Herbs for Health 1527581268, 9781527581265

Citation preview

Herbs for Health

Herbs for Health By

Pouneh Pouramini and Goetz Hensel

Herbs for Health By Pouneh Pouramini and Goetz Hensel This book first published 2022 Cambridge Scholars Publishing Lady Stephenson Library, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE6 2PA, UK British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Copyright © 2022 by Pouneh Pouramini and Goetz Hensel All rights for this book reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner. ISBN (10): 1-5275-8126-8 ISBN (13): 978-1-5275-8126-5

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TABLE OF CONTENTS PREFACE CHAPTER ONE Secondary Metabolites of Medicinal Plants 1.1. What are Secondary Metabolites?.............................................1 1.1.1.

Primary Metabolites....................................................1

1.1.2.

Secondary Metabolites................................................1

1.2. Classification of Secondary Metabolites in Medicinal Plants...1 1.3. Phenols.......................................................................................2 1.4. Polyphenols...............................................................................2 1.4.1.

Tannins........................................................................3

1.4.2.

Flavonoids...................................................................3

1.4.3.

Anthocyanins...............................................................4

1.5. Glycosides.................................................................................4 1.6. Terpenes or Terpenoids.............................................................5 1.6.1.

Essential Oils...............................................................5

1.6.2.

Resins..........................................................................6

1.6.3.

Oleoresins....................................................................6

1.6.4.

Bitter Compounds........................................................7

1.7. Alkaloids....................................................................................7 1.8. Saponins.....................................................................................7 References..........................................................................................9

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CHAPTER TWO Herbal Temperaments 2.1. What are the Temperaments? .................................................12 2.2. The Four Elements of Nature and their Relation to the Temperaments.........................................................................12 2.3. The Temperaments in Taste....................................................13 2.4. The Temperaments in Medicinal Plants..................................14 2.4.1.

Alkaloids Group Temperaments...............................14

2.4.2.

Phenolic Compounds Group Temperaments.............14

2.4.3.

Terpenes or Terpenoids Group Temperaments.........14

References........................................................................................16 CHAPTER THREE Herbal Uses and Products 3.1. Herbal Tea.................................................................................18 3.2. Herbal Water or Herbal Beverages...........................................18 3.3. Tinctures...................................................................................19 3.4. Herbal Syrups............................................................................19 3.5. Herbal Medicine........................................................................20 References........................................................................................22 CHAPTER FOUR An Introduction to Important and Useful Herbs 4.1. Aconite, Monkshood.................................................................24 4.2. Adonis, Pheasant’s Eye...........................................................26

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4.3. Agrimony, Agrimonia.............................................................28 4.4. Ajowan, Ajwan........................................................................30 4.5. Alfalfa......................................................................................32 4.6. Almond....................................................................................35 4.7. Aloe, Aloe Vera.......................................................................37 4.8. Alyssum, Clasping Pepper Weed............................................40 4.9. Angelica...................................................................................42 4.10. Anise........................................................................................45 4.11. Apple.......................................................................................47 4.12. Apricot.....................................................................................48 4.13. Arnica, Mountain Tobacco......................................................49 4.14. Artichoke.................................................................................52 4.15. Asafoetida, Stinking Asa, Gum Asafoetida.............................54 4.16. Asian Pigeon Wings, Butterfly Pea.........................................55 4.17. Ash, Manna Ash......................................................................58 4.18. Asparagus................................................................................60 4.19. Avocado, Avocat.....................................................................61 4.20. Balloon Vine............................................................................63 4.21. Banana.....................................................................................66 4.22. Barberry, Berberis...................................................................67 4.23. Barley.......................................................................................69 4.24. Basil.........................................................................................71 4.25. Bastard Teak, Bengal Kino, Sacred Tree................................74

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4.26. Bean, Common Bean...............................................................77 4.27. Bearberry, Uva-Ursi................................................................79 4.28. Belladonna...............................................................................81 4.29. Bergamot.................................................................................84 4.30. Bilberry, Blueberry..................................................................85 4.31. Birch........................................................................................87 4.32. Bistort......................................................................................89 4.33. Black Bryony...........................................................................91 4.34. Black Cohosh...........................................................................93 4.35. Black Cumin............................................................................95 4.36. Black Nightshade.....................................................................97 4.37. Blackberry...............................................................................99 4.38. Borage....................................................................................100 4.39. Broad Beans, Fava Beans......................................................103 4.40. Brooklime, Beccabunga.........................................................105 4.41. Buckbean, Bogbean, Marsh Trefoil.......................................107 4.42. Buckthorn, Common Buckthorn............................................109 4.43. Buckwheat, Common Buckwheat.........................................111 4.44. Burdock.................................................................................114 4.45. Burnet, Salad Burnet..............................................................116 4.46. Butcher's Broom....................................................................118 4.47. Butterbur, Common Butterbur, White Butterbur…………...119 4.48. Cabbage.................................................................................121

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4.49. Cacao, Cacao Tree.................................................................123 4.50. Calendula, Pot Marigold........................................................125 4.51. Caltrops, Land Caltrops.........................................................128 4.52. Camphor, Camphor Tree.......................................................129 4.53. Caper, Caper Bush, Common Caper.....................................131 4.54. Capsicum, Chili Pepper, Red Pepper, Cayenne Pepper........133 4.55. Caraway.................................................................................134 4.56. Cardamom, African Cardamom, Black or Brown Cardamom.............................................................................136 4.57. Carob.....................................................................................138 4.58. Carrot, Wild Carrot................................................................140 4.59. Castor Oil Plant ....................................................................142 4.60. Catalonian Jasmine, Spanish Jasmine...................................144 4.61. Catmint, Catnip......................................................................146 4.62. Celandine, Greater Celandine................................................148 4.63. Celery.....................................................................................151 4.64. Centaury.................................................................................154 4.65. Ceylon Leadwort, White Leadwort, Chitraka.......................157 4.66. Chaff Flower..........................................................................159 4.67. Chamomile, Wild Chamomile, German Chamomile…...….161 4.68. Chebulic Myrobalan, Haritaki...............................................164 4.69. Cherry, Sweet Cherry............................................................166 4.70. Chestnut.................................................................................167

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4.71. Chickpea................................................................................170 4.72. Chicory, Succory...................................................................171 4.73. Chinaberry.............................................................................174 4.74. Christ Thorn, Garland Thorn.................................................177 4.75. Christmas Rose, Black Hellebore..........................................179 4.76. Cinnamon...............................................................................181 4.77. Clove......................................................................................183 4.78. Clubmoss...............................................................................185 4.79. Cluster Fig.............................................................................187 4.80. Cocaine Tree..........................................................................189 4.81. Coconut..................................................................................191 4.82. Coffee, Coffee Beans.............................................................193 4.83. Colchicum, Wild Saffron.......................................................196 4.84. Colocynthis, Colocynth.........................................................197 4.85. Coltsfoot, Farfara...................................................................199 4.86. Columbine.............................................................................201 4.87. Comfrey, Common Comfrey.................................................203 4.88. Conium, Poison Hemlock, Hemlock.....................................206 4.89. Cordia, Assyrian Plum...........................................................208 4.90. Coriander...............................................................................210 4.91. Cornelian Cherry...................................................................212 4.92. Costmary................................................................................215 4.93. Couch Grass, Common Couch..............................................217

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4.94. Cowberry, Lingonberry.........................................................219 4.95. Cowslip..................................................................................221 4.96. Cranberry...............................................................................223 4.97. Croton Seeds, Purging Croton...............................................224 4.98. Cuckoopint.............................................................................226 4.99. Cucumber...............................................................................228 4.100.

Cumin..............................................................................229

4.101.

Curcuma, Turmeric..........................................................232

4.102.

Damask Rose...................................................................234

4.103.

Dandelion.........................................................................237

4.104.

Date Palm.........................................................................239

4.105.

Dead Nettle, White Dead Nettle......................................241

4.106.

Devil's Claw.....................................................................242

4.107. Digitalis, Purple Foxglove..................................................243 4.108. Dill......................................................................................244 4.109. Dodder, Common Dodder, Cuscuta....................................246 4.110. Dog Rose, Rose Hip...........................................................249 4.111. Dorema, Ammoniacum, Gum Ammoniac..........................251 4.112. Drumstick Tree, Moringa...................................................252 4.113. Ecballium, Squirting Cucumber.........................................255 4.114. Eggplant, Aubergine...........................................................256 4.115. Elder, Dwarf Elder, European Elderberry..........................258 4.116. Elecampane, Inula...............................................................262

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4.117. Ergot of Rye........................................................................264 4.118. Eucalyptus, Blue Gum Tree................................................266 4.119. European Pennyroyal, Pennyroyal......................................268 4.120. Evening Primrose................................................................270 4.121. Fennel.................................................................................272 4.122. Fenugreek...........................................................................274 4.123. Fig.......................................................................................277 4.124. Flixweed.............................................................................278 4.125. Fragrant Screw Pine............................................................280 4.126. Frangula, Alder Buckthorn.................................................283 4.127. French Tamarisk.................................................................284 4.128. Fumitory.............................................................................286 4.129. Galangal, Greater Galangal.................................................288 4.130. Galbanum............................................................................290 4.131. Garden Cress.......................................................................292 4.132. Garlic..................................................................................294 4.133. Garlic Mustard....................................................................296 4.134. Gentian, Yellow Gentian....................................................298 4.135. Geranium Rosat, Rose-Scented Geranium.........................300 4.136. Ginger.................................................................................302 4.137. Ginkgo................................................................................304 4.138. Ginseng...............................................................................307 4.139. Goat's Rue...........................................................................309

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4.140. Golden Root, Arctic Root, Roseroot, Rhodiola……...…...311 4.141. Goldenseal..........................................................................313 4.142. Gooseberry..........................................................................314 4.143. Gotu Kola............................................................................316 4.144. Grape, Grape Vine..............................................................318 4.145. Grapefruit............................................................................320 4.146. Green Chiretta.....................................................................322 4.147. Gum Arabic, Gum Acacia..................................................324 4.148. Hairy Tea, Betony, Wood Betony......................................326 4.149. Harmel................................................................................328 4.150. Hawthorn............................................................................330 4.151. Hazelnut, Hazelnut Kernels, Common Hazel.....................332 4.152. Heart-leaved Moonseed, Guduchi, Gulancha Tinospora....334 4.153. Hedge Hyssop.....................................................................336 4.154. Hedge Nettle, Purple Betony, Wood Betony......................338 4.155. Hemp...................................................................................340 4.156. Henbane..............................................................................342 4.157. Henna, Camphire................................................................345 4.158. Holly, Mountain Holly........................................................346 4.159. Holy Thistle, Blessed Thistle..............................................347 4.160. Hops....................................................................................349 4.161. Horehound Marrubium.......................................................351 4.162. Horseradish, Scurvygrass...................................................353

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4.163. Horsetail Plant....................................................................355 4.164. Hyssop................................................................................357 4.165. Iceland Moss.......................................................................360 4.166. Indian Abutilon...................................................................362 4.167. Indian Bael, Bael, Bengal Quince.......................................364 4.168. Indian Bdellium Tree, Guggul, Mukul Myrrh Tree…...….366 4.169. Indian Gooseberry...............................................................369 4.170. Indigo Plant.........................................................................371 4.171. Ivy.......................................................................................373 4.172. Java Plum, Indian Blackberry.............................................375 4.173. Jerusalem Artichoke...........................................................377 4.174. Jujube Tree..........................................................................379 4.175. Juniper.................................................................................381 4.176. Kaki, Persimmon................................................................383 4.177. Kidney Vetch......................................................................385 4.178. Kiwi....................................................................................387 4.179. Knot Grass..........................................................................389 4.180. Lady's Bedstraw, Yellow Bedstraw....................................390 4.181. Lady's Mantle......................................................................392 4.182. Laurel, Laurel Tree, Bay Leaf, Sweet Bay.........................394 4.183. Lavender.............................................................................396 4.184. Lemon, Lime.......................................................................399 4.185. Lemon Balm, Balm, Melissa..............................................401

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4.186. Lemongrass.........................................................................403 4.187. Lentil...................................................................................405 4.188. Lentisk Pistacia, Mastic Tree..............................................406 4.189. Lettuce................................................................................408 4.190. Lily of the Valley................................................................409 4.191. Linden.................................................................................410 4.192. Lingzhi Mushroom.............................................................412 4.193. Linseed, Flax, Flaxseed......................................................414 4.194. Liquorice.............................................................................416 4.195. Lovage................................................................................418 4.196. Lungwort Lichen................................................................420 4.197. Madder................................................................................422 4.198. Mahaleb Cherry, Rock Cherry............................................423 4.199. Maidenhair..........................................................................425 4.200. Maize, Corn........................................................................427 4.201. Malabar Nut........................................................................429 4.202. Male Fern............................................................................431 4.203. Mallow, Common Mallow..................................................432 4.204. Mango, Common Mango....................................................434 4.205. Manne of Alhagi, Manne of Perse, Persian Manna............436 4.206. Maral Root, Leuzea.............................................................438 4.207. Marjoram, Sweet Marjoram, Oregano................................440 4.208. Marshmallow, Althaea, Khatmi..........................................442

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4.209. Meadowsweet, Queen of the Meadow................................444 4.210. Melilot Trifoil, Field Melilot, Yellow Sweet Clover, Yellow Melilot.................................................................................446 4.211. Mexican Prickly Poppy.......................................................448 4.212. Miswak, Toothbrush Tree...................................................450 4.213. Mezereon, Mezereum.........................................................452 4.214. Milk Thistle........................................................................454 4.215. Mint, Spearmint..................................................................456 4.216. Mistletoe.............................................................................458 4.217. Moldavian Balm, Moldavian Dragonhead..........................460 4.218. Momordica, Bitter Melon, Bitter Gourd.............................462 4.219. Monk's Pepper, Chasteberry, Chaste Tree, Agnus Castus..................................................................................465 4.220. Monk's Rhubarb, Sorrel......................................................467 4.221. Motherwort.........................................................................469 4.222. Mugwort.............................................................................472 4.223. Mulberry, Black Mulberry..................................................474 4.224. Mulberry, White Mulberry.................................................476 4.225. Mullein................................................................................477 4.226. Musk-mallow, Bisamstrauch..............................................478 4.227. Musk Willow......................................................................481 4.228. Mustard, Black Mustard.....................................................482 4.229. Mustard, White Mustard, Yellow Mustard.........................484 4.230. Myrtle.................................................................................487

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4.231. Nasturtium, Garden Nasturtium..........................................490 4.232. Neem...................................................................................492 4.233. Nettle...................................................................................495 4.234. Nutmeg...............................................................................498 4.235. Oak......................................................................................500 4.236. Oats.....................................................................................501 4.237. Okra....................................................................................502 4.238. Oleaster, Russian Olive......................................................504 4.239. Olibanum, Persian Turpentine Tree....................................506 4.240. Olive...................................................................................508 4.241. Onion..................................................................................510 4.242. Opium Poppy......................................................................512 4.243. Orange, Sweet Orange........................................................514 4.244. Orchis..................................................................................515 4.245. Papaya.................................................................................517 4.246. Parsley.................................................................................519 4.247. Parsnip................................................................................520 4.248. Passion, Passion Flower......................................................521 4.249. Peanut, Ground Nut............................................................523 4.250. Peach...................................................................................524 4.251. Pear.....................................................................................526 4.252. Peony Rose, Common Peony, Garden Peony.....................528 4.253. Pepper, Black, White, Green, Red......................................530

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4.254. Peppermint..........................................................................533 4.255. Periwinkle...........................................................................535 4.256. Physalis, Alkekengi............................................................537 4.257. Picrorhiza, Kutki.................................................................539 4.258. Pine Cone............................................................................541 4.259. Pineapple.............................................................................542 4.260. Pistachio..............................................................................543 4.261. Plantago, Psyllium, Ispaghula.............................................544 4.262. Plantain...............................................................................546 4.263. Plane Tree, Oriental Plane Leaf Tree, Sycamore Tree.......548 4.264. Plum, Garden Plum.............................................................550 4.265. Poly Germander..................................................................551 4.266. Polypody.............................................................................553 4.267. Pomegranate.......................................................................555 4.268. Potato..................................................................................557 4.269. Pulsatilla, Pasque Flower....................................................559 4.270. Pumpkin..............................................................................561 4.271. Purging Cassia....................................................................562 4.272. Purple Coneflower..............................................................565 4.273. Purslane, Common Purslane...............................................566 4.274. Quince.................................................................................568 4.275. Quinquina, Quinine, Cinchona...........................................570 4.276. Radish.................................................................................572

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4.277. Ramsons, Wild Garlic, Bear’s Garlic.................................574 4.278. Raspberry............................................................................577 4.279. Real Thyme.........................................................................579 4.280. Red Clover..........................................................................581 4.281. Red Poppy, Corn Poppy.....................................................583 4.282. Rhubarb...............................................................................584 4.283. Rice.....................................................................................586 4.284. Rosary Pea, Abrus..............................................................587 4.285. Rose Pepper, Pink Pepper...................................................589 4.286. Rosemary............................................................................591 4.287. Rowan, Mountain Ash........................................................592 4.288. Rue......................................................................................595 4.289. Safflower.............................................................................597 4.290. Saffron................................................................................599 4.291. Sage.....................................................................................601 4.292. Sambac Jasmine, Arabian Jasmine, Motia..........................603 4.293. Sand Cherry........................................................................605 4.294. Sanicle, Wood Sanicle........................................................607 4.295. Savin...................................................................................609 4.296. Savory, Summer Savory.....................................................610 4.297. Saw Palmetto......................................................................611 4.298. Sea Buckthorn, Sea Berry...................................................613 4.299. Self-Heal.............................................................................615

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4.300. Senna, Senna Makkai, Cassia Senna..................................617 4.301. Sesame................................................................................619 4.302. Shepherd’s Purse................................................................621 4.303. Shiitake Mushroom.............................................................623 4.304. Silverweed..........................................................................625 4.305. Soapwort.............................................................................626 4.306. Sour Orange, Bitter Orange................................................627 4.307. Soya, Soybean, Soja...........................................................630 4.308. Spinach...............................................................................632 4.309. St John's Wort, Hypericum.................................................634 4.310. Star Anise............................................................................636 4.311. Stevia, Candy Leaf..............................................................637 4.312. Strawberry...........................................................................639 4.313. Sumac, Tanner’s Sumac.....................................................641 4.314. Sundew...............................................................................643 4.315. Sunflower............................................................................645 4.316. Swertia................................................................................647 4.317. Sweet Flag, Sweet Sedge, Calamus....................................649 4.318. Syrischer Christusdorn, Christ's Thorn Jujube...................652 4.319. Tamarind.............................................................................654 4.320. Tansy...................................................................................657 4.321. Tarragon, Estragon..............................................................658 4.322. Tea......................................................................................659

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4.323. Tea tree...............................................................................662 4.324. Teasel..................................................................................664 4.325. Thorn-Apple, Stramonium..................................................666 4.326. Thyme.................................................................................669 4.327. Toadflax, Yellow Toadflax.................................................671 4.328. Tobacco...............................................................................673 4.329. Tomato................................................................................675 4.330. Trehala Manna, Globe Thistle, Thistle...............................676 4.331. Truffle Mushroom, Black Truffle.......................................678 4.332. Turnip.................................................................................681 4.333. Valerian, Cat’s Valerian.....................................................683 4.334. Vanilla.................................................................................685 4.335. Verbena, Lemon Verbena...................................................687 4.336. Violet, Common Violet, Sweet Violet................................689 4.337. Violet, Three Colour Violet, Wild Pensy, Heartsease........691 4.338. Wall Pepper, Biting Stonecrop, Goldmoss Stonecrop........693 4.339. Walnut.................................................................................695 4.340. Watercress...........................................................................697 4.341. Water-Hyssop, Brahmi.......................................................699 4.342. Wheat..................................................................................701 4.343. White Bryony......................................................................703 4.344. White Hellebore..................................................................705 4.345. White Sandalwood..............................................................707

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4.346. White Water Lily, Water Lily.............................................709 4.347. Wild Lettuce.......................................................................711 4.348. Wild Thyme........................................................................712 4.349. Willow, White Willow........................................................714 4.350. Witch Hazel, Hamamelis....................................................716 4.351. Withania, Ashwagandha, Indian Ginseng...........................718 4.352. Woody Nightshade, Bittersweet.........................................720 4.353. Wormwood.........................................................................721 4.354. Ylang-Ylang.......................................................................724 4.355. Yarrow................................................................................727 4.356. Yellow Goat's Beard...........................................................729 4.357. Yew.....................................................................................731 References......................................................................................733 CHAPTER FIVE Classification of Medicinal Plants.................................................803 5.1. Botanical Classification or Taxonomy of Medicinal Plant Families..........................................................................................803 5.2. System of Plant Classification: Artificial, Natural and Phylogenetic...................................................................................804 References......................................................................................805 INDEX...........................................................................................807

PREFACE Nowadays, a general tendency of society to use medicinal herbs and herbal medicines can be observed. This tendency is due to the diversification of consumer culture and some known side effects of chemical drugs. Besides, there is growing confidence in the use of herbal medicines, as evidenced by the use of essential oils from medicinal plants in a wide range of food, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, and hygiene products. Most consumers who use herbal medicines for self-medication think that nature means health. Due to their limited knowledge about the side effects and how and when medicinal plants can have a beneficial health outcome, they often achieve a negative result. Unintentional use of toxic medicinal plant species, mixing with other herbs, ignorance of contamination or toxicity, use of high doses of the herbs, inappropriate use of the herbs, and interaction with other herbs and their side effects all these are the result of insufficient knowledge about medicinal herbs and herbal medicines. Just remember that of the over 620,000 plant species, more than 95% have not yet been studied as medicinal products. Each plant contains hundreds of ingredients with different effects. The combination of these ingredients in the correct dosage and application makes them a medicinal plant. Today, millions of people worldwide use many herbal remedies in herbal medicine, homoeopathy, mud therapy, and other complementary therapies. This book intends to provide an overview of medicinal plants that a broad public can understand. It describes medicinal herbs from all over the world and their therapeutic effects. The known active ingredient (s) of each plant is (or are) described, including known side effects and their potential interactions with other herbs or medicines, as well as their preferred administration. However, always consult a doctor in the case of a severe illness. Pouneh Pouramini and Goetz Hensel

CHAPTER ONE Secondary Metabolites of Medicinal Plants

1|H E R B S F O R H E A L T H

1.1. What are Secondary Metabolites? In addition to their generic compounds, medicinal plants also have a secondary ingredient; these substances, which include thousands of compounds, are known as secondary metabolites. They are classified according to their characteristics (Pengelly 2004). Current estimates show that well over 300,000 secondary metabolites exist (Ramawat and Mérillon 2013). The active ingredients of medicinal plants include complex chemical compounds produced and stored in various plants' organs and are commonly used as pharmaceutical raw materials (Pengelly 2004). In general, plant metabolites are divided into two categories: 1.

Primary metabolites: “The primary metabolism of a plant produces primary metabolites such as lipids, fats, carbohydrates, and amino acids” (Velu, Palanichamy, and Rajan 2018; M. Thakur et al. 2019) for the biological function of plants. They are the same in every plant species and are produced in green plants by photosynthesis and carbon metabolism (Pengelly 2004).

2.

Secondary metabolites: “The secondary metabolism in plants produces secondary metabolites which are generally crucial for the protective and self-defence functions in plant cells caused by an ecological imbalance or harmful infections” (Velu, Palanichamy, and Rajan 2018). “These compounds are generally in lower quantities than primary metabolites” (Mérillon and Ramawat 2020). These compounds are essential for humans. They are widely “used as pharmaceuticals, agrochemicals, colours, flavours, fragrances, biopesticides, and food additives” (M. Thakur et al. 2019).

1.2. Classification of Secondary Metabolites in Medicinal Plants “The plant-derived secondary metabolites are further classified into different types of natural compounds based on their definite chemical

2|H E R B S F O R H E A L T H

structure in nature” (Velu, Palanichamy, and Rajan 2018). The most important classifications of secondary metabolites include: 1.

Phenols

2.

Polyphenols like tannins, flavonoids, and anthocyanins

3.

Glycosides

4.

Terpenoids or terpenes like essential oils, resins, oleoresins, and bitter compounds

5.

Alkaloids

6.

Saponins

1.3. Phenols “Phenolic compounds are the largest and most important plant secondary metabolite widely available in all kinds of fruits, vegetables, tea leaves, and other green plants” (Velu, Palanichamy, and Rajan 2018). “Phenolic compounds have significant antioxidant, anticancer, antimicrobial, antiseptic, and anti-inflammatory pharmacological properties. Phenolic compounds are active against oxidative stress and in the management of other diseases” (Velu, Palanichamy, and Rajan 2018).

1.4. Polyphenols Polyphenols are natural compounds occurring in plants. They are found to be recognized by their nutritional value, since they may help reduce the risk of chronic diseases and have a positive effect on health. This effect is due to their free radical scavenging capacity, which, among other biological effects, increases antioxidant activity and prevents cellular oxidation. “More than 8,000 polyphenolic compounds from different plants have now been documented” (Velu, Palanichamy, and Rajan 2018).

3|H E R B S F O R H E A L T H

1.4.1.

Tannins

“Tannins are polyphenolic biomolecules with a high molecular weight. They distribute widely in many plant species. Tannins bind and precipitate proteins and various other organic compounds, including amino acids and alkaloids” (Laddha and Kulkarni 2019). “The biological role of many tannins is related to protecting against microbial infection, insect or animal activity” (Sieniawska and Baj 2017). “Apricots, barley, basil, cloves, coffee, dry fruits, grapes, mint, oats, peaches, pine, pomegranates, rice, rosemary, rye, strawberries, tea, and wine are some important sources of tannins, and they can be from bark, fruits, gall, leaves, seeds, and roots. Various reports have shown that tannins possess skin anti-inflammatory, anti-bacterial, anti-viral, anti-microbial, anti-diabetic, anti-hypercholesterolemic, chronic disease, antioxidant, anti-diarrhoea, astringent and anti-carcinogenic activities” (Laddha and Kulkarni 2019). 1.4.2.

Flavonoids

“The flavonoids constitute the largest group of polyphenols with low molecular weight and are considered responsible for the colour and taste of many fruits and vegetables” (Martín et al. 2017). “These compounds occur as yellow and white plant pigments (the Latin flavus means yellow). Rutin was discovered in rue (Ruta graveolens) in 1842 and it later became known as vitamin P (permeability factor). Flavonoids exist in free form and glycoside form. Their functions include protecting plant tissues from damaging UV radiation, acting as antioxidants, enzyme inhibitors, pigments, and light screens. The compounds are involved in photosensitization and energy transfer, the action of plant growth hormones and growth regulators, and the defence against infection” (Pengelly 2004). “Flavonoids play a significant role in plant pollination by producing a beautiful colour over the flowers' petals by filtering the ultraviolet rays that attract the insect for pollination” (Velu, Palanichamy, and Rajan 2018). “More than 9,000 different flavonoids have been described, and around 5,000 of the flavonoids studied have antioxidant activities” (Martín et al. 2017). “The six major subclasses of flavonoids include the flavones (apigenin, luteolin), flavanols (quercetin, myricetin),

4|H E R B S F O R H E A L T H

flavanones (naringenin, hesperidin), catechins or flavanols (epicatechin, gallocatechin), anthocyanidins (cyanidin, pelargonidin), and isoflavones (genistein, daidzein)” (Murti 2017). “The primary essential flavonoids include quercetin, quercitrin, and kaempferol, widely distributed to almost over 70% of the total plant species analysed” (Velu, Palanichamy, and Rajan 2018). “Flavonoids have been used in folk medicine worldwide. The main benefits of flavonoids are their antioxidant, anti-cancer, anti-tumour, anti-inflammatory, anti-allergic, anti-ulcer, anti-hepatoprotective, anti-spasmodic, anti-viral, anti-fungal, and anti-bacterial activities” (Murti 2017). 1.4.3.

Anthocyanins

“Anthocyanins are the largest group of phenolic pigments and the most crucial group of water-soluble pigments in plants, responsible for the red, purple, and blue colours found in many fruits, vegetables, cereal grains, and flowers. Anthocyanins are found in all plant tissues, including leaves, stems, roots, flowers and fruits. Please note that anthocyanins are readily distinguished from other flavonoids as they undergo rearrangements in response to pH” (Martín et al. 2017). “Anthocyanins have antioxidant activities and prevent radical formation. They are linked to a decrease in several diseases, such as diabetes mellitus, cancer, and cardiovascular diseases” (Martín et al., 2017).

1.5. Glycosides “Glycosides are colourless alkaloid compounds with crystalline structures generally composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, sulphur, and nitrogen. Most of the glycosides accumulated in the plants are inactive compounds” (Velu, Palanichamy, and Rajan 2018). “The classification of glycosides is based on the aglycon's nature, which can be one of a wide range of molecular types, including phenols, quinones, terpenes, and steroids” (Pengelly 2004). “Most glycosides are incredibly bitter due to the presence of lactone groups that act on the gustatory nerves, resulting in the excess secretion of salivary to increase the appetite and digestion” (Velu,

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Palanichamy, and Rajan 2018). “They occur in seeds, in swollen underground roots or shoots, and flowers and leaves. Some are even toxic, especially cyanogenic and cardiac glycosides” (Pengelly 2004). “Cardiac glycosides are chiefly responsible for heart disorders and common in individual plant families such as Fabaceae, Rosaceae, Leguminosae, and Linaceae. Compositae chalcone glycosides are mainly used for anticancer activities” (Velu, Palanichamy, and Rajan 2018; Bolarinwa et al. 2016).

1.6. Terpenes or Terpenoids “Terpenes or terpenoids are the largest category of natural substances, with more than 30,000 compounds. The broader functions of terpenes in plant biology include light-harvesting pigments in photosynthesis, insect pollinators' attraction, defence against pathogens, and mediating in plants' interactions with other organisms” (Obiloma et al. 2019). “Chemically, terpenoids are unsaturated hydrocarbon in the liquid form mostly available in resins and essential oils” (Velu, Palanichamy, and Rajan 2018). “The uses of terpenes as flavour, food additives, vitamins, sweeteners, pharmaceuticals, medicines, and folklore spices in aromatherapy products have benefitted humankind” (Obiloma et al. 2019). “The most comprehensively studied of which is the effect of terpenes in the prevention and treatment of cancer. For example, paclitaxel derivatives (paclitaxel and docetaxel) are one of the most commonly used drugs in cancer chemotherapy. Other important therapeutic uses of terpenoids include their anti-microbial, antifungal, anti-viral, anti-hyperglycaemic, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anti-parasitic, and immunomodulatory functions, as well as their being a skin permeation enhancer” (Ramawat and Mérillon 2013). 1.6.1.

Essential Oils

“Essential oils are aromatic and volatile liquids obtained from plant material, including the flowers, roots, bark, leaves, seeds, peel, fruits, wood, and the whole plant itself. The applications of essential oils for

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different purposes are varied and include their use in food, beverages, and cooking. Since they enhance taste, there are reported applications in the manufacture of perfumes, cosmetics, soap, shampoo, and cleaning gels” (Ríos 2016). “Essential oils have a crucial part in the medical field due to their extraordinary medicinal properties” (Hanif et al. 2019). “They are used as medicines for the treatment of infectious diseases. Their antioxidant properties have antibacterial, antifungal, anti-viral, nematocidal, and insecticidal effects” (Ríos 2016). “Pathogenic illnesses caused by viruses, fungi, and bacteria or non-pathogenic diseases can be treated using respective essential oils” (Hanif et al. 2019). Essential oils are used for aromatherapeutic applications due to their properties. “They provide relief from various complaints such as indigestion, depression, insomnia, headaches, breathing difficulties, muscle aches, urinary complications, swollen joints, and skin diseases” (Hanif et al. 2019). “Almost 3,000 different essential oils have been described, and about 300 are used commercially in the flavouring and fragrances market” (Ríos 2016). 1.6.2.

Resins

“Resins are solid, brittle substances secreted by plants into special ducts, often due to damage to the plant by wounding, wind damage, and other causes. Their primary role appears to be the protection of the plant from attack by fungi and insects. Resins are insoluble in water but soluble in alcohol and fixed oils” (Pengelly, 2004). “Classifying individual resins is difficult; they are sometimes mixtures with other plant constituents, such as gum-resins, oleo-gumresins, and glycoresins. One of the most well-known resins is from the Pinus genus (Pinaceae) and named rosin. This amber-coloured resin is mainly used in varnishes and other industrial products” (Pengelly 2004). 1.6.3.

Oleoresins

“Some oleoresins occur naturally as gums or exudates directly from trees and plants. They are usually only partially solvent-soluble and

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are typically extracted before use when they are known as 'prepared oleoresins'” (Ashurst 1990). 1.6.4.

Bitter Compounds

“The term 'bitter principle' refers to one of a group of unrelated ingredients responsible for many herbs' bitter taste characteristic. Most are derived from terpenes” (Pengelly 2004). “The bitterness itself directly stimulates tongue receptors, sending signals via the gustatory nerve to release a cascade of gastric secretions and hormones. The effects are stimulating appetite and digestive processes, generally, increasing bile flow, regulating blood glucose levels, and counteracting food sensitivities and allergies. Bitters are regarded as cooling remedies and are also useful for fevers and inflammation” (Pengelly 2004).

1.7. Alkaloids “Alkaloids are the essential prevalent natural group of secondary metabolites among the other chemically classified secondary metabolites. Most of the alkaloid compounds are made up of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen and nitrogen. Still, other elements like phosphorus, chlorine, sulphur, and bromine may also exist in the odd occurrence's alkaloid structures. Most of the alkaloids are in concrete forms, but fewer alkaloids containing carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen are also in liquid form” (Velu, Palanichamy, and Rajan 2018). “The nitrogen atom present in the alkaloids acts as a defence driving force that protects the plant cells against the bacteria, virus, or microorganism infection and the damages caused by other factors like herbivore attacks, ecological disturbances, and climatic modifications” (Velu, Palanichamy, and Rajan 2018). “Above 12,000 natural alkaloids are recognised throughout 20% of the world's existing plant species” (Velu, Palanichamy, and Rajan 2018). “Plant alkaloids usually have profound physiological actions in humans with nervous system effects being the most prominent. The use of many of the alkaloidal species is restricted by law or listed on poison schedules. However, alkaloids, either as isolated compounds or their semi-synthetic derivatives, are widely used in pharmaceutical

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medicines” (Pengelly 2004). “Substances such as atropine, berberine, codeine, coniine, cytisine, morphine, nicotine, quinine, solanine, strychnine, thebaine and tomatine are some of the important alkaloids which are widely used in the pharmaceutical industry” (Velu, Palanichamy, and Rajan 2018).

