Culinary Herbs 9780648752622

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CULINARY

HERBS BY JOHN MASON AND STAFF OF ACS DISTANCE EDUCATION

CONTENTS Credits

8

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

9

What are culinary herbs?

9

Plant parts used as culinary herbs

9

Brief history of culinary herbs

10

Fresh herbs

10

Storing fresh herbs

11

Cooking with fresh herbs

11

Dried herbs

11

How to dry herbs

12

Other preserving methods

12

Sugars, vinegars & salts

12

Freezing

12

Lifting and keeping herbs over winter

12

CHAPTER 2 HERB CHEMISTRY AND NUTRITION

13

Chemistry of herbs

13

The nutritional value of herbs

14

CHAPTER 3 SPICES

16

Processing, storing and using spices

16

What are spices?

16

Processing plants to make spices

16

Storing spices

17

Using & assessing spices

17

Growing plants for spices

18

Turmeric (Curcuma longa)

18

Cayenne pepper (Capsicum annuum)

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Coriander/cilantro (Coriandrum sativum)

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Fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum)

21

Cumin (Cuminum cyminum)

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Other spices to grow at home

22

Some culinary uses for spices

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Marinating meat

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Gingersnaps

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Homemade curry powder

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CHAPTER 4 A CLOSER LOOK AT GARLIC AND GINGER

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Garlic (Allium sativum)

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Growing garlic

25

Using garlic

27

Medicinal properties

27

Garlic bread

27

Garlic leaf butter

28

Ginger (Zingiber officinale)

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Growing ginger

28

Using ginger

30

Medicinal properties

30

Crystallised ginger

30

CHAPTER 5 MUSTARDS

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What is mustard?

31

Types of mustard plant

31

Growing mustard seed

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Making mustards

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Types of mustards

33

How to use mustards

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Basic mustard

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Hot english mustard

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Eggs in mustard sauce

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CHAPTER 6 MEDICINAL USES OF CULINARY HERBS

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Medicinal herbs

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How to make a herbal decoction

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How to make a herbal ointment

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Medicinal uses

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Cautionary notes

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Using medicinal herbs

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Herbal medicine – a glossary of terms

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Herbs for minor complaints

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CHAPTER 7 HERBAL TEAS

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The benefits of herbal tea

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Growing tea herbs

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Popular plants for herbal tea

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How to make a herbal tea

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Popular herbal teas

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Herbal tea ingredients and their benefits

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CHAPTER 8 OTHER USES FOR CULINARY HERBS

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Garden benefits of herbs

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Pollinator herbs

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Insect repellents

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Herbal repellents

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Herbal pest control

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Herbal decoys

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Herbs for pets and your wardrobe

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Insect repellent herbal oil

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Insect repellent herb cream

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Herbal bench top spray

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Herbal sachets

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Pest control for pot plants

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Washing with herbal oils

57

Herb vinegars

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Garlic vinegar

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Italian herb vinegar

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Herb oils

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Herb oil with leaves

58

Herb cheeses

59

Herb salt

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Homemade herb salt

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Herb honey

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Homemade herb honey

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Herb confectionary

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Herb biscuits

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Using herbs with fruit

61

Easy recipes

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Baked red cabbage

62

Fast mint sauce

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Dandelion coffee

62

Mint pasty

62

Herb dip

62

Bbq marinade

63

Corn soup

63

Stevia liquid essence and syrup

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Herb breads

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Herb and garlic bread sticks

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Thyme and pumpkin damper

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Scandinavian-style crispbread

65

Savoury luncheon twist

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Herb butters

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Maître d’hôtel butter

66

Green butter

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Chive butter

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Zesty butter

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Lemon parsley butter

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Gargles

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Ginger and lemon gargle

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Herb and spice gargle

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Rosemary, clove and ginger gargle

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CHAPTER 9 HERB CRAFTS

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Herb dyes

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Hair rinses

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Herb scented stationary

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Pressing herbs

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Ways to press herbs

69

Herbal fragrances

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Potpourri

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Herbs for potpourris

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Herb baths

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Herbal aftershave

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CHAPTER 10 LAVENDER CRAFTS

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Everyday items

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Lavender bath elixir

75

Lavender herbal massage oil

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Lavender sachets

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Scented clothes hangers

76

Lavender candles

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Dried flowers

77

Preserving dried flowers

79

CHAPTER 11 THE KITCHEN GARDEN

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Growing herbs

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Growing herbs in containers

81

Caring for herbs in containers

82

Choosing the right container

83

Potting mixes

84

Maintenance

84

Herbs for pots

85

Herbs as indoor plants

87

How to grow herbs indoors

87

Herbs suitable for growing indoors

88

Hydroponic herbs

88

Natural pest control

89

Directory of herbs

91

Further reading and study

154

More ebooks available

154

Courses available

154

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The information in this book is derived from a broad cross-section of resources (research, reference materials and personal experience) from the authors and editorial assistants in the academic department of ACS Distance Education. It is, to the best of our knowledge, composed as an accurate representation of what is accepted and appropriate information about the subject, at the time of publication. The authors fully recognise that knowledge is continually changing, and awareness in all areas of study is constantly evolving. As such, we encourage the reader to recognise that nothing they read should ever be considered to be set in stone. They should always strive to broaden their perspective and deepen their understanding of a subject, and before acting upon any information or advice, should always seek to confirm the currency of that information, and the appropriateness to the situation in which they find themselves. As such, the publisher and author do not accept any liability for actions taken by the reader based upon their reading of this book.

Published by: ACS Distance Education P.O. Box 2092, Nerang MDC, Queensland, Australia, 4211 [email protected] www.acsbookshop.com UK & European Representative: ACS Distance Education UK P O Box 4171, Stourbridge, DY8 2WZ, United Kingdom [email protected] www.acsebooks.com

ISBN: 978-0-6487526-2-2 PAGE 7

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CREDITS By John Mason Dip.Hort.Sc., FCIH, FAIH, MIHA Editorial Assistants Jacinda Cole B.Sc., Cert.Hort. Marie Beerman B.Sc.(Hort), M.Sc.(Hort) Parita Shah B.Sc.(Hort), M.Sc.(Hort) Nicola Stewart B.A., Dip Aromatherapy Photos: John Mason / Stephen Mason Layout: Stephen Mason

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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Although herbs can be used in many ways, the most popular uses are in food preparation and medicine.

What are Culinary Herbs? The word ‘herb’ encompasses a large group of plants including soft-stemmed herbaceous plants, annuals, bulbs, woody plants and some larger shrubs and trees useful to human beings. Culinary herbs are distinguished from other herbs insofar as they are edible. Generally, they are aromatic plants which may be added to dishes or used in beverages. They are usually used in small amounts, although in some cultures and countries herbs may be consumed in larger quantities. The fresh and dried leaves, flowers and sometimes stems of culinary herbs are used in cooking. They include sage, tarragon, chives, parsley, and a multitude of other species. Sometimes people confuse culinary herbs with spices. Spices are usually powdered substances produced from the grinding of seeds, roots, bark, fruit and sometimes the flowers or flower parts e.g. cardamom (seeds), cinnamon (bark), and saffron (the stamens of the flowers). Herbs are usually the leaves and may be used fresh or dried. Dried herbs can be added as flavourings to a range of foods such as soups, casseroles, sauces, pasta, and roasts. They can also be added to breads, cakes, and other baked foods. PAGE 9

Fresh herbs may be used similarly or added as garnishes to various dishes where they can provide anything from a fresh taste to a sweet or tangy flavour. Culinary herbs do two main things: ● Replace salt and sugar as

flavourings - salt and sugar are widely consumed in quantities which are detrimental to health. Sugar toxicity, caused by high quantities of refined sugar in processed food (which refers to any of a group of carbohydrates), has been dubbed a silent epidemic.

● Add a variety of flavours - these

enhance our enjoyment and can encourage people to try new foods, thereby experiencing a range of healthy foods rather than just eating bland, processed, or takeaway ‘fast’ food which is often low in nutritional value.

Herbs have been adding flavours to food since man’s earliest times. With the tremendous variety of herbs that are now available, today’s cook can add colour, texture and flavour to any dish.

Plant Parts Used as Culinary Herbs Although culinary herbs mainly involve the leaves, different parts of the plant may be used.

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● Leaves – These may be eaten

fresh, (e.g. basil, chives, or mint) or used to flavour dishes and drinks (e.g. lemongrass, myrtle, or catnip).

● Stems – Sometimes stems are

consumed with or without leaves (e.g. coriander/cilantro).

● Seeds – A range of seeds are eaten

(e.g. cumin and caraway).

● Fruit – The fruits of some herbs are

important (e.g. chilli, fennel, or celery).

● Bulbs – The bulbs, and often

leafy stems of some herby plants are consumed (e.g. onions, garlic, and leeks).

● Herbs are mentioned throughout the

Old and New Testaments of the Bible.

● It is believed that schools of

herbalists have existed in Egypt since 3000 B.C.

● Sumerians prepared a written herbal

record around 2500 BC.

● Herbs, such as thyme, marjoram,

and sage were traded in the markets of Athens by 700 BC.

● Greek physician Hippocrates (c. 460

– c. 370 BC), often referred to as the “Father of Medicine”, used plants to treat diseases and catalogued over 400 herbs.

● Flowers – Some flowers are edible

● The Charaka Samhita, an ancient

● Sprouts – The shoots from the

● Pen Ts’ao Ching, the materia medica

(e.g. nasturtium or pansy) as well as specific flower parts (e.g. saffron). seeds of some plants may be edible. However, proceed with caution as specific sprouts can be toxic. Those that are safe to use include beansprouts, pea shoots and alfalfa sprouts.

Ayurvedic text written around 400 BC, mentions over 300 herbs. of classical Chinese medicine likely written around 200 AD, names over 365 herbs.

● The Romans brought Mediterranean

herbs to northern Europe.

Brief History of Culinary Herbs

● There is evidence of early herb

Wild and cultivated herbs have been used for culinary and medicinal purposes for thousands of years. It is assumed that early humans discovered numerous uses of herbs through trial and error.

● Voyages of exploration and the

● Cave paintings of herbs dated to

13,000 – 25,000 BC have been discovered in the Lascaux caves in France.

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gardens in Europe dating back to the Middle Ages. establishment of trade routes made exotic herbs available throughout much of the world.

Fresh Herbs Fresh herbs are usually added to hot dishes towards the end of cooking so that their flavour is not lost, or they

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may be added to dishes which take less time to cook. Those herbs used when fresh generally have tender leaves that are easy to chew and break down when cooked. Chives, coriander, and basil are great options, with their subtle yet distinct flavours.

Storing Fresh Herbs Fresh herbs may be stored in several ways: ● If the herbs were bought with its

roots attached inside a pot (usually enclosed in a clear plastic sleeve), they can be stored in the pot in the fridge for up to a week. Place it on a saucer and add some water to the pot.

● If you have cut stems without roots,

remove any small side shoots from the bottom of the stem and place the stems into a glass jar or another container full of water. Allow the leafy tops to protrude from the jar. Stand it in the fridge or in a cool room.

● You can place the foliage between

moist paper towels and store the stems inside a plastic bag. A zip lock type bag is ideal because it can be sealed.

Use a sharp knife or scissors to avoid bruising the leaves or stems when preparing fresh herb stems or leaves for storage. Crushed leaves will blacken and deteriorate quickly.

Cooking with Fresh Herbs Fresh herbs should be washed before use, to remove any soil or other debris. When using home grown herbs, gently PAGE 11

submerging herbs in water should dislodge any unwelcome guests, such as aphids or caterpillars. Delicate leaves and foliage should be treated carefully to avoid bruising them. When to add fresh herbs to the cooking depends on the type of herb, its preparation, and the desired flavour. ● Robust herbs, such as thyme and

rosemary, can be added early in the cooking process. Delicate herbs are best added towards the end to prevent loss of flavour.

● Whole herbs which release their

aroma slowly, such as bay leaves, may be added early in the cooking process. Chopping breaks open the plant cells, releasing the aroma. Chopped herbs are best added just prior to serving.

● A subtle flavour can be achieved if

herbs are added early in the cooking process. The flavour can be enhanced by adding more towards the end.

Dried Herbs Dried herbs have a more concentrated flavour than fresh herbs, as the drying process locks in the flavours. They are usually added to dishes in moderation. When using dried herbs instead of fresh herbs in a recipe, you can reduce the amount used by one third to one quarter. Many herbs used for drying have tougher leaves and are often used in dishes which take a longer time to cook. This way their flavour is leached into the dish throughout the cooking process.

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How to Dry Herbs To dry herbs all you need is a cool, preferably dark, reasonably wellventilated room. This room should be relatively dry (avoid kitchens and bathrooms). Direct sunlight can also reduce the aromatic oil content of the herb, which is why a darkened room is ideal. Your harvest is simply tied in bunches and hung upside down from the roof, or from curtain rods. In very humid climates, bunches may not dry as well and may develop fungal growths. To minimise such problems be sure to use a well-ventilated room (a fan may be helpful), make small bunches and allow room for air to move between bunches. You can also dry herbs in a dehydrator. After drying, foliage can be stripped and either used or stored in sealed, dry containers. Roots, and sometimes other parts, are often ground into a powder after drying. Containers should be labelled with the name of the plant and when it was harvested to avoid any confusion.

Other Preserving Methods Herbs are used to enhance our food in so many ways. However, most herbs do not grow all year round, and even if they do, the best flavour tends to only peak at certain times. The trick is to work out when the flavour is best; catch it at that time and preserve it for use whenever you want it. While drying herbs is the most obvious method to use, there are other ways of preserving herbs. Most will see a little loss of flavour; but if you use the PAGE 12

right technique for the right herb and get your timing right, the loss of flavour may be unnoticeable.

Sugars, Vinegars & Salts Sugar, vinegar, and salt are all-natural preservatives and can be infused with the flavour of herbs, to preserve that flavour. You do need to consider that the preservative’s flavour will also be captured in what you produce. If you want a salty, herbal flavour to use in a casserole, a herbal salt may be suitable; but a herbal sugar is more appropriate to use in a fruit punch.

Freezing Freezing preserves the essential oils which give herbs their flavour. It is a good option for leafy herbs, such as parsley, basil, and coriander (cilantro). Methods: ● Rinse, air dry and freeze in a plastic

bag or container.

● Blend the fresh herbs into a paste

with oil and freeze in an ice cube tray.

● Chop the herbs, pack them into an

ice cube tray, fill with water or broth and freeze. Frozen cubes can be stored in a bag or container in the freezer for up to 3 months.

Lifting and Keeping Herbs over Winter Some bulbs and corms, such as onions, garlic, and shallots, can be preserved by lifting and storing the dormant bulb over winter.

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CHAPTER 2 HERB CHEMISTRY AND NUTRITION Herbs have variable nutritional values related to their chemical constituents. Their nutritional value is not always easy to identify given the variety in quantities used for different dishes. Some herbs are used in large quantities whereas others are only used sparingly.

Chemistry of Herbs Before exploring the nutritional value of herbs, it is important to have a basic understanding of the chemistry of herb plants. Most of the flavour attributable to herbs comes from essential oils. These

essential oils are also responsible for the medicinal properties of herbs. Essential oils are also known as volatile oils because they react with exposure to air, heat, and light. Those oils that vaporise more readily are responsible for the aromas of herbs, and these are the ones usually extracted for their medicinal properties and for use in aromatherapy.

Parsley contains approximately three times as much vitamin C as oranges on a weight for weight comparison.

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Although essential oils are strongly aromatic, they are generally not recommended for internal use or to flavour food produced at home. With very few exceptions, essential oils are produced via distillation, which makes them extremely strong. For example, it takes the rinds from close to 30,000 lemons to make 10 ml of lemon essential oil. Although the processed foods industry may well use essential oils as flavourings in recipes, they are working with such large quantities in their recipes that any dangers are removed.

The Nutritional Value of Herbs As herbs are only added to food in small quantities, they are unlikely to have a big impact on the overall nutritional value of a meal. The herbs themselves are however highly nutritious, having a similar nutrient profile to leafy greens. Some herbs are even richer in vitamins and minerals than typical leafy greens. Examples: ● Basil, like many other fresh green

herbs, is rich in minerals including magnesium, potassium, iron, and calcium, as well as vitamins, such as vitamin C, K, B1, and folate. It is also high in fibre and rich in antioxidants.

● Parsley contains approximately

three times as much vitamin C as oranges on a weight for weight comparison.

● Dill contains approximately six times

more beta-carotene than pumpkins or rockmelon.

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Dill contains approximately six times more beta-carotene than pumpkins or rockmelon.

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Basil is rich in minerals, vitamins, fibre, and antioxidants.

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CHAPTER 3 SPICES Today, most spices are bought in the supermarket with little thought to their origin, but there are many you can grow yourself.

Processing, Storing and Using Spices Spices have been used since the beginnings of civilisation to preserve and flavour food. The ancient Egyptians used them to embalm mummies. Spices have caused wars and been highly valued trading assets. The Spice Route which began with the trade of spices between China and Korea around 500 BCE soon spread across the world.

garden, but many others are remarkably easy to grow and produce at home. Growing herbs and spices at home gives you a purer, fresher, and often healthier source, frequently with a richer flavour. You also have a ready supply of plant parts so you can create more spices as and when a batch becomes depleted or loses its flavour.

What are Spices? Spices come from the dried parts of aromatic plants. This includes seeds, bark, roots, leaves and fruit. All the plant parts may be used, depending on the particular plant. For instance, the dried seeds of coriander may be ground into a powder for use in Asian cuisine and ginger roots can be treated the same way. Although some spices are used fresh, like fresh coriander leaves and fresh ginger root, to qualify as a spice it must be dried before use. Therefore, some plants may be considered as a herb or vegetable when leafy or fresh parts are used in cooking, but also qualify as a spice when dried. Salt, which is often grouped with spices, is not a true spice. It is a mineral which is mined from the ground and unlike spices it retains its flavour over time. Some spices (e.g. cinnamon, pepper and cloves) grow in the tropics, and are unlikely to be grown in your home PAGE 16

Processing Plants to Make Spices

Galangal has a similar flavour to ginger but more and milder. When you fruity first grind your own spices,

you will be amazed by the fragrance. Traditionally, mortar and pestle are used for grinding, but coffee or spice grinders and food blenders can also be used. Before you grind dried seeds, toast them in a frying pan on a medium heat for 30 seconds or until they pop. Once ground, transfer spices into airtight containers immediately, or use in cooking.

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Mortar and pestle – the mortar is the bowl into which dried plant parts are placed. They are then ground with a hand-held pestle. Connoisseurs argue that the best mortars are made of sturdy materials like granite and stone because they are strong, create enough friction to aid with grinding, and are easy to clean. Look for ones with a deep and wide, rounded bowl and a broader, gently rounded pestle. Avoid wooden and metal versions because rounded plant parts and seeds will readily escape when pressed down. A mortar and pestle allow you to grind even tiny amounts at a time compared to grinders.

Traditionally, a mortar and pestle is used for grinding herbs and spices.

Electronic grinding machines – electronic grinders are very popular because they require less effort than manual types. Blenders – a food blender may be used for some plant parts although it is unlikely to produce very fine powders and would not suit small quantities. Manual grinders – these types range from tabletop versions with crank handles like coffee grinders, to those PAGE 17

which clamp to kitchen benches and look more like meat grinders. Coffee grinders – If you plan on using a coffee grinder to grind coffee in the future then it must be thoroughly cleaned, as the coffee beans will be tainted with the aroma of spices. Pepper mill – you can also use a pepper mill with other seeds. For instance, coriander seeds lend themselves well to a pepper mill.

Storing Spices Spices that are sealed in an airtight container immediately after processing can last up to three years if unopened. Both flavour and aroma last longer when the spices are stored in cool places. In hot climates, some spices are best stored in the fridge. Once containers are opened, whole spices (dried seeds and plant parts) have a shelf life of close to two years, while ground spices may deteriorate between six and twelve months. Spice racks should be placed away from any heat sources as changes in ambient temperature will cause a loss of flavour and the steam from cooking can cause spices to become tacky. Highly coloured spices can fade in bright light, with the loss of colour often indicating a loss of flavour. In these cases, store spices in a cool dark place, such as a cupboard or fridge. Excess spices can also be frozen with no loss of flavour.

Using & Assessing Spices Always use clean utensils when removing spices from containers as soiled spoons can ruin the flavours. Lids need to be immediately replaced

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to preserve the flavour and strength of the spices. Dried spices will be more intense than fresh spices. If you are using dried spices, use around a third of the amount suggested in recipes calling for fresh spices. Check your spice collection regularly to ensure they remain fresh. This can be done by assessing the fragrance of the spice in its jar or by grinding any whole seeds or pods (and then smelling them).

tubers into fertile, well-drained soil. Given drainage, moisture, warmth and fertile soils, the plants develop fast and rhizomes are harvested around 10 months after planting. It can be planted in pots or grown in a greenhouse in cooler regions. As a tropical plant, it needs frost-free conditions and lots of moisture, so supplementary watering is a must. Turmeric is best grown in light shade.

Growing Plants for Spices

Plant the divided roots 5-7 cm deep and 30-45 cm apart in rows raised beds leaving 15-30 cm between plants, in early to mid-spring, into warm soil.

There are many choices that are easy to grow in a range of climates as long as you have suitable growing conditions. The following plants can be grown in pots.

Turmeric (Curcuma longa) Turmeric originates in South East Asia. The roots look like a lighter coloured ginger but with bright yellow flesh. It forms clump of long glossy green leaves, grows to 1 metre tall, with beautiful, white flower spikes emerging after a year’s growth.

Harvest the rhizomes about 10 months after planting or when the lower leaves start to turn yellow and the stems fall over. You can harvest the entire clump or just harvest bits of roots from the edges allowing the main clump to continue growing – divide these clumps about every 3 years. Cut the roots into small pieces and dry in direct sunlight, in the oven or a dehydrator, making sure that the pieces are perfectly dry and crisp. These pieces can be stored and ground to powder as needed.

Parts used: The rhizome (root) is dried and ground to produce a powder. Uses: Used both as a food colouring and a flavouring for spicy foods, turmeric constitutes about 25% of the spices used in commercial curry powder. It is sometimes used as a cheaper substitute for saffron. Turmeric is widely used in curries. The young shoots and rhizome tips are also eaten raw in some cultures. How to grow: Turmeric is propagated by dividing and planting the small PAGE 18

Turmeric forms clumps of long glossy green leaves. The rhizomes (roots) are ready for harvest around 10 months after planting.

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Cayenne Pepper (Capsicum annuum) Hot peppers, like cayenne and other chillies, need warm temperatures to grow. Getting seeds to germinate can be quite tricky without the aid of a temperature-controlled greenhouse or bottom heat since they won’t sprout unless soil temperatures are constantly between 28 and 32°C for two to four weeks. As a result, many people prefer to buy seedlings. Cayenne plants do best when temperatures are stable between 16°C and 32°C. Young plants should be slowly introduced to sunlight, moving pots into sunlight for gradually longer periods each day. Once acclimatised, they will thrive in full sun. Water plants 2-3 times a day in very hot weather. Harvesting Fruits should appear in 4-6 months. These can be cropped and used fresh as required. Most chillies are usually hotter when fruits turn red, but jalapenos are hotter when green. It is always advisable to wear disposable gloves when cropping to avoid burning the skin. To dry fruits, spread them out on paper towels in a cool dark room. Alternatively, you can tie rows of them by the stalks to cotton thread and suspend them. They take around 6 months or more to dry out completely before they can be flaked or ground. If using fresh chillies for flavouring dishes, you can leave them whole to avoid overheating dishes. They can simply be removed after cooking. You PAGE 19

can also remove the seeds from sliced chillies to reduce heat since the bulk of the heat is in the seeds.

Cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum) Cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum) is in the ginger family (Zingiberaceae) and originates from Southern India. It is one of the world’s most expensive spices and is popular in Scandinavian countries where it flavours traditional breads and sweets despite being a tropical plant. A herbaceous perennial, it grows to about 2-4 m tall, dying down in cool weather. It bears long lanceolate leaves which are dark green above with pale and silky undersides. It produces yellowish white to lilac flowers in loose racemes and yellowish green, threesided fruit pods. Parts used: Seeds or the whole seed pods. Uses: The seed pods are used fresh or dried, whole or ground to add flavour and spice to Indian and Asian dishes. Cardamom is said to have a carminative effect, aiding digestion; the seeds are helpful in relieving indigestion and flatulence. It is also considered to be helpful for colic. It is typically used in conjunction with other compounds. Cardamom may also serve as an adjuvant, stimulating the body’s immune response to antigens. How to grow: Cardamom needs lots of warmth and filtered sunlight to do well but may be grown in a warm, humid, greenhouse in cooler areas. Cardamom prefers rich, loamy soils

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high in phosphorus and potassium with a pH of around 6 – 6.5. Sow seeds just below the surface, in a rich seed raising medium. Keep the seeds moist. Once transplanted cardamom continues to need moist soil conditions, it is not drought-tolerant and likes very humid conditions. It takes 3 years to produce seed capsules, so you need to be patient! Collect the seed capsules once they have turned green and dry them out on wire mesh or similar for about a week turning them regularly to make sure they dry evenly. Once dry, remove the seeds from the pods and store in a sealed container, out of direct light. Toast the seeds in a dry skillet until they release their aroma (don’t over-do it) and then grind for a powder or use whole.

Coriander/Cilantro (Coriandrum sativum) A hardy annual to 30-60cm; coriander has foliage similar to flat-leaved parsley. Flowers are small and pink, and fruits are small, round balls turning from green to brown as they dry out. It is usually pest and disease free. Coriander is a versatile plant to grow as seeds can be planted at any time of year in all but the coolest regions. The seedlings will sprout within several weeks and after about 4-6 weeks can be transplanted into larger containers or garden beds. The plants reach about 30-75cm tall and tend to trail over the sides of pots. Coriander is best grown in a cooler spot and partial shade to prevent the plants from bolting if you want to harvest the leaves.

Coriander’s pungent, citrus-flavoured leaves are often used in Asian and Oriental dishes. The seeds are also edible when dried.

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Parts used: Leaves and seeds. Uses: Coriander’s tasty green leaves are often used in Asian and Oriental dishes, e.g. in soups, curries, or other spicy dishes. The seeds are also edible when dried. They are used whole as a spice or ground into a powder. Coriander essential oil is also used in Ayurvedic and Chinese medicine traditions and Aromatherapy for a variety of purposes. How to grow: Coriander likes moist rich soils and resents heat (it will bolt to seed in hot weather); it likes conditions similar to parsley and like parsley, will grow in semi-shade. The best time to sow coriander is in autumn – that way it is less likely to go to seed. You can also sow in early spring. You can buy ‘bolt resistant’ varieties, so try those. However, if you want to collect the small seeds then you will need some to flower. Once the flowers have dried and produced seed heads, cut off the heads and hang them upside down in bunches. Cover them with a paper bag to prevent dust and insects contaminating the seeds. This also allows the seeds to fall into the bottom of the bag as they dry. Once dry, store in sealed container out of direct light. Retained seeds can be viable for at least five years, should you wish to start another crop.

Fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum) Fenugreek is in the pea (Fabaceae) family and originates from South Eastern Europe and Western Asia but is more frequently cultivated in both the Mediterranean and India. Fenugreek is an annual, bushy plant that grows 3060 cm tall it has soft three-lobed leaves, PAGE 21

yellow/white flowers and long pea like seed pods. Parts used: The dried seed. Uses: Use it whole to flavour fish, or as a ground powder in meat dishes (e.g. casseroles). Fenugreek is added whole in chutneys, pickles and rice. It may be used to flavour Middle Eastern sweets (such as halva) and in North African and Ethiopian dishes. The flavour can be improved by light roasting. Roast the seeds until golden, cool and then grind into a powder for use. Fenugreek seeds have a slightly bitter caramel-like taste. The young green plants can be used as a vegetable from around 6 weeks old or as a green manure crop to add nitrogen to the soil. How to grow: Grow in a mild climate in full sun, and well-drained soil with a neutral pH. To grow from seed, soak seeds in water overnight and then sow under glass in spring through to early autumn. As a legume, Fenugreek produces its own nitrogen. Use proper seed for sowing sourced from a grower. Seeds from spice packets are unlikely to germinate. Scatter the seed over the surface of the pots and cover them with about 6 mm of soil. Germination occurs within 2 – 7 days. Transplant seedlings once they have developed a few leaves, and by summer you may have scented flowers that are followed by long flat pods, each carrying around 11 to 20 seeds. Remove and dry the seed pods before storing them in a cool dark place in an airtight container.

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Cumin (Cuminum cyminum) A tender annual herb belonging to the Apiaceae family. Cumin is native to Mediterranean regions, and is also grown for its seeds in Mexico, India and the Middle East. It can grow up to 2030cm high with fine, threadlike ferny foliage and petite white/pink flowers in small umbels, followed by brown seeds. Parts Used: The dried seeds Uses: The tiny seeds can be crushed and used both ground and whole. Cumin is an essential ingredient in curry powder. Cumin’s aroma is pungent, warm, sweet and curry-like. Its flavour is similar to caraway but slightly hotter and more bitter. It can also be used in pickles, chutney, curries and soups. Roasting cumin seeds brings out a nutty flavour. A pinch of ground cumin enhances the flavour of casseroles, soups and salads. How to grow: Cumin is a half hardy annual grown in temperate and semiarid regions that prefers a warm and sunny position. It grows best in well drained, sandy loam and compost rich soil. Seeds are sown directly in early spring at 15-25cm apart. They germinate quickly; taking 7-14 days for seedlings to emerge. Avoid watering once they start flowering to prevent seeds from becoming mouldy. Cumin plants start producing seeds 14-17 weeks after sowing. Harvest the entire plant once the seeds start changing colour from yellow to brown and the foliage starts to die back. Hang the plants once dried shake then to dislodge the seeds.

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Other Spices to Grow at Home The following spices grow well in a variety of climates and are worth considering if you want to increase the variety of herbs and spices growing in your garden. Galangal (Alpinia galanga) – similar flavour to ginger but more fruity and milder. Galangal will grow better in cooler climates than common ginger.

Galangal has a similar flavour to ginger but more fruity and milder.

Mustard (Brassica sp.) –mustard seeds come from plants closely related to cabbage. They are grown much the same as cabbages; and can do well in temperate or subtropical climates. Cinnamon (Cinnamomum sp.) – comes from the bark of some species of Cinnamomum. The camphor laurel tree is related to cinnamon but is not the edible species we use for cinnamon sticks or powder. These edible species grow best in tropical climates but are sometimes grown in a pot and kept in a greenhouse in cooler climates. Harvest

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and dry the bark for use. Cinnamomum aromaticum is often used, but in excessive amounts can cause liver damage. Cinnamomum zeylanicum (syn. C. verum) contains fewer toxins and is much safer if you eat a lot of cinnamon. Herbs as spices – many herbs are treated as spices, being dried, ground into powders, and mixed to use in cooking (e.g. basil, rosemary, thyme, and oregano).

