region. The following examples from perfume reviews offer further illustrations of how taste preferences can be ascribed to the addressees: (8.54)

Either fragrance would be a perfect choice for a man or a woman who likes woody fragrances. Fans of Costes might appreciate 10 Corso Como in particular, given its rose and incense over sandalwood composition. (Bois de Jasmin)

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If you want something cleaner and less jasmine-y than the L’Artisan, the Jo Malone might be just what you need. (Now Smell This)

In (8.54) above, the presentation indicates that the assessment of either of the two reviewed perfumes as “a perfect choice” relies on the consumers’ preference for the particular scent type, i.e. woody fragrances, which is further developed by bringing in another perfume, “Costes”, suggesting that the addressees are in a position to consider their emotional reaction to Costes in order to assess whether 10 Corso Como will give rise to an equally positive reaction. Comparison of the addressees’ reaction to two different perfume brands is also featured in (8.55). The conditional ascribes the taste preference as a possibility rather than an absolute, and addressees that do not desire “cleaner and less jasmine-y” notes are still projected as part of the community construed by this review. Further illustrations are found in the chocolate reviews below: (8.56)

(8.57)

For me, these are the best of the bunch, both in terms of presentation and flavour. But being basically just hazelnuts, sugar and milk chocolate, you’re only going to really like them if you’re a bit of a nut fan. (Chocablog) Do you like sour? This will be the bar for you. This might well be the sourest chocolate ever made—truly a mouth-puckering experience. (Seventy %)

In (8.56), the reviewer’s taste preferences are positioned as individualistic, “For me, these are the best of the bunch”, and possibly at odds with the addressees’, which is suggested by the following countering connective “but”. The conditional is used here to capture the preference for nuts in terms of a possibility rather than an absolute. Example (8.57) also proposes the possibility that the addressees will like sour chocolate by means of the question format. The group of addressees that is included among those that will possibly find this chocolate appealing appears limited, however, given the review’s following description of the chocolate’s balance as off, “the sourest chocolate ever made—truly a mouth-puckering experience”. The question in (8.57) could therefore perhaps be seen as ironic and directed to an addressee that is not included in the taste community that the reviewer addresses. A noteworthy feature

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of these instances is that when affect-related expressions are used in this way, they function to position the addressees’ projected taste preferences as individualistic. In this section, we have analysed the articulation of Reaction in the review texts. Reaction focuses on the emotional response to the reviewed products and can occur at various points in the review texts, as an introductory holistic assessment or as a final punch line to sum up the review. Reaction realized as Quality focuses on the evaluated entity, and we took note of how instances of Quality make the assessment appear assertive, projecting the addressees as univocally sharing the reviewer’s reaction, which leaves little room for divergent emotional reactions to the experience of the product. These are pronouncements made by a confident reviewer, assuming the addressees’ agreement. Reaction realized as Impact highlights the reviewer’s response and relies on co-construction from the addressees in the role as co-experiencer, which draws the addressees into the reviewer’s experience and lets them share the reviewer’s reactions, thus becoming impacted on their own terms. We noticed that high quality does not always guarantee a positive spiritual reaction, which complicates the appreciation of experiential luxury. Finally, we took note of instances where the reviewer’s use of attenuated assertiveness invites the addressees to disagree, which means that addressees are still included in the discourse community that the review construes, even if their taste preferences diverge from the reviewer’s to some extent.

8.3

Conclusions About Composition and Reaction in Reviews

Drawing on the results of this chapter, we continue our quest to ascribe to the imagined addressee characteristics and behaviour, luxury values and consumption goals. In the following, we reflect on how the findings of this chapter contribute to the image of the addressee that we have sketched in the preceding chapters. The analysis of Composition has revealed that the reviewers’ assessments of Complexity, Intensity, Persistence and Balance are consistently underscored by detailed description of sensory experiences, which projects the imagined addressee as attentive to this level of detail. Descriptions articulated without inscribed evaluative lexis construe the addressee as being able to co-construct the evaluation of the product’s sensory appeal based on the reviewer’s description. The reviewer assumes that the

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addressee can make sense of minute distinctions regarding olfactory and gustatory features, which adds the character trait of having acute sensory discernment to the image of the addressee that has previously emerged in Chapters 5–7. To our findings from Chapter 7, which positioned the imagined addressee as having considerable field-specific knowledge and the capacity to make sense of implicit logical relationships regarding field-specific background information, the results of this chapter add the trait of having fine-grained sensory discernment. In addition, the character trait of being critical noted in Chapters 5 and 6 can be said to be reinforced by the findings of this chapter, since the addressee is construed as expecting detailed sensory evidence in order to be convinced regarding the assessments of the products’ compositional worth. We have also noted that the descriptions in the reviews offer considerable entertainment value due to the use of metaphors and other linguistic resources such as hyperbole that make the texts fun to read. The presence of such creativity in the descriptions of sensory perceptions is suggestive of an imagined addressee that may get bored by plain assessments, which confirms a character trait that was deduced based on the results of Chapters 5 and 6. Such creative language highlights a spiritual dimension of experiential luxury, and by engaging with the reviewer’s portrayals of the aesthetics of the luxury experience, the addressee can co-perceive the aesthetics with the reviewer and become immersed in the luxury experience. In this chapter, it is the luxury value of sensory appeal that has been in focus, and we have explored this value by means of the analytic categories of Complexity, Intensity, Persistence and Balance, which we take to be crucial aesthetic luxury values for the imagined addressee, who is expected to co-construct these aesthetic values together with the reviewer. Complexity is shown to play an important role in the assessment of the luxury aesthetics of the reviewed products, particularly in the appreciation of olfactory perception. Intensity is found to be essential for the appreciation of olfactory as well as gustatory composition. Persistence is another vital aesthetic value present in the assessment of all of the three products, and Balance plays a key role in the appraisal of the luxury value of sensory appeal. In Chapter 5, we took note of the value of high quality, which was further confirmed in Chapter 6, where the material aspects of high quality were referenced. In this chapter, we have rendered the value of

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high quality more intricate by showing how the aesthetic value of sensory appeal is divided into a fine-grained complex of subordinate values. Based on the findings of this chapter, the goals of the imagined addressee’s luxury consumption can be further elaborated. Our analysis is suggestive of an addressee that strives to engage with all of the aesthetic facets of the experiential luxury product; this is evidenced by the reviewer’s attentiveness to the exact descriptions of the sensory experiences, which allow the addressee to co-perceive the products by means of all senses and co-assess the products’ luxury value together with the reviewer. Even if construed as already having a high level of understanding regarding the assessment of the aesthetic qualities of experiential luxury, a desire to learn more is projected onto the imagined addressee, especially regarding how the products’ sensory appeal can be slightly different when exposed to fine-grained comparison and still result in a luxury experience. We deduce that the addressee’s ultimate goal is to be immersed in the luxury aesthetics and experience transcendence through enlightened appreciation that goes beyond assessment of the component parts of the whole. The experiential luxury product is thereby regarded as a work of art on a par with music or painting, which means that the consumption of experiential luxury can be equated with other forms of aesthetic artefacts. We may perhaps speculate that by regarding the experiential luxury consumption as an art form, some of the consumption guilt that we took note of in Chapters 5 and 6 can be relieved, which we also observed in our reflections on the significance of insight into the products’ design and artisanship in Chapter 7. Finally, we deduce from our analysis in this chapter that the imagined addressee strives to be included in the online community of experiential luxury together with other aficionados that share a similar absorbing interest in wine, perfume or chocolate and to co-experience the aesthetics of the products together with others via the reviewers’ renditions. The imagined addressee’s pursuit of community membership was also noted in Chapters 5–7. The exploration of the reviews assisted by the Appreciation subcategories of Composition and Reaction has given detailed accounts of how inscribed and invoked instances interact in the passages of the reviews that capture the sensory experiences of the products. The addition of analytic subcategories to the original subsystem of Composition has proved valuable since the categories have allowed us to analyse the reviews of experiential luxury as being on a par with aesthetic critique. Given that

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the products of interest in this study are experiential, it is not surprising that the review texts mainly address their compositional qualities related to the luxury value of sensory appeal. In the next chapter, we continue our exploration of the reviews by drawing on the Appreciation category of Valuation which highlights the expression of non-aesthetic values in the discourse.

References Bednarek, M. (2008). Emotion talk across corpora. Palgrave Macmillan. Hunston, S. (2000). Evaluation and the planes of discourse. In S. Hunston & G. Thompson (Eds.), Evaluation in text: Authorial stance and the construction of discourse (pp. 176–207). Oxford University Press. Lehrer, A. (1975). Talking about wine. Language, 51(4), 901–923. Martin, J. R., & White, P. R. R. (2005). The language of evaluation. Appraisal in English. Palgrave Macmillan.

CHAPTER 9

Valuation in Reviews

This chapter continues to explore the review texts. In Chapter 7, the passages of the review texts that present background information were analysed by means of Involvement, and in Chapter 8, the passages that capture the aesthetic experiences were analysed using the Appreciation subcategories of Composition and Reaction. We now turn our attention to the articulation of non-aesthetic values in the reviews drawing on Valuation, the third subcategory under Appreciation in the appraisal system of Attitude (see Fig. 4.4 in Chapter 4). According to Martin and White (2005: 57), Valuation is field-sensitive. In this study, the field we are concerned with is experiential luxury, and in order to capture the non-aesthetic values expressed in the discourse, we have developed analytic categories inductively in this chapter. In line with the approach to Appraisal analysis adopted in this book, we regard seemingly factual renditions as well as analogies as contributions to how the reviewers articulate Valuation in the review texts. The text excerpt presented below is from a review of the Tom Ford perfume Café Rose, written by Victoria Frolova and is one of the reviews collected from the perfume review website Bois de Jasmin. The text is excerpted from a five-paragraph review and illustrates how Valuation can occur. In this review, the non-aesthetic evaluation is presented after the initial three paragraphs, which are devoted to assessment of the sensory experience.

© The Author(s) 2023 C. Hommerberg and M. Lindgren, Depicting the Consumer of Experiential Luxury, https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-60080-6_9

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Tom Ford pricing is aspirational, there is no doubt about that. You pay as much for the brand and its aura of exclusivity as for the perfume itself. But the quality is good enough that if you are ready to pay for Tom Ford’s name, you get a polished, well-crafted perfume. On the other hand, if you are not, you can find an idea similar to Cafe Rose among other niche lines. For the toasted rose layered with sweet nutty notes, try Parfumerie Générale Brûlure de Rose and Les Parfums de Rosine Rose Praline. Etat Libre d’Orange Rossy de Palma is an earthier, darker twist on this idea. If you are craving a true Middle Eastern rose, Montale Black Aoud or Aoud Queen Roses are the other interesting options. Finally, Serge Lutens Santal Majuscule will take you to Marrakesh by the way of Paris, but in this case, you should be ready for a rich hit of sandalwood before you get the rose petal showers. There are many other ways to reach the same destination.

This text sequence from the review of Café Rose starts out with a comment on the price of the brand. Tom Ford’s pricing is considered “aspirational”, i.e. the price is appraised as high, which is accompanied by the following proclamation “there is no doubt about that”. This assessment of the pricing of Tom Ford as high positions the addressees as being in complete agreement with the reviewer’s assessment of Tom Ford’s pricing as high, possibly too high. The presence of the attitudinally charged item “aspirational” does more than pronounce on the high price of the Tom Ford brand; it also tells us that the consumer willing to pay the high price of Tom Ford is someone that seeks status through luxury, i.e. an extrinsically driven luxury consumer. The Tom Ford brand is furthermore claimed to have an “aura of exclusivity”, because the high price of the brand makes the consumers that have the means to pay for the product limited in number. Café Rose is subsequently appreciated as having high quality by means of the expression “a polished, well-crafted perfume”. We note that the expression used to capture the quality of Café Rose appears neutral due to the absence of intensification, resulting in the impression that the reviewer deems this product to be of sufficiently high but perhaps not outstanding or distinctive quality. The text goes on to present an alternative position vis-a-vis Tom Ford, conjuring up a consumer that is not willing to pay its high price. This alternative, price-conscious consumer is subsequently offered advice about other perfumes that are “similar to Café Rose”, implying that these are

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less pricey options. The lower price of these alternative options does not seem to affect their luxury value. Instead, the affordability of these options can make them equally, if not more, attractive. The reviewer uses the generic pronoun “you” to refer to both groups alluded to in this review, which means that the addressees evocated by the text can opt for either and still be included among the addressees projected by this review. As a final note, we can perhaps understand from the review excerpt’s final sentence “There are many other ways to reach the same destination” that the qualities found in Tom Ford’s niche line do not position the brand as unique. Our analysis of the review of Café Rose illustrates how Valuation is realized in the review texts in our dataset. We have demonstrated how the pricing of the brand is critically assessed against the product’s overarching quality. We have also deduced that by paying the high price, extrinsically driven consumers can position themselves as exclusive in relation to other consumers. However, this does not necessarily entail that the luxury experience is unique. ∗ ∗ ∗ In the following, we offer an analysis of how instances of Valuation position the addressees, drawing on seven non-aesthetic values developed inductively in the analysis process. The chapter is organized into sections devoted to each of these values: Distinctiveness in Sect. 9.1, Typicality in Sect. 9.2, Price-Quality relation in Sect. 9.3, Exclusivity in Sect. 9.4, Naturalness in Sect. 9.5, Sustainability in Sect. 9.6 and Suitability in Sect. 9.7. Finally, in Sect. 9.8, we conclude how Valuation contributes to the image of the addressee.