1.8. Saponins “Saponins are the class of plant secondary metabolites in which foam is generated when shaken with water. Sapogenin is the product formed when the aglycone of saponins causes hydrolysis with water. The two main types of sapogenin include triterpenoid and steroidal sapogenins” (Velu, Palanichamy, and Rajan 2018). “Saponins are usually found in all plant species throughout the world. They have various physicochemical properties that make their application significant in preparing pharmaceuticals, food, and cosmetics products. They have anti-microbial, antioxidant, anti-cancer, anti-tumor, anti-allergic, anti-viral, anti-fungal, anti-diabetic, anti-stress, sedative, expectorant, diuretic, digestive, liver-protecting and insecticide agents” (Crozier 2003; Velu, Palanichamy, and Rajan 2018; Pengelly 2004).

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REFERENCES: Ashurst, P. R. 1990. Food Flavourings. Boston, MA: Springer US. Bolarinwa, Islamiyat Folashade, Moruf Olanrewaju Oke, Sulaiman Adebisi Olaniyan und Adeladun Stephen Ajala. 2016. „A Review of Cyanogenic Glycosides in Edible Plants. “In Toxicology - New Aspects to This Scientific Conundrum, hrsg. von Sonia Soloneski und Marcelo Larramendy: InTech. Crozier, Alan. 2003. „Classification and Biosynthesis of Secondary Plant Products: An Overview. “In Plants: Diet and Health, hrsg. von Gail Goldberg, 27–48. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Science Ltd. Hanif, Muhammad Asif, Shafaq Nisar, Ghufrana Samin Khan, Zahid Mushtaq und Muhammad Zubair. 2019. „Essential Oils. “In Essential Oil Research, hrsg. von Sonia Malik, 3–17. Cham: Springer International Publishing. Laddha, Ankit P. und Yogesh A. Kulkarni. 2019. „Tannins and Vascular Complications of Diabetes: An Update. “Phytomedicine: international journal of phytotherapy and phytopharmacology, 229–45. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.phymed.2018.10.026. Martín, Julia, María José Navas, Ana María Jiménez-Moreno und Agustín G. Asuero. 2017. „Anthocyanin Pigments: Importance, Sample Preparation and Extraction. “In Phenolic Compounds - Natural Sources, Importance and Applications, hrsg. von Marcos Soto-Hernández, Mariana Palma-Tenango und Maria R. Del Garcia-Mateos: InTech. Mérillon, Jean-Michel und Kishan Gopal Ramawat. 2020. Co-Evolution of Secondary Metabolites. Cham: Springer International Publishing. Murti, Yogesh. 2017. „Flavonoid: A pharmacologically significant scaffold. “WJPPS, 488–504. https://doi.org/10.20959/wjpps20175-9143. Obiloma, Appolonia A., Wenceslaus C. Madu, Godson O. Osuji, Peter A. Ampim, Aruna D. Weerasooriya und Laura E. Carson. 2019. „Terpene-Rich Medicinal Plant Spices for Flavoring of Processed Tropical Food. “AJPS 10 (04): 572–77. https://doi.org/10.4236/ajps.2019.104041. Pengelly, Andrew. 2004. The Constituents of Medicinal Plants: Allen & Unwin. Ramawat, Kishan Gopal und Jean-Michel Mérillon. 2013. Natural Products. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg.

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Ríos, José-Luis. 2016. „Essential Oils.“ In Essential Oils in Food Preservation, Flavor and Safety, 3–10: Elsevier. Sieniawska, E.; Baj, T. Tannins. 2017. In Pharmacognosy; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands; pp. 199–232. Thakur, Menaka, Sujata Bhattacharya, Prem Kumar Khosla und Sunil Puri. 2019. „Improving production of plant secondary metabolites through biotic and abiotic elicitation. “Journal of Applied Research on Medicinal and Aromatic Plants 12:1–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jarmap.2018.11.004. Velu, Gnanavel, Veluchamy Palanichamy und Anand Prem Rajan. 2018. „Phytochemical and Pharmacological Importance of Plant Secondary Metabolites in Modern Medicine. “In Bioorganic Phase in Natural Food: An Overview, hrsg. von S. M. Roopan und G. Madhumitha, 135–56. Cham: Springer International Publishing.

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CHAPTER TWO Herbal Temperament

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2.1. What are the Temperaments? A temperament, in this context, is a “traditional medical system based on humoral medicine with plenty of medical and pharmaceutical manuscripts” (Feyzabadi et al. 2017). “Everything, including food and medicine and even conditions like the climates and weather, has its temperament based on four elementary properties (warmness, coldness, dryness, and moisture) determined by the change it imposes on human beings' temperaments. Due to this effect, humans’ temperaments can be used to maintain health or treat diseases in different individuals, particularly with personalised medicine” (Shirbeigi L, Zarei A, Naghizadeh A, Alizadeh Vaghasloo M. 2017). The temperament of each person is the result of one's genetics, lived environment, nutrition, and ideology. “According to this theory, each food, medicinal plant, and fruit has a temperament that subsequently possesses various therapeutic and pharmacological properties” (Feyzabadi et al. 2017). “For example, white mulberry has a warm and wet temperament. Raspberries have a cold and dry temperament, chamomile has a warm and dry temperament and mango has a warm and dry temperament” (Shirbeigi L, Zarei A, Naghizadeh A, Alizadeh Vaghasloo M. 2017).

2.2. The Four Elements of Nature and their Relation to the Temperaments It was believed that everything had a temperament in ancient times, and this was based on four elementary characteristics (heat, cold, dryness, and humidity). “These properties were attributed to the four essential elements: air, fire, water, and soil” (Feyzabadi et al. 2017). “Accordingly, each body organ has a specific temperament at which it will have its best function. The sages consider man's skin as the most moderate organ and describe other organs' temperament compared to this organ. For example, the heart and the liver have the warmest, and the bone, the coldest temperaments” (Shirbeigi L, Zarei A, Naghizadeh A, Alizadeh Vaghasloo M. 2017). “The four temperaments are phlegm, blood, rih, and marrah. According to some experts, black bile and yellow bile are subcategories of marrah. Thus,

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blood, phlegm, yellow bile, and black bile and vapour spirits constitute medicine's temperament” (Abolfazl, Naghizadeh, Hasan, and Seyed Mosavi Seyed Hosseyn 2018). So according to the temperament in each person and food, to the nature of fruits and vegetables, we have to use and select foods according to our body: x

Choleric people (hot and dry) have a higher metabolism and should be using more (cold and damp) foods, fruits, and vegetables like fish, cherries, apricots, watermelons, pumpkin, cucumbers, and spinach, for example

x

Sanguine people (hot and damp), should be using more (cold and dry) foods, fruits, and vegetables like fish, rice, pears, oranges and coriander, to name a few

x

Phlegmatic people (cold and damp) have a lower metabolism, so they have to use more (hot and dry) foods, fruits, and vegetables like chicken, walnut, honey, coconut, garlic, cinnamon, and thyme, for instance

x

Melancholic people (cold and dry), should be using more (hot and damp) foods, fruits, and vegetables like eggs, figs, melons, and turnips, among others

Any food or medicine that increases the thyroid gland's activity has a hot nature, and if it reduces the thyroid gland activity, it has a cold character.

2.3. The Temperaments in Taste x

Sweet taste: hot nature

x

Bitter taste: hot and dry nature

x

Sour taste: cold and dry

x

Salty and spicy taste: hot and dry

x

Tasteless and stringent: cold and damp

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2.4. The Temperaments in Medicinal Plants “The temperaments of plants have been understood in Traditional Iranian Medicine (TIM) by different methods and according to their pharmacological effects, flavour, odour, and colour” (Shams Ardekani, Mohammad Reza, Rahimi, Roja, Javadi, Behjat, Abdi, Leila, and Khanavi, Mahnaz 2011). 2.4.1.

Alkaloids Group Temperaments

“In TIM, medicinal plants contain alkaloids as one significant chemical compound. Alkaloids are categorized into thirteen groups based on their chemical structures. These include alkaloidal amines, diterpenoids, indole, isoquinoline, pyridine-piperidine, reduced pyridine, quinoline, quinolizidine, sesquiterpene, steroid, tropone, tropolone, and purine alkaloids. All plants in the alkaloidal amine group have a hot and dry temperament, while plants with diterpenoid alkaloids have a cold and dry temperament” (Shams Ardekani, Mohammad Reza, Rahimi, Roja, Javadi, Behjat, Abdi, Leila, and Khanavi, Mahnaz 2011). 2.4.2.

Phenolic Compounds Group Temperaments

“In TIM, medicinal plants contain phenolic compounds as a significant chemical compound. Phenolic compounds are categorized into seven groups: benzophenones, xanthones, coumarins, lignans, flavonoids, anthraquinones, and tannins. All plants, except plants in the tannins group, have a hot and dry temperament. Plants containing tannins as a significant compound have a cold and dry temperament” (Shams Ardekani, Mohammad Reza, Rahimi, Roja, Javadi, Behjat, Abdi, Leila, and Khanavi, Mahnaz 2011). 2.4.3.

Terpenes or Terpenoids Group Temperaments

Medicinal plants have volatile oils as a primary chemical compound. They are divided into eight groups based on the structure of significant compounds in volatile oil, including alcohols, esters and alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, phenols, ethers, sesquiterpenes, and oleogum-resins. All groups except the alcohols group contain plants which have a hot and dry temperament. Plants containing alcohol as

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a significant component of volatile oil have a cold and dry temperament.

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REFERENCES Feyzabadi, Zohre, Fariba Ghorbani, Yasaman Vazani, and Mohammad M. Zarshenas. 2017. “A Critical Review on Phytochemistry, Pharmacology of Viola Odorata L. And Related Multipotential Products in Traditional Persian Medicine.” Phytotherapy research: PTR 31 (11): 1669–75. https://doi.org/10.1002/ptr.5909. Saadati, Abolfazl, Naghizadeh, Hasan, and Seyed Mosavi Seyed Hosseyn. 2018. “Studying the Four Temperaments in Medical Hadiths of Ahl Al-Bayt (AS) And Comparing the Results with Temperament Medicine.” Journal of Research on Religion & Health 4 (3): 118–28. Shams Ardekani, Mohammad Reza, Rahimi, Roja, Javadi, Behjat, Abdi, Leila, and Khanavi, Mahnaz. 2011. “Relationship Between Temperaments of Medicinal Plants and Their Major Chemical Compounds.” Journal of Traditional Chinese Medicine 31 (1): 27–31. Shirbeigi L, Zarei A, Naghizadeh A, Alizadeh Vaghasloo M. 2017. “The Concept of Temperaments in Traditional Persian Medicine.” Trad Integr Med. 2 (3): 143–56.

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CHAPTER TREE Herbal use and Products

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3.1. Herbal Tea “Herbal tea, herbal infusion, or herbal tisane, is a commonly consumed beverage brewed from the fresh or dried leaves, flowers, seeds, fruits, stems, or roots of a plant” (J. Zhao et al. 2013). “Herbal tea plants as a type of medicinal plant, mainly refers to a range of plant species used to make herbal tea, those with heat-clearing, detoxification, sunstroke relief, wind, and dampness expelling qualities. Most herbal tea plants are fresh or dried without being further processed” (D.‑L. Li et al. 2017). “Herbal tea, known as a cooling tea, herbal beverage, and a cool drink is produced from herbal tea plants” (D.‑L. Li et al. 2017). In the case of stimulating drinks, tea has the most significant prevalence worldwide, next to water. Tea and coffee have been and are consumed by billions of people from diverse cultures, different civilizations, and numerous regions of the world, at the start of every day. These stimulating beverages have various functional ingredients such as phenolic compounds and caffeine that improve cognitive function and promote health by reducing the number of chronic diseases risks such as cancer, cardiovascular diseases, and diabetes (Aadil et al. 2019; Pyrzynska and Sentkowska 2019). The raw materials for herbal tea should be processed appropriately. Generally, the commonly used methods include: 1.

Heating such as steaming, roasting, and baking.

2.

Adjuvant materials processing.

3.

Biochemical treatment, such as fermentation. This processing may significantly influence the components in herbal tea (J. Zhao et al. 2013).

3.2 Herbal Water or Herbal Beverages Beverages cover all types of liquid foods that are purposely used for nourishment and quenching thirst. These classes of drinks, other than alcohols, can include fruit beverages (juices, squashes, nectars, syrups, etc.), stimulating beverages (tea, coffee, sports beverages, etc.) and functional beverages (dairy- and herbal-based beverages).

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“Besides, any mixture of different ingredients added in water that provides energy and nutrition offers a variety of nutrients like minerals, vitamins, and other bioactive components, that is, polyphenols, flavonoids, carotenoids, and bioactive peptides that are necessary for the regulation of the human body” (Aadil et al. 2019). “Among beverages, fruit juices have a significant role in providing bioactive ingredients like essential amino acids, carbohydrates, vitamins, minerals, and phenolic compounds. Together with their caloric contents, they improve cardiovascular health and reduce chronic inflammatory diseases” (Aadil et al. 2019).

3.3. Tinctures “Tinctures are concentrated herbal extracts made by soaking the bark, berries, leaves (dried or fresh), or roots from one or more plants in alcohol or vinegar” (Cirino, 2019). “In Poland, alcoholic tinctures are very popular. They are produced from herbs, roots, and fruits grown in home gardens and orchards, from wild-growing fruit trees and shrubs as well as from wild herbs, flowers, and roots. They are appreciated for their taste, colour, and aroma” (Polak, Bartoszek, and Bernat 2019).

3.4. Herbal Syrups “Herbal syrups are widely used in traditional medicine. They are also used in the food industry as a sweetening alternative and in beverages and alcohol production. Frequently, the perceived health benefits for the consumption and utilization of derived medicinal concoctions are attributed to the bioactive and nutritious compounds found in herbal syrup” (Dimiņš and Augšpole 2019). “Herbal syrups are rich sources of phenolic compounds, which are known as potent radical scavengers. The most widely known herbal syrups are water, sugars and various antioxidants, and other biologically active substances. Therefore, herbal syrups are often used in treating multiple diseases and, depending on their kind, have reached widespread enhancements in immunity (used as anti-

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coughing agents). They are used in cold cases to promote digestion; as sweat-driving agents and anti-flu products; for people with diabetes, arthritis, and liver diseases; and as cough remedies, memory enhancers, and adaptogens” (Dimiņš and Augšpole 2019).

3.5. Herbal Medicine Since ancient times, “medicinal plants have been exploited and highly esteemed worldwide as rich sources of therapeutic agents for preventing diseases and ailments”. Herbal medicine has been widely practised for centuries, and people have often turned to natural remedies. Today, “the demand for medicinal materials, health products, nutritional supplements and cosmetics in developing and industrialized countries is increasing. Medicinal plants are considered rich sources of phytochemical ingredients, which play a vital role in developing new drugs” (Ahmad Khan and I. Ahmad 2019). The World Health Organization (WHO) has defined herbal medicines as finished, labelled medicinal products that contain an active ingredient, aerial, or underground parts of the plant or other plant material or combinations. The WHO has reported that 4 billion people (80% of the world's population) use herbal medicines for one or more aspect (s) of primary health care. Nearly 25% of modern drugs have been derived from plants being used in traditional medicine. At a pharmacodynamics scale, herbal medicines are classified as: 1.

Those with proven efficacy, with known active ingredients and dosages;

2.

Those with expected efficacies and active compounds which need to be standardized; and

3.

Those with uncertain efficacies but a documented history of traditional use.

Plants remain a potential source of therapeutic agents, and also serve as the raw material base for the extraction of semisynthetic chemical compounds such as cosmetics, perfumes, and food industries. As evidenced by many scientific research papers, there is an increased interest among pharmacologist, microbiologist, biochemist, botanist,

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and natural product chemists. They explore medicinal plants for newer phytochemicals and the discovery of medicine for the treatment of several ailments.

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REFERENCES Aadil, Rana Muhammad, Ume Roobab, Amna Sahar, Ubaid ur Rahman, and Anees Ahmed Khalil. 2019. “Functionality of Bioactive Nutrients in Beverages.” In Nutrients in Beverages, 237–76: Elsevier. Ahmad Khan, Mohd Sajjad, and Iqbal Ahmad. 2019. “Herbal Medicine.” In New Look to Phytomedicine, 3–13: Elsevier. Cirino, E. "Healthline". Accessed August 28, 2019. https://www.healthline.com/health/what-is-a-tincture Dimiņš, Fredijs, and Ingrīda Augšpole. 2019. “Total Phenolic, Antioxidant Activities and Flavonoid Contents of Herbal Syrups.” KEM 800:60–64. https://doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/KEM.800.60. Li, Dong-Lin, Xi-Long Zheng, Lei Duan, Shuang-Wen Deng, Wen Ye, AiHua Wang, and Fu-Wu Xing. 2017. “Ethnobotanical Survey of Herbal Tea Plants from the Traditional Markets in Chaoshan, China.” Journal of ethnopharmacology 205:195–206. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2017.02.040. Polak, Justyna, Mariola Bartoszek, and Roksana Bernat. 2019. “Comprehensive Comparison of Antioxidant Properties of Tinctures.” Scientific reports 9 (1): 6148. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-42656-2. Pyrzynska, Krystyna, and Aleksandra Sentkowska. 2019. “Herbal Beverages as a Source of Antioxidant Phenolics.” In Natural Beverages, 125–42: Elsevier. Zhao, J., J. W. Deng, Y. W. Chen, and S. P. Li. 2013. “Advanced Phytochemical Analysis of Herbal Tea in China.” Journal of chromatography. A 1313:2–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.chroma.2013.07.039.

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CHAPTER FOUR An Introduction to Essential and Useful Herbs

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4.1. Aconite, Monkshood Scientific Name: Aconitum napellus L. Family: Ranunculaceae Health Benefit(s): Analgesic, anti-rheumatic, anti-inflammatory, anti-cough, anti-anxiety, antioxidant, diaphoretic, diuretic, expectorant, nervous pain reliever, prevents colds, reduces inflammation of the genitals and works as an anaesthetic, sedative, and tonic. x

x

“Aconite is used for the management of different nervous disorders. Despite its toxicity, traditionally, it has been used to heal facial palsy, joint pain, inflammation, gout, fever, and pericarditis” (L. K. Chang and Whitaker 2001) “It is also used in folklore medicine for sciatica and rheumatism” (Venkataraghavan, S and Sundaresan, T P 1981)

Constituents: Aconine, aconitine, amidon, aneopelline, benzaconitine, benzoylaconitine, eoline, ipaconitine, isoaconitine, mesaconitine, napelline, sugar, and resin (Sutan 2018). Part(s) Used: All parts of the plant. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: It is used in some medicinal products. Side Effects, Toxicity, and Warnings: It is a poisonous plant. Only use the standard products following a medical doctor's recommendation.

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4.2. Adonis, Pheasant's Eye Scientific Name: Adonis vernalis L. Family: Ranunculaceae Health Benefit(s): Cardiac tonic, diuretic, effective in treating epilepsy, effective for treating pneumonia and smallpox, reduces blood triglycine, reduces blood cholesterol, and is used as a treatment for heart problems with infectious disease origin. x x

“Adonis is used for the treatment of congestive heart failure” (Yarnell 2002) This herb is known as a heart medicine

Constituents: Adonidoside, adonidine glycoside, adonivermoside heteroside, and adonitol sugar. Part(s) Used: All parts of the plant. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: It is used in the pharmaceutical industry, especially for heart problems. Side Effects, Toxicity, and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x

Those with high blood pressure should be cautious about using it

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4.3. Agrimony, Agrimonia Scientific Name: Agrimonia eupatoria L. Family: Rosaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-inflammatory, anti-microbial, antioxidant, anti-rheumatic, anti-viral, anti-worm, astringent, diuretic, can be gargled for acute sore throat and chronic nasopharyngeal issues, improves the symptoms of multiple sclerosis and mucous colitis, reduces blood glucose, and reduces obesity (Bilia et al. 1993; D. Ivanova, Vankova, and Nashar 2013). x

The Council of Europe lists agrimony as a natural source of food flavouring (category N2). This category can be added to foodstuffs in small quantities, with a possible limitation of an active principle (as yet unspecified) in the final product

Constituents: x x x x

Acids: Palmitic, salicylic, silicic, and stearic acid Flavonoids: Apigenin, glycosides, kaempferol, luteolin, quercetin, and quercitrin Vitamins: C and K Others: Bitter principle, essential oil, phytosterols, tannins, and triterpenes

Part(s) Used: Leaf and flower. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: It is used for tinctures, liquid extracts, and dried herbs. Side Effects, Toxicity, and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.4. Ajowan, Ajwan Scientific Name: Trachyspermum copticum L., T. ammi Family: Umbelliferae Health Benefit(s): Anti-asthmatic, anti-bacterial, anti-cough, antifungal, anti-microbial, antioxidant, anti-rheumatic, anti-spasmodic, anti-worm, diaphoretic, helpful for treating colds, works as a laxative, reduces blood pressure, reduces fevers, and is a sexual enhancer (Bairwa, Sodha, and Rajawat 2012). Constituents: x x

The essential oils of this plant are famous under the name 'Ajowan oils' and contain carvacrol, p-cymene, α-pinene, γterpinene, and thymol Others: Glycoside and saponins

Part(s) Used: Seeds. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: It is used in the pharmaceutical industry, perfumery, and hygiene products. x

The powder of the seeds can be used as spices in foods

Side Effects, Toxicity, and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

1.8-2 mm

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4.5. Alfalfa Scientific Name: Medicago sativa L. Family: Fabaceae, Leguminosae Health Benefit(s): Anti-asthmatic, anti-diabetic, anti-fungal, antimicrobial, anti-rheumatic, anti-spasmodic, decreases intestinal absorption of cholesterol, diuretic, increases excretion of neutral steroids and bile acids, increases lactation, prevents atherosclerosis and induces the regression of atherosclerosis, reduces blood glucose, and reduces fevers (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007; Williamson, Driver, and K. Baxter 2013). x

The Council of Europe lists alfalfa as a natural food flavour source (categories N2 and N3). These categories indicate that alfalfa can be added to foodstuffs in small quantities, with a possible limitation of an active principle (as yet unspecified) in the final product

Constituents: x x x x x x x x x

Acids: Lauric, maleic, malic, malonic, myristic, oxalic, palmitic and quinic acid Alkaloids: Pyrrolidine and pyridinein (only in seeds) Amino acids: Arginine, asparagine (high concentration in seeds), cystine, histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan, and valine Coumarin: Medicagol Isoflavonoids: Biochanin A, coumestrol, daidzein, formononetin, and genistein Saponins: Arabinose, galactose, glucuronic acid, glucose, hederagenin, medicagenic acid, rhamnose, and xylose Steroids: Campesterol, cycloartenol, b-sitosterol (major component), a-spinasterol and stigmasterol Vitamins: A, B1, B6, B12, C, E, and K Others: Anthocyanins, β-carotene, pectin methylesterase, and xanthophyll

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Mineral elements: Calcium, iron, potassium, and phosphorus

Part(s) Used: Leaf, flower, and seeds. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: It is used in the pharmaceutical industry as a capsule, pill, or powder. x x

Alfalfa seeds, when germinated, are popular as salad sprouts Alfalfa is available as herbal water or as a beverage

Side Effects, Toxicity, and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x x

“Alfalfa seeds should not be ingested during pregnancy or lactation” (Yang et al., 2008) Do not take blood coagulation medicine and the Medicago at the same time

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4.6. Almond Scientific Name: Amygdalus communis L. Family: Rosaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-Alzheimer's, anti-anaemic, anti-cancer (especially prostate), antioxidant, brain booster, helps the intestine and cervix, eliminates intestinal inflammation, increases the body’s power, increases the immune system, has a positive effect on the libido, its muscle stimulant activity reduces heart problems, it reduces blood glucose, is useful for diabetes, reduces the gallstone, reduces low-density lipoprotein (LDL), reduces obesity, reduces osteoporosis, and helps the teeth (C.‑Y. Chen, Lapsley, and J. Blumberg 2006). x

x

Using sweet almond oil as a lotion or cream for skins can heal inflammation and skin burns, and reduce the itching caused by measles and scarlet. It has also soothing and softening properties for dry skin with eczema The almond tree has two important and valuable varieties: 1. Sweet almond: Amygdalus communis Var. dulcis 2. Bitter almond: Amygdalus communis Var. amara

Constituents: x x x x

Acids: Linoleic, myristic, and palmitic acid Vitamins: B2, B9, and E Mineral elements: Calcium, copper, iron, magnesium, potassium, and zinc Others: Amygdalin, cyanogenic glycosides, and fibre

Part(s) Used: Seeds. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The oil of almonds is widely used for different purposes (applied topically and used orally). x

Sweet almond oil can be used for oral and topical applications. Bitter almond oils have to be used for topical purposes because of cyanogenic glycosides

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Side Effects, Toxicity, and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x

Oral application of sweet almond is perfect for pregnancy periods

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4.7. Aloe, Aloe Vera Scientific Name: Aloe vera, A. barbadensis, A. capensis Family: Liliaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-allergic, anti-arthritic, anti-bacterial, anticancer, anti-fungi, anti-inflammatory, anti-microbial, anti-worm, anti-viral, hair conditioner, inhibits hair loss, is a laxative, prevents high blood pressure, reduces blood glucose, and has smoothing muscle stimulant activity (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007; Ross 2003). x x x x x x

“Ointments and creams assist the healing of burns, eczema, psoriasis, and wounds” (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007) “Leaf juice is used externally for boils, cuts, skin irritations, and sunburn” (Ross 2003) “Water extract of leaves is used externally for arthritis, insect bites, myopathies, topical ulcers, and other skin conditions” (Ross 2003) “Infusion of fresh leaf juice is taken orally as a laxative, for dental caries, and as a taeniafuge” (Ross 2003) “Hot water extract of leaves is taken orally to induce abortion and to facilitate menstruation” (Ross 2003) The Council of Europe lists aloes as a natural source of food flavouring, and this category indicates that aloes can be added to foodstuffs in the traditionally accepted manner

Constituents: x x x x x

Mineral elements: Calcium, chromium, copper, magnesium, sodium, and zinc Vitamins: B1, B2, B6, C, and E Carbohydrates: Glucomannan and other polysaccharides containing arabinose, galactose, and xylose Lipids: Arachidonic acid, cholesterol, and gamolenic acid Others: Aloe-emodin, chrysophanol, enzymes, C-glycosides aloins A, and B (barbaloin, isobarbaloin, stereoisomers), organic acids, saponins, sterols, and tannins

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Part(s) Used: Leaf. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Leaf and leaf gel are widely used in the food industry as a syrup, beverage, and flavouring. Side Effects, Toxicity, and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x x

“During pregnancy and lactation, it should be avoided” (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007) Aloes should not be given for colon inflammation, appendicitis, intestinal obstruction, abdominal pain, nausea, or vomiting

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4.8. Alyssum, Clasping Pepper Weed Scientific Name: Lepidium perfoliatum, Alyssum homolocarpum Family: Cruciferae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-cough, anti-microbial, antiinflammatory, diaphoretic, diuretic, laxative, promotes the appetite, is a weight enhancer, and treats throat inflammation. x x

Both varieties are the same in their medicinal character When the seed shell comes in contact with water, it quickly produces a viscid, turbid, and tasteless liquid

Constituents: x x

Polysaccharides: Arabinose, galactose, glucose, rhamnose, and xylose Others: Mucilage, oil, and tannin

Part(s) Used: Seeds. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Its natural plant-based gums are widely utilized in food industries for thickening, binding, disintegrating, emulsifying, suspending, stabilizing, and gelling agents. Side Effects, Toxicity, and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x x

During pregnancy and lactation, it should be avoided Those with goitre problems should avoid its use

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4.9. Angelica Scientific Name: Angelica archangelica, A. officinalis Family: Umbelliferae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-cough, antipyretic, antifungal, anti-inflammatory, anti-microbial, antioxidant, antirheumatic, anti-spasmodic, anti-stress, antitussive, blood purifier, carminative, digestive, diaphoretic, diuretic, expectorant, hypnotic, and laxative; helps with flatulent dyspepsia and peripheral vascular disease; is a physical enhancer, sedative, and sight enhancer; and acts as a treatment for toothache (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007). x

x

The Council of Europe lists angelica as a natural source of food flavouring (stem: category 1, other parts and preparations category 4, with limits on coumarin and furanocoumarin) “The German Commission E monographs state that Angelica can be used for lack of appetite and dyspeptic complaints, such as mild stomach cramps and flatulence” (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007)

Constituents: x x x x

Coumarins: Angelicin, archangelicin, bergapten, iso-imperatorin, umbelliferon and xanthotoxin Essential oils: Monoterpenes including α-phellandrene, βphellandrene α-pinene, β-pinene, sabinene, α-thujene, limonene, linalool and borneol Phenolic acids: Caffeic, chlorogenic, and palmitic acid Others: Flavonoid; is umbelliferous

Part(s) Used: Leaf, rhizome, root, and fruit. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The dried root, rhizome, and leaf can be used as a herbal tea or as a flavour in liquor. Its fresh leaves can be used in salads and some medicines. Side Effects, Toxicity, and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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During pregnancy and lactation, it should be avoided “Angelica can increase blood glucose, so people who have diabetes and high blood glucose should avoid its use” (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007)

Angelica Leaf and Flower

Angelica Root

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4.10. Anise Scientific Name: Pimpinella anisum L. Family: Umbelliferae Health Benefit(s): Abortifacient, anti-bacterial, anti-cough, anti-fungal, anti-microbial, anti-spasmodic, anti-pain, anti-worm, digestible, diuretic, expectorant, laxative, helps with catarrh in the upper respiratory tract, aids with dyspeptic complaints, increases lactation, increases libido, promotes menstruation, and acts as a sedative (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007). x x

“Seeds of anise are used as an oestrogenic agent” (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007) The Council of Europe lists anise as a natural source of food flavouring (category N2). This category indicates that anis can be added to foodstuffs in small quantities, with the possible limitation of an active principle (as yet unspecified) in the final products

Constituents: x x x

x

Coumarins: Bergapten, scopoletin, umbelliferone, and umbelliprenine Flavonoids: Apigenin, apigenin-7-glucoside, glycosides, isoorientin, iso-vitexin, luteolin, luteolin-7-glucoside, quercetin, and rutin Essential oils: Trans-anethole about 80–95%, estragole, αpinene, anise ketone (р-methoxyphenylacetone), β-caryophyllene, linalool, limonene, pseudoisoeugenol-2-methyl butyrate, acetaldehyde, p-cresol, cresol, hydroquinone, βfarnesene, bisabolene, ar-curcumene, and myristicin Others: Lipids, palmitate, stigmasterol (phytosterol), and stearate salts

Part(s) Used: Seed, leaf, and flower.