Some Culinary Uses for Spices Marinating Meat Spices may be used fresh or dried for marinating meat. A marinade must consist of an acid, a flavour, and oil. Acid – this is used to tenderise the meat. You could use vinegar, wine, lemon juice, orange juice, or other fruit juices. Flavour – this is where your spices come in. Fresh plant parts can include crushed garlic, sliced ginger or chopped spring onions. Powdered spices can include anything you like. Salt is also often added but is not necessary. Oil – some sort of oil is needed to bind the mixture together. Olive oil is a popular choice, but yoghurt can also be used. Mix the ingredients together and use at room temperature. Refrigerate to cool the marinade. Place the meat in a shallow dish or container, or a sealable plastic bag. Add the marinade and coat the meat. Don’t leave to marinade PAGE 23

for too long or meats can fall apart. Red meats may be stored in the fridge for 324 hours, chicken, and pork for 3-12 hours, and fish only needs one hour. Vegetables may need 1-3 hours depending how fibrous they are. Once ready, remove the meat or vegetables and discard the marinade before cooking.

Gingersnaps Ingredients: Half cup butter 1 cup brown sugar 1/4 cup dark molasses 2 1/4 cups unbleached flour 1 egg 1/2 teaspoon salt 1.5 teaspoon baking soda 2 teaspoons ground ginger 2 tablespoons finely grated fresh ginger root ● Granulated sugar ● Half cup finely chopped crystallised ginger ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●

Method: 1. Cream the butter and brown sugar. 2. Beat in egg and molasses. 3. Sift in dry ingredients and stir until well blended. 4. Add fresh and crystallised ginger. 5. Chill dough until stiff enough to handle. 6. Shape into 1inch balls, roll in granulated sugar and bake at 180°C for 10 minutes. 7. Makes 4 dozen.

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Homemade Curry Powder Fresh curry powder is far superior and more aromatic than pre-prepared blends. There are many recipes for curry powders, with flavours varying from region to region. This recipe is for an all-purpose curry powder using the spices described above with some additional ingredients. You can use the blend for most meat and vegetable dishes. All-Purpose Curry Powder Ingredients: ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●

4 tsp cumin seeds 4 tsp coriander seeds 4 tsp fenugreek seeds 1 tsp yellow mustard seeds 1 tsp black peppercorns 1 tsp cloves 2 tsp chilli powder 4 tsp ground turmeric ½ tsp cinnamon powder I tsp cardamom powder

Method: 1. Dry fry the seeds, cloves, and black pepper for 2 minutes or until they become aromatic, taking care not to burn. 2. Grind with a mortar and pestle into a powder then blend in the rest of the ingredients. This is enough to flavour around 2kg of meat. 3. Store in an airtight container and use within 2-4 weeks.

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Dill contains approximately six times more beta-carotene than pumpkins

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CHAPTER 4 A CLOSER LOOK AT GARLIC AND GINGER Garlic and ginger are essential ingredients in many Asian dishes and also have a long history of medicinal use across a wide range of cultures. They are easy to grow in most climates and have become such standard ingredients in any kitchen that they warrant close consideration as potential crops and additions to your herbal repertoire.

GARLIC (Allium sativum) Garlic comes from central Asia, with some experts citing China as its country of origin. It is now widely cultivated around the world. Its use as a culinary herb and medicine traces back thousands of years as it has been found in ancient Egyptian tombs and ancient Greek temples. Garlic has been called ‘vegetable viagra’ for reported aphrodisiacal properties, and ‘Russian penicillin’ for its antibiotic actions. In Chinese medicine it is used as a stimulant to treat depression. The ancient Egyptians revered its ability

Allium sativum

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to give strength and fed it to slaves used to building the pyramids. The ancient Greek soldiers are said to have consumed garlic before battles.

Growing Garlic Garlic is a hardy, clump-forming plant. Like other members of the onion family, its foliage is hollow-stemmed and tubular. Garlic grows to between 30cm and 1m tall and the leaves die back in cold weather. The plants then re-grow in the warmer months. Small, rounded flower heads appear on the tips of the leaves in summer, and these are white and often tinged with red to purple.

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Planting Garlic is best planted in Autumn using seed bulbs. In frost prone regions, plant about a month before the first frosts. Although you can still plant garlic in winter, the bulbs are not likely to be as large when harvested. Split the bulb into cloves and plant cloves approximately 10 to 12cm apart in the rows, leaving 30 to 40cm between rows. In pots or troughs leave a similar distance between them. Roots develop in late autumn to give the plant a head start in spring. Note: Hard neck varieties of garlic are better suited to cooler and temperate regions. In warmer regions, ‘Glenlarge’ is an ideal variety because it doesn’t require short day lengths to grow.

Culture these plants prefer light, moist but welldrained soil in full sun. Heavy shade will decrease crop size and yield. Sandy soils are good, but they will need enriching with organic matter. If you don’t have much space, you can grow them in containers and plants may be positioned closely together as long as you leave room for the bulbs to grow to full size. In garden beds, keep the soil free of weeds which will compete with young plants. You can do this by lightly digging out weeds. On a larger scale, careful timing of weed killers may be needed. Water around the roots during leaf growth but allow the soil to dry out a little after flowering. Don’t over-water, as very wet soil can cause bulbs to rot. Crop rotation is important to prevent soil-borne diseases from building up. PAGE 26

Garlic responds well to fertiliser but does not require heavy feeding. The bulb’s clove development commences when the leaves stop growing. To get maximum yields, it is necessary to get maximum top growth before this point. Propagate by dividing the root system or cloves in early autumn or early spring.

Seed Storage Cloves should be stored at 0 to 2°Celsius to prolong storage life. Storing at too high or low a temperature can cause side shooting and delayed maturity. A pre-cooling treatment at 19°Celsius for two weeks will result in the plants maturing two to four weeks earlier once cloves are removed from storage and planted out.

Harvesting Garlic is ready to harvest when the foliage begins to turn brown, which is typically after about 4 to 6 months. Don’t wait until the tops have died off because the bulbs will start to rot. Take care when harvesting not to bruise the cloves. Tie bunches of garlic together with string and hang them to dry in a cool, dark room. Drying is essential if you are to avoid rotting. After several weeks, the skins become hard and brittle. Once garlic foliage has been dried, the stems can be plaited and hung for storage. Otherwise, remove foliage and store bulbs in onion bags or vegetable drawers.

Pests & Diseases Rots and downy mildew are the most troublesome diseases. White rot causes garlic leaves to die off and covers bulbs in a white fungal growth.

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Good hygiene and careful watering will minimise problems. Slugs and snails can sometimes be a nuisance, so a light sprinkle of eco-friendly slug and snail pellets occasionally may be needed.

steroids, terpenoids, flavonoids, and phenols have increasingly been identified as possible active ingredients. Garlic has been used to reduce blood pressure and aid breathing. It is also thought to improve the blood’s immune response, and lower blood lipid levels. There are strong indications that it has anti-cancer properties and stimulates insulin production. Outdoors, garlic teas may be sprayed onto plants to control fungal diseases.

Garlic Bread The stems and bulbs of immature or green garlic can be finely sliced and using in cooking. It tastes like mature garlic but without the pungency.

Using Garlic Medicinal Properties Garlic has a mild to insignificant smell until the cloves are crushed. Once crushed, the smell is quite powerful. This pungent fragrance is caused by sulphur glycosides. Garlic leaves and roots have a high sulphur content, making them natural antibiotics. Garlic has some mild antibacterial, anticarcinogenic, antioxidant, and cardioprotective properties which make it popular in herbal remedies, although the exact way it acts is not fully understood. The odour released through crushing or chewing garlic is associated with the decomposition of allicin, a derivative of the sulphur compound ‘alliin’. When the cells are broken, the enzyme alliinase converts alliin to allicin. Other sulphur compounds along with peptides, PAGE 27

Homemade garlic bread is far superior to pre-packaged varieties. It is quick and easy to make and is a tasty accompaniment to a meal. Ingredients: ● One loaf of bread (e.g. baguette, ● ● ● ●

ciabatta) 75g of softened butter 2 cloves of garlic, crushed or finely sliced 1 Tb of chopped parsley Salt and pepper to taste

Method: 1. Preheat the oven to 200°C 2. Slice loaf into segments at about 2cm intervals being careful not to cut all the way through 3. Mix butter, garlic and parsley in a bowl and season with salt and pepper 4. Spoon mixture into cut segments of loaf 5. Wrap foil around the loaf and place on a rack in the oven 6. Cook for approximately 12 to 15 minutes until butter has melted

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Garlic Leaf Butter Ingredients: ● 250g softened, unsalted butter ● ½ tsp. sea salt, or more to taste ● 50g finely chopped garlic leaves

Method: 1. Mash the butter with the sea salt. 2. Stir in the garlic leaves.

GINGER (Zingiber officinale) Ginger originates in Southern Asia’ rainforests and may be indigenous to India where it is used in food and in Ayurvedic medicine. Most exported ginger comes from India. It was a valuable commodity in the spice trade and was first exported to Europe in the first century CE. During the Middle Ages, ginger was so highly valued that one pound in weight could be exchanged for a whole sheep! Ginger has a long history of use in Chinese and Ayurvedic medicine. Both Chinese medicine and Western herbal medicine use it to treat colds and flu. Chinese sailors of yesteryear used it to treat scurvy because of its vitamin C content. Ginger has supposed aphrodisiac qualities and is said to regulate various bodily systems, keeping hormones balanced and improving digestion. While ginger beer is a popular soft drink today, a ginger beverage is described in the Koran as being fit for the holiest of spirits.

Growing Ginger Ginger is a herbaceous, clump-forming perennial which grows upright stems PAGE 28

with large strappy leaves. It can grow to 1m in height. The stems emerge in spring and then die back in autumn. Greenish-yellow flowers arise from ground level after a couple of years. Although we tend to refer to edible ginger as a root, it is actually the rhizome that is used in cooking.

Planting You can grow ginger from store bought rhizomes. Wait until some ‘eyes’ have emerged, because these swellings are actually stem buds. Slice the rhizome into sections, each with an eye or preferably two. Allow the cut sections to harden off for a day or two to reduce the chance of fungal infections entering the tissue when planted. When they’re ready, plant each section of rhizome with eyes facing upwards at about 15cm apart, and 5cm deep. Spring is the best time to plant in most regions, or late winter to spring in tropical areas. Ginger may be grown throughout the year in warmer climates. Soil temperatures need to be warm and preferably over 20°C as growth will be sluggish in lower temperatures. In very cold and wet conditions the rhizomes will simply rot.

Straw mulch can be used to maintain warm soil temperatures for ginger rhizomes.

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down to provide additional nutrients and also help to retain moisture around the plant which is needed to keep humidity high. In pots, feed fortnightly with a liquid feed. Ginger is easily propagated by dividing the clumps.

Harvesting

Ginger

Culture ginger prefers a warm climate with fertile soil, although it can be grown temperate regions as long as it is protected from frost. Poorer soils can be improved by working in some well-rotted compost. Ginger will grow best in partial shade with good drainage and ample moisture. It needs shelter from cold or strong winds, and in very hot periods may need some shade. It will grow well in containers but is more productive in the ground. Ginger is fairly tough in the right climatic conditions. You can leave it to fend for itself so long as there is about 1500mm of annual rainfall. If rainfall is unpredictable or the plant is grown in a container, keep the soil moist but not wet. Ginger responds well to mulch and annual applications of compost and rotted manure. Organic mulch will break PAGE 29

Ginger root is harvested when ripe. The stems die off in autumn through to winter. You can cut of the dead leaves when they’ve browned off. Harvest the rhizomes in winter or keep the plants going by cutting off sections of the rhizome. If you choose to harvest rhizome sections, leave the young actively growing parts and remove older sections. In cooler regions, harvest the whole plants because the rhizomes might not survive the winter. You can slice off small sections of old ginger rhizome from plants any time of year by carefully digging around the plant. When the rhizome is harvested, cut off the roots and stems before washing the rhizome and leaving it to dry. These can be stored in the vegetable drawer or frozen for later use. Wait to harvest until the plant has been growing at least 8 to 10 months. You might also like to boil, peel, and dried your ginger in the sun, before powdering for use as a culinary spice. For candied ginger, green or young rhizomes are harvested because they have a milder flavour and are juicier. As they age, rhizomes develop a stronger taste and become drier. Fresh ginger can be kept for several months by wrapping in a tea towel then placing in a sealed plastic bag in the refrigerator.

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Pests and Diseases

Crystallised Ginger

Ginger is relatively free form pests and diseases. In greenhouses and sheltered sites, red spider mite can be problematic. Misting around plants to keep the air humid may prevent them. Once noticed they should be sprayed with an eco-oil to prevent an infestation. As with garlic, rots can be troublesome if the soil is too wet.

Ingredients:

Using Ginger Medicinal Properties Ginger is widely used as a tonic to counter a number of common digestive ailments. Ginger is considered to be an anti-inflammatory. There is some evidence of anti-carcinogenic action in animals, but this has not yet translated into human research. It may play a role in lowering blood cholesterol, reducing blood toxins, and treating colds. Ginger taken fresh or as tablets is reputedly effective at combatting nausea. Tablets are commonly sold in health food shops and chemists as a remedy for motion sickness and to aid digestion. The rhizomes contain a range of chemical compounds including resin, volatile oils, gum, lignin, starch, acetic acid, and sulphur. When used as a mouth gargle it is said to prevent bacterial infections in the throat and mouth, and to strengthen the gums. Other possible uses include treating dyspepsia, flatulence, and gastritis. It has also been applied to the skin as a rubefacient to stimulate the skin by increasing blood flow and thereby creating a more radiant appearance.

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● ● ● ●

2 cups of ginger 1½ cups sugar ½ lemon 1 cup corn syrup

Method: 1. Take 2 cups of sliced and peeled ginger place in a saucepan, cover with water and bring to boil. Simmer for, about 20 minutes until tender. 2. Next, add half cup of sugar, stir, and return to boil. 3. Remove from heat, cover, and let stand at room temperature overnight. 4. The next day bring to boil again, then reduce heat and simmer for about 15 minutes. Add half a sliced lemon and 1 cup of corn syrup, then simmer uncovered for a further 15 minutes, stirring occasionally. Remove from heat, cover, and let stand overnight. 5. The following day bring to boil again stirring as the mixture heats. Add half cup of sugar and continue boiling whilst stirring. Reduce heat and simmer for about 30 minutes. Stir in a final half a cup of sugar and bring to boil. Remove from heat, cover, and let stand overnight. 6. Boil the mixture a fourth time the next morning. When syrup drops from a spoon in large globules and ginger is translucent, remove from heat and drain. Save syrup for future use as a sauce. Or, dry ginger on a rack overnight. When dried, roll ginger in granulated sugar and store in a tight jar.

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CHAPTER 5 MUSTARDS Mustard has been a popular condiment for thousands of years. Although readily available in shops and supermarkets, it’s not difficult to make.

What is Mustard? Mustard is made from several different plants closely related to cabbage. These small annuals look similar to cress but with slightly larger leaves. The leaves are bright green with white stems. For salad greens, plants are harvested at about 10 to 14cm tall as small seedlings. In the field they can reach over a metre in height. Mustard plants have a bitter but fresh taste. Mustard paste is derived from the seeds. The flowers are an attractive, bright yellow and form in clusters atop long stalks.

Types of Mustard Plant There are three main types of mustard – white, black, and brown (oriental). Most of the commercially cultivated

mustard is White Mustard (Sinapis alba). White mustard is also known as Yellow Mustard and is sometimes listed as Brassica hirta or Brassica alba. All these names refer to the same plant and it really depends which country you live in as to which name you are likely to encounter. Of the other two types, Black Mustard (Brassica nigra) is grown for its seed. Oriental or Brown Mustard is a different species called Brassica juncea. This is more likely to be eaten as mustard greens rather than used to make mustard, but all types can be used interchangeably. Ethiopian Mustard is another species (Brassica carinata) which is cultivated as an oil seed crop rather than as a condiment because it has an undesirable taste.

Mustard plants are small annuals which look similar to cress but with slightly larger leaves.

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Growing Mustard Seed Mustard plants are easy to grow in mild climates at any time of year, but winter is the best time or when temperatures are around 7°C. Seeds take about 3 to 10 days to germinate. They can be grown as salad greens or for seeds. For salad greens, mustard is best grown in a greenhouse or on a kitchen window ledge in cool, temperate regions. This provides the conditions for quick growth and the development of soft, tender stalks and leaves. Treat mustard like cress and grown it on any substrate that retains moisture, such as cotton wool or hessian. Mustard can also be grown in fine soil. The seeds are spread quite densely over the surface but should not be covered. The medium is watered and then covered with black plastic or paper such as a brown paper bag. When the seeds have germinated, the cover is removed. As a salad green, it is ready to harvest within 15 days. If growing for seed, plant a number of seeds in a pot and prick out into permanent positions once they have their first true leaves. Space the seedlings at about 15cm apart. For best results, keep the soil or growing medium moist and sow when it is reasonably cool outside. These plants are best grown in soil and fed with a generalpurpose fertiliser. about six weeks to two months to obtain seed, depending on conditions. After the mustard flowers, they produce seed pods which open by themselves after a couple of weeks. You can either remove the pods just before they open or place a paper or hessian bag around the pods to capture the seeds. The seeds will readily germinate to form more plants, so don’t leave pods PAGE 32

to open on the plants if you don’t want them to spread.

Making Mustards Mustard seeds are used to make the condiment. These seeds are hardcoated, round and vary in colour from pale brown to dark brownish black. They are tiny and large quantities are required to make mustard paste. About ten mustard plants will provide enough seeds to make one cup of mustard. The mildest tasting mustard is the white or yellow variety. Black tends to be the strongest. There are two basic methods of making mustard. One grinds the seeds into a dry powder, and the other method involved grinding them into an oily paste. Each outcome provides a slightly different taste. To grind the seeds into a powder, use a food processor, coffee grinder or a spice grinder. Although a mortar and pestle will work, the seeds can be quite tough to break down. Once you have your powder, store it and mix it with a liquid such as water to make a mustard paste when needed. It is best to gradually add the powder to the liquid, stirring until you have the desired consistency. If you add liquid to the powder it can get too runny and you may run out of powder to thicken it. To make an oily paste, soak the seeds in water for a day. This allows the seeds to absorb liquid and makes them easier to grind. For a basic recipe only water is needed for soaking, but for other recipes you can use a mixture of vinegar and water. If you only use water to make your paste, the flavour will be strong initially, but

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will deteriorate over time. Only make up small amounts and use the mustard quickly. To lock in flavour, other liquids such as vinegar, wine, grape or lemon juice can retain flavour for longer. Whatever liquid you use will influence the final taste and its potency, so it’s worth experimenting to see what suits your palate. The paste will thicken over time, so you may need to add more liquid if you store the mustard as a paste. Most commercially available mustard pastes are mixed with additives such as flour and turmeric powder. As such, your homemade mustards may be stronger flavoured unless you include some other ingredients. You can enhance or modify the taste by changing the type of grains used or adding ingredients such as salt, pepper or garlic powder. Try mixing in brown sugar or honey for a milder, slightly sweeter taste. Ground black pepper, cloves or ginger can add heat and spice to the paste. You can also change the texture by adding partially ground or whole seeds.

Types of Mustards ● Dijon – this is mild yellow mustard

originating from France. It can be added to mustard sauces to serve with meals e.g. corned beef. It goes well on hotdogs and burgers too.

● Grain Mustards – these have a

wonderful texture. Many originate in France, Germany and Southern Europe. They go well with Bratwurst sausages, roast pork and hams.

● Honey Mustards – these are sweet

yellow mustards. They are ideal for those who prefer less bite.

● Hot Mustards – black mustard seeds

make the hottest mustards, but hot English mustard is a yellow type with a fantastically pungent flavour.

● Spicy Mustards – these are usually

mustards made from more water and less vinegar with some brown seeds added. It goes well with a variety of meat dishes.

● French – the typical French mustard

has a consistency similar to English mustard but is a greyish brown colour and mid-range in terms of spiciness.

How to Use Mustards

Ginger

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Mustard is best kept at cool temperatures to preserve its hotness, so pop it in the fridge if you don’t want it to mellow. You can add it to meals to give them a bit more bite. Try adding it to sauces or mayonnaise to give them a more lively taste. Use it as an ingredient in pickles, relishes or chutneys. You might also like

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to add a pinch of powder to the water when boiling vegetables like cauliflower or broccoli to enhance flavour.

Basic Mustard Ingredients: 6 tablespoons whole mustard seeds 1/2 cup mustard powder 1/2 cup water 3 tablespoons vinegar (e.g. white wine or apple cider vinegar) ● 2 teaspoons salt ● ● ● ●

Method: 1. Grind the mustard seeds in a spice grinder or with a mortar and pestle, without breaking them up completely. 2. Transfer the semi-ground seeds into a bowl and add the mustard powder and salt. 3. Add the water, stir well and let the mixture sit for 10 minutes. 4. Add the vinegar. 5. Transfer the mustard into a glass jar and store in the fridge. Allow it to thicken at least 12 hours before using it. It will last a year refrigerated.

Hot English Mustard Ingredients: ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●

2 tablespoons mustard seeds 4 tablespoons mustard powder 1/4 cup water 1 teaspoon salt 1/2 teaspoon cayenne pepper 1/2 teaspoon turmeric powder 1/2 teaspoon honey 1/2 teaspoon vinegar 1/4 cup cold beer

Method: 1. Toast the mustard seeds in a pan without oil over medium heat until the seeds start popping. 2. Crush the seeds using a mortar and pestle. 3. Thoroughly combine the crushed mustard seeds, mustard powder, and water. Let the mixture sit for 20 minutes. 4. Add the salt, cayenne pepper, and turmeric powder. Stir. 5. Add the honey, vinegar, and beer. Stir. 6. Add up to one more tablespoon of mustard powder if the mixture seems thin. 7. Transfer the mustard into a small glass jar and refrigerate. Let the flavours combine for 2 to 3 days before using.

Eggs in Mustard Sauce (Serves 4) Ingredients: ● ● ● ● ● ● ●

8 hardboiled eggs 2 tablespoons flour 1 litre milk 60g butter 10 tablespoons mustard Salt and pepper Dill (optional)

Method: 1. Create a roux by melting butter in a saucepan and stirring in the flour. 2. Add the milk, little by little, continuously stirring. 3. Add the mustard, salt and pepper to taste and dill, if using. 4. Add the peeled and halved boiled eggs to the sauce. Serve with boiled potatoes.

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CHAPTER 6 MEDICINAL USES OF CULINARY HERBS Note: The following information is not intended to replace the services of a physician or naturopath. You should consult a professional when conditions logically require such services. The medicinal use of herbs has been well established for over 5000 years since the Sumerian civilization. Chinese, Egyptian and other civilizations used medicinal herbs well over 3000 years ago. Modern Western herbalism had its beginnings with Hippocrates, often called the father of medicine. Hippocrates made a thorough scientific study of medicinal herbs around 1000 BC. Through experimentation and observation, he and his colleagues determined the medicinal characteristics of a large proportion of the herbs we use

today. The work of these ancient Greeks provided the basic information which was passed down through Western civilization over the next 3000 years. During the 19th century and early part of the 20th century, there was a major turning away from traditional herbal medicine in some parts of the western world as people embraced the new ways of modern science. The doctor largely replaced the naturopath. In recent years there has been a re-emergence of traditional medicine, bringing a more balanced approach to health care.

Rosemary lowers blood pressure, improves concentration, reduces fatigue, and aids hair and scalp health.

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Medicinal Herbs Many of the medicines prescribed by doctors and sold by pharmacists originate from herbs. Aspirin is derived from salicin, which is found in willow bark. Although the proper processing of herbs for medicinal purposes is complex and beyond the skills of the average home gardener, there are many herbs which are relatively easy to grow and safe for most people to use. For example, Rosemary, Lavender, Garlic and Lemon Balm can all be safely grown and enjoyed at home. Many of these medicinal herbs also attracting predatory insects garden which will keep unwanted pests in check.

Let’s take a look at some easy-to-grow herbs and what they can be used for: Chamomile (Matricaria recutita) - relieves stress and tension, good for digestion, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial

Many herbs can be easily transformed into herbal teas or topical ointments which may provide medicinal benefits. Sometimes these benefits are preventative rather than curative - you can help your body to fend off infections and illnesses before they get the better of you by boosting your immune system and natural defences.

Chamomile relieves stress and tension, is good for digestion, anti-inflammatory, and antibacterial.

Echinacea (Echinacea spp.) - fights symptoms of cold and influenza, relieves sinus problems, soothes gum inflammations, treats infections

Echinacea fights symptoms of cold and influenza, relieves sinus problems, soothes gum inflammations, and treats infections

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Eucalyptus (Eucalyptus spp.) antiseptic, breathe fumes to clear sinuses and ease chest infections Garlic (Allium sativum) – antibacterial, reduces blood pressure, aids breathing

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Ginger (Zingiber officinale) – settles stomach, anti-inflammatory, lowers cholesterol, reduces blood toxins, treats colds

Pot Marigold (Calendula officinalis) - antifungal, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, heals wounds, soothes skin irritations and mouth sores

Lavender (Lavandula spp.) – relaxant, aids sleep, antibacterial, antiseptic, heals skin conditions, relieves pain

Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis) - lowers blood pressure, improves concentration, reduces fatigue, aids hair and scalp health

Lemon (Citrus limonum) - antibacterial, soothes colds and influenza symptoms, assists immune system Lemon Balm (Melissa officinalis) - relaxant, calms nerves, alleviates headaches, treats cold sores and viruses Peppermint (Mentha x piperita) - aids with digestion, relieves headaches, soothes pain

Tea Tree (Melaleuca alternifolia) antiseptic, antifungal, soothes pain, treats insect bites, calms acne and skin conditions Thyme (Thymus vulgaris) decongestant, soothes sore throats, treatment of coughs and colds, diarrhoea, antiseptic, treatment of cuts

Lavender is a relaxant, aids sleep, is antibacterial, antiseptic, heals skin conditions, and relieves pain.

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How To Make A Herbal Decoction

How To Make A Herbal Ointment

A decoction is made from boiling the harder parts of plants such as bark, stems, seeds or roots. You should always research the plant part you intend to use to make sure it is not poisonous. For instance, peach and apricot stones contain traces of amygdalin which is a form of cyanide.

Making your own herbal ointment or balm can be very enjoyable. If you have children, this is a task they love to get involved in. You can make ointments to soothe stings and bites, cut and grazes, or for dry irritable skin.

● Add about 25-30g (0.88-1 ounce or

1/4 to 1/8th cup) of dried herbs to a saucepan.

● Pour over one litre of water. ● Place on stove and bring to the boil. ● Reduce heat to simmer for around

half an hour.

● Strain, allow to cool, and then

refrigerate in a sealed container.

Hints ● Try pouring boiling water over

dried herbs and allowing to stand overnight for stronger decoctions.

● Heat some water in a saucepan so

that it is simmering and not boiling.

● Add 1 cup (250ml) of vegetable oil

(e.g. olive, jojoba, almond) and 1/2 cup of dried herbs of your choice (or more for fresh herbs) to a bowl.

● Place the bowl on top of the

saucepan so that it fits snugly but does not touch the water.

● Leave for 20-30 minutes. ● Strain the oil to remove herb parts

and return to bowl.

● Add 3 tablespoons of beeswax to

the oil.

● Allow the wax to melt but not boil.

● Experiment with different

● Gently stir contents with a wooden

● Discard leftover decoctions and teas

● Remove bowl and pour ointment

● Don’t use plant parts which

● Allow to cool, then seal and refrigerate.

combinations of herbs. after one week.

have recently been sprayed with pesticides.

spatula to mix ingredients. into jars.

Hints ● Use a glass or Pyrex bowl so that

no contaminants leach into the ointment.

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● Buy a purpose-made double boiler. ● Use more beeswax to create a

thicker ointment which can be used as a lip balm.

● Put date labels on your ointments

and dispose of after 6 months or if they deteriorate.

Medicinal Uses Medicinal herbs may have mild or strong effects, so dosage needs to be adjusted to take the person’s circumstances into account. A small child, sick adult, or a frail elderly person would require a lower dosage than a healthy adult. The effects can also be influenced by a number of other factors: ● Plant species and variety – there

can be subtle differences between two seemingly identical plants. Some cultivated varieties may not have the same percentage of active chemical constituents as the original species and may be less effective as medicines.

● Growing conditions – over-

fertilised or over watered herbs may have a lower concentration of key chemical constituents. Similarly, climate, altitude and seasonal alterations in sunlight or temperature can also have an impact on the herb’s medicinal properties.

● Plant parts used – the

concentration of the active constituents can vary depending on which plant parts are used – the roots, leaf, stem, flowers or fruit

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● Mature or new growth – active

constituents are often stronger in mature plants

● Harvest conditions – the

concentration of active constituents can vary with the time of day and year when harvesting occurs as well as the weather conditions

● Preparation – the strength of the

preparation will vary depending on its use as an oil, tablet, tea, decoction, ointment or other preparation.

● Storage conditions – although

fresh herbal medicines are generally most effective, some varieties will store well.

● Application – some herbs are safe

when used externally but should be avoided for internal use.

● Concentration – the active

ingredients of some herbal medicines can be either beneficial or dangerous depending on their concentration in solution.

Cautionary Notes Any herbs planned for internal use as food, herbal remedies, teas, or similar should not come from plants known to have been exposed to pesticides. If you aren’t sure, don’t use it. Never select a medicinal herb to grow based on its common name - some plants share the same common name but are totally different and unrelated, one could be highly poisonous and the other benign.

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Do not make and sell herbal medicines without satisfying your country’s legal requirements. Make sure you know what the regulations and industry standards regarding growing, harvesting, handling herbs and preparing herbal medicines.

Using Medicinal Herbs There are a number of different ways you can safely use medicinal herbs in your own home: Herbal Medicine - herbal products tend to work with the body’s natural processes to combat disease (rather than by blocking natural processes as in conventional allopathic medicine). In extreme situations, herbal medicine may be inappropriate. Herbal medicine methods and practices vary depending on the culture from which they develop. Three of the most widely used forms of herbal medicine include Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM), Ayurvedic medicine and Western herbalism. However, indigenous use of herbs and herbal medicines are widespread

around the world, with practitioners working with local plants and remedies to support the body’s return to health. Naturopathy - this is based on helping the body heal itself by attending to the five “cornerstones” of good health: good nutrition, a good (psychological) attitude, fresh air, exercise, and sunshine. Disease is seen as a body reacting against a build-up of toxins. Herbs may be used to stimulate faster elimination of these toxins from the body. Aromatherapy - essential oils derived from herbs and other plants can be used to treat various ailments from mild stress, insomnia or headaches, to more severe problems. Aromatherapy might involve massage with essential oils, inhalations, cold or hot compresses, the use of skin care products, atomisers or bathing products. Note: You should always seek the advice of a general practitioner before taking herbal remedies.

Herbal medicines include tinctures, ointments, infused oils and teas.