9.1

Distinctiveness

In this section, we account for how the reviewers articulate Distinctiveness, which subsumes novelty, character and an element of surprise. We have found Distinctiveness to be expressed in inscribed as well as invoked ways. Example (9.1) below, excerpted from a review of the perfume Chanel No 5, offers an inscribed instance of Distinctiveness:

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(9.1)

It is not just that the materials that comprise No 5 are stunning, though they are the best of what is available today. On the whole, the fragrance has a unique and memorable character. It is elegant, yet it is neither distant nor haughty. It is sensual, yet it does not have a decadent aura. (Bois de Jasmin)

In addition to outstanding raw materials, “the best of what is available today”, the fragrance is appreciated for having a “unique and memorable character”. The next excerpt from a chocolate review also includes what we regard as an inscribed instance of Distinctiveness: (9.2)

In a sense, Amano has exploded onto the market, shouting and hollering, making their rookie performance not easily unnoticed. And how could this bar not raise a few eyebrows? It’s a unique and interesting interpretation, one that could help solidify Amano’s stance as a serious contender. (Seventy%)

In (9.2), the reviewed chocolate is appreciated as a “unique […] interpretation” and it is said to “raise a few eyebrows”, which is indicative of an element of surprise. The idea that this chocolate is “not easily unnoticed” underlines that the bar is appreciated as having a distinctive character. Examples (9.3–9.5) illustrate further ways in which Distinctiveness is inscribed: (9.3)

(9.4)

(9.5)

It should be noted that Boutari does a fine job with whites elsewhere (i.e., Mantinia and Santorini), producing reasonably priced wines with fine balance and some distinction. (Robert Parker Wine Advocate) Only after a couple of hours can one experience the full effect of the luxurious, yet dry sandalwood that makes Tam Dao stand out among the scores of fragrances attempting to capture the beauty of this precious wood. (Bois de Jasmin) It’s bars like this that make chocolate tasting so fun, so many surprises. (Chocolate Codex)

Example (9.3) is a potential candidate of inscribed Distinctiveness in wine reviews, signalled by means of the moderately appreciative expression “some distinction”, which we have interpreted as referring to this Greek

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wine as having some features that make it distinctive. In (9.4), the phrase “stand out from” appreciates the distinctiveness of the reviewed perfume, and in (9.5) the expression “so many surprises” implies that this chocolate is distinctive in relation to others. In the following examples, the value of Distinctiveness is invoked by graduation resources and metaphor, respectively: (9.6)

(9.7)

Wine doesn’t get much deeper in color or more concentrated in fruit flavor than this. The black color goes to smoky red on the rim. (Wine Enthusiast) 24 Faubourg is a striking beauty that falls into the big floral category like Ysatis and 1000. But 24 Faubourg is one of those perfumes that doesn’t play second fiddle to anyone. (The Scented Hound)

In (9.6), graduation items invoke the impression that this California red wine is distinctive, due to its intensity. The maximized expressions of intensity, articulated by means of graduation resources, “doesn’t get much deeper in color or more concentrated in fruit flavor”, combined with a reference to the wine’s colour as “black”, while articulating Intensity from the perspective of sensory appreciation, can be understood to express Distinctiveness, since these traits give the wine a character that makes it distinct from other comparable wines. In (9.7), the metaphor-based idiom related to the distribution of roles in an orchestra is transferred to the world of perfume, and by means of the negation “doesn’t play second fiddle to anyone”, the reviewer portrays the reviewed perfume as distinctive. Distinctiveness also emerges in reviews that criticize the product’s lack of distinctiveness, which is illustrated in the passages below from a perfume review and a chocolate review: (9.8) (9.9)

The most generic, uninspired fragrance I’ve come across in a very long time. (Fragrantica) Mostly, though, it’s an entirely typical red-fruit taste such as one sees in many fine chocolates, a taste that now feels a bit neutral and generic. Obviously not bad, just unexciting. (Seventy%)

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In (9.8), the perfume is evaluated as “generic”, which we understand to imply a negative assessment of this perfume’s Distinctiveness, especially in combination with the Reaction item “uninspired”. Similarly in (9.9), the items “neutral” and “generic” indicate lack of Distinctiveness, which, although the quality is deemed as “not bad” leads to the reaction that the chocolate is unexciting. Lack of Distinctiveness is also invoked in the following perfume review: (9.10)

I’m getting cranky over the glut of new niche lines and fragrances that, while wearable and enjoyable enough, don’t deliver on their promises and remind me vaguely of many other things I’ve smelled before. (Now Smell This)

In (9.10), the perfume’s lack of Distinctiveness is expressed by means of an Affect-related expression, “I’m getting cranky over”, in combination with Graduation items, “glut of” and “many other things I’ve smelled before”. Even in cases where the reviewer expresses an upscaled assessment of the reviewed product’s positive Impact, as in (9.11), or general quality, as in (9.12), the lack of Distinctiveness can still be an issue that is criticized: (9.11)

(9.12)

I generally enjoy these types of scents, but they’re getting a bit clichéd at this point with SO MANY Tobacco Vanille clones out there. (Basenotes) This is what I call “eating chocolate”. That is the term I use to describe bars that are pleasurable but not challenging. It is technically excellent chocolate, palatable for the mass market. It doesn’t push any buttons. It is elegant but not riveting. (Chocolate Codex)

In (9.11), the reviewer overtly inscribes positive Impact, “I generally enjoy”, but counters this reaction with the comment that the scent type is “clichéd” or non-unique due to the presence of “clones”, upscaled by means of quantification and capitals: “SO MANY”. The availability of many similar products thus invokes lack of Distinctiveness, and Distinctiveness is thereby promoted as a desired value in these reviews. In (9.12), the phrase “technically excellent” indicates high materialistic quality and

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“pleasurable” a positive Reaction, but the reviewer still deems the chocolate to be insufficient in terms of the Impact it gives rise to: “not challenging”, “doesn’t push any buttons” and “not riveting”. We regard these negative Reaction items in combination with the phrase “palatable for the mass market” to invoke lack of distinctiveness. In (9.13) below, which is an excerpt from a perfume review, an extensive analogy is used to invoke lack of Distinctiveness: (9.13)

Business hotels aren’t designed to inspire passion. They’re efficient and bland. They mean to please without offending. Their restaurants are equally uninspiring, with menus full of chicken caesar salads and farmed salmon filets. The hospitality punches in at the time clock inside the basement service entrance. But, boy, do they turn rooms. You know where I’m going with this. To me, today’s Christian Dior J’Adore gives the same feeling as a middle-tier business hotel. It does a perfume’s job of smelling pretty and clean, but comes off as oddly soulless. Yet, it sells like gangbusters… Like a chain hotel, J’Adore best serves people who want a need met without having to pay a lot of attention… Me, I’ll take the old place downtown with the crazy concierge and lobby full of mismatched lamps, threadbare Persian rugs, and the resident tabby cat batting at a vase of garden roses and delphiniums. I hear the bar serves an excellent Sazerac. (Now Smell This)

Drawing on familiarity with divergent hotel types, this analogy contrasts the notion of chain hotels, available in abundance, to the idea of a hotel that is one of its kind, and expresses a preference for the more distinctive establishment: “Me, I’ll take the old place downtown”. The subsequent description of what the “old place downtown” is like suggests features that are distinctly different from the mainstream middle-tier business hotel, such as a “crazy concierge”, “mismatched lamps” and “threadbare Persian rugs” combined with “the resident tabby cat”, “a vase of garden roses and delphiniums” and “an excellent Sazerac”. Through this analogous description, the reviewer criticizes the reviewed perfume for coming off as “soulless”, i.e. not having a positive Impact, even if it has compositional quality, “does a perfume’s job of smelling pretty and clean”. The addressees are specifically referenced by the pronouncement “You know

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where I’m going with this” and thereby positioned as not belonging to those that are described as “people who want a need met without having to pay a lot of attention”, which the review also refers to. As shown by the examples presented in this section, Distinctiveness appears to play a significant role in the reviews of perfume and chocolate, where we found Distinctiveness to be realized by means of different types of linguistic resources, including extensive analogies. It may be the case that Distinctiveness is implied in the wine reviews’ descriptions of the specific olfactory components that make up a wine’s aroma and bouquet profiles, and it is possible that addressees with a high level of field-specific competencies can deduce such implied evaluation from the descriptions. The addressees are thus projected as valuing that which is distinctive, i.e. how a product stands out from the rest. We understand the value of distinctiveness to rely on extensive insight, since in order to determine whether something is distinctive, there is a need to be able to relate to prior perceptual experiences in a principled manner.

9.2

Typicality

This section deals with the presence of a non-aesthetic value that we have labelled Typicality. The Valuation subcategory of Typicality subsumes appreciation that relates to the recognition of traditions, raw materials, brand or designer style as part of the assessment of the product. Typicality emerging from particular wine and cacao-growing regions is illustrated in the excerpts below from a wine review and a chocolate review: (9.14)

(9.15)

Ormanni is a small estate south of Castellina in Chianti that makes wines that are characteristic of Chianti Classico tradition. (Robert Parker Wine Advocate) Columbia is an origin that I generally adore as it seems to be the kinder cousin of Madagascar with the slight red fruits and a nutty floral that I can never put my finger on. And this chocolate is typical of what I would expect in terms of flavours. (Chocolatiers)

In (9.14), the value of Typicality is inscribed by means of the phrase “characteristic of Chianti Classico tradition”, which refers to winemaking

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traditions in the Italian Chianti Classico district, and in (9.15), the reviewed chocolate is appreciated as typical of cacao beans grown in Columbia. Example (9.16), excerpted from a wine review, offers an example of typicality related to a particular estate’s traditions: (9.16)

It’s a wine very much marked by the house style but which remains vinous and precise, vertical and dense. A gastronomic Champagne. (Decanter)

Due to the condensed nature of the wine reviews, there are few linguistic signals that can help in the reconstruction of implied Valuation. Nonetheless, the idea that this champagne is “marked by the house style” suggests to us that the typicality of its style is considered as part of the positive appreciation of this champagne. The following excerpts from chocolate reviews offer illustrations of similar appraisal of chocolate: (9.17) (9.18)

Definitive of the Bolivian Beni notes and easily the best of the Beni chocolates. (Seventy%) this is clearly a bar that’s about making a statement about flavor possibilities. And in this it succeeds admirably, demonstrating clearly what it means to be Madagascar. (Seventy%)

In (9.17), the value of Typicality is inscribed by means of the expression “definitive of the Bolivian Beni notes”. Bolivia Beni is a chocolategrowing district in South America, which makes us inclined to understand the appreciated notes to be definitive of the region where the cacao was grown. Furthermore, in (9.18), we have interpreted the descriptive phrase “demonstrating clearly what it means to be Madagascar” as appreciative of this chocolate’s typicality. Since Madagascar is a cacao-growing region, this instance can be seen as an illustration of appreciation of typicality related to region. It can however be discussed whether (9.17) and (9.18) are instances of typicality related to region or to raw ingredients, referring to the types of cacao beans grown in these regions, and it is possible that these instances refer to both types of typicality. The next example from a wine review offers further illustration of typicality relating to raw ingredients:

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(9.19)

This is a fine introduction to this grape at a reasonable price. (Robert Parker Wine Advocate)

In this excerpt, the reference to the grape type is combined with the phrase “fine introduction”, which we interpret as appreciative of the typicality of the raw ingredients from which the reviewed Greek wine was made. We also include under typicality instances where the appreciation refers to a retention of the earth in which the raw ingredients were grown. The following instance illustrates this kind of typicality: (9.20) (9.21)

The instability in this bar alternates with rigidity as it stays versant to the ground & the Earth that produced it. (C-spot) It’s unique and is a prime example of how single-origin beans can make the most of their soil. It has the taste of a place. (Chocolate Codex)

In (9.20), which is excerpted from a chocolate review, we interpret the expression “stays versant to the ground & the Earth” as articulating appreciation of typicality related to a more particular place of growth than a region. Similarly in (9.21), the reviewer appreciates the chocolate positively for its typicality by having “the taste of a place”, which we interpret as a reference to a smaller area than a region. Typicality can also relate to a brand or a designer, which is illustrated below in excerpts from perfume reviews: (9.22) (9.23)

It has that Iris dna of Dior Homme and Dior Homme Intense. (Fragrantica) Cellier’s touch is obvious in Vent Vert. Inhale it as the liquid melds into your skin. The first impression is of delicate unfurling leaves, and then one is both shocked and enthralled by the peppery verdancy of galbanum. Its presence is like a gust of wind. The floral notes temper its ruthless character, yet the disconcerting and unsettling aura remains, making Vent Vert unforgettable. (Bois de Jasmin)

In (9.22), a particular component of the reviewed perfume’s fragrance profile is portrayed as typical of the Dior brand by the expression “Iris

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dna”, and in (9.23) the properties of the composition of the appreciated perfume are described as bearing the typical traits of the perfume designer Cellier’s touch. Typicality is furthermore found to be articulated in reviews of products that are criticized for lack of this feature. In the examples below, the reviewed chocolates’ lack of Typicality is deplored: (9.24)

(9.25)

Surprisingly, the finish displays an entirely unexpected earthy component, rather out of place in a Madagascar. So this is a bar that goes from strength to weakness, good overall but not rising to the heights the aroma might have suggested. (Seventy%) This Michel Cluizel bar is made from São Tomé beans, but it doesn’t communicate much about the origin. If the beans had any edge, they’ve been sanded down in the production process. It’s disappointing when that happens. (Chocolate Codex)

In (9.24), the reviewer deplores the presence of an element of the chocolate’s gustatory profile that is not typical of the region of origin of the cacao, or alternatively of the raw ingredients in terms of types of cacao beans grown in this region. In (9.25), a metaphoric expression “doesn’t communicate much” is drawn on to negatively assess the chocolate’s lack of typicality of the original cacao beans. We understand this negative appreciation of the lack of Typicality as reinforcing the general significance of this form of Valuation. The next example, also from a chocolate review, further confirms the value of Typicality by commending the reviewed chocolate as displaying a return to a more original type of cacao: (9.26)

The Franceschi family, proprietors of Hancienda San José on the Paria penisula way to the east, transplanted the pick of the crop from Chuao, some obviously rare varietals boasting white seeds, making it more Porcelana than Porcelana (only whose skin, rather than its seeds, are white). They do as well as just about anyone in isolating the differing varietals on their property which make for heirloom cacáo that Chuao Village has possibly lost thru cross breeding. (C-spot)

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In (9.26), we understand the expression “more Porcelana than Porcelana” to be appreciative of the typicality of the cacao beans from which the chocolate is made. The reviewer does not only appreciate the typicality of the Porcelana beans experienced in this chocolate, but this positive appreciation is contrasted with other raw ingredients from the same region that have lost its typicality “thru cross breeding”. The appreciation of Typicality is thereby reinforced. In this section, we have illustrated how we see the non-aesthetic value of Typicality articulated in the reviews. We thereby took note of typicality related to region, raw ingredients, tradition, brand and designer. The significance of Typicality is reinforced by negative instances where the lack of Typicality was deplored. We found the value of Typicality to be clearly articulated in the perfume and chocolate reviews. It is possible that appreciation of typicality related to wine terroir, the combination of climate, soil and location, is implied in the detailed descriptions that we took note of in Chapter 7 on involvement, for instance in the renditions of percentages of the types of soil in which the grapevines are grown. Given the absence of linguistic markers encouraging an evaluative reading of these descriptions, it would require a higher level of field-specific expertise than ours to reconstruct such evaluation. Typicality is thus positively appraised in the reviews, and like distinctiveness, typicality relies on substantial knowledge, since consideration of prior perceptual experiences is required in order to assess whether something is typical of its category.