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Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Anise oil and spirit is used in some skin creams and toothpaste. x

Its essential oils are widely used in the food industry as a flavouring; in alcoholic and non-alcoholic beverages; and as a preservative in many products, such as candies, sweets, and toffees

Side Effects, Toxicity, and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x

“Anise seeds may cause an allergic reaction. It is recommended that anise seed oil be avoided in those with dermatitis and inflammatory or allergic skin conditions” (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007)

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4.11. Apple Scientific Name: Malus orientalis Family: Rosaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-cancer (reducing the risk of cancer), anti-cough, antipyretic, anti-obesity, antioxidant, hypnotic, laxative, improves neurological health, prevents dementia like Alzheimer's disease, reduces cholesterol, reduces the risk of stroke, reduces the risk of diabetes, works as a treatment for coldness, and is useful for heart problems. Constituents: x x x x

Vitamins: A, B1, B2, B3, B5, B6, B9, C, and E Mineral elements: Calcium, iron, manganese, magnesium, phosphorus, potassium, and sodium Flavonoid: Quercetin Others: Fibre, pectin, and pectic acid

Part(s) Used: Fruits. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Apples are widely used as an edible, in cakes, sweets, food, jam, marmalades, etc. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x

Eating apple seeds should be avoided

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4.12. Apricot Scientific Name: Armeniaca vulgaris Family: Rosaceae Health Benefit(s): Abortifacient, anti-athame, anti-cancer, anticough, antioxidant, anti-spasmodic, anti-tumour, anti-worm, and helps with catarrh of the upper respiratory tract; it is a diuretic, digestive, helps with dyspeptic complaints, is an expectorant, increases the libido, increases lactation, is a laxative, promotes menstruation, and has sedative properties (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007). x

The Council of Europe lists apricot as a natural source of food flavouring (categories N1 and N2). These categories limit the total amount of hydrocyanic acid in the final product to 1 mg/kg. Exceptions to this are 25 mg/kg for confectionery, 50 mg/kg for marzipan, and 5 mg/kg for fruit juices

Constituents: x x x x

Acids: Acetic, citric, p-coumaric, ferulic, malic, neochlorogenic, phenolic, and quinic acid; esters of caffeic acid Glycosides: Amygdalin, cyanogenetic, and cyanide Tannins: Catechins and pro-anthocyanidins Vitamin: A, B1, B2, C, and PP

Part(s) Used: Fruit and seeds. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Fresh or dried apricot fruit is commonly edible and used for jams, marmalades, desserts, and cakes. x

Traditionally, apricot oil has been incorporated into the cosmetic and perfume industries

Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x

Apricot kernels are toxic due to their amygdalin content, so should not be ingested

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4.13. Arnica, Mountain Tobacco Scientific Name: Arnica montana L. Family: Compositae Health Benefit(s): Anti-arthritis, antipyretic, anti-fungal, anti-inflammatory, anti-microbial, anti-pain, anti-tumor, diuretic, helps with gingivitis, reduces blood pressure, helps with sprains and bruises, and treats insect bites (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007). x

x x

x

The German Commission E approved its external use for injuries and consequences of accidents, hematoma, dislocation, contusions, oedema due to fracture, rheumatoid muscle and joint pains, and inflammation of oral and throat regions Arnica is mainly used in homoeopathic preparations The Council of Europe lists arnica as a natural source of food flavouring (category N2). This category indicates that arnica can be added to foodstuffs in small quantities, with a possible limitation of an active principle (as yet unspecified) in the final products Previously, arnica has been listed by the Food and Drugs Administration (FDA) as an 'unsafe herb' and is only approved for food use in alcoholic beverages

Constituents: x x x x x x x x

Alkaloids: Iso-tussilagine and tussilagine Amines: Betaine, choline and trimethylamine Carbohydrates: Mucilage and polysaccharides including inulin Coumarins: Scopoletin and umbelliferone Flavonoids: Betuletol, eupafolin, flavonol glucuronides, hispidulin, isorhamnetin, kaempferol, laciniatin, luteolin, patuletin, quercetin, spinacetin, and tricin Terpenoid: Helenalin Essential oils: Thymol Others: Bitter principle, caffeic acid, carotenoids, phytosterols, resin, and tannins

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Part(s) Used: Flower. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: These plants extracts are used as a flavour in the food and beverage industry and some medical products. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x x

Arnica should not be taken internally except in suitable homoeopathic dilutions During pregnancy and lactation, it should be avoided

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4.14. Artichoke Scientific Name: Cynara cardunculus L., C. scolymus L. Family: Compositae Health Benefit(s): Anti-arthritis, anti-cancer, antipyretic, anti-fungal, anti-inflammatory, anti-microbial, antioxidant, anti-tumour, antitussive, diuretic, helps with gingivitis, reduces blood cholesterol, reduces blood pressure, helps with sprains and bruises, and treats insect bites (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007; Williamson, Driver, and K. Baxter 2010 c2009). x

The Council of Europe lists artichoke as a natural source of food flavouring (category N2). This category indicates that artichoke can be added to foodstuffs in small amounts, with a possible limitation of an active principle (as yet unspecified) in the final products

Constituents: x x x x x

Phenolic acids: Caffeic, mono-caffeoylquinic, dicaffeoylquinic, cynarine, and chlorogenic acid Flavonoids: Flavone glycosides, luteolin-7β-rutinoside, luteolin-7β-D-glucoside and luteolin-4β-D-glucoside Essential oils: Caryophyllene, decanal, eugenol, phenylacetaldehyde, and β-selinene Mineral elements: Calcium, phosphor, and potassium Others: Cynaropicrin, cynarotriol, glyceric glycolic acids, grosheimin, inulin, peroxidases, phytosterols, and tannins

Part(s) Used: Leaf and root. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: It is used in the pharmaceutical, food, and cosmetics industries for different purposes. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x

During pregnancy and lactation, it should be avoided

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4.15. Asafoetida, Stinking Asa, Gum Asafoetida Scientific Name: Ferula asafoetida L. Family: Umbelliferae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-cancer, anti-fungal, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anti-spasmodic, anti-tumour, anti-worm, diuretic, helps with hysteria, helps specifically with flatulent intestinal colic, aids with pertussis, and is used for chronic bronchitis (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007; Ross 2005). x x x x

Hot water extracts of the dried gum are taken orally as a carminative, an antispasmodic, and an expectorant in chronic bronchitis Hot water extracts of the dried resin are taken orally for an upset stomach Dried gum is applied vaginally as a contraceptive before or after coitus Asafoetida is listed by the Council of Europe as a natural source of food flavouring (category 5)

Constituents: x x x

Gum fraction: L-Arabinose, asafoetidin, galactose, glucose, glucuronic acid, rhamnose, and umbelliferon Resins: Asaresinotannols, coumarin, coumarin–sesquiterpene complexes, farnesiferols A, farnesiferols B, farnesiferols C, and ferulic acid esters Essential oils: Monoterpenes and sesquiterpene derivatives

Part(s) Used: Oleo gum resin is obtained by incising the living rhizomes and roots. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Asafoetida can be used in both the food and pharmaceutical industries. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x

During lactation it should be avoided

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4.16. Asian Pigeon Wings, Butterfly Pea Scientific Name: Clitoria ternatea L. Family: Fabaceae, Leguminosae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-cancer, anti-depressant, antipyretic, anti-fungal, anti-inflammatory, anti-microbial, antioxidant, anti-rheumatic, anti-stress, antitussive, diuretic, immunomodulatory, laxative, memory enhancer, reduces blood cholesterol, is a sedative, treats ear disease, treats a sore throat, treats infertility, treats skin disease, and has wound healing properties (Akbar 2020; Adisakwattana, Pasukamonset, and Chusak 2020). x x

A root infusion is also used to relieve bladder and urethra irritation due to its demulcent and diuretic properties The seeds are a powerful cathartic

Constituents: x x x x

Flavonol glycosides: Kaempferol, quercetin, myricetin 3neohesperidosides, 3-rutinosides Anthocyanin: Ternatins Fatty acids: Linoleic, linolenic, oleic, palmitic, and stearic acid Others: Alkaloid, flavonoid, fixed oil, glycoside, resin, saponin, starch, steroid, tannin

Part(s) Used: Leaf, flower, seed and root. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Its dried or fresh flowers can be used for herbal teas and other beverages. In Thailand, the flowers are used for stimulating hair growth and coloring one’s hair. x

“The blue colour of the flowers is commonly used as a natural source of food colouring to prepare various delicacies. For example, it is often used to make blue glutinous or jasmine rice” (Adisakwattana, Pasukamonset, and Chusak 2020)

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Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.17. Ash, Manna Ash Scientific Name: Fraxinus ornus L. Family: Oleaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-cancer, anti-cough, antipyretic, anti-inflammatory, anti-microbial, antioxidant, anti-obesity, anti-rheumatic, anti-viral, diuretic, diaphoretic, expectorant, immunomodulatory, and laxative. It can be used in photodynamic damage prevention and for wound healing (I. Kostova 2001). x x

“Manna is naturally extracted from the tree’s bark by biting insects or physically retrieved by a human” (I. Kostova 2001) “The manna ash has a white-yellowish colour” (I. Kostova 2001)

Constituents: x

x x x x

Flavonoids: Apigenin, gallic acids, quercetin, rutin from the leaves, rhamnetin from the flowers, caffeic, p-coumaric quercetin 3-O-rhamnoside, gallic, quercetin 3-O-galactoside quercetin, and tannins from the bark of the ash tree Coumarin: Esculin, esculetin, fraxin, and fraxetin Secoiridoids: Framoside, hydroxyframoside A and hydroxyframoside B, hydroxyornoside, insularoside, ligstroside, and oleuropein Phenylethanoids: Calceolarioside B, isoacteoside lugrandoside, isolugrandoside, and verbascoside Mineral elements: Calcium, cadmium, cobalt, magnesium, manganese, and nickel

Part(s) Used: Leaf, fresh bark and manna. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The dried leaves and bark of the tree can be used in herbal tea, and in some skin products for topical use like ointments and lotions. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.18. Asparagus Scientific Name: Asparagus officinale L., A. officinalis L. Family: Asparagaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-cancer (cancer treatment in the Chinese and Indian systems of medicine), anti-fungal, anti-inflammatory, anti-microbial, antimutagenic, anti-oxidative, anti-rheumatic, anti-viral, antiobesity, diuretic, immunomodulatory, cardiac tonic, sedative, diaphoretic, laxative, reduces blood pressure, relieves toothache, and stimulates hair growth (Iqbal et al. 2017; Shao et al. 1997). x x

Asparagus has been used in homoeopathy for the cure of heart pain “Its fruits and seeds are also used for the treatment of pimples and blood purification, respectively” (Iqbal et al. 2017)

Constituents: x x x x x

Saponins: Asparagosides, asparagusic acid, and steroidal glycosides Flavonoids: Rutin, kaempferol, and quercetin Vitamins: A, B, B9, C, E, and K Mineral elements: Calcium, iron, magnesium, and potassium Others: Essential oils, resin, and tannins

Part(s) Used: Shoot and seeds. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The shoots of asparagus are widely used in cookery (such as salads). The seeds have been used in coffee substitutes and some medical products. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x

Those with urinary tract inflammations should not use it

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4.19. Avocado, Avocat Scientific Name: Persea americana, P. gratissima Family: Lauraceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-cancer, anti-depressant, antidiabetic anti-fungal, anti-inflammatory, anti-microbial, anti-mutagenic, anti-obesity, antioxidant, carminative, diuretic, expectorant, hair and skin tonic, heart tonic, and laxative. It promotes menstruation, is used to prevent osteoporosis, reduces blood cholesterol, reduces the risk of diabetes, and acts as a sight enhancer (Ross 2003). x x x x x x

“Hot water extracts of its fresh leaves are taken orally to treat hypertension or induce diuresis” (Ross 2003) “Such extracts are also taken orally as a cure for high blood pressure” (Ross 2003) In the Canary Islands its dried bark is used as a food Its dried fruits are eaten for liver troubles “Its fresh seeds are eaten for hepatitis, liver troubles and amenorrhea” (Ross 2003) “Juice from its fresh seeds is applied to the eye for eye problems” (Ross 2003)

Constituents: x x x x

Essential oils: Anethol, estragole, and γ-terpinene Fatty acids: Arachidonic, linoleic, palmitic, and stearic acid Vitamins: A, B, C, D, E, H, and K Others: β-Carotene, omega-3, quercetin, and quercetin-3-diglucoside

Part(s) Used: Leaf, fruit and seed oil. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The fruit is widely used for culinary purposes (e.g., in salads), whereas avocado oil is used in cosmetics, for instance in hair and skin products. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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It is very good and nutritious during pregnancy and the lactation period

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4.20. Balloon Vine Scientific Name: Cardiospermum halicacabum L. Family: Sapindaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-diabetic, anti-cancer, anti-diarrhoea, antipyretic, anti-fungal, anti-inflammatory, anti-malaria, anti-microbial, antioxidant, anti-rheumatic, anti-tumour, antitussive, diaphoretic, digestive, diuretic, laxative, reduces blood glucose, and is used as a treatment stomach-ache (Ferrara 2018; Akbar 2020). x x x

x x

“The root and leaves are used as a decoction for rheumatism, nervous diseases, piles, chronic bronchitis, phthisis, and amenorrhea” (Akbar 2020) “Its aqueous leaf extracts significantly increase the sperm count, sperm motility, and serum testosterone level” (Akbar 2020) “Cardiospermum is the combination of the Latin words ‘cardio’, meaning heart, and ‘sperm’, meaning seed, and refers to the white heart-shaped pattern on the seed. Halicacabum on the other hand means container for salt” (Ferrara 2018) “This plant’s preparations are currently used to treat inflammatory dermatitis, hives, eczema, and insect bites” (Ferrara 2018) “The oil of the seeds is rich in unsaturated fatty acids and is a valuable aid in preventing cardiovascular diseases” (Ferrara 2018)

Constituents: x x x x

Flavonoids: Apigenin, apigenin-7-O-glucoside, kaempferol, luteolin, quercetin, and rutin Mineral elements: Aluminium, calcium, carbonate, chloride, iron, magnesium, phosphate, phosphorus, potassium, sodium, sulphate, zinc, copper and manganese Phenolic acids: p-Coumaric acid, gallic acid, 4-hydroxybenzoic acid, hydroquinone, and protocatechuic acid Sterols: Campestrina, β-sitosterina, and stigma-sterin

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Fatty acids: Archaic, behenic, linoleic, linolenic, oleic, palmitic, and stearic acids Others: Alkaloid, glycosides, mucilage, saponin, and tannin

Part(s) Used: All parts of the plant. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Every part of this plant is useful as food and is also used in the pharmaceutical and cosmetics industries. x

The flour obtained by grinding the inner part of the seeds, mixed with cereals flour, is an excellent baking ingredient

Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.21. Banana Scientific Name: Musa sapientum L. Family: Musaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-cancer, antioxidant, anti-worm, anti-viral, blood pressure regulator, blood cholesterol regulator, diuretic, sedative, and skin tonic. It aids with weight loss; improves digestive health, heart health, and kidney health; it moderates blood glucose levels; and is a powerful and energising food for athletes. Constituents: x x x

Vitamins: A, B, B2, B3, B5, B6, B9, C, and E Mineral elements: Calcium, copper, iron, magnesium, manganese, potassium, phosphor, sodium, and zinc Others: Fibre

Part(s) Used: Fruit. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The banana is widely used for nutritional and culinary purposes (in cakes and desserts for instance). It is also used in some cosmetic products. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x x

Those with blood glucose and diabetes should probably avoid eating many bananas It is very good and nutritious during pregnancy and lactation

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4.22. Barberry, Berberis Scientific Name: Berberis vulgaris L. Family: Berberidaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-Alzheimer, anti-arthritis, anti-bacterial, anticancer, anti-diabetic, anti-eczema, anti-epileptic, antipyretic, antifungal, anti-inflammatory, anti-microbial, anti-rheumatic, antiseptic, antispasmodic, blood purifier, diaphoretic, diuretic, expectorant, laxative, and sedative. It reduces blood cholesterol and blood pressure, and is used as a treatment for liver disease (Williamson, Driver, and K. Baxter 2010 c2009; Akbar 2020). x x

x

In Bulgarian folk medicine, its root extracts have been used for rheumatic and other chronic inflammatory disorders “In Iranian traditional medicine, the fruits are credited with antiarrhythmic and sedative properties” (Fatehi et al. 2005). An ethnomedical survey of conventional healers of Shiraz (Iran) showed the fruit decoction was being used by more than half to treat hypertension “In Moroccan traditional medicine, it is used to treat liver disorders” (Laamech et al. 2017)

Constituents: x x x

Iso-quinoline alkaloids: Berberine (the most important in this plant), berbamine, columbamine, jatrorrhizine, magnoflorine, oxyacanthine, oxyberberine, and palmatine Organic acids: Chelidonic, citric, and malic acid Others: Mucilage, pectin, resin, tannin, and vitamin C

Part(s) Used: Fruit, leaf, stem and root. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Barberry fruits are used for food, jam, etc., and also in some medicine. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.23. Barley Scientific Name: Hordeum vulgare Family: Graminaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-cancer (especially colon), antipyretic, anti-fungal, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anti-viral, diuretic, expectorant and laxative. It has estrogenic activity and influences hair growth. It reduces blood cholesterol and blood glucose, as well as the risk of heart diseases and diabetes (Ross, 2005). x x x

x x

“The decoction of the dried grains is taken orally for diarrhoea, diabetes, and to treat respiratory and urinary tract infections” (Ross 2005) “Hot water extracts of the dried grains are taken orally for renal inflammation, kidney disease, dermatitis, inflammations, erysipelas, and skin eruptions” (Ross 2005) “In Iran, barley flour is widely used as a food and a decoction of the dried grains is also used externally as an emollient and applied on haemorrhoids and infected ulcers. It is also used as an antipyretic and antiscorbutic; for nephritis, bladder inflammation, gout, and enemas; and is applied to the nose to reduce internasal inflammation” (Ross 2005) “Compresses of its boiled grains are used to soothe rheumatic and joint pains. An infusion of the dried grain is used as a galactagogue” (Ross 2005) “In Korea, hot water extracts of the dried entire plant are taken orally for ancylostomiasis, beriberi, coughs, dysentery, influenza, jaundice, measles, nephritis, syphilis, and for thrush in infants” (Ross 2005)

Constituents: x x x

Vitamins: B1, B2, B3, B6, E, and K Mineral elements: Calcium, copper, iron, magnesium, phosphorus, manganese, molybdenum, niacin, selenium, sodium, and zinc Alkaloids: Hordenine

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Fatty acids: Linoleic, oleic, palmitic and stearic acid

Part(s) Used: Grain and leaf. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: It's available in many forms, ranging from hulled barley to barley grits, flakes and flour. It is widely used for baking bread, in cooking more generally, in medicine, and in beer. Some cosmetic hair and skin products with barley exist. x

The juice of barley grass is also available, and is rich in vitamin A, B and C, as well as minerals such as calcium, iron, magnesium, potassium, and phosphorus

Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.24. Basil Scientific Name: Ocimum basilicum L. Family: Labiatae, Lamiaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-Alzheimer’s, anti-arthritis, anti-bacterial, anti-cancer, antipyretic, anti-fungal, anti-inflammatory (helps with swelling), anti-microbial, anti-mutagenic, antioxidant, anti-worm, digestible, diuretic, laxative, and sedative. It increases lactation and the libido. It also promotes menstruation and acts as a stress reliever (Q. X. Li and C. L. Chang 2016). Constituents: Leaves x x x x

Essential oils: Anethole, cineol and O-cymene, estragole, eugenol, linalool, and methyl eugenol Vitamins: A, B6, C, E, and K Mineral elements: Calcium, iron, magnesium, phosphorus, potassium, sodium, and zinc Others: Caffeic acid, flavonoids and tannins

Seeds x

Mucilage

Part(s) Used: Seed and leaf. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Basil leaves are used often in cookery, in juices and in herbal teas. x x

x

Its seeds can be used as a beverage or mixed with other juice. After absorbing water, the seeds increase in size “Basil oil has been widely used as a culinary flavouring, in the perfume industry, in food preservation and safety, and in food production more generally” (Q. X. Li and C. L. Chang 2016) “Basil oil has been used in sausages and other meat products. It has been added to cheeses and other dairy products and as an additive in alcoholic and non-alcoholic beverages.

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Besides this, basil oil is widely used in combination with different spices and herbs in confectionery products, sweets, bakery products, puddings, condiments, vinegar, ice creams, mustards, and pickled vegetables” (Q. X. Li and C. L. Chang 2016) Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x

During pregnancy it should be avoided

Seeds after absorbing water

Dry Seeds

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4.25. Bastard Teak, Bengal Kino, Sacred Tree Scientific Name: Butea monosperma L. Family: Fabaceae, Leguminosae Health Benefit(s): Anti-Alzheimer’s, anti-diabetic, antipyretic, antiinflammatory, antioxidant, anti-parasite, anti-viral, anti-worm, astringent, diuretic, laxative, and liver tonic. It is appetizing and a carminative. It also reduces blood glucose (Akbar 2020). x x x x x

“The bark, leaves, flowers, seeds and gum mainly have anthelmintic and aphrodisiac properties, but are also appetizing and work as a laxative” (Akbar 2020) “The stem bark is used to treat dyspepsia, diarrhoea, dysentery, diabetes, ulcers, sore throats and snake bites” (Akbar 2020) “The decoction of leaves is also reportedly used for phthisis, diabetes, menorrhagia, and as a retention enema in diarrhoea and dysentery cases” (Akbar 2020) “Externally, its leaves are used to disperse boils, pimples, buboes, and tumorous haemorrhoids” (Akbar 2020) “Due to its orange-red beautiful tree flowers, it is commonly called Flame of the Forest” (Akbar 2020)

Constituents: x

Alkaloid, apigenin, aurones triterpene phenolics, buteaspermin A, buteaspermin B, buteaspermanol, butin, butein, butrin, chalcones, coreopsin, iso-butrin, iso-coreopsin, luteolin, palasitrin, saponin, tannin, vanillic acid, and vitamin C

Part(s) Used: Leaf, flower, seed, bark and gum. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: It is used in the pharmaceutical industry for different purposes. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.26. Bean, Common Bean Scientific Name: Phaseolus vulgaris L. Family: Fabaceae, Leguminosae Health Benefit(s): Anti-cancer, anti-fungal, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antioxidant, anti-rheumatic, anti-viral, diuretic, laxative and sedative. It improves heart health and gut health; prevents a fatty liver; promotes menstruation; and reduces blood cholesterol, blood glucose, and blood pressure. Constituents: x x x

Mineral elements: Calcium, iron, magnesium, and phosphorus Vitamins: A, B1, B6, and C Others: Fibre

Part(s) Used: Beans. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The common bean is widely used in the food industry. x

Other beans, such as the black bean, black-eyed pea, kidney bean, mung bean, navy bean, and pinto bean, are also used in the food industry

Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x x

The germinated beans have a toxic capacity and should not be used People with high blood urea and gout should be careful using beans

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Navy Beans

Kidney Beans

Pinto Beans

Black-eye Beans

Black Beans

Mung Beans

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4.27. Bearberry, Uva-Ursi Scientific Name: Arctostaphylos uva-ursi L. Family: Ericaceae Health Benefit(s): Antiseptic, diuretic. x

Its standardized herbal medicinal products are used to relieve symptoms of mild recurrent lower urinary tract infections in women based upon long-standing use (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007).

Constituents: x x x x x x

Flavonoids: Flavonols and their glycosides, including isoquercitrin, hyperin, myricitrin, and quercitrin Iridoids: Asperuloside and monotropein Quinones: Mainly arbutin, methyl-arbutin (glycosides), and piceoside Tannins: Ellagic and gallic acids Terpenoids: α-Amyrin, α-amyrin acetate, β-amyrin, lupeol, uvaol, and ursolic acid Others: Allantoin, essential oil, malic and quinic acid, resin, and wax

Part(s) Used: Leaf. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: It is used in the pharmaceutical industry for different purposes. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x

During pregnancy and lactation, it should be avoided

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4.28. Belladonna Scientific Name: Atropa belladonna L. Family: Solanaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bronchial, anti-cancer, antipyretic, antiworm, anti-rheumatic, anti-spasmodic, antitussive, and diuretic (Kwakye et al. 2018). x x

x

x

x

“This plant is used as an anticholinergic and is an approved drug and homeopathic remedy of the Food and Drug Administration” (FDA) “The name belladonna, meaning “beautiful woman” originates from the plant's historical use by women in Renaissance Italy to enhance their appearance. In this era, women used an extract derived from the Atropa belladonna plant's berries as eye drops to dilate the pupils of their eyes, seen as an attractive feature at the time” (Berdai et al. 2012) “Atropine and scopolamine have effects on: the peripheral glands, specifically on the parasympathetic post-ganglionic fibres located in exocrine glands; on smooth and cardiac muscle; on the intramural neurons, causing decreased sympathetic impact on the eyes; on the gastrointestinal tract; on the heart; and on the salivary and bronchial glands” (Caksen et al. 2003; Joshi, P., Wicks, A.C., Munshi, S.K. 2003) “Atropine is a mainstay in the treatment of acute organophosphate poisoning, associated with the inhibition of acetylcholinesterase activity. Atropine can be used to relieve some symptoms associated with organophosphate poisoning, including sweating, salivation, rhinorrhoea, lacrimation, nausea, vomiting and diarrhoea, and help in regulating bradycardia and circulatory depressions” (Chuang 2010) “Scopolamine is currently used as a spasmolytic, mydriatic, and during recovery from anaesthesia and surgery. It is also used for prevention against vertigo” (Beyer, Drummer, and Maurer 2009)

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Constituents: x x

Alkaloids: Atropine, hyoscine, hyoscyamine, and scopolamine Other: Tannin

Part(s) Used: Leaf, fruit, seed and root. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The extract of this plant is used in the pharmaceutical industry for different purposes. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: This plant is very toxic. Just use the standard products following medical doctors’ recommendations.

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4.29. Bergamot Scientific Name: Citrus bergamia Family: Rutaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-fungal, anti-inflammatory, anti-microbial, antioxidant, antiseptic, digestive, diuretic, and sedative. It improves heart health and the immune system; reduces blood cholesterol and LDL cholesterol, fevers, pain, and blood glucose; relieves depression; treats sore throats and mouth and skin infections; and is used as a urinary antiseptic (Navarra et al. 2015; Avila-Sosa et al. 2016; Nauman and Johnson 2019). Constituents: x x x

Flavonoids: C-Glucosides, flavones O-glucosides, and scoparin Essential oils: α-Bergapten, geraniol, linalool, linalyl acetate limonene, monoterpenes, myrcene, nerol, α-pinene, β-pinene, α-terpineol, and γ-terpinene Others: Coumarins, pigments, and psoralens

Part(s) Used: Fruit. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: “Bergamot essential oil is mainly used in the international perfume industry. It has the function of fixing aromatic fragrance bouquets, and can also be used in combination with other fragrances” (Avila-Sosa et al. 2016). x x

In the food industry, bergamot essential oil is used as a flavouring ingredient in many products such as teas, confectionary products and soft drinks The cosmetic and pharmaceutical applications of bergamot oils including dermatology, gynaecology, dentistry, and ophthalmology are often reported

Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.30. Bilberry, Blueberry Scientific Name: Vaccinium myrtillus Family: Ericaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, antimicrobial, antioxidant, anti-rheumatic, anti-spasmodic, anti-viral, and diuretic. It controls diabetes; acts against dysentery and haemorrhoids; improves the immune system; reduces blood cholesterol, blood pressure, and fevers; is a sight enhancer; and treats diarrhoea and mouth infections (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007). x x

“It can be applied for eye inflammation, burns, and skin infections” (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007) The Council of Europe lists the bilberry as a natural source of food flavouring (category N1)1

Constituents: Fruits x x x x

Flavonoid glycosides: Anthocyanins (particularly glycosides of cyanidin, delphinidin, malvidin, peonidin, and petunidin), quercetin-3-glucuronide, and hyperoside Acids: Ascorbic, citric, and malic acid Polyphenols: Catechin, epicatechin, and tannins Others: Pectins, and vitamin C

Leaves x x x

Flavonoids: Quercetin Phenolic acids: Caffeic, p-coumaric, p-hydroxybenzoic, melilotic, and protocatechuic acid Others: Iridoids and tannins

Part(s) Used: Leaf, fruit and root.

1

This category indicates that there are no restrictions on the use of the bilberry in foods.

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Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The fruit can be used in food (e.g., jams and marmalades) and beverages. It is also used in some medicines, like eye medicine. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x

During pregnancy and lactation, it should be avoided

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4.31. Birch Scientific Name: Betula pendula Family: Betulaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-diarrhoea, anti-inflammatory, anti-obesity, anti-rheumatic, antiseptic, antispasmodic, antitussive, anti-worm, blood purifier, diaphoretic, digestive, diuretic, and sedative. It reduces blood cholesterol, blood pressure, and urinary infection, and is a treatment for dissolving kidney stones and diseases of the digestive system (Azman et al. 2017; Lachowicz et al. 2019). Constituents: x x x x

Resins: Betulin Acids: Ascorbic, betulinic, caffeic, chlorogenic, gallic, nicotic, and salicylic acid Flavonoids: Avicularin, hyperoside, myricetin and quercetin Others: Betuloside heteroside, essential oil, gaultherine heteroside, saponins, and tannins

Part(s) Used: Leaf, flower and bark. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The leaves and bark oil are used in some countries as a massage oil to reduce pain. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.32. Bistort Scientific Name: Polygonum bistorta L. Family: Polygonaceae Health Benefit(s): Antipyretic, anti-inflammatory, and diuretic. It is used against diarrhoea (Williamson, Driver, and K. Baxter 2010 c2009). x x

Topical applications are used for the treatment of gingivitis and inflammation of the respiratory tract “Bistort is also used to treat inflamed mucous membranes and skin disorders, burns, sore nipples, gingivitis, bleeding gums, pharyngitis, vaginal discharge, haemorrhoids and anal fissures” (Williamson, Driver, and K. Baxter 2010 c2009)

Constituents: Rhizomes x x

Flavonoids: Catechins and quercetin Others: Ellagic acid, flobafen (a reddish-brown pigment), polyphenolic, tannins and triterpenes

Leaves and Flowers x x

Vitamins: A and C Others: Amidon, calcium oxalate, and oxy methyl anthraquinone

Part(s) Used: Leaf, flower and rhizome. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The young leaves can be used in salads or cooked and prepared like spinach, and are a good source of vitamin A and C. Part of the plant can also be used in some topical medicine as a lotion. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.33. Black Bryony Scientific Name: Tamus communis L. Family: Dioscoreaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anti-rheumatic, antiseptic, diuretic, and laxative. It also promotes menstruation and reduces nerve pain (Bilušić et al. 2019). x x

“Black bryony is used in traditional medicine to reduce inflammatory pain” (Bilušić et al. 2019) “Its rhizomes and berries have been reported to be used to treat rheumatism, arthrosis, lumbago and dermatosis” (Bilušić et al. 2019)

Constituents: x x x

Carotenoids: β-Carotene, lycoxanthin, lutein, neoxanthin, and violaxanthin Flavonoids: Kaempferol glycosides Others: Alkaloids and saponin.

Part(s) Used: Fruit, buds and rhizome. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: It is used in the pharmaceutical industry and has different purposes. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x x

During pregnancy and lactation, it should be avoided Only use the standard products following a medical doctor’s recommendation

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4.34. Black Cohosh Scientific Name: Cimicifuga racemosa L. Family: Ranunculaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-inflammatory, anti-spasmodic, anti-rheumatic, antitussive, and sedative. It increases lactation and reduces blood pressure (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007). x

x

“It has been used for intercostal myalgia, sciatica, whooping cough, chorea, tinnitus, dysmenorrhoea, uterine colic, muscular rheumatism, and rheumatoid arthritis” (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007) “Modern use of black cohosh is focused on its use in treating peri- and postmenopausal symptoms” (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007)

Constituents: x x x x x

Alkaloids: Cytisine and N-methylcytisine Flavonoids: Iso-flavonoid Phenylpropanoids: Iso-ferulic, ferulic acids, and methylcaffeate Terpenoids: Actein, cimicifugoside, 23-epi-26-deoxyactein, and cimiracemoside A, C and F Others: Acetic, butyric, caffeic, formic, fukinolic, palmitic, and salicylic acid, as well as cimicifugic acids A, B, E and F, and glyceryl-L-palmitate

Part(s) Used: Root and rhizome. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: It is used in the pharmaceutical industry for different purposes. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x

Individuals with oestrogen-sensitive tumours, such as certain breast cancers, should not take black cohosh preparations

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4.35. Black Cumin Scientific Name: Nigella sativa Family: Ranunculaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-Alzheimer’s, anti-diabetic, anti-cancer, antifungal, anti-inflammatory, anti-microbial, anti-rheumatic, anti-viral, anti-stress, antitussive, antispasmodic, antioxidant, and anti-allergic, it is also a carminative, digestive, diaphoretic, diuretic, and a laxative. It helps with abdominal disorders, asthma, coughs, diabetes, dizziness, dyspnoea, eczema, hydrophobia, intrinsic haemorrhages and jaundice; it is an immunomodulatory; it increases lactation; it reduces blood pressure; and it is a treatment for ascites (Bordoni et al. 2019; Mukhtar et al. 2019). x

x x

“Black cumin seeds can be used for recovery from/as a remedy for headaches, fatigue, loss of appetite, fever, common cold, toothaches, constipation, piles, skin diseases, paralysis, anorexia, conjunctivitis, flatulence, dyspepsia, diarrhoea, dropsy, amenorrhea and dysmenorrhea” (Mukhtar et al. 2019) “The oil of black cumin seeds is frequently used in the Mediterranean area for its anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant activities” (Bordoni et al. 2019) “The oil can have antitussive, cardioprotective, gastroprotective, hepatoprotective, and anti-hypertensive properties. Besides this, it inhibits histamine release from mast cells, suggesting its potential use for treating asthma” (Bordoni et al. 2019)

Constituents: x x x

Vitamins: A, B1, B2, B6, B3, B9, C, and E Mineral elements: Calcium, copper, iron, magnesium, manganese, phosphorus, selenium, sodium, and zinc Fatty acids: Arachidic, arachidonic, eicosanoic, linoleic, linolenic, myristic, oleic, palmitic, palmitoleic and stearic acid

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Essential oils: Camphor, carvacrol, p-cymene, linalool, longifolene, α-pinene, β-pinene, sabinene, α-thujene, thymol, and thymoquinone Others: Alkaloids, ascorbic acid, β-carotene, carotenoids, fibre, moisture, oil, and saponin

Part(s) Used: Seeds. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Black cumin is widely used in the food, beverage, and pharmaceutical industries. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x

During pregnancy, oral use should be avoided, but topical application will cause no problems

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4.36. Black Nightshade Scientific Name: Solanum nigrum L. Family: Solanaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-rheumatic, anti-inflammatory, antitussive, anti-spasmodic, anti-cancer, antioxidant, and anti-hepatitis, it is also a laxative, sedative, and diuretic. It helps with the libido, seizures, epilepsy, ulcers, some eye infections, and jaundice, and reduces blood pressure (Campisi et al. 2019; Taherpour et al. 2017). x

x

“Many research studies have recently reported that Solanum nigrum shows anticancer activity for hepatocellular carcinoma cells, human ovarian carcinoma cells, human colorectal carcinoma cells, and human endometrial carcinoma cells” (Campisi et al. 2019) “One fascinating study has also shown that the dietary effects of its leaves may protect against cognitive and neurochemical impairments induced by scopolamine. Hence, this vegetable could be used as a source of functional foods and nutraceuticals to prevent and manage mental impairment in diseases such as Alzheimer’s” (Campisi et al. 2019)

Constituents: x x x x x

Vitamins: A and C Mineral elements: Calcium, iron, and phosphorus Alkaloids: Solanine, solamargine, and solasonine Essential oils: Dillapiole, α-Cadinol, para-Cymene, β-damascenone, α-Phellandrene, limonene and β-Pinene Others: Fibre, steroidal glycosides, and steroidal alkaloids. The leaves are rich in polyphenols, protein, and amino acid

Part(s) Used: Leaf, stem and fruit. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: It is used in the pharmaceutical industry for different purposes. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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Only use the standard products following a medical doctor’s recommendations Parts of this plant can be highly toxic to livestock and humans, and it is considered a weed

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4.37. Blackberry Scientific Name: Rubus fruticosus L. Family: Rosaceae Health Benefit(s): Antiseptic, anti-rheumatic, antitussive, antipyretic, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and anti-cancer, it is also a diuretic, blood purifier, laxative, and diaphoretic. It reduces blood glucose, blood pressure, and blood cholesterol; stimulates the appetite; heals wounds and regenerates the skin; helps absorb iron; and boosts brain health (Zafra-Rojas et al. 2018). Constituents: x x x x

Organic acids: Citric, malic, tartaric, fumaric, and shikimic acids Vitamins: A, C, and K Mineral elements: Manganese and potassium Others: Anthocyanins, flavanols, chlorogenic acid, fibre and procyanidins

Part(s) Used: Fruit, flower and leaf. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Blackberries are mainly consumed fresh and are used to manufacture products such as juices, jam, marmalades, and concentrates. x x

The extract of the fruits is used in some cosmetic and skin products Blackberry leaves can be used to make herbal tea

Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.38. Borage Scientific Name: Borago officinalis L. Family: Boraginaceae Health Benefit(s): Antipyretic, antitussive, anti-inflammatory, antispasmodic, anti-asthmatic, anti-depressant, anti-cold, anti-cough, anti-kidney inflammation, antioxidant, and anti-Alzheimer’s, it is a diaphoretic, diuretic, expectorant, nervous tonic, heart tonic, skin tonic and sedative. It improves heart beat regulation, reduces blood pressure and blood sugar, and has an immunomodulatory effect (D. Tewari et al. 2019). x

“Borage oil is also known to have a hepatoprotective effect in hepatic steatosis or fatty liver disease” (D. Tewari et al. 2019)