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Herbal Medicine – A Glossary of Terms Term

Definition

Examples

Alternatives

Chemicals found in herbs that gradually alter a condition. They are often combined with other herbs in a remedy

Bittersweet twigs, bull nettle root, burdock root, red clover flowers, sarsaparilla root, sassafras root, yellow dock root

Anthelmintic (vermifuge)

Medicines which help to expel worms from the body

Melia azaderach bark, skin from a pomegranate fruit, pumpkin seed.

Astringent

Cause the skin to tighten or increase the firmness of the skin’s mucous membrane. These can be diluted with water, used as washes, lotions, or mouthwashes

Strong astringents include bearberry leaves, black willow bark, maiden hair fern leaves, water lily roots. Mild astringents include blackberry roots, black birch leaves, St. John’s wort leaf and stems.

Bitter Tonics

Used to stimulate appetite by promoting the flow of saliva and other digestive juices

Chamomile flowers, dandelion root, gentian root, leaf and stems of mugwort and wormwood. Both mugwort and wormwood have potential contraindications and should be treated with caution. Do not create remedies using these herbs without the guidance of a qualified herbal medicine practitioner.

Calmative

Herbs used for their calming effect often taken as a warm tea at bedtime

Chamomile, eucalyptus, mint.

Carminative

Relieves flatulence

Anise seed, caraway seed, coriander seed, eucalyptus leaves, ginger root, fennel seed, peppermint leaves, spearmint leaves, valerian roots.

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Term

Definition

Examples

Cathartic

Encourage better bowel movement. There are two subtypes: Laxatives have a mild effect on the intestines. Purgatives cause a heavy discharge

Laxatives - aloe vera, castor oil, agar-agar, rhubarb root, coriander seed

Diaphoretic (sudorific)

Increases sweating

lobelia, chamomile leaves

Dietetic

Mildly effective digestive herbs that are particularly useful for the very young or for convalescents

Irish moss (Chondrus crispus), sweet or slippery elm (Ulmus fulva).

Diuretic

Increases secretion of urine. Often prescribed during pregnancy.

Parsley root.

Demulcents

Soothing, particularly for sore throats and coughs

Arrow root, comfrey root, couch grass root, gum of Arabic, liquorice root, marshmallow root or leaves

Emollients

Oily products that soften and soothe the skin

Symphytum officinale (comfrey)

Expectorant

Loosens and expels phlegm or catarrh from mucus membranes, bronchial tubes and nasal passages

Balm of Gilead buds, benzoin gum, comfrey root, elecampane root, liquorice root, maidenhair fern leaves, mullein leaves, marshmallow roots

Nervines

Relax the nervous system, reducing the symptoms of stress, fatigue or overexcitement

Catnip leaves, chamomile flowers, valerian roots, yarrow foliage.

Relaxants

Reduce nervous irritation

Calendula

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Purgatives - Egyptian senna (Senna alexandrina)

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Term

Definition

Examples

Vulnerary

For minor wound healing

Practically any non-irritant green plant can be used due to chlorophyll content.

Herbs for Minor Complaints These herbs are readily available and can support the body’s return to health if used on a regular basis. Please note that any serious or long term complaints should be addressed by a doctor or naturopath. If you are taking any medications, or you have another underlying condition, please consult a professional before beginning to use a herbal remedy on a regular basis. Complaint

Recommended herb

Method of Application

Acne

Lemongrass

Drink the tea or bathe in leaves

Acne

Carrot

Drink the juice

Appetite (loss)

Peppermint

Drink tea

Arthritis

Feverfew

Eat a few leaves daily

Arthritis

Rosemary or lavender

As a herbal bath, as an aromatherapy massage, in an ointment to apply to painful joints

Arthritis

Horseradish

Tablets

Asthma

Peppermint

Drink the tea

Asthma

Pine needles, lavender

As a hot bath

Asthma

Marjoram, Cedarwood (Cedrus atlantica), Frankincense

Use essential oils to create an ointment to rub into the chest, inhale the essential oils

Common cold

Garlic

Tablets for prevention

Common cold

Pine needles

As a hot bath, reduces symptoms

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Complaint

Recommended herb

Method of Application

Cuts and abrasions

Calendula

Ointment on small wounds

Depression

Lemon balm or oat straw

Drink the tea

Depression

Lavender

As a hot bath

Dermatitis

Lavender

As a warm bath

Insomnia

Valerian, Chamomile, Lavender

Drink the tea

Gastritis

Peppermint

Drink the tea

Haemorrhoids

Witch hazel

Tablets

Headaches (nervous or muscle tension headaches)

Chamomile, Thyme, Rosemary, Lemon balm

Drink the tea

Nausea

Spearmint, peppermint or Raspberry leaf

Drink the tea – Avoid raspberry leaf tea in the first two trimesters of pregnancy as it is a uterine tonic.

Respiratory problems

Garlic

Tablets

Respiratory problems

Eucalyptus, Peppermint, Frankincense, Benzoin, Marjoram, Cedarwood

Inhale the essential oil. The essential oils listed all help to support deeper and calmer breathing. Avoid eucalyptus if you have asthma as its use is contraindicated during asthmatic attacks.

Sinusitis

Horseradish

Tablets

Sinusitis

Fenugreek

Drink the tea

(Note: Some of these cures will take months of constant use to start showing any significant result).

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CHAPTER 7 HERBAL TEAS Herbal teas have been consumed for thousands of years around the world. Not only can they taste really good, but teas capture more than half of the valuable nutrients from the plant material. Although not as concentrated as herbal medicines, teas contain a range of beneficial nutrients which may stimulate our immune systems and keep bodily functions in tiptop shape. Herbal teas can be consumed regularly to help restore and maintain inner balance. They are best if you drink them several times a day to help alleviate long-term symptoms and chronic health problems. For shorter term illnesses like cold or flu, or to boost a sluggish immune system, you can make one drink last several hours or add some of your herbal infusion to other drinks throughout the day

● To calm symptoms of anxiety or

stress

● To overcome symptoms of fever,

cold or flu

● For promoting more relaxing sleep

The Benefits of Herbal Tea Herbal teas are thought to have many possible health benefits. Some of the common reasons people drink them include: ● For general wellbeing ● To boost energy levels ● To improve blood circulation ● As an aid to digestion ● As a source of nutrients ● To stimulate the immune system ● As a supply of antioxidants PAGE 45

Herbal teas are thought to have many possible health benefits.

Growing Tea Herbs Tea herbs can be annuals or perennials. Perennials are usually the woody stemmed types like sage, thyme, oregano, and rosemary. Annuals are fleshier like coriander and basil. However, your location can influence the lifespan of herbs.

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The quality of the herbs is also determined your local climate. Most herbs need a lot of sunlight in order to promote oil production. It is the essential oils in herbs which produces their unmistakable aromas, and which provides flavour when ingested in food or infused in teas. If you are growing herbs in a cooler climate you will need to position them where they can benefit from the most exposure to sunlight.

Mints also have very invasive root systems, as do some others like horseradish, so they are best grown in containers to stop them from taking over garden beds. It is usually best to grow individual species in separate containers if space permits, since they may grow at different rates. Annuals and tender perennials grown in the open ground can be protected with a cloche or cold frame over winter.

Many perennial herbs do not need particularly rich soils and will thrive in a warm and sunny position. A few herbs prefer partial shade and moist soil. With some herbs, like the mints, there are also many different species, each with their unique taste.

Apart from those needing moist conditions do not over-water the herbs – this makes the leaves watery and in turn reduces their effectiveness as herbal tea or herbal medicine.

Marigold tea is made using dried marigold (Calendula officinalis) flowers.

Popular plants for herbal tea Herbs - lemon balm, chamomile, fennel, mint, catnip, oregano, sage, thyme, parsley, rosemary, chives, dill, lavender, basil, lemongrass, echinacea

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Trees and shrubs (leaves) blackberry, raspberry, Backhousia citriodora, birch, lemon myrtle, lemon or orange verbena, linden (Tilia cordata). Trees and shrubs (flowers) - rose, elderberry, citrus, hibiscus.

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Garden weeds - dandelions, nettles, goldenrod (Solidago spp.), ground ivy (Glechoma hederacea), purslane (Portulaca oleracea), wild mustard, red clover, milk thistle (Silybum marianum). Annuals and perennials – Marigold (Calendula officinalis), chrysanthemum (Chrysanthemum indicum or C. morifolium) nasturtium, pansies, violets, honeysuckle (flowers only), carnations (Dianthus caryophyllus), alliums, hollyhock (Althaea rosea), sunflower.

How to Make a Herbal Tea Herbal teas are often called infusions. They are made with the soft parts of the plant such as leaves or flowers. If you use dried herbs you’ll only need half the amount. ● Add two teaspoons of fresh herbs

per cup to a teapot.

● Pour over boiling water. ● Replace lid and allow to stand for

5-10 minutes.

● Strain and pour into cups.

Hints ● You can make herbal teas directly in

cups.

● Add sweeteners to improve flavour

e.g. honey, syrup, or sugar.

● You can purchase ready-made

herbal infusion cups.

● Herbal teas usually taste better

without milk.

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When making teas, you will need to experiment to get the quantities and timing right. You may need to use larger quantities of dried herbs than fresh ones, and some herbs infuse more readily than others.

Useful Tips ● You can pour some of your herbal

tea into an ice cube tray and freeze it - add cubes to cordials, punches, and fruit drinks.

● Try putting a bright herbal flower in

each cube to brighten up a jug of water.

● Make sure water is boiling before

using for infusions.

● Softer plant tissues need much less

time to infuse flavour.

● To avoid wastage, make a fresh

brew each morning.

● Sweeten teas with - honey, brown

sugar, vanilla, or stevia (a naturally sweet herb).

● Spice up bland teas with - cloves,

ginger, cardamom, paprika, black pepper, nutmeg or cinnamon

Popular Herbal Teas Lemon Balm Tea (Melissa officinalis) This is a very old and traditional tea from Europe. In England, a few lavender flowers, rosemary, spearmint or cloves may be added to taste. Balm tea may be sweetened or spiced to adjust the taste.

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● Pure chamomile tea served with

honey, lemon, or orange.

Roman Chamomile (Chamaemelum nobile) is also known as chamomile. It is a medicinal herb, but it has a bitter taste. Matricaria recutita is sweet and pleasant by comparison and much better in teas. Lemon Verbena Tea (Aloysia triphylla)

Lemon balm (Melissa officinalis) makes a calming tea with a subtle lemony flavour.

Bergamot Tea (Monarda didyma) Bergamot (Bee Balm) was used by the American Indians and early colonists. Flowers and leaves can be used for a citrus flavoured tea. This is not the same bergamot used in Earl Grey tea in which oil from the rind of the bergamot orange is extracted and blended with the tea, but it has a similar fragrance.

Lemon verbena has a lovely and delicate lemon flavour. You only need use 5 or 6 leaves per teacup. Drink it hot or cold. Orange verbena is also available. Peppermint Tea (Mentha x Peperita) May be served as straight peppermint tea or flavoured by adding honey, alfalfa, clover flowers, linden flowers, or others.

Chamomile Tea (Matricaria recutita) Chamomile has remained one of the most popular teas in the world for centuries. It is made from the flowers of chamomile in any of several ways: ● With a little grated ginger over the

steeping brew.

● With fennel - 2 parts chamomile

flowers to 1 part fennel seed.

● Pure chamomile tea served cold.

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Peppermint tea can be made using fresh or dried leaves. It is healthy and delicious.

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Lemongrass makes a refreshing, tasty tea with numerous health benefits.

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Rosemary Tea (Salvia rosmarinus)

Lemon Herb Tea

Rosemary tea was recommended centuries ago by Arabian physicians for digestive problems. Lemon, honey, or a few lavender flowers may be added to flavour.

Ingredients:

Backhousia Tea (Backhousia citriodora) The leaves of this native Australian tree are a rich source of the oil ‘citrol’ which can be used fresh or dried for making lemon teas. The leaves are preferred by many Asians for making lemon tea - rather than traditional lemon grass. It will grow in a wide range of conditions but prefers a frost-free subtropical climate. Hibiscus Tea (Hibiscus sp.) The vibrant coloured petals of the hibiscus flowers are infused in hot water. It can also be consumed as ice tea. Hibiscus tea is sometimes called roselle. Spiced Tea A mixture of dried turmeric, liquorice, lemongrass also infused with ginger roots, cardamom pods, clove buds and just a hint of pepper. Mint and Lavender (Blend for 2 cups) Ingredients: ● 1 spoon of mint ● ¼ spoon of lavender flowers ● 1 tsp of honey/ 2 tsp stevia

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● ● ● ●

9 tbsp lemon thyme 3 tbsp lemon basil ½ tsp lemon balm 4 tbsp mild green tea.

Orange Tea Ingredients: ● 1 tbsp orange juice/ extract ● 1 cup black tea ● 1tbsp peppercorns ● A handful of dried orange slices ● 1tsp cinnamon chips ● 1 tbsp cardamom pods

(slightly crushed)

Basil Ginger & Lime Tea Ingredients: ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●

16 basil leaves 3 tbsp ground coriander 3 tbsp ground cardamom 2 tbsp peppercorns 1 tbsp honey ¼ cup peeled ginger 4 tbsp lime juice 4 cup water

Method: Add the coriander, cardamom, black peppercorns, and ginger in a cheesecloth and tie it with string.

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Add the water and bring to a boil in a saucepan and turn down the heat to low. Add the honey and stir until it is melted. Add the spices. Crush the basil with your hands to release flavour and add to the pan. Simmer for 5 minutes.

● Diarrhoea - catnip, chamomile,

After 5 minutes, turn off the heat and stir in the lime juice. Allow the tea to steep in the pan for 10 minutes then transfer to a pitcher and refrigerate to chill.

● Circulation - cayenne pepper, ginger,

Serve chill.

Herbal Tea Ingredients and their Benefits Herbs have specific health benefits. Although studying herbal medicine will give you a deeper understanding of how to use and apply a range of herbs. The following, readily available herbs are usually safe to use at home in small doses.

fennel

● Diuretic - dandelion, nettle, parsley ● Flatulence - peppermint, dill, fennel

hawthorn, ginseng, cinnamon

● Colds - ginger, lemon verbena,

lemongrass, lemon myrtle, thyme

● Colic - dill, catnip ● Fevers - ginger, thyme,

chrysanthemum

● Nausea - ginger, peppermint ● Catarrh - elderflower, ● Anti-inflammatory - rooibos,

fenugreek

● Antibiotic - echinacea

● Decongestant - peppermint,

● Antioxidant - elderberry, rosehip,

● Respiration - hyssop

● Stress and anxiety - catnip,

spearmint, elderflower

● Depression - lemon balm, St.

John’s wort

● Digestion - cardamom, coriander,

black pepper, fennel, hyssop, mint, lemon balm

echinacea

chamomile, St. John’s wort, rosemary, valerian, passionflower

● Memory and concentration -

rosemary

● Sore throats and mouth ulcers -

sage, thyme

● Insomnia - chamomile, lavender,

valerian

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CHAPTER 8 OTHER USES FOR CULINARY HERBS Besides their more obvious culinary and medicinal uses, herbs have a range of other uses some of which are discussed here.

Garden Benefits of Herbs Herbs can help you to achieve a healthy garden in the following ways: ● They provide pollinators with nectar

and shelter.

● Some herbs will repel unwelcome

insects (for example, garlic and chives).

● The scent of herbs can confuse

pests (so it is a great idea to grow them scattered throughout your garden and vegetable garden).

● Herbs can provide great ground

cover, keeping the soil cool and preventing weed infestation. Groundcovers also bind the soil, which prevents your soil washing away in heavy rains.

● Whilst beneficial insects such as

hoverflies, lacewings, and some parasitic wasps feed on nectar only, their progeny are meat-eaters that hunt out and consume insect pests. Other insects hunt pests in both their adult and juvenile phases including ladybirds, spiders, some beetles, and so on.

pollinators. These include parsley, dill and fennel which are beloved by bees and other beneficial insects; their broad flat flower heads make great landing sites! Calendula, comfrey, lavender and thymes and anise hyssop all attract an array of beneficial insects. Those with lacy foliage provide habitats for insects to hide and lay eggs, yarrow is a good example. Borage attracts butterflies to its foliage on which they lay their eggs. Planting herbs can have an amazing effect on the amount of good and bad insects you can attract to your garden and this creates a great environment for plants, insects and bird. This can work in any garden - it is all about creating balance!

Insect Repellents People have been using herbs to repel insects and bugs from their homes for thousands of years. The most common way herbs were used was to bruise the plant material and hang it around the house, in your pantry or outside your door. Another method was to burn the plant material (as a fumigant) these methods are still commonly used in the poorer communities throughout the world.

Pollinator Herbs

Herbal Repellents

Those with flat open flowers or large flower heads attract the most

Some herbs can be used to prevent insects landing on your skin. Most

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commercial repellents are derived from a plant’s essential oils and many have been scientifically proven to work. These plants can include citronella, catnip and lemon scented gum. Most of these products need to be reapplied every two hours to maintain the efficacy. Recreating the product at home may be complex and costly. A cheaper and easier alternative is to do what our forebears did - just crush the foliage and rub it on. Although most herbs listed are harmless on the skin and rarely cause problems, just test a small area of skin and wait to see if you have a reaction to it, before general use. Here are some that you could try: ● Catnip (Nepeta cataria) is a proven

mosquito repellent. Nepetalactone, a chemical constituent in catnip essential oil acts as the repellent. Current research and trials suggest that it is actually 10 times more effective at repelling mosquitoes then the chemical alternative N, N-diethylmeta-toluamide (known as DEET).

● Lemon scented gum (Corymbia

citriodora) is another proven mosquito repellent - the leaves comprise 85% citronella oil. It is also widely used in the cosmetics industry.

● Citronella oil (mainly derived from

a grass Cymbopogon nardu) is another commonly used effective herb against mosquitoes.

● Lemon Scented Myrtle

(Backhousia citriodora) contains high levels of citral and other chemicals that repel mosquitos and other insects; as well as being antimicrobial.

● Beauty bush (Callicarpa

americana) this has been used for centuries and is now proven to be effective in repelling mosquitoes.

Others to try: Lemon balm, pineapple sage; grow either of these plants (Pelargonium citrosum or P. citrodorum) near your back door and crush the leaves as you pass.

Herbal Pest Control No herbal garden would be complete without a few herbs that can repel the animals and insects that bother you. The plants suggested below are the first place to start your search for natural herbal remedies:

Pest

Treatment

Ants

Plant peppermint (Mentha piperata), use peppermint essential oil (combined with water in a spray bottle) to wipe down countertops or windowsills and doorways to discourage ants from entering

Aphids

Plant nasturtiums.

Cutworms

Mulch with oak leaves

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Pest

Treatment

Dogs

Plant Calendula officinalis, crush and spread leaves of Coleus caninus

Fleas

Plant fennel or walnut trees. Spread walnut leaves around

Flies

Plant basil or tansy

Mice or rats

Peppermint essential oil or crushed peppermint leaves. Plant daffodils, grape hyacinth or scilla

Mites

Plant garlic

Moths

Dried lavender, cedarwood, clove

Mosquitos

Plant basil, peppermint, castor oil plant, southernwood, citronella

Nematodes

Spray or drench with a sugar solution (this can dehydrate the pest), high organic content in the soil will encourage fungi which attack nematodes). Plant marigolds, dahlias, asparagus or salvia

Rabbits

Cinerarias repel rabbits

Herbal decoys Use these plants to attract pests away from plants you want to protect. Plant

Distracts

Alfalfa (Medicago sativa)

Bugs

Fat hen (Chenopodium album)

Leafminers

Hyssop (Hyssopus officinalis)

Cabbage white butterflies

Mustard (Brassica nigra)

Cabbage white butterflies

Nasturtium (Tropaeolum majus)

Aphids

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Herbs for pets and your wardrobe Dry a variety of herbs to include inside your pets’ bedding – add some

pennyroyal to deter fleas. Use any of the following dried and mixed in whatever combination you choose – crushed or chopped lavender, costmary, southernwood, rue, rosemary and mint.

Herb

Repels

Basil

Mosquitoes, flies

Catnip

Fleas, Mosquitoes

Chamomile

Flies, mosquitoes

Clove

Moths

Fennel

Fleas

Lavender

Mosquitoes, moths, fleas, and flies - in fact, most insects

Peppermint

Mosquitoes, ants, mice, rats

Rue

Flies

Tansy

Flies, fleas

Sage, santolina, lavender, mint, stinging nettle

Moths

Garlic

Weevils

Herbal repellents can be used as a spray, emulsion (cream) or as a lotion. Here are some recipes to get you started. They will be as effective as their chemical alternatives as long as you re-apply every 2 hours or so and after swimming: Essential oils are a great starting point and include:

● Geranium ● Lavender ● Lemon ● Orange ● Peppermint

● Citronella

● Rosemary

● Eucalyptus

● Rose geranium

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● Tea tree ● Lemon Scented Myrtle

Most of these oils will deter mosquitoes. Tea tree oil and rose geranium are both great for ticks. Flies hate citronella, eucalyptus, lavender, and peppermint.

Insect Repellent Herbal Oil Ingredients: ● ¼ cup (60ml) of vegetable oil (olive,

coconut, avocado or macadamia nut oils are good choices) ● A maximum of 10 drops of essential oils from the list above. Vegetable oil has a limited sun protection factor, so these homemade repellents are not recommended for use in the sun. When blending essential oils just keep in mind that some work better together than others. This is a matter of personal choice. If you want to create your own blend, try putting a drop of each essential oil on a cotton bud. Hold your choice of oils together and wave them under your nose to experience the blend before you create your herbal oil.

Insect Repellent Herb Cream First make a herbal tea: Gather fresh herbs in the early morning after the dew has dried - for example lavender, rosemary, mint. Crush a handful or so of the herbs in a cup of water in a blender or use a mortar and pestle. Place this in a pot and cover with another cup of water, put on a lid. Bring it to a simmering point and simmer for PAGE 56

about 5 minutes. Let the herb tea cool. Strain once cool and refrigerate until you are ready to use it. To make the cream: Ingredients: ● 30grams of lanolin ● 15 grams of beeswax ● 100ml of a vegetable oil e.g.

almond oil ● 30 ml of the herb tea you made Method: 1. Melt the lanolin and beeswax in a double boiler or in a bowl over boiling water. 2. Slowly add the oil a few ml at a time and combine well into the lanolin mix. 3. Once the ingredients are combined remove it from the heat and whisk in the herb tea. 4. This will need to be refrigerated – you can add some witch hazel extraction (purchased) or a teaspoon of vodka as a preservative if you wish. 5. You can also make a lotion (easier to apply) rather than a cream by replacing the beeswax with cocoa butter but you will also need to increase the amount of tea you include by doubling it to 60ml.

Herbal Bench Top Spray Make a herbal spray to deter insects and clean your bench tops: make a herbal tea as described above using peppermint, rosemary, lavender or spearmint. Put the tea in a spray bottle and use that

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to clean your bench tops and to spray around doorframes and windows. You can also replace the tea with a few drops of essential oil in distilled vinegar or just plain water (shake well) water.

Herbal Sachets Make or buy small drawstring sachets from linen, organza or muslin. Fill them with your favourite dried herbs to scent your clothes and linen and also to prevent moths invading your wardrobe or linen cupboard. Anything with cloves is especially good to repel moths. Some great combinations for sachets include: ● Cloves and thyme in equal amounts ● Rosemary and mint in equal amounts ● Peppermint, rosemary, thyme

in equal amounts

● Cloves (I tablespoon), dried

lemon peel (1 tablespoon), lavender (the balance)

● Cloves, tansy, peppermint, rosemary,

and lavender in equal amounts

Pest control for pot plants Basil is one of the most popular herb teas used by herb nurseries and farms as a natural form of pest control. Rue, garlic, onion and cayenne teas are also effective. A tea made from Larkspur (Delphinium consolida) is effective against thrips and aphis. Powdered mustard seed will give some control against powdery mildew when dusted on affected leaves.

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Herb teas can be an effective alternative to chemical sprays, if used properly. This generally means: ● Use the right tea for the right

problem.

● Use the correct strength mixture. ● Spray thoroughly and often until the

problem disappears.

To make a tea: ● Place 1 cup of leaves from the herb

into a quart of boiling water.

● Keep on the boil for a minute or two. ● Allow to cool and then strain off the

leaves.

● Place the offending pest in a jar and

spray it lightly with the herb tea. Don’t drown it!

● If it dies, use this strength spray. If

it survives, double the amount of leaves used, make another batch and test that. Keep increasing the amount of leaves until you achieve the correct strength.

Note: Some teas are repellents and though they don’t kill, they will make your “test pest” extremely agitated if they are working.

Washing with Herbal Oils Soaps and detergents are often impregnated with herbal oils to give them both disinfectant and repellent properties. Alternatively, adding a few drops of oils like lavender, eucalyptus or lemon scented myrtle; to your clothes

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washing can bring the scent of that herb to your home, reducing levels of bacteria, insects and other unwanted nasties.

Herb Vinegars Herb vinegar is made by placing fresh herbs into a bottle of vinegar and letting it stand sealed for at least 2 to 3 weeks. The flavour will disperse more readily if the bottles are exposed to sunlight. These vinegars are ideal as salad dressings or used in cooking. Suitable herbs include tarragon, sage, marjoram, thyme and savory.

Garlic Vinegar Ingredients: ● 4 cups of vinegar ● 6-8 cloves of garlic.

● 4-5 large garlic cloves ● 1/2 teaspoons whole black

peppercorns ● 1/8 teaspoons salt Method:

Combine white wine vinegar, herbs, 2 crushed garlic cloves, peppercorns, and salt in a pot. Warm the mixture on the lowest setting possible (don’t allow it to become hot). Let the mixture steep for 1-2 hours. Strain the mixture into a large bowl through a muslin-lined sieve or coffee filter. Discard the herb residues. Insert 1-2 halved garlic cloves into bottles, along with a few peppercorns, and sprigs of herbs. Fill the bottles with the strained vinegar mixture and seal them.

Method:

The herb vinegar will keep for up to 12 months, stored in a cool, dry place.

Crush the garlic but do not macerate them.

Herb Oils

Pour vinegar over the cloves and leave for 24 hours.

These are made basically the same ways as herb vinegars, allowing herbs to stand in nonaromatic oils such as safflower or sunflower oils. They can be used for cooking or in salads to give flavour to food.

Strain through filter paper, store into a sterile bottle and cork securely.

Italian Herb Vinegar Ingredients: ● ● ● ● ●

3 1/2 cups white wine vinegar 1/2 cups fresh basil leaves 1/4 cups fresh oregano leaves 1/4 cups fresh thyme leaves 1/4 cups fresh sage leaves

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Herb Oil with Leaves Ingredients: ● 2 cups vegetable oil ● ½ cups of crushed or blended herbs. ● Put herbs and oil in a glass

container (ideally mason jar)

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● 2 tbsp of white wine vinegar and

then cover securely ● Stand in the sun for 2-3 weeks. ● Strain off the oil, taste and smell. If not strong add more proportion of crushed leaves.

● Add fresh rosemary to the oil, using

as much rosemary as you can fit in the dish and still have the oil covering the plant

● Put a lid on the bowl, place over

a pan of simmering water. Keep the water topped up and allow it to simmer for up to two hours

● Allow the oil to cool,

before straining.

This method works well with most plant material and is particularly effective when using a combination of herbs and spices.

Herb Cheeses Grate the cheese, add chopped herbs, heat in a saucepan, pour into moulds, allow to cool, and then seal for storage by wrapping in metal foil. This is a Cumberland recipe, more than 200 years old. Ingredients:

Peppermint tea can be made using fresh or dried leaves. It is healthy and delicious. Macerated Herbal Oils

This method allows you to extract some of the essential oils from aromatic plant parts that are harder to access. If the plant material used is from a reliable source untainted by pesticides, then these oils are safe to use in food. Rosemary Oil ● Place 2 cups of vegetable oil in a

heat-proof bowl

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● 4 ounces of grated cheese ● 2 tablespoons full of thickened

cream ● 3 teaspoons sherry ● 2 tablespoons of a mix of chopped parsley, sage, thyme, tarragon, chives, chervil and winter savory Method: 1. Stir over gentle heat in a saucepan, then pour into moulds 2. Serve cold

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Herb Salt Create in a jar by alternating thin layers of salt and rough chopped fresh herbs. Store for several weeks to months before removing herbs with a sieve. The salt should retain the flavour of the herbs.

several weeks before using. ● Parsley honey can be added to

carrots (after cooking).

● Marjoram and thyme honey used as

a salad dressing.

Homemade Herb Honey Ingredients: ● Dried herbs ● Honey

Method: Herb Salt

Homemade Herb Salt Ingredients: ● 3 cups fresh herbs ● 1/2 cup coarse salt

Place the herbs into a glass jar and top with honey. Stir to coat the herbs. Let the herbs infuse for 5 days or longer, depending on the desired intensity of flavour. Strain the honey and transfer it into a clean glass jar.

Method:

Store the honey in a cool, dry place.

Wash the herbs, remove stems and discoloured leaves, and let the herbs air dry (approx. 1 hour).

Herb Confectionary

Process the herbs and coarse salt in a food processor to create a coarse, uniform mixture (not a paste). Transfer the mixture into a glass jar. Store in the fridge. Allow the flavours to infuse for 7-14 days prior to use.

Herb Honey Add fine chopped herbs to honey and mix thoroughly before storing. This should be left to stand in a sealed jar for PAGE 60

Toffees, coconut ice and other homemade confections can be flavoured by placing a layer of chopped herbs on the bottom of the container into which the candy mixture is poured. Suitable herbs for use this way include many of the mints and scented geraniums.

Herb Biscuits Standard biscuit recipes can have interest added to them by the addition of herbs. It is important to choose herbs which are compatible with sweet flavours

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though! These include spearmint, lime scented geranium, pineapple sage, and peppermint geranium. DO NOT USE such things as marjoram or savory in biscuits.

Using Herbs with Fruit Herbs can enhance and add flavour to a wide variety of fruit desserts. They can be added to stewed fruit, pies, cakes or pureed for soufflés or ice creams, to mention only a few possibilities. The following combinations work well: Angelica

Lavender ● Add flowers with raspberries,

blueberries, blackberries or currants

● Add flowers to sauces, custards or

ice creams

Lemon balm ● Chopped and added to fruit salads

or sorbet

● Add leaves to cakes or pies for

lemon flavouring

Mint

● Chopped leaves added to fruit

● Mints complement most fruits, and

● Candied stems used as a garnish

● Add to fresh fruit salad

salads

Bay leaf ● A leaf added to a baked custard

Bergamot ● To flavour stewed fruit such as

apricots, peaches, plums, apples, pears or berries.