9.3

Price-Quality Relation

As we observed in this chapter’s introductory analysis of the review of Café Rose, another non-aesthetic value that we found to be articulated in the reviews refers to the pricing of the products, and when the price of the product is mentioned, it tends to be related to the quality as assessed by the reviewer. This price-quality relation is articulated in the following excerpt from a chocolate review: (9.27)

For the vast majority of chocoholics this would seem expensive. I would have no reservation, however, in suggesting that the chocolate is worth it. (Chocolatiers)

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In (9.27), the high price of the chocolate is described as a feature that may make many consumers reluctant to buy it. However, the reviewer finds the chocolate to be of sufficiently high quality to be worth the high price. By means of the expression “the vast majority of chocoholics”, a distance is marked with respect to those that are not inclined to pay a high price for their chocolate consumption. Neither the reviewer nor the addressees are assumed to be chocoholics, since the reviewer recommends the chocolate to the addressees by means of the pronouncement “I would have no reservation, however, in suggesting”. The chocolate’s high price is thereby assumed to be unproblematic for the reviewer and addressees, given that the chocolate’s quality makes it worth it. We note that the chocolate’s high price is not understood primarily as a way to reduce the number of consumers that are able to access the chocolate. Instead, it is the chocolate’s exquisite quality that justifies its high price, i.e. although expensive, “the chocolate is worth it”, which construes a relation between price and quality. A similar price-quality relation is expressed in the following excerpt from a chocolate review: (9.28)

If you like bitter chocolate this will offer you a lot of bang for your buck. It’s a flyweight at 42.5g but it hit far, far out of its weight class. (Chocolate Codex)

In (9.28), the idiomatic expression “bang for your buck” is used to articulate appreciation of the price-quality relation of this chocolate. The following excerpts from wine reviews are also indicative of the importance of the price-quality relation: (9.29) (9.30)

(9.31)

The 2006 NAOUSSA is lovely and well priced. (Robert Parker Wine Advocate) Since Sojourn Cellars jumped into the wild and competitive wine marketplace several years ago, they have proved to be adept at turning out a large line-up of high quality as well as good value wines. (Robert Parker Wine Advocate) It should be noted that Boutari does a fine job with whites elsewhere (i.e., Mantinia and Santorini), producing reasonably priced wines with fine balance and some distinction. (Robert Parker Wine Advocate)

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In (9.29), the price-quality relation is articulated by means of the combination of the subjective appreciation “lovely” and the appraisal that the wine is “well priced”. In (9.30), the wine’s producer is commended for turning out wines that are of high quality while simultaneously being “good value”, which we interpret as an articulation of the price-quality relation. Example (9.31) also construes a link between the wines’ quality and the assessment of the price as reasonable. The significance of the price-quality relation is confirmed by instances where the product is negatively appraised as not worth its high price. Such negative assessments of the price-quality relation are illustrated by the chocolate and perfume reviews below: (9.32)

(9.33)

Here, you get what you expect: a fairly typical fruity chocolate, which is by no means a bad thing, but does mean you really have to think hard to justify the steep expense on this bar. (Seventy%) English Laundry London is the first fragrance of its type that makes you question the price tag of Creed Aventus, because outside a bit of projection loss, they compare favorably to each other in quality. (Basenotes)

In (9.32), the reviewer appraises the product as having average quality, which is articulated by means of the phrase “fairly typical fruity chocolate, which is by no means a bad thing”. The relation between the chocolate’s average quality and its high price, “steep expense”, is subsequently called into question, and by means of the generic second person pronoun “you”, the reviewer encourages anyone contemplating a purchase of this chocolate to “think hard” using emphatic reinforcement, “does mean”, graduation, “really”, and a modalized expression indicating strong obligation, “have to”. In this excerpt, we understand the reviewer as sharing with the addressees the ideology that high price can only be justified on the grounds that the quality is sufficiently exquisite, which does not seem to be the case with this particular chocolate. Similar reasoning is found in (9.33). The less expensive perfume English Laundry London is found to be of nearly the same quality as the more expensive Creed Aventus, with just “a bit of projection loss” making the less expensive option inferior to the higher-priced perfume. This review construes the addressees as favouring the less expensive product as long as the quality is reasonably equal.

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In this section, we have illustrated how the Price-Quality relation emerges as a form of non-aesthetic value in the reviews. We took note of instances that comment on the high price of the product, but still recommend it due to its high quality, which makes it worth the cost. We also found instances where the product’s quality is critically appraised as not worthy of the high price. The price-quality relation thus implies that the product needs to be worthy of its pricing. We can perhaps assume that the price-quality relation is associated with the values of distinctiveness and typicality, in the sense that a product that is typical of its category, yet distinctive in relation to other products of the same type, is worthy of a higher price.

9.4

Exclusivity

In this section, we have accumulated instances that we take to refer to kinds of exclusivity. These kinds of exclusivity are related to preview opportunity, counter-conformity choice and expert cognizance. Exclusivity can be achieved by having access to the product or having access to information about the product before others. Such preview exclusivity is illustrated in the excerpt below from a wine review: (9.34)

Seen in a preview look at the winery (it is not yet on our shores), this, the latest version of this relatively new, high-end bottling, has come into its own in this fine vintage. (Robert Parker Wine Advocate)

There are no overt markers in (9.34) that can help us extract the value of exclusivity from this instance. However, the expressions “preview look” and “not yet on our shores” are intriguing. They lead us to assume that few consumers are familiar with this wine, given that it is not yet generally accessible. By adding this information in the review text, the reviewer projects the addressees as having an interest in products that others may not currently have access to, which is a form of exclusivity that the reviewer can offer. The next example from a chocolate review also invokes the idea of such preview exclusivity: (9.35)

Fine work from a still little-known producer. (Seventy%)

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In (9.35), the expression “little-known” is indicative of exclusivity in the sense that only few consumers are aware of this producer. The addition of “still” complicates the picture and suggests that the producer’s status as “little-known” may be transitory, which invokes a form of exclusivity that is associated with being in the know before others. We can see this form of exclusivity referenced in the review of Café Rose, featured in the introduction to this chapter, and we reiterate in (9.36) the passages that can potentially be understood to invoke exclusivity through references to niche lines that are less well-known: (9.36)

On the other hand, if you are not, you can find an idea similar to Cafe Rose among other niche lines. For the toasted rose layered with sweet nutty notes, try Parfumerie Générale Brûlure de Rose and Les Parfums de Rosine Rose Praline. Etat Libre d’Orange Rossy de Palma is an earthier, darker twist on this idea. If you are craving a true Middle Eastern rose, Montale Black Aoud or Aoud Queen Roses are the other interesting options. Finally, Serge Lutens Santal Majuscule will take you to Marrakesh by the way of Paris, but in this case, you should be ready for a rich hit of sandalwood before you get the rose petal showers. There are many other ways to reach the same destination. (Bois de Jasmin)

In (9.36), the reviewer communicates the insight that the fragrance components of the more well-known and expensive brand can be found to different degrees in other less well-known and less expensive niche lines. By profiting from the reviewer’s fragrance expertise, the addressees can bypass the more expensive brand, which invokes a type of exclusivity associated with expert cognizance. We also found another form of exclusivity articulated between the lines of the review texts, which is associated with counter-conformity choice. This form of exclusivity is illustrated in example (9.37): (9.37)

it isn’t what I’d call memorable, but it doesn’t much matter: it’s by Beyoncé and it isn’t a complete mess. People will buy it. (Now Smell This)

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The reviewer in (9.37) dissociates from the people that will buy the perfume Heat by Beyoncé merely based on the fragrance’s association with a celebrity. This excerpt projects the addressees as not being aligned with these consumers. Instead, exclusivity is invoked here in the sense of belonging to those that do not fall for celebrity associations. The example below is similar in the sense that exclusivity through counter-conformity is invoked: (9.38)

10 Corso Como has developed quite a cult following, and as I said above, it is beautifully done, but I still haven’t decided if it is something I need to own. (Now Smell This)

In (9.38), the reviewer refers to the enthusiasm among consumers inspired by the perfume 10 Corso Como as “a cult”, suggesting obsessiveness and perhaps exaggerated devotion. This type of obsessiveness does not enhance the reviewer’s interest in obtaining the product, “I still haven’t decided if it is something I need to own”. This perfume review projects onto the addressees an equal measure of scepticism towards products that have cult-like followers, which in our understanding invokes a form of exclusivity through counter-conformity. The example below offers further illustration of counter-conformity exclusivity: (9.39)

Indeed, Creed Aventus is one of the most-worn fragrances among the affluent upper-classes of London, after which English Laundry names its “clone”, but like all homages to popular styles coming from a designer couture house rather than a deliberate “clone” perfumer, English Laundry London (2018) seeks to sell itself as something other than a copycat. Unfortunately, this is simply impossible when dealing with fragrances that either reference or take any inspiration from Creed Aventus in even the slightest form, because the fan base for the stuff is so obsessive, so pedantic, so foamingat-the-mouth to defend the honor of their gentrified broculture validation sauce that anything bearing resemblance is descended upon, being ripped to shreds instantly. (Basenotes)

In (9.39), the fans of the perfume Creed Aventus are characterized by means of the expressions “the affluent upper-classes of London” and

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“gentrified bro-culture”, which bring to mind a type of exclusivity based on financial resources and status through birth. The reviewer upscales the devotion of these fans of the perfume Creed Aventus by means of repetition of an intensifier: “so obsessive, so pedantic, so foaming-atthe-mouth”, which portrays the fan base of Creed Aventus as having an exaggerated, even ridiculous zeal concerning the fragrance. In contrast, the reviewer and the projected addressees dissociate from the people that constitute the upper-class affluent fan base of Creed Aventus. Instead, the reviewer and the addressees base their consumption choice on other factors than conformity to that which is worn by many, “most-worn fragrances”, which we regard as a form of counter-conformity exclusivity. In the analysis offered in this section, we took note of different forms of exclusivity, which we labelled preview exclusivity, exclusivity through cognizance and counter-conformity exclusivity. We also noted that the reviewers tend to distance themselves from the kind of exclusivity that is associated with having the financial resources to pay a high price for one’s luxury consumption. Exclusivity thereby emerges as a value that the addressees are projected as embracing, and we found that exclusivity can be achieved in different ways. Having knowledge about a product before other consumers results in a type of exclusivity that the addressees are assumed to appreciate. In addition, exclusivity resulting from being more initiated than others emerged as valued by the addressees along with a form of exclusivity that is associated with making consumption choices that diverge from those made by the majority of other consumers.

9.5

Naturalness

We now turn our attention to another non-aesthetic value that was found to be expressed in the reviews. This is the value of Naturalness. Examples (9.40) and (9.41) below, excerpted from a chocolate review and a wine review, illustrate the appreciation of Naturalness: (9.40)

(9.41)

The natural nature and unmanaged cacao ensures that it has a more restrained, less acidic flavour which just doesn’t need controlled by the use of additives. All that is need is skill and patience to hone the flavours. (Chocolatiers) There’s a wild side to the wine as well with underbrush, licorice and a distant whiff of black truffle. (Robert Parker Wine Advocate)

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The value of Naturalness is inscribed in (9.40) in the appreciation of this chocolate’s “natural nature”, which makes additives unnecessary, resulting in a less processed product. Example (9.41) includes a less direct reference to naturalness in the appreciation of the wine’s “wild side”. The next example from a perfume review also promotes the value of Naturalness: (9.42)

It’s almost edible without being heavy and it’s fresh and fruity without being artificial. […] When it first goes on, Damascena reminds me of a lovely garden; but a garden that’s not too formal or tended. In the garden, the roses and currents are a bit wild and overgrown. (The Scented Hound)

This reviewer appreciates the Damascena perfume for not being artificial, and based on the presence of the negation “without”, we interpret artificiality as a feature that the reviewer finds undesirable. Furthermore, the analogous description of a “not too formal or tended” garden is, similarly, suggestive of an ideology according to which what is natural is generally preferable to that which is excessively pruned by man. In the example below, the value of Naturalness is provoked by means of metaphor in combination with negation: (9.43)

He massages this bar to its optimum, without any theatrical make-up whatsoever (neither vanilla, lecithin, nor even added cacáo butter). (C-spot)

In (9.43) the idea of “theatrical make-up”, which artificially transforms an actor into the theatrical character of a play, functions to provoke negative appreciation of artificiality when transferred to the domain of chocolate making. The negation “without” highlights the naturalness of the product which is retained due to the absence of “theatrical make-up”. Furthermore, the idea of a particular expression emanating from the naturalness of the product is expressed in the next excerpt from a chocolate review: (9.44)

One would probably expect a wild food, of almost any type, to be more complex than its cultivar companions, given a probably more mixed genestock and certainly a more variable environment. Beni bears this expectation out in force. But here wild doesn’t mean unruly; it rather means untampered. (Seventy%)

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In (9.44), wild food is compared to cultivated alternatives and found to be generally desirable due to its more pronounced complexity. The appreciation of this chocolate as “untampered” is indicative of an ideology according to which naturalness is valued. We understand Naturalness to be of significance, because being an artificial rather than natural product can be a ground for negative appreciation, as in the perfume review below: (9.45)

This spring scent is one of the first of the House of Gucci that switched their olfactory direction from quality to petrochemical superficiality. […] As a fragrance its generic character and egregiously synthetic nature defines it as the epitome of mediocrity. (Basenotes)

This reviewer dismisses the Gucci brand as producing petrochemical scents, which is contrasted with “quality” in this review. In addition, the intensified negative appreciation “egregiously synthetic” is linked with the negative assessment of the perfume as “the epitome of mediocrity”. The combination of negative appreciation in this excerpt construes the reviewer as strongly in favour of natural products, a preference that is assumed to be shared by the addressees. Further illustrations of lack of naturalness co-occurring with negative appreciation are offered in the following perfume reviews: (9.46)

(9.47)

Perhaps there are some natural materials in there, but as is so often the case with mid-tier celebrity fragrances—and for that matter, with mid-tier designer fragrances—it doesn’t much smell like it. (Now Smell This) This smells like a Lip Smacker crossed with those chocolate covered cherries you find at the local drugstore, the ones that have a distinctive flavor all their own, not really chocolate and not really cherry but something new, not found in nature. (Now Smell This)

In (9.46), the reviewer opens up for the possibility that there may be “natural materials” in the reviewed perfume Heat by Beyoncé. However, the fragrance is still evaluated negatively because of the lack of olfactory evidence of this naturalness, which is expressed by means of negation,

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“it doesn’t much smell like it”. Example (9.47) is slightly different in that it deplores the presence of an artificial fragrance composition of “not really chocolate” and “not really cherry” that is “not found in nature”. This string of negations contributes to the negative appreciation of this perfume as artificial, and the excerpt thereby reinforces the idea that naturalness is generally preferable. This section has been devoted to the value of Naturalness which we have found to be articulated in the reviews. As shown by the examples offered in this section, Naturalness appears to be a desirable value, which is confirmed by the presence of affirmative instances that appreciate the naturalness of the product and by instances that deplore the evaluated product’s artificiality. The addressees are thereby projected as favouring products that retain a wild, untampered feature before those that are overly processed by the producer.