Constituents: x x x x x

Acids: Malic and phosphoric acid Vitamins: A and C Mineral elements: Iron, calcium, potassium, zinc, cobalt, manganese, and magnesium Fatty acids: Linoleic, stearic, palmitic, oleic, eicosenoic, erucic, and γ-linolenic acid (an essential component in the seeds) Others: Pyrrolizidine alkaloids, rosmarinic acid, officinalioside, actinidioionoside, roseoside, crotalionoside C and kaempferol 3-O-b-D-galactopyranoside, as well as essential oils

Part(s) Used: Leaf, flower and seed. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Borage is currently being used in diverse areas within the pharmaceutical and beverage industries. It is used for forage, as a dietary supplement and can be found in salads. x

“Borage seed oil is used in cosmetics and skin products” (T.‑K. Lin, Lily Zhong, and Santiago 2017)

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“Its oil has also been utilized in the formulation of nanospheres for different topical formulations, and in the preparation of various drug delivery systems as an absorption enhancer” (Keefe et al. 2003, Modi 2001, 2000)

Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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Borage Seeds Oil Borage Flower

Borage Seeds

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4.39. Broad Beans, Fava Beans Scientific Name: Faba vulgaris, Vicia faba Family: Fabaceae, Leguminosae Health Benefit(s): Anti-cough, diuretic, improves high blood pressure, improves Parkinson’s disease, contains immune-boosting nutrients, and is beneficial for bone health. x

The flour of broad beans is useful for topical applications for skin acne

Constituents: x x x

Mineral elements: Manganese, copper, phosphorous, magnesium, iron, potassium, calcium, selenium, and zinc Vitamins: B1 Others: Fibre, tyramine, vicine, isouramil, convicine, and LDopa (used for Parkinson’s disease and high blood pressure medicine)

Part(s) Used: Flower and fruit. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Broad beans are used in the food and pharmaceutical industries. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x

Because of the vicine, isouramil and convicine in broad beans, people with Fabism or Favism disease should avoid using them

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4.40. Brooklime, Beccabunga Scientific Name: Veronica beccabunga L. Family: Scrophulariaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidative, anti-cancer, antioxidant, anti-angiogenic, anti-Alzheimer’s, anti-Parkinson’s, it is also a diuretic, a laxative, and a purgative. It improves rheumatism, the functioning of the digestive organs, and haemorrhoids; it works as a liver tonic and protective; it dissipates phlegm and swelling; it heals wounds; and it protects the memory (H. Xue et al. 2019). x x

Topical application will improve wounds, eczema, rashes, boils, burns and black dots on the skin The herb has been mentioned in The British Pharmacopoeia. It was recommended as a herbal remedy to treat scurvy and scrofula (a form of tuberculous infection of the lymph nodes mostly in the neck)

Constituents: x x x x

Iridoid glycosides and iridoids: Epiloganic acid, gardoside, arborescosidic acid, anagalloside, alpinoside, erinoside, geniposidic acid, aucubin, and galendin Flavonoids: Luteolin, chrysoeriol, diosmetin, apigenin, quercetin, and circilineol Terpenoids: Aquaticol, β-sitosterol, and daucosterol Others: Arbutin, androsin, shikimic acid, iso-ferulic acid, ferulic acid, protocatechuic acid, veratric acid, iso-vanillic acid, vanillic acid, emodin, rosmarinic acid, and stearic acid

Part(s) Used: All parts of the plant. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: It is used in the pharmaceutical industry for different purposes. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.41. Buckbean, Bogbean, Marsh Trefoil Scientific Name: Menyanthes trifoliata L. Family: Gentianaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-cough, anti-asthmatic, antipyretic, anti-cancer, and anti-inflammatory, it is a diuretic, blood purifier, laxative, eye enhancer, and immunomodulatory. It also improves migraine and headaches (J.‑J. Zhu et al. 2019; T. Kowalczyk et al. 2019). x x

“It has been used as an oral supplement to treat indigestion, sleeplessness, malaise, and glomerulonephritis” (J.‑J. Zhu et al. 2019) It is used as a traditional medicine in Sweden to treat inflammatory diseases of the kidney

Constituents: x x

Glycosides: Menyanthoside (leaves) and loganin (roots) Others: Iridoids, secoiridoids, flavonoids, triterpenes, lignans, phenolic acids, coumarin, essential oils, saccharides, vanillic acid, syringic acid, ferulic acid, sinapinic acid, ellagic acid, hesperidin, chlorogenic acid, rutin and caffeic acid

Part(s) Used: All parts of the plant, but the leaf is most important. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The fresh and dried leaves can be used for herbal tea and in some medicines. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x

“During pregnancy and lactation, it should be avoided” (J.‑J. Zhu et al. 2019)

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4.42. Buckthorn, Common Buckthorn Scientific Name: Rhamnus cathartica L. Family: Rhamnaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-microbial, anti-cancer, antioxidant, and a diuretic, it is a carminative and a strong laxative. It helps with anti-inflammatory intestinal problems, appendicitis, and myalgia (Hamed, Refahy, and Abdel-Aziz 2015). Constituents: x

Anthraquinone, anthrones, flavonoid, geshoidin, sorigenin glycoside, chrysophanol, physcion, musizin, emodin, polyphenolic, procyanidin glycoside, and essential oil

Part(s) Used: Fruit, leaf and bark. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: It is used in the pharmaceutical industry. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x x x x

“The seeds and leaves are considered toxic for humans and animals, causing stomach cramps and laxative effects” (Hamed, Refahy, and Abdel-Aziz 2015) Just use standard products following a medical doctor’s recommendations During pregnancy and lactation, it should be avoided Children should not use it

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4.43. Buckwheat, Common Buckwheat Scientific Name: Fagopyrum esculentum L., F. tataricum L., F. cymosum L. Family: Polygonaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-inflammatory, anti-fatigue, anti-diabetic, antioxidant, anti-microbial, anti-tumour, and an immunomodulatory, it reduces both blood cholesterol and blood pressure (Jianglin Zhao et al. 2018; Ji et al. 2019). x

Common buckwheat has been a crop of secondary importance in many countries as a popular edible and medicinal coarse cereal. Its primary producers are the Russian Federation, China, Ukraine and Kazakhstan

Constituents: x x

x x x x x

Flavonoids: Rutin, quercetin, kaempferol, orientin, and vitexin Essential oils (Fagopyrum esculentum L.): 3-Penten-2-one, 1-hexanol, pentadecane, heptadecane, α-terpineol, octanoic acid, heneicosane, methyl hexadecanoate, 5-methyl-2-furancarboxaldehyde, benzothiazole, and decanoic acid Essential oils (Fagopyrum tataricum L.): 2-Furancarboxaldehyde, ethyl linoleate, nerolidol, 5-methyl-2-furancarboxaldehyde, benzothiazole, and phytol Essential oils (Fagopyrum cymosum L.): t-Muurolol, 1-(3,5dimethyl-2-pyrazinyl)-1-ethanone, and 1-pentanol Mineral elements: Potassium, iron, magnesium, and phosphorus Vitamins: B and P Others: Steroids, D-chiro-inositol, D-fagomine, protein, emodin, polyphenol, saponin, and fatty acids

Part(s) Used: Leaf and seed.

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Herbal and/or Commercial Use: There are many buckwheat-based food products available on the market such as buckwheat flour, noodles, bread, tea, vinegar and sprouts. x x

The fresh leaves can be used in salads It is used in some medicinal products for different purposes

Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

Seeds with Skin

Seeds without Skin

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4.44. Burdock Scientific Name: Arctium lappa L. Family: Compositae Health Benefit(s): Anti-microbial, antiseptic, anti-fungal, antipyretic, anti-tumour, anti-cancer, and anti-rheumatic, it is a carminative, and acts as a diuretic, diaphoretic, and digestive. It reduces blood glucose and lowers cholesterol, as well as being immunomodulatory. In addition, it acts as a blood purifier and stimulates the appetite (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007). x x

“Tincture of burdock is used for topical application as an anti-acne, anti-eczema and anti-psoriasis product” (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007) The Council of Europe lists burdock as a natural source of food flavouring (category N21)

Constituents: x

x x x x x

Acids: Acetic, butyric, caffeic, chlorogenic, gamma-guanidino-n-butyric, α-guanidino-n-isovaleric, trans-2-hexenoic, isovaleric, lauric, linoleic, linolenic, myristic, oleic, palmitic, propionic, stearic, and tiglic acid Aldehydes: Acetaldehyde, benzaldehyde, butyraldehyde, caproicaldehyde, isovaleraldehyde, propionaldehyde, and valeraldehyde Carbohydrates: Inulin, mucilage, pectin, and sugars Terpenoids: Sesquiterpenes arctiol, β-eudesmol, fukinone, costus acid, dehydrocostus lactone, and arctiopicrin Thiophenes: Arctinone-a, arctinone-b, arctinol-a, arctinol-b, arctinal, arctic acid-b, arctic acid-c, methyl arctate-b and arctinone-a acetate Others: Essential oils, bitter compounds, resin, phytosterol, tannin, flavanol, glycosides, arctiin, arctigenin and lignans

1 - This category indicates that burdock can be added to foodstuffs in small quantities, with a possible limitation of an active principle (as yet unspecified) in the final product.

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Part(s) Used: Leaf and root (primary). Herbal and/or Commercial Use: It is used in pharmaceutical and cosmetic products (e.g., for the skin and hair). Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x x

“During pregnancy and lactation, it should be avoided” (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007) Only use standard products following medical doctors’ recommendations

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4.45. Burnet, Salad Burnet Scientific Name: Sanguisorba minor L., S. officinalis L. Family: Rosaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-microbial, anti-diabetic, anti-inflammatory, anti-haemorrhagic1, and antioxidant, it helps with burn and acute diarrhoea, and treats infections such as ulcerative colitis (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007; Williamson, Driver, and K. Baxter 2010 c2009; Karkanis et al. 2019). x x

“The chemical composition of Sanguisorba minor L. has been identified as having anti-tumour and anti-microbial activities” (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007) “The roots of Sanguisorba officinalis L. have been associated with the apoptosis of human gastric carcinoma cells and human retinoblastoma cells” (Karkanis et al. 2019)

Constituents: x x x

Saponins: Pomolic acid and sanguisorbin Tannins: 3,3,4-tri-O-methylellagic acid Others: Essential oils, flavonoids, vitamin C, triterpenoids, and phenols

Part(s) Used: Flower, leaf and root. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: It is used in some medicine; the leaves are usually mixed in vegetable salads. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x

1

“During pregnancy and lactation, it should be avoided” (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007)

- Anti-haemorrhagic agent is a substance that promotes haemostasis (stops bleeding).

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4.46. Butcher's Broom Scientific Name: Ruscus aculeatus L. Family: Asparagaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-worm, anti-inflammatory, antitussive, diuretic, laxative, depurative, and appetizing, it improves the blood circulation system and blood pressure adjustment (Williamson, Driver, and K. Baxter 2010 c2009; Khojasteh et al. 2019). x

“Butcher's Broom has been used as an effective therapy for symptoms associated with varicose veins and haemorrhoids” (Williamson, Driver, and K. Baxter 2010 c2009)

Constituents: x x x

Saponins: Ruscine, ruscoside, ruscogenin, and neoruscogenin Glycosides: Aculeosides A and B Others: Steroids, flavonoids, tannins, coumarins, sparteine, triamine, and glycolic acid

Part(s) Used: Leaf, fruit and rhizome (the important part). Herbal and/or Commercial Use: It is used in the pharmaceutical industry. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.47. Butterbur, Common Butterbur, White Butterbur Scientific Name: Petasites hybridus, P. albus Family: Compositae Health Benefit(s): Anti-infection, antipyretic, anti-hay fever, antirheumatic, anti-cough, anti-allergic, anti-migraine, anti-inflammatory, anti-spasmodic, and antitussive, it is used to treat persistent sores and other skin problems (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007; Friščić et al. 2019). x x

Butterbur root was approved by the German Commission E for supportive therapy for acute spastic pain in the urinary tract, mainly if urinary stones are present The German Commission E advised that the dose of butterbur should be such that the daily intake of unsaturated pyrrolizidine alkaloids, including their N-oxides, is not greater than 1 mg

Constituents: Leaf x x x x

Flavonoids: Astragalin, quercetin, and isoquercitrin Sesquiterpenes: 9-Hydroxy-furanoeremophilanes, 9-oxofuranoeremophilanes, petasin, and neopetasin Essential oils: Euparin, α-eudesmol, β-selinene, β-pinene, βmyrcene, p-cymene, and limonene Others: Tannins, mucilage, triterpenoid, saponins, inulin, and alkaloids

Rhizome and Root x x

Alkaloids: Pyrrolizidine alkaloids Sesquiterpenes: Furanopetasin, and 9-hydroxy-furanoeremophilane

Part(s) Used: Leaf, root and rhizome. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: It is used in the pharmaceutical industry, especially for migraine and hay fever medicine.

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Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x

The duration of use of butterbur should not exceed 4–6 weeks in a year

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4.48. Cabbage Scientific Name: Brassica oleracea L. Family: Cruciferae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-viral, anti-worm, anti-fungal, antiseptic, antioxidant, anti-cancer (especially breast, prostate, gut and liver), anti-cough, diuretic, and hypnotic. It purifies the blood; reduces blood cholesterol and blood glucose; improves digestion, the libido, heart health, and the appetite; and promotes menstruation. x

Cabbage has several varieties; the essential and useful varieties of cabbage are: o o o o o

o

Brassica oleracea Var. botrytis, cauliflower Brassica oleracea Var. capitata, cabbage Brassica oleracea Var. sabellica, kale Brassica oleracea Var. caulorapa, kohlrabi Brassica oleracea Var. gemmifera, brussels sprouts Brassica oleracea Var. italica, broccoli

Constituents: x x x

Vitamins: A, B1, B2, C, and K Mineral elements: Iron, calcium, sodium, phosphor, zinc, magnesium, manganese, and copper Others: Proteins, glycosides, and carbohydrates

Part(s) Used: Leaf. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: All varieties of cabbage are widely used in the food industry. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x x

Excessive use will cause high blood pressure Those with goitre problems should use fewer cabbages

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Cabbage

Cauliflower

Broccoli

Kohlrabi

Brussels

Curly Kale

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4.49. Cacao, Cacao Tree Scientific Name: Theobroma cacao Family: Sterculiaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-tumour, antioxidant, and antiinflammatory, it improves the health of the heart and skin. It also acts as a diuretic and digestive and improves brain function, as well as reducing blood pressure and blood cholesterol (Ebuehi et al. 2019). x

Many epidemiological studies associate cocoa and chocolate consumption with a reduced risk of chronic diseases

Constituents: x x x

x

Alkaloids: Theobromine Flavonoids: Flavanols “Theobroma cacao seeds, commonly consumed in cocoa beverages and chocolate, have been considered a polyphenol-rich food, given their flavonoids and phenolic acids, which are the primary forms of polyphenols. Cocoa is a potential source of more phenolic phytochemicals per serving than tea or red wine. This property enhances its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities” (Ebuehi et al. 2019) Others: Cacaoine, phenol, tannins, steroids, cardiac glycoside, and terpenoids

Part(s) Used: Seed. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Cacao is widely used for the chocolate industry and cosmetic and skin products. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.50. Calendula, Pot Marigold Scientific Name: Calendula officinalis L. Family: Compositae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-fungal, anti-viral, anti-worm, antiseptic, antitussive, antipyretic, anti-haemorrhagic, anti-cancer, anti-spasmodic, and anti-inflammatory, it is a carminative, laxative, diaphoretic, immunomodulatory, diuretic, and is good for heart health. It promotes menstruation, reduces blood pressure, acts as a blood purifier, and treats gastric and duodenal ulcers (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007; Givol et al. 2019). x x x x

“Topical application helps treat eczema, proctitis, lymphadenoma, inflammations, wounds, acne and skin rashes” (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007) It is used for conjunctivitis in eye lotions The German Commission E approved internal and external use for the inflammation of oral and pharyngeal mucosa and exterior use to treat poorly healing sores “In vitro studies with calendula alcohol extract have demonstrated additional biological effects. These effects include an increase in the proliferation and migration of human fibroblasts” (Givol et al. 2019)

Constituents: x x x x

Flavonoids: Quercetin, narcissin, neohesperidoside, and rutin Terpenoids: α-Amyrin, β-amyrin, lupeol, longispinogenin, oleanolic acid, arnidiol, brein, calenduladiol, erythrodiol, faradiol, and faradiol-3-myristic acid ester Essential oils: Menthone, iso-menthone, caryophyllene, αionone, and β-ionone Others: Polysaccharides, calendulin, coumarins, quinones, amino acid, and carotenoid pigments

Part(s) Used: Flower (the main and essential part) and leaf.

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Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The large yellow or orange flowers and leaves of the plant can be used in the form of an infusion, tincture, liquid extract, as a cream, or as an ointment for numerous uses (including skin and hair products). Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x

During pregnancy and lactation, oral use should be avoided

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4.51. Caltrops, Land Caltrops Scientific Name: Tribulus terrestris Family: Zygophyllaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-worm, anti-bacterial, antiseptic, antipyretic, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anti-diabetic, anti-cancer, anti-allergic, carminative, and diuretic, it improves the libido and sperm parameters in men. It reduces blood pressure and blood glucose; acts as a blood purifier; promotes menstruation; and improves blood circulation and heart health (C. Tian et al. 2019). x

Topical application of the oil of this plant improves swelling and helps with rheumatism

Constituents: x x

Flavonoids: Quercetin3- gentiobioside, kaempferol3- gentiobioside, astragaloside, isoquercitrin, sumaflavone, apigenin-6,8 and glucoside Others: Fatty acids, saponins, and alkaloids

Part(s) Used: Leaf, root and fruit. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: It is used in the pharmaceutical industry for different purposes. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.52. Camphor, Camphor Tree Scientific Name: Cinnamomum camphora L. Family: Lauraceae Health Benefit(s): Abortifacient, anti-worm, anti-bacterial, anti-fungal, antiseptic, anti-viral, antitussive, anti-spasmodic, anti-rheumatic, anti-cough, carminative, anti-skin inflammatory, anti-acne, diaphoretic, improves blood circulation, and decreases libido (L. Wu et al. 2019). x

Pharmacological studies have revealed that the plant possesses a wide range of bioactive properties

Constituents: x x x x x x

Sterols: β-sitosterol and daucosterol Fatty acids: Tricosanoic acid Lignans: Di-methylmatairesinol Flavonoids: Luteolin, luteolin-7-O-ß-D glucoside, tricetin7-methyl ether, and quercetin-3-O-ß-D-glcoside Essential oils: Camphor and safrole Others: Natural camphor, triterpene, flavones and polyphenols

Part(s) Used: All parts of the tree contain essential oils (the crystal of the camphor is a form of solid volatile oil). Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Camphor is used in some unique and expensive perfumes. Besides, it is used in some skin products as a soap, cream, lotion, drop or topical solution. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x

Use camphor for topical applications only

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Crystal of the camphor

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4.53. Caper, Caper Bush, Common Caper Scientific Name: Capparis spinosa L. Family: Capparidaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-microbial, anti-bacterial, anti-fungal, anticough, anti-hepatitis, antioxidant, anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory, anti-rheumatic, anti-allergic, anti-histamines, diuretic, expectorant, immunomodulatory, and a brain booster, it reduces blood cholesterol, reduces blood pressure, has a beneficial cardiovascular effect, and is useful for people with diabetes (Mollica et al. 2019). Constituents: x x x

x x x

Fatty acids: Palmitic acid Phenolic components: Gallic acid, catechin, chlorogenic acid, vanillic acid, epicatechin, syringic acid, rutin, sinapic acid, naringin, naringenin, benzoic acid, and quercetin Essential oils: 2,4-Dimethyl-1-heptene, hexanal, tetradecane, pentadecane, tricosane, docosane, pentacosane, heptacosane, nonacosane, hexadecanoic acid, and octadecanoic acid Rhamnoglucoside: Capparirutine Vitamins: C and E Others: Pectin, saponin, alkaloids, terpenoids, and cappariside

Part(s) Used: Fruit, bud and root. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Caper fruits are used in foods and salads. Besides this the extract of the plant is used in some medicine as a capsule and pill. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.54. Capsicum, Chili Pepper, Red Pepper, Cayenne Pepper Scientific Name: Capsicum frutescens L., C. annuum L. Family: Solanaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, antiseptic, anti-asthmatic, anticancer, antioxidant, antitussive, anti-spasmodic, anti-rheumatic, antiswelling/anti-inflammatory, antipyretic, carminative, diaphoretic, diuretic, and digestive, it improves blood circulation and reduces blood cholesterol (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007). x x

“Topical application is recommended for joint and rheumatism pain” (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007) The Council of Europe lists capsicum as a natural source of food flavouring (category N2). This category indicates that capsicum can be added to foodstuffs in small quantities, with a possible limitation of an active principle (as yet unspecified) in the final product

Constituents: x x x x

Capsaicinoids: Capsaicin, 6,7-dihydrocapsaicin, nordihydrocapsaicin, homodihydrocapsaicin, and homocapsaicin Carotenoid pigments: Capsanthin, capsorubin, carotene, and lutein Vitamins: A and C Others: Essential oils

Part(s) Used: Fruit. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Capsicum is commonly used in both food and medicine products (in the former as a spice and in the latter as a topical ointment). Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x

During pregnancy and lactation, oral use should be avoided

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4.55. Caraway Scientific Name: Carum carvi L. Family: Umbelliferae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-microbial, anti-worm, antifungal, antiseptic, antitussive, anti-spasmodic, anti-cancer, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, carminative, diuretic, expectorant, and digestive, it also promotes menstruation (Raal, Arak, and Orav 2012). Constituents: x

x

Essential oils: Carvone, limonene, β-myrcene, trans-dihydrocarvone, trans-carveole, α-pinene, sabinene, n-octanal, trans-β-ocimene, γ-terpinene, linalool, cis-limonene, translimonene, oxide, cis-dihydrocarvone, cis-carveol, perillaldehyde, trans-anethole, and trans-β-caryophyllene Others: Resin, tannin, and flavonoids

Part(s) Used: Fruit. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Caraway is a trendy spice and herb widely applied in the food and pharmaceutical industry. It can be used for herbal tea. x

x

“Both caraway oil and its seeds are used traditionally in meat, cheese, condiments, and candy, as well as in both soft drinks and alcoholic beverages” (Raal, Arak, and Orav 2012) The essential oil has been used as a fragrance and flavour in perfumery, soaps, lotions and creams

Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x

Those with kidney inflammation should take care

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4.56. Cardamom, African Cardamom, Black or Brown Cardamom Scientific Name: Elettaria cardamomum, Aframomum danielli Family: Zingiberaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-microbial, anti-viral, anti-fungal, antiseptic, antitussive, anti-spasmodic, anti-cough, anti-cancer, antipyretic, anti-rheumatic, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antidiabetic, it is a carminative, laxative, and diuretic. As well as being a kidney tonic, it promotes menstruation, the appetite and digestive system, heart health, and the libido. It is abortifacient (F. Anwar et al. 2016). x x

x x x x x

“In a recent study, it has been shown that cardamom can prevent Alzheimer’s disease” (Gomaa et al. 2019) “In the modern era, cardamom is used in eastern and western practices for curing different ailments like influenza, infections, asthma, bronchitis, cardiac disorder, diarrhoea, nausea, and cataracts” (F. Anwar et al. 2016) “Cardamom is valued as one of the most expensive spices after saffron and vanilla due to its unique flavour and odour” (F. Anwar et al. 2016) It can reduce pain and swelling, especially in mucus membranes, the mouth, and throat (F. Anwar et al. 2016) “It is a well-known remedy to treat impotence and improve inadequate sexual responses” (F. Anwar et al. 2016) “African cardamom and cardamom are from one family, and they are closely related to each other, African cardamom is also known as the ‘grain of paradise’” (F. Anwar et al. 2016) “African cardamom has some historical use for relieving postpartum pain and flavouring traditional Nigerian dishes, such as pepper soup” (F. Anwar et al. 2016)

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Constituents: x x

Essential oils: α-Pinene, β-pinene, α-terpineol, α-terpinyl acetate, sabinene, linalool, limonene, cineol, nerol, 1,8-cineol, terpinolene, camphene, and γ-terpinene Others: Resin

Part(s) Used: Fruit. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Cardamom is widely used in spice mixtures, beverages such as tea and coffee, baked foods, confectionaries, meat products, custards, wines and liqueurs. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.57. Carob Scientific Name: Ceratonia siliqua L. Family: Caesalpinaceae Health Benefit(s): Antioxidant, anti-inflammatory (especially for the lungs), and anti-depressant, it improves sperm quality and inhibits tumours (Lakkab et al. 2019). x x x

The carob leaves and bark have also been reported to have outstanding potential for use as antidiabetic agents Its high protein content justifies the extensive use of carob germ flour as a dietetic human food “The locust bean gum is extracted from the endosperm fraction of carob seeds. It is very much used in the food industry and confirmed to have striking bioactivity; it is also considered dietary fibre in the food industry” (Lakkab et al. 2019)

Constituents: x x

Vitamins: A, B, and D Others: Flavonoids, tannin, sucrose, glucose, and pectin

Part(s) Used: Fruit, leaf and bark. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The extract of carob is used in the pharmaceutical industry. Besides this, its fresh fruits are edible. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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Unripe Carob Fruits

Ripe Carob Fruits

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4.58. Carrot, Wild Carrot Scientific Name: Daucus carota L. Family: Umbelliferae Health Benefit(s): Anti-fungal, anti-bacterial, anti-worm, antiseptic, anti-cough, anti-cancer, antioxidant, immunomodulatory, diuretic, carminative, heart tonic, and skin tonic (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007; Ng et al. 2016c). x

The Council of Europe lists the carrot as a natural source of food flavouring (categories N1 and N3). Category N1 indicates no restrictions on use for the roots, whereas category N3 suggests that there is insufficient information available for an adequate assessment of potential toxicity

Constituents: x x

x x x x x

Flavonoids: Apigenin, chrysin, luteolin, kaempferol, and quercetin Essential oils: α-Pinene, β-pinene, geraniol, geranyl acetate, limonene, α-terpinen, β-terpinen, α-terpineol, β-bisabolene, β-elemene, β-caryophyllene, carotol, daucol, β-sitosterol, αhumulene, and sabinene Alkaloid: Daucine Fatty acids: Palmitic, butyric, oxalic, and malic acid Vitamins: A, B, B1, B6, B7, C, D, E, and K Mineral elements: Magnesium, calcium, potassium, phosphorous, and sodium Others: Choline, coumarin, xylitol, maltose, and α-tocopherol. Orange carrots are rich in carotenoids whereas purple carrots have anthocyanins in abundance

Part(s) Used: Root. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Carrots are widely used in the food industry as or in juice, chips, powder, bread, biscuits, cakes, puddings, jams, marmalades and preserves, among other things.

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Carrot essential oils are used as a flavour in perfume and hygiene products

Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x

During pregnancy and lactation, it should be avoided

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4.59. Castor Oil Plant Scientific Name: Ricinus communis L. Family: Euphorbiaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-viral, anti-fungal, antiseptic, antitussive, anti-cough, abortifacient, laxative, diaphoretic, immunomodulatory, and expectorant, it reduces blood pressure (Ameen et al., 2019). x

Topical application of castor oil will decrease or improve skin irritation

Constituents: x x

x

Micro and macro elements: Nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, sodium, magnesium, and sulphur Amino acids: Leucine, lysine, isoleucine, phenylalanine, tryptophan, valine, methionine, proline, arginine, tyrosine, histidine, cysteine, alanine, glutamic acid, glycine, threonine, serine, aspartic acid, and hydroxyproline Oils: Oleic, linoleic, palmitic, and ricin oleic acid

Part(s) Used: Seed. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Castor seed oil can be used topically and orally (but only following medical doctors’ advice). Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x

Castor seeds are very toxic; eating only one seed can cause death

Castor Fruits

Castor Oil

Castor Seeds

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4.60. Catalonian Jasmine, Spanish Jasmine Scientific Name: Jasminum grandiflorum L. Family: Oleaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-inflammatory, anti-microbial, anti-worm, antibiotic, anti-cancer, and diuretic, it promotes menstruation and is good for the skin (Thenmozhi 2019). x x x x x x

“Jasmines are an essential group of flowering plants widely cultivated for their attractive fragrance” (Thenmozhi 2019) “Jasmine plants have medicinal value because they are essential sources of several compounds that are used in newer herbal drugs” (Thenmozhi 2019) Different parts of the plant such as the leaf, stem, bark and roots are instrumental in pharmaceutical industries “The fresh juice from the leaves is applied to corns to prevent infections” (Thenmozhi 2019) “The fresh leaf when chewed helps in the treatment of mouth ulcers” (Thenmozhi 2019) “Essential oils of the flowers used in aromatherapy can reduce stress and depression. The oils help to improve blood pressure, heartbeat and one’s sleep” (Thenmozhi 2019)

Constituents: Leaf x

Resin, salicylic acid, an alkaloid (Jasmin)

Flower x

Essential oil: Linalool

Part(s) Used: All parts of the plant. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The flowers are very fragrant and are used for the production of perfumes, soap, and other products in the cosmetic industry.

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“The flower oil can be used externally to soothe dry or sensitive skin” (Thenmozhi 2019)

Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.61. Catmint, Catnip Scientific Name: Nepeta cataria L. Family: Labiatae, Lamiaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-microbial, anti-worm, anti-viral, anti-fungal, antiseptic, antioxidant, carminative, antitussive, antiAlzheimer’s, anti-asthmatic, antipyretic, anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory, anti-cough, anti-spasmodic, diaphoretic, and diuretic. It promotes menstruation and sweating; it improves migraines, colds, flu and the digestive organs; and it has sedative properties (A. Sharma, Nayik, and Cannoo 2019). x x x

x

“Catnip is used for many heart problems such as tachycardia, angina pectoris, cardiac thrombosis, and heart weakness” (A. Sharma, Nayik, and Cannoo 2019) “Indian tribes used this plant to cure colds, coughs, stomach upsets, vomiting, sore throats, and headaches, and as a treatment for diarrhoea” (A. Sharma, Nayik, and Cannoo 2019) “Catmint has been employed traditionally for the cure of painful swellings in English folk medicine” (A. Sharma, Nayik, and Cannoo 2019) The smell of this plant attracts cats

Constituents: x x x x

Flavonoids: Luteolin 7-O-glucuronide, 7-O-glucurono-glucoside, and apigenin 7-O-glucuronide Phenolics: Caffeic, rosmarinic, and gallic acid Steroids: Ursolic acid, oleanolic acid, β-sitosterol, stigmasterol, and β-amyrin Essential oils: 1,8-cineole, β-farnesene, geraniol, α-humulene, α-terpineol, α-bisbolene, α-citral, β-caryophyllene, nepetol, nepetalactone, thymol, and carvacrol

Part(s) Used: Leaf and flower. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The fresh and dried leaves can be used for herbal tea. The plant is also used in some medical products.

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The French use young leaves and shoots of catmint for seasoning “Fresh or dried scented flowering tops and leaves have been used in soups and cheese and as flavouring agents, particularly for cooked foods and sauces. They have also been used in medicine” (A. Sharma, Nayik, and Cannoo 2019)

Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x

It should not be used at the same time as antitussive products

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4.62. Celandine, Greater Celandine Scientific Name: Chelidonium majus L. Family: Papaveraceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-worm, anti-microbial, anti-viral, anti-asthmatic, anti-spasmodic, antitussive, antipyretic, anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer, diuretic, laxative, and immunomodulatory. It helps with diarrhoea, promotes heart health, reduces blood pressure, and acts as a blood purifier (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007). x

x x

“It has been used traditionally in western countries for eczema and scurvy, as a cholagogue, for jaundice, for gall bladder and biliary diseases, and in preparations intended to remove obstructions from the liver and gall bladder” (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007) The German Commission E approved greater celandine for use in spastic discomfort of the bile ducts and the gastrointestinal tract “Its fresh latex has been used externally to treat warts and other skin conditions, such as corns, tinea infections, eczema, and tumours of the skin” (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007)

Constituents: Aerial parts x

x x

Alkaloids: Benzylisoquinoline types (chelerythrine, chelidonine, sanguinarine, and isochelidonine). “Protoberberines (berberine, coptisine, and sylopine) and protopines, the latter being the yellow-orange alkaloid containing latex which occurs throughout the entire plant” (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007). It is the alkaloids which are considered to be the active principles Acids: Chelidonic, citric, malic, caffeic, and ferulic acid Others: Saponin, carotenoids, phytocystatin, and flavonoids

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Root x x

Alkaloids: Benzylisoquinoline types (helerythrine, sanguinarine, and chelidonine), protoberberines (coptisine), and protopines (protopine, cryptopine, and α-allocryptopine) Others: Choline, histamine, tyramine, saponins, flavanol, chelidoniol, vitamin C, and carotene

Part(s) Used: All parts of the plant. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: It is used in the pharmaceutical industry. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x

During pregnancy, it should be avoided

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4.63. Celery Scientific Name: Apium graveolens L. Family: Umbelliferae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-microbial, anti-worm, antifungal, antiseptic, antitussive, anti-joint-inflammatory, anti-depressant, anti-cancer, anti-tumour, antioxidant, anti-rheumatic, anti-spasmodic, carminative, diuretic, abortifacient, digestive, and a sedative. It promotes menstruation, reduces blood cholesterol, blood pressure, and blood glucose, and aids the libido (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007; Williamson, Driver, and K. Baxter 2010 c2009). x

The Council of Europe lists celery as a natural source of food flavouring (category N2). This category indicates that celery can be added to foodstuffs in small quantities, with a possible limitation of an active principle (as yet unspecified) in the final product

Constituents: x x x x

Flavonoids: Apigenin, apiin, and isoquercitrin Coumarins: Apigravin, apiumetin, apiumoside, bergapten, celerin, celereoside, isoimperatorin, isopimpinellin, osthenol, rutaretin, seselin, and umbelliferone Essential oils: Limonene, selenine, and santalol Fatty acids: Linoleic, myristic, myristicic, oleic, palmitic, palmitoleic, petroselinic, and stearic acid

Part(s) Used: All parts of the plant. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Celery’s stem and leaves are commonly used in foods, salad and fresh juice. Besides this, it is widely used in the pharmaceutical industry. x

Celery essential oil is obtained mostly from specialized seed crops and used as a flavouring agent in the food and perfume industries

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Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x x

People with kidney inflammation problems should take care using celery During pregnancy, it should be avoided

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4.64. Centaury Scientific Name: Centaurium erythraea, C. minus, Erythraea centaurium Family: Gentianaceae Health Benefit(s): Antiseptic, anti-bacterial, antipyretic, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anti-diabetic, appetizing, digestive, and derma protective (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007). x

x

The Council of Europe lists centaury as a natural source of food flavouring (category N2). This category indicates that centaury can be added to foodstuffs in small quantities, with a possible limitation of an active principle (as yet unspecified) in the final product “This species is widely used in traditional Moroccan medicine to treat certain diseases such as diabetes, digestive illnesses, hepatitis, asthma, allergies, and rheumatism” (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007)

Constituents: x x x x x x x

Acids: Phenolic, protocatechuic, vanillic, syringic, p-coumaric, ferulic, sinapic, and caffeic acid Alkaloids: Gentianine, gentianidine, and gentioflavine Monoterpenoids: Iridoids, gentiopicroside, centapicrin, and gentioflavoside Triterpenoids: α-Amyrin, β-amyrin, erythrodiol, crataegolic acid, oleanolic acid, and sitosterol Glycosides: Erythaurine or erythoside Essential oils: Linalool, camphor, menthone, isomenthone, borneol, menthol, thymol, carvacrol, and linoleic acid Others: Flavonoids, fatty acids, alkanes, and waxes

Part(s) Used: Flower and leaf. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: It is used in the pharmaceutical industry.