Borage ● Candied flowers as a garnish on any

dessert

Scented Geranium ● Scented leaves placed in a dish

under a cake or pie will give flavour to the finished product

● Leaves or flowers used as a garnish

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can be used in many ways

● Add to pies, cakes, sorbet, ice

creams, sauces etc for flavouring

Rosemary ● Should only be used with strong

tasting fruits such as citrus

Sage ● Good used in a small quantity with

stewed apple or pear (too much spoils the taste)

Sweet Woodruff ● Used traditionally with strawberries

and rhubarb

● Will complement most berries ● Flowers can be used as a garnish

on deserts

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Thyme ● A small quantity can enhance the

flavour of stewed apples or apple pie (but not too much)

Method: ● Mix all ingredients (preferably in a

blender) to a paste, then grind them with a pestle and mortar.

Easy Recipes

Dandelion Coffee

Baked Red Cabbage

Gather dandelion roots in autumn, wash them but don’t cut them.

Ingredients: 1 small red cabbage 1 large onion 3 large cooking apples Salt, pepper & crushed dill seeds to taste ● Cooking oil ● Water ● ● ● ●

Method: 1. Chop cabbage and onions, peel, core and slice apples, and arrange these 3 ingredients in layers in a baking dish (or tray). 2. Sprinkle with salt, pepper and dill. 3. Pour over a little oil and water. 4. Bake at 180 degrees Centigrade for 20 minutes.

Fast Mint Sauce Ingredients: ● 1 cup mint leaves ● 1 dessert spoon of fine chopped

onion ● Small pinch of salt ● Juice from half a lemon ● 2 tsp of honey

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Method: 1. Bake in oven till deep brown colour. 2. When cold, grind them and use as a coffee.

Mint Pasty (Traditional recipe from northern England) Ingredients: ● ● ● ●

2 cups fine chopped mint 2 cups currants 2 cups brown sugar Ready rolled puff pastry

Method: 1. Mix currants, mint, and sugar thoroughly and roll into a cylinder which holds together. 2. Wrap in pastry sheets and bake in oven till golden brown.

Herb Dip Mix the following and serve with sticks of celery and carrot as an appetizer.

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Ingredients: 200g plain low-fat yogurt 1 Tb chopped parsley 1 Tb chopped chives 1 Tb celery seed 1 Tb capsicum/red pepper, finely diced ● 1 Tb dried onion powder ● ● ● ● ●

Let stand for an hour before serving.

BBQ Marinade Mix the following in a food processor, then pour over meat to be barbecued. Let stand for half an hour to several hours before cooking. Ingredients: ● ● ● ● ● ● ●

Quarter cup of olive oil 3 garlic cloves 2 Tb chopped parsley 1 Tb basil (fresh or dry) 1 Tb chopped chives or shallots 1 Tb chopped rosemary or tarragon 2 sprigs of lemon thyme or lemon verbena

Pour marinade over the meat as it cooks.

Corn Soup (Serves Six) Ingredients: ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●

2 cloves minced garlic ½ cup chopped parsley 2 cups fresh or frozen corn kernels 3 cups chicken soup ½ cup chopped onions ¼ cup of grated carrot ¼ cup of chopped celery 1.5 tsp of diced capsicum 1 cup milk

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Method: 1. Mix all ingredients (except milk) in a pot as you bring them to the boil. 2. Once boiling, reduce heat and simmer for 10 minutes. 3. Allow to cool and puree in a blender. 4. Strain through a standard sieve and return to a saucepan with the milk. 5. Simmer for 5 minutes and serve. Hint: Pour a tablespoon of cream on top each bowl of soup after serving, and sprinkle with a pinch of chopped parsley.

Stevia Liquid Essence and Syrup Ingredients: ● 4 tsp of finely chopped fresh stevia

leaves/ dried leaves for syrup ● 2 cup boiling water Essence

1. Add the chopped leaves in boiling water 2. Steep it for 30 min 3. Strain and refrigerate Syrup 1. Add 2 cups of water in saucepan 2. To it add 4 tsp of dried powdered leaves 3. Simmer gently for 10-15min

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4. Cool and refrigerate and use for food and drinks Note: Add 1 tsp of Vit C powder to preserve them for long time to any of the above liquids.

Herb Breads Although some bakers produce herb breads, these tend to be specialist items with a correspondingly higher price. Herb breads are not all that difficult to bake yourself. Experimenting with different herbs in bread can be great fun. There are no fixed rules, so if you feel that a particular herb (or mixture of herbs) might go well with bread, try it. Try different quantities and different mixtures of herbs. If you are not so sure of your baking skills, try one of the following recipes which have been developed by the Bread Research Institute of Australia. These recipes have been thoroughly tested and are sure to produce a great result. The recipes can use either fresh or dried herbs. When fresh herbs are out of season just simply substitute 1 teaspoon of dried herb for 1 tablespoon of fresh herbs.

Herb and Garlic Bread Sticks (Makes a baker’s dozen) Ingredients: ● 2 cups wholemeal or white flour ● 2 tsp mixed dried herbs of your

choice ● cracked black pepper ● 1 egg ● 2/3 cup milk PAGE 64

● 2 Tb melted butter ● ½ tsp crushed garlic ● Sesame seeds

Method: 1. Combine flour, herbs, and pepper. 2. Beat egg with milk, add to dry ingredients, mix to soft dough. 3. Knead lightly on a floured board until smooth. 4. Roll out to a rectangle 24cm x 15 cm and cut into 13 even sized strips. 5. Melt butter in a lamington pan, stir in garlic. 6. Roll strips in the mixture and arrange in a row down the centre of the pan. 7. Sprinkle with sesame seeds. 8. Bake 1015 minutes in a hot oven. 9. Serve with soups or salad.

Thyme and Pumpkin Damper Ingredients: ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●

3 cups white self-raising flour 1 cup barley bran 3 tsp dried thyme leaves, torn 1 tsp sugar 1 tsp salt 1 Tb chopped Italian Parsley 2 ½ cups grated butternut pumpkin 1 ½ cups of water or milk ½ cup olive oil

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Method: 1. Choose ripe deep orange pumpkin. 2. Stir dry ingredients together (including herbs) 3. Stir in pumpkin, olive oil and milk; mix to a soft dough. 4. Knead gently on a lightly floured surface until smooth.

4. Knead lightly on a floured surface then divide dough into three pieces. 5. Roll out each piece to a rectangle 30 x 25cm on a floured surface, transfer to greased oven trays and cut into 16 evensized rectangles (2.5cm x 5cm). 6. Prick well with a fork, brush with egg white and sprinkle with sesame seeds. 7. Bake in a moderate oven at 180 degrees C until browned (1012 minutes). Cool on a rack.

5. Form into a damper shape, place in a well-greased deep 20 cm cake pan covered with an inverted tray or casserole dish with lid.

Makes 48.

6. Bake for 1 hour at 220 degrees C.

Savoury Luncheon Twist

Scandinavian-Style Crispbread

Ingredients:

Ingredients: ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●

1 ½ cups wholemeal self-raising flour 1 cup plain rye flour 2 Tb raw sugar 1 tsp baking powder 1 tsp salt ½ tsp dry mustard ½ cup margarine ½ cup iced water 1 egg white Sesame seeds

Method: 1. Mix together the flours, sugar, baking powder, salt, mustard and dill seeds.

● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●

3 cups plain flour 1 tsp salt 1 tsp dried tarragon 1/3 cup chopped parsley 1 ½ cups grated Edam cheese (185g) ¾ cup milk 2 Tb butter 20g compressed yeast 1 egg lightly beaten 1 small onion finely chopped 1 clove garlic, crushed 3 Tb extra butter 1 tsp prepared mustard 1 ham steak, finely chopped Freshly ground black pepper

Method:

2. Cut in margarine until coarse crumbs form.

1. Mix flour, salt, tarragon, parsley and 1/2 cup of the cheese together in a bowl.

3. Sprinkle iced water and mix to a stiff dough.

2. Scald milk, add butter and cool to lukewarm.

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3. Stir in yeast and egg. 4. Add liquid to dry ingredients and mix to form a firm dough. 5. Knead well until smooth and elastic. Cover and set aside to rest for 2030 minutes. 6. Sauté onion and garlic in butter until limp. Add mustard and stir well. 7. Roll dough out to a 50 x 25 cm rectangle, spread with onion mixture, sprinkle with remaining cheese and the ham. 8. Roll up the dough Swiss roll style and seal the edges. With a very sharp knife cut the roll into two lengthwise making two 50 cm long pieces with the cut sides up. 9. Moisten one end of each portion, press together to seal and twist the two pieces together by lifting one portion of the dough over the other, keeping the cut edges up. 10. Shape into a ring, seal the ends, and place on a greased oven tray. 11. Proof until the dough is nearly doubled in size (approximately 3545 minutes). 12. Bake in a moderate oven for 2030 minutes or until golden brown. Remove from oven, brush lightly with milk and return to the oven for 5 minutes. 13. Serve warm with a crisp green salad.

Herb Butters Chopped herbs are mixed with butter or margarine. These can be used as spreads on bread or on top of other foods (e.g. hot vegetables) to add flavour. To make any herb butter cream ½ cup softened butter with herb or mixed herbs of your choice. Cover the mixture and allow to mellow approximately 2-3 hours before using. Some of the more popular standard herb butters are listed below:

Maître d’Hôtel Butter 1. Add a few drops of lemon juice to half an ounce of butter. 2. Then add half a teaspoon of fine chopped parsley, a quarter teaspoon of fine chopped chervil and seasoning. Beat into a cream and serve in squares on top of steak.

Green Butter 1. Add to an ounce of butter - a quarter clove of garlic, 1 shallot, a pinch of salt, a sprig of watercress, 1 sprig of chervil and a pinch of cayenne. 2. Rub through a fine sieve & store cold until you use. Reference: “The Australian Breadmaking Handbook” by staff of the Bread Research Institute, Epping Rd, Nth Ryde, Sydney.

Chive Butter Ingredients: ● ½ cup butter ● 1 Tb chopped chives

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● 1 Tb parsley ● ½ tsp rosemary

Zesty Butter Ingredients: ● ● ● ●

½ cup butter 1 Tb mustard 1 Tb horseradish 3 Tb parsley

Lemon Parsley Butter Ingredients: ● ● ● ●

½ cup butter 2 Tb parsley 1 tsp chives ½ tsp lemon juice

Gargles Regular use of a gargle can reduce bacterial growth in the mouth and strengthen the gums. Here are a few tried and proven old recipes for gargles you can make yourself:

Ginger and Lemon Gargle Boil up ginger root in water to make a lightly coloured tea. Add a little lemon juice and some honey to remove the bitterness.

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Herb and Spice Gargle Mix the following and allow to stand: ● ● ● ● ●

2 1 1 6 1

cups of vodka tsp chopped mint leaves tsp chopped thyme leaves cloves tsp grated nutmeg

After 3 days strain off the herbs then shake well before using.

Rosemary, Clove and Ginger Gargle Mix the following and boil for 5 minutes in 1 litre of water: ● ● ● ●

5 5 1 1

tsp tsp tsp tsp

chopped sage leaves chopped rosemary leaves cloves grated ginger

Allow to cool and mix in a teaspoon of salt before using. Boil half a litre of water lightly with a cup full of sage leaves for half an hour. Allow to stand for half an hour then strain off the leaves. Add enough cider vinegar to the sage tea to make it smell acidic then mix in 2 teaspoons of honey to sweeten.

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CHAPTER 9 HERB CRAFTS Whether it is for their oils, dyes, fragrance or dried parts, herbs have all sorts of uses in crafts.

Herb Dyes You can achieve some stunning and very original effects with herb dyes when colouring such items as clothing, tablecloths, scarves, and curtains. For some people, this can be an addictive art form. The process normally involves three steps: 1. Preparing the Dye - The herb is commonly soaked or boiled in water, then the used plant tissue is strained out to produce a clean liquid dye. 2. Dyeing the Material (or yarn) - The material is dipped or soaked in the dye. The length of time depends on the type of dye used and the effect required. 3. Mordanting - This involves treating the material with another substance (i.e. a mordant), which will stop the dye from washing out later on. Stages 2 and 3 are sometimes combined (i.e. a mordant may be mixed with the dye solution in step 2). Though many herb dyes give very natural, subtle tones others can be very bright. They are rarely harsh or garish, and somehow the colours created seem to always blend very well no matter what combination you use. As with any type of dye, some will fade over time, while others do not. Some reds and yellows will resist fading for hundreds of years. PAGE 68

Some Dyes to Try RED - madder (Rubia sp.) root gives oriental rugs their deep Turkey reds. After 3 years of growth, the madder roots are dug, cleaned, dried and ground. About 8 ounces of powdered root is soaked in water overnight, then boiled and immediately strained through gauze to get the dye water. Alum is used as a mordant to fix the brightness in reds. Other red dyes include dock, hops, lady’s bedstraw, pokeweed, St John’s wort and sweet woodruff. YELLOW - can usually be developed from yellow flowers (e.g. weld, safflower, agrimony, St John’s wort, saffron, sunflower, dandelion, tansy, etc.). BLUE - various indigo plants (Indigofera sp.) are the most common source. Indigo dye is made by fermenting the plant’s leaves. Woad is also used for blues. Blue can also be extracted from elder and elecampane. BLACK - from alder, black walnut or woad. PURPLE - from blackberry fruit, geranium, grape (fruit) or lady’s bedstraw. Dyes are often extracted from plants by boiling the plant. Many other plants which lose their colour when boiled to extract the dye may be fermented instead by mashing up the plant and standing in water for a week or two.

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After extracting the dye, strain off the plant material then soak yarn or cloth in the remaining solution until the desired affect is achieved.

years. There are many ways of pressing a plant (some being more permanent than others).

Mordants

All basically involved the same general procedure:

Walnuts and some tree barks do not require mordanting. Most herb dyes will require a mordant though.

The plant specimen is laid out flat on a sheet of absorbent material such as newspaper.

Common mordants include alum, cream of tartar, and tartaric acid. Potassium dichromate or copper sulphate can be used as a mordant but will also affect the colour of the dye.

A second sheet is placed on top of the plant.

Hair Rinses Put half a cup of rosemary leaves in a cheesecloth bag, then soak in two cups of boiling water. After cooling, this can be used as a hair rinse for dark hair.

The plant sandwiched between these two sheets is then placed in a situation where pressure can be applied squeezing all the liquid from the plant tissue. After some time (anything from a week to several months) the plant can be removed and mounted on paper or card.

For fair hair, use chamomile flowers prepared the same way in the same proportions as for the rosemary.

The mounted specimen should be stored in a dry situation if it is to be preserved for any length of time.

Herb Scented Stationary

Ways to Press Herbs

Sweet-scented herbs can be used to decorate greeting cards, note paper or envelopes.

Plant Press

A slit made in the back of a greeting card can have a sprig of dried herb inserted for both decoration and perfume. Boxes of stationary may be decorated with a pressed piece of a herb on the lid.

Pressing Herbs Pressing flowers, fruits and leaves is a traditional craft activity that has been practiced for generations. for many PAGE 69

A plant press consists of two boards perhaps around 400 mm x 300 mm which can be clamped together. Plants are placed between the two boards (in the sheets of newspaper) and then clamps are tightened on the outside to hold the boards together. Under a Pile of Books Place your plants between newspapers under a pile of heavy books. Several telephone directories (4 or 5) or the equivalent would be appropriate.

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Between Mattresses This works well if you are only pressing a few samples. Arrange the plant material between two pieces of newspaper and place them between the mattress and the base of a bed. This is not effective if you have a slatted base to the bed. Pressing Straight into a Book Some plants can be simply stuck onto a loose sheet of paper or into a book (attach with sticky tape). The book or sheet can then be placed in the middle of another book and left for a time. Plants treated this way will usually keep their original appearance for at least a few months. Pressed herbs and flowers can be used to make scented greeting cards, as framed pictures, scented bookmarks, to decorate books, note paper or other forms of stationery.

● Repelling insects (mosquitos or

moths).

● Adding a touch of colour or country

charm

Potpourri is a mixture of three things: ● Dried plant material (stems, flowers,

leaves, etc., sometimes whole, sometimes chopped up).

● A fixative (this is something which

will help “fix” or hold the scent in the mixture for a longer period).

● Oils (not always necessary, but

scented oils will strengthen the fragrance). Oils are often added to old potpourris to give them new life.

Herbal Fragrances You don’t have to spend lots of money or be a professional perfumier to capture and use herbal fragrances at home. Some of the fragrant products you can create at home include potpourris, scented candles, bath salts, soaps, scented oils, pomanders, and lots more.

Potpourri Potpourri is a mixture of dried herbs used for: ● Eradicating unpleasant odours ● Creating a pleasant fragrance in

cupboards, drawers or perhaps just in a living room or bedroom

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Potpourri is a mixture of dried, fragrant plant materials.

Fixatives As a rule, you use 1 teaspoon of powdered fixative or several teaspoons of chopped, dried fixative to every litre (in volume) of potpourri mixture. Common fixatives are: Orris root this is the dried, powdered root of Iris germanica. Orris root powder can be purchased from craft shops.

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Citrus peel dried, chopped up skin of orange, lemon, grapefruit or any other citrus. Sandalwood shavings from the bark of the sandalwood tree. Gum benzoin a tree resin, sold in craft shops. Other fixatives include calamus root, cedarwood chips, clary sage.

Mixing Herbs Potpourris a must be blended to achieve a balance between components. If you use too much of any one strongly scented thing it will overwhelm the scent from weaker components. The types of components should complement each other.

The final result should be visually and aromatically attractive. Unless the potpourri is to be sewn into sachets and kept out of sight, it should be attractive.

Sachets Herbs are often sewn into cloth sachets, bags or small pillows. These can be hung in cupboards, placed in the bed, on tables or wherever you prefer. Sleep pillows contain herbs which have a calming effect on the body and help induce sleep. A sleep pillow might be placed under your pillow at night to help cure insomnia. Sachets often contain herbs which help clear the nasal passages. These might be placed in a room with someone suffering the flu. Sachets are often decorated with embroidery or by sewing lace on them.

Lavender sachets can be used as a natural moth repellent.

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● Hops dried hops are popular to fill

sleep pillows. A small sachet of hops under the pillow will help you sleep at night.

● Lavender leaves and flowers can

be used. Half open flowers from English lavender are generally the best. Dried lavender often placed amongst clothes to control moths.

● Lemon verbena leaves have a

delicate lemon scent. Do not mix with strongly scented herbs.

● Lemon balm dried leaves are excellent Pot pourri is a mixture of dried, fragrant Herbs for Potpourris plant materials. ● Basil leaves give a spicy scent.

Purple leaved form adds colour.

● Cardamom very fragrant seeds. ● Cedarwood bark or chips – strongly

fragrant addition to potpourris, effective moth repellent

● Cinnamon dried bark chopped. ● Clary sage seeds and flowers have

a stronger scent than normal sage.

● Clove – strongly fragrant ● Citrus dried leaves, often cut up

in potpourris or pillows to help breathing.

● Coriander – fragrant seeds

in potpourri or healing sachets.

● Marjoram leaves stems and

flowers used.

● Mints peppermint excellent for head

colds. Other mints can be used sparingly in potpourris.

● Mullein dried flowers to add colour

to a potpourri.

● Rose dried flowers, petals, and

flower buds from scented varieties.

● Rosemary – dried flowers and leaves

are popular in potpourri and sachets.

● Scented geraniums – many different

types are available, giving scents ranging from pine and lime to peppermint and spice. Flowers can also be dried and used, but they are not always colourful.

● Dianthus dried flowers provide

● Southernwood dried leaves as a

● Hollyhock dried flowers added to

● Tansy dried used to repel insects,

excellent colour and a mild scent. potpourri for colour only

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moth repellent.

particularly flies.

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● Thyme dry and strip leaves from the

sulphate) to the herbal bags.

● Violets flowers dried for both colour

Top up with water as desired to meet your preferred depth and temperature.

stems.

and scent.

Insect Repelling Sachets Any of the following dried and mixed in whatever combination you choose: ● Crushed or chopped lavender,

southernwood, cedarwood chips, rosemary and mint.

● Powdered cloves.

What to Use The following herbs can be used individually or in combinations: Angelica, Basil, coriander seed, Chamomile flowers, Lavender, Lemon Balm, Lemon verbena, Lovage, any of the mints, Rosemary, Sage, Geranium or any of the scented Thymes. ● For rejuvenating the skin, a mixture

of comfrey, alfalfa, parsley, and orange peel.

Herb Baths Adding herbs (fresh leaves, bath salts or herb waters) can improve the relaxing effects of a bath. Herbal baths can have a great soothing effect on the body, with the plant material cleansing or rejuvenating the skin, and calming the mind. The effect of the vapours being inhaled can be also be quite significant.

How To Prepare A Herb Bath Place a handful of the fresh herbs in a nylon stocking or tied in a muslin cloth. Put the herb “bag” in the bottom of the tub and run very hot water over it for a couple of minutes (use no cold water). Alternatively, soak in a bucket of boiling water for 5 minutes then add that water to the bath). If you wish to increase the relaxing effects, add Epsom salts (magnesium PAGE 73

● For aching muscles, a mixture of

chamomile and sage leaves.

Herbal Aftershave Ingredients: ● ½ cup distilled water ● 2 Tb mixed chamomile, rosemary,

● ● ● ●

sage, lavender and bay leaves chopped ¼ cup rum ¼ cup of alcohol 1 Tb glycerine 2 Tb orange peel

Method: ● Combine all ingredients and seal in

a glass jar for 23weeks.

● Strain off solid material and store in

a sealed bottle.

● Shake well before using.

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CHAPTER 10 LAVENDER CRAFTS Lavender is one of the most popular fragrances, is widely used in crafts, cosmetics and perfumery and has a long history of use in Western Herbal Medicine. Lavender essential oil is also one of the first products that people try when they start exploring aromatherapy. The best lavender species for essential oil production are: ● Lavandula angustifolia which has the

purest lavender scent, generally free from the camphoraceous odour which taints all other lavenders. Lavandula angustifolia is used most frequently by aromatherapists, as the therapeutic benefits of the angustifolia species are more consistent.

● Lavandula stoechas – sometimes

called spike lavender, this variety is

frequently used in the cosmetics and fragrancy industries. The flowers have a distinctive appearance, making it a useful addition to some lavender craft items. This variety is not recommended for edible lavender products. ● Lavandula latifolia though tainted by

camphor, still has a strong rich scent.

These varieties are grown commercially for their oils. Lavandula dentata and other species though not as good are often used in home crafts.

Lavender products are popular because of their relaxing, calming properties.

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Everyday Items ● Plant a lavender bush near your

laundry. After washing clothing, drape it over the bush to dry. The lavender scent will be imparted into the garment.

● Tie a bunch of lavender flowers

together and hang in the toilet to freshen the air.

● Fill a small paper bag with freshly

picked lavender flowers and place in a drawer or wardrobe amongst clothing to repel moths and silverfish.

Lavender Bath Elixir Mix the following and tie in an old stocking: ● ½ cup lavender blossoms ● ¼ cup comfrey leaves ● A Tb Epsom salts

Cover the dish with a lid and place this over a pan of simmering water. Heat the plant/oil mixture gently for approximately 2 hours, topping up with water as required. After two hours, turn the stove off and allow to cool. Strain and use as required. This lavender massage oil will be mildly fragrant.

Lavender Sachets Used for adding perfume to cupboards and linen drawers. They may be manufactured in a variety of ways: 1. Lavender hearts ● Cut cotton fabric into heart shapes. ● Fill with dried lavender and stitch

around the edge.

● Sew lace around the edge of

the heart.

2. Lavender bags may be made in the shape of a circle or square

Pour 1 litre of boiling water over the cloth slowly, catching it in a bucket.

● Gather together narrow ribbon

Let the bag of herbs then sit in the water for about half an hour to draw.

● Cut out desired cotton shapes,

Use the full litre of the elixir in one bath.

● Sew around 3 edges, leaving one

Lavender Herbal Massage Oil

● Place dried lavender into bag.

Harvest enough lavender flowers (do not include stems) to fill a heat-proof dish. Cover the flowers in your choice of sunflower, sweet almond or grapeseed oil. The plant material should be just covered. PAGE 75

and lace.

square or circular, under 10 cm. edge open to stuff filling into bag.

● Sew up open edge and sew lace

around perimeter of the bag.

● Decorate with ribbon.

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Scented Clothes Hangers ● Plain clothes wooden or plastic

hanger, without bars.

● Measure from the centre of the

hanger to the end.

● Cut fabric about 5cm wide and 4 cm

longer than this length.

● Sew right sides together, fold and Lavender sachets are used for adding perfume to cupboards and linen drawers.

3. Lavender wreaths This produces a tiny fabric bag in the shape of a wreath which may be used for a Christmas decoration or placed in a drawer. ● Cut ten circles of coloured fabric

each 4 5 cm diameter.

● Gather each around the edge,

turning under the hem as you go.

● Place three cotton balls and a

teaspoon of dried lavender in each circle and gently pull threads tightly to make a little ball.

● Tie securely. ● Using strong thread string the balls

into a circle by running the needle through the two end balls.

● Pull the thread tight and knot

securely.

● Finish with a tight bow to hang

your wreath.

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stitch to make a tube, open at one end and closed at the other.

● Turn fabric right side out and slip

over one end of hanger.

● Repeat for the other side. ● Pack each tube with dried lavender

and poly-fibre filling, allowing enough fabric at the centre to form a seam.

● Stitch open ends together. ● Wrap the hook with lace or ribbon

and glue into position.

● Decorate hanger with lace or ribbons.

Lavender Candles Wax pellets and wicks for candle making can be purchased direct, if you have a craft supplier near you. If you have no access to a craft supplier, you can grate white, unscented candles to suit your requirements. Place the wax pellets or grated candles in a heat-proof bowl. Place the bowl over a simmering pan of water, stirring with a metal spoon until the wax has melted and the mixture is translucent.

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Take the pan off the heat. Use a couple of drops of the wax to attach the metal (bottom) of the wick to the base of the vessel you have chosen for your candle. Allow to cool, checking the wick is fixed in place. Mix dried lavender in to the wax as it cools. The amount of lavender required will vary according to the size of the candle you want to make. Decant the cooling wax into your candle mould or vessel, being careful to keep the wick in place. Allow 24 hours to dry. You can add essential oil to the wax if you wish to increase the strength of the fragrance, however, this is best done just before the candle fully sets as the essential oils can partially evaporate when heated.

Dried Flowers Some flowers dry easily, retaining an attractive shape and colour for a long period of time. For most everlastings, all you need do is pick them at the correct stage of growth and hang them upside down to dry in a reasonably dark, dry and well ventilated room (Much the same as you would dry any herb). Dried flowers can be used to make permanent floral arrangements, or the colourful flowers removed and used in potpourris. Table: Dried flowers for you to grow

Plant

Height

Flower Colour

Stage to Pick Flowers

Amaranth (Amaranthus)

0.31m

Varies

When seed heads form

Bee Balm (Monarda didyma)

0.3m

Brown

Seed pod is developed

Calocephalus brownii

to 1.5m

Silver

Flowers part open

Calocephalus citreus

0.3m

Yellow

Flowers partly open

Blue

Flower buds still tight

Echinops exalata Feverfew (Tanacetum parthenium)

0.5m

White

Buds tight and opening

Gypsophila

0.10.4m

White

Flower fully opened

Helichrysum acuminatum

to 25cm

Gold

Flower starting to open

Helichrysum apiculatum

1050cm

Yellow

Pick just before flowers begin to open.

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Plant

Height

Flower Colour

Stage to Pick Flowers

Helichrysum baxterii

2040cm

White

As buds start opening

Helichrysum ‘Dargen Hill’

to 1m

Yellow

As buds start opening

Helichrysum bracteatum

0.31.5m

Varies

As buds are opening

Helichrysum diosmifolium

2m

White/ pink

Pick when in bud, preserve using glycerine

Helichrysum ledifolium

0.51m

Pink

Preserve using glycerine

Helichrysum obtusifolium

0.10.4m

White

Dip stems in lacquer before drying.

Helichrysum viscosum

to 0.5m

Yellow

As buds begin opening

Helipterum roseum

0.2m

Pink

Buds starting to open

Lavender

to 1.4m

Blue

Flowers fully open

Lavender Cotton (Santolina)

0.6m

Yellow

Flowers fully opened

Love in a Mist (Nigella

0.5m

Pink/ Green

Seedpod fully developed

Lunaria annua

75cm

Brown

Seedpod fully developed

Quaking Grass (Briza)

2060cm

White

Early flower development

Scabiosa

4590cm

Varies

After petals drop, preserve with glycerine.

Statice (Limonium)

45cm

Varies

When flower fully open

Tansy (Tanacetum vulgare)

60cm

Yellow

When flower fully open

Yarrow (Achillea)

860cm

Varies

When flower fully open

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Dried flowers can be used to make permanent floral arrangements, or the flowers can be removed and used in potpourris.

Preserving dried flowers Flowers must be free of moisture at the time of harvesting as dew can cause mildew. Choose flowers which are completely free of blemishes if you intend to display the flowers in any way. 1. Air Drying ● Over dry flowers become too brittle ● When stems can be snapped, they

are dry enough

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● Once dried store in hanging

bunches or in boxes (in storage many types can be damaged by moths, camphor is sometimes used as a pest control)

Methods: ● Hanging - Remove leaves, place

into loose bunches and tie the stem ends together with string. Hang upside down in a dark, well ventilated place.

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● On racks - Remove leaves and

place loosely on racks that allow for good air circulation.

2. Drying with Desiccants Desiccants are often used to dry individual large blooms or fragile flower heads. Desiccants: ● Silica gel – this is the fastest method

of drying and allows you to preserve the colours of the plant material. It can be expensive to work with, although the silica crystals can be reused if they are dried in the oven afterwards (120 C for 30 minutes)

● Sand - Cheap and easy to use;

fragile flowers may be crushed by heavy sand use fine, clean river sand only.

4. Seal the container and store in a warm, dry place. 5. When the petals feel dry and crisp, remove the flowers and brush off the desiccant. Drying should take around 23 days for small flowers; larger flowers will take at least a week. 3. Glycerine Flowers which tend to become too brittle when air dried can be preserved in glycerine this keeps them moist and avoids brittleness. ● Use 1 part glycerine to 2 parts warm

water, mix vigorously and stand freshly cut stems in this solution in a cool dim lit place.

● Leave for 2 weeks. ● Top up solution if necessary.

Method:

4. Wiring & Taping

1. Cover the bottom of an airtight container with the desiccant to a depth of 3 cm.

Before drying, flowers can be wired to prevent drooping and to enable the flower heads last longer. Wiring is also used to create visual effects, such as curved stems, in dried arrangements

2. Place flower heads on top of the covering layer. Flowers should not be touching each other. 3. Gently pour desiccant over the petals. The entire surface of the flower should be in contact with the desiccant a toothpick or small paintbrush can be used to hold the petals apart.

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Cut the stem to about 1/2 cm length. Using florist’s wire, or similar flexible wire, push the wire up through the stem until it reaches the flower head and is firmly lodged here. When the flower head has shrunk onto the wire (around 23 weeks), cover the bare wire with selfadhesive florist’s tape.

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CHAPTER 11 THE KITCHEN GARDEN Culinary herbs can be grown in containers or garden beds. This means everyone can have a kitchen garden, regardless how much outdoor space they have.