9.6

Sustainability

Another non-aesthetic value that was found to be expressed in the reviews is Sustainability. This value refers to the health of the consumer, the preservation of the environment and the well-being of the local economy and workers involved in the production line. The examples below illustrate how health sustainability is expressed in the reviews: (9.48)

(9.49)

There’s no indication of cocoa content, and the nutritional breakdown informs the consumer that four of these little chaps will provide you with almost a quarter of your RDA of fat! (Chocablog) Having severely reduced my sugar consumption over the past few months to try and lose weight, I could have easily found a much better chocolate to break my calorific straight jacket. I should have known better. (Chocolatiers)

In (9.48), the reviewer expresses discontentment with the absence of information about the cocoa content of the reviewed chocolate, and the sentence final exclamation mark indicates disapproval of the fat content, which amounts to as much as a quarter of the recommended dietary allowance. This review thus invokes the idea that the reviewed chocolate may be harmful to the consumer’s health due to its high level of fattiness,

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which we understand as associated with a concern for health sustainability. Similarly in (9.49), the reviewer describes an endeavour to lose weight, which we interpret as a desire to preserve health sustainability. Based on the description of the weight loss period as a “calorific straight jacket”, the reviewer’s approach to such health consciousness appears ambiguous. It nonetheless transpires from the review that the reviewed chocolate was not of sufficiently high quality to be worthy of risking the consumer’s health, which suggests that health sustainability may be worth risking as long as the luxury experience is sufficiently exquisite. The next example from another chocolate review is also indicative of the existence of the value of health sustainability, but which the reviewer seems to dissociate from to some extent: (9.50)

Pacari have a raw chocolate bar worth eating for its own sake, not merely for the purpose of feeling virtuous. For the healthconscious determined to have only raw chocolate, this should be a no-brainer: it is the only chocolate worth considering. For the rest of us, it adds another chocolate to try and enjoy in the company of the very best. (Seventy%)

In (9.50), the healthiness of the raw chocolate that the reviewed bar is made from appears to be evaluated positively, suggesting that health sustainability is an important concern. However, the reviewer, although appreciating the health benefits of raw chocolate, dissociates from those consumers that are so committed to healthiness that they abstain from all other products than those that are made from raw chocolate. In this excerpt, “the health-conscious” are portrayed as a group to which neither the reviewer nor the addressees belong, which is clarified by the distinction between those that are health-conscious and “the rest of us”, where the first person “us” is used to express solidarity between the reviewer and the addressees. Another form of sustainability that we found to be articulated in the reviews is environmental sustainability. We understand this value to be present in the wine review in the example below: (9.51)

A great food-friendly wine, produced organically in a drier brut style. (Decanter)

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The reviewer in (9.51) makes a point about the fact that this wine is “produced organically”, which invokes a more general value of environmental sustainability, even if the presentation appears to be purely descriptive in this excerpt. The appreciation of this wine as organically produced can perhaps even be understood to invoke all of the sustainability types that we take note of in this section. For instance, we can assume that the fact that the wine was organically produced means that no artificial chemical fertilizers, pesticides, fungicides and herbicides were used in the cultivation of the grapes. As a consequence of the avoidance of toxic or unnatural elements, we can infer that organically grown products are healthier for the consumer, that organic cultivation of grapes involves less harmful impact on the land where the vines are grown and that the vineyard staff’s working conditions benefit from the absence of harmful chemicals. By pointing out that this wine is organically produced, the reviewer construes the value of sustainability as relevant for the projected addressees’ consumption choice. The next example from a chocolate review also addresses the value of environmental sustainability: (9.52)

Chococo source many of their ingredients locally and organically. (Chocablog)

In (9.52), the appreciation of the chocolate maker Chococo’s ingredients as being organic is combined with the information that they are locally sourced. While the information that the ingredients are organically sourced invokes the same idea as in (9.51) above, the notion of being locally sourced adds another element to the value of sustainability. Using local ingredients can mean that ingredients do not need extensive transportation, which entails a smaller environmental impact as well as benefits for the local employment sector. We understand this reviewer as anticipating the addressees’ agreement regarding the significance of these sustainability values. The example below, excerpted from a chocolate review, provides further illustration of environmental sustainability: (9.53)

It’s a bar with a lot of intensity for its smaller footprint. (Chocolate Codex)

In (9.53), the chocolate bar’s compositional value of intensity is positively evaluated, a value that is correlated with as assessment of its moderate

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environmental impact, which is expressed by means of the phrase “smaller footprint”. The example thus confirms that the value of environmental sustainability is projected as significant for the addressees’ prospective consumption choice. We also found instances that are associated with the value of ethical sustainability, which encompasses working conditions of those in the industry. The value of ethical sustainability is inscribed in the following chocolate review: (9.54)

Go*Do is the complete opposite as they’re highly ethical, organic and sustainable—something that’s vitally important to me. […] Obviously as it doesn’t have palm oil in it the chocolate isn’t as glossy but has a slight cakey feel but that’s exactly what this bar is about—it’s about trying something different from the norm. It’s about offering “confectionary” in an ethical setting. And I love it for it. (Chocolatiers)

In (9.54), both environmental and ethical sustainability are promoted as important dimensions of the reviewer’s appreciation of this chocolate, “vitally important to me” and “I love it for it”. The absence of the ingredient palm oil, which is known to have harmful environmental, social and economic impact, is specifically referenced, and the qualitative defects caused by the absence of palm oil are mentioned. These qualitative defects are however overruled by the fact that the chocolate is deemed to be ethically sustainable. The example below offers further illustration of positive appreciation of ethical sustainability: (9.55)

what sets great chocolate from the rest is its ability to improve the world […] the differentiating aspect of this bar is the hands-on approach that Rasmus takes and that people and the terrain are viewed as just as important as the cacao itself. [] He and the rest of the team, including Marcelo Baldivieso and David Vacaflores not only put a great deal of effort striving for perfection, but they’re taking the difficult path of actually trying to improve the livelihoods of the communities. (Chocolatiers)

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In (9.55), the chocolate makers are commended for being mindful of the people and the terrain of the cacao-growing region and for contributing to improvement of the living conditions for those working in the industry. We interpret the inclusion of this description as a way to promote the value of ethical sustainability as a significant aspect of the assessment of luxury chocolate. In this section, we have explored the non-aesthetic value of Sustainability as it emerges in the review texts. We found that although the chocolate reviews include references to health sustainability, these are ambiguous and do not promote healthiness as a value that should univocally be pursued suggesting that health sustainability is only desirable as long as this value does not impair the luxury experience. However, the values of environmental and ethical sustainability appear to be important dimensions of the non-aesthetic appreciation that the reviewers project onto the addressees. The addressees are thereby positioned as assigning importance to different forms of sustainability, incorporating factors related to the environment as well as the people working in the luxury production industry.

9.7

Suitability

The final non-aesthetic value that we deal with in this chapter is Suitability. This value applies to appreciation of how and when the product can be used. In this section, we take note of suitability for the individual, suitability for the setting and suitability in situations that involve other people. The following examples illustrate suitability for the individual in perfume reviews: (9.56)

(9.57)

I wear this perfume whenever I’m tired or feeling lonely, it is comforting and warm, and makes me feel softly feminine. In fact, I mostly use it at home. (Fragrantica) The whole thing is pretty and very pleasant, and would make a nice pick-me-up for a hot summer day (Now Smell This)

In the excerpt in (9.56), the reviewer relates the fragrance to negative mood states, “tired” and “lonely”, which the perfume can alleviate by being “comforting”. The reviewer further explains that the setting where

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the perfume is most useful is at home, which we understand to indicate that this fragrance is suitable for individual luxury moments. In (9.57), the reviewer refers to the reviewed perfume as a “pick-me-up”, an expression that we have interpreted as related to the wearer’s mood state, which if not necessarily initially negative is still enhanced by the perfume. The reference to “hot summer day” does not however give us any indication as to whether the wearer is appreciating the perfume’s mood-enhancing qualities alone or in the company of others. The next example nonetheless associates the reviewed perfume with a situation where the wearer is alone at home: (9.58)

it is beautifully done, and has a velvety-soft, squishy comfort scent kind of feeling that makes it more wearable than many woodsy incense fragrances. Lest that sound too much like something to spray on as you pad around the house in your slippers and old flannel bathrobe, I must add that there is something very sexy about it too. (Now Smell This)

In (9.58), the idea that this perfume is suited for padding “around the house in your slippers and old flannel bathrobe” brings to mind an individual luxury moment for which this perfume is adequate. However, it also has dimensions that make it “sexy”, which suggests that it can raise attraction in situations where others are present to appreciate the fragrance, even if the specifics of these situations are left unarticulated. The following examples from chocolate reviews offer further illustrations of suitability, either for the individual or in relation to someone else: (9.59)

(9.60)

Overall, another beautifully made and presented box of chocolates from Chococo. As a treat for yourself or as a Christmas gift, you really can’t go wrong with this kind of quality. (Chocablog) The Soft Coeur is advertised as a massage bar for couples. It’s made with honey and cocoa powder, making a chocolate honey centre which you can apparently smooth over the other person (or yourself, if so inclined). (Chocablog)

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In (9.59), the Chococo box of chocolates is proposed to be appropriate as “a treat for yourself”, which is indicative of an individual luxury moment. The chocolates are also said to be equally apt as a Christmas gift, which it can be assumed that someone else will receive. Similarly in (9.60), the reviewed chocolate massage bar is described as suitable for couples, which implies a luxury experience shared with someone else. Alternatively, by means of the parenthetical addition, “(or yourself, if so inclined)”, the review proposes that the massage bar is equally suited for an individual luxury moment. We also find suitability related to specific settings, such as the weather, which is indicated in the excerpts below from perfume reviews: (9.61)

(9.62)

Weather-wise this is pretty much year-round except maybe not for the harshest extremes of hot and cold, in which other things more-specialized may better serve. (Basenotes) very relaxing and suited for every occasion, although I prefer wearing it for fall and in the office. (Fragrantica)

In (9.61), it emerges that the perfume has versatile suitability, since it can be worn all year round in almost all types of weather, which invokes the idea that luxury products need to be adapted to the specific setting in order to be maximally worthy. The perfume reviewed in (9.62) is appraised as “suited for every occasion”, even if its optimal suitability for the reviewer is described to be in the fall. This review also mentions that another setting where the perfume is suitable is the office, which, in contrast to weather, is a setting that is likely to involve other people that can perceive the perfume’s projection and sillage. A similar idea is brought up in the excerpt below, also from a perfume review: (9.63)

it doesn’t evoke teen angst (teen spirit?) for me. In fact, you could easily wear it to your workplace. (Now Smell This)

In (9.63), the reviewed perfume is featured as a scent that is appropriate for the workplace, although in this case, the suitability of this perfume for the workplace is correlated with disappointment with its other qualities. The following examples offer further illustrations of settings where the reviewed products are proposed to be useful:

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(9.64) (9.65)

(9.66)

Wagyu beef, I think, with some kind of balsamic reduction and creamy mash loaded with truffle. (Jancis Robinson) Afrika-Olifant is not an office scent and it’s not a fragrance for going on a picnic. It is for wearing when you’re out on the prowl or if you want to create an aura of mystery. (The Scented Hound) The packaging and overall look and feel of these discs put me in mind of summer weddings or garden parties. They’re bright, cheerful looking things which would work extremely well as table ‘extras’ or favours. Alternatively, they would just add a splash of colour to an outdoor lunch or picnic, and the handy little box makes transporting them very easy indeed. (Chocablog)

In (9.64), excerpted from a wine review, the reviewer proposes a setting where luxury foods in the form of wagyu beef and truffle accompany the reviewed wine, i.e. conceivably a setting where the wine is enjoyed together with other people at a dinner table. In (9.65), the reviewer appraises the reviewed perfume positively for not being an office scent. In contrast, the setting where this perfume is proposed to be suitable is a place where the wearer can be “on the prowl”, which we assume indicates a place where the perfume is apt for attracting sexual partners. Example (9.66) describes the reviewed product’s suitability in a range of settings that involve other people, summer weddings, garden parties, outdoor lunches or picnics. As already illustrated in (9.59) above, the reviews propose that the reviewed product is suitable as a gift, which indicates that the luxury moment it can provide will be experienced by someone else. The next examples offer further illustrations: (9.67) (9.68)

A great Christmas gift for Rioja lovers, or to serve with roast lamb or beef. (Decanter) Definitely a good pick as a gift for someone with a chocolate and tobacco addiction! (Chocablog)

Both of these instances from a wine review and a chocolate review mention the suitability of the reviewed product as a gift. However, the product cannot be offered in its own right as a luxury present; the gift

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is only suitable if it agrees with the recipient’s taste preferences, “Rioja lovers” and “someone with a chocolate and tobacco addition”. The next excerpt offers another illustration of the suitability of the reviewed chocolate as a gift for someone else: (9.69)

Consider them an emergency “Sorry I forgot Valentine’s Day” gift, rather than something to make any kind of impact. (Chocablog)

In (9.69), the reference to the chocolate’s suitability as an emergency Valentine’s gift is presented as part of a negative assessment of the reviewed product. This passage furthermore invokes the idea that only a product of exquisite quality is adequate for having a luxury impact on the recipient. We conclude this section by an excerpt from a chocolate review that also refers to the suitability of the chocolate for a setting involving other people: (9.70)

Would I buy this bar again? Yes and no. I would buy it to share in a tasting group; some bars are great conversation starters. (Chocolate Codex)

The suitability of the product proposed in (9.70) refers to a setting where it is likely that other chocolate aficionados are present. The experience that the chocolate is suggested to be appropriate for is not sensory enjoyment but rather an intellectual exercise, where the chocolate can function as a topic of conversation. This section has shown how the non-aesthetic value of Suitability surfaces in the reviews. In our exploration of the articulation of suitability, we took note of the reviewed products’ suitability as individual luxury, as luxury suitable for particular settings and as luxury offered to others or experienced in the company of other people, and we found the value of suitability to be assigned to particular weather conditions, seasons and settings where the product is combined with other items. The value of suitability also depends on whether the product is consumed individually or in social circumstances that involve other people.