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Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x

During pregnancy and lactation, it should be avoided

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4.65. Ceylon Leadwort, White Leadwort, Chitraka Scientific Name: Plumbago zeylanica L. Family: Plumbaginaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-worm, anti-fungal, anti-microbial, antioxidant, anti-cancer, anti-Parkinson’s, anti-inflammatory, anti-cough, anti-rheumatic, anti-malaria, anti-infertility, digestive, appetizing, astringent, and neuroprotective, it is a memory enhancer, and helps to heal wounds. It is also a heart and liver tonic, and aids with blood coagulation (Akbar 2020; Jain, H. P. Sharma, and P. Singh 2020). x x

In Ayurveda, its roots are used to treat skin diseases, diarrhoea, the plague and leprosy “In the Philippines, its pounded roots are used for blisters, and their decoction is used as an anti-scabies remedy. The Ethiopians also use the root to treat skin disorders and several other diseases” (Jain, H. P. Sharma, and P. Singh 2020)

Constituents: x x x

Coumarins: Seselin, suberosin, xanthoxyletin, xanthyletin, and 5-methoxyseselin Naphtha-quinones: Plumbagin, chitranone, isoshinanolone, maritinone, and elliptinone Others: Flavonoids, alkaloids, terpenoids, quinones, phenols, tannins, steroids, sugar, plumbagic acid glucosides, anthraquinone, saponin, and cardiac glycoside

Part(s) Used: Root. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: It is used in the pharmaceutical industry for different purposes. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x

The root is very toxic: just use standard products following medical doctors’ recommendations

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4.66. Chaff Flower Scientific Name: Achyranthes aspera L. Family: Amaranthaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-fungal, anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, anti-influenza, anti-cough, anti-asthmatic, anti-fertility, antioxidant, anti-diabetic, abortifacient, astringent, carminative, digestive, expectorant, diuretic, and a gastric tonic. It is a blood purifier and assists in urinary bladder stone excretion and wound healing. It reduces blood sugar and blood cholesterol (Akbar 2020). x

x

x

“The decoction of the whole plant is used for gastritis, gaseous distention, ascites, eczema, skin eruptions and boils, and the juice from the leaves is sometimes applied to relieve toothache” (Akbar 2020) “In China, the root, known as Niuxi, is considered a bloodstimulant; an emmenagogue; liver and kidney-tonifying; fortifying for the muscles, tendons and bones; heat-purgative; and a detoxicant” (Akbar 2020) “Topical application of a paste of the grounded flowering spikes or the seeds helps with bites of poisonous snakes and reptiles” (Akbar 2020)

Constituents: x x

Vitamins: B1, B2, B3, B6 and B9 Others: Saponin, alkaloids, flavonoids, glycosides, tannin, rutin, and chlorogenic acid

Part(s) Used: All parts of the plant. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: It is used in the pharmaceutical industry for different purposes. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.67. Chamomile, Wild Chamomile, German Chamomile Scientific Name: Matricaria chamomilla L. Family: Compositae Health Benefit(s): Antiseptic, anti-bacterial, anti-fungal, anti-viral, anti-inflammatory, anti-allergic, anti-histamine, antitussive, antioxidant, anti-spasmodic, carminative, digestive, diuretic, sedative, expectorant, diaphoretic, and immunomodulatory. It promotes menstruation, reduces blood pressure, and has wound healing effects (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007; Pyrzynska and Sentkowska 2019). x x x

x

German chamomile is widely used in babies and children as a mild sedative and to treat colic and teething pain “Chamomile has been used topically for haemorrhoids, mastitis and leg ulcers” (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007) The Council of Europe lists German chamomile as a natural source of food flavouring (category N2). This category indicates that chamomile can be added to foodstuffs in small quantities, with a possible limitation of an active principle (as yet unspecified) in the final product “Recent studies have shown that chamomile extract can be used as a functional beverage against obesity, blood sugar, and blood cholesterol” (Pyrzynska and Sentkowska 2019)

Constituents: x x x x x

Essential oils: α-Bisabolol, matricarin, matricin, and chamazulene (blue colour) Flavonoids: Apigenin, apiin, luteolin, quercetin, and rutin Coumarins: Umbelliferone and heniarin Phenolic acids: Caffeic, chlorogenic, and ferulic acid Others: Choline, tannin, and triterpene hydrocarbons

Part(s) Used: Flower. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Chamomile can be used as herbal tea, in the pharmaceutical industry, and in skin and hair care products like soap, lotions, creams, ointments, and drops.

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Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x

During pregnancy and lactation, it should be avoided

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4.68. Chebulic Myrobalan, Haritaki Scientific Name: Terminalia chebula Family: Combretaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-worm, anti-bacterial, anti-fungal, anti-viral, antiseptic, antiseptic, anti-spasmodic, antioxidant, carminative, antitussive, diuretic, expectorant, digestive and astringent. It improves heart health, stomach health, and the libido. It also reduces blood cholesterol (Jeong et al. 2019; Afshari, Sadeghnia, and Mollazadeh 2016). x x

x

x

x

“The dried fruits of chebulic have been prescribed for relieving diarrhoea, dysentery, cough, phlegm, and sore throats in Korea” (Jeong et al. 2019) “It is known as the “king” of Mongolian and Tibetan medicines and is used to treat asthma, sore throats, vomiting, hiccoughs, diarrhoea, dysentery, bleeding piles, ulcers, gout, and diseases of the heart and bladder” (Afshari, Sadeghnia, and Mollazadeh 2016) “Numerous pharmacological and biochemical studies have reported the diverse therapeutic efficacy of chebulic against Alzheimer’s disease, cancer, constipation, diabetes, infections and inflammation” (Afshari, Sadeghnia, and Mollazadeh 2016) “In traditional medicine, the fruits of the chebulic, which hold various chemically active compounds responsible for its medicinal properties, have been used in Unani, Ayurveda, and homoeopathic medicine since antiquity for geriatric diseases and to improve memory and brain functioning” (Afshari, Sadeghnia, and Mollazadeh 2016) “It is commonly used to treat numerous diseases such as cancer, cardiovascular diseases, paralysis, leprosy, ulcers, gout, arthritis, epilepsy, coughing, fever, diarrhoea, gastroenteritis, skin disorders, urinary tract infections, and wound infections” (Afshari, Sadeghnia, and Mollazadeh 2016)

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Recent studies show that chebulic is useful in the treatment of diabetes The unripe fruit is a brain and gastrointestinal tonic, blood purifier, and also black-bile remover

Constituents: x x x

Phenolics: Ellagic, gallic, chebulic, chebulagic or chebulinic acid Organic acids: Palmitic, stearic, oleic, linoleic, and arachidic acid Others: Tannins, polyphenols, terpenes, saponin, anthocyanins, alkaloids, glycosides, flavonoids, and sterols

Part(s) Used: Fruit. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The fresh or dried fruits can be used as herbal tea whereas the fruit’s powder can be used as a spice in foods, particularly in baking (cake or bread). It is also used in some medicine. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

Fresh & Dried Fruits

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4.69. Cherry, Sweet Cherry Scientific Name: Prunus avium L., Cerasus avium L. Family: Rosaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-inflammatory, anti-kidney-inflammatory, antitussive, antioxidant, antipyretic, anti-cough, anti-tumour, antibreast-cancer, sedative, and a diuretic. It lowers blood pressure; it reduces blood cholesterol and the risk of cancer; and it is beneficial for the health of the liver (Acero et al. 2019). x x x

“Sweet cherry consumption is associated with a lower risk of gout attacks and arthritis and gout-related pain reduction” (Acero et al. 2019) “Other potential health properties of sweet cherry are its controlling body weight, counteracting diabetes, and its prevention of Alzheimer’s disease” (Acero et al. 2019) Sweet and sour cherry in benefits and compound are the same

Constituents: x x x

Vitamins: A, B1, B2, B3, and C Rich in phenolics: Anthocyanins, flavan-3-ols, and flavanols Others: Fibre, hydroxycinnamic acids, and hydroxybenzoic acid

Part(s) Used: Fruit and cherry peduncle. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The fresh or dried fruits are widely used for food (e.g., jams, marmalade or in baking), and alcoholic and non-alcoholic beverages (such as juice). The peduncle of the cherry is used in some medicine related to kidney stones or inflammation. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x

The stone of the cherry is toxic and should not be eaten

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4.70. Chestnut Scientific Name: Castanea sativa Family: Fagaceae Health Benefit(s): Antipyretic, anti-fungal, anti-cancer (especially breast, prostate and colorectal cancer), antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, immune-stimulating, and a sedative, it improves varicose veins and heart health (Esposito et al. 2019; M. Kiralan et al. 2019). x x

“Chestnuts represent a nutritional complement in the human diet for the high content in starch carbohydrates, and unsaturated (omega-3) fatty acids” (Esposito et al. 2019) “Chestnut oil is rich in omega fatty acids such as linoleic and oleic acids, and in tocopherols such as γ-tocopherol, which contribute to human health” (M. Kiralan et al. 2019)

Constituents: x x x x x x x x x

Mineral elements: Phosphor, sodium, potassium, iron, calcium, and magnesium Vitamins: B and C Tannins: Ellagitannins Carbohydrates: Lignan, pectin and dietary fibres Essential amino acids: Arginine and leucine Non-essential amino acids: Aspartic acid, glutamic acid, and proline Phenolic acids: Gallic, ellagic, protocatechuic, and chlorogenic acid Flavonoids: Apigenin, quercetin, and quercetin-3-O-β-glucoside Oils: γ-Tocotrienol and γ-tocopherol (which play an important role in chestnut’s anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties)

Part(s) Used: Fruit and leaf. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Chestnut flour is available in food markets as another popular and alternative product. Chestnut flour

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contains many healthy nutrients such as protein, dietary fibre, and a low amount of fat. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.71. Chickpea Scientific Name: Cicer arietinum L. Family: Fabaceae, Leguminosae Health Benefit(s): Anti-fungal, anti-worm, anti-cancer, anti-anaemic, anti-stress, anti-depressant, antipyretic, diuretic, and a laxative, it helps promote menstruation, heart health, stomach health, teeth health, and bone health. It is immune-stimulating, reduces blood cholesterol, and controls diabetes. Constituents: x x x

Vitamins: A, C, E, B1, B2, B3, and B9 Mineral elements: Iron, sodium, calcium, zinc, magnesium, phosphor, phosphate, and manganese Others: Fibre, lecithin, and galactan

Part(s) Used: Fruit. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Chickpeas are valued for their high protein content by people who cannot/won't eat meat. More generally, they are widely used in various foods. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.72. Chicory, Succory Scientific Name: Cichorium intybus L. Family: Compositae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer, anti-tumour, appetizing, diuretic, and a carminative, sedative, laxative, and digestive. It reduces blood cholesterol and blood glucose, and is beneficial for heart and stomach health (Pushparaj et al. 2007; Nandagopal, S. and Ranjitha Kumari, B.D. 2007). x

x x x

x

“Ethanolic extracts of chicory are widely used in India as a traditional treatment for diabetes mellitus. They have shown hypoglycaemic and hypolipidemic properties” (Pushparaj et al. 2007) A decoction of the root has been used to treat jaundice, liver enlargement, gout and rheumatism Varieties of chicory have been used in folk medicine to treat liver disorders “The plant is a good tonic, helps to cool, and is useful for headaches” (Chaudhary, Maitry, Rajput, Priyanka, Sharma, Alka and Sharma, RA. 2019). It helps cure throat inflammation, provide immune-stimulation, and has mutagenic, probiotic and hepatoprotective properties “It is useful in vitiated conditions of kapha and pitta, cephalalgia, hepatomegaly, inflammations, anorexia, dyspepsia, flatulence, colic, gout, burning sensations, allergic conditions of the skin, jaundice, splenomegaly, hyperdipsia, skin diseases, leprosy, strangury, amenorrhoea, chronic and bilious fevers, ophthalmia, pharyngitis, vomiting, arthralgia, lumbago, asthma and general debility” (Nandagopal, S. and Ranjitha Kumari, B.D. 2007)

Constituents: x x

Phenolic acids: Caffeic, ellagic, and p-coumaric acid Anthocyanins: Cyanidin-3-O-glucoside and pelargonidin-3O-glucoside

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Flavonoids: Rutin and procyanidin A2 Flavones: Cichoric acid, chlorogenic acid, apigenin, and quercetin Coumarins: Cichoriin, umbelliferone, esculin, and escopoletin Others: Hydroxycinnamic acid, tartaric acid, flavanols, anthocyanins, alkaloids, tannins, saponins, inulin, essential oils, bitter sesquiterpene, lactones, and vitamins

Part(s) Used: All parts of the plant. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Chicory can be used in salads and other food. It is used in some medicine. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

Chicory Roots & Flowers

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4.73. Chinaberry Scientific Name: Melia azedarach L. Family: Meliaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-viral, antiseptic, anti-fungal, anti-parasitic, anti-rheumatic, anti-diabetic, anti-fertility, and diuretic (Akbar 2020). x x x x

x

It is one of the most commonly used plants for various diseases, especially skin diseases, by tribal people worldwide “Its fresh leaves boiled in water are used by women to grow and strengthen their hair” (Akbar 2020) “Its flowers and leaves are applied as a poultice to relieve nervous headaches, and are also used internally” (Akbar 2020) “The juice of the leaves is administered as an anthelmintic, antilithic, diuretic and emmenagogue. It is believed to dissolve cold swellings and counteract the sensations that cause them” (Akbar 2020) “The flowers, leaves and fruits are recommended in Iranian traditional medicine as a remedy to normalize the temperaments in the elderly, for brain obstruction, intestinal worms, kidney stones, leprosy, vitiligo, purulent sores, as an antidote to toxins, as a diuretic, emmenagogue, hair growth inducer and to kill lice” (Akbar 2020)

Constituents: x x x x

Limonoid glycosides: Salannin, meldenin, melianoninol, melianol, meliandiol, vanillin, and vanillic acid Flavonoid glycosides: Quercetin 3-O-rutinoside, kaempferol 3-O-robinobioside, and kaempferol 3-O-rutinoside Fatty acids: Stearic, palmitic, lauric, valerenic, and butyric acids Others: Steroids, flavonoids, triterpene, resin, and tannin

Part(s) Used: Leaf, flower, fruit and bark.

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Herbal and/or Commercial Use: It is used in the pharmaceutical industry for different purposes. x

The root bark was included in the official Pharmacopoeias of the United States and Mexico

Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

Fruits

Flowers Leaves

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4.74. Christ Thorn, Garland Thorn Scientific Name: Paliurus spina-christi Family: Rhamnaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial (mainly against Gram-positive bacteria), anti-microbial, antipyretic, anti-rheumatic, anti-inflammatory, and diuretic. It reduces blood cholesterol, blood glucose, blood pressure and uric acid. It works against diarrhoea, helps with urinary stone excretion, and promotes the healing of fresh wounds (Brantner and Males 1999). x

The flower of this plant has high nectar, and it is very attractive for bees, so it is useful for producing honey

Constituents: x x x

Flavonoids: Rutin, hyperin, quercetin, and iso-quercitrin Flavonoid glycosides: Quercetin 3-O-rhamnoglucoside 7-Orhamnoside, quercetin 3-O-rhamnoglucoside 4´-O-glucoside, and kaempferol 3-O-rhamnoglucoside 7-O-rhamnoside Others: Tannins, alkaloids, and sterol

Part(s) Used: Leaf, fruit and root. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: It is used in the pharmaceutical industry for different purposes. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.75. Christmas Rose, Black Hellebore Scientific Name: Helleborus niger L. Family: Ranunculaceae Health Benefit(s): Diuretic, heart beat regulator, wound healer, improves blood circulation, rheumatism pain, toothache, and bladder inflammation. It is a sedative and laxative, and helps with the health of the eyes and heart (Vitalini, Braca, and Fico 2011; Duckstein and Stintzing 2015). x

x x x

“Christmas Rose is an old medicinal and poisonous plant. In ancient times, Helleborus species have been used as a panacea for several diseases, such as deafness, leprosy, scabies, insanity, and epilepsy” (Reuther, F., Reuther, H. 1982) “Extracts of Helleborus species are used in some European countries as herbal drugs in traditional medicine and homoeopathy” (Vitalini, Braca, and Fico 2011) In Italy, folk veterinary medicine reports the internal use of Christmas Rose to treat kidney disorders “The recent literature has reported immunomodulatory, antihepatotoxic, antiviral, and antifungal activities for the genus Helleborus” (Duckstein and Stintzing 2015)

Constituents: x x x

Steroid saponins: Macranthoside, hellebosaponin A, and hellebosaponin B Ecdysteroids: β-Ecdysone Glycosides: Ranuncoside

Part(s) Used: Leaf and rhizome. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: It is used in the pharmaceutical industry for different purposes. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x

During pregnancy, it should be avoided

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4.76. Cinnamon Scientific Name: Cinnamomum verum, C. zeylanicum Family: Lauraceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-microbial, anti-viral, anti-fungal, antiseptic, antitussive, antipyretic, anti-spasmodic, anti-diarrhoea, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-diabetic, anti-cancer, antiHIV and diaphoretic, it is a carminative, digestive, and sedative. It improves heart function, blood circulation, wound healing, and sickness, while reducing blood glucose, blood pressure, and blood cholesterol (S. H. Kim, Hyun, and Choung 2006; Joanne Barnes et al. 2007; J. Ahmed et al. 2019). x

The Council of Europe lists cinnamon as a natural source of food flavouring (category N2). This category indicates that cinnamon can be added to foodstuffs in small quantities, with a possible limitation of an active principle (as yet unspecified) in the final product

Constituents: x x

Essential oils: Cinnamaldehyde, benzaldehyde, cuminaldehyde, eugenol, methyleugenol, pinene, phellandrene, cymene, caryophyllene, and linalool Others: Tannins, coumarin, calcium oxalate, cinnzeylanin, cinnzeylanol, coumarin, gum, mucilage, resins, and sugars

Part(s) Used: Tree inner bark. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Cinnamon is widely used in food, baking, and for beverages (for instance, it can be used as a herbal tea or flavour of black tea). It is used in medicine and natural health care products. x

Cinnamon is grown commercially and is used in cosmetics, as a flavouring additive in a wide variety of cuisines worldwide, and as an aromatic condiment

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Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.77. Clove Scientific Name: Eugenia caryophyllus, Syzygium aromaticum L. Family: Myrtaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-microbial, anti-viral, antifungal, anti-worm, antiseptic, anti-spasmodic, anti-inflammatory, antipyretic, anti-allergic, antioxidant, anti-Alzheimer’s, antitussive, carminative, digestive, sedative, and expectorant (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007). x

x

The Council of Europe lists cloves as a natural source of food flavouring (category N2). This category indicates that cloves can be added to foodstuffs in small quantities, with a possible limitation of an active principle (as yet unspecified) in the final product “Cloves have been traditionally used as a carminative, antiemetic, toothache remedy and counter-irritant” (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007)

Constituents: x x

Essential oils: Eugenol (an important compound of cloves), eugenyl acetate, β-caryophyllene, and α-ylangene Others: Kaempferol, lipids, tannins, resin, vitamins, flavonoids, oleanolic acid, rhamnetin, and sitosterol

Part(s) Used: Dried flower bud. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Cloves are widely used in tooth and mouth care products like toothpaste. They are used in the dentistry industry as a tooth filler material and for toothbrushes. x x

The essence of clove is used for some perfumes In some food and cakes, it can be used as a spice

Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.78. Clubmoss Scientific Name: Lycopodium clavatum L. Family: Lycopodiaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bladder inflammation, anti-kidney inflammation, antitussive, anti-cough, anti-rheumatic, anti-cancer, carminative, laxative, diuretic, sedative, and libido enhancer (I. Orhan et al. 2007). x x x

“Recently the result of one study has shown that this plant can have a positive effect against colon cancer” (Paramita et al. 2018) It has been reported to be used for its wound healing effects and against nappy rash occurring in babies (and, therefore, is also called “belly powder”) In Papua New Guinea, clubmoss is used against stomach pain

Constituents: x x

Alkaloids: Lycopodane, alopecurane, fawcettimane, fawcettidane, serratinane, flabellidane, and phlegmarane Others: Mucilage, resin, citric acid, malic acid, starch, polyphenolics, flavonoids, terpenoids, anthraquinones, lignans, polysaccharides, saponins, and peptides

Part(s) Used: All parts of the plant. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: It is used in the pharmaceutical industry for different purposes. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x

Just use the standard products following medical doctors’ recommendations

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4.79. Cluster Fig Scientific Name: Ficus racemosa L. Family: Moraceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-worm, anti-diabetic, anti-diarrhoea, antihaemorrhoid, anti-inflammatory, anti-cough, antioxidant, anti-rheumatic, anti-asthmatic, antitussive, carminative, astringent (unripe fruit, leaf and bark), laxative (ripe fruit), liver tonic, kidney tonic and treatment for kidney pain. It is also a treatment for urinary disease, an expectorant, and reduces blood glucose (Akbar 2020). x

“It’s seed powder mixed with honey is considered useful in reducing glycosuria, polydipsia and polyuria” (Akbar 2020)

Constituents: x x

Mineral elements: It is a rich source of calcium (15 times greater than wheat) (Duhan, Chauhan, and Punia 1992) Others: β-Sitosterol-D-glucoside, friedelin, lupeol, flavonoids, polyphenol, alkaloids, saponin, steroids, tannin, and phenol

Part(s) Used: All parts of the tree (leaf, fruit, bark, gall and root). Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The ripe fruits are edible, and all parts of the tree are used in the pharmaceutical industry for a variety of purposes. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.80. Cocaine Tree Scientific Name: Erythroxylum coca Family: Erythroxylaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, antitussive, carminative, diuretic, digestive, and abortifacient. “It increases the libido and brain activity” (Novák, Salemink, and I. Khan 1984). x

Coca leaves have been chewed by the South American Indians to prevent hunger and to increase endurance for over 5,000 years

Constituents: x

Alkaloids: Cocaine (first alkaloid identified from coca leaves of cultivated coca in 1860), cinnamoylcocaine, benzoylecgonine, methyl ecgonine, pseudotropine, benzoyltropine, tropacocaine, α-truxilline, β-truxilline, hygrine, acid cocatannique, and acid chlorogenic

Part(s) Used: Leaf. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Cocaine compounds are used in some medicines. x

As a drop-in medicine, it is used for numbing eyes and ears

Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x

Just use the standard products following medical doctors’ recommendations

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4.81. Coconut Scientific Name: Cocos nucifera L. Family: Palmaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-fungal, antiseptic, anti-cough, antipyretic, anti-cancer, and a diuretic. It promotes menstruation and positively affects the libido (Chinedu et al. 2018; Muritala et al. 2018). x

x x x x

“Coconut is widely grown in tropical and subtropical regions, and is of great economic importance. In Nigeria, coconut has traditionally been used for the treatment of hypertension and diabetes” (Muritala et al. 2018) “The water and oil of the coconut can help to heal skin problems like burning, wounds and rashes” (Muritala et al. 2018) Topical application of coconut oil improves hair growth “Coconut water is a known refreshing beverage, which has been traditionally consumed for its nutritional and medicinal properties” (Chinedu et al. 2018) “Coconut water can be boosting to the human body’s antioxidant system. It shows effectiveness in the treatment of urinary tract infections and mineral poisonings, as well as kidney and urethral stones” (Chinedu et al. 2018)

Constituents: x x

Vitamins: B1, B2, B3, B9 and C Acids: Oleic, linoleic, palmitic, stearic, lauric, myristic, and arachidonic acid

Part(s) Used: Fruit. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Coconut and coconut water are edible and widely used in foodstuffs, beverages, baking, desserts, ice creams, and candy, amongst other things. x

Coconut oil is used in some skin and hair products like cream, lotion, soap, and shampoo

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Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.82. Coffee, Coffee Beans Scientific Name: Coffea Arabica L. Family: Rubiaceae Health Benefit(s): Coffee Beans: Antitussive, antipyretic, and antiasthmatic, it possesses antioxidant activity and has a positive effect on heart health and the libido. It increases blood circulation and lactation, and is a diuretic (Clifford 1985; Xiumin Chen 2019). x

x

“The characteristic taste and aroma of coffee result from a combination of hundreds of chemical compounds, produced by the reactions that occur during roasting. This process of roasting coffee beans can be divided into three consecutive stages: drying, roasting or pyrolysis and cooling” (Clifford 1985) “Green coffee beans are those which haven’t been roasted. They’re a good source for losing weight; for reducing blood sugar, blood pressure, and cholesterol; and they’re a potent antioxidant. They have anti-ageing and anti-cancer properties and reduce the risk of Alzheimer’s disease. They’re also a laxative” (Clifford 1985)

Coffee Leaves: x x x x

Locals in the coffee plant growing countries used the coffee leaf traditionally as ethnomedicine to alleviate various diseases or disorders “Coffee leaves are rich in chlorogenic acids and mangiferin, which have been proven to have various health benefits” (Xiumin Chen 2019) Coffee leaves are also considered as a better antioxidant source than tea “Making coffee leaves into tea is the most popular application of coffee leaves. The use of coffee leaf tea was discussed back in 1873 in The New York Times, and a patent about the preparation of coffee leaf tea was issued to Dr Gardner of Ceylon in the 1850s” (Laschermes 2018)

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Constituents: Green Coffee Beans x x

“Caffeine (1,3,7-trimethylxanthine) is the major purine in green coffee” (Clifford 1985) Others: Glycines, chlorogenic acid, trigonelline, and coffalice acid

Roasted Coffee Beans x

Caffeine (but in smaller amounts than green coffee), oil, tannin, and chlorogenic acid

Coffee Leaves x x x x

Flavonoids: Myricetin, fisetin, patuletin, luteolin, apigenin, and quercetin Phenolic acids: Caftaric, gentisic, caffeic, p-coumaric, ferulic, and benzoic acid Alkaloids: Caffeine, trigonelline, theobromine, and theophylline Others: Terpenes, tannins, xanthonoids, phytosterol, and carotenoids

Part(s) Used: Leaf and Bean. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Green and roasted coffee are widely used for drinking. They can be used for baking, ice cream, etc., too. x

Coffee is used in some cosmetic products (e.g., for the skin and hair) and in medicinal products

Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.83. Colchicum, Wild Saffron Scientific Name: Colchicum autumnale L. Family: Colchicaceae Health Benefit(s): Antiseptic, anti-inflammatory, anti-rheumatic, anti-arthritic, anti-cancer, anti-tumour, carminative, diuretic, diaphoretic, laxative, and sedative. It promotes the libido and relieves pain (Siddiqui and Akhtar, 2018). x

Colchicum extracts were first described as a treatment for gout in De Materia Medica by Dioscorides in the 1st century AD

Constituents: x x

Alkaloids: Colchicine, demecolcine, and colchiceine Others: Mucilage, tannins, starch, colchico-resin, β-colchicoresin, and gallic acid

Part(s) Used: All parts of the plant. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: It is used in the pharmaceutical industry for different purposes. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x

All parts of the plant are toxic; just use the standard products following a medical doctor’s recommendation

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4.84. Colocynthis, Colocynth Scientific Name: Citrullus colocynthis L. Family: Cucurbitaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-worm, antipyretic, anti-rheumatic, anti-anaemic, anti-tumour, anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory, severe anti-diabetic, carminative, diuretic, strong laxative, and abortifacient. It stimulates hair growth and counteracts baldness; is beneficial for skin disease; reduces blood glucose, asthma, bronchitis, throat infections and joint pain; works as insect repellent; and promotes menstruation (Heydari et al. 2019; Tarraf et al. 2019). Constituents: Fruit x x x

Glycosides: Cucurbitacin E, α-Elatrin, Colocynthine, Colocynthiline, Citrulline, and Citrullol Alkaloids: Quinolone and pyridine Others: Phenolic acid and flavonoids

Seed x x

Fatty acids: Oleic, erucic, stearic, palmitic, and linoleic acid Others: Oil

Part(s) Used: Fruit and seed. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: It is used in the pharmaceutical industry for different purposes, especially for anti-diabetic medicine. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x x

During pregnancy and lactation, it should be avoided Just use standard medicines following medical doctors’ recommendations

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5-10 cm

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4.85. Coltsfoot, Farfara Scientific Name: Tussilago farfara L. Family: Compositae Health Benefit(s): Anti-microbial, anti-bacterial (Gram-negative bacteria), anti-allergic, anti-bronchitis, anti-inflammatory, antitussive, anti-asthmatic, anti-cough, diaphoretic, laxative, expectorant, and immunomodulatory. It helps treat throat pain, is good for heart health, increases blood pressure, and aids in wound healing (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007). x

Coltsfoot is not commonly used as a food, but the Council of Europe lists it as a natural food flavour source (category N4). This category indicates that although coltsfoot is permitted for use as a food flavouring, there are insufficient data available to assess its toxicity

Constituents: x x x x

Acids: Caffeic, ferulic, gallic, malic, tartaric, tannic, and caffeoyl tartaric acid Alkaloids: Senkirkine, senecionine, and tussilagine Phytosterol: Sitosterol, stigmasterol, and taraxasterol Others: Mucilage, tannins, carotenoids, flavonoid, bitter, choline, paraffin, tussilagone, and volatile oil

Part(s) Used: Flower and leaf. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: It is used in the pharmaceutical industry for different purposes. x

It can be used as a flavouring for candy and chocolate

Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x

During pregnancy and lactation, it should be avoided

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4.86. Columbine Scientific Name: Aquilegia vulgaris L. Family: Ranunculaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-fungal, anti-microbial (potent), diuretic, and a strong antioxidant. It heals wounds, improves skin problem like psoriasis, improves coughs, reduces pain and inflammation, reduces headaches, and prevents menstrual problems (Bylka et al. 2004). x

x

“A decoction from the leaves of stems of columbine harvested in the flowering period has been used in folk medicine against liver and bile duct disorders, especially for the treatment of jaundice and chronic skin inflammations” (Bylka et al. 2004) Columbine is often a component of immunostimulant and homoeopathic drugs

Constituents: x x x

Phenolic acids: Caffeic, protocatechuic, ferulic, resorcylic, vanillic, sinapic, chlorogenic, р-coumaric, and р-hydroxybenzoic acid Flavonoids: Apigenin 7-O-β-D-glucoside, 4´-methoxy-5,7dihydroxyflavone 6-C-glucoside and luteolin 6-C-β-D-glucopyranoside Others: Tannins, triglycerides, anthocyanins, cyanogenic compounds, and alkaloids

Part(s) Used: All parts of the plant. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: It is used in the pharmaceutical industry for different purposes. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x

Only use the standard products following medical doctors’ recommendations

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4.87. Comfrey, Common Comfrey Scientific Name: Symphytum officinale L. Family: Boraginaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-worm, anti-bleeding, anti-cough, antitussive, anti-inflammatory, wound healer and diuretic (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007). x x

Comfrey has traditionally been used topically for treating wounds It is occasionally used as an ingredient of soups and salads. The Council of Europe lists it as a natural source of food flavouring (category N4). This category indicates that although comfrey is permitted for use as a food flavouring, insufficient data are available to assess its toxicity

Constituents: x

x x x x

Alkaloids: Consolidine, intermidine, lycopsamine, symphytine, symlandine, echimidine, lasiocarpine, myoscorpine, acetyllycopsamine, acetyllycopsamine, acetylintermidine, heliosupine, viridiflorine, echiumine and pyrrolizidine (the classical pharmacology of pyrrolizidine alkaloids is overshadowed by this class of compounds) Carbohydrates: Arabinose, glucuronic acid, mannose, rhamnose, and xylose Acids: Gallic, ellagic, rosmarinic, lithospermic, and chlorogenic acid Vitamins: A, B12, C, and E Others: Tannins, triterpenes, flavonoids, and essential oils

Part(s) Used: All parts of the plant. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: It is used in the pharmaceutical industry for different purposes (mostly as a topical remedy). Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: “The pyrrolizidine alkaloids in this plant are carcinogenic, so the fresh plant should not be used” (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007).