Growing Herbs Most culinary herbs make attractive garden plants both in terms of their flowers and their fragrances. When in flower, herbs attract a range of pollinating insects to the garden so they can be great companions to fruits and vegetables. Most are reasonably hardy plants which can withstand regular pruning, so once they are established you can harvest leaves and stems as and when needed without harming the plants.

Herbs grown in containers are ideal for situations with limited space and provide easy access for people who find ordinary gardening difficult. Kitchen herbs are particularly handy in a tub by the back door, or in pots on a kitchen bench or windowsill. If your soil is poorly drained or infertile, container growing is one way to ensure good growing conditions. Large and invasive plants can be kept to a manageable size, and when conditions get too harsh (e.g. on blistering hot days), the plant can be easily moved somewhere more protected.

Some culinary herbs are ideally suited to sunny locations, e.g. rosemary and lavender, whereas others do best in semi-shade to avoid them drying out or tending to bolt to seed, e.g. basil and coriander. Consequently, you can arrange herbs to suit any space by making the most of light and shade.

Growing Herbs in Containers Pots and containers gardens offer a great deal more flexibility than growing in the ground. You can move your garden about continually changing its appearance, bringing plants to the foreground when they are at their best and hiding them when their appearance deteriorates. This is an advantage as many herbs die back to nothing but roots during winter. PAGE 81

Herbs grown in containers are ideal for situations with limited space and provide easy access for people who find ordinary gardening difficult.

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Caring for Herbs in Containers 1. Watering Pot plants dry out faster than those in the ground. Check the growing medium every few days (even more often in hot or windy weather), by feeling an inch or so below the surface. Water pots thoroughly. The best way is to immerse the pot for a few minutes in a bucket or tub full of water. 2. Feeding Because nutrients wash through pots and are lost quite rapidly, potted herbs should be fed regularly. Use slow-release fertilisers, two to three times a year and regularly apply a liquid fertiliser during the active growing seasons. 3. Pruning and Harvesting Most herbs withstand ruthless pruning, in fact the best growth for cooking is lush young foliage which sprouts straight after a hard prune. This lush growth is susceptible to wind, heat and cold, so move your pots into a protected place when you prune them.

5. Ventilation, Light & Temperature Plants in pots need the right temperature and light conditions. For most herbs, that means something between 10 and 30 degrees Celsius. Too hot or too cold is just no good. Fresh air is also important, particularly in humid climates. Keep space (about 1015 cm) between pots so air can circulate, and problems with disease will be greatly reduced. 6. Overcoming Problems with Containers The most common problems with pot plants are overwatering or underwatering. If you overwater, the drainage holes at the bottom of the pot will always be wet, and if you knock the plant out of the pot the tips of the roots may be dark and starting to rot. If your pot plant is drying out too quickly, try spreading some mulch on the surface, moving it to a more sheltered place, or incorporating more well-rotted organic matter into your potting mix the next time you pot up.

4. Potting up After a year or two, most potted herbs start to become pot-bound (i.e. there are too many roots in the pot), and repotting is necessary. Plants can be put back in the same pot if you remove some of the top growth and cut away some of the old roots. This allows you to add some fresh, fertile, new soil. Alternatively pot up into a larger container. PAGE 82

Terracotta containers are excellent for plants requiring very good drainage; but can become too dry in hot weather and crack in frost.

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Choosing the Right Container A good container is one which drains well, looks good, doesn’t break and holds enough soil to support the plant (or plants) in it. Be careful of glazed ceramic pots with only one hole in the bottom. In a medium to large pot that is not enough. Wood containers look good, but unless treated with timber preservative (e.g. painted inside with bitumen), they can rot out. Many herbs grow well in hanging baskets, provided they are kept wellwatered. A basket plant will always dry out faster than a pot plant on the ground.

A large container can be planted with several different herbs so long as you choose plants with similar vigour (i.e. If you mix strong growing plants with weaker growing ones, the weaker plants will be choked out). Breather bags can also be used. These are woven polypropylene bags which are porous yet stable, allowing plant roots to grow evenly throughout the media. Roots do not become pot bound hence plants can be kept in Breather Bags for up to four years. Table: Types of Containers

Type

Weight

Cost

Drainage

Use

Problems

Terracotta

Heavy

High

Very good

Excellent for plants requiring very good drainage

Can become too dry in hot weather, crack in frost

Ceramic glazed

Heavy

High

Average

Good for indoors or displays

Sometimes insufficient drainage

Plastic

Light

Low

Average

Varies according to type

Some types are brittle after exposure to sunlight

Timber

Average

Medium

Average to high

Decorative

May require treatment with preservative

Wire basket

Light

Low

Very good

Hanging from eaves, on verandas, etc.

Wind can dry them out quickly

Plastic basket

Light

Low

Good

As for wire baskets

Doesn’t dry as quickly as wire baskets

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Culinary herbs can be grown in containers or garden beds.

Potting Mixes A good potting mix is free of disease and weed seed and has a very even texture throughout. Avoid mixes which have lumps of clay, stones or odd sized chunks of bark or compost. Good mixes will cost more but will keep the plants much healthier. If you want to make up your own mix, use only the best ingredients. A good general mix is 2 parts of sieved wellrotted compost from your compost heap, 1 part of coarse washed river sand and 1 part of sandy loam. Avoid soils with shells or lumps of white chalk in it, or sands and soils that are likely to have high salt levels (such as beach sands).

Maintenance Container grown herbs can unfortunately lose their form easily. In a kitchen garden, constant cutting to use pieces will keep plants compact and in shape. However, never remove more than one fifth of the plant’s foliage at any one time. PAGE 84

In larger containers, you need to constantly remove dead leaves or unsightly branches to maintain form and prevent disease. Hanging baskets can dry out very easily in warm or windy weather. They are best placed on the ground in shady protected areas in warmer weather. Any type of container should be turned every few weeks so that every side of the plant receives light thus reducing uneven foliage growth. Ventilation is a very important factor in reducing plant disease. There should be plenty of air circulation between plants and their foliage. Soil in a pot can be difficult to moisten if it becomes too dry. If overly dry, you should water by immersing the pot in a bucket or tub full of water. Leave it there until air bubbles stop rising from the container, then remove and allow to drain. Overwatering and underwatering are both real dangers in container growing. Overwatering is a common problem in temperate climates over winter.

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You should never water on a regular timescale (i.e. don’t water every two weeks, just water when it is needed sometimes that is every day, whilst at other times it might be once a month). Mulching the surface of the container with bark or compost is a good idea, particularly in terracotta pots or baskets. Many herbs have foliage which dies back to the roots in winter for a dormant period. If the roots in a container get too wet at this stage they can rot, and the plant will not re-emerge in spring (the roots shouldn’t necessarily become dry though either).

How to Repot If potting back into the same container ● Remove some of the old soil, and

perhaps divide the plant (if a clump forming type).

● Add new potting soil, firm down and

add a thick layer of mulch to the surface of the potting mix/soil.

● Water well.

If potting into a larger container ● Loosen the roots on the old root

ball, cut away any encircling roots as these will ultimately shorten the life of the plant.

● Place some new potting mix in the

base of the container.

● Sit the old root ball on top of the

potting mix then fill around the outside with new potting soil. Firm the soil in lightly.

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● Water in well. ● Add a layer of mulch around the

base of the herb.

Hint: If you find it difficult to remove an old plant from a pot, soak it first in water (immerse in a tub of water for a few minutes). Most plants will slide out of a pot far easier when wet.

Herbs for Pots Most herbs grow best and produce higher oil content in their foliage if grown in full sun. Herbs which grow well inside Chives, Welsh Onion, Chervil, Bay Laurel, Lemon Balm, Ginger, Corsican Mint, Marjoram, Oregano, Parsley, Savory, Thyme Herbs for small or medium size pots Aloe vera, Basil, Calendula, Five Seasons Herb (Coleus amboincus), Lemon Balm, Marjoram, Mint, Oregano, Parsley, Thyme Herbs for large pots and tubs Aloe vera, Bay Laurel, Citrus, Cloves, Coffee, Lavender, Lemon Grass, Lemon Scented Tea Tree, Lemon Verbena, Scented Pelargoniums, Rose, Rosemary, Sages, Herbs for hanging baskets Alpine strawberry, Ajuga reptans, Calendula, Chamomile, Golden Marjoram, Nasturtium, Creeping Rosemary, Thyme

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Herbs for hedges Lemon-scented Tea Tree, Rosemary (in cooler areas), Marjoram, Myrtle, Sage Table: Herbs to grow in containers Herb

Height

Potting Mix

Feeding

Uses

Basil

to 70 cm

Moist and well-drained

Heavy requirement

Pasta, sauces, meat, fish

Chives

to 40 cm

Well-drained

Moderate needs

Salad dressings, vegetables, meats

Lemon Grass Cymbopogon citratus

to 80 cm

Well-drained

Moderate needs

Teas, lemon substitute in general cooking

Italian Lavender wLavandula stoechas

50 to 80 cm

Fair drainage, most soils

Moderate needs

Potpourri,

Marjoram

30 cm

Good drainage, sandy soils

Responds to feeding

Many savoury dishes

Parsley

30 to 70 cm

Good drainage, fertile soil

Plenty of nitrogen

Garnish, meat, vegetables, juice add to hot dishes (e.g. potato) just before serving)

Peppermint

5 cm

Wet, organic soil

Minimal needs

Sweets, breath freshener, insect repellent

Rosemary Rosmarinus officinalis

50 cm

Welldrained, moist soil

Feeding is needed for strong growth

Meat, vegetables, garnishes

Thyme

5 to 30 cm

Dry, welldrained soil

Average needs

Savoury dishes

Thymus sp.

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Herbs as Indoor Plants Many herbs are ideal as indoor plants. Remember though, that conditions are not always ideal inside.

levels essential for the plant’s growth. This should be done in a temperate season, where temperatures are not going to be at extremes.

● Temperature can get too high,

especially if the house is heated or if the plants are near cooking appliances.

● Air lack of ventilation (gas and air

conditioning a problem). Heaters cause a lower humidity than out of doors.

● Light can be too low.

In temperate climates direct sun in winter for at least 3 to 4 hours per day is needed for most herbs grown indoors. In warmer climates direct sun even in winter may burn or overheat herb plants grown indoors. Ideally, temperature should be around 10 to 23 C for most herbs. Most types of herbs will grow happily in rooms that are a little too cool for human comfort. Most plants are tolerant slightly above or below the ideal temperature range when exposed for short periods. The main cause of death is temperature fluctuation. A sudden drop of even 8 C can damage the plant or kill it. Try to minimise winter night temperature falls by checking the plant is out of draughts and removed from cold areas. Also, high temperatures such as hot spots created by sunshine will scorch leaves and dry out the plant. Periodically, plants grown indoors should be taken outside and given adequate light to build up carbohydrate PAGE 87

Growing herbs in capillary watering containers reduces water use.

How to grow herbs indoors Herbs are commonly grown on a windowsill or kitchen bench where they can receive plenty of light and are in easy reach when you are cooking. Larger herbs may be grown in larger containers where they can be used not only to harvest but for indoor decoration, and maybe to add a pleasant fragrance to the air as people brush past. Where there is central

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heating, it is important to produce a moist microclimate around the plant. This can be achieved by the following methods: 1. Misting – mist deposits small droplets of water onto the foliage. Misting should be done in the morning so that the foliage is not damp at night. Do not apply mist when the plant is exposed to bright sunlight. Misting achieves a cooling effect, overcomes moisture loss and discourages red spider mite. 2. Group all pot plants together air trapped in the foliage will increase the relative humidity.

3. Double potting - use an outer waterproof container and fill the space between the pot and container with moist peat. Double potting provides a moisture reservoir below the pot and insulates the compost.

Herbs suitable for growing indoors These herbs respond well to growing in pots or containers inside. Some of them can grow large, so consider the final height and appearance of the plant before you choose which ones would suit your living space and your tastes.

For cool or temperate climates

In warm, tropical and subtropical climates

Burnett, bay laurel, chervil, chives, coriander, dill, lavender, lemongrass, hyssop, geraniums, lemon balm, tansy, mint, marigold, marjoram, mustard, oregano, parsley, peppermint, rosemary, sage, savory, sorrel, tarragon, thyme

Chives, coriander, ginger, oregano, lemon verbena, lemongrass, parsley, pineapple sage, sage, turmeric, sweet marjoram, fenugreek

Hydroponic Herbs Hydroponics involves growing plants without soil. Instead of soil, roots grow either in air, directly in water or in a sterile solid material with nutrients added to the roots periodically as a solution. Although it sounds complicated, it doesn’t have to be. Herbs have been grown successfully in hydroponics both by home gardeners and commercial growers. There are a number of PAGE 88

advantages of hydroponics such as it removes the need for planting into the ground, weeds are eliminated, digging is avoided, pests and diseases are reduced, and the growing area can be set at waist height to prevent the need for bending.

Getting Started One of the easiest ways to get started is with gravel culture: Fill a container (e.g. a large tub or pot)

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with coarse washed gravel or sand. Remove herbs from their pots and wash all the soil from the roots under running water. Plant the herbs into the gravel or sand grow bed being careful to avoid damage to the roots. Mix up a hydroponic nutrient solution (this can be obtained from any hydroponic supplier). Alternatively, you could mix of 5 parts gypsum and 1 part of Epsom salts added to 6 parts of any powdered soluble plant food. Water the gravel until thoroughly wet and the excess water is draining through the bottom. Water with the nutrient solution whenever the soil is dry. There are many other different hydroponic systems available some which do the watering and feeding automatically. All that is left for you to do is watch your herbs grow. Suitable herbs to grow in hydroponics include: Basil, Chervil, Parsley, Sage, Thyme, Mint, Marjoram, Oregano, Chives, and Water Cress.

Natural Pest Control Since herbs grown for culinary use are going to be consumed, some thought needs to be given to controlling pests and diseases without using harmful pesticide chemicals. Fortunately, there are some environmentally safe and easy-touse alternatives to common garden PAGE 89

chemicals. Many suitable chemicals break down within 24 hours of use, however it is always advisable to check the withholding period so that you know exactly how long after applying a chemical that material can be harvested for human consumption. Just because a chemical is derived from natural products, does not mean it is completely harmless. The following are widely available through nurseries, garden centres and hardware stores:

Pyrethrum-based Insecticides Made from an extract from a daisy flower, pyrethrum-based insecticides are safe to humans but deadly to a wide range of insects including caterpillars, flies, aphids, thrips, white fly, etc. Inspect every 24 hours after spraying, and with very heavy infestations, hose down dead insects which might be protecting other insects, then spray again. Caution should be observed when using these sprays because they will kill bees and other beneficial insects. Consequently, only use when bees are not active e.g. at dusk or during cold weather.

Horticultural Oils Oil-based products kill pests by coating their bodies with a layer of oil and suffocating them. It is particularly effective for controlling scale insects, mealybugs, aphids, and mites but you must be thorough with the way you use it. Lift up branches and spray both sides of the stems, and the undersides of leaves as well as the tops. Spray the

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plant from all angles to be certain of covering all pests. White oils are based on vegetable oils. These may be purchased, or you can make your own. If you do so, ensure you do not use too much oil. Since oil and water do not mix, you need to add an emulsifier to the oil. Mix half a cup of washing up liquid with 2 cups of oil (e.g. sunflower oil, soybean oil or cottonseed oil). A suitable dilution rate is 2 dessertspoons of oil and emulsifier per litre of water.

in some formulations with other chemicals, e.g. pyrethrum, where the other chemical acts as an insect killer. Eucalyptus oil is also associated with toxicity in some fungi and bacteria so could offer protection against various fungi, moulds, and rots. It is best used after sunset for combatting nocturnal pests such as moths, earwigs, and cockroaches.

Other oils are petroleum-based. These used to be referred to as winter and summer oils, where winter oils tended to be thicker and less refined and therefore not suitable for use during hotter weather when they might stick to foliage and burn plants. Today, most petroleum-based oils are highly refined and can be used throughout the year. Another type of oil is organic or ecofriendly oils. Like white oils, these are made from plant oils. They typically have no withholding period, so you can spray plants with them and eat them on the same day. Avoid spraying any type of oil when plants are flowering, during extremes of temperature, during humid weather, or on sensitive plants.

Eucalyptus Insecticide There have been some products over the years derived from eucalyptus essential oil. Eucalyptus tends to act as an insect-repellent rather than an insecticide per se and it has been shown to repel some types of weevils, flies, and moths. It has been combined PAGE 90

Made from an extract from a daisy flower, pyrethrum-based insecticides are safe to humans but deadly to a wide range of insects including caterpillars.

Garlic Insecticide Like eucalyptus, garlic essential oil can also be combined with natural pesticides like pyrethrum to kill insect pests. Garlic both repels a range of pests (e.g. slugs, aphids, thrips, cabbage butterfly and codling moth) and acts as a mild fungicide. The high levels of sulphur in garlic will deter a wide variety of fungal diseases.

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DIRECTORY OF HERBS The botanical naming of many common herb plants is often quite confusing. The names listed in the following directory follow as much as possible those listed in the botanical reference Hortus Third prepared by the staff of the L.H. Bailey Hortorium at Cornell University and published by Macmillan. The exception to this is where alternative family names are commonly used. In these cases, both family names are listed.

ALLIUM

(Onions & relatives)

Family: Liliaceae AT A GLANCE Number of Species: Approx. 400 Natural Habitat: Widespread, mainly northern hemisphere Hardiness: Generally, very hardy Habit: Most suit mild temperate climates, some grow well in warm or cold climates Growth Rate: Fast CULTURE ● Excellent drainage, dry to moist soil

(not wet!)

● Most prefer full sun, heavy shade

reduces the crop

● Good air movement around foliage

is important

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● pH 6.07.0 ● Organic soils give the best results ● Responds to feeding, but generally

avoid high nitrogen foods. Balanced, slow release fertilisers are best

● Most propagated by seed or division

HERB VARIETIES

CHIVES (Allium schoenoprasum) ● A bulb forming perennial with thin,

hollow, grass like leaves.

● Chives requires filtered sun and

fertile, moist soil.

● Propagate by seed or division.

Culinary Use: Herb used as mild substitute of onion. The finely chopped leaves are used to flavour soups, salads, and sauces or as a garnish on baked potatoes or cream cheese and chives as spread. The flowers look attractive to decorate herbal vinegar as it provides a pink colour.

GARLIC CHIVES (Allium tuberosum) Garlic Chives is different to common chives, in both appearance and fragrance. Garlic chives does not die back over winter (Common chives does). The leaves are used the same way as common chives but in smaller quantities as they are stronger flavoured and have a slight garlic taste. As heat destroys the flavour, they are best

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chopped and mixed into hot dishes after cooking, just prior to serving.

GARLIC (Allium sativum) ● A hardy clump forming plant to 0.7m

tall which dies back to the bulbs in cold weather, then regrows in the warmer months.

● Prefers a rich, moist, fertile, sandy

soil. It is important to keep the soil weedfree.

● Propagate by dividing the root

system or cloves in early autumn or early spring. Best planted in autumn about a month before the first frosts.

● Roots develop in late autumn to give

the plant a head start in spring.

● Plant a 45cm diameter clove approx.

1012cm apart in the rows and have the rows 3040cm apart.

● Leaves and roots being high in

sulphur are a natural antibiotic and can be used as a medicine (for people or animals) or a spray (for controlling fungal diseases on plants).

Production ● Weed control is particularly

important. In most large commercial crops this is achieved by careful timing of weedicide applications.

● Growers in some areas use soil

and tissue culture testing to help determine the type and timing of fertilisers.

● Seed (i.e. clove) planting machines

are used to plant large scale crops.

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● It requires approximately 400 kg

(900 pounds) of cloves to plant one acre (0.45 ha).

● Garlic responds well to fertiliser but

does not require as heavy feeding as other crops. For high yields, the upper 60cm of soil needs to remain moist, however over watering can be disastrous. Weeds are controlled by shallow cultivation. The bulb clove development commences when the leaves stop growing. To get maximum yields, it is necessary to get maximum top growth before this point.

Seed Storage ● Cloves should be stored at 02

degrees Celsius.

● Storing at too high or low a

temperature can cause side shooting and delayed maturity. A precooling treatment at 19 degrees Celsius for two weeks will result in the plants maturing two to four weeks earlier once cloves are removed from storage and planted out.

Harvesting ● If harvested into bins where humidity

becomes too high, rot can set in.

● Care must be taken to cure and dry

garlic before storage.

● Bruising can occur if harvested

by machines operating at too high a speed (or with badly designed harvesting machines).

● Varieties vary in their

keeping quality.

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ELEPHANT GARLIC (Allium giganteum) A clump forming plant, to 1 metre tall with a milder flavour than common garlic (Allium sativum). Both the leaves and bulbs can be harvested and used fresh or dried in cooking.

ONION (Allium cepa) The common onion is a versatile and often overlooked addition to the herb garden. Medicinally it combats fungal and bacterial diseases, helps reduce cholesterol levels and evidence suggests onions help lower blood pressure. Its culinary uses are well known. Its flower heads can be used in dried arrangements and the bulb skins are excellent for dyeing wool.

SHALLOTS (Allium cepa, formerly A. ascalonicum) ● A bulbous plant growing in clumps

to 0.6 m tall. Prefers full sun and a well-drained, fertile sandy soil.

● The bulbs are round and slightly

flattened with white or brown skins.

● Prefers full sun, rich and well-

drained soil.

● The flavour is mild and sweet.

TREE ONION or TOP SET ONION (Allium x proliferum) ● A small bulb with hollow thick green

leaves and strong flower stem to 0.5 m.

● Propagate by division of base bulbs. ● Prefers full sun and well drained,

rich fertile soil

● Both the leaves and bulbs can be

eaten; bulbs are often pickled in vinegar.

ALOE VERA (Aloe sp.) Family: Liliaceae AT A GLANCE

● Propagate by dividing clumps and

Number of Species: Over 200 species

● Used in butters, seasonings and to

Natural Habitat: Mainly dry parts of Africa

planting bulblets in early spring. flavour savory dishes.

POTATO ONION or MULTIPLIER ONION (Allium cepa var. aggregatum) ● Fast maturing, hardy species grown

from sets (divisions of previous season crops).

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Hardiness: Very hardy in warm frostfree areas, many are frost-tender Habit: Usually clump-forming without stems, from small succulents to tall tree-like plants Growth Rate: Medium to very fast

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CULTURE ● Avoid excess water around roots

(this can cause root rot)

● Pests and diseases are few ● Propagate by suckers/division

● Full or filtered sun ● Protection from strong winds ● Feed regularly ● Propagate by seed in late summer

(occasionally by division)

HERB VARIETIES

HERB VARIETIES

ALOE VERA (Aloe barbadensis)

ANGELICA (Angelica archangelica)

A succulent lily with rosette leaves to 1m. Very drought tolerant, suited to dry, gravelly soils in full sun. Propagate by dividing small offshoots from main stems. Juices from leaves are used as a tonic and as a healing ointment for burns and wounds. To make a tincture, cover chopped leaves with methylated spirits and store in an airtight container.

ANGELICA (Angelica sp.) Family: Apiaceae AT A GLANCE Number of Species: Approx. 50 Natural Habitat: Mainly temperate, northern hemisphere Hardiness: Hardy Habit: Perennial herbs Growth Rate: Very fast CULTURE ● Moist soil and well drained (some

prefer wet soil)

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● A hardy, fast growing herb up to 2

metres tall. Lives 23 years only.

● Grows fast over spring, dies down to

the roots in winter.

● Roots, leafstalks and stems are split

and candied.

Culinary Use: Sweet tasting plant best known for its decoration of cakes and pudding. Stems and roots are eaten raw in Scandinavia. Leaflets are sometimes boiled and eaten like spinach (but they are bitter). Fruits are used in herbal medicines. Also used as seasoning or made into syrup for ice cream or pudding toppings. Fresh or dried leaves are drunk as refreshing tea, the flavour resembles green tea.

SHINY LEAF ANGELICA (Angelica pachycarpa) Grows to 1 metre tall and has particularly attractive foliage which is used as a garnish. This species is generally hardier than the more commonly grown Angelica archangelica.

AMERICAN ANGELICA (A. atropurpurea) A more open bush to 1.2 metres

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with dark purple leaves and a strong smelling, poisonous root. Foliage has been used for medicinal purposes. Prefers moister soils.

● Spikes of small lavender flowers

WILD ANGELICA (A. sylvestris)

● Good bee attractant.

Grows to 1.3 metres, has white to pink flowers and has been used as a yellow dye.

ANISE HYSSOP (Agastache sp.)

Family: Lamiaceae AT A GLANCE Number of Species: Approximately 30 Natural Habitat: North America, Mexico and Asia Hardiness: Hardy Habit: Tall perennial herbs Growth Rate: Fast CULTURE

occur over summer. The foliage has a strong, sweet scent and is used in in cold drinks, fruit salads or as a hot tea.

HERB VARIETIES

PURPLE GIANT HYSSOP (Agastache rugosa) Also known as Korean Mint, a perennial plant growing up to 1m. Prefers good sunlight as aroma becomes weaker in shady conditions. Its leaves and flowers are edible and can be used in stir fry dishes and salads.

ANISE (Pimpinella sp.) Family: Apiaceae AT A GLANCE Number of Species: Approximately 140 Pimpinella species though P. anisum (Aniseed) is the only one commonly grown as a herb

● Full sun to filtered light position

Natural Habitat: Eurasia and Africa

● Average soil

Hardiness: Fairly hardy

● Use as a border plant

Habit: Small plants to 1 m

● Propagate by division

Growth Rate: Quick under good conditions

HERB VARIETIES

ANISE HYSSOP (Agastache foeniculum) ● A perennial from North America,

growing to 0.9m.

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CULTURE ● Grown outdoors in warm areas or in

greenhouses.

● Requires well drained fertile soil.

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● Sunny but protected position.

AT A GLANCE

● Propagate by seed in midspring.

Number of Species: Approx. 200

Can be sown directly into garden in final position.

Culinary Use: It has aroma and flavour of liquorice. Chopped leaves used in cream sauce or salads. Seeds used with sweet pickle, soups or salad dressing and crushed seeds for flavouring cookies and cakes. HERB VARIETIES

ANISE (Pimpinella anisum) An annual, slightly tender to 0.6 metres tall. The seeds are used for flavouring cakes, bread, sweets and liqueurs.

WATER PIMPERNEL (Pimpinella saxifraga) Closely related to anise, to 90cm tall, with white flower heads and leaves similar to salad burnet. Small doses of the foliage or root are used to make a medicinal tea which stimulates secretions of body fluids.

ARTEMISIA (Artemisia sp.) Family: Asteraceae Artemisias include both edible and toxic herbs. Some are traditionally used as a component in making a food or drink; for example wormwood is used in making vermouth or absinth, but it can also be toxic or even fatal, if consumed improperly. It contains thujone, which is can be fatal in larger quantities. Toxic and potentially dangerous varieties are not listed here as they are not recommended for culinary purposes. PAGE 96

Natural Habitat: Mainly dry climates Hardiness: Hardy to very hardy Habit: Perennial herbs and shrubs (many of them aromatic) Growth Rate: Fast CULTURE ● Prefers a dry to just moist soil, with

excellent drainage

● Preference for full sun ● Most adapt to extremes of

temperature, but some will not tolerate high humidity

● Most have few pests or diseases ● Need regular pruning

to maintain shape

● Normally propagate by cuttings,

sometimes by seed

● Propagates easily from cuttings or

by division

HERB VARIETIES

TARRAGON (Artemisia dracunculus) ● A semi-hardy rhizomatous perennial

(dies back to the roots over winter), growing to 1.5 m tall in the warmer months.

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● Depending on variety Tarragon

can be almost scentless to strongly aromatic. The leaves are linear to lanceolate, up to 10cm long, and usually deciduous.

Culinary use: A rich, liquorice -anise aroma is released when leaves are gently crushed. The herb compliments poultry, eggs, beets, carrots, peas and stir fries. It best to preserve the flavour in vinegar or oil when dried. Leaves can be added to pickles, butter, preserves and garnish. Tarragon is an essential ingredient in sauces such as, hollandaise, anchovy and tartare.

BALM (Melissa sp.) Family: Lamiaceae AT A GLANCE Number of Species: 3 Natural Habitat: Europe to central Asia Hardiness: Very hardy except for extremes of hot and cold Habit: Perennial clumps Growth Rate: Fast CULTURE

● Harvest for drying when in full flower ● Propagate by seed, division or

cuttings

HERB VARIETIES

LEMON BALM (Melissa officinalis) Clumps can grow to 0.7m or more tall, but will die down over winter. Large quantities of seed produced in temperate climates will fall and grow readily, sometimes making it a weed. Withstands heavy pruning. Dried foliage may be used in potpourri. Culinary Use: Fresh foliage can be used as a lemon substitute to flavour drinks, sweets, custards or anywhere else that lemons might be used.

VARIEGATED LEMON BALM (Melissa officinalis variegata) A gold and green leaf form of lemon balm. Very hardy herb to 0.5m tall, dying back to the roots in cold weather and regrowing in spring. The gold foliage is bright in sunny conditions but can revert towards green in shaded conditions or cooler months. Leaves can be used in cooking as a lemon substitute.

BASIL (Ocimum sp.)

● Grows in most soils (not too dry)

Family: Lamiaceae

● Well-lit position but withstands some

AT A GLANCE

shade

● Cut flowering stems as soon as

flowers finish (to prevent selfseeding)

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Number of Species: Approximately 150 Natural Habitat: Mainly warm temperate to tropical

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Hardiness: Tender foliage, particularly when young Habit: Small shrubs, mostly annuals Growth Rate: Fast CULTURE ● Needs fertile, constantly moist soil

that is well-drained

● Requires a protected warm

sunny site

● Can be devastated by chewing

insects or snails

ingredients in Chartreuse liqueur. Its pungently flavoured leaves bring out the flavour of any dish, particularly French and Italian tomato dishes. It is also used in Indian curries and dips.

LEMON-SCENTED BASIL (Ocimum basilicum “Citriodorum”) A variety of the sweet basil with a lemon scent to the leaves. Growth habit and plant features are similar to O. Basilicum. Much admired for drinks, potpourri.

Ocimum gratissimum

HERB VARIETIES

A less commonly grown basil, to 1.8m tall, yellow flowers, suited to warmer climates, with pale yellow flower heads and scented foliage which can be used in potpourri.

COMMON OR SWEET BASIL (Ocimum basilicum)

CINNAMON BASIL (Ocimum basilicum “Cinnamon”)

● Propagates easily from seed in

midspring, if protected

● This is the most commonly grown

basil species. It is an annual, tender to 0.3 metres tall.

● A large range of varieties are

available varying from 0.1 to 0.8m tall, and with different flavoured and coloured foliage.

● To harvest; cut stems close to

ground about time of flowering, then treat like mint. Regrowth will provide one or two additional crops in a season.