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9.8

Conclusions About Valuation in Reviews

The original Appraisal system does not offer established subcategories of Valuation, and we have therefore developed discourse-specific analytic subcategories inductively in order to capture the types of non-aesthetic appreciation that we found to be articulated in the reviews. Since the field that our study targets is experiential luxury, the distinction between aesthetic and non-aesthetic values is not watertight, and there is some overlap between these types of appreciation. However, in contrast to Composition and Reaction, which rely on immediate perception and affective response to the sensory experience offered by the product, the values that we regard as subtypes of Valuation also involve cognitive or social considerations. We have identified seven non-aesthetic values referenced explicitly or implicitly in the reviews, which we have labelled Distinctiveness, Typicality, Price-Quality relation, Exclusivity, Naturalness, Sustainability and Suitability (see Fig. 9.1).

Attitude

Affect

Distinctiveness

Judgement

Composition

Typicality

Appreciation

Reaction

Price-Quality relation

Valutation

Exclusivity Naturalness Sustainability Suitability

Fig. 9.1 The subsystem of Valuation in the reviews included in this study, highlighted in black

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As our reconstruction of the imagined addressee in this chapter builds on these seven non-aesthetic Appreciation subcategories, we start by reflecting on how they contribute to the image of the values embraced by the addressee and follow up these findings by considering the addressee’s characteristics, behaviour and consumption goals. The imagined addressee values that which is distinctive and stands out from other products, while at the same time assigning importance to the products’ typicality relating to for instance raw ingredients, a certain designer or a particular estate. We deduce that the addressee embraces a luxury ideology according to which a product should ultimately be distinctive in relation to other members of its category without losing the typicality. The findings of this chapter thus adds another dimension to the addressee’s appreciation for high quality, involving design and artisanship, raw ingredients and place of growth of the products as well as composite sensory appeal, which we have taken note of in previous chapters. Appreciation of the unique, which surfaced in previous chapters, also recurs in this chapter as a regard for that which is distinctive in relation to other members of the wine, perfume or chocolate category. The addressee is furthermore projected as finding the price-quality relation important and maintaining that the luxury product’s quality needs to be worthy of its pricing. Another value projected onto the addressee is exclusivity in the sense of being more initiated than others, making consumption choices that diverge from those made by the majority of other consumers and having knowledge about a product before other consumers. The addressee is furthermore construed as favouring naturalness as well as different types of sustainability incorporating factors related to the environment as well as the people working in the luxury production industry. Health sustainability also matters to the addressee as long as the luxury experience is not negatively impacted. The findings regarding the value of sustainability confirms the image of the addressee’s value system sketched in previous chapters. Moreover, the imagined addressee assigns importance to the products’ suitability in relation to the context of consumption as well as the taste preference of self and others. The significance of aptness in relation to taste preferences previously emerged in the findings of Chapter 8. As regards the imagined addressee’s characteristics and behaviour, we deduce from the presence of Valuation that the addressee has considerable insight into the fields of wine, perfume or chocolate; the addressee is knowledgeable to the extent of being able to determine what is typical

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of a specific region, particular raw ingredients or certain brands and designers. At the same time, the addressee is continuously curious to stay updated so as to enhance current knowledge and learn more about that which is not already familiar, for instance new products on the market or less known alternatives to mainstream products. These characteristics of the imagined addressee confirm the findings of previous chapters. Despite already having a high degree of field-specific cognizance, the addressee is therefore deferent to authorities in the field who can help further awareness and enable experiences that are beyond the conventional. The addressee also appears grateful for advice from those that are more enlightened regarding the suitability of the luxury products for particular settings and social circumstances. Deference for authorities in the fields of wine, perfume or chocolate was noted as a finding in previous chapters to be a characteristic projected onto the addressee, alongside considerable prior insight. Furthermore, the imagined addressee is priceconscious. Despite having the means to pay for experiential luxury, the addressee is unwilling to spend money on a product that is not of sufficiently high quality to be worth the price. Opportunity to contribute to a good cause for the environment or for the people of luxury-producing regions may nevertheless make a higher price justified. The addressee thereby appears inclined to take responsibility for the impact of the luxury consumption. The addressee is also concerned with individual health, but health sustainability ranks lower than the pleasurableness of the immediate luxury experience. Based on the results of this chapter, we can infer ideas regarding the goals of the imagined addressee’s luxury consumption. The addressee wants to recognize and understand the product in terms of the features that make it a typical instance of its type, for instance in terms of grape type or the perfume nose responsible for the composition. This agrees with the findings of previous chapters, where we took note of the addressee’s desire to develop from novice to connoisseur and from an insecure to a confident consumer. In addition, it appears important to stay up to date with the discourse related to the products in order to be informed about that which is on the agenda at the moment or is new or distinctive in other ways. The addressee can thereby assert membership in a community of initiates who have both the knowledge and courage to break prevailing norms. This image of the addressee concords with previous chapters, where we found that the addressee aspires to assert membership not only in the online community but also

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in a reviewer–addressee–professionals community surrounding the luxury products. Another goal of the imagined addressee is to be able to engage in guilt-free consumption, which can be achieved by regarding luxury as an intellectual endeavour and by engaging in responsible consumption which is beneficial for the environment as well as the people in the industry. This goal has previously been discerned in other chapters, for example in Chapter 7, where we deduced that extensive specialist insight contributes to alleviating guilt, since cognizance makes luxury consumption appear like an intellectual activity rather than a superficial waste of time and money. We can also deduce from the analysis that the imagined addressee strives to use the luxury products in optimal ways. This optimization concerns the individual pleasure that can be derived from the product. In previous chapters, we have found that the addressee desires to experience strong passion and transcendence through enlightened perception, and the goal to optimize the intrinsic consumption experience is expanded in this chapter by the desire to fine-tune the consumption choice with respect to the consumption situation. Luxury consumption goals emanating from the findings of this chapter are also of an extrinsic nature in the sense that the addressee seeks to optimize overtly displayed consumption choices when offering luxury gifts or engaging in consumption together with others. Another goal, which can perhaps be seen as both intrinsic and extrinsic, is to engage in tastings or testings together with other like-minded aficionados where the luxury items can be co-experienced and discussed. In this chapter, we developed subcategories of the subsystem of Valuation inductively in order to be able to capture the discourse semantic meanings expressed in the discourse. This chapter brings the analyses offered in this book to an end. In the next chapter, we summarize the accumulated findings about the imagined addressee in response to our three-fold quest and synthesize them into a depiction of the review-based consumer of experiential luxury.

Reference Martin, J. R., & White, P. R. R. (2005). The language of evaluation: Appraisal in English. Palgrave Macmillan.

CHAPTER 10

The Review-Based Consumer of Experiential Luxury

This chapter finally synthesizes the findings about the imagined addressee of online reviewer discourse on wine, perfume and chocolate and reinterprets these findings as clues forming the basis of a depiction of the review-based consumer of experiential luxury. We account for characteristics and behaviour in Sect. 10.1, values in Sect. 10.2 and consumption goals in Sect. 10.3. Our depiction of the review-based luxury consumer is consistently seen in the light of the attributes ascribed to consumers engaging in the luxury orientations accounted for in Chapter 2: traditional luxury, new luxury, ingroup-based luxury and competencies-based luxury. Finally, Sect. 10.4 discusses the design of this study, and Sect. 10.5 closes the book and proposes further research.

10.1 Characteristics and Behaviour of the Review-Based Luxury Consumer Based on clues accumulated in our analyses, we can assign a number of traits to the review-based luxury consumer. These traits are contrasted below to the characteristics and behaviour attributed to consumers engaging with the four orientations to contemporary luxury. The review-based luxury consumer is an aficionado, who engages in high-quality experiential luxury consumption of products that appeal to the consumer’s taste preferences. It is therefore important for the consumer to identify individual taste preferences so as to be able to select © The Author(s) 2023 185 C. Hommerberg and M. Lindgren, Depicting the Consumer of Experiential Luxury, https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-60080-6_10

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products that deliver in relation to the one’s individual senses of smell and taste or how a perfume reacts with the molecules of the wearer’s individual skin. The review-based environment offers the consumer the opportunity for continuously enhanced knowledge towards connoisseurship. The consumer can thus be knowledgeable and knowledge-seeking at the same time since the available luxury insight appears endless. There are always new facets to learn so that the review-based luxury consumer, just like the reviewers, is never fully educated but always eager to learn more. This means that the consumer is deferent in relation to authorities that can impart such additional insight, for instance reviewers and producers. While thus constantly seeking to upgrade luxury-related insight, the review-based luxury consumer does not want to acquire new knowledge in ways that are boring but prefers to be entertained by eloquent characterizations of all of the facets of the experiential luxury products. Rhetorical devices that can function to engage, entertain and amuse the consumer are for instance metaphors, analogies and hyperboles, devices that do not occur exclusively in our data but have been observed in previous research on wine and perfume reviews (cf. Caballero, 2007; Lehrer, 2007; Paradis & Hommerberg, 2016; Tenescu, 2015). The review-based luxury consumer is mindful of the impact that the luxury industry has on the environment and prefers products that leave a smaller footprint. It is also of importance that the people in the industry have good working conditions, which the consumer is prepared to support by paying a higher price for the luxury items. In other areas of life, the review-based luxury consumer is mainstream, has pursued an education and lives a happy, ordinary family life without particular wealth beyond that which is ordinary. The ordinariness of the consumer of fine wine has been noted in previous studies; for instance, Paradis and Hommerberg (2016) found that the metaphors used in wine reviews are primarily evocative of everyday experiences rather than elite lifestyles. It therefore appears mainstream and normalized to spend time and resources on experiential luxury despite lack of particular affluence or acculturation. In terms of characteristics and behaviour, the review-based luxury consumer has little in common with consumers of traditional luxury. In contrast to consumers of traditional luxury, who are less concerned with pleasure than with other benefits that the consumption can give, for instance confirmation of or associations to elitist lifestyles (Wang,

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2021: 3), the review-based luxury consumer assigns key importance to the pleasure derived from the luxury experience. Furthermore, traditional luxury is primarily available to affluent consumers (Cannon & Rucker, 2019: 768; Wang, 2021: 3), but the review-based luxury consumer is not necessarily particularly wealthy. The review-based luxury consumer has few traits in common with consumers of new luxury. Consumers of new luxury are a heterogeneous group, ranging from those with financial resources to those that come from disadvantaged socioeconomic circumstances (Dubois et al., 2021: 83). The review-based consumer belongs to a more homogeneous group that is well-educated and, even if not affluent beyond the ordinary, has the means to afford high-quality products. Although consumers of new luxury also look for authoritative advice regarding their luxury consumption, they receive the information they seek from the sales staff of luxury brands (Dion & Borraz, 2017) and not from engaging with product reviews. In contrast to consumers of new luxury, who expect and accept to be treated in condescending ways by sales staff (Wang, 2021: 8), the review-based consumer expects a more horizontal relationship with, and being entertained by, the reviewers as they share their insight with the consumer. The review-based luxury consumer nonetheless shares the tendency among consumers of new luxury to feel consumption guilt and display environmental and social consciousness. These characteristics are associated with consumers of new luxury (Wong & Dhanesh, 2017: 92). There are some convergences between the review-based luxury consumer and consumers engaging in ingroup-based luxury, for instance the pursuit of maximum pleasure from transient experiential moments. However, in terms of knowledge, consumers of ingroup-based luxury are already fully in the know due to their acculturation and taken-for-granted access to cultural capital (Eckhardt et al., 2015: 808), whereas the insight of the review-based luxury consumer is in constant development. The review-based luxury consumer is therefore deferent to authority in order to absorb new knowledge from those that are more initiated. Consumers of ingroup-based luxury are, on the other hand, already authorities that are able to break luxury norms and create new forms of luxury, convinced that these will be recognized as such by other members of the ingroup (Dubois, 2021: 84). Ingroup-based luxury consumers therefore deviate from the mainstream, while the review-based luxury consumer is generally well-educated but still ordinary in the sense of not being in possession of inbred cultural capital.