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During pregnancy and lactation, it should be avoided Only use the standard products following medical doctors’ recommendations “For those who have liver problems, it should be avoided” (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007) “For those with cancer, it should also be avoided” (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007)

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4.88. Conium, Poison Hemlock, Hemlock Scientific Name: Conium maculatum L. Family: Umbelliferae Health Benefit(s): Anti-spasmodic, anti-cancer (and helps with cancer pain), anti-whooping-cough, anti-asthmatic, and a sedative. It reduces muscle pain and angina, relieves nervous excitation and stomach pain, and can be used for rheumatic pains (Saeed, Farah, Ahmad, Mansoor and Alam, Syed Mahboob 2018). x

x

“Conium was listed in London's and Edinburgh's pharmacopoeias from 1864 to 1898 and its last official medicinal recognition appeared in the British Pharmaceutical Codex of 1934 in Great Britain” (Saeed, Farah, Ahmad, Mansoor and Alam, Syed Mahboob 2018) “Conium is the primary remedy for the prostate gland and swelling of the testis. In homoeopathy, it is used as a remedy for breast cancer and cancer of the cervix or uterus” (Saeed, Farah, Ahmad, Mansoor and Alam, Syed Mahboob 2018)

Constituents: x x x

Acids: Malic and caffeic acid Piperidine alkaloids: Coniine, N-methylconiine, conhydrine, pseudoconhydrine, and γ-coniceine Others: Flavonoids, tannins, sterol, terpenoids, coumarins, polyacetylenes, phenol, vitamins, and essential oils

Part(s) Used: All parts of the plant. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: It is used in the pharmaceutical industry for different purposes. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Only the standard products should be used and doctors' recommendations should be followed. x

During pregnancy and lactation, it should be avoided

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4.89. Cordia, Assyrian Plum Scientific Name: Cordia myxa L. Family: Boraginaceae Health Benefit(s): Fruit: Anti-worm, anti-fungal, anti-microbial, antitussive, anti-inflammatory, anti-arthritis, anti-rheumatic, anticough, anti-cold, antipyretic, anti-malarial, antioxidant, diuretic, laxative, and expectorant. It is used for wound healing and reducing blood pressure, and is beneficial for liver health and treating urinary tract infections (Keshani-Dokht et al. 2018; Murthy et al. 2019; Shahriari M and Moghadamnia D 2019). x x x

“Cordia has a high nutrient value and a positive influence on human health” (Keshani-Dokht et al. 2018) It has been reported that the extract of Cordia leaves has antidiarrhoeal, anti-inflammatory and analgesic properties “Cordia gum can be an effective carrier of additives as a natural edible coating in the food industry because of its essential emulsifying and binding properties” (Keshani-Dokht et al. 2018)

Constituents: x x x

Acids: Oleic, linoleic, and palmitic acid Mineral elements: Calcium, copper, iron, magnesium, manganese, nitrogen, potassium, phosphorous, sulphur, and zinc Others: Alkaloids, sterol, coumarin, saponin, mucilage, and flavonoids

Part(s) Used: All parts of the plant. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: “The mature green fruits of cordia are used as vegetables, for making pickles, and it's edible as a fruit when it’s ripe. Besides this, it is also used in the pharmaceutical industry” (Murthy et al. 2019). Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Only the standard products should be used and doctors' recommendations should be followed.

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1 cm

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4.90. Coriander Scientific Name: Coriandrum sativum L. Family: Umbelliferae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-fungal, anti-microbial, antiseptic, anti-worm, anti-spasmodic, anti-rheumatic, anti-diarrhoeal, antioxidant, carminative, digestive, sedative, and expectorant. It stimulates the appetite and the libido and reduces cholesterol, blood pressure, and blood glucose (Wei et al. 2019)). x

“Coriander is used in many countries as a traditional medicine to treat disorders of the digestive, respiratory and urinary systems, diabetes, inflammation, insomnia, and anxiety” (Wei et al. 2019)

Constituents: x x x x x x x x x

Essential oils: Linalool, β-sitosterol, limonene, geraniol, citronellol, camphene, geranyl acetate, and linalyl acetate Acids: Petroselinic, linoleic, palmitic, and oleic acid Phenolic acids: Ferulic, gallic, caffeic, and salicylic acid Coumarins: Esculin, esculetin, scopoletin, and umbelliferone Flavonoids: Anthocyanins, flavones, isoflavones, hyperoside, rutin, hesperidin, vicenin, diosmin, luteolin, apigenin, orientine, dihydroquercetin, catechin, and arbutin Vitamins: B and C Mineral elements: Nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, zinc, iron, magnesium, molybdenum, and boron Carotenes: β-Carotene, β-cryptoxanthin epoxide, lutein-5,6epoxide, violaxanthin, and neoxanthin Others: Fibre, tannins, lignans, and stilbenes

Part(s) Used: All parts of the plant. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The leaves, seeds and roots of coriander are edible.

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x x

x

“The leaves and shoots are widely used as a seasoning for soups and cold dishes in Asian cuisine, while the fruits or seeds and roots are usually used for cooking meat” (Punetha, G. Tewari, and Pande 2018) “The dried seeds are widely used as a spice, especially in the Mediterranean region and in India” (Punetha, G. Tewari, and Pande 2018) Coriander seed oil is widely used in the food, health, cosmetic industries (the cosmetic industry adds coriander essential oils to cosmetics due to its perfume and antioxidant activity). It’s used globally in soft drinks and chocolate Humans also utilize coriander essential oil for its medicinal properties

Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.91. Cornelian Cherry Scientific Name: Cornus mas L. Family: Cornaceae Health Benefit(s): Antiseptic, antipyretic, anti-inflammatory, antitumour, anti-swelling, antioxidant, and immunomodulatory. It is beneficial for the health of the eyes, heart and teeth.; it improves blood circulation; acts as a blood purifier; is useful for wound healing; reduces blood pressure and blood glucose; is helpful for losing weight; treats urinary tract infections; and can be effective against diarrhoea (Kazimierski, Regula, and Molska 2019; Szczepaniak et al. 2019). x x

“Its fruits, flowers, leaves and bark have been known and appreciated in folk medicine for years, especially in Asia” (Kazimierski, Regula, and Molska 2019) “According to historical reports, Hippocrates wrote that cornelian cherry leaves could prepare a decoction for treating stomach diseases. In contrast, Ovid provided the recipe for cornelian cherry jam in his poem ‘The Golden Age’. Traditionally, Native Americans would use cornelian cherry bark extracts for treating malaria. At the beginning of the 19th century, there were discussions in America concerning why individual citizens had healthy white teeth, which was ultimately attributed to chewing cornelian cherry shoots” (Kazimierski, Regula, and Molska 2019)

Constituents: x x x x

Phenolic acids: Cinnamic, ferulic, coumaric, ellagic, gallic, caffeic, chlorogenic, tartaric, malic acid, and vescalagin Vitamins: B1, B2, C, and E Mineral elements: Iron, manganese, copper, zinc, and potassium Others: Flavonoids, carotenoids, anthocyanin, polyphenol, iridoids, tannin, quercetin, and rutin

Part(s) Used: All parts of the plant.

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Herbal and/or Commercial Use: “Cornelian cherry is a traditional component of liquors, jams, juice, syrup, wine, comfitures and other fruit-based products” (Bisowski 2010). x x x x

“In the Balkans, its fresh fruits are used for making cornelian cherry vodka, which is popular in the region” (Bisowski 2010) “The fruits are also used in Caucasian cuisine. The dried and ground fruits are used for seasoning meat marinades and sauces for roasted game” (Bisowski 2010) Fresh cornelian cherries can be an ideal addition to cakes and desserts “Roasted cornelian cherry seeds can also be used as coffee” (Bisowski 2010)

Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.92. Costmary Scientific Name: Tanacetum balsamita, Chrysanthemum balsamita Family: Compositae Health Benefit(s): Anti-worm, anti-microbial, anti-fungal, antiseptic, anti-bronchitis, anti-vomiting, anti-inflammatory, anti-headache, anti-rheumatic, anti-cold, anti-cough, astringent, antitussive, carminative, laxative, sedative, and immunomodulatory. It treats gastric ulcers and controls migraine attacks (Yousefzadi et al. 2009; Petras Rimantas Venskutonis 2016a). x x

The plant was used as an aperitif in the treatment of dysentery and as a remedy for liver and gallbladder ailments “It has also been used as a salve to treat burns and insect stings” (Bown 2001)

Constituents: x x

Essential oils: α-Pinene, β-pinene, myrcene, limonene, 1,8cineol, α-thujone (main), β-thujone, β-bisabolene (main) camphor (main), carvone (main), and carvone oxide Others: Flavonoids, bitter compounds, linoleic acid, vitamin K, and nitrogen

Part(s) Used: Leaf and flower. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Costmary’s flowers and leaves can be used for herbal tea. The plant can also be used for flavouring some foods and salads. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.93. Couch Grass, Common Couch Scientific Name: Agropyron repens L. Family: Graminaceae Health Benefit(s): Antiseptic, anti-kidney and bladder inflammation, antipyretic, anti-rheumatic, anti-skin-allergic, diuretic, diaphoretic, laxative, blood purifier, and digestive, it reduces cholesterol and helps with urinary tract infections (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007)(Al-Snafi, 2015a). x

x

x

“It is used traditionally as a soothing diuretic and for calming pain and spasms in the urinary tract. It is widely used in children’s conditions associated with the urinary system to control urinary disease symptoms, prostatic disease, rheumatism, urinary calculi, and urinary infections” (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007) “Couch grass is known to possess diuretic properties. It has been used for cystitis, urethritis, prostatitis, benign prostatic hypertrophy, renal calculus, and lithuria” (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007) The Council of Europe lists couch grass as a natural source of food flavouring (category N2). This category indicates that couch grass can be added to foodstuffs in small quantities, with a possible limitation of an active principle (as yet unspecified) in the final product

Constituents: x x x x

Carbohydrates: Inositol, mannitol, mucilaginous substances, pectin, and triticin Flavonoids: Tricin Essential oils: Apropyrene, carvacrol, carvone, thymol, menthol, menthone, and p-cymene Other: Cyanogenetic glycosides, saponin, pectin, mucilage, phenol, and fixed oil

Part(s) Used: Rhizome, root and seed.

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Herbal and/or Commercial Use: “Couch grass is used in the pharmaceutical and skincare products industries (as a pill, capsule, ointment and skin cream)” (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007). Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x

During pregnancy and lactation, it should be avoided

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4.94. Cowberry, Lingonberry Scientific Name: Vaccinium vitis-idaea L. Family: Ericaceae Health Benefit(s): Antiseptic (especially for the kidney and bladder), anti-bacterial, anti-microbial, anti-viral, antioxidant, naturally antibiotic, anti-rheumatic, anti-cancer, antitussive, and a sedative. It treats kidney stones; works as a blood purifier; is good for heart health, eye health, and weight control; reduces blood sugar and the risk of high blood pressure; improves brain functions; and can be used for urinary tract infections (Raudone et al. 2019). x x

“Lingonberry leaves are used to treat urinary tract infections, stomach disorders, rheumatic diseases and hypercholesterolemia” (Raudone et al. 2019) “Lingonberry is an ericaceous plant used as a remedy for gonorrhoea, dysuria and diarrhoea” (Raudone et al. 2019)

Constituents: Fruit x x x x

Acids: Citric, malic, vinic, tannic, silicic, and benzoic acid Glycoside: Idaeine Vitamins: B1, B2, C, and E Others: Flavonoids and anthocyanin

Leaf x

Tannin, arbutin, p-coumaric acid, gallic acid, caffeic acid, ferulic acid, gallocatechin, catechin gallate, gallocatechin gallate, and rutin

Part(s) Used: All parts of the plant (mostly the fruit and leaves). Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Lingonberry can be used as a juice, wine, jam, marmalade, etc. Besides this, it is used in some medicine. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.95. Cowslip Scientific Name: Primula veris, P. officinalis Family: Primulaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-worm, anti-inflammatory, anti-cough, antimigraine, anti-spasmodic, antioxidant, anti-Alzheimer’s, antipyretic, antitussive, anti-cancer, anti-diabetic, expectorant, digestive, sedative, laxative, and diuretic (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007; Vuko et al. 2017; Latypova et al. 2019). x

x

“The topical application of cowslip oils is widespread and useful for treating joint inflammation, dry skin, reducing skin wrinkles, eczema, and reducing the darkness around eyes” (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007) “The oral use of cowslip oils can be beneficial for osteoporosis reduction, reducing blood cholesterol, reducing blood pressure, for heart health, as an immunomodulatory, and as a weight reducer” (Vuko et al. 2017)

Constituents: x x x x x x x x

Carbohydrates: Arabinose, galactose, galacturonic acid, glucose, rhamnose, and xylose Flavonoid aglycons: Apigenin, luteolin, gossypetin, isorhamnetin, kaempferol, and quercetin Flavonoid glycosides: Cinarozid, rutin, and hyperozid Phenols: Glycosides primulaveroside and primveroside Quinones: Primin Saponins: Primula acid Tannins: Pseudotannins Essential oils: α-Thujene, α-pinene, linalool oxide, linalool, borneol, myrtenol, and eugenol

Part(s) Used: Flower, leaf and root. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Fresh cowslip or its dried flowers and leaves can be used as herbal tea. The plant is also used in some medicines.

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Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x

During pregnancy and lactation, it should be avoided

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4.96. Cranberry Scientific Name: Vaccinium macrocarpon Family: Ericaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-fungal, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anti-tumour, anti-cancer, and immunomodulatory. It is good for heart, teeth and gum health; it reduces blood cholesterol, blood pressure, and blood sugar; and improves blood circulation (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007). x x x

The Council of Europe lists the cranberry as a natural source of food flavouring “Cranberry juice and crushed cranberries have a long history of use in treating and preventing urinary tract infections” (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007) “Traditionally, cranberries have also been used for blood disorders, stomach ailments, liver problems, vomiting, loss of appetite, scurvy and in the preparation of wound dressings” (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007)

Constituents: x x x x x

Acids: Citric, malic, quinic, and benzoic acid Phenolics: Anthocyanins and proanthocyanins Vitamins: A, B, B6, C, E, and K Mineral elements: Calcium, iron, manganese, potassium, sodium, zinc, and folate Others: Fibre and alkaloids

Part(s) Used: Fruit. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Cranberry is widely used for juice, in cocktails, in cookery and baking, in herbal tea, eaten as a fresh fruit, and in some medicine. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x

During pregnancy and lactation, it should be avoided

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4.97. Croton Seeds, Purging Croton Scientific Name: Croton tiglium L. Family: Euphorbiaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-fungal, anti-microbial, anti-bacterial, antiinflammatory, anti-rheumatic, antitussive, antioxidant, antipyretic, anti-cough, anti-tumour, anti-cancer, and a laxative (Akbar 2020; Niu et al. 2020). x

“In Ayurveda, seeds and seed oil are used to treat constipation, fever, intestinal worms, anasarca, ascites, enlargement of abdominal viscera, tympanites, calculous affections, colic and gout” (Akbar 2020)

Constituents: x x x

Fatty acids: Linoleic, oleic, and eicosenoic acid Aromatic compounds: Iso-borneol and fenchyl alcohol Essential oils: 1-Dodecyne, 2,4-decadienal, n-decanoic acid, undecanoic acid, γ-himachalene, tetradecanoic acid, n-hexadecanoic acid, and 17-octadecynoic acid

Part(s) Used: Leaf and seed (primarily). Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The seeds and seed oil components are used in the pharmaceutical industry. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.98. Cuckoopint Scientific Name: Arum maculatum L. Family: Araceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-worm, anti-microbial, anti-fungal, antioxidant, anti-asthmatic, carminative, expectorant, diuretic, and diaphoretic, it is also good for the eyes (Kianinia and Farjam 2018; Farahmandfar et al. 2019). x x

Topical application can be used as a treatment for reducing rheumatic pains “It has an abundance of common names, including: snakes head, adder’s root, arum, wild arum, arum lily, lords-andladies, devils and angels, cows and bulls, Adam and Eve, bobbins, naked boys, starchy root, wake robin, friar’s cowl and jack in the pulpit. Its Persian name is ‘Kardeh’” (Farahmandfar et al. 2019)

Constituents: x

x

Essential oils: Cineol, nonanal, safranal, α-cyclocitral, cuminal, carvol, nonoic acid, thymol, anethol, p-cymol, caryophyllene, myrcene, myristicin, lauric acid, apiol, palmitic acid, and linoleic acid Others: Alkaloids, polyphenols, glycosides (flavonoids, saponin, and cyanogenic groups), proanthocyanidins, 2-heptanone, indoles, p-cresol, (E)-caryophyllene, monoterpenes, two sesquiterpenes, lectin, and tannin

Part(s) Used: Leaf and tuber. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Cuckoopint (Kardeh) is a wellknown aromatic and medicinal plant widely used as food (for example as a soup) in the south of Iran. x

All parts of the plant are toxic, so only use the standard medicine

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Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x

During pregnancy and lactation, it should be avoided

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4.99. Cucumber Scientific Name: Cucumis sativus L. Family: Cucurbitaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-worm, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, blood purifier, diuretic, reduces blood sugar, and promotes regularity. x

Cucumbers are low in calories and contain a fair amount of water and soluble fibre, making them ideal for promoting hydration and aiding in weight loss

Constituents: x x

Vitamins: A, B1, B2, B3, B5, B9, C, and K Mineral elements: Magnesium, potassium, manganese, zinc, iron, and phosphorus

Part(s) Used: Fruit. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Cucumber is widely used as fresh fruit for salads, in juice, and a wide variety of foods and beverages. It is further used in some skincare products like masks, soaps, and creams. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.100. Cumin Scientific Name: Cuminum cyminum L. Family: Umbelliferae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-worm, anti-fungal, antiseptic, antitussive, anti-inflammatory, anti-spasmodic, antioxidant, anti-diabetic, anti-cancer, anti-asthmatic, carminative, digestive, diaphoretic, and diuretic. It stimulates the appetite and libido, promotes menstruation, increases lactation, and is useful for healing wounds (R. Li and Z.‑T. Jiang 2004; N. Kang et al. 2019). x

x x x

x

“Cumin oils show high anti-fungal activity against various pathogenic fungi, and influential high anti-bacterial activity. Therefore, it is also used as a fumigant or additive in the storage of foodstuffs” (R. Li and Z.‑T. Jiang 2004) Cumin seeds have traditionally been used to treat several diseases, such as stomach pain, emesis, and alexithymia “Cumin is the second most popular spice in the world after black pepper” (Patil et al., 2017) Cumin seeds are used as a key ingredient in traditional Chinese medicine, in its Fufang Kaliziran Tincture (Z65020003), which has been approved by the China Food and Drug Administration (CFDA), and is currently used to treat leukoderma in clinical practice In Ayurvedic medicine, cumin seeds have been applied for the treatment of digestive disorders

Constituents: x x x x

Essential oils: α-Thujene, α-pinene, β-pinene, α-terpinene, β-terpinene, α-phellandrene, p-cymene, limonene, linalool, γ-terpinene, β-myrcene, β-mentha, and 1,4-dien-7-ol Flavonoids: Apigenin, luteolin, and quercetin Phenolic acids: Caffeic, gallic, and chlorogenic acid Others: Resin, tannin, carbohydrate, vitamins, and terpenes

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Part(s) Used: Seed. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Cumin is used as a traditional flavouring in several ethnic cuisines and food industries. The seeds can be used as herbal tea. Furthermore, it is used in some medicinal or cosmetic products, like perfume. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.101. Curcuma, Turmeric Scientific Name: Curcuma longa L. Family: Zingiberaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-worm, anti-fungal, anti-viral, anti-yeast, antiseptic, anti-HIV, anti-cancer, anti-tumour, anti-allergic, anti-inflammatory, anti-rheumatic, antipyretic, antitussive, antispasmodic, anti-diabetic, carminative, immunomodulatory, diuretic, and expectorant. It reduces cholesterol, heart disease, and intestinal and stomach disease. It’s beneficial for bladder health, heart health, and liver health (Chanda, Sayantani and Ramachandra, T.V. 2019). x

x

“Current research shows that the curcumin in curcuma has a new magnitude about its potentiality and has anti-inflammatory and anticancer activities” (Chanda, Sayantani and Ramachandra, T.V. 2019) “Recently, turmeric powder has been used as a traditional medicine against gastrointestinal diseases, especially for biliary and hepatic disorders, diabetic wounds, rheumatism, inflammation, sinusitis, anorexia, coryza and coughs” (Chanda, Sayantani and Ramachandra, T.V. 2019)

Constituents: x x x

Essential oils: Guaiane, bisabolene, germacrene, sabinene, and turmerone Acids: Valerenic, caprylic, cinnamic, caffeic, ferulic, vanillic, and protocatechuic acid Others: Curcumin and desoxycurcumin

Part(s) Used: Rhizome. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Curcuma powder is widely used as a spice, colour and/or flavour in foods, perfumes, other cosmetics, beverages, and the pharmaceutical industry. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.102. Damask Rose Scientific Name: Rosa damascena Family: Rosaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-microbial, anti-fungal, antiworm, anti-inflammatory, antitussive, antioxidant, anti-cancer, antimutagenic, anti-depressant, anti-diarrhoeal, carminative, digestive, and expectorant. It stimulates the appetite and libido; it’s beneficial for heart health, nervous health, stomach health, and brain health; and it improves blood circulation (Boskabady, Mohammad Hossein, Shafei, Mohammad Naser, Saberi, Zahra and Amini, Somayeh 2011). x x

x x

x x

Rose water was (and sometimes still is) scattered at weddings to ensure a happy marriage and as a symbol of love and purity. It has also been used to aid meditation and prayer “There is a strong bond between Iranians and this plant. Its popularity is not only due to its medicinal effects but also because of certain religious beliefs. People call this plant the Flower of Prophet Mohammed (Gole Mohammadi) because they believe its pleasant aroma reminds them of the Prophet” (Boskabady, Mohammad Hossein, Shafei, Mohammad Naser, Saberi, Zahra and Amini, Somayeh 2011) This plant is cultivated in Iran (especially in Kashan) for preparing rose water and essential oil The most therapeutic effects of the Damask rose in ancient medicine related to its treatment of abdominal and chest pains, its strengthening of the heart, the treatment of menstrual bleeding and digestive problems, and its reduction of inflammation (especially of the neck) North American Indian tribes used a decoction of the plant's root as a cough remedy for children Rose oil aids in healing depression, grief, nervous stress and tension. It helps reduce thirst, heal wounds, and is beneficial for skin health. Vapour therapy of rose oil is helpful for some allergies, headaches, and migraines

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Constituents: x x

Essential oils: Myrcene, kaempferol, β-citronellol, nonadecane, geraniol, kaempferol, citronellol, nonadecane, and geraniol Others: Glycosides, flavonoids, anthocyanins, carboxylic acid, vitamin C, bitter principle, organic acid and fatty oil

Part(s) Used: Flower. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Apart from Damask rose's use as ornamental plants in parks, gardens, and houses, they are principally cultivated for use in the perfume, medicine and food industries. x x

Because of the low oil content in Damask roses and the lack of natural and synthetic substitutes, the essential rose oil of this plant is one of the most expensive ones in world markets Essential oils of the Damask rose are a useful agent to use in the food industry to avoid food spoilage, contamination, destruction and oxidation

Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.103. Dandelion Scientific Name: Taraxacum officinale Family: Compositae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-microbial, antiseptic, antioxidant, anti-spasmodic, anti-rheumatic, antitussive, carminative, diuretic, appetizing, immunomodulatory, diaphoretic, and a laxative. It is a cold treatment, and helps with stomach health, reducing blood sugar, blood purifying, and urinary stone excretion (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007). x

The Council of Europe lists the dandelion as a natural source of food flavouring (category N2). This category indicates that dandelion can be added to foodstuffs in small quantities, with a possible limitation of an active principle (as yet unspecified) in the final product

Constituents: x x x x x x

Bitter compounds: Taraxacine, Taraxasterol, and choline Mineral elements: Calcium, potassium, iron, manganese, magnesium, sodium, phosphorus, silicon dioxide, and sulphur Vitamins: A, B, and C Acids and phenols: Caffeic, p-hydroxyphenyl acetic, chlorogenic, cichoric, monocaffeoyl tartaric, linoleic, linolenic, oleic, palmitic and folic acid, and taraxacoside Coumarins: Cichoriin and aesculin Others: Flavonoids, carotenoids, mannitol, sterol, mucilage, resin, terpenoids, pectin, inulin, choline, and sugar

Part(s) Used: All parts of the plant. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Dandelion leaves and roots can be used in food, mainly in salads and soups. x x

The roasted root and its extract have been used as a coffee substitute The fresh or dried leaf and root can be used as herbal tea

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Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x

In some cases, the contact of the plant latex with the skin can induce allergic reactions

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4.104. Date Palm Scientific Name: Phoenix dactylifera L. Family: Palmaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-microbial, anti-fungal, anti-cancer (especially colon cancer), anti-anaemic, anti-inflammatory, antimutagenic, antioxidant, anti-diarrhoeal, anti-cough, antipyretic, digestive, diuretic, expectorant, and sedative. It is beneficial for eye health, stomach health, and kidney health, and boosts the libido (John and Fereidoon Shahidi 2019). x x

Date palm fruits serve as an essential component of the diet in most arid and semiarid regions of the world “The various parts of the plant are widely used in traditional medicine to treat many disorders, including memory disturbances, fever, inflammation, paralysis, loss of consciousness, and nervous disorders” (John and Fereidoon Shahidi 2019)

Constituents: Fruit x x x

Vitamins: A, B, C and E Mineral elements: Calcium, potassium, sodium, manganese, iron, and magnesium Others: Flavonoids, carotenoids, mannitol, sterol, mucilage, resin, terpenoids, pectin, inulin, choline, and sugar

Seed and Leaf x

Caffeoyl hexoside, methyl gallate, protocatechuic acid, catechin, epicatechin, p-coumaric acid, ferulic acid, rutin, and hydrocaffeic acid

Part(s) Used: Flower, fruit, leaf and seed. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Date palm is widely used in food, particularly in the dessert and baking industries.

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Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x

Date palm is very beneficial during pregnancy and lactation

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4.105. Dead Nettle, White Dead Nettle Scientific Name: Lamium album L. Family: Labiatae, Lamiaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-microbial, anti-viral, antioxidant, anti-cancer, anti-anaemic, anti-rheumatic, anti-inflammatory, anti-diabetic, anti-spasmodic, diuretic, sedative, antitussive and a blood purifier (Pourmirzaee Sheikhali Kelayeh, Abedinzade, and A. Ghorbani 2019). x x x x

Its topical application helps for various pains, skin inflammations and healing wounds Dead nettle has been used as an essential food in various countries of Europe, China and Japan during famines It is widely used in traditional, folk and official medicine because of its therapeutic activities “The antiseptic, astringent, and anti-inflammatory activities of this herb are especially used in the treatment of menorrhagia, leukorrhea, menstrual problems, uterine bleeding, and vaginal and cervical inflammation” (Pourmirzaee Sheikhali Kelayeh, Abedinzade, and A. Ghorbani 2019)

Constituents: x

Tannins, sugar, glycoside, essential oil, gallic acid, saponin, potassium, phenolic acid, triterpenes, iridoids, polysaccharides, fatty acids, mucilage, and phytoecdysteroids

Part(s) Used: All parts of the plant. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The dried and fresh leaves can be used as herbal tea and food. The plant is used in some medicine. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x

Use during menopause should be avoided

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4.106. Devil's Claw Scientific Name: Harpagophytum procumbens Family: Pedaliaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-inflammatory, antitussive, antipyretic, antirheumatic, anti-arthritic, and a diuretic. It is beneficial for skin health, and the treatment of stomach, intestine, kidney, liver, and pancreas disease. It promotes the appetite, helps with urinary infections, and reduces tendon pain and inflammation, as well as blood glucose (Menghini et al. 2019). x x

x

“The plant roots are used orally in folk medicine to treat a wide range of health conditions, including indigestion, fever, allergic reactions, and rheumatism” (Menghini et al. 2019) “As a traditional medicine, devil's claw has been long used, in low doses, to treat menstrual cramps. High doses however have been effective in expelling placentas, postpartum” (Menghini et al. 2019) “The tuber powder has been employed orally to relieve pain in pregnant women and to facilitate childbirth. It has also been used as a wound‐healing agent” (Menghini et al. 2019)

Constituents: x x x x x

Iridoid glycosides: Harpagoside, harpogide, and procumbide Triterpenoids: Oleanolic and ursolic acid Phytosterols: β‐Sitosterol Aromatic acids: Caffeic, cinnamic, and chlorogenic acid Flavonoids: Luteolin and kaempferol

Part(s) Used: Root and fruit. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: It is used in the pharmaceutical industry for different purposes. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x

During pregnancy and lactation, it should be avoided

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4.107. Digitalis, Purple Foxglove Scientific Name: Digitalis purpurea L. Family: Scrophulariaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-tumour, anti-cancer, anti-asthmatic, diuretic, and, antitussive. It is good for heart health (López-Lázaro et al. 2003; Lee, JY, Woo, E, and Kang, KW. 2006). x x x

Topical application helps for healing wounds Digitalis is commonly used to treat congestive heart failure It has been used as a cardiac medicine for more than 200 years, mainly for the treatment of cardiac insufficiency and some types of cardiac arrhythmias

Constituents: x x x

Glycosides: Acteoside, purpureaside, calceolarioside, and plantainoside Acids: Digitaleique acid, antirrhinque acid, and digitalique acid Heterosis: Digitonine, digitonoside, gitonine, gitonoside, digitalinum verum, digitoxine, gitoxine, and bigitaline

Part(s) Used: All parts of the plant. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: It is used in the pharmaceutical industry, especially in heart and cancer medicine. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x

It should be used under the supervision of a medical doctor

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4.108. Dill Scientific Name: Anethum graveolens L. Family: Umbelliferae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-fungal, anti-microbial, antiseptic, anti-viral, antioxidant, anti-spasmodic, anti-cancer, carminative, digestive, sedative, antitussive, diuretic, and a laxative. It reduces blood sugar and blood pressure, and increases the flow of the milk in nursing mothers (F. A. Mohammed et al. 2019; Abdel-Kader et al. 2019). x x x x x

The seeds of dill have been widely used in conventional medicine designed to treat jaundice; liver, spleen, and rheumatic disorders; and other inflammatory gout diseases “The essential oil obtained from dill seeds palliates griping and intestinal spasms and acts as a relaxant in severe colic pain” (F. A. Mohammed et al. 2019) “The carminative volatile oil aids in digestion, relieves gas and increases the appetite” (Jana and Shekhawat 2010) Chewing of dill seeds has shown remarkable improvement in the disorders related to an unpleasant odour in the breath “Dill is helpful for the treatment of mental disorders and can also cure piles and urinary ailments” (F. A. Mohammed et al. 2019)

Constituents: x

x x x

Essential oils: Carvone, dihydro-carvone, carvacrol, α-phellandrene, limonene, pinene, cineol, dillapiole, a furanocoumarin, iso-myristicin, myrcene, myristicin, apiol, myricetin, and p-cymene Mineral elements: Calcium, magnesium, niacin, sodium, phosphorus, zinc, iron, potassium, and cadmium Vitamins: A, and C Flavonoids: Quercetin and iso-harmentin

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Others: Carotenoid, fibre, phenolic compounds, tannins, alkaloids, sterol, triterpenes, kaempferol, ferulic acid, caffeic acid, polyphenols, and saponin

Part(s) Used: Leaf and fruit. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Fresh or dried dill leaves and fruits are widely used as a spice and flavour in food (such as salads), beverages, and in some medicine. x

The essential oils of dill are widely used in the food industry to avoid food spoilage, contamination, destruction, and oxidation and increase food storage safety in storage and during processing

Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.109. Dodder, Common Dodder, Cuscuta Scientific Name: Cuscuta epithymum, C. chinesis Family: Convolvulaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-fungal, anti-cancer (especially prostate cancer), anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anti-diabetic, carminative, diuretic, laxative, diaphoretic, and immunomodulatory. It is a treatment for urinary system problems and kidney disease; it promotes menstruation; it is appetizing; it’s a liver and kidney tonic; it aids with nervous health and stomach health; and it reduces joint pain and headaches (Chabra et al. 2019; Akbar 2020). x x x x x

x x x

Most dodder species contain small amounts of chlorophyll; however, some species have no chlorophyll, and they stick to a host using several haustoria to obtain their nutrient needs “Dodder species are parasites for a broad range of plants and not specific to their hosts; they can grow on many species, even on multiple hosts at the same time” (Chabra et al. 2019) The medicinal value of dodder has been recognized in different countries, but mostly in Greece Dodder was mentioned in various Persian medicinal texts for medicinal profits and treatment of disorders. It was imported to India due to its therapeutic aspects “Dodder is helpful for treating all types of spleen dysfunctions. It has been used for treating headaches, intermittent fevers, falling sickness, ulcers, black phlegm, swelling, syphilis, leprosy, attenuate, aperient dropsies, and other chronic diseases” (Chabra et al. 2019) Dodder is used to treat hepatic complaints and liver disorders and treat problems of the urinary tract and renal diseases “The Hippocratic physicians in ancient Greece noted the beneficial effects of dodder on weight loss because it is a laxative” (Chabra et al. 2019) “The plant has beneficial effects on spasms, epilepsy, influenza, and depression. Other eastern physicians have used it for stomach disorders, muscular cramps, swelling, intestinal

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x

x

worms, mucus problems, nervous and mental disorders, and in products for reducing fevers” (Chabra et al. 2019) “The most important thing about this plant is the medicinal effect based on the host of dodder. For example, the dodder that grows on nettles became known for its most potent influence in removing constipation from the body. When the plant grows on flax, it is mucilaginous and is recommended for agues of young children. It strengthens weak stomachs, purifies choler, works as a diuretic and opens the blockage of the reins and bladder” (Barton, B.H., Castle, T. 1877) Dodder was one of the most commonly used drugs in ancient times in China and is classified as a superior drug in Chinese medicine

Constituents: Plant x x x

Flavonoids: Kaempferol, hyperoside, isorhamnetin, d-sesamin, quercetin, quercetin 3-O-β-D-galactoside-7-O-β-D-glucoside, and rutin Sterols: Sitosterol, campesterol, stigmasterol, isofucosterol, cholesterol, and 24-methylene cholesterol Others: Chlorogenic acid, astragalin, kaempferol-3-O-galactoside, quercetin-3-O-glucoside, alkaloids, saponin, tannin, triterpenoids, glycosides, steroids, coumarin, carbohydrates, aromatic compounds, cuscatalin, and cuscutin

Seed x

Amarvelin, resins, oil, and lignan glycosides

Part(s) Used: All parts of the parasitic plant. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: It is used in the pharmaceutical industry for different purposes. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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Dodder

Haustoria

Host Plant

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4.110. Dog Rose, Rose Hip Scientific Name: Rosa canina L. Family: Rosaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-worm, anti-microbial, antimutagenic, anticancerogenic, antitussive, antioxidant, anti-stomach inflammation, anti-inflammatory, and diuretic. It works against diarrhoea, is good for nervous health, and reduces blood sugar (C. Chrubasik et al. 2008; Gruenwald, Uebelhack, and Moré 2019). x

x x x

“Rosehip is a well-known herbal antiphlogistic used in folk medicine for thousands of years due to its anti-inflammatory and pain-relieving properties” (Gruenwald, Uebelhack, and Moré 2019) “The efficacy and safety of rosehip for the treatment of osteoarthritis has been examined in several clinical studies” (Gruenwald, Uebelhack, and Moré 2019) “It is used to prevent and treat fevers, general exhaustion, gastric spasms, gastritis, and gastric ulcers” (C. Chrubasik et al. 2008) “It has been shown to be a laxative and beneficial for gallstones, gallbladder discomforts and urinary tract diseases” (C. Chrubasik et al. 2008)

Constituents: x x x x x x x

Vitamins: A1, B1, B2, B3, C, E, and K Phenolic acids: Protocatechuic, gallic, vanillic, syringic, chlorogenic, and cichoric acid, and methyl gallate Flavonoids: Apigenin, rutin, catechin, quercetin, and quercitrin Terpenoids: Ursolic and oleanolic acid Acids: Ascorbic, linoleic, α-linolenic, malic, citric, and palmitic acid Carotenoids: Lycopene and beta carotene Others: Tannins, phytosterol, anthocyanins, essential oil, sugar, glycoside, and pectin

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Part(s) Used: Fruit (mainly) and flower. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The dried and fresh fruits and flowers are used for herbal tea and as vitamin supplements. They are incorporated as ingredients in the preparations of several food products such as soups, jam, jellies, and syrups, as well as in beverages such as wine and soft drinks. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

Flowers

Fruits

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4.111. Dorema, Ammoniacum, Gum Ammoniac Scientific Name: Dorema ammoniacum Family: Umbelliferae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-fungal, anti-microbial, antiworm, anti-cancer, antipyretic, anti-spasmodic, anti-influenzas, antiasthmatic, antitussive, anti-respiratory infection, carminative, diaphoretic, and expectorant. It heals wounds, promotes menstruation, is good for stomach health, and acts as a tonic for the kidney and spleen (Hosseini et al. 2014; Raeesdana et al. 2018). x x

“Dorema produces a medicinal gum resin commonly known as ‘Ammoniacum’ or ‘Gum Ammoniac’. It is found in cavities in stems, roots and petioles” (Langenheim 2003) It can be extracted from the plant naturally, with the help of an insect or by being cut

Constituents: x

x

Essential oils: α-Pinene, limonene, thymol, α-cadinene, αcopaene, α-gurjunene, β-selinene, γ-Cadinene, β-Eudesmol, α-Eudesmol, α-cadinol, cuparene, barbatene, myrtenol, and α-thujene Others: Resin, salicylic acid

Part(s) Used: Oleo-gum-resin. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Dorema has a valuable essential oil used in the medicinal industry. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.112. Drumstick Tree, Moringa Scientific Name: Moringa oleifera Family: Moringaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-worm, anti-parasitic, anti-inflammatory, anti-diabetic, antitussive, antipyretic, anti-cough, anti-asthmatic, antiweakness, anti-arthritic, anti-malaria and skin infection, anti-HIV, antioxidant, anti-cancer (especially prostate cancer), anti-internal bleeding, carminative, diuretic, and appetizing. It reduces blood pressure and blood cholesterol; has wound healing properties; is a heart tonic and nervous tonic; it works against nerve pain; it’s a natural antibiotic; and it prevents the development of fatty liver disease (Akbar 2020). x

“The flowers, leaves, pods and gum are used to treat phlegmatic diseases, such as coughs, asthma, arthritis, backache, paralysis and inflammation of the spleen” (Akbar 2020)

Constituents: x x x x

x x x

Phenolic acids: Caffeic, chlorogenic, ellagic, and gallic acid Flavonoids: Apigenin, epicatechin, kaempferol, luteolin, myricetin, rutin, quercetin, and quercetin 3-O-β-glucoside Vitamins: A, B1, B2, B3, C, and E Mineral elements: Calcium, manganese, iron, copper, potassium, magnesium, zinc, and phosphorus Essential oils: α-Phellandrene, and p-cymene Alkaloids: Moringine and moringinine. Others: Glucoside, kaempferol 3-O-α-rhamnoside, procyanidins, coumarin, caffeoylquinic acid α-glucosides, marumosides A and B, cardiac glycoside, tannins, saponins, amino acids, β-carotene, lutein, omega 3, omega 6, and fatty acids

Part(s) Used: All parts of the tree are used as a highly nutritious vegetable in many countries.