Culinary Use: Foliage can be dried and used in potpourri and added to hair rinses, herbal baths and a range of cosmetics (e.g. soaps, perfumes, shampoos). Basil is also one of several PAGE 98

Also known as Mexican spice basil, has spicy aroma and flavour. Used in teas and baked goods also in salads, pasta and vinegar.

HOARY BASIL (Ocimum canum) To 70cm, white flowers, scented foliage, from tropical and subtropical Africa.

BAY TREE (Laurus sp.) Family: Lauraceae AT A GLANCE Number of Species: 2 species, of which only one is widely grown (L. nobilis)

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Natural Habitat: Mediterranean region Hardiness: Hardy Habit: Medium to large aromatic trees, often with suckers at the base Growth Rate: Slow-growing tree CULTURE ● Bright light to sunny position ● Prefers cooler climates, frost-

resistant

● Deep soil with good drainage of

medium fertility

garden, it is best grown in a container to keep it small. Slightly tender when young but able to tolerate frosts when it becomes a mature tree. There are a number of cultivars: ● ‘Angustifolia’ the willow leaf bay

which has narrow lanceolate leaves.

● ‘Aurea’ which has yellowishgolden

coloured leaves.

● ‘Undulata’ which has leaves with

wavy margins.

BERGAMOT (Monardo sp.)

● Frequently attacked by scale insects

Family: Lamiaceae

● Propagated by cuttings or seed

AT A GLANCE

● Makes a good tub plant

Number of Species: 12 species, the most commonly grown (Monarda didyma) is discussed below

Culinary Use: The leaves are used because they are aromatic, spicy and pungent. They are usually dried and used in bouquet garnish for savoury dishes. Bay leaves are very popular as a seasoning particularly for preparing meats, soups and casseroles. HERB VARIETIES Laurus nobilis is a hardy evergreen tree to 30 m with a 69 m spread but generally much smaller, with elliptical, thick glossy aromatic leaves up to 10 cm long. It is the laurel of early civilisation in Europe, used to crown heroes. The female trees produce purpleblack fragrant berries whose oil has been used in perfumes. It is easily pruned to keep it compact and is suitable for coastal gardens. In the average home PAGE 99

Natural Habitat: North America through to Mexico Hardiness: Very hardy and adaptable Habit: Small perennial Growth Rate: Rapid CULTURE ● Requires partial shade in protected

position

● Requires a moist and very fertile soil

to crop well

● Propagate by division, or

sometimes seed

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● When dividing retain outer sections

of clumps and discard the centres

Culinary Use: The leaves are aromatic and when infused with boiling water induces deep relaxing sleep. It may also be used in potpourri and shredded in salads. This herb is not the source of Bergamot essential oil. Bergamot essential oil is derived from extracted from the rind of the bitter lemon (Citrus bergamia). HERB VARIETIES

BERGAMOT (Monarda didyma) A hardy herbaceous perennial, to 0.9 metres, with attractive red flowers. It can be harvested for either the essential oil, or as a “hay” crop. There are a number of cultivars with flowers mainly in shades of red, pink and violet.

BORAGE sp. (Borago sp.) Family: Boraginaceae AT A GLANCE Number of Species: 3 species, Borago officinalis is the only one commonly grown Natural Habitat: Mediterranean region Hardiness: Fairly hardy Habit: Small clumping plant Growth Rate: Vigorous in warmer months

CULTURE ● Fertile alkaline soil with good drainage ● Waterlogged soils will result in rot

and death of plant

● Well-lit to part shade position ● May need to control pests such as

grasshoppers and other chewing insects

● Propagate by seed sown every 0.3

metres apart or by division or cuttings

● Good container plant

Culinary Use: Herb with a cucumber flavour. The leaves are used fresh or cooked with vegetables, salads or candied, or with cooked cabbage or pea soup. Leaves do not keep well either dried or frozen but can be preserved in vinegar. The edible flowers are used as a garnish. HERB VARIETIES

BORAGE (Borago officianalis) ● A hardy annual, to 0.6 metres. ● Borage is an ancient herb which

was widely used medicinally, but some herbalists warn that it can have ill-effects on the liver.

BURNET (Poterium sp.) Family: Rosaceae AT A GLANCE Number of Species: 2 or 3 species (classification is unclear), only one is

PAGE 100

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widely cultivated (Poterium sanguisorba)

Habit: Small fast growing annual.

Natural Habitat: Europe, West Asia and Northern Africa

Growth Rate: Quick growing.

Hardiness: Hardy, drought-tolerant Habit: Low-growing perennial Growth Rate: Fast CULTURE ● Requires light well drained soil ● Do not allow to dry out to wilting

stage

● Propagate by seed or root division

HERB VARIETIES

SALAD BURNET (Poterium sangisorba or Sanguisorba minor) A low-growing hardy plant to 0.9 metres. The leaves have a cucumber flavour and are used in salads, salad dressings, herbal butters and vinegars. Drying destroys the flavour.

CALENDULA Family: Asteraceae AT A GLANCE Number of Species: 15 species of which one is grown as a herb. (C. officianalis) Natural Habitat: South and central Europe Hardiness: Hardy and adaptable small plants. PAGE 101

CULTURE ● Sunny well-lit site ● Well drained soil ● Need to be replanted each season ● Propagate by seeds

Culinary Use: Edible fresh petals can be used as a colourful garnish in salads, candied for cake decoration, or boiled to make a yellow dye. Petals dried and put through a blender makes a powder which can be substituted for saffron in cooking. Also used in tea for flavour and colour. HERB VARIETIES

POT MARIGOLD (Calendula officinalis) Annual herb to 40 cm. Golden or yellow daisy-like flowers are borne throughout summer and autumn. Best floral displays are obtained in cool temperate areas. It is frost resistant. Petals frequently used in potpourri. Often used as a companion plant to deter nematodes.

CARDAMON Family: Zingiberaceae AT A GLANCE Number of Species: 6 species of which one is used by gardeners (Elettaria cardamomum)

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Natural Habitat: India Hardiness: Hardy if provided with frost protection Habit: Herbaceous plant with underground rhizome Growth Rate: Vigorous in summer, slow growth or dormancy in winter depending on climate CULTURE ● Moist fertile soils preferred ● Shady site with protection for hot

midday sun

● Requires warm climates, otherwise

glasshouse conditions

● Prone to attack on the leaves by

chewing insects

● Waterlogged conditions may result

in rhizome rot and death

● Propagate by division of rhizomes or

by seed

HERB VARIETIES

CARDAMOM

(Elettaria cardamomum) Leafy perennial to 2 m. Highly scented seeds used in herbal medicines, chewed as a breath freshener, added to flavour alcoholic drinks, added to sweets, cakes, biscuits, fruit salads, etc.

CARAWAY Family: Apiaceae AT A GLANCE Number of Species: A genus of 20 species, only one (Carum carvi) is used as a herb Natural Habitat: Europe Hardiness: Extremely hardy Habit: Rosette forming herb with tall flowers Growth Rate: Fast during growing season CULTURE ● Loose well drained moist soil ● High light needed ● If planted too late, the plant may

go to seed early, but produce a poor crop

● Propagate by seed in early autumn

and spring in mild areas

Culinary Use: seeds used to flavour rye breads, cookies cakes and pastries. Combination of cheese with caraway seeds makes an interesting side dish. The green leaves can be added to potato or beet salads or soups. Thick fleshy roots can be used as a vegetable. HERB VARIETIES

CARAWAY (Carum carvi) Attractive hardy herb to 0.6 metres. The seeds are small, narrow and black

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CATNIP (Nepeta sp.)

CHAMOMILE

Family: Lamiaceae

Family: Asteraceae

AT A GLANCE

AT A GLANCE

Number of Species: About 250 species, only one (Nepeta cataria) is commonly grown

Number of Species: There are three main genus types that make up the chamomile group

Natural Habitat: Eurasia

Natural Habitat: Depends upon species

Hardiness: Hardy

Hardiness: All are fairly hardy

Habit: Low-growing herb used as a groundcover

Habit: Mat-forming to small upright plants, annuals or perennials

Growth Rate: Good growth during season

Growth Rate: Rapid during season

CULTURE ● Requires rich sandy, moist soil ● Partial shade with protection from

hot sun and strong winds

● Propagate by root division, seeds,

layering or stem cuttings in spring or autumn

HERB VARIETIES

CATNIP (Nepeta cataria) ● An attractive aromatic grey green,

slightly hairy foliaged herb to 0.6m. Spike-like flowerhead with small white and purple flowers in summer.

● Leaves and shoots are used

for savoury dishes or to make a tea. Often grown to attract cats. The cultivar ‘Citriodora’ has lemonscented foliage

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CULTURE ● All require good drainage ● Bright sunlight to full sun, partial

shade can be tolerated especially in warm or hot areas

● Moist soil with much organic matter

added

● Adaptable even to hot conditions ● Propagate by seed, division or

cuttings

HERB VARIETIES

CHAMOMILE (LAWN or ROMAN: Anthemis nobilis) An evergreen mat forming perennial with fine bright green leaves. To 0.3m tall, though it is often cut shorter and grown as a lawn. Flowers used as a tea. Native to Western Europe, Azores and Northern Africa.

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● The flowers are the only

commercially useful part of the plant.

● Dried flowers are sold for

chamomile tea.

● Essential oil is used in cosmetics,

liqueurs and perfumes.

● Chamomile is grown commercially in

Germany, Hungry, Egypt, Bulgaria, Yugoslavia, Turkey, Russia, USA and Albania.

● The oil is used in many products

including bath oils, cosmetics, hair dyes, mouth washes, shampoos, sunscreens, creams, detergents, perfumes, soaps, medicines (treating skin complaints and wounds, antiseptics, etc.).

CHAMOMILE (GERMAN CHAMOMILE: Matricaria recutita) An upright annual shrub to 0.75m tall. Flowers that appear in summer are dried and used to make the “normal” chamomile tea. Dried flowers are used to make a nervesoothing tea and as a hair rinse for lightening blonde hair. The flowers are single white daisies with yellow centres. Native to Europe and western Asia.

CHERVIL (Anthriscus sp.) Family: Apiaceae AT A GLANCE Number of Species: 12 species, with the most commonly grown being A. cerefolium PAGE 104

Natural Habitat: Europe and western Asia Hardiness: Hardy annual Habit: Somewhat spreading like parsley Growth Rate: Rapid in spring and autumn, occasionally dies down in summer CULTURE ● Filtered sun ● Fertile and moist soil, but well-

drained

● Propagate by seed sown in spring

or late summer

Culinary Use: Fresh leaves can be used like parsley in the kitchen. Seeds can also be used for culinary purposes (e.g. flavouring vinegar). It is especially good with corn or potato soup, salads, chicken and fish HERB VARIETIES

CHERVIL (Anthriscus cerefolium) ● Annual to 0.45m tall. ● Chervil is one of the “fines herbes”

used in savoury dishes.

Curled leaved varieties are the most popular for use as garnishes. Leaves are ready to harvest 68weeks from sowing seed direct into rows. Does not like extremes of heat or cold, hence it is best grown as a quick crop in spring or autumn. Plants can grow to 60cm but are normally harvested at a much lower height.

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CHICORY (Cichorium sp.)

CINNAMON

Family: Asteraceae

Family: Lauraceae

AT A GLANCE

AT A GLANCE

Number of Species: 9 species, two of which are commercially grown C. intybus

Number of Species: 205 species

(Chicory) and C. endivia (Endive)

Natural Habitat: Ceylon and Southwest India

Natural Habitat: Northern Africa, Europe and Western Asia

Hardiness: Temperature sensitive, needs subtropical conditions as a minimum

Hardiness: Hardy

Habit: Small tree

Habit: Stout perennial clump forming plant, similar to lettuce

Growth Rate: Fast in the tropics

Growth Rate: Fast CULTURE

CULTURE ● Tropical or subtropical climate

essential

● Soil needs to be well drained and

● Highly fertile soil with organic matter

● Do not let soil become bone-dry

● Full sun when mature

● Propagate by seed

● Protect from frosts

fertile

HERB VARIETIES

CHICORY (C. intybus) ● Blue flowers occur on stems up to

0.8m tall. Leaves can be eaten fresh or cooked as a vegetable but are bitter unless blanched. The root is used as a coffee substitute.

● A tea made from 1 teaspoon of

dried root in a cup of boiling water is used medicinally to treat stomach complaints (drink cold, one mouthful up to 3 times daily).

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added

● Propagate by cuttings

HERB VARIETIES

CINNAMON (Cinnamomum zeylanicum) Tree to 9m tall with yellow, white flowers. Scented bark is dried to use as commercial cinnamon. Bark also used for medicinal, culinary and aromatic purposes. It is increasingly used in potpourri mixtures and air fresheners.

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CITRUS (Citrus sp.) Family: Rutaceae AT A GLANCE Number of Species: 16 Natural Habitat: Asia region Hardiness: Hardy and adaptable Habit: Evergreen spiny shrubs to small or mediumsized trees Growth Rate: Usually rapid but this can depend on species or cultivar CULTURE ● Fertile well drained soils needed ● Full sun ● Frost, insect and disease protection

needed for fruit and the tree

● Prevent weed growth immediately

beneath and near trunk

HERB VARIETIES The fruit of the citrus species are well-known for their juices. They are a valuable source of citric acid. The fruit peels contain essential oils and aromatic compounds. The peels of oranges and lemons are readily candied for use as sweets. Citrus flowers are also generally fragrant and can be a valuable addition to potpourri. The leaves of some types of citrus, including lemon, lime, kumquat, grapefruit and orange are also used to flavour soups, rice dishes and stews.

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Commonly grown citrus plants include: ● Citrus limonum ‘Eureka’ the

Eureka lemon prefers cooler climates, is thornless and bears fruit mainly in summer.

● C. limonum ‘Lisbon’ the Lisbon

lemon prefers warmer climates than the Eureka but is adaptable. It bears mainly in winter.

● C. limonum ‘Meyer’ the Meyer

lemon withstands cold climates and bears mainly in the late winter to early spring.

● C. sinensis the sweet oranges

are trees from 4 to 8m tall that prefer generally warmer climates. Commonly grown varieties include the navel and valencia oranges.

● C. aurantifolia the sweet lime is a

small to medium tree from 3 to 10 metres tall for warmer climates. The source of lime juice.

The closely related Kumquat (Fortunella japonica) is a medium shrub to 3m with miniature orangelike fruits. It requires a warm situation and is a useful tub specimen. The fruit is valuable for preserves.

COLEUS (Coleus sp.) Family: Lamiaceae AT A GLANCE Number of Species: 150 species, only Coleus amboinicus has aromatic properties

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Native Habitat: Americas, Angola, Central Africa, India Hardiness: Frost tender but adaptable Habit: Small to low annuals or perennials usually with succulent leaves and stems Growth Rate: Vigorous in tropical climates, medium growth in temperate areas CULTURE ● Provide protection from frosts ● Bright light is desirable

● Also has been listed as Coleus canis

and Coleus canosus.

COMFREY (Symphytum sp.) Family: Boraginaceae AT A GLANCE Number of Species: 25 species, only Symphytum officinale is of interest. Natural Habitat: Europe and Asia Hardiness: Hardy in warm climates, grows well in cooler areas

● Fertile soils that holds moisture but

Habit: Clumping perennial up to 1 m with flowers

● Propagate by cuttings

Growth Rate: Rapid in warm climates but slows down in winter or dies down to the roots in cold areas

well drained

HERB VARIETIES

FIVE SEASONS HERB (Coleus amboinicus) A bluegreen foliage plant, spreading to 1m or more in diameter and 1030cm tall. It is sensitive to extremes of cold or moisture. Foliage has a flavour similar to marjoram and can be used in meat, vegetable, soup or egg dishes. A variegated form of “Five Seasons Herb” is also available.

DOG BANE (Coleus caninus) ● A bluegrey leaved plant, 2040cm

tall, spreading, vigorous. Tolerates cool temperatures but not frost. Grows best in warm climates.

● Scent from foliage repels many (but

not all), dogs and cats.

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CULTURE ● Prefers partial shade ● Semifertile, well drained but moist

soils

● Propagate by root cuttings, division

or seed

Culinary Uses: Healthful herb, tender young leaves have the best flavour and it makes a good salad. Combing dried comfrey leaves with mint and honey makes a refreshing tea. Also, a smoothie with combination of pineapple, orange or mango can be made.

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HERB VARIETIES

COMFREY (Symphytum officinale) ● Comfrey has traditionally been used

as a poultice on wounds or bruises to promote healing, though in recent years this has sometimes been criticised.

● Some experts believe it is poisonous,

while others believe if taken in moderation it has many beneficial effects on the body. It is best to use this herb for external uses only such as poultices rather than internal.

● It is said to speed decomposition if

added to a compost heap and has been used as a brown dye for wool (mordant with iron).

CORIANDER Family: Apiaceae AT A GLANCE Number of Species: 2 species, only one grown (C. sativum) for its seeds or fruit

● Propagate by seed in spring

HERB VARIETIES

CORIANDER (Coriandrum sativum) Seeds are used to flavour cakes, breads, pickling spices and curries. Aroma of dried seeds with sweet spicy flavour is acceptable to most people’s palates. Slightly bitter leaves are used in Chinese cuisine and other cooking. Whole young plants are used in chutneys.

CURRY PLANT

(Helichrysum italicum) (Asteraceae or Compositae) AT A GLANCE Number of Species: Up to about 500 species of Helichrysum, many make excellent potpourri herbs Natural Habitat: Mediterranean region Hardiness: Hardy Habit: Woody perennial to 40 cm.

Natural Habitat: Southern Europe

Growth Rate: Fast

Hardiness: Hardy

CULTURE

Habit: Small annual to 90 cm usually much less Growth Rate: Quick during growing season CULTURE ● Requires a light well drained moist soil ● Good light is essential PAGE 108

● Prefers a dry, well-drained soil ● Full sun ● Propagate by seed

Culinary Use: Very pungent fragrance reminiscent of curry (but bears no resemblance to the spices used to make curry dishes). Young shoots and leaves

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are used to flavour Mediterranean soups and casseroles and are removed before eating. The essential oil extracted has been used in making ice-creams, sweets, baked goods and soft drinks. HERB VARIETIES

CURRY PLANT (Helichrysum italicum syn. H. angustifolium) Hardy perennial shrub to 75 cm with silver, curryscented leaves and small gold daisy flowers. Xerochrysum bracteatum (formerly H. bracteatum) Makes excellent potpourri.

DANDELION

(Taraxacum officinale)

Family: Asteraceae AT A GLANCE Number of Species: About 55 species of Taraxacum Natural Habitat: Europe and Asia Hardiness: Very hardy, can become a weed Habit: Rosette base from which arises a tall flower stalk

Part shade to full sun Propagate by seed (Self seeds readily to become a weed) Culinary Use: Young leaves can be used in salads, steamed or stir fried or cooked like spinach. Tossing dandelion leaves and little vinegar through fried onion, garlic and bacon makes an enjoyable meal. The roots can be cooked like vegetables. HERB VARIETIES

DANDELION (Taraxacum officinale) A common weed, with yellow daisy-like flowers. Young leaves can be chopped and added to salads. Blanching makes leaves sweeter. Roots are dried, roasted and used as a coffee substitute. Dandelions also have a range of medicinal uses. Grown commercially in at least the USA and parts of Europe. The cultivated dandelion grown in these countries has been bred and developed from the wild dandelion (Taraxacum officinalis). Seed is sown in rows direct (though seedlings will transplant), 2530 cm apart and 45 cm between the rows. Weeds are controlled by hand cultivation. Light sandy soils are preferred.

DIANTHUS sp.

Growth Rate: Rapid

Family: Caryophyllaceae

CULTURE

AT A GLANCE

Very adaptable to soil types but prefers moist soils

Number of Species: 300 species

Able to grow in many climatic regions PAGE 109

Natural Habitat: Eurasia through to south Africa

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Hardiness: Hardy, prefers cool areas Habit: Low-growing and spreading annuals or perennials Growth Rate: Depends on species CULTURE ● Cool climates best suited, tropics

are generally unsuitable

CARNATION (Dianthus caryophyllus) Herbaceous perennial growing up to 0.80m tall, erect and branching stems with a woody base. Flowers are solitary and sweetly scented. Petals are obovate or serrated or clawed of different colours.

DILL (Anethum graveolens)

● Bright light to full sun

Family: Apiaceae

● Well-drained fertile soil, not acidic

AT A GLANCE

(if you add manure or mulch, add a little lime at the same time)

● Control of insects and fungi

essential

● Propagate by seed, division, cuttings

or layering

Culinary use: Many different species and varieties with bluish foliage and carnationlike scented flowers. Fresh petals can be used to garnish salads, tea, sorbet and sandwiches. Petals, when crystallised, make a beautiful decoration for cakes and pastries. Dried flower heads are used in potpourri. HERB VARIETIES

SWEET WILLIAM (Dianthus barbatus) A herbaceous biennial or short-lived perennial, growing up to 0.75m tall. Petals have a mild flavour and add zest to ice creams, sorbet, dessert sauces and seafood.

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Number of Species: 2 species of which only one is commercially used Natural Habitat: Southwest Asia Hardiness: Hardy Habit: Small annual herb with delicate fernlike foliage Growth Rate: Rapid when in season CULTURE ● Sunny to full sun position ● Rich soil with perfect drainage ● If planted late or dries out the plant

will bolt to seed

● Propagate by seed sown direct in

spring, seedlings are difficult to transplant

Culinary Use: Unripe seeds are used to flavour vinegar, in sauerkraut and in pickling cucumbers to make dill pickles. Relishes, butter, and fish sauce also use dill seeds. It is adjunct to tomatoes, and

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a few sprigs sprinkled over tomato soup or sliced tomatoes tastes appetizing. HERB VARIETIES

DILL (Anethum graveolens) ● An annual herb to 0.9m tall with

fine, lacy foliage.

EUCALYPTUS Family: Myrtaceae AT A GLANCE Number of Species: Over 500 species Natural Habitat: Most endemic to Australia Hardiness: Very hardy and adaptable Habit: Small to large trees Growth Rate: Rapid once established CULTURE ● Most prefer full sun ● Will handle frosts and salt winds if

correct species is chosen

● Adaptable to different soil types ● May need pruning as limbs fall off in

strong winds

● Many species can handle dry periods,

others will withstand some flooding

HERB VARIETIES Most people call all eucalypts ‘gum PAGE 111

trees’, however the gum is only one of several different subgroups of the genus. ● Gums are eucalypts which lose their

bark leaving a smooth usually lightcoloured trunk (e.g. E. citriodora, E. pauciflora, E. papuana).

● Stringybarks are another subgroup,

so called because the bark is very stringy (e.g. E. macrohyncha).

● Peppermints have a tighter bark

pattern (not so stringy) but get their name because of the peppermint smell which is a characteristic of the foliage of the group (e.g. E. nicholii, E. radiata).

● Yates are smaller growing eucalypts

which have very large knobbly gum nuts/fruits (e.g. E. lehmannii has fruits the size of a tennis ball).

● The Mallee eucalypts are also

smaller growing (usually 5 to 7 metres high) which tend to come mainly from arid to semi-arid areas. Mallees are usually multi-trunked (i.e. they tend to have several trunks or branches from close to ground level).

● There are other types of Eucalypts

as well.

The leaves of most eucalypts can be used dried in potpourri, and the oils for medicinal or antiseptic purposes. The blue gum (E. globulus) however is particularly good because of its high oil content. A dwarf form of blue gum (E. globulus ‘Compacta’) is favoured in home gardens, only growing to around 6 m tall (the normal form can grow over 30 m). Regular harvesting will stimulate regrowth of lush immature bluecoloured leaves (mature leaves are

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green and less attractive). Foliage dries readily hung in a dark, dry shed. Leaves are often chopped to use in potpourri. Particularly useful eucalypts include: E. citriodora (Lemon-scented Gum) with a scent midway between eucalypt and lemon. E. globulus (Blue Gum) attractive blue juvenile leaves with strong, typical eucalyptus scent. E. nicholli (Peppermint) has a peppermint gum scent.

EVENING PRIMROSE

● Propagate by seed though it readily

selfseeds

HERB VARIETIES

EVENING PRIMROSE (Oenothera biennis) Yellowflowering herb to 1.5 m. A leafy rosette is produced in the first season, followed by large cupshaped flowers the next summer. The thick taproot can be eaten as a vegetable substitute.

FENNEL (Foeniculum sp.) Family: Apiaceae

(Oenothera biennis)

AT A GLANCE

Family: Onagraceae

Number of Species: 3 species, only F. vulgare is of importance

AT A GLANCE Number of Species: 80 species, only Oenothera biennis is commonly grown as a herb

Natural Habitat: Southern Europe Hardiness: Hardy for temperate areas

Natural Habitat: Eastern North America

Habit: Perennial that dies back to roots in winter in cool areas

Hardiness: Hardy

Growth Rate: Rapid

Habit: Biennial that can become weedy

CULTURE

Growth Rate: Fast during growing season

● Partial shade

CULTURE

● Rich, moist alkaline soil

● Light shade preferred ● Moist well drained soil (can tolerate

fairly dry conditions)

● Deep friable soil best so that roots

can be harvested

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● May bolt to seed if soil allowed to

dry out

● Propagate by seed in mid to late spring

Culinary Use: Feathery leaves have an aniseed flavour which is used in savoury

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dishes. Strong flavoured seeds are used in pickling. Leaves are sometimes used as a garnish. Whole or ground seeds used to flavour cakes, ice cream and soups. HERB VARIETIES

COMMON FENNEL (Foeniculum vulgare) A very vigorous plant to 1.2 m for temperate climates that it has become a weed in some places. Foliage is simply cut, dried, then crumbled. Seed is harvested like dill.

BRONZE FENNEL (Foeniculum vulgare ‘Purpureum’)

FEVERFEW

(Chrysanthemum parthenium) Family: Asteraceae AT A GLANCE Number of Species: The genus has between 100 and 200 species, only C. parthenium will be discussed here. Natural Habitat: South-east Europe Hardiness: Hardy, can become invasive Habit: Erect bushy, aromatic perennial to 1 m Growth Rate: Rapid CULTURE

Bronze foliaged variety of the common Fennel. Hardy perennial to 2 m. Will tolerate dry conditions. Leaves have an aniseed flavour which can be used in savoury dishes and salads.

● Adaptable to most soils

SWEET FENNEL (Foeniculum officinalis)

● Propagates by seed and readily

Annual that grows up to 1m high. Seeds are picked when ripe and the stems of tender flower stalk are best for eating like celery. The seeds are used as condiments and the leaves have anise like flavour.

FLORENCE FENNEL (F. dulce) Used as a vegetable, the thickened bulbous leaf base can be cooked or eaten fresh.

● Needs ample moisture ● Bright light required

self-seeds

HERB VARIETIES

FEVERFEW (Chrysanthemum parthenium) ● A small daisy flowering bush to

0.5m tall.

● Produces large quantities of seed

which causing it to spread naturally through gardens. Flowers in second year from seed.

● Leaves, though not pleasant to

eat, have been documented as an effective cure for arthritis if a few are eaten daily for several months.

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GERMANDER

(Teucrium chamaedrys) Family: Lamiaceae AT A GLANCE Number of Species: About 300 species Natural Habitat: Europe and south-west Asia, western Mediterranean islands

CAT THYME (Teucrium marum) A small blue grey leaved shrub to 50cm tall with purplish flowers. As with other germanders, this makes an ideal hedge plant.

GINKGO (Ginkgo biloba) Family: Ginkgoaceae)

Hardiness: Hardy

AT A GLANCE

Habit: Mainly small shrubs or bushes

Number of Species: One single species, Gingko biloba

Growth Rate: Medium to fast CULTURE ● Ordinary soils ● Prefers full sun ● Tolerates dry periods ● Often used as edging plants or

small hedges

Natural Habitat: South-east China Hardiness: Hardy in temperate areas Habit: Deciduous large tree Growth Rate: Slow when young CULTURE ● Temperate climate

HERB VARIETIES

● Full sun

GERMANDER (Teucrium chamaedrys)

● Deep moist fertile soil

Germander is commonly used as a hedge plant in Elizabethan England, it was also used medicinally. Unlike many of the other “old world herbs”, very little modern research has been done on germander. We know that it has been used to treat gout and rheumatism, but we know nothing about whether it does or does not have any toxic effects on the body. Small rhizomatous shrub to 0.5 m. Rosepurple flowers. A dwarf form, Teucrium Chamaedrys ‘Prostratum’, is available. PAGE 114

● Propagate by seeds, layering,

cuttings or grafting

HERB VARIETIES

GINKGO (Ginkgo biloba) ● The male tree is normally grown

because fruit from the female tree has a particularly unpleasant odour. Most people only grow the male tree.

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● The yellow autumn leaves have been

used for a medicinal tea to enhance memory. The kernels, known as gingko nuts, are commonly eaten in Asia.

● Oil from the seeds can cause

dermatitis for some people. These are hardy, pollution tolerant, but slow-growing trees. A number of cultivars are available offering different shaped or coloured leaves.

HORSERADISH

(Armoracia rusticana) Family: Brassicaceae AT A GLANCE Number of Species: 3 species, only A. rusticana is of importance Natural Habitat: South eastern Europe Hardiness: Fairly hardy Habit: Spreading deep rooted perennial Growth Rate: Strong with invasive roots CULTURE ● Best planted in a tub rather than in

the soil.

● Sunny position ● Well-drained soil, it can tolerate

dry conditions

● Leaves die down in winter in cold

areas, reshoot in spring

● Propagate by root cuttings or

division in spring

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Culinary Use: has a large root with a pungent flavour. Horseradish sauce can be made by peeling and grinding the roots and then mixing with vinegar. Also used in making cocktails and mustard sauces. The young spring shoots can be cooked for greens. HERB VARIETIES

HORSERADISH (Armoracia rusticana) A small perennial to around 30cm commonly grown as an annual. It has large shiny green tooth edged leaves and a large swollen root that is used as a condiment, as a digestive aid and particularly ingested as a means of clearing sinus conditions. It is known to be high in Vitamin C and to contain an antibiotic substance.

GOOD KING HENRY

(Chenopodium bonus-henricus) Family: Chenopodiaceae AT A GLANCE Number of Species: 250 species, of which only one will be discussed Natural Habitat: Europe Hardiness: Very hardy and adaptable Habit: Coarse weedy perennial Growth Rate: Rapid during season CULTURE ● Sunny to part shade

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● Well drained situation is best

● Shelter required from winds

● Can become a weed due to

● Pruning necessary to control growth

hardiness and ease of growing

● Propagate by seed

HERB VARIETIES

GOOD KING HENRY/WILD SPINACH (Chenopodium bonus-henricus) A plant to 80 cm with arrowshaped leaves on long stems that bear small greenish flowers. The leaves can be used as a spinach substitute.

HONEYSUCKLE

(Lonicera sp.)