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Consumers of competencies-based luxury have several traits in common with the review-based luxury consumer. One such trait is being a pleasure-seeking aficionado, sensitive to the sublime, which it is believed can be reached by establishing a personal connection with the luxury experience (Wang, 2021: 11). Just like the review-based consumer, consumers of competencies-based luxury do not have full insight but consistently acquire new knowledge, for instance by taking courses to further their understanding of institutional practices, which will improve the requisites for deriving maximum enjoyment from the luxury product (Maciel & Wallendorf, 2017: 734). Competencies-based consumers are therefore also deferent to authorities that can offer product-related education. It however appears that consumers of competencies-based luxury may be more zealous and take the commitment to learning about the product more seriously than the review-based luxury consumer, who expects to be entertained in order not to get bored. The reviewbased luxury consumer is furthermore conscious of the footprint of the consumption, a trait that Wang (2021: 12) assigns to consumers of competencies-based luxury. Competencies-based luxury consumers are also health-conscious (Dubois et al., 2021: 84), which is perhaps less pronounced in the review-based luxury consumer’s characteristics. Like the review-based consumer, competencies-based consumers are mainstream in their personal lives; however, it can be deduced based on implicit clues that competencies-based consumers are generally well-off, since enrolment in luxury consumption courses may be financially taxing. In contrast, the review-based consumer can access educational resources in a cost-free online environment.

10.2

Values of the Review-Based Luxury Consumer

High quality is of central concern to the review-based luxury consumer, and high quality is manifested in the combination of material values, individual values and social values. Besides high quality, the review-based consumer embraces several other values. The review-based luxury consumer assigns considerable importance to material values such as the design and artisanship of the products. In terms of design, it is of significance to know exactly which raw ingredients the product is made from and how the raw ingredients came into being, for

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instance knowing in which type of soil grape vines have grown. Furthermore, the skills of the artisan responsible for creating the product are of central concern for the review-based luxury consumer, who requests not only the names of the people in the industry but also their back story. The consumer can thereby follow each stage of the production process and appreciate the hard work required in order to achieve products of exquisite quality. Individual values, incorporating both the aesthetic appreciation of the product’s composition and the emotional response of the experiencer, are crucial for the review-based luxury consumer. Compositional values of complexity, intensity, persistence and balance are thus embraced by the consumer, who is simultaneously attentive to the emotional impact the product has. Satisfactory quality in terms of compositional features is not regarded as sufficient, but the experience should agree with individual taste preferences and offer an emotional experience beyond compositional satisfaction. Material and individual values interact, and it is the awareness of the design and artisanship behind the product in combination with aesthetic appreciation of the product’s composition that can give rise to an emotional luxury experience of the sublime. In addition to material and individual values, the review-based luxury consumer embraces social values, which we have referred to as nonaesthetic values. These relate to the socio-cultural context of the luxury product as well as the broader context beyond the luxury experience. Products that are distinctive and stand out from the rest are appreciated, for instance for their unusual or novel features, but at the same time, the degree to which a product can be recognized as a representative of its type is also of importance. Another value is naturalness, which subsumes ideas related to absence of chemicals and the product’s capacity to capture and transfer an element of the nature from which it emanates. Furthermore, it is of importance to pay a reasonable price for the product; there needs to be a price-quality balance, according to which only high-quality products are worth a high price. Still, the consumer may be inclined to pay a higher price for a product that is manufactured in a way that is environmentally sustainable and fair with respect to the people working in the luxury industry, and sustainability is thus a value that appears important according to the worldview of the review-based luxury consumer. Another social value that appears to be of significance is exclusivity. However, it is not the kind of exclusivity that emanates from high price or scarcity of the product. Instead, exclusivity is achieved by

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knowing about new products before others, by being familiar with less widely known brands or by choosing not to conform to luxury norms. Finally, the review-based luxury consumer is attentive to the way in which products can be more or less suitable for particular settings, occasions or constellations of fellow consumers. We find that the review-based luxury consumer embraces values that converge with traditional luxury values to some extent. Like consumers of traditional luxury, the review-based consumer assigns importance to high quality, incorporating design and artisanship as well as sensory appeal. In addition, uniqueness and heritage, which are important values in traditional luxury (Wong & Dhanesh, 2017: 92), correlate with values appreciated by the review-based luxury consumer in the sense that distinctiveness resembles the value of uniqueness of traditional luxury, and typicality reincarnates the traditional luxury value of heritage. However, while consumers of traditional luxury accept to pay a high price for their consumption, since this confers exclusivity on them (Cannon & Rucker, 2019: 768), the review-based luxury consumer is concerned that there should be a rational balance between quality and price. There are also some correspondences and divergences between the values adopted by the review-based luxury consumer and those embraced by consumers of new luxury. For instance, affordability is important for consumers engaging in new luxury as well as for the review-based luxury consumer, i.e. it is deemed undesirable to pay a high price for one’s consumption. In contrast to consumers of new luxury, who are content with mediocre quality as long as the product carries visible logos revealing the brand (Dubois et al., 2021: 83), high quality is of central importance for the review-based luxury consumer. The same applies to distinctiveness, which is not present in the axiology of new luxury. There is also a discrepancy concerning heritage; consumers of new luxury treasure the prestige associated with the heritage of famous brands (Eckhardt et al., 2015: 809; Thomas, 2007: 5), whereas the review-based luxury consumer appreciates the typicality inherent in the aesthetic qualities of the product, such as the raw ingredients or the artisanship of the designer. The review-based luxury consumer also shares values with consumers of ingroup-based luxury, the most apparent being the predilection for transient experiential products. Furthermore, the review-based luxury consumer values the exclusivity associated with being familiar with less known products before others or being able to make norm-transgressive choices based on particular cognizance, and this form of exclusivity

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is ascribed to ingroup-based luxury consumers by Wang (2021: 8) and Dubois (2021: 84). A divergence is that the insight needed in order to embrace these values is overtly acknowledged and made accessible to everyone in the review-based luxury community. Contrastively, in ingroup-based luxury, the corresponding insight is kept within the ingroup (Dubois et al., 2021: 83–84). There is extensive overlap between the values embraced by the review-based luxury consumer and those held by consumers engaging in competencies-based luxury. On a par with competencies-based luxury consumers, the review-based luxury consumer values high quality and is attentive to minute details of the design and artisanship of experiential products, regarding the aesthetic qualities of the product as key. According to the ideology of competencies-based consumers, the experience of the sublime is grounded in a personal connection with the material, individual and social sphere of the luxury product (Wang, 2021), and this ideology is shared by the review-based luxury consumer. Furthermore, in line with Wang’s (2021: 12) finding that competencies-based luxury consumers are conscious of the footprint of their consumption and willing to pay a higher price for products that are made in sustainable ways, we find that the review-based luxury consumer shares this consumption ideology. There is also some overlap as regards health consciousness, although the review-based luxury consumer is perhaps less zealous than competencies-based luxury consumers, who are described by Dubois et al. (2021: 84) as assigning status to living a healthconscious life. One divergence between competencies-based consumers and the review-based consumer concerns the form of exclusivity that entails counter-conformity. While the review-based luxury consumer may value norm-transgressive choices, consumers engaging in what Maciel and Wallendorf (2017: 734) refer to as taste engineering appear to be inclined to respect established taste regimes.

10.3

Goals of the Review-Based Luxury Consumer

We now turn our attention to the goals of the review-based luxury consumer. Our account takes note of both intrinsic and extrinsic goals of the luxury consumption as well as the engagement with the online environment. The review-based luxury consumer strives towards intrinsic luxury goals, such as extracting maximum enjoyment from the consumption.

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Extracting maximum enjoyment is a far-reaching goal, which entails acquisition of insight regarding the exact details related to the design, artisanship and manufacturing of the product. The review-based luxury consumer envisages to recognize products as typical of their kind while at the same time being observant regarding that which makes a luxury product distinctive. Maximum enjoyment also relies on being able to identify the component parts of the aesthetic experience and to appreciate how the compositional values form a whole. In order to reach the luxury consumption goal of maximum enjoyment, the review-based luxury consumer also seeks to be attentive to individual taste preferences dependent on individual physiological requisites, such as taste buds, nasal receptors and skin molecules, to make sure the features of the luxury product are in line with individual proclivities. The goal of the review-based luxury consumer is thus to reach self-actualization in the sense of achieving the best possible version of self as regards the enjoyment derived from luxury consumption. Beyond maximum individual enjoyment, the review-based luxury consumer also gravitates towards less tangible intrinsic goals, which can be reached when the consumer encounters the sublime. The consumer’s encounter with the sublime involves a spiritual dimension where the product is perceived as an art form, on a par with music or painting. This intrinsic luxury goal is a form of selftranscendence that allows the consumer to become part of something bigger than self, completely immersed in the luxury experience. The review-based luxury consumer also strives towards extrinsic goals, relating to how one wishes to be seen by others. Being insightful regarding the exact details of design and artisanship can confer status on the review-based consumer when socializing with other aficionados and when discussing the product with producers and sales staff. Such insight can open the door to a culture of discriminate and sophisticated consumption. In addition, the ability to identify elements of the composition and the aesthetics of experiential luxury products can function as a status signal along with the mastery of specialized terminologies, since these abilities indicate that the consumer has had the time and resources to engage in institutional practices and develop olfactory and gustatory expertise through extensive practice. Being able to have self-transcendent luxury experiences is associated with elitist consumer status and can result in the consumer being viewed by others as spiritually enlightened and refined. The review-based luxury consumer also has other more limited extrinsic goals in mind, such as finding suitable luxury gifts or choosing

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a product that is optimally adapted for an occasion where others are present. The choice of luxury products for such occasions positions the consumer in the eyes of others. The goals of the review-based luxury consumer diverge considerably from those of traditional luxury consumers, but there are some similarities. While traditional luxury can fulfil the intrinsic goal of providing the consumer with a sense of control and personal identification with the product (Wang, 2021: 8), the intrinsic goal of the review-based luxury consumer is less stable and consists in the enjoyment that the acculturated experience of the product can give. Still, the review-based luxury consumer’s pursuit of self-transcendent luxury experiences invokes the image of upper class, elitist lifestyles and ideologies, which Wang (2021: 3) notes as a driving force for traditional luxury consumers. In terms of extrinsic goals, traditional luxury allows the consumer to dissociate from lower-ranking groups, and status is thus maintained by reinforcing the boundary with respect to these others (Cannon & Rucker, 2019: 768). The review-based consumer instead seeks to gain and ascertain group membership in, but not to exclude others from, the community of online reviewer discourse. There is little correspondence between the consumption goals of new luxury consumers and the review-based consumer. While new luxury consumers may ignore basic needs at the expense of their extrinsic luxury goals associated with prestige (Cristini et al., 2017: 104), the reviewbased luxury consumer is not driven by the associations of prestigious luxury brands. The review-based consumer is even sceptical of the quality of the brand products made available to consumers of new luxury, and an extrinsic goal of the review-based consumer may be to deselect products associated with famous brands in order to enhance status by dissociating from consumers engaging in new luxury for the masses. There are also considerable divergences between the goals of the review-based luxury consumer and those sought by consumers engaging in ingroup-based luxury. Whereas some of the intrinsic goals may overlap, for instance the inclination towards new, unexpected or norm-breaking luxury experiences (Dubois, 2021: 84; Wang, 2021: 8), the extrinsic goals of the review-based luxury consumer are not in line with those of ingroup-based luxury consumers. A prominent driving force of ingroupbased luxury is to reinforce the boundary between those that are initiated, the ingroup, and those that do not have full insight into the sophisticated cultural capital needed to assert group membership (Dubois et al.,

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2021: 84). Contrastively, the review-based consumer wishes the luxury experience to be inclusive of everyone, and sharing insight with less knowledgeable fellow aficionados, thus helping them towards enhanced insight, may confer status on the review-based consumer. The goals of the review-based luxury consumer converge to a great extent with those sought by competencies-based consumers. Just like consumers engaging in competencies-based luxury, the review-based consumer is intrinsically motivated by the pursuit of continuously enhanced field-specific insight as well as the extraction of maximum enjoyment from the luxury experience, the ultimate intrinsic goal being the state of flow reached in encounters with the sublime (Wang, 2021: 11). Consumers engaging in competencies-based luxury prefer to share knowledge and experiences together with others in environments that do not inspire comparisons of social status (Gilovich et al., 2015: 152). In a similar vein, the review-based consumer does not use consumption to mark higher social status in relation to outsiders. Furthermore, the review-based consumer does not opt primarily for high-end products with the extrinsic pursuit to confirm social status; instead, it is seen as more desirable to acquire the mastery of institutional practices and aesthetic principles that ultimately enable initiated distinctions to be made among the diversity of available products. These consumption goals agree with those assigned to competencies-based luxury consumers by Maciel and Wallendorf (2017: 734). Competencies-based consumers also have extrinsic goals related to social status in common with the review-based consumer. A driving force among competencies-based luxury consumers is to socialize with other cognoscenti, whereby status can be signalled by conveying to others that time and resources have been spent in order to optimize one’s consumption expertise, and consumers engaging in competencies-based luxury may also use specialized lexis and jargon to position themselves in the social hierarchy (Eckhardt et al., 2015). We find that similar status goals apply to the review-based luxury consumer. In addition to goals for the luxury consumption, we propose that the review-based luxury consumer has intrinsic and extrinsic goals for the online activity. Online reviewer discourse can satisfy the reviewbased consumer’s intrinsic goals by enhancing field-specific expertise in a convenient and entertaining way in a cheerful and generous community that offers security regardless of prior knowledge. Online reviewer discourse allows the review-based consumer to become immersed in a consumer–reviewer–professionals community that imparts insight into

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the professionals’ artisanship as well as their back story. Furthermore, online reviewer discourse allows the review-based consumer to engage with all of the aesthetic facets of the experiential luxury products by inviting the consumer to co-perceive the products and co-assess the products’ luxury appeal together with the reviewer. By profiting from online reviewer discourse, the review-based luxury consumer can also strive towards the goal of developing aesthetics vocabularies in order to capture luxury experiences in words. The review-based luxury consumer may also have extrinsic goals in mind. By becoming adept at capturing luxury aesthetics in words, the review-based consumer can strive to ascertain group membership in the online discourse community of like-minded luxury aficionados. Wang (2021: 8) mentions that social media plays an important role for consumers engaging in competencies-based luxury as a channel to engage with other like-minded aficionados in communication about luxury experiences, which matches the goal for the review-based luxury consumer who seeks to socialize with other aficionados and perhaps help fellow enthusiasts towards enhanced insight.