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Herbal and/or Commercial Use: It is used in the pharmaceutical industry for different purposes. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

Leaf Powders

Fruits Leaves

Tree Barks

Seeds with & without skins

Capsules from leaves powders

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4.113. Ecballium, Squirting Cucumber Scientific Name: Ecballium elaterium L. Family: Cucurbitaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-microbial, antiseptic, anti-cancer, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-diabetic, antitussive, and a laxative, it reduces blood sugar (Bourebaba et al. 2020). x

“Ecballium has been used in traditional medicine for various treatments, including liver cirrhosis, rheumatism, haemorrhoids and sinusitis” (Bourebaba et al. 2020)

Constituents: x x

Glycosides: Cucurbitacin E, α-elaterin, and β-elaterin Others: Flavonoids, carbohydrates, phenolic, and tannins

Part(s) Used: All parts of the plant, especially the fruit and root. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: It is used in the pharmaceutical industry. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.114. Eggplant, Aubergine Scientific Name: Solanum melongena L. Family: Solanaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-cancer, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-asthmatic, carminative, antitussive, and a sedative. It reduces blood cholesterol and blood pressure (Agoreyo, B. O., Egharevba, M. E., Okpapi, P. E., and Ogiugo, M. E. 2016). x x x x

Eggplants rank highly amongst the many fruits that are nutritionally rich in bioactive compounds and antioxidant properties Eggplants are extensively exploited in traditional medicine for the treatment of many diseases Using eggplant with herbs oil like olive oil has a laxative effect Using eggplant with vinegar has a diuretic effect and helps against diarrhoea

Constituents: x x x

Vitamins: B1, B2, B3, B5, B6, B9 and C Mineral elements: Iron, magnesium, calcium, sodium, zinc, sulphur, copper, potassium, iodine, and manganese Others: Flavonoids, alkaloids, carbohydrates, phenolic, tannins, phytosterol, phenolic acid, amino acid, and sugar

Part(s) Used: Fruit. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Eggplant is widely used in the food industry. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x

Eggplants can induce allergic reactions in some people

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Black Eggplant

Thai Eggplant

White Eggplant

Machiaw Eggplant

Thai Long Green Eggplant

Antigua Eggplant

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4.115. Elder, Dwarf Elder (1), European Elderberry (2) Scientific Name: Sambucus ebulus (1), Sambucus nigra (2) Family: Caprifoliaceae Health Benefit(s) (Dawidowicz, Wianowska, and Baraniak 2006; VEBERIC et al. 2009): x

x

x

x

Sambucus nigra: Antipyretic, anti-viral, antioxidant, anticarcinogenic, antibacterial, antiallergic, and diaphoretic, it improves colds and influenzas, rheumatism, and is immunestimulating. Infusions of its flowers are known as an excellent traditional remedy for various kinds of diseases. Their pharmacological properties result from flavonoids and berries, which are commonly used in domestic medicine Sambucus ebulus: Anti-bacterial, anti-rheumatic, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anti-haemorrhoid, diaphoretic, and diuretic. It heals wounds, reduces blood pressure, treats burns and infections, and helps with oedema, eczema and urticaria Different parts of Sambucus ebulus (the leaves, rhizomes and fruits) have been used in traditional medicine mainly to treat inflammation-related gastrointestinal disorders, influenza, and rheumatoid arthritis Iranian traditional medicine often uses the leaves and rhizome of this plant in treating some inflammatory cases, such as bee and nettle stings, arthritis and sore throats

Constituents: Sambucus nigra x x x

Flavanols: Rutin, iso-quercitrin and astragalin Anthocyanins: Cyanidin-3-sambubioside and cyanidin-3glucoside Organic acids: Malic, citric, fumaric, and shikimic acid

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Sambucus ebulus x

Flavonoids, steroids, cyanogenic glucoside, secoiridoids, valeriana-type iridoids, tannin, glycosides, caffeic acid, and phenol

Part(s) Used: All parts of the plant. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Elderberry cultivars are planted for ornamental purposes, but elderberry flower extracts are used as a beverage and food flavouring. Its berries have been globally utilised as a medicine or a source of dietary supplements. x

The fruit of both plants can be used for herbal tea, jam, marmalade and juice

Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x

Should only be used according to medical doctors’ advice

Sambucus ebulus Fruits

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Sambucus ebulus Leaves

Sambucus ebulus Flowers

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Sambucus nigra Leaves & Flowers

Sambucus nigra Fruits

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4.116. Elecampane, Inula Scientific Name: Inula helenium L. Family: Compositae Health Benefit(s): Anti-microbial, anti-bacterial, anti-fungal, antiviral, anti-worm, antiseptic, anti-cough, anti-cold, antipyretic, antiinflammatory, antioxidant, anti-cancer, anti-bronchitis, anti-asthmatic, antitussive, diaphoretic, diuretic, expectorant, and sedative. It is good for stomach and heart health, appetizing, and reduces both blood pressure and blood cholesterol (Abolfathi et al. 2019; Yan et al. 2020). x x

Topical application helps healing wounds, eczema and skin problems Inula tea can be helpful for excretion of kidney and urinary bladder stones

Constituents: x x x

This plant's rhizome is known to contain high amounts of eudesmanolide-type sesquiterpene lactones, phenolic acids, flavonoids, and inulin Essential oils of the rhizome: α-Pinene, Camphene, β-Pinene, Camphor, β-Elemene, α-Selinene, diplophyllin, alantolactone, iso-alantolactone, and triterpenes Others: Resin, bitter compounds, mucilage, and pectin

Part(s) Used: Flower and rhizome (main part). Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Flower and rhizome can be used as herbal tea and is used in some medicines. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x

During pregnancy, it should be avoided

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4.117. Ergot of Rye Scientific Name: Claviceps purpurea Family: Ascomycetes Health Benefit(s): Ergot is a common pathogen of grasses, corn, wheat, barley, oats, millet, sorghum, rice, and rye which attacks young ovaries and forms the typical ergot sclerotia. These dormant structures contain ergot alkaloids. They are pharmaceutically important mycotoxins with a wide range of therapeutical applications and are produced worldwide on a large scale (Schiff 2006). x x

x x

The earliest western description of ergot's medicinal use was in 1582 when it was reported as a useful uterine stimulant In 1820, ergot was added to the U.S. Pharmacopoeia for obstetrical use, although the drug's potentially toxic effects were recognized at that time. The earliest reference to the use of ergot for the treatment of migraine headache was in 1883 The best-known species, Ergot, forms conspicuous purpleblack sclerotia up to several-cm-long on the ears of rye, where they are easily seen The use of ergot as an oxytocic in childbirth became prevalent in France, Germany, and the United States. The first use of the drug in official medicine was described by the American physician John Stearns in 1808 when he reported on the uterine contractile actions of a preparation of ergot obtained from blackened granary rye remedy for quickening childbirth

Constituents: x

x

Alkaloids are central and essential compounds in Ergot. The main alkaloids are ergotinine, ergochrysine, ergotoxine, ergotamine, ergosine, ergocristine, ergocornine, ergotaminine, ergosinine, ergocorninine, ergometrine, chanoclavines, ergobasine, ergine, and ergopeptines Mineral elements: Magnesium and potassium

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Acids: Palmitic, myristic, stearic, oleic, and linoleic acid

Part(s) Used: Ergot. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Ergot is used for medical purposes, so it should not be used directly and arbitrarily. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

Ergot (1-4 cm)

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4.118. Eucalyptus, Blue Gum Tree Scientific Name: Eucalyptus globulus, E. citriodora Family: Myrtaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-microbial, anti-worm, anti-fungal, antiseptic, anti-viral, anti-bacterial, antitussive, antipyretic, anti-inflammatory, anti-spasmodic, expectorant, diuretic, sedative, anaesthetic, and astringent. It aids with respiratory cooling (Luís et al. 2016; Kassahun 2019). x x x

Eucalyptus essential oil can be used to treat a range of internal and external infections The leaf oils also can be used as an expectorant to treat coughs, colds, and rhinitis It is useful for asthmatic patients and treating diarrhoea

Constituents: x

x x x

Essential oils: Eucalyptol (1, 8-cineole), α-pinene, β-pinene, d-limonene, p-cymene, o-cymene, α-phellandrene, camphene, γ-terpinene, globulol, epiglobulol, ledol, viridiflorol, carvone, pinocarvone, citronellal, piperitone, and limonene Flavonoids: Eucalyptrin, hyperoside, quercetin, quercitrin, and rutin Acids: Gallic, protocatechuic, caffeic, ferulic, and gentisic acid Others: Tannin, resins, and wax

Part(s) Used: Mainly the leaf, but all parts of the tree (stem, bark, root, seed and flower) have essential oils too. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The main uses of its essential oils are pharmaceutical (those rich in 1,8-cineole), perfumery (those rich in citronellal), and industrial (those having piperitone and α-phellandrene as their main constituents). Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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“The essential oil of this plant should not be used orally” (Martindale, 1989)

x

“Use during pregnancy and lactation should be avoided” (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007)

x

In some cases, the essential oils can induce allergic reactions

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4.119. European Pennyroyal, Pennyroyal Scientific Name: Mentha pulegium Family: Labiatae, Lamiaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-viral, anti-fungal, antiseptic, anti-cancer, anti-tumour, antioxidant, anti-rheumatic, anti-spasmodic, anti-inflammatory, anti-cough, antitussive, anti-headache, carminative, diaphoretic, astringent, diuretic, and digestive. It is appetizing, promotes menstruation and improves colds (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007; Mahboubi and Haghi 2008). x x x

Topical application acts as a refrigerant, antiseptic, and insect repellent, and is used for cutaneous eruptions, formication and gout Traditionally, it has been used for flatulent dyspepsia, intestinal colic, the common cold, and delayed menstruation The flowering aerial parts of Pennyroyal have been traditionally used for their antiseptic effects, and for the treatment of colds, sinusitis, cholera, food poisoning, bronchitis and tuberculosis

Constituents: x x

Essential oils: Pulegone, α-pinene, β-pinene, limonene, Para cymene, menthone, iso-menthone, and iso-pulegone Others: Palmitic and myristic acid

Part(s) Used: Leaf and flower. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The fresh or dried leaves and flowers can be used as herbal tea, a food spice, in herbal water, and in/as some medicines. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x

“During pregnancy and lactation, it should be avoided” (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007)

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4.120. Evening Primrose Scientific Name: Oenothera biennis L. Family: Onagraceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-inflammatory, anti-allergic, anti-cancer, and sedative. It reduces blood pressure and blood cholesterol and helps with losing weight. It is good for heart health and as a treatment for haemorrhoids and diabetic neuropathy (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007; L. E. Steckel, Sosnoskie, and S. J. Steckel 2019). x x x x

Topical application of evening primrose oil can improve skin problems like eczema, wounds, skin inflammation, psoriasis, and rheumatism Traditionally it has been used for asthmatic coughs, gastrointestinal disorders, whooping cough, and as a sedative or painkiller Evening primrose oil is licensed in the UK to treat atopic eczema and cyclical and non-cyclical mastalgia Common evening-primrose is a source of a pain-relieving compound used for headaches and a remedy for venereal disease and eruptions of the skin

Constituents: x

Fatty acids: Linoleic, gamolenic, palmitic, stearic, oleic, and myristic acid

Part(s) Used: Flower, seed and root. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Evening primrose root has been used as a vegetable with a peppery flavour. x x

“The seed oil has been used as a food supplement for many years” (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007) During the first year of the plant’s growth, the young roots may be boiled and eaten as a vegetable and the shoots, fruits, and seeds may be consumed

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Many skincare products contain evening primrose compounds, like creams, lotions, ointments and massage oils

Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.121. Fennel Scientific Name: Foeniculum vulgare Family: Umbelliferae Health Benefit(s): Leaf: Anti-bacterial, anti-viral, anti-fungal, antispasmodic, anti-worm, antitussive, anti-cough, anti-inflammatory, carminative, diaphoretic, digestive, diuretic, and expectorant. It has beneficial effects on heart and stomach health; promotes the appetite and libido; and acts as an eye enhancer (Özbek et al. 2003). x x

Seed: Anti-bacterial, anti-spasmodic, antioxidant, carminative, promotes menstruation, and alleviates the symptoms of female climacteric Root: Promotes menstruation, appetizes, is a strong diuretic, and aids with excretion of urea and uric acid

Constituents: x x

Essential oils: Anethol, estragole, camphene, fenchone, methyl-chavicol, limonene, α-pinene, camphene, β-pinene, βmyrcene, and α-phellandrene Oils: Palmitic, oleic, linoleic, and petroselinic acid

Part(s) Used: Leaf, seed and root. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The dried seeds are widely employed in culinary preparations for flavouring bread and pastry, in candies and French style alcoholic liqueurs, as well as in cosmetics, medicinal preparations, and the perfumery industry. x

The fresh root and leaf can be used as a vegetable in salads or as food more generally

Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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Foeniculum vulgare Seeds

Foeniculum vulgare Flowers

Foeniculum vulgare Leaves & Bulbs

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4.122. Fenugreek Scientific Name: Trigonella foenum-graecum L. Family: Fabaceae, Leguminosae Health Benefit(s): Anti-worm, anti-microbial, anti-fungal, antiseptic, anti-inflammatory, antitussive, anti-spasmodic, anti-cancer, antioxidant, anti-diabetic, carminative, expectorant, diuretic, digestive, and laxative. It increases lactation; promotes heart and uterus health, and the health of the digestive organs; and reduces blood sugar, blood pressure, and blood cholesterol (Srinivasan 2006; Joanne Barnes et al. 2007). x x x

Fenugreek has been used to treat anorexia, dyspepsia, gastritis and recovery from it, and is used topically for furunculosis, myalgia, lymphadenitis, gout, wounds and leg ulcers Its topical application can further be used to treat skin burns and inflammation, eczema, or acne Fenugreek leaves are astringent, and its seeds are a laxative

Constituents: x x x x x x

Essential oils: α-Muurolene, δ-cadinene, liguloxide, γ-eudesmol, cubenol, α-muurolol, α-cadinol, and α-bisabolol Alkaloids: Gentianine, trigonelline, and choline Flavonoids: Apigenin, luteolin, orientin, vitexin and quercetin Saponins: Sapogenins diosgenin, yamogenin, tigogenin, neotigogenin, gitogenin, neogitogenin, smilagenin, sarsasapogenin, yuccagenin, fenugreekine, and yamogenin Mineral elements: Calcium, magnesium, potassium, iron, sodium, phosphor, manganese, zinc, copper, sulphur, chlorine, and chromium Others: Mucilage, coumarin, fibre, starch, vitamins C, β-carotene and folic acid

Part(s) Used: Leaf and seed.

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Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The seeds are often made into a powder which is widely used as a spice in foods and salads. The fresh or dried leaves can be used as herbal tea, and in some medicine as a capsule, pill or ointment. x

It can be used as a stabilizer or thickening agent for food

Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

Fenugreek Seeds & Leaves

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4.123. Fig Scientific Name: Ficus carica L. Family: Moraceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-worm, anti-microbial, anti-cancer (especially prostate and breast cancer), antioxidant, laxative, diaphoretic, diuretic, expectorant, and digestive. It has a positive effect on the libido; improves coughs; reduces blood sugar, blood pressure and blood cholesterol; helps with losing weight; increases lactation; and is good for the health of the stomach, liver, heart, and bones (Solomon et al. 2006; Dueñas et al. 2008). x x

Fig latex can help with the treatment of corns and warts Dried figs contain one of the highest concentrations of polyphenols among the commonly consumed fruits and beverages

Constituents: x x x x

Vitamins: B1, B2, B3, B5, B6, B9, C and E Mineral elements: Potassium, calcium, magnesium, phosphor, sodium, iron, and zinc Carotenoids: Lutein, cryptoxanthin, lycopene, β-carotene, and α-carotene Others: Phytosterol, fibre, polyphenols, anthocyanin, thiamine, and riboflavin

Part(s) Used: Fruit. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The fresh fig is used as a fruit, for baking, jam, marmalade, salads, etc. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x

Some people are allergic to the topical application of fig latex

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4.124. Flixweed Scientific Name: Descurainia Sophia L. Family: Cruciferae Health Benefit(s): Anti-worm, anti-microbial, antipyretic, anticough, anti-kidney inflammatory, diuretic, and a laxative. It is good for stomach and liver health, has a positive effect on the libido, and provides relief of biliary colic and wound sores (Mohamed and Mahrous, 2009). x x

Topical application of flixweed can be used for the treatment of acne and skin inflammations Using flixweed with cold water makes it a laxative and hot water an astringent

Constituents: x x x x

Fatty acids: Palmitic, linoleic, oleic, stearic, linolenic, myristic, lauric, and capric acid Mineral elements: Phosphor, iron, potassium, calcium, sodium, magnesium, sulphur, and chlorine Flavonoids: Kaempferol, quercetin, and isorhamnetin Others: Resin, mucilage, descurainin A, and descurainoside B

Part(s) Used: Seed. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Flixweed can be used with cold or hot water, and also can be used topically for skin conditions. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

1 mm

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4.125. Fragrant Screw Pine Scientific Name: Pandanus odorifer Family: Pandanaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-spasmodic, anti-rheumatic, anti-arthritic, anti-skin disease, anti-headache, anti-earache, and digestive. It has wound healing properties and is a heart and liver tonic (Nasim et al. 2018; Akbar 2020). x

x

In Unani medicine, the fragrant distillate (kewra water) or syrup made with it is described as a cardio refrigerant and cardiotonic, and is very beneficial in epidemic diseases, such as smallpox, measles, and typhoid fever In Hawaii, chewed flowers (by the mother) are given to ten to sixty day old babies to relieve constipation, and the roots are useful for mothers weakened due to a large number of births and those with chest pain

Constituents: x x x

Essential oils: Terpene-4-ol, α-terpineol, 2-phenyl ethyl alcohol, benzyl benzoate, viridine, and germacrene-B Lignans: Eudesmin, kobusin, pinoresinol, and epipinoresinol Others: Alkaloids, phenolic compounds, glycosides, lignans, isoflavones, coumestrol, steroids, β-carotene, carbohydrates, proteins, amino acids, and vitamin C

Part(s) Used: All parts of the tree (leaf, fruit, bark, flower and root). Herbal and/or Commercial Use: It is used in the pharmaceutical industry. The flowers are fragrant and are used in the perfume industry and as a flavour in food industries. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.126. Frangula, Alder Buckthorn Scientific Name: Rhamnus frangula, Frangula alnus Family: Rhamnaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-fungal, anti-bacterial, anti-viral, anti-microbial, anti-worm, anti-cancer, antioxidant, and a laxative, it is also a natural antibiotic (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007; Kremer et al. 2012)(Nejabatdoust et al., 2020). Constituents: x x x

Anthraquinones: Frangulosides (frangulin A, frangulin B and glucofrangulin A, and glucofrangulin B) Flavonoids: Coumarins and quinones Others: Saponins, glycosides, terpenoids, steroids, tannins, emodin, rhein, chrysophanol, aloe-emodin, physcion, β-carotene, Folin–Ciocalteu reagent, linoleic acid, ascorbic acid, quercetin, gallic acid, formic acid, oxalic acid, oleic acid, linalool, and eicosane

Part(s) Used: Bark. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: It is used in the pharmaceutical industry. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x x

“During pregnancy and lactation, it should be avoided” (European Medicines Agency, 2006) If used, follow a medical doctor’s recommendations

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4.127. French Tamarisk Scientific Name: Tamarix gallica L. Family: Tamariaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-cough, antiseptic, anti-inflammatory, antidiarrheic, anti-cancer, antioxidant, anti-rheumatic, antitussive, antihaemorrhoids, anti-depressant, laxative, astringent, expectorant, and diuretic. It is appetizing, improves stomach pain and toothache, and stops wounds bleeding (Ksouri et al. 2009; Urfi et al. 2018). x

Tamarix spp. was employed in traditional medicine as an astringent, aperitif, stimulant of perspiration, diuretic, to act against leukoderma, for spleen trouble, and to help with eye diseases

Constituents: Flower and Leaf x x x

Phenolic acids: Gallic, sinapic, chlorogenic, syringic, vanillic, p-coumaric, rosmarinic, ferulic, and trans-cinnamic acid Flavonoids: Epicatechin, catechin, isoquercitin, quercetrin, quercitin, apigenin, and flavone Others: Troupin, tamarixetin, tamarixin, quercetol, 4-methyl coumarin, carotenoids, essential oils, anthocyanins, tannins, flavanones, isoflavones, and resveratrol

Bark x

Tannins: Gallic and ellagic acid

Part(s) Used: Bark, leaf and flower. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: It’s used in the pharmaceutical industry. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x

Use following medical doctors’ recommendations

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Tamarix gallica L. Leaves

Tamarix gallica L. Flowers

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4.128. Fumitory Scientific Name: Fumaria officinalis L. Family: Fumariaceae Health Benefit(s): Antiseptic, anti-microbial, anti-bacterial, anti-allergic, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antispasmodic, diuretic, appetizing, diaphoretic, laxative, and sedative. It has a positive effect on stomach and heart health, helps with management of the liver, treats rheumatism and arthritis, and reduces blood pressure (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007; Khamtache-Abderrahim et al. 2016). x

Topical application can be used for the treatment of skin problems such as inflammation and eczema

Constituents: x

x x x x

Alkaloids: Aurotensine, stylopine, sinactine, fumaritine, fumaricine, protopine, fumariline, sanguinarine, fumaritridine, fumaritrine, cryptopine, adlumine, bicuculline, parfumine, corlumine, and fumarophycine Flavonoids: Isoquercitrin, rutin, and quercetrin-3,7-diglucoside-3-arabinoglucoside Acids: Chlorogenic, caffeic, and fumaric acids Mineral elements: Potassium, calcium, and chlorine Others: Mucilage, bitter compounds, and β-carotene

Part(s) Used: Leaf and flower. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The (fresh and dried) leaf and flower can be used as herbal tea, and in some medicine. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x

During pregnancy, it should be avoided

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4.129. Galangal, Greater Galangal Scientific Name: Alpinia galanga L. Family: Zingiberaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-microbial, antioxidant, anticough, anti-rheumatic, anti-diabetic, anti-spasmodic, anti-bronchitis, anti-diarrhoea, carminative, digestive and expectorant. It is a liver and gastric tonic, heart tonic, kidney tonic, and treatment for stomach ache (Xixuan Tang et al. 2018; Akbar 2020). x

Galangal is traditionally considered an essential source for medication, culinary products and cosmetics in Asia

Constituents: x x

Essential oils: 1,8-Cineole, α-terpineol, (E)-methyl cinnamate, terpinen-4-ol, camphor, α-pinenes, β-pinene, α-fenchyl acetate, guaiol, and camphor Others: Tannin, coumarin, flavonoid, sterol, terpenoid, saponin, and phenolic acid

Part(s) Used: Leaf, flower and rhizome. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The rhizomes can be harvested throughout the year and processed into food ingredients in Asian cuisine, giving an intense, hot and spicy taste. x

Galangal essential oils are used in the perfume industry

Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.130. Galbanum Scientific Name: Ferula gummosa Family: Umbelliferae Health Benefit(s): Antiseptic, anti-bacterial, anti-microbial, antispasmodic, anticonvulsant, antitussive, laxative, and expectorant. It is good for stomach and uterus health, promotes menstruation, and has wound healing properties (Ghasemi et al. 2005). x

In Iranian traditional medicine, Galbanum it is used to treat wounds, neurological disorders, nephropathy, and liver damage

Constituents: x

Essential oils: α-Pinene, β-pinene, myrcene, sabinene, α-thujene, camphene, α-Phellandrene, p-cymene, limonene, terpinolene, fenchol, linalool, and γ-terpinene

Part(s) Used: Oleo-gum resin (from the stem), flower, leaf and seed. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Galbanum is used in some medicine as a drop, lotion, or essence. Besides this, it is used in cosmetic products, perfume, and jewellery as a glue for expensive stones like diamonds. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.131. Garden Cress Scientific Name: Lepidium sativum L. Family: Cruciferae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-microbial, anti-viral, anti-cancer, antioxidant, immunomodulatory, laxative, and a diuretic. It is good for stomach health, increases lactation, promotes menstruation, and has a positive effect on the libido (Rafińska et al. 2019). x

It has multiple therapeutic uses in folk medicine, among others as an anti-inflammatory, chemoprotective, reducer of blood glucose, and anti-asthmatic agent

Constituents: x x x x x x

Phenolic compounds: Gallic, protocatechuic, coumaric, caffeic, coumaroyl quinic, caffeoylquinic, and vanillic acid Isoflavonoids: Daidzin, genistein, ononin, daidzein, sissostrin, genistein, formononetin, prunetin, and biochanin A Vitamins: A, B9 and C Mineral elements: Iron and calcium Glycosides: Tropeoloside Others: Fibre and glucosinolates (primary secondary metabolites of this plant)

Part(s) Used: Leaf. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The young live sprouts of garden cress make an excellent addition to salads and sandwiches because of their spicy taste. They are also regarded as a valuable nutritional supplement (Mata et al., 2007). Many sources indicate various traditional and ethnomedicinal applications of garden cress. x x

Adding garden cress extracts to fruit and vegetable juices leads to the creation of health-promoting beverages Garden cress extracts may be used as thickening agents and food preservatives

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Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.132. Garlic Scientific Name: Allium sativum L. Family: Liliaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-microbial, anti-viral, anti-fungal, anti-worm, antiseptic, anti-inflammatory, anti-spasmodic, anticancer, antipyretic, antitussive, anti-allergic, anti-diabetic, antioxidant, carminative, diaphoretic, expectorant, and immunomodulatory. It reduces blood pressure, blood sugar, and blood cholesterol; promotes the libido; and benefits heart and liver health (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007). x x

Clinical studies have investigated mainly the anti-atherosclerotic and cholesterol- and lipid-lowering effects of garlic preparations Garlic is used extensively as a food and as an ingredient in foods. The Council of Europe lists it as a natural source of food flavouring (category N1). This category indicates that there are no restrictions on the use of garlic in foods

Constituents: x x x x x

Vitamins: B1, B6 and C Mineral elements: Iron, calcium, potassium, manganese, sulphur, phosphor, copper, and selenium Enzymes: Allinase, peroxidases, myrosinase, and others catalases, superoxide dismutases, arginases, and lipases Essential oils: Alliin, allicin, allyl propyl disulphide, diallyl disulphide, diallyl trisulfide, ajoene, vinyldithiines, citral, geraniol, linalool, α-phellandrene, and β-phellandrene Amino acids: Arginine, glutamic acid, asparagic acid, methionine, and threonine

Part(s) Used: Bulb. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Garlic is widely used in the food industry; also, some medicines contain garlic compounds.

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Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x x

Those with low blood pressure should take care of using garlic During pregnancy and lactation, it should be avoided

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4.133. Garlic Mustard Scientific Name: Alliaria petiolata Family: Cruciferae Health Benefit(s): Antiseptic, anti-worm, anti-bronchitis, anti-asthmatic, expectorant, tonic, diaphoretic, and diuretic, it also has wound healing properties (Bla`evi, Ivica and Masteli, Josip 2008). x

Garlic mustard leaf tea is a blood purifier; the flowering plant is an expectorant, antiseptic, stimulant, and anti-asthmatic; it expels worms, and helps heal wounds; as a poultice it treats skin ulcers and cuts; and its juice stimulates blood flow

Constituents: x x x x

x

Vitamins: A, B, C, and E Mineral elements: Iron, calcium, potassium, magnesium, copper, and selenium Glycosides: Sinigrin and glucotropaeolin Volatile oils: Diallyl sulphide, allyl isothiocyanate, benzaldehyde, 2-pentylfuran, β-cyclocitral, decanoic acid, undecanoic acid, dodecanoic acid, tetradecanoic acid, dibutyl phthalate, methyl palmitate, pentadecanoic acid, and ethyl palmitate Others: Sucrose and saponarin

Part(s) Used: All parts of the plant. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The fresh or dried leaf and the flower of garlic mustard can be used as herbal tea, in salads and food, and as a flavouring for a souse. The seeds can be used as a spice in foods. The plant is also used in some medicines. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.134. Gentian, Yellow Gentian Scientific Name: Gentiana lutea L. Family: Gentianaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-worm, anti-microbial, antipyretic, anti-anaemic, anti-inflammatory, anti-rheumatic, anti-arthritis, antitussive, digestive, laxative, and immunomodulatory. It helps liver and stomach health, promotes the appetite and menstruation, and enhances the eyes (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007; Rodrigues, Karmali, and Machado 2019). x

x

“Gentiana is the largest genus of the Gentianaceae family. Traditionally, gentian has been used for anorexia, atonic dyspepsia, gastrointestinal atony, and specifically for dyspepsia with anorexia” (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007) “The German Commission E approved its use for digestive disorders such as loss of appetite, fullness and flatulence” (Blumenthal, M., Busse, W.R., Goldberg, A., Gruenwald, J., Hall, T., Riggins, C.W. and Rister, R.S. 1998)

Constituents: x x x x

Alkaloids: Gentianine and gentialutine Glycosides: Gentiamarin and gentiopicrin Xanthones: Gentisein, gentisin, isogentisin and 1,3,7-trimethoxyxanthone Others: Tannin, pectin and essential oil

Part(s) Used: Root. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Root extract using in pharmaceutical industry for different purpose. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x

During pregnancy and lactation, it should be avoided

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4.135. Geranium Rosat, Rose-Scented Geranium Scientific Name: Pelargonium graveolens, P. roseum Family: Geraniaceae Health Benefit(s): Antiseptic, anti-bacterial, anti-fungal, anti-microbial, anti-inflammatory, anti-depressant, anti-stress, antioxidant, anticancer, astringent, diuretic, and a sedative. It’s good for nervous health, kidney health, and liver health; it increases blood circulation; it has wound healing properties; it reduces blood sugar; and it aids with kidney stone extraction and urinary tract infections (Dabiri et al. 2011; Carmen and Hancu 2014). x x

x

Geranium rosat is essential in the perfume industry and the plants are cultivated and distilled for their scents The distillates and essential oils extracted from Pelargonium species are frequently used in aromatherapy and massage therapy and sometimes as a supplement or to adulterate more expensive rose oils In herbal medicine, the Pelargonium species has been used for intestinal problems, wounds and respiratory ailments

Constituents: x x

Essential oils: Geraniol, citronellol, linalool, borneol, terpineol, menthol, γ-muurolene, iso-menthone, citronellyl formate, and geranyl formate Others: Tannin, resin, mucilage, and gallic acid

Part(s) Used: Leaf and flower. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The fresh or dried leaf and the flower can be used as herbal tea. The plant is used in the pharmaceutical, cosmetics, dentistry and perfume industries. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.136. Ginger Scientific Name: Zingiber officinale Family: Zingiberaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-microbial, anti-fungal, antioxidant, anti-cancer, anti-tumour, anti-inflammatory, antitussive, antidiabetic, anti-arthritis, anti-rheumatic, anti-vomiting, anti-cough, carminative, anti-spasmodic, diaphoretic, digestive and immunomodulatory. It is beneficial for heart and stomach health; increases lactation; reduces blood cholesterol and blood pressure; and it’s neuronal cell protective (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007; Mao et al. 2019; Shahrajabian, W. Sun, and Cheng 2019). x x x x

Ginger has a long history of being used as a medicine and herb since ancient times and has been used as a vital cooking spice throughout the world Ginger, traditionally, has been used for colic, flatulent dyspepsia, and specifically for flatulent intestinal colic Ginger root is used to attenuate and treat several common diseases, such as headaches, colds, nausea, and emesis Ginger oil is shown to possess good antibacterial and antifungal properties when used in food preparation

Constituents: x

x x x x

Essential oils: β-Bisabolene, zingiberene, zingiberol, zingiberenol, ar-curcumene, β-sesquiphellandrene, β-sesquiphellandrol, phellandrene, camphene, geraniol, neral, linalool, and d-nerol Fatty acids: Palmitic, oleic, linoleic, caprylic, capric, lauric, myristic, pentadecanoic, heptadecanoic, stearic, linolenic, and arachidic acid Amino acids: Arginine, aspartic acid, cysteine, glycine, isoleucine, leucine, serine, threonine, and valine Phenolic compounds: Gingerols, shogaols, paradols, quercetin, zingerone, gingerenone-A, and 6-dehydrogingerdione Vitamins: A, B1, B2, B3, B6, B9, C, E and K

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Mineral elements: Calcium, phosphorous, iron, zinc, copper, manganese, chromium, manganese, selenium, and potassium Others: Resin and fibre

Part(s) Used: Rhizome. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Ginger can be used as herbal tea; as a spice in food, bread, cake, drinks, puddings, and candies; and in some medicine. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.137. Ginkgo Scientific Name: Ginkgo biloba L. Family: Ginkgoaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-worm, antiseptic, antioxidant, anti-cancer, anti-asthmatic, anti-allergic, anti-inflammatory, anti-Alzheimer, antidepressant, anti-anaemic, anti-arthritis, anti-spasmodic, anti-cough, and anti-stress. It improves brain activity and blood circulation, is good for heart health, and is neuronal cell-protective (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007; B. Singh et al. 2008). Constituents: Leaf and Root Bark x x x x x x x x

Flavonoids: Amentoflavone, bilobetin, ginkgetin, quercetin, isoginkgetin, sciadopitysin, kaempferol, myricetin, apigenin, and luteolin Terpenes (Monoterpenes): Cymene, thymol, linalool oxide, and lonone Terpenes (Diterpenes): Ginkgolide A, B, C, J, M, K, and L Steroids and Phytosterols: β-Sitosterol, and campesterol Carotenoids: α-Carotene, γ-carotene, lutein, and zeaxanthin Organic acids: Ascorbic, quinic, shikimic, vanillic, acetic, butyric, and valeric acid Mineral elements: Selenium, copper, zinc, chromium, iron, manganese, calcium, and phosphoric Others: Pro-anthocyanidins, terpenoids, linoleic acid, linolenic acid, oleic acid, palmitic acid, aminobutyric acid, asparagine, aspartic acid, glutamine, arginine, proline, glycine, proline, pyroglutamic acid, and tannin

Seed x x

Alkaloids: Ginkgotoxin Acids: Ginkgolic acids and Ginkbilobin

Part(s) Used: Leaf, seed and root.