Family: Caprifoliaceae AT A GLANCE Number of Species: 150 species Natural Habitat: East Asia Hardiness: Easy to grow Habit: Vigorous twining/climbing to bushy small shrubs, some evergreen, some deciduous Growth Rate: Rapid CULTURE ● Sunny site is best for floral display

but will flower in shady spot

● Well drained fertile soil

recommended. Roots prefer cool and moist soil

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● Readily produces roots whereever

stem touches ground

● Propagate by cuttings in spring and

autumn

HERB VARIETIES

COMMON or JAPANESE HONEYSUCKLE (Lonicera japonica) Climber with vines up to 6m long and cream scented flowers over summer autumn. Dried flowers used in potpourris, scented pillows, etc. It is an important ingredient in Chinese herbal medicine.

PERFOLIATE HONEYSUCKLE (Lonicera caprifolium) Deciduous climber, reddish buds open to soft pale yellow or cream flowers, berries if they appear are poisonous.

WINTER HONEYSUCKLE (Lonicera fragrantissima) Woody shrub to 4m tall, fragrant creamwhite flowers occur in pairs.

GIANT BURMESE HONEYSUCKLE (Lonicera hildebrandiana) Vigorous climber to 20m, long scented tubular yellow flowers mature to become an orange colour.

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HONEYWORT (Cerinthe major)

Family: Boraginaceae AT A GLANCE Number of Species: 14 species, only one used as a herb Natural Habitat: Mediterranean Hardiness: Sensitive to hot weather Habit: Small annual herb Growth Rate: Rapid as the weather cools down CULTURE Choose a site that provides winter sun and summer shade

HYSSOP (Hyssopus officinalis) Family: Lamiaceae AT A GLANCE Number of Species: 5 species, only H. officinalis is of interest Natural Habitat: Southern and Eastern Europe Hardiness: Hardy to dry conditions, dies down in winter Habit: Woody stemmed shrub to 60 cm Growth Rate: Good growth during growth period CULTURE ● Sunny warm site

Well-drained fertile soil, mulching will help retain moisture in soil

● Well-drained position with fertile

Water in dry periods is essential

● Trim after flowering and again in

Propagate by seed in autumn, readily selfseeds

● Can be clipped to a hedge

HERB VARIETIES

● Propagate by seeds, cuttings or

HONEYWORT (Cerinthe major) This is a small herb to 40cm with distinctive yellow and red tubular flowers surrounded by green. Grown to attract bees.

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alkaline soil spring

division in spring

Culinary use: Hyssop has a strong pungent flavour, its best used in small proportion to flavour soups, salads, meats, fruit pies, stuffing’s and flowers as garnish. It is reputed to repel white butterflies therefore is often companion planted with cabbages.

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HERB VARIETIES

HYSSOP (Hyssopus officinalis) An attractive perennial with aromatic leaves and blue, white or reddish flowers. Leaves have been used in casseroles and salads. Oils from the foliage are used in perfumes, liquers and as an antiseptic. It is believed to be good for the respiratory system if made as a tea.

JUNIPER (Juniperus sp.) (Cupressaceae) AT A GLANCE Number of Species: 70 species, only one (J. communis) will be discussed here Natural Habitat: North America, Eurasia Hardiness: Hardy but does best in temperate areas Habit: Large shrub

variety used as a herb. It is a tree around 10 m tall. Various forms of different shapes, sizes and colours are also available. The ripe berries are used in some herbal medicines (they can take up to 3 years to ripen). Leaves can be added to a bath to create a rich scent which clears the sinuses and provides a soothing effect when soaking muscles. Some other medicinal effects are suspect, and it may be dangerous if taken internally by pregnant women or people with kidney complaints. Berries only tend to appear in mild climates. Dried berries are also used to give flavour to gin.

JASMINE (Jasminum sp.) (Oleaceae) AT A GLANCE Number of Species: 200 species Natural Habitat: Asia, Africa and Australia

Growth Rate: Slow growing

Hardiness: Very hardy and adaptable plants

CULTURE

Habit: Climbers

● Prefers cool to cold environments ● Good drainage, but moist root run ● Bright light to full sun

HERB VARIETIES

JUNIPER (Juniperus communis) J. communis is the most common PAGE 118

Growth Rate: Vigorous but slows down over winter CULTURE ● Full sun to light shade ● Shelter from strong winds ● Rich organic soils will produce

abundant growth

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● Pruning may be needed to keep

Habit: Small aromatic shrubs or herbs

● Propagate by seeds, layering or

Growth Rate: Growth can stop during winter months

plant under control cuttings

HERB VARIETIES

CHINESE JASMINE (Jasminum polyanthum) A vigorous climber, with masses of attractive white flowers in spring summer. Buds may be deep pink or crimson. It does well against a wall or on a trellis. It prefers a moist well drained soil and can be pruned hard after flowering. The flowers make a valuable ingredient in pot pourris. Native to western China.

WHITE JASMINE (Jasminum officinale) A summer, whiteflowering, highly scented climber to 9 metres. Can be slow growing if conditions are not perfect. Oil extracted from the flowers are used in perfumery. Native to western China through to the Himalayas.

LAVENDER (Lavandula sp.) Family: Lamiaceae AT A GLANCE Number of Species: 20 species Natural Habitat: From the Mediterranean to India Hardiness: Hardy if provided preferred growth requirements PAGE 119

CULTURE ● Full sun, may need protection from

sun in hot northern areas

● Perfect drainage needed but if not

possible, provide raised beds

● Tolerates very dry conditions ● Not very suitable in tropical districts. ● Pruning may be needed to maintain

shape, but do not prune below green growth

● Flowers can be eaten by

grasshoppers and grubs, remove grubs from foliage by hand

● Propagate by fresh heel cuttings in

autumn or spring

HERB VARIETIES

ENGLISH LAVENDER (Lavandula angustifolia, formerly L. officinalis, syn. L. spica) A hardy perennial shrub, normally to 1m tall (there are many varieties of varying sizes). Leaves linearlanceolate to linearoblanceolate, to 5cm long to 6mm wide, whitish when young, becoming green. Flowers approximately 1cm long usually purple. Will grow in full sun in temperate climates but may need protection in warmer climates. Dried flowers used in potpourri and many scented crafts.

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Commercial oils are extracted from selected varieties of this species for use in cosmetics and soaps. L. angustifolia ‘Alba’ is white flowering variety. The white flowers usually take on a pink tinge as they age.

FRENCH LAVENDER (Lavandula dentata) Shrub between 30cm and 1 metre with narrow greygreen leaves to 4cm long with square toothed edges. It produces short, soft-stemmed, plump spikes of dark lavender flowers in the warmer months. It has a strong lavender scent tinged with a light camphor fragrance. When dried the fragrance only lasts about 36 months. This species will not stand cold conditions like the previous two species.

PORTUGUESE LAVENDER (Lavandula latifolia) Resembles L. angustifolia but leaves are greygreen and more tomentose. Also, it has a stronger fragrance.

EGYPTIAN LAVENDER (Lavandula multifida) Shrub to 70cm, greytomentose leaves which are pinnately or 2pinnately dissected, to 1.5 inches long. Flowers blueviolet. It comes from the southern Mediterranean and does not tolerate frosts.

FERNLEAF LAVENDER (Lavandula pinnata) Shrub to 1 metre tall, leaves pinnate, to 5 cm long. Flowers lavender colour.

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SPANISH LAVENDER (Lavandula stoechas) Shrub to 1 metre tall. Leaves are 12.5 cm long, narrow and grey. It produces short spikes of dark, purple flowers in spring. Its fragrance is a blend of camphor and lavender with minty undertones.

GREEN LAVENDER (Lavandula viridis) Sometimes considered as a variety of L. stoechas. A strong lavenderpine scent. Grows to 1m tall and more than 1m diameter. It is a particularly hardy type of lavender, with sticky narrow green leaves and white flowers in a green head. It grows easily from cuttings. Warm climates are not appropriate.

LAVANDIN (Lavandula x intermedia) A cross between English lavender and Portuguese lavender. They are less hardy, grow larger up to 1.2m and produce more flower spikes. Both foliage and flowers are highly aromatic.

LAMB’S EARS or BETONY (Stachys sp.) Family: Lamiaceae AT A GLANCE Number of Species: 300 species Natural Habitat: Temperate, subtropical and tropical areas Hardiness: Hardy

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Habit: Small perennial herbs to shrubs Growth Rate: Quick during peak growing seasons CULTURE Sunny site

Natural Habitat: Southern India and Ceylon Hardiness: Semihardy to very hardy in warm areas Habit: Clump-forming grass

Well-drained position, can tolerate droughts

Growth Rate: Rapid during warm months

Prune back to basal clump after flowering

CULTURE

Propagate by cuttings or division

● Full sun in a warm spot

HERB VARIETIES

● Well-drained soil, can tolerate

LAMB’S EARS or WOOLLY BETONY (Stachys byzantina)

● Needs plenty of water in summer

Creeping, furry, greywhite stems and leaves and pinkpurple flowers. A hardy plant which adapts to most soils, best in full sun (but tolerates shade). Can become invasive taking root as it creeps.

BETONY (Stachys officinalis) A mat-forming perennial with green leaves and erect rosy flower spikes up to 40 cm. There is a white flowering form available. Leaves are used for gastric and migraine disorders. A yellow dye can be extracted from the plant.

LEMON GRASS

(Cymbopogon citratus)

Family: Poaceae AT A GLANCE Number of Species: 30 species, C. citratus will be discussed below PAGE 121

occasional drought conditions

● Protect from frosts and strong winds ● Leaves are susceptible to rust

fungal problems in cool times

● Propagate by division

HERB VARIETIES

LEMONGRASS (Cymbopogon citratus) A grass to 1.8m tall in warm climates but only 1m at the most in cooler temperate areas. Grows well in subtropical areas but needs protection from extreme cold in temperate climates. Leaves are used fresh or dry to make lemongrass tea. Leaves are a source of vitamin A. Oil extracted from the leaves is used in perfumes. The related species C. nardus is grown mainly in Sri Lanka and South East Asia and is a major source of Citronella oil.

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LEMON VERBENA (Aloysia triphylla)

Family: Verbenaceae AT A GLANCE Number of Species: 30 species, only one species is of interest Natural Habitat: Argentina and Chile

many years). Used to relieve indigestion. Leaves are picked individually and dried.

LIQUIDAMBAR

(Liquidambar sp.)

Family: Hamamelidaceae AT A GLANCE

Hardiness: Hardy but deciduous in winter

Number of Species: 4 species in total, L. styraciflua is discussed

Habit: Woody-stemmed shrub

Natural Habitat: Central America

Growth Rate: Slows down or stops over winter

Hardiness: Hardy

CULTURE

Habit: Deciduous tree

● Warm, sunny position

Growth Rate: Rapid growth but dormant during winter

● Well-drained soil that is mulched

CULTURE

in spring

● Tolerates dry conditions but is best

if kept just moist

● Fertile deep moist soil ● Full sun for best canopy spread

● Protect from frost damage

● Protect from strong winds

● Prune regularly to maintain shape

● Cool winters provides best autumn

● Propagate by heel cutting in summer

HERB VARIETIES

LEMON VERBENA (Aloysia triphylla) A deciduous shrub in temperate climates, usually to 1.5 m or up to 3 m in warm areas. Does not like extreme cold or heat. Leaves are used fresh or dry as a tea, in cooking as a lemon substitute, or in potpourri (leaves retain scent for PAGE 122

leaf display

● Roots can become invasive and

damaging to pipe systems

● Can handle wet soil ● Propagate by seeds that are slow

to germinate

LIQUIDAMBER (Liquidambar styraciflua) Also called sweet gum, this is a popular

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deciduous garden tree in temperate climates and up into the subtropics (though autumn colours may not be as spectacular). Growing 1530 m tall, it prefers a deep, moist, fertile soil. The fragrant bark has been used in various herbal medicine preparations and perfumes.

LOVAGE (Levisticum officinale) Family: Apiaceae AT A GLANCE Number of Species: Only one species, L. officinale Natural Habitat: Southern Europe Hardiness: Hardy Habit: Leafy perennial clump that dies down to roots in winter

HERB VARIETIES

LOVAGE (Levisticum officinale) In temperate climates Lovage can grow to 2m tall. Leaves are used to flavour salads and savoury dishes. The root has been used as a tobacco substitute when chewed, a stimulant to the kidneys and to relieve constipation. Leaves are picked while young, thin and tender, and then dried. Roots are dug in late autumn of the second year, washed, sliced then dried at about 52 degrees C. Fruits are handled similarly to caraway.

MARIGOLD FRENCH (Tagetes sp.)

Family: Asteraceae AT A GLANCE

Growth Rate: Rapid in warm months

Number of Species: 30 species in total.

CULTURE

Natural Habitat: Mexico and Guatemala.

Deep moist soil.

Hardiness: Very hardy.

Sun or partial shade.

Habit: Annual or perennials.

Cut back flower stems in autumn.

Growth Rate: Rapid in foliage and flower.

Propagate by root division or seed in spring.

CULTURE

Culinary Use: Leaves and stalks can be used as a celery substitute in salads. It gives a zest when added in soups and stews.

● Full sun ● Well drained soil ● Protect from frosts and strong winds ● Can tolerate hot dry weather but is

best watered in dry conditions

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● Removal of spent flowers will

prolong flower period and prevent self-seeding

● Propagate by seed

HERB VARIETIES

FRENCH MARIGOLD (Tagetes patula) A compact, bushy annual to 45 cm. Large orange flowers are produced in summer. Plant near tomatoes to control whitefly.

SWEET MARIGOLD or WINTER TARRAGON (Tagetes lucida) A perennial to 50 cm with aniseflavoured leaves and small yellow flowers. In cold climates this plant may not recover after frosts or winter. Dried leaves used to make a tea.

CULTURE ● Adaptable but prefers good moist soil ● Sunny position ● Propagate by cuttings in late summer

HERB VARIETIES

MEADOWSWEET (Spiraea ulmaria) A medium-sized perennial with square reddish stems and serrated leaves, dark green in colour on the topside of the leaf and white on the underside. The flowers are creamy white, small and highly scented appearing in spring to summer. It prefers moist conditions in an open to semi shaded position. Meadowsweet has an aromatic, astringent flavour when the leaves are used to make a tea. It acts as a diuretic and can be used as a remedy for diarrhoea in children.

MEADOWSWEET (Spiraea ulmaria)

MELALEUCA or TEA TREE (Melaleuca sp.)

Family: Rosaceae

Family: Myrtaceae

AT A GLANCE

AT A GLANCE

Number of Species: Approximately 100

Number of Species: More than 100 species, M. alternifolia is grown commercially

Natural Habitat: Varied (Northern Hemisphere) Hardiness: Generally hardy

Natural Habitat: Eastern coast of Australia

Habit: Deciduous Bushes

Hardiness: Very hardy

Growth Rate: Medium to fast

Habit: Large bushy shrub Growth Rate: Medium growth

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CULTURE ● Full sun but can tolerate

heavy shade

● Adaptable to many soils except very

dry situations

● Good plant for poorly drained sites

HERB VARIETIES

Hardiness: Hardy if supplied with requirements Habit: Erect or decumbent perennial herbs Growth Rate: Rapid CULTURE Full sun

TEA TREE (Melaleuca alternifolia)

● Moisture is essential for the soil

A 56 m high shrub with papery bark and narrow leaves to 2.5 cm. It has small white bottlebrush flowers in summer. Source of the Australian ‘tea tree oil’ which has many medicinal benefits including strong antiseptic qualities, relief from colds, mild anaesthetic (for relief of arthritic pain), insect repellent, inhalant for colds, etc.

● Shaded position only if plant cannot

M. alternifolia occurs naturally both in coastal areas of northern NSW and central NSW. The northern varieties have valuable oil, the southern varieties don’t. Cineol is the valuable component of the oil, and this can vary from approx. 6 to 16% of the total essential oil output. If grown commercially it is essential to select a variety with high cineol content.

MINTS (Mentha spp.) Family: Lamiaceae

be kept moist

● Susceptible to rust in cooler months ● Keep under control by planting in a

separate garden bed or container

● Propagate by cuttings, division,

even seed

HERB VARIETIES

WATER MINT (Mentha aquatica) ● Strong scented, grows to 1 metre,

well-branched stems.

● Leaves ovate to lanceolate, usually

truncate at base with serrated margin.

● Flowers 12 cm diameter, flowers

purple, pedicels hairy.

AT A GLANCE

● Flowers late summer.

Number of Species: 25 species in total

● Mentha aquatica var. crispa is

Natural Habitat: Temperate regions throughout the world

PAGE 125

the most popular variety, used for flavouring food and one of the best mints for digestive treatments.

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FIELD MINT (Mentha arvensis) ● Grows between 30 and 70cm, erect

habit, branched and hairy.

● Leaves ovate to elliptic, broader

below the centre, serrate margin.

WINTER MINT; Bowles Variety (M x villosa nm. alopecurodies) Often sold as M. cordifolia. Vigorous erect plant which may reach up to 120cm high and in temperate climate it can grow throughout winter.

● Flowers lilac, white or rarely pink.

RED MINT (Mentha x gentilis = M. arvensis x M. spicata)

● Mentha arvensis var. villosa =

Usually glabrous, often redtinged, sweet scented.

Flowers in summer.

Mentha canadensis.

JAPENESE MINT (Mentha arvensis var. piperascens) ● Tall, downy and more vigorous

variety

● Important as a commercial source

of menthol and high oil content in Japan.

LEMON or ORANGE MINT (Mentha citrata) This is actually a variety of peppermint (Mentha x piperita var. citrata) with a citrusmint scented foliage. The dried foliage, or extracted oil can be used in potpourri, but the flavour is usually considered too strong for eating.

COMMON MINT (Mentha cordifolia) Clump-forming to 0.5m tall, suckering, thriving in moist soil. Grows well in filtered sun. Leaves are very commonly used in cooking to make mint sauce or jelly, added to drinks or deserts, mixed in potato salad or with cooked peas, etc. Keeps producing useable leaves through winter if in a warm position. Can become invasive.

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HORSEMINT (Mentha longifolia) Usually white or grey, hairy, 30cm1m, often purple tinged. Leaves 47cm, oblong-elliptic shape, serrate, pubescent above and grey or white underneath. Flowers lilac or white in summer. Extremely variable with many hybrids.

PEPPERMINT (Mentha x piperita = M. aquatica x M. spicata) Grows to 1 metre over the warm months but will die back to ground level in cooler climates over winter, foliage often purple tinged, leaves petioled, lanceolate and to 5cm long, serrate margins. Flowers sterile, lilac pink, in summer. Excellent as a repellent for insects or rodents. Used for flavouring in cooking and confectionary or drunk as a hot tea. An important ingredient in many herbal medicines.

RIVER MINT (Mentha australis) An Australian Native mint, sprawling plant that grows up to 80cm high with spread around 1m and has a strong peppermint like odour. It is widespread in inland area of Australia and used as a medicinal plant.

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CORSICAN MINT (Mentha requienii) Creeping with tiny tender leaves, and bluepink summer flowers. More tender than other herbs, notwithstanding drying out. Can die off and rot in patches if it gets too wet or dry. A strong scent is released when bruised. Most suited to planting between steppingstones or beside paving.

APPLE MINT (Mentha suaveolens) Leaves sessile, oblong to nearly ovate, acute, or obtuse, serrated margin. Hairy stems. Flowers in summer whitish or pink. A very hardy plant in moist soils. Greygreen or golden variegated foliage grows to 1 m tall in spring but dies back to the roots over winter. It can become a weed in some localities. It likes semishade but can be invasive. Leaves used fresh as a garnish or to flavour drinks or food. Leaves may be dried and used in potpourri. Apple mint is often called M. rotundifolia which is actually M. longifolia x M. suaveolens.

SPEARMINT (Mentha spicata) ● Grows to 90cm, leaves sessile,

lanceolate to 4cm long, acute, serrate. The summer flowers are lilac, pink or white.

● Similar to peppermint in requirements

and growth habit, only differing in its flavour and leaf colour. Foliage is green. Important in culinary uses, particularly in drinks and sweets.

● M. spicata = M. viridis.

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SCOTH SPEARMINT (Mentha x gentilis = M. arvensis x M. spicata) ● An upright, glabrous perennial grows

to 90cm high.

● When rubbed they have a sweet

basil mint scent.

● The scent is rather overpowering in

cooking but can be used in discretion of dishes where a basil mint flavour is required.

● Scotch spearmint oil had higher

limonene content than spearmint oil. Used for flavouring of toothpaste, chewing gums and pharmaceuticals.

● Small quantities of dried leaves

combined with lavender can be used in potpourri.

CURLY MINT (Mentha spicata ‘Crispata’ or ‘Crispa’) A rapid grower to 60cm with hairy stems and wrinkled, broad, dull green leaves. Pale purple flowers are borne on spikes. This is a very aromatic mint. Oils can be used as antiseptics or as a condiment. The leaves can be dried for potpourri or eaten fresh in salads, as a digestive aid or in a refreshing mint tea or tonic. Harvesting Mint Shoots are cut just before flowering on a dry day and air-dried in shade. Leaves are stripped after drying and stems discarded. Commercial Production There are many different species of Mentha which can be grown commercially. The Egyptian pharaohs are known to have

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distilled oil from peppermint (Mentha x piperita). Commercial production of mint oil in the USA is around 1000 metric tons annually, mainly on moist soils on the north west coastal states of Oregon and Washington. Mentha arvensis, M. x piperita and M. spicata are all grown commercially in the USA.

Natural habitat: Widespread except in the tropical north, normally under the canopy of trees or larger shrubs

Typically, spearmint and peppermint are planted as rhizomes in rows. Weeds are controlled by cultivation in the first year. In late autumn, the plants are ploughed in before the frost. It spreads rapidly giving a paddock of mint the next season. Mint is cut with a mower and left to dry until moisture content drops to approximately 35% at which point it is collected and distilled for oil using a steam distillation technique.

Growth: Generally fast

MINT BUSH (Prostanthera sp.) Family: Lamiaceae

Habit: Small or medium shrubs Foliage: Generally soft, undivided, scented leaves

CULTURE ● Provide some protection from full

sun and wind

● Water over dry months ● Most drought tolerant ● Most are at least tolerant of light frosts ● Generally, propagate by softwood

cuttings

● Overwatering can shorten lifespan,

otherwise most are long lived

AT A GLANCE: Number of Species: Approximately 65 species, all Australian

● Highly susceptible to cinnamon

fungus so in affected areas it must be grafted onto Westringia rootstock

Table: Prostanthera species Species

Height (metres)

Width (metres)

Tolerates drought

Can grow in direct sun

Flower

P. aspalathoides

0.3

1

Yes

Part

red or yellow

P. baxteri

0.7

0.7

Part

No

pale mauve

P. behriana

2

1.5

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whitepurple

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Species

Height (metres)

Width (metres)

Tolerates drought

Can grow in direct sun

Flower

P. calycina

0.5

0.5

No

No

red

P. chlorantha

0.6

0.5

Yes

?

greenish

P. cineolifera

2

1

P. cryptandroides

0.8

1

Yes

P. cruciflora

1

0.5

Yes

P. cuneate

0.5

1

Part

No

whitemauve

P. denticulate

0.3

2

Yes

No

purple

mauve Part

mauve

mauve

pale purple

P. discolour P. euphrasioides

1

0.7

mauve

P. eurybioides

1

0.5

mauve

P. grylloana

0.8

0.5

Yes

P. hirtula

2

1

No

No

mauve

P. incana

1.5

12

Yes

Yes

white or mauve

P. incisa

1.5

1.5

Yes

Part

violet

P. lasianthos

210

2.5

No

No

large white

P. leichhardtii

1.5

0.8

P. linearis

1.5

1

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red

mauve Yes

No

violet

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Species

Height (metres)

Width (metres)

P. magnifica

1.5

1

pale mauve

P. marifolia

0.6

0.4

mauveblue

P. megacalyx

1

0.5

No

No

light purple

P. melissifolia

3

3

Part

No

pink or purple

P. nivea

3

2

No

No

white or Blue

P. odoratissima

1

1.5

P. ovalifolia

3

3

P. phylicifolia

1.5

1

P. prunelloides

2

1

No

No

P. rhombea

1

0.5

Part

Part

P. rotundifolia

2

1.5

Part

No

P. rugosa

1

P. saxicola montana

0.3

1

Part

No

white

P. scuttellarioides

1.5

1

No

No

purple

P. sieberi

1.5

1.5

Part

No

purple

P. spinosa

0.6

1

Yes

Part

blue or white

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Tolerates drought

Can grow in direct sun

Flower

purple Part

No

purple white or violet blue

purple violet

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Species

Height (metres)

Width (metres)

Tolerates drought

Can grow in direct sun

Flower

P. staurophylla

1

1

?

?

purple or white

P. striatiflora

1.5

1.5

Yes

Part

white

P. stricta

1.3

1

Yes

Yes

deep violet

P. teretifolia

2

2

blue

P. violaceae

1

1

purple

P. walteri

1

1

Yes

Yes

green

Note: P. spinosa should be grafted to Westringia Prostantheras with particularly strongly scented foliage: P. cineolifera, cuneata, incisa, melissifolia, odoratissima, ovalifolia, sieberi

MULBERRY TREE (Morus sp.)

Family: Moraceae AT A GLANCE Number of Species: 10 species in total Natural Habitat: Western Asia Hardiness: Hardy Habit: Deciduous tree Growth Rate: Quick growing but dormant in winter PAGE 131

CULTURE ● Full sun ● Rich, well-drained soil ● Can tolerate short periods

of waterlogging

● Attacked by grasshoppers and the

commercial ‘silkworm’

● Maintenance required in cleaning

up stains left by fruit

● Propagate by seed or grafting

HERB VARIETIES

MULBERRY (Morus nigra) Tree to 9 m with deep purple to black fruit. Bark and fruits are a laxative. Berries are also said to help reduce fever.

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WHITE MULBERRY (Morus alba) Very large tree with white fruit.

MULLEIN (Verbascum sp.) Family: Scrophulariaceae AT A GLANCE Number of Species: Approximately 250 Natural Habitat: Commonly Mediterranean Hardiness: Hardy to very hardy in temperate climates Habit: Herbaceous clump Growth Rate: Fast CULTURE ● Very Hardy ● Most soils ● Avoid waterlogging and extreme

cold

● Avoid high humidity ● Propagate by cuttings, seed or

division

WOOLLY MULLEIN (Verbascum bombyceferum) Felt like leaves, Flower spike to 2m tall, often branched with yellow flowers.

Verbascum chaixii Mildly toothed green to grey green leaves, white flowers on spikes to 1m tall. Plants often self-seed, becoming a weed.

PURPLE MULLEIN (Verbascum phoeniceum) Dark green lower leaves, flower spikes with finer leaves and flowers which can vary in colour according to variety. Mullein varieties are now grown as an ornamental, though they have been used in times past as a medicinal herb.

MYRTLE (Myrtus sp.) Family: Myrtaceae AT A GLANCE Number of Species: About 16 species Natural Habitat: Mediterranean region and south west Europe Hardiness: Hardy

HERB VARIETIES

Habit: Shrubs to trees

Verbascum thapsus

Growth Rate: Good growth rate

This is declared a noxious weed in parts of Australia and should not be grown.

CULTURE ● Full sun ● Rich, well-drained soil

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● Protect from wind and frost ● Propagate by cuttings in spring

HERB VARIETIES

COMMON MYRTLE (Myrtus communis) Rounded small tree or shrub to 5 m tall with dense, shiny dark green, scented leaves and white, fragrant flowers in summer. There are dwarf, variegated, and double flower forms available in nurseries. Dried flower buds and fruit have been crushed and used as a spice. Dried flowers and leaves can be used in potpourri.

NASTURTIUM Family: Tropaeolaceae There are two genera: Nasturtium (Watercress) and Tropaeolum which is given the common name “Nasturtium”. There are six species of the genus Nasturtium, the most commonly grown watercress being N. officinale. The information below relates to Tropaeolum (Family: Tropaeolaceae). AT A GLANCE Number of Species: Over 50 Natural Habitat: Mountains of Central America to South America

CULTURE ● Most soils, but preferably moist

or wet

● Responds to feeding ● Propagate by seed, usually early

spring, or autumn in hot climates

HERB VARIETIES Plants in this genus contain mustard oil. The flowers and fruits are used for flavouring and sometimes pickled. The leaves are edible.

COMMON NASTURTIUM (Tropaeolum majus) Though more often grown as an annual flower, the common nasturtium is a versatile creeping herb. Its flowers are edible and can be mixed into salads or used as a garnish with all types of dishes. Nasturtium helps to control insects (particularly aphis) on adjacent plants.

Tropaeolum tuberosum Grown as a tuber crop in the Andes, this vigorous climber produces large, long, edible underground tubers.

OREGANO & MARJORAM (Origanum sp.) Family: Lamiaceae

Hardiness: Very hardy

AT A GLANCE

Habit: Spreading or climbing annual or perennial herbs

Number of Species: Up to 20 species

Growth Rate: Generally rapid PAGE 133

Natural Habitat: Europe (mainly the Mediterranean)

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Hardiness: Hardy Habit: Small shrubs, occasionally creeping Growth Rate: Fast CULTURE ● Prefers well drained soil ● Responds to watering in dry hot

conditions

● Responds to feeding ● Regular pruning is essential to

keep lush growth (which is best for harvesting)

● Propagate by cuttings, layering, or

by division for creeping varieties

HERB VARIETIES

SWEET MARJORAM (Origanum marjorana) A warm weather plant, to 30 cm tall, yellow to grey green leaves, tiny white flowers, sweeter flavour than other origanums. Popular culinary herb. In cold climates, often grown from seed, sown early spring, as an annual.

POT MARJORAM (Origanum onites) A shrub to 0.5 m tall with finer more wiry stems than other origanums, pale green leaves and pink flowers.

GOLDEN MARJORAM (Origanum vulgare ‘Aureum’) A clump forming plant to 0.4 m tall with PAGE 134

creeping (suckering) stems, golden green foliage, and pink flowers.

WILD MARJORAM (Origanum vulgare) A semi-hardy perennial to 0.2 m tall. Grows best in a warm, sunny position in well drained fertile soil. Frost tender. Propagated by seed or cuttings. Leaves are used fresh or dried in savoury dishes (particularly pasta, meats and vegetables). Closely related to oregano.

OREGANO (Origanum vulgare ‘Viride’) Stronger flavour or scent in the foliage, white flowers, to 0.6 m tall, leaves a pale to white green colour and slightly hairy. Flowers can produce a reddishbrown to purple dye that is not very durable. It should be pruned before flowering to keep in shape and can be propagated by seed, cuttings or root division. Culinary Use: Oregano leaves can be eaten fresh or dried. Fresh oregano and basil can be added when making homemade tomato sauce.

ORRIS ROOT

(Iris sp.)