10.4

Reflections on Study Design

In this section, we reflect on the limitations of the present study and discuss consequences of choices in theoretical approach, selection of materials, method of analysis and analytical procedures. The basic theoretical assumption that this study is grounded in has implications for the real-world actuality of the findings. The notion of addressivity highlights an imagined addressee that is construed by the texts formulated by the reviewers on the review websites. The imagined addressee is not a real-world person but an abstraction resulting from our analysis. It is by means of qualitative analysis of the online reviewer discourse that we have ascribed characteristics, behaviour, values and goals to the imagined addressee. The real-world reviewers may not consciously assign these attributes to their addressees, and the actual addressees may not overtly acknowledge or even be aware of these attributes. Our results are thus not objectively verifiable, but the depiction of the review-based luxury consumer is a discursive construct, which we have arrived at by synthesizing the findings accumulated from our analyses. Our decision to delimit our study to three experiential luxury products, wine, perfume and chocolate, also entails limitations. These product types were selected among a range of other experiential products that

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are reviewed online, such as beer, coffee, tea, cigars and make-up. It is possible that websites reviewing products that were not included in our material construe the imagined addressee differently. In addition, the further limitation to five websites per product type impacts on the general applicability of our findings. In order to make our study manageable, we took the decision to concentrate on three text types available on the websites, the manifestos, the reviewers’ self-presentations and the reviews, the last of which received our main focus of attention. This approach to the data selection procedure allowed us to streamline our analysis across the 15 review websites included in the dataset. It should however be acknowledged that the inclusion of further website resources could have resulted in a different image of the addressee. We also recognize that due to the continuous variability of online text resources, our results could have been different if the material had been collected at another point in time. The image of the addressee that we have been able to provide is thus necessarily partial, since it is dependent on the particular data subjected to analysis. The analytic tools selected for analysis target discourse semantic features rather than observable lexicogrammatical structures. It is nonetheless by means of close analysis of observable elements of the texts that we have distinguished discourse semantic features. Our analysis has not been delimited to lexical items that overtly realize or inscribe discourse semantic features, but we have consistently ventured to lay bare that which is implied by textual realizations. This has been achieved by means of critical collaboration between the two analysts at all levels of the analysis. It is our hope that the inclusion of a considerable number of data excerpts throughout the analysis chapters of this book renders transparent the reasoning involved in our qualitative analysis procedures. We used the UAM Corpus tool to help systematize our analysis, but we refrain from using the quantitative resources of the corpus tool, since the form of discourse analysis used in the present study defies quantification.

10.5

A Discourse-Analytic Contribution

Online reviewer discourse fills a niche in the ecology of experiential luxury by offering guidance to consumers wanting to engage in this activity and make informed choices. Consumers may be in need of such guidance since the way in which consumption choices are thought about, experienced, evaluated and talked about positions them with respect both

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to how they see themselves and to how they want others to see them (Bourdieu 1984; Silverstein, 2004). Many consumers rely on recommendations issued by online reviewers when they want to make informed consumption choices (Vasquez, 2014), and online reviewer discourse is therefore a rich source of empirical data that has not previously been extensively explored in luxury research. Our book makes a contribution to the field of experiential luxury research by offering a complementary approach to previous luxury research carried out in marketing, sociology and psychology. Our conclusions are derived from a discourse-analytic perspective, and we have depicted the consumer of experiential luxury by paying close attention to how those involved in this discourse practice communicate about luxury-related behaviours, values and consumption goals. Given the limitations of the current study to a discourse-analytic approach, which has resulted in a discursive construct of the review-based consumer of experiential luxury, we look forward to further studies investigating the review-based luxury consumer. We hope that our findings can function as a backdrop for researchers working with social science methods, such as interviews, questionnaires and experiments, involving actual consumers.

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© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2023 C. Hommerberg and M. Lindgren, Depicting the Consumer of Experiential Luxury, https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-60080-6

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Index

A accessibility, 65 acculturation, 6, 25, 82, 91, 186, 187 addressee, 2–7, 30, 33, 34, 44, 47–49, 51–66, 68, 69, 71, 72, 74, 82, 89, 92, 94, 96–121, 123–148, 152, 153, 157, 158, 163–168, 170–175, 181–183, 185, 195, 196 addressivity, 33, 195 addressor, 33, 54, 55, 58, 61, 101, 114 aesthetic appreciation, 22, 189 aesthetic critique, 41, 148 aesthetic evaluation, 40, 123, 136 aesthetic experience, 14, 123, 151, 192 aesthetic luxury values, 147 aesthetic objects, 5 aesthetic principles, 14, 194 aesthetic qualities, 125, 148, 190, 191 aesthetics, 5, 15, 123, 128, 129, 139, 147, 148, 192, 195 aesthetics of sensory perception, 61 aesthetics vocabularies, 195

Affect, 38, 39, 43, 47, 49–52, 68, 69 affordability, 3, 42, 68, 153, 190 aficionado, 14, 15, 20, 22, 60, 61, 69, 121, 148, 179, 183, 185, 188, 192, 194, 195 amusing, 52, 53 analogies, 139, 151, 158, 186 analytic categories, 38, 42, 125, 147, 151 analytic tools, 30, 38, 42, 196 Appraisal model, 38, 40–42, 123, 125 Appreciation, 40–43, 47, 49, 61, 63, 64, 66, 68, 69, 121, 123, 124, 148, 149, 151, 181 argumentation, 5, 81, 116 aroma and fragrance descriptors, 26 aroma and fragrance terminologies, 25 aroma wheel, 26 art, 5, 41, 51, 84, 88, 148, 192 artificiality, 169, 171 artisanship, 3, 4, 10, 14, 64, 68, 100, 101, 108, 110, 111, 118–121, 148, 181, 188–192, 195 artistic object, 4, 22

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2023 C. Hommerberg and M. Lindgren, Depicting the Consumer of Experiential Luxury, https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-60080-6

205

206

INDEX

assessment, 4, 24, 41, 47, 63, 72, 75, 101, 103, 109, 124, 126, 128, 129, 131, 135–137, 139, 143, 145–148, 151, 152, 156, 158, 164, 170, 173, 175, 179 Attitude, 38, 42–44, 47–49, 69, 71, 72, 98, 151 attitudinal token, 43 authority, 54, 62, 76, 120, 187 B background, 2, 6, 20, 48, 54, 83, 101, 102, 108, 116, 117, 147, 151 background knowledge, 19, 20, 22, 73, 81, 96, 99, 101–104, 108, 110, 111, 114, 119, 121 Bakhtin, M., 33 Balance, 27, 28, 41, 124, 134–137, 139, 146, 147 Basenotes, 1, 36, 56, 60, 76, 79, 82, 84, 85, 103, 112, 116, 131, 140, 141, 156, 164, 167, 170, 177 beauty, 5, 21, 35, 79, 104, 114, 115, 154, 155 behaviour, 7, 33, 34, 38, 47, 49, 53, 60, 68, 69, 73, 96–99, 120, 123, 146, 181, 185, 186, 195, 197 benevolence, 40, 58, 72, 92, 93 best-seller scent, 21 Bois de Jasmin, 36, 50, 51, 59, 60, 76, 79, 81, 83, 88, 90, 93, 104, 112, 114, 116, 126, 133, 135, 136, 138, 140, 141, 143, 144, 151, 154, 160, 166 Bourdieu, P., 5, 12, 197 brand, 2–4, 11, 12, 14, 15, 21, 42, 83, 93, 94, 99–101, 110, 112–119, 145, 152, 153, 158, 160, 162, 166, 170, 182, 187, 190, 193 brand logo, 11, 15

C Café Rose, 138, 139, 151–153, 162, 166 Capacity, 40, 53, 71, 73, 74, 81, 82 causality, 43 character, 27, 52, 54, 55, 82, 97, 120, 140, 147, 153–155, 160, 169, 170 characteristics, 7, 28, 29, 33, 34, 38, 44, 47, 49, 53, 57, 60, 61, 66, 68, 69, 73, 82, 83, 86, 96–99, 110, 120, 123, 146, 158, 181, 182, 185, 186, 188, 195 charitable, 95, 97 charity, 93–96 cheapness, 5 chocolate, 1, 7, 16, 19–27, 30, 35–37, 47, 48, 50, 54, 56–58, 62–65, 67–69, 71, 74, 76–81, 86, 89, 92, 96, 97, 102, 104–110, 112, 113, 115, 117, 119–121, 124–131, 133, 135, 137, 140–143, 145, 148, 154–165, 168–179, 181, 182, 185, 195 Chocolate Codex, 36, 47, 48, 53, 57, 78, 89, 92, 113, 124, 129, 131, 133, 154, 156, 160, 161, 163, 173, 179 chocolate in-depth, 48, 57 chocolate insight, 48 chocolate knowledge, 48, 57 chocolate wheel, 26 Chris, 89, 124 Citrus & Wood, 1–5 cline of explicitness, 43 co-constructor, 34 co-experience, 125, 134, 136, 139, 148 co-experiencer, 141, 146 cognitive and socio-cultural competencies, 20

INDEX

cognitive capabilities, 81, 96 cognitive capacity, 40, 76 cognitive competence, 21 cognitive insight, 96 cognoscenti, 15, 29, 194 communicative abilities, 81, 96, 98 communicative capacity, 40, 78–80, 98 community of online reviewer discourse, 193 competencies, 13, 14, 16, 19, 22, 28, 30, 34, 48, 52, 61, 68, 97, 158, 185 competencies-based luxury, 9, 13–16, 23, 188, 191, 194, 195 Complexity, 41, 124–127, 129, 139, 146, 147 complex sensory stimuli, 19 Composition, 40, 41, 44, 61, 121, 123–125, 139, 146, 148, 151, 180 concept of luxury, 5, 9, 15, 16 connoisseur, 14, 55, 57, 61, 69, 182 connoisseurship, 12, 16, 25, 57, 186 consumer, 1, 5–7, 9–16, 21–23, 25, 28, 33, 34, 39, 44, 48, 52–61, 63–69, 86, 89, 92–94, 96–98, 121, 139, 144, 145, 152, 153, 163, 165–168, 171–173, 181–183, 185–197 consumer–reviewer–professionals community, 194 consumer of experiential luxury, 1, 15, 185 consumption choice, 1, 5, 6, 168, 173, 174, 181, 183, 196, 197 consumption expertise, 15, 194 consumption ideology, 58, 68, 191 consumption of experiential luxury products, 19, 61, 148 consumption recommendations, 34

207

consumption recommendations online, 1 contemporary luxury, 7, 9, 15, 16, 34, 39, 185 context, 5, 7, 9, 16, 33, 34, 36, 40, 54, 181, 189 contrast, 43, 141, 157 cost-free online environment, 188 counter-conformity choice, 165, 166 counter-expectancy, 43 crafted work, 4, 22 credibility, 74, 81, 86, 96, 98 critic, 6, 56, 72, 79 critical reader, 55, 97 cultural background, 48 cultural capital, 12, 13, 187, 193 cultural competencies, 20 cultural experience, 22 cultural insight, 22 cultural knowledge, 19 culture, 5, 60, 82, 91, 110, 192 D data collection, 33, 35, 37 deference for authorities, 96, 182 democratized luxury, 11 descriptors, 25–27, 29, 125, 127, 129 design, 3, 4, 10, 14, 16, 34–36, 68, 110, 117, 120, 121, 143, 148, 181, 185, 188–192, 195 designer, 3, 4, 10, 11, 112, 158, 160–162, 167, 170, 181, 182, 190 discourse, 1, 7, 16, 29, 33, 42, 44, 69, 71, 98, 149, 151, 182, 183, 185, 194–196 discourse analysis, 6, 7, 33, 34, 196 discourse-analytic approach, 9, 16, 197 discourse community, 2, 99, 146, 195 discourse semantics, 38, 42, 99, 121, 183, 196

208

INDEX

discursive practice, 34 discursive strategy, 43 Dis/inclination, 38 Dis/satisfaction, 38, 39, 49, 52 Distinctiveness, 42, 153–158, 180 domain-specific knowledge, 14 downscaling, 43

E elite ingroup, 12 elitist consumer status, 192 elitist lifestyles, 10, 186, 193 Ellena, Jean-Claude, 2, 21 emotion, 19, 47, 49, 51, 123 emotional appreciation, 40, 42, 124, 125, 140 emotional response, 143, 146, 189 Engagement, 38, 42 enlightened consumer, 25 entertainment value, 137, 147 environmental conscientiousness, 93, 94 environmental footprint, 58 environmental responsibility, 58 environmental sustainability, 69, 94, 172–174 ephemeral perceptual experience, 25 established terminologies, 30 ethical sustainability, 174, 175 ethics guidelines, 37 exact numbers, 42, 43, 99 exclusion, 14, 103 Exclusivity, 42, 180 experiential luxury, 1, 7, 16, 19, 22, 26, 33, 34, 42, 44, 60, 71, 74, 81, 82, 87, 92, 96, 120, 146–148, 151, 180, 182, 183, 185, 186, 196, 197 experiential luxury products, 1, 7, 16, 28, 30, 35, 78, 83, 93, 96, 120, 148, 186, 192, 195

experiential meaning, 43, 72 experiential products, 6, 14, 25, 28, 30, 123, 190, 191, 195 expert, 6, 12, 23, 52, 55, 73, 75, 77, 98 expert cognizance, 165, 166 expert knowledge, 53, 63, 120 expert lingo, 30 exquisite design, 10 exquisite quality, 3–5, 10, 163, 179, 189 extrinsic goals, 5, 121, 191–195

F fellow members, 3, 6 field-related knowledge, 76 field-specific activities, 60, 61, 69 field-specific background knowledge, 81, 96 field-specific cognizance, 182 field-specific competence, 53 field-specific competencies, 19, 48, 52, 61, 97, 158 field-specific expertise, 16, 162, 194 field-specific insight, 53, 54, 194 field-specific knowledge, 13, 14, 22, 57, 75, 96, 109, 119, 120, 147 field-specific requisites, 34 field-specific terminology, 3 figurative expression, 28, 29 financial impartiality, 93 financially independent, 95–97 fine-grained sensory discernment, 147 fragrance wheel, 26 Frolova, Victoria, 50, 51, 75, 76, 78, 80, 87, 90, 93, 94, 151 fundamental philosophy, 36, 47

INDEX

G goals, 5, 7, 33, 34, 44, 47, 68, 69, 98, 99, 120, 123, 146, 148, 181–183, 185, 191–195, 197 Google searches, 35, 36 Graduation, 38, 42, 156 greater knowledge, 5 Grojsman, Sophia, 21, 76 guilt, 12, 39, 40, 51, 52, 68, 69, 97, 121, 148, 183, 187 guilt-free consumption, 183 Guilt/lessness, 39, 49 guilt-rejection, 51

H health consciousness, 172, 191 healthfulness, 67–69 healthiness, 85, 97, 172, 175 health of the consumer, 171 health sustainability, 171, 172, 175, 181, 182 hedonic expertise, 23, 30 hedonic luxury, 19 heritage, 3–5, 10, 15, 20, 64–66, 68, 91, 143, 190 hermeneutic circle, 34 Hermès, 1, 2, 4, 10, 11 high price, 3–5, 10, 67, 68, 152, 153, 163–165, 168, 189, 190 high quality, 58, 62, 63, 66–69, 120, 143, 146, 147, 152, 163–165, 172, 181, 182, 185, 187, 188, 190, 191 homepage, 36, 47 horizontal relationship, 15, 187 hyperbole, 147, 186

I ideal audience, 34 ideal interpreter, 34

209

ideology, 48, 58, 68, 164, 169, 170, 181, 191 imagined addressee, 7, 33, 34, 44, 47, 49, 68, 69, 74, 96–99, 119, 120, 123, 146–148, 181–183, 185, 195, 196 Impact, 41, 124, 140–143, 146, 157 individual taste preferences, 185, 189, 192 industry professionals, 23, 100, 119 ingroup-based luxury, 9, 12–14, 16, 185, 187, 190, 191, 193 Inniskillin, 100 in-person events, 60 inscribed, 43, 47, 57, 74, 82, 125–127, 131, 133, 134, 136, 139, 141, 146, 153, 154 inscribed instances, 42, 71, 72, 129, 131, 134, 135, 148, 153, 154 In/security, 38, 39, 49 institutional practices, 14, 23, 188, 192, 194 integrity, 40, 56, 72, 93, 94 intellectual endeavour, 183 intensification, 43, 152 Intensity, 41, 124, 129–131, 139, 146, 147, 155 interactive components, 38 Internet, 6, 36 Internet-based data, 36 interpersonal function, 99 interpersonal positionings, 38 intertextuality, 43 intrinsic goals, 5, 192–194 intrinsic luxury goals, 191 invocations, 43 invocation spectrum, 43 invoked instances, 42, 82, 134, 148 Involvement, 38, 42–44, 99, 101, 102, 108, 110, 118, 120, 121

210

INDEX

J jargon, 15, 30, 194 Judgement, 40, 43, 44, 47–49, 53, 61, 68, 69, 71–74, 86, 89, 96, 98 Julia Harding, 78, 80, 100

K Krug, Robin, 6, 75, 82, 83, 87

L learners, 114 lexical metaphors, 43 lexicogrammatical choices, 43 lexicogrammatical resources, 42 linguistic competencies, 25, 34, 48 linguistic register, 14, 25 linguistic resources, 30, 134, 139, 147, 158 love, 49, 52, 89, 90, 144 luxury, 1, 4–7, 9–16, 28, 52, 59, 60, 63, 64, 67–69, 83, 116, 121, 123, 128, 129, 139, 152, 175–179, 181–183, 185–193, 195, 197 luxury brand, 2, 11, 21, 42, 187, 193 luxury consumption, 1, 5, 12, 15, 16, 39, 51, 52, 58, 68, 69, 83, 97, 120, 121, 148, 168, 182, 183, 187, 188, 191, 192, 194 luxury consumption community, 49 luxury consumption goals, 68, 98, 99, 123, 183, 192 luxury experience, 5, 6, 12, 14, 15, 19, 59, 143, 147, 148, 153, 172, 175, 177, 181, 182, 187–189, 192–195 luxury ideology, 181 luxury-related insight, 186 luxury symbolism, 14, 20, 21

luxury values, 3–5, 7, 9, 16, 33, 34, 47, 68, 69, 120, 146–149, 153, 190 M Maillard, Colin, 1 mainstream, 13, 57, 58, 61, 66, 68, 71, 82–84, 96, 97, 157, 182, 186–188 manifestos, 36, 39, 43, 44, 47, 49, 52, 53, 55, 57, 58, 61, 63, 65–69, 71, 93, 94, 98, 196 manner-of-motion verbs, 29 Martin, J.R., 33, 34, 38, 40–43, 71, 99, 123, 124, 151 maximum enjoyment, 14, 23, 188, 191, 192, 194 metaphorical expressions, 29, 130, 136, 137 metaphors, 28, 29, 43, 125, 137, 139, 147, 186 mission, 6, 36, 47, 54, 98 model reader, 34 Monegal, Ramón, 21 morality, 40, 58, 72, 95 moral value, 97 N Naming, 42, 43, 101, 110, 111, 118, 120, 121 Naturalness, 42, 153, 168–171, 180 negation, 43, 51, 130, 138, 155, 169, 170 new luxury, 9, 11–13, 15, 16, 185, 187, 190, 193 niche perfumes, 21 non-aesthetic evaluation, 41, 61, 151 non-aesthetic values, 42, 61, 123, 149, 151, 153, 180, 189 Normality, 40, 56, 74, 82, 86 norm-transgressive choices, 190, 191

INDEX

novelty, 65, 153 novice, 14, 16, 23, 29, 55, 61, 69, 102, 106, 127, 182 numerical rating, 62

O olfactory words, 3 online community of experiential luxury, 120, 148 online reviewer discourse, 1, 7, 16, 33, 69, 71, 98, 185, 193–197 online reviewers, 6, 16, 197 online review website, 6 ordinariness, 82, 86, 97, 186 ordinary people, 74, 82, 86, 93, 97

P Parker, Robert, 6, 7, 20, 72, 73, 77, 84, 86, 87, 90 Parliament q’eqchi, 124, 125, 140 perception, 4, 6, 19, 22, 25, 29, 40, 41, 61, 78, 96, 123, 125, 126, 128, 131, 133, 134, 139, 147, 180, 183 perceptual competencies, 22, 30 perceptual experience, 3, 6, 19, 25, 74, 124, 125, 136, 158, 162 perfume, 1–5, 7, 11, 16, 19–27, 29, 30, 35–37, 47, 49–51, 56, 59, 62, 65, 68, 69, 71, 74–76, 78, 83, 89, 90, 96, 97, 103, 104, 109, 113–116, 119–121, 126, 128, 130–132, 134, 136, 138, 139, 141, 143, 145, 148, 151–153, 155–158, 161, 162, 164, 167, 169, 170, 176–178, 181, 182, 185, 186, 195 perfume brands, 112, 113, 118, 119, 145 perfume designer, 3, 161

211

perfume review, 1, 35, 50, 64, 66, 101–104, 110, 112–116, 118, 119, 126, 128, 130–133, 135–138, 140, 141, 143, 144, 151, 155–157, 160, 164, 167, 169, 170, 175, 177, 186 perfume reviewer, 6, 75, 76, 78–80, 82–85, 87–90, 93–95 Perrotti-Brown, Lisa, 72–74, 77, 84 Persistence, 41, 124, 131–134, 139, 146, 147 personal preferences, 3, 5 personal tastes, 5 positive ordinariness, 86 precise reckoning, 43, 99 premium pricing, 66, 67 preservation of the environment, 171 prestige products, 6 preview opportunity, 165 price-quality relation, 162–165, 181 pricing, 66–68, 152, 153, 162, 165, 181 privilege, 15 procedural competencies, 23 procedures for analysing, 43 production, 6, 11, 16, 19, 20, 35, 61, 63, 64, 67, 68, 91, 94, 99–102, 107, 108, 110, 111, 118, 127, 171, 175, 181, 189 professionals, 1, 3, 20, 23, 25–30, 63, 93, 95, 100, 117–121, 183 proper names, 42, 43, 99, 100, 110 Propriety, 40, 58, 59, 74, 93, 96 prospective addressee, 34 purpose of the study, 39, 40, 99 purposive procedures, 35 putative reader, 34

Q Quality, 41, 42, 124, 140, 146

212

INDEX

R random collection, 37 rarity, 65 rating systems, 62, 68 Reaction, 40–42, 44, 61, 121, 123–125, 140, 142, 146, 148, 151, 156, 157, 180 review-based consumer of experiential luxury, 15, 185 review-based environment, 186 review-based luxury consumer, 185–195, 197 reviewer–addressee–professionals community, 119 reviewer–addressee community, 97, 104, 109, 128 reviewer presentations, 37, 47, 74, 97 reviewers’ self-presentations, 37, 44, 47, 69, 71, 72, 78, 82, 87, 93, 98, 196 reviews of experiential luxury products, 1 review websites, 34, 35, 37, 69, 195, 196 rhetorical devices, 186 Robert Parker Wine Advocate, 58, 62, 72, 73, 76, 77, 81, 84, 87, 89, 91, 92, 105, 107, 110, 111, 129, 134, 140, 154, 158, 160, 163, 165

S scales, 27, 28 scarcity, 3–5, 10, 68, 189 scent, 3–5, 19, 21, 24, 50, 53, 66, 75, 83, 90, 104, 113, 116, 126, 128, 139, 143, 145, 156, 170, 176–178 selection, 35–37, 43, 141, 195, 196 self-actualization, 192 self-fulfilment, 5

self-presentations, 36, 37, 44, 47, 69, 71–79, 81–98, 196 self-transcendence, 14, 192 semantic field, 26 sensorial capacity, 40, 75 sensorium, 25 sensory appeal, 3–5, 10, 12, 123, 125, 146–149, 181, 190 sensory capabilities, 16, 75, 81, 96 sensory capacity, 75 sensory discernment, 74, 147 sensory experience, 3, 27, 146, 148, 151, 180 sensory perception, 6, 40, 61, 147 sensory perspicacity, 76 sensory skills, 48 sensory stimuli, 19, 22, 30 slang, 43, 99, 101, 105 smell, 3, 24, 28, 75, 130, 131, 186 sociability, 60 social approval, 5 social distinction, 5 social enterprise, 60 Social esteem, 40 social group, 5, 6, 15 social hierarchy, 10, 15, 194 social identity, 5 social luxury values, 16 social positioning, 14 Social sanction, 40, 71, 72, 74, 93, 95, 96 social status, 5, 10, 12, 14, 194 socio-cultural competencies, 20 socio-cultural context, 36, 40, 189 specialized lexis, 42, 43, 99, 194 specialized linguistic register, 25 specialized terminology, 3, 6, 135 specific linguistic register, 14 spiritual enlightenment, 5 status, 2, 5, 11, 13–15, 121, 152, 166, 168, 191–194 status brand, 2

INDEX

status signal, 192 status symbol, 12 subdescriptor, 26, 27 subsystem of Valuation, 180, 183 Suitability, 153, 175, 179, 180 Sustainability, 153, 171, 175, 180 sustainable consumption, 58 synaesthetic conflation, 75 synthetic, 3, 4, 21, 140, 141, 170 Systemic Functional Linguistics, 38

T taste, 5, 14, 16, 19, 22, 24, 25, 27–29, 33, 82, 134–137, 144–146, 155, 160, 179, 181, 185, 186, 191, 192 taster, 6, 48, 55, 56 taste regimes, 15, 191 tasting, 19, 22–25, 27, 28, 30, 48, 56, 77, 123, 135, 183 tasting vocabularies, 48 Technicality, 42, 43, 101, 102, 109–111, 120, 121 technical lexis, 43, 99 technical terms, 42 Tenacity, 40, 57, 71, 73, 74, 86, 87, 89, 92 terminologies, 25–28, 30, 192 Terre, 1, 2, 4 testing, 22–25, 28, 30, 60, 123, 183 text types, 36, 38, 43, 69, 196 texture, 24, 37 theoretical assumption, 33, 34, 195 thought construct, 34 Tom Ford, 112, 138, 151–153 tradition, 64, 110, 158, 162 traditional luxury, 3–5, 9–11, 13, 15, 16, 21, 69, 185–187, 190, 193 transcendence, 148, 183 transient experiential moments, 13, 187

213

Typicality, 42, 153, 158, 159, 161, 162, 180

U UAM Corpus Tool, 43, 196 Un/happiness, 38, 39, 49 uniqueness, 3–5, 10, 13, 68, 120, 190

V Valuation, 40–42, 44, 123, 149, 151, 153, 158, 159, 161, 180, 181, 183 values, 3–5, 7, 9–11, 16, 33, 34, 38, 42, 44, 47, 58, 61, 68, 69, 97–99, 120, 123, 125, 134, 139, 146–149, 151, 153, 165, 173, 175, 180, 181, 185, 188–192, 195, 197 Veracity, 40

W wealth, 5, 11, 13, 21, 54, 186 website, 1, 6, 34–37, 39, 42, 47–50, 52–65, 67–69, 72, 73, 94, 96, 98, 100, 117, 124, 151, 196 website collaborators, 48 White, P.R.R., 33, 34, 38, 40–43, 71, 99, 123, 124, 151 wine, 1, 6, 7, 13, 16, 19–30, 35–37, 41, 42, 47, 49, 51, 52, 54–56, 58, 60–64, 67–69, 71–74, 76–80, 82, 84, 85, 87–92, 94–97, 100–112, 118–121, 126, 127, 129, 131, 132, 134–138, 143, 144, 148, 154, 155, 158–160, 162, 164, 165, 168, 169, 172, 173, 178, 181, 182, 185, 186, 195 wine expertise, 20

214

INDEX

wine reviews, 29, 36, 101, 110, 119, 129, 140, 144, 154, 158, 159, 163, 186 working conditions, 22, 59, 173, 174, 186

writers, 27, 78, 79

Y Yardley, 1–3, 5