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Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Ginkgo is used in a lot of medicine in pill, capsule, extract or drop form for different properties. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x x

It should be used following medical doctors’ recommendations In some people, it can induce allergic reactions

Ginkgo Fruits

Ginkgo Leaf

Ginkgo Seeds

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4.138. Ginseng Scientific Name: Panax ginseng Family: Araliaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-viral, anti-bacterial, antiseptic, antioxidant, anti-cancer, antitussive, anti-diabetic, anti-depressant, anti-stress, anti-inflammatory, anti-asthmatic, anti-cough, carminative, laxative, sedative, diuretic, expectorant, and immunomodulatory. It promotes the libido; it improves brain activity; it reduces blood sugar and blood cholesterol; it is beneficial for the health of the heart, stomach, and liver; it acts as a tonic, healing wounds and ulcers; and it possesses anti-ageing properties (Coon and Ernst 2002; Ru et al. 2015). x x

“Ginseng means ‘man-root’ due to the root's shape, creating the belief that it can benefit all aspects of the human body” (Coon and Ernst 2002) “This helps to make ginseng one of the most popular and expensive herbs in the world” (Coon and Ernst 2002)

Constituents: x x x

Saponins: Ginsenosides Phenolic acids: Salicylic and vanillic acid, and maltol Others: Coumarins, alkaloids, lignans, polysaccharides, ginsenoside, phenylpropanoids, triterpenoids, glycosides, and essential oils

Part(s) Used: Root and rhizome. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Ginseng can be used as herbal tea, and in some medicine. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x

Use following medical doctors’ recommendations

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4.139. Goat's Rue Scientific Name: Galega officinalis L. Family: Fabaceae, Leguminosae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, antipyretic, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anti-cancer, and diaphoretic. It increases lactation, helps with weight reduction, and reduces blood cholesterol. Its main and most important uses however are reducing blood sugar and counteracting diabetes (F. P. Karakas et al. 2016; Abtahi-Eivari et al. 2018). x

“Aerial parts of this plant are widely used to remedy against malignant fever, inflammation, parasitic infection, worms, and diabetes in Europe” (F. P. Karakas et al. 2016)

Constituents: x x x x x x x

Saponins: Ginsenosides Phenolic acids: Salicylic and vanillic acid, and maltol Alkaloids: Galegine Flavonoids: Flavonol triglycosides, kaempferol, and quercetin Fatty acids: Linolenic, palmitic, and linoleic acid Phytoestrogens: Medicarpin and sativan Others: Coumarins, tannin, lignans, polysaccharides, ginsenoside, phenylpropanoids, triterpenoids, glycosides, and essential oils

Part(s) Used: Leaf, flower and seed. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: “Metformin, a synthetic form of galegine can reduce blood sugar levels and can be found in many antidiabetic medicines as an active molecule” (F. P. Karakas et al. 2016). Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x

During pregnancy, it should be avoided

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4.140. Golden Root, Arctic Root, Roseroot, Rhodiola Scientific Name: Rhodiola rosea L. Family: Crassulaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-viral, anti-bacterial, anti-inflammatory, antitussive, anti-cancer, antioxidant, anti-stress, and immunomodulatory. It is a tonic, is good for heart health, and improves brain activity (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007; Panossian, Wikman, and Sarris 2010). x

x

x

“Rhodiola has a long history of use as a medicinal plant in several traditional systems. It is reported to have been used as a 'brain tonic', to treat headache and lung disorders, and to eliminate fatigue and improve work capacity” (Darbinyan et al. 2000; V. D. Petkov et al. 1986) “Modern interest in Rhodiola is focused on its adaptogen properties. Adaptogens increase an organism's resistance to physical, chemical and biological stressors, and have a normalising influence on bodily systems” (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007) The Rhodiola root is recommended in the treatment of headaches, hysteria, hernias, discharges, and as an astringent

Constituents: x x x x x

Flavonoids: Herbacetin, gossypetin, kaempferol, rhodionin, rhodionidin, rhodiolgin, rhodiolgidin, rhodalin, rhodalidin, rhodiosin, and kaempferol-7-O-a-L-rhamnopyranoside Phenylpropanoids: Rosin, rosarin, rosavin, sachaliside, and vimalin Essential oils: Geraniol, 1,4-p-menthadien-7-ol, limonene, α-pinene, rosiridol, and rosiridin Organic acids: Oxalic, citric, malic, gallic, and succinic acid Others: Phenylethanoids, tannin, protein, sterols, fat, and waxes

Part(s) Used: Root and rhizome.

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Herbal and/or Commercial Use: It is used in some medicines, e.g., in pills and capsule form. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.141. Goldenseal Scientific Name: Hydrastis canadensis L. Family: Ranunculaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-microbial, anti-bacterial, anti-fungal, anticancer, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-diarrhoeal, antipyretic, anti-cough, anti-cold, anti-diabetic, anti-haemorrhoid, anti-infection, digestive, sedative, and immunomodulatory. It’s used as a treatment for skin infections, eye infections, respiratory tract infections, gastrointestinal irritation and urinary tract infections. In addition, it promotes the appetite and is effective as a natural antibiotic (Leyte-Lugo et al. 2017). Constituents: x x x

Flavonoids: Sideroxylin, 6-desmethyl sideroxylin, and 8desmethyl sideroxylin Iso-quinoline alkaloids: Berberine, hydrastine, and canadine Others: Starch

Part(s) Used: Leaf, root and rhizome. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Goldenseal is used in the pharmaceutical industry for different purposes. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.142. Gooseberry Scientific Name: Ribes uva-crispa L. Family: Saxifragaceae Health Benefit(s): Fruit: Anti-bacterial, antiseptic, anti-inflammatory, antitussive, antioxidant, laxative, and a diuretic (Hempfling et al. 2013; Orsavová et al. 2019). x

Leaf: Anti-rheumatic, anti-migraine, anti-inflammatory, anti-cough, and aids with kidney stone excretion

Constituents: x x x x

Phenolic acids: Citric, malic, ascorbic, gallic, vanillic, syringic, protocatechuic, ellagic, caffeic, ferulic, and chlorogenic acid Vitamins: A, B, C and E Flavonoids: Rutin, epigallocatechin, epicatechin, catechin, and resveratrol Others: Pectin, tannin, phenolic acid, and anthocyanin

Part(s) Used: Fruit (primary usage) and leaf. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The leaf can be used for herbal tea. The fruits are edible and used for vinegar, wine, jam, marmalade, juice, desserts and some medicines. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

1-3 cm

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4.143. Gotu Kola Scientific Name: Centella asiatica L. Family: Umbelliferae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-microbial, anti-viral, anti-fungal, anti-inflammatory, anti-tumour, anti-cancer, antioxidant, anti-depressant, anti-stress, anti-psoriatic, anti-diabetic, antitussive, sedative, and immunomodulatory. It improves brain activity, acts as a brain tonic, has wound healing properties, reduces blood sugar and blood pressure, improves blood circulation, is beneficial for heart health, and has neuroprotective activities (Belwal et al. 2019). Constituents: x x x x x x x x x x

Essential oils: p-Cymene, α -terpinene, α -copaene, β - elemene, β -caryophyllene, β -pinene Amino acids: Alanine, serine, aspartate, and glutamate Phenols: Kaempferol, quercetin, quercitrin, luteolin, and chlorogenic acid Alkaloids: Hydrocotylin Fatty acids: Oleic, palmitic, stearic, lignoceric, linoleic, and linolenic acid Terpenoids: Asiaticoside, asiatic acid, centoic acid, betulic acid, centelloside, madecassoside, and brahmoside Carbohydrates: Glucose, mesoinositol, and centellose Glycosides: Asiaticoside A, asiaticoside B, madecassoside, centelloside, brahmoside, brahminoside, thankuniside, glycoside D, and glycoside E Vitamins: B and C Others: Tannin, sugar, and resin

Part(s) Used: All parts of the plant. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: It is used in some medicine and some skin products. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.144. Grape, Grape Vine Scientific Name: Vitis vinifera L. Family: Vitaceae Health Benefit(s): Fruit: Anti-viral, anti-fungal, anti-microbial, anti-bacterial, antiseptic, anti-tumour, antioxidant, anti-cancer, antiinflammatory, anti-Alzheimer’s, antitussive, anti-arthritis, anti-allergic, anti-histamine, anti-HIV, anti-haemorrhoid, laxative, diuretic, expectorant, and immunomodulatory. It is good for heart health, reducing blood sugar and blood cholesterol, and promotes the libido (Ng et al. 2016a). x

Seed oil: Anti-viral, anti-fungal, anti-bacterial, antioxidant, anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory, anti-Alzheimer’s, anti-arthritis, anti-allergic, anti-histamine, anti-HIV, anti-asthmatic, immunomodulatory, reduces blood cholesterol, and is good for skin and tooth health (Ng et al. 2016a)

Constituents: Fruits x x x

Acids: Tartaric, carboxylic, malic, and citric acid Flavonoids: Catechin, epicatechin, epicatechin gallate, procyanidin A and B, and quercetin Others: Vitamin C, anthocyanin, flavonoid, tannin, pectin, anthocyanidin, potassium and chromium

Seeds x x x x

Essential oils: Ethyl octanoate, ethyl acetate, ethanol, acetic acid, ethyl hexanoate, and 3-methyl butanol Fatty acids: Linoleic acid is the primary fatty acid in grape seeds. They also contain oleic, stearic and palmitic acid Flavonoids: Catechin, epicatechin, epicatechin gallate, procyanidin A and B, and quercetin Others: Vitamin E, epsilon-viniferin, ampelopsinas C and F, vitisin A, and cis vitisin A

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Part(s) Used: Fruit and fruit seed. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: “Grapes have been used as food, usually eaten raw. They are used for producing a variety of products (including grape seed extract, grape seed oil, grape juice, wine, brandy, vinegar, raisins, jam, and jelly)” (Ng et al. 2016a). Grapeseed oil is used for cooking purposes. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.145. Grapefruit Scientific Name: Citrus paradisi Family: Rutaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-microbial, anti-cancer, antioxidant, diuretic, and a laxative, it is good for heart and stomach health. It reduces blood cholesterol, purifies the blood, kidneys and liver, and aids with losing weight (Ng et al. 2016b; Razavi and Hosseinzadeh 2019). x x x

“Grapefruit helps prevent different disorders, such as cancers, diabetes, inflammation, cardiovascular, and neurodegenerative diseases” (Ng et al. 2016b) “Naringin and its aglycone, naringenin, have shown potent anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities” (Ng et al. 2016b) Naringenin has a strong effect on the prevention of diabetes

Constituents: x x

x x

Rich in flavonoids such as flavanones (naringin and hesperidin), flavones, flavonols, and anthocyanin Essential oils: Decanal, linalool, α-terpineol, citral, citronellal, decanol, dodecanal, furfural, geranial, neral, nonanal, octanal, α-copaene, β-copaene, p-cymene, β-elemene, limonene, myrcene, ocimene, β-phellandrene, α-pinene, sabinene, α-terpinene, γ-terpinene, and carvone Vitamins: A, B5 and C Others: Limonoid aglycones (limonin), glucosides, dietary fibre, pectin, potassium, folate, and glucaric acid

Part(s) Used: Fruit. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The fresh fruits are widely used as a juice and in some medicine, skin and hair products. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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The fruit and its fruit juice should not be used at the same time as anti-histamines, cyclosporine and benzodiazepine

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4.146. Green Chiretta Scientific Name: Andrographis paniculata Family: Acanthaceae Health Benefit(s): Antioxidant, anti-bacterial, anti-fungal, anti-viral, anti-HIV, anti-cancer, anti-cold, anti-diarrhoea, anti-diabetic, antipyretic, anti-malaria, anti-cough, anti-inflammatory, anti-neuroinflammation, anti-obesity, astringent, diuretic, carminative, and immunomodulatory. It is a liver and cardiovascular protective and tonic and a blood purifier. It also reduces blood cholesterol and is a blood glucose controller (Akbar 2020). Constituents: x x

Andrographolide, a labdane diterpenoid and the principal constituent of this plant, has been widely used in Asia as herbal medicine Others: Saponin, flavonoid, tannin, alkaloid, glycosides, and phenolic compounds

Part(s) Used: All parts of the plant. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: It is used in the pharmaceutical industry for different purposes. It can be used as herbal tea. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.147. Gum Arabic, Gum Acacia Scientific Name: Acacia senegal, A. nilotica Family: Fabaceae, Leguminosae Health Benefit(s): Anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, anti-bronchitis, antitussive, anti-cough, anti-diarrhoea, laxative, expectorant, and a tonic. It is a treatment for sore throat and reduces blood cholesterol (Randall, G. O. Phillips, and Williams 1989; Akbar 2020). x

Gum Arabic is a gummy exudation originating from the Acacia tree and is known to be produced by stressful conditions such as heat, drought and wounding

Constituents: x x x

Galactose: Rhamnose and arabinose Mineral elements: Calcium, magnesium and potassium Others: Glucuronic acid

Part(s) Used: Gum. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The gum finds wide use as a flavour, often in dry mix products such as puddings, desserts, cake mixes and soup mixes. It is used to emulsify essential oils in soft drinks and to prevent sugar crystallization in confectionery products. x

“Gum Arabic in pharmaceutical contexts is an emulsifying agent to suspend insoluble powders in aqueous mixtures. It is a binding agent to make pills and tablets, especially cough drops and lozenges” (Akbar 2020)

Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x

In some cases, it can induce allergic reactions

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4.148. Hairy Tea, Betony, Wood Betony Scientific Name: Stachys lavandulifolia Family: Labiatae, Lamiaceae Health Benefit(s): Antiseptic, anti-inflammatory, anti-rheumatic, anti-depressant, anti-stress, anti-cold, carminative, expectorant, and a sedative, it reduces blood pressure, headaches, and stomach ache. It is also a stomach tonic, liver tonic, and nervous tonic, and it helps with kidney stone excretion (Arabsalehi, Rahimmalek, and Ehtemam 2018). Constituents: x x x x

Bitter compounds: Betaine Alkaloids: Stachydrine Essential oils: β-Myrcene, α-terpinene, p-cymene, limonene, α-terpineol, linalool, camphor, myrtenol, verbenol, nerol, vetiverol, thymol, carvacrol, and α-cubebene Others: Tannin, terpenoid, and flavonoid

Part(s) Used: Leaf and flower. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: All aerial parts have been used as herbal tea. The plant is used in some medicine. x

Many Stachys species are known as “mountain tea” and applied in yoghurts, jellies, and spices

Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x

During pregnancy, it should be avoided

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4.149. Harmel Scientific Name: Peganum harmala L. Family: Zygophyllaceae Health Benefit(s): Antiseptic, anti-fungal, anti-worm, anti-bacterial, anti-microbial, anti-rheumatic, anti-cancer, anti-spasmodic, antitussive, antipyretic, abortifacient, diuretic, diaphoretic and sedative. It increases lactation, improves blood circulation, is appetizing, and promotes both the libido and menstruation (Iranshahy et al. 2019). x x x

x x

The leaf extract can improve wound healing The topical application of its seed oil can reduce joint pain “The plant has been used as an essential medicinal plant in global folk medicine” (Sharaf et al. 1997). “Burning the seeds has been used in Iran as an antiseptic and disinfectant method” (Ghasemi Pirbalouti, Momeni, and M. Bahmani 2013) Antihypertensive, hallucinogenic, and antidepressant effects have been reported for Harmel Harmel has been used to treat various ailments including Parkinson's disease, gastrointestinal and cardiovascular disorders, and certain types of malignancies

Constituents: x

Alkaloids: β-Carboline, quinazoline, harmine, peganine, harmaline, harmane, and harmalol

Part(s) Used: Leaf and seed. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The oil of Harmel is available for topical application. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x

This plant has a narcotic effect, especially on neuro systems. Therefore, oral use should be avoided

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4.150. Hawthorn Scientific Name: Crataegus oxyacantha L. Family: Rosaceae Health Benefit(s): Antioxidant, anti-microbial, anti-spasmodic, antiinflammatory, immunomodulatory, and sedative. It reduces blood pressure, heart diseases, and blood cholesterol, and improves blood circulations and joint inflammation (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007; I. E. Orhan 2018). x x x

x x

The fruits are astringent and anti-diarrhoeal “The bark of its shrubs has antipyretic and antioxidant activities” (I. E. Orhan 2018) Hawthorn is not commonly used in foods. The Council of Europe lists it as a natural source of food flavouring (category N2). This category indicates that hawthorn can be added to foodstuffs in small quantities, with a possible limitation of an active principle (as yet unspecified) in the final product “Traditionally, it has been used for cardiac failure, myocardial weakness, paroxysmal tachycardia, arteriosclerosis and Buerger's disease” (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007) “Modern interest in hawthorn is focused on using the hawthorn leaf and the flower in people with reduced cardiac performance” (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007)

Constituents: x x x x

Amines: Phenylethylamine, O-methoxy phenethylamine, and tyramine Flavonoids: Kaempferol, quercetin, apigenin, luteolin, rutin, hyperoside, vitexin glycoside, and orientin glycosides Tannins: Proanthocyanins Others: Cyanogenetic glycosides, saponins, anthocyanin, ascorbic acid, and caffeic acid

Part(s) Used: Leaf, flower and fruit.

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Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The fresh or dried flower and fruit can be used as herbal tea. It is used in some medicine. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.151. Hazelnut, Hazelnut Kernels, Common Hazel Scientific Name: Corylus avellana L. Family: Corylaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-cough, anti-cancer, anti-mutagenic, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory. It stimulates the libido, and acts as a tonic for the stomach, liver, intestine and brain (B. Yuan et al. 2018). x x x

Topical use of hazelnut oil has a good effect on hair, eyebrow and nail growth Topical application of hazelnut oil can be used for joint pain and rheumatism “Hazelnut is rich in unsaturated fatty acids, essential amino acids, dietary fibres, vitamins, and minerals” (B. Yuan et al. 2018)

Constituents: x

x x x

Phenolic compounds: Ferulic, gallic, vanillic, coumaric, protocatechuic, sinapic, galloylquinic, caffeoylquinic, coumaroylquinic, and feruloylquinic acid, catechin, epicatechin, taxifolin, quercetin, kaempferol rhamnoside, myricetin-3-Orhamnoside, quercetin-3-O-rhamnoside, phlorizin, myricetin, and rutin Mineral elements: Calcium, sodium, phosphor, iron, manganese, magnesium, zinc, and copper Vitamins: B1, B2, B3, B6, C, and folic acid Amino acids: Arginine and leucine

Part(s) Used: Fruit. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Hazelnuts are widely used in dairy, bakery, coffee, spreads, candy and chocolate products, as well as other confectionery products. They are also used in salads. x x

The oil of the hazelnut is used in hair and skin products, and in both the cosmetics and perfume industries more generally 10% of hazelnuts are purchased as in-shell nuts, and 90% of hazelnuts are used for industrial purposes as shelled nuts

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Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.152. Heart-leaved Moonseed, Guduchi, Gulancha Tinospora Scientific Name: Tinospora cordifolia L. Family: Menispermaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-microbial, anti-fungal, antiHIV, antioxidant, anti-cancer, anti-stress, anti-asthmatic, anti-cough, anti-inflammatory, antipyretic, anti-anaemic, anti-spasmodic, anti-arthritic, anti-rheumatic, anti-allergic, anti-diabetic, anti-periodic, antiParkinson’s, digestive, immunomodulatory, and a tonic. It treats stomach problems and heart disease, protects and remedies the liver, reduces blood glucose, has radioprotective properties, is appetizing, and increases energy levels (P. Sharma et al. 2019; Akbar 2020). x

“The stem of this very bitter herbaceous vine is used medicinally in Unani medicine as a bitter tonic, astringent, stomachic, anthelmintic, blood purifier, diuretic, and antipyretic for all types of fevers, including tuberculous fever” (Akbar 2020)

Constituents: x x x

Polysaccharides: Glucose, xylose, mannose, arabinose, galactose, and rhamnose Alkaloids: Tinosporine, magnoflorine, berberine, choline, jatrorrhizine, 1,2-substituted pyrrolidine, jatrorrhizine, palmatine, berberine, tembeterine, and choline Others: Diterpenoid lactones, cardiac glycosides, steroids, sesquiterpenoid, phenolics, flavonoid, anthraquinones, tannin, β-sitosterol, fatty acids, and essential oils

Part(s) Used: All parts of the plant. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: It is used in the pharmaceutical industry for different purposes. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.153. Hedge Hyssop Scientific Name: Gratiola officinalis L. Family: Scrophulariaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-worm, anti-inflammatory, anti-allergic, anti-cancer, antitussive, and an anti-acne agent, it is a diuretic, digestive, and a strong laxative. It’s also a heart tonic, stomach tonic, and eye tonic (as well as being generally good for the eyes). It is effective in healing headaches (Zia-Ul-Haq 2012; Šliumpaitė et al. 2013). x

x

“This plant is used to treat a variety of ailments like scrofula, cystitis, colic, certain stomach and menstrual disorders, skin and liver diseases, enlargement of the spleen, dropsy, jaundice and intestinal worms” (Zia-Ul-Haq 2012) It is used as a bio-stimulating tablet in hematopoietic, liver and respiratory disorders in humans

Constituents: x x x x x x

Glycosides: Verbascoside and arenarioside Cardiac glycosides: Gratiogenin, gratioside, gratiotoxin, and gratiolin Flavonoids: Apigenin, cosmosiin, saponaretin, and vitexin Triterpenic acids: Pentacyclic triterpene betulinic acid Phenolic compounds: Catechin, gallic, ellagic, chlorogenic, caffeic, and ferulic acid Others: Cucurbitacin E, elaterinide, alkaloid, saponin, and essential oil

Part(s) Used: Leaf and flower. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: It is used in the pharmaceutical industry for different purposes. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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It is a toxic plant. As a result, just use it in standard medicines following a medical doctor’s recommendation

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4.154. Hedge Nettle, Purple Betony, Wood Betony Scientific Name: Stachys schtschegleevii, S. officinalis Family: Labiatae, Lamiaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-microbial, anti-asthmatic, anti-cold, anti-rheumatic, and anti-inflammatory, it helps prevent and treat urinary tract infections. It improves headaches, reduces blood pressure, is a digestive, works as a nervous tonic and liver tonic, and has wound healing properties (Rezazadeh et al. 2006; Paun et al. 2018). x

“This plant has been used in traditional medicine to treat various respiratory tract, gastrointestinal tract, nervous system, inflammatory disease and liver disorders” (Paun et al. 2018)

Constituents: x x x x

x

Flavonoids: Isoquercitrin and rutin Phenolic acids: Chlorogenic, caffeic, rosmarinic, ursolic, and ellagic acid, umbelliferone, quercetin, luteolin, apigenin, and rutin Anthocyanins and anthocyanidins: Malvidin, cyanidin, and genistin Essential oils: α-Thujene, α-pinene, sabinene, β-pinene, myrcene, α-phellandrene, p-cymene, limonene, terpinolene, γ-terpinene, linalool, α-terpinol, carvone, geraniol, and eugenol Others: Alkaloids and saponins

Part(s) Used: Leaf and flower. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The fresh and dried leaf and flower can be used as herbal tea. It is used in some medicine. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x

During pregnancy, it should be avoided

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4.155. Hemp Scientific Name: Cannabis sativa L. Family: Cannabinaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-fungal, anti-viral, anti-worm, antiseptic, antitussive, anti-asthmatic, anti-spasmodic, anti-cancer, anti-tumour, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antipyretic, anti-cough, anti-arthritic, anti-fertility, anti-malarial, anti-stress, sedative, laxative, diuretic, and abortifacient. It is appetizing, reduces blood pressure, helps with the libido, heals urinary tract infections, improves the memory, provides neuropathic pain relief, and helps with weight loss (Pellati et al. 2018; Ross 2005). Constituents: x x x x

Phenolic compounds: Cannflavin A, cannflavin B, and canniprene Essential oils: α-Thujene, α-pinene, camphene, β-pinene, βmyrcene, α-phellandrene, α-terpinene, o-cymene, p-cymene, limonene, γ-terpinene, linalool, eugenol, and α-humulene Alkaloids: Tetanocannabiline, and tetrahydrocannabinol Others: Resin, fibre, encompassing terpenes, amides, amines, phytosterols, cannabinoids, and flavonoids

Part(s) Used: Leaf, flower and seed. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: It is used in some medicine and skincare products. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: This is a narcotic plant; just use the standard products following a medical doctor’s recommendation.

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4.156. Henbane Scientific Name: Hyoscyamus niger L. Family: Solanaceae Health Benefit(s): Antitussive, anti-cancer, anti-spasmodic, antirheumatic, anti-inflammatory, carminative, and a sedative, it has a positive effect on the libido, heals eyes infections, and reduces blood sugar (Begum 2010; Akbar 2020). x x x x

“Its uses include a poultice made of leaf juice with barley flour to relieve the pain of inflammatory swellings” (Akbar 2020) “Its seeds increase blood clotting and are used in a dose of 15 mg in bleeding conditions” (Akbar 2020) “It is one of the four plants used in Ayurveda to treat Parkinson’s disease” (Akbar 2020) “It has a peculiarly sedative effect, beneficial in irritable affections of the lungs, bowels, and genitourinary tract, such as cystitis” (Akbar 2020)

Constituents: x x x x x x x

Lignans: Hyosmin, cannabisin D, cannabisin G, grossamide, hyoscyamide, hyoscyamal, and balanophonin Coumarinolignans: Cleomiscosin A, cleomiscosin B, hyosgerin, and venkatasin Flavonoids: Rutin and spiraeoside Flavonoid glycosides: Ponganoside C and ponganoside D Phenolics: Vanillic acid, vanillin, and pinoresinol Alkaloids: Hyoscyamine and scopolamine Others: Resin, tannin, mucilage, coumarin, saponin, and glycosides

Part(s) Used: Leaf and seed. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: It is used in the pharmaceutical industry.

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Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: “All parts of the plant are poisonous, even small amounts cause effects ranging from dizziness to delirium and other anticholinergic effects” (Akbar, 2020). x

Just use standard products following medical doctors’ recommendations

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4.157. Henna, Camphire Scientific Name: Lawsonia inermis L. Family: Lythraceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-viral, anti-fungal, antiseptic, anti-leukaemia, anti-inflammatory, antipyretic, anti-spasmodic, antioxidant, anti-cancer, anti-rheumatic, anti-eczema, anti-diabetic, antitussive, abortifacient, astringent, diuretic, and expectorant. It promotes menstruation and the libido, is good for liver health, reduces blood pressure, helps with weight loss and urinary tract infections, and enhances the eyes (Hadisi, Nourmohammadi, and Nassiri 2018; G. Chaudhary and Goyal, Sandeep and Poonia, Priyanka 2010). x x x

x

x

Topical application of an extract of henna can improve and heal skin problems like acne, inflammation, burns, itching, wounds, and infection, among others “Henna has been used cosmetically and medicinally for over 9,000 years” (G. Chaudhary and Goyal, Sandeep and Poonia, Priyanka 2010) “Traditionally in India, henna is applied to the hands and feet. Henna symbolizes fertility. Its use became popular in India because of its cooling effect during hot Indian summers” (G. Chaudhary and Goyal, Sandeep and Poonia, Priyanka 2010) “Henna leaves, flowers, seeds, stem bark and roots are used in traditional medicine to treat various ailments like rheumatoid arthritis, headaches, ulcers, diarrhoea, leprosy, fever, leucorrhoea, diabetes, and cardiac disease” (G. Chaudhary and Goyal, Sandeep and Poonia, Priyanka 2010) “It is hepatoprotective and a colouring agent” (G. Chaudhary and Goyal, Sandeep and Poonia, Priyanka 2010)

Constituents: Leaf and Flower

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Tannins, flavonoids, saponin, phytosterol, steroid, coumarin, lawsone (responsible for the colour of henna), gallic acid, glucose, mannitol, fats, resin, mucilage, alkaloids, essential oil, laxanthone Ⅰ, laxanthone Ⅱ, laxanthone Ⅲ, β-sitosterol, apigenin-7-o-glycoside, luteolin, cosmosiin, fraxetin, scopoletin, p-coumaric acid, lawsoniaside, apiin, and betulinic acid

Fruit and Seed x x

Fatty oils: Behenic, arachidic, stearic, palmitic, oleic, and linoleic acid Others: Fibre

Root: x

4β-ethylcholest-4-en-3β-ol

Part(s) Used: Leaf, flower, fruit and root. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: It is used in many skin, hair and mouth products as a lotion, shampoo, toothpaste, mouthwash, etc. x x x

The henna leaf has an orange-red dye and leaf paste or powder which is widely used for decorating the hands, nails and feet with patterns. It is also used as a hair dye Its flowers are very fragrant and used to extract a perfume used as the base for local scents The root is considered a potent medicine for gonorrhoea and herpes infection. It is astringent and may be pulped and used for sore eyes

Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. Leaves

Fruits

Flowers

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4.158. Holly, Mountain Holly Scientific Name: Ilex aquifolium L. Family: Aquifoliaceae Health Benefit(s): Antipyretic, anti-rheumatic, anti-cough, anti-inflammatory, diuretic, and an expectorant, it is good for stomach and liver health (Alikaridis 1987) Constituents: x x

Fatty acids: Pentadecanoic, palmitic, heptadecanoic, stearic, behenic, lignoceric, oleic, and linoleic acid Others: Tannins, alkaloid, bitter compound, resin, a yellow compound with hypoxanthine, ilicin, cafeotanninque acid, chlorogenic acid, iso chlorogenic acid, caffeoyl glucose, arbutin, rutin, α-amyrin, β-amyrin, ursolic acid, oleanolic acid, baurenol, lepeol, aspartic acid, glutamic acid, cysteine, serine, and tryptophan

Part(s) Used: Leaf. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: It is used in the pharmaceutical industry. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x x

Just use the standard products following medical doctors’ recommendations The fruits are toxic; eating the fruits should be avoided

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4.159. Holy Thistle, Blessed Thistle Scientific Name: Cnicus benedictus L. Family: Compositae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-microbial, anti-viral, anti-infection, antipyretic, anti-depressant, anti-cancer, antibiotic, anti-inflammatory, carminative, laxative, expectorant, diuretic, and diaphoretic. It is appetizing, it is a blood purifier, and has wound healing properties. It’s good for stomach health and improves blood circulation, headaches, brain activity, and bronchitis (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007; Szabo and Pallag, Annamaria and Blidar, Cristian-Felix 2009; Al-Snafi 2016a). Constituents: x x x x x x

Lignans: Arctigenin, nortracheloside, and trachelogenin Steroids: Sitosterol, sitosteryl glycoside, and stigmasterol Terpenoids: α-Amyrenone, α-amyrin acetate, α-amyrin, multiflorenol, multiflorenol acetate, and oleanolic acid Flavonoids: Apigenin-7-O-glucoside, luteolin, and astragalin Essential oils: p-Cymene, fenchone, citral, and cinnamaldehyde Others: Polyenes, tannin, resin, mucilage, and nicotinic acid

Part(s) Used: Leaf and flower. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The fresh and dried leaf and flower can be used as herbal tea. It is used in some medical products. x

x

“Blessed thistle leaves, stems, and flowers have traditionally been used in "bitter" tonic drinks and in other preparations