Family: Iridaceae AT A GLANCE Number of Species: Approx. 200 species of Iris (Iris germanica and I. pallida have fragrant rhizomes and are used as herbs), Iris germanica var. florentina is the main source of Orris root

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Natural Habitat: Varied Hardiness: Generally hardy

Number of Species: 3 species, one of which P. crispum is grown widely as a herb

Habit: Clump-forming

Natural Habitat: Europe and West Asia

Growth Rate: Fast in moist, fertile soils

Hardiness: Hardy

CULTURE

Habit: Annual or biennial clump

● Drained but moist soil

Growth Rate: Very fast

● Responds to feeding

CULTURE

● Remove dead flowers and foliage as

it dies back seasonally

● Lift rhizomes when dormant, dry and

grind to powder to get orris root

● Propagate by division

HERB VARIETIES

Iris germanica var. florentina This is the best variety to use as orris root; a hardy iris, from temperate climates, preferring a moist by drained fertile soil. Propagated easily by division of the clump over winter. Roots are peeled, chopped, dried and then turned into a fine powder for use in potpourri. Orris root powder is a fixative, helping the scents of other plants remain in the potpourri for a longer period.

PARSLEY

(Petroselinum crispum)

Family: Apiaceae AT A GLANCE

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● Full sunlight ● Good drainage ● Fertile or well fertilized soil ● Avoid excessive wet or dry ● Propagate by seed in spring (cool

climates) or autumn (hot climates)

● Seed often started in a greenhouse

because it can be slow to start

HERB VARIETIES P. crispum is the only species cultivated, though it has been known under a variety of other names including P. hortense, P. tuberosum and P. sativum. Parsley normally lives for two seasons. In temperate climates it prefers a sunny, moist position and responds to regular feeding and good drainage. In warmer climates the roots are best mulched and good light, but indirect sunlight, would be preferred. Leaves are used as a garnish or chopped and added to cooked foods

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at the end of the cooking process too much heat destroys the flavour. Foliage is handled like mint. Seed heads are harvested on maturity, laid on a dry surface to dry, then beaten or thrashed to obtain the seed. Roots are occasionally dug (autumn of second year) and dried.

ROSEMARY (Rosmarinus sp.) Family: Lamiaceae AT A GLANCE Number of Species: 3 Natural Habitat: Mediterranean

Excellent in a large pot so long as the potting mix is good quality and plants are regularly fed. Harvest leaves by pulling them downwards off the central stem removing the complete leaf stalk.

Hardiness: Medium hardiness

CURLED PARSLEY (Petroselinum crispum var. crispum)

CULTURE

This is the most commonly grown parsley because of its attractive curly foliage. The flavour is not as strong as Italian parsley. used fresh, dried or dehydrated in foods, or as a garnish

ITALIAN or PLAIN LEAF PARSLEY (Petroselinum crispum var. neopolitanum) A stronger flavoured foliage makes this more favoured by chefs. As with any parsley, it is rich in vitamin A and C, and has a variety of medicinal uses (parsley should not be overeaten during pregnancy though). It has flat, not so curly, leaves. Usually considered to have more flavour than other types.

HAMBURG or TURNIP ROOTED PARSLEY (Petroselinum crispum var. tuberosum) Less common. Has an enlarged edible root.

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Habit: Small woody shrubs Growth Rate: Medium

● Prefers full sun ● Requires sandy but fertile soil ● Tolerates very cold temperatures but

may not tolerate excessive heat

● Propagates easily, but sometimes

slowly from cuttings

Culinary Use: Leaves are used fresh or dried in cooking (e.g. meats and vegetables), in herb butters, vinegars and jams. They add sweeter flavour to fruit cups, punches and marinating sauces. HERB VARIETIES

ROSEMARY (Rosmarinus officinalis) A woody shrub to 1 m tall, flower colour and size can vary. Rosemary oil is mainly produced in Spain and Tunisia. Extracted oil is used in perfumes.

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PROSTRATE ROSEMARY (Rosmarinus officinalis ‘Prostratus’) Low growing form of rosemary to 0.3 m tall and 1 m diameter. Leaves are shorter and narrower than standard rosemary, flowers are pale blue. Requires a well-drained position, not overly shaded. Rosmarinus officinalis ‘Blue Lagoon’ A vigorous cultivar with deep rich blue flowers.

ROSE (Rosa sp.) Family: Rosaceae AT A GLANCE Number of Species: Around 100 species and more than 20,000 cultivars, many being hybrids Natural Habitat: Varied, mainly temperate climates, moist, drained soils Hardiness: Hardy to very hardy Habit: Low to tall shrubs and climbers Growth Rate: Medium to fast CULTURE ● Well-drained but moist, fertile soil ● Full or filtered sun ● Annual pruning is important ● Aphids, black spot and some other

problems need controlling

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● Propagate by cuttings or budding

and grafting

HERB VARIETIES Most roses are hardy and will grow across a wide range of climates from cold (snow prone) areas to warm subtropical climates. In cool climates they are normally pruned annually very hard (removing more than 70%). In warm climates, pruning should be light (1020% annually) and a couple of times each year. In heavy clay soils, plant roses on a mound to improve drainage. In light sandy soils mulching is very important to keep the roots moist and cool over summer. In hot areas, mulch to protect shallow roots. Regular feeding is essential for roses to produce well. They will respond to generous annual applications of wellrotted manure. Planting garlic at the base of roses is said to deter black spot and aphids (though you may need a lot of plants to have an impact). Bad infestations of aphids can be controlled naturally with pyrethrum spray (when bees are not active) or a spray of soapy water. The chance of disease is reduced by planting in a sunny, airy position. Avoid planting near doorways, paths, walls, or too close to other plants. Some rose species are important sources of oils for perfumes. Rose petals are widely used in potpourri, and rose hips are an excellent source of vitamin C. In general, old-fashioned “Musk Roses” are all scented. There are both scented

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and nonscented varieties amongst the hybrid teas, floribundas, climbers and miniatures.

● Queen Elizabeth

Hybrid Teas

● Prima Ballerina

These are the best for cut flowers, producing large, well-formed flowers on strong stems. The plants are generally less attractive, more woody and taller than the floribundas. The following hybrid tea varieties are scented:

● Red Devil

● Adolf Horstman ● Baronne de Rothschild ● Bettina ● Blue Moon ● Champion ● Crimson Glory ● Dekorat ● Dutch Gold ● Ena Harkness ● Ernest H. Morse ● Mister Lincoln ● My Choice ● Ophelia ● Papa Meilland ● Paradise ● Peace ● Pink Peace PAGE 138

● Red Star

● Red Lion ● Shot Silk ● Silver Lining ● Sutter’s Gold ● Tenerife ● Troika ● Typhoo Tea ● Typhoon ● Wendy Cussons ● Whisky Mac

Floribundas When compared with hybrid teas, floribundas are smaller and bushier plants, with larger bunches of smaller flowers occurring for longer periods. Scented hybrid teas include: ● Apricot Nectar ● Arthur Bell ● Fragrant Delight ● Golden Slippers ● Lili Marlene

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● Margaret Merril

● Aloha

● Orange Sensation

● Compassion

● Pernille Poulsen

● Copenhagen

● Pineapple Doll

● Crimson Glory Climber

● Rosemary Rose

● Ena Harkness Climber

● Scented Air

● Etiole De Hollande Climber

● Scherzo

● Golden Showers

● Woburn Abbey

● Guinee

● Yesterday

● Maigold

● Miniatures

● Mermaid

● The following miniature roses are

● Mme Alfred Carriere

scented:

● Baby Faurax ● Baby Masquerade ● Lavender Lace ● Little Flirt ● Magic Carousel ● Rise ‘n’ shine ● Sweet Fairy ● Yellow Doll

Climbers The following climbing roses are fragrant: ● Albertine

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● Mme Gregoire Staechelin ● New Dawn ● Rosy Mantle ● Shot Silk Climber ● Sympathie ● The Garland ● Zephrine Drouhin

Fragrant Foliage Rosa eglanteria (syn. R. rubiginosa) is an exceptional rose having fragrant apple scented foliage. Though attractive, the flowers only occur for a short time in summer. As such it is grown more for the dark green scented leaves, which can be dried and added to potpourri.

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SAGE (Salvia sp.) Family: Lamiaceae AT A GLANCE Number of Species: Over 750 species Natural Habitat: Varied Hardiness: Generally hardy Habit: Variable, low to tall shrubs Growth Rate: Medium to very fast CULTURE ● Full or lightly filtered sun ● Avoid waterlogged soils ● Prefer moist, fertile but well drained

soil

● Tolerate dry periods once

established

● Prune hard after flowering to

rejuvenate

● Only one cut should be done in the

first year, but two or three each year after that

● Plants become increasingly woody

and are usually replaced after 5 to 6 years

● Propagate by seed or cuttings

HERB VARIETIES

BLUE SAGE (Salvia clevelandii) Shrub to 0.8 metres tall, grey green PAGE 140

elliptic/oblong leaves to 3 cm long. Blue flowers form in head at end of branches. Can be substituted in cooking for Salvia officinalis. Native to western North America, it requires full sun and excellent drainage. Virtually no watering should be done over summer once it is established.

PINEAPPLE SCENTED SAGE (Salvia elegans) A shrub to 1 metre tall, ovate 35 cm long leaves, light green and soft foliage, red/scarlet flowers to 4 cm long, suckering, invasive, propagated by cuttings or division. Flowers and leaves dried and used in potpourri, foliage can be used as a pineapple flavouring in cooking.

MEXICAN SAGE (Salvia leucantha) Very hardy and long-lived sage to 1.5 m tall, white woolly stems, narrow leaves, and purple velvet like flowers. Flowers are harvested and dried when just opening for use in potpourri or dry arrangements. Tolerates semi shade and periods of dryness. Requires annual pruning to keep compact.

COMMON SAGE or GARDEN SAGE (Salvia officinalis) A woody perennial shrub to 0.7m tall in ideal conditions, though often smaller. Oblong leaves between 2 and 6 cm, flowers violet blue, pink or white. Susceptible to extremes of cold, heat, wind or moisture, it prefers full sun and a well-drained but moist soil. Once established, it can be drought tolerant. Propagated by seed or cuttings.

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Leaves are used in cooking, dried or fresh, as savoury stuffing, to flavour meats, vegetables, butters, vinegars etc. Extracted oil is used in perfumes. Several varieties are available, some with variegated or coloured foliage.

DALMATIAN WHITE SAGE (Salvia officinalis var. dalmatia) Grown commercially in the USA as a spice for flavouring sausages, soups, and some canned foods. Fresh leaves are used in herb vinegars, cheeses, liqueurs and pickles and the oil is used in mouthwashes, gargles & perfumery. The finest sages come from Dalmatia in Greece. Though sage can be grown from seed, commercial plantings are cutting grown from selected varieties. Cuttings are planted in spring after the worst of the frosts. A low nitrogen soil produces the best oil percentages in the leaf, hence high phosphorus & potassium fertilisers are generally preferred. Harvest should be done when there are no flowers present. Cut foliage can be left to 50% sun dry before picking up and taking for drying. It is possible to harvest two or three times per season.

PURPLE LEAVED SAGE (Salvia officinalis ‘Purpurea’) Grows to 0.7 m with dark purple leaves and light mauve flowers. Often not as hardy as the standard form of S. officinalis. May die partly or fully over a cold winter. Leaves can be used in cooking and are particularly useful for garnishes due to the unique colour.

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VARIEGATED SAGE (Salvia officinalis ‘Variegata’) Golden variegated leaf form, slightly smaller and less vigorous than other forms of Salvia officinalis.

CLARY SAGE (Salvia sclarea) Upright growing biennial or perennial plant to 0.8 metres tall, leaves are simple and a broad ovate shape, up to 20 cm long. Dried leaves can be used as a fixative in potpourri. Extracted oil is used both in cooking as a flavouring and in medicines.

SAFFRON (Crocus sp.) Family: Iridaceae AT A GLANCE Number of Species: The genus has about 85 species. Natural Habitat: Greece and Western Asia Habit: Small, autumn flowering crop CULTURE ● Well drained, fertile, friable soil ● Grown from 1-3cm small deciduous

bulb, also called corms

● Grown as a good border plant in an

herb garden

HERB VARIETIES

SAFFRON CROCUS (Crocus sativus)

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A small plant that springs to life in summer/autumn with shiny, narrow grass like leaves. Open trumpet shaped lavender flowers having bright orange stigma. The orange stigma when dried constitute of saffron. Culinary Use: Dried stigma have a strong honey like aroma and a pungent, bitter-sweet honey flavour. It is used in flavouring and colouring rice, curries, sauces, creams, custards, cakes, confectionary soups. Just a few stands of saffron added in little warm water colours the whole dish. If added too much the taste will be overpowering and somewhat medicinal.

SANTOLINA (Santolina sp.) Family: Asteraceae

● Propagate easily from cuttings

HERB VARIETIES

COTTON LAVENDER (Santolina chamaecyparissus) A small silvergrey foliage, woody shrub to 0.6 m tall. Hardy and drought resistant, preferring sun and good drainage, but highly adaptable, particularly in temperate climates. Tolerates dry salt infected soils. Mulch to insulate roots in cold climates. Propagates easily from cuttings. Dried flowers are used in potpourri. Plants are excellent for a hedge. A dwarf form is also available.

Santolina rosmarinifolia

AT A GLANCE

Spreading shrub to 0.6 m with fine bluegreen foliage, yellow flowers.

Number of Species: Approximately 8 species

GREEN SANTOLINA (Santolina virens)

Natural Habitat: Mediterranean

Spreading green shrub to 0.5 m tall with yellow flowers.

Hardiness: Hardy Habit: Small shrubs

SAVORY (Satureja sp.)

Growth Rate: Medium to fast

Family: Lamiaceae

CULTURE

AT A GLANCE

● Good drainage, tolerate dry periods ● Protect from severe frost ● Avoid extreme humidity ● Grow well as a hedge plant

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Number of Species: Approximately 30 species Natural Habitat: Varied Hardiness: Medium to hardy Habit: Low or spreading shrubs

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Growth Rate: Medium to fast CULTURE ● Moist, fertile soil ● Full or filtered sun ● Watering is necessary over dry

periods

● Propagate by division or cuttings or

seed sown directly into final position

Culinary Use: Used in hot and cold bean dishes, lentils meats or in poultry stuffing. Young shoots are good in potato salad. HERB VARIETIES

SUMMER SAVORY (Satureja hortensis) An annual to 0.45 m tall, likes sun and a well-drained, rich organic soil. Propagate by seed. Leaves are used for their peppery flavour particularly with meats and vegetables. To harvest, cut at ground level when flowering starts, and treat like mint.

SCENTED GERANIUMS

(Pelargonium sp. & Geranium sp.) Family: Geraniaceae Most of the group of plants that are commonly called geraniums are in fact Pelargoniums. Members of the genus Geranium are commonly called Cranesbills. These two closely related genera differ in that Pelargoniums have two of the petals larger than the other three while for Geraniums all petals are the same size. AT A GLANCE Number of Species: Approximately 280 species Natural Habitat: Varies but most from Southern Africa Hardiness: Generally hardy Habit: Low to medium shrubs Growth Rate: Generally fast CULTURE ● Prefer full or filtered sunlight,

tolerates some shade

WINTER SAVORY (Satureja montana)

● Prefers moist, fertile soil but many

Dense shrub to 0.5 m tall, clusters of pink or white flowers, foliage used to flavour bean or meat dishes. Dried leaves eaten to aid digestion. Cutting stimulates growth, so harvest twice or more each year.

● Protect from frost

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tolerate poorer conditions

● Prune hard after danger of cold

weather

● Propagate by cuttings any time

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HERB VARIETIES Scented geraniums are fascinating herbs, offering hundreds of different types with scents varying from lemon or mint to nutmeg or coconut. They crossbreed readily, and classification is incomplete and varies according to which source you refer to. Scented pelargoniums and geraniums are edible and can be used in cooking to flavour various foods (particularly cakes, biscuits, confectionary and sweets). They are also valuable in herb crafts, used dry or fresh.

ROSE SCENTED GERANIUM (Pelargonium capitatum) To 0.6 m, spreading, foliage covered with white hairs, lobed leaves 35 cm, pink flowers.

LEMON SCENTED GERANIUM (Pelargonium crispum) Small stiff crinkled leaves 23 cm, pale mauve/purple flowers, strong lemon scent, excellent hedge plant, does well in full sun, several varieties available: ● Green leaved form can grow 0.5 to

0.9 m tall

● Yellow variegated leaf form grows

much smaller

A shrub to 1 m tall, less likely to spread than some others, greygreen foliage, tiny rose-pink flowers, grows in semishade to shade, grown commercially to produce “geranoil”.

COCONUT PELARGONUM (Pelargonium grossularioides) Reddish stems, spreading low shrub (to 20 cm), small rich pink flowers, grows in sun or shade and tolerates wet soils.

LIME SCENTED PELARGONUM (Pelargonium x nervosum) A light green upright bush to 1.0m or more tall, small 23 cm crinkled leaves with rich lime scent, white flowers; grows well as a topiary standard.

APPLE SCENTED PELARGONUM (Pelargonium odoratissimum) Spreading plant to 0.7 m tall, soft green apple scented foliage, white flowers with red streaks, best in full sun but tolerates some shade.

OAK LEAF or CINNAMON GERANIUM (Pelargonium quercifolium) A sprawling shrub to 2 m wide with hairy rough leaves and pinkwhite flowers, foliage can develop reddish tones in cold weather.

ROSE SCENTED GERANIUM (Pelargonium graveolens)

ROSE SCENTED GERANIUM (Pelargonium radens)

Like P. capitatum and several others, P. graveolens is also known as rose-scented geranium or simply rose geranium. This is the variety that is used in the production of geranium essential oil.

Upright shrub to 1 m tall, deeply divided leaves, small pink flowers, perhaps the best of the rose scented species.

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PEPPERMINT SCENTED GERANIUM (Pelargonium tomentosum) A low soft grey green foliage shrub to 2 m diameter and 1.5 m tall, white flowers with red streaks, best in filtered sunlight or shade, avoid humid climates and frost.

HERB ROBERT (Geranium robertianum) Clump forming annual to 20 cm tall and 40 cm diameter, self-seeds readily becoming a weed (but an attractive one). Stems and sometimes leaves can have tones of red, flowers are pink. The dried plant is used in some herbal medicines.

SORREL or DOCK (Rumex sp.)

Family: Polygonaceae

● Prefer moist soil ● Tolerates poor conditions ● Propagate by seed or division for

creeping types

HERB VARIETIES

GARDEN SORREL (R. acetosa) A hardy, creeping plant to 0.5 m or more tall, which can become a weed if uncontrolled. Grows best in semi shade and a fertile, moist soil. Propagate by division in spring. Leaves have both culinary and medicinal uses.

FRENCH SORREL (R. scutatus) Forms a spreading clump to 0.5 m tall (often less), green flowers change to pinkred, edible leaves are a sour lemon flavour (smaller leaves than R. acetosa).

AT A GLANCE

SOAPWORT (Saponaria sp.)

Number of Species: Over 100 species

Family: Caryophyllaceae

Natural Habitat: Varied

AT A GLANCE

Hardiness: Very hardy

Number of Species: Approximately 30 species

Habit: Herbs Growth Rate: Rapid, many are weeds CULTURE

Natural Habitat: Mainly Mediterranean Hardiness: Hardy

● Shade or filtered sunlight

Habit: Annual, biennial or perennial herbs

● Can be invasive, so best grown in a

Growth Rate: Fast

tub or confined garden bed and not allowed to flower

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CULTURE

Natural Habitat: Native to South America

● Tolerates poor soils and shade

Hardiness: Medium to Hardy

● Prefers good drainage

Habit: Perennial bush

● Some species can become weeds

CULTURE

● Water in dry weather

● Require rich, loose, well-drained soil

● Prune off old flower heads once

● Propagation by seed is poor and

● Propagate by seed or (some types)

● Other methods of propagation are

they start to die by division

HERB VARIETIES

SOAPWORT (Saponaria officinalis) A small, spreading plant to 0.5 m tall with pink scented flowers in summer and autumn. Foliage dies back to roots over cold weather and regrows in spring. Leaves were in the past used for washing both the body, and as a tea for washing clothes.

PROSTRATE SOAPWORT (Saponaria ocymoides) Creeping plant to 0.2 m tall, green leaves, sweet scented purplepink flowers. This plant often dies after flowering.

STEVIA (Stevia sp.) Family: Asteraceae AT A GLANCE Number of Species: More than 150 species, but only 1 with the significant sweeting properties.

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highly variable

by cuttings, and rhizome division

● Has poor tolerance to waterlogged

conditions

● Weed control is essential to remove

competition

HERB VARIETIES

STEVIA (Stevia rebaudiana) Perennial bush that can grow up to 60-100cm high, bearing upright stems with side shoots. Leaves 3-8cm long with fine serrated margins. Cuttings are found to most successful propagation method. Stevia is climatically suited to sub-tropical and temperate conditions, but also in tropical (where it prefers shade) and cool climate (with winter protection). A pH of 5-7 is preferred but alkaline soil should be avoided. Regular watering is done during dry periods. In cool climate (with severe winter) only one harvest is possible whereas in warmer climates it can be more than one. It is advantageous to nip off the flower buds, as soon as the plants flower, the leaf production slows down. Id buds are allowed to flower the leaves

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take a slightly bitter taste. But still can be eaten. Regular picking helps make plant bushier. Culinary Use: It is almost calorie free sweetener. Primary use as a sweetener is to enhance the palatability of food and drinks. An infusion of fresh or dried leaves in hot or cold beverages or added to other herb teas. Commercial food manufactures use it products such as salad dressings, sauces, chutneys, ice-creams, desserts and lollies. In baking or cooking recipes ½ cup of sugar can be replaced by 6 large finely chopped leaves.

● Virus diseases carried by aphis can

be devastating

● Propagate from runners taken from

healthy plants

HERB VARIETIES

ALPINE STRAWBERRY (Fragaria vesca ‘Semperflorens’) A small perennial 0.2 m tall, small serrated leaves, and small but very tasty strawberry fruits during warm weather. Needs moist, fertile soil to do best. Prefers filtered but bright light. Ideal as a border plant.

STRAWBERRY (Fragaria sp.)

COMMERCIAL VARIETIES

Family: Rosaceae

A wide range of large fruiting commercial varieties are grown today. These are generally less hardy than the Alpine strawberry, but they do give heavier fruit crops.

AT A GLANCE Number of Species: Approximately 12 species Natural Habitat: Generally woodland Hardiness: Hardy Habit: Clump

SWEET FLAG

(Acorus calamus) Family: Acoraceae

Growth Rate: Fast

Natural Habitat: Probably indigenous to Asia

CULTURE

Hardiness: Hardy

● Require good drainage, moist and

fertile soil.

● Fruit needs protection from bird,

slugs and other pests.

● Weed control is essential to

remove competition and achieve healthy growth.

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Habit: clumps Growth Rate: Slow CULTURE ● A deciduous hardy perennial,

prefers sunny or partial shade

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● Grows in moist soil in wet open or

shallow water areas

● Propagate by rhizomes or divisions

Hardy perennial growing in damp spots. Sword shaped leaves stand upright to 1.2m height from thick fibrous roots. While all parts are sweet and aromatic, the inner section of stalk has orange like taste. Culinary use: Fresh leaves can be used in an infusion with milk for custards, puddings and other desserts similar to adding a vanilla pod. Young leaf buds can be aged to salads. The roots has a pungent aroma, the flavour being a mixture similar to cinnamon, nutmeg and ginger with bitter after taste used to flavour meat dishes, aromatic vinegars and confectionary. Candied roots used to sweeten the breath.

SWEET WOODRUFF

CULTURE ● Prefers well drained moist soil ● Partial to full shade preferred ● Needs frequent watering in dry

summers.

● Propagate by seed or division

Low spreading perennial herb which grows up to 30cm high. Lanceolate leaves up to 3cm long and small white flowers in loose clusters. When stem and leaves are dried, they are pleasant and sweet scented, reminiscent of vanilla. Harvest the plants when fragrance is strong. Culinary Use: It is used to flavour candies, wine and liqueurs. The leaves can be steeped in milk before making pudding, custard etc. Also used for flavouring cooling drinks, refreshing tea and salads.

(Galium odoratum)

TANSY (Tanacetum vulgare)

Family: Rubiaceae

Family: Asteraceae

Number of Species: Approximately 650 species,

AT A GLANCE

Natural Habitat: Varied, mainly from Europe & Asia Hardiness: Hardy Habit: Low spreading forming clumps Growth Rate: Fast

Number of Species: Approximately 50 species, closely related to the Chrysanthemum genus Natural Habitat: Varied, mainly from Europe & Asia Hardiness: Hardy to very hardy Habit: Small clumps or shrubs Growth Rate: Slow to Medium

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CULTURE ● Avoid overly wet soils ● Tolerates poorer soils but grows

better if fed

● Propagate by seed or root division

Habit: Low shrubs or creepers, usually woody Growth Rate: Medium CULTURE ● Moist soil

HERB VARIETIES

● Extremes of wet or dry are best

COMMON TANSY (Tanacetum vulgare)

● Full or filtered sunlight preferred

A clump forming herb to 1m tall, dying back to the roots in winter to regrow in spring. Very hardy, though best in a drained, fertile soil. It can become invasive, though not as bad as some herbs.

avoided

● Propagate by cuttings or division ● Cut when flowering and air dry ● Flowers and leaves can be

powdered or chopped, discard coarse stems

Flowers can be dried for decoration or potpourri. Foliage can be used as an insect repellent.

● Two or three harvests in a season

Do not take internally.

● Thyme oil is produced commercially

Tanacetum vulgare var. crispum A “crinkled” leaf variety of common tansy, grown for its more attractive appearance.

THYME (Thymus sp.)

can normally be made

from the flowering tops of several thymus varieties, mainly from Spain

HERB VARIETIES

Thymus caespititius

AT A GLANCE

Prostrate, mat forming, flower stems 1.5 to 3cm tall, hairy. Leaves in dense tufts, linear to narrowly oblanceolate, to almost 1cm long. Flowers purplishpink to white.

Number of Species: Up to 400 species

Thymus camphorates

Natural Habitat: Varied, mainly Europe and Western Asia

Small shrub 10 to 25cm high, leaves triangularovate, 24mm long, white underneath. Flowers terminal, about 1cm long, purplish to rose.

Family: Lamiaceae

Hardiness: Generally hardy once established PAGE 149

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VARIEGATED LEMON THYME (Thymus citriodorus ‘Aureus’) Thymus citriodorus = T. pulegioides x T.vulgaris To 0.3 m tall, pink flowers and variegated leaves. Leaves used fresh or dry to add lemon flavour to fish, meats and vegetables. Can be shorter lived than some other thymes.

CARAWAY THYME (Thymus herbabarona) Sub shrub, 4 to 10 cm tall. Leaves ovatelanceolate to 4cm long. Rose coloured flowers. Foliage has caraway scent when crushed.

Thymus praecox Creeping, long, woody stems. Leaves nearly leathery, obovate to nearly orbicular with prominent lateral veins. Flowers purple.

Thymus pulegioides Spreading, bushy shrub 8 to 25cm tall. Leaves ovate, lanceolate or elliptic; veins raised beneath. Flowers typically mauve.

LEMON THYME (Thymus serpyllum) Mat forming, roots form at nodes. Flowers stand erect to 8cm tall. Leaves linear to elliptic. Flowers purple.

GARDEN or COMMON THYME (Thymus vulgaris) A woody shrub, 1230 cm tall. Leaves 3-9 mm long, revolute, tomentose, not PAGE 150

ciliate. Dense, large numbers of flowers, whitish to lilac. A low growing woody plant (to 0.3m tall), becoming relatively hardy once established. Prefers indirect sun, and a well-drained but moist soil (responds to mulching). Water regularly in warm weather. Propagated by cuttings or division. Leaves are used in vinegars, herb butters, herbal teas or to flavour meat or vegetable dishes.

VIETNAMESE CORIANDER (Persicaria odorata)

Family: Polygonaceae A perennial plant grows best in warm and damp conditions, can grow up to 30cm high. The top of the leaf is dark green while the bottom is burgundy red. Prefers full sun and well-drained soil. Fresh leaves can be used in soups, stews, salads, Asian curries and spring rolls. It can be a great substitute for mint and cilantro.

VIETNANESE MINT (Polygonum persicaria)

Family: Polygonaceae AT A GLANCE Number of Species: Approximately 300 species Natural Habitat: Europe, East Asia including China, Japan, Himalayas Hardiness: Medium to hardy

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Habit: Herbaceous perennials or shrubby climbers

Habit: Creeping or clump forming ground covers

Growth Rate: Medium to very fast

Growth Rate: Medium to fast

CULTURE

CULTURE

● Prefers full sun to part shade

● Prefers well-lit position, protected

● Some require protection from winter

● Moist to wet fertile soil

position frost

● Rich moist soil ● Avoid waterlogging or extreme

dryness

● Propagate by division for alpine and

herbaceous species, or cuttings for shrubby climbers

This species often sold as Mentha polygonum in nurseries. A fast-growing perennial to around 1.5m high with lanceolate leaves. It is easy to grow and prefers partial shade, rich soil with high moisture content. The leaves have a hot spicy flavour and are used as a garnish.

VIOLET (Viola odorata) Family: Violaceae AT A GLANCE Number of Species: Approximately 500 species Natural Habitat: Varied, generally temperate climates Hardiness: Medium to hardy

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from extreme heat

● Avoid waterlogging or extreme

dryness

● Propagate by division or

occasionally seed

Culinary Use: Flowers used for making violet syrup, jams and jellies. They are very attractive when candied and used as condiment or cake decoration. HERB VARIETIES

COMMON SCENTED VIOLET (Viola odorata) A small perennial, clump forming plant to 0.2 m tall, with strongly perfumed blueviolet flowers in late winter. Prefers filtered sunlight or part shade but can take full sun in colder temperate climates. Propagate by division. Oil used in perfume, flowers in potpourri.

YARROW (Achillea sp.) Family: Asteraceae AT A GLANCE Number of Species: Approximately 80 species

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Natural Habitat: Varied, temperate climates Hardiness: Often very hardy Habit: Mainly clump forming herbs Growth Rate: Fast CULTURE ● Most soils ● Full or filtered sunlight ● Propagate by seed or division

HERB VARIETIES

MILFOIL or COMMON YARROW (Achillea millefolium) An attractive fern-like, finely divided, green-leaved plant growing up to 0.5 m tall in temperate climates. Yarrow can become invasive and is considered drought tolerant and disease resistant. It prefers full sun, growth becoming weaker in the shade. Propagation by seed or division. Dried flowers are used in potpourri or indoor flower arrangements. Yarrow was used by the American Indians for a wide range of medicinal purposes. Today its main uses are as an ornamental flower, a dried flower, a dye plant or as a companion plant to attract wasps and lady birds which move on to attack and kill garden pests.

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Achillea herba-rota Tuft forming plant to 20 cm tall, white flowers, attractively strong scented foliage.

SWEET YARROW (Achillea ageratum) A perennial plant to 0.6m high, yellow to pale yellow flowers from mid-summer to early autumn. Leaves can be either cooked or eaten raw. They can be used in soups, stews and as a substitute in potato salad. The aromatic leaves are used as a tea substitute.

WOOLLY YARROW (Achillea tomentosa) Mat forming plant to 30 cm tall, woolly foliage, yellow flowers can be dried for potpourri or flower arrangements.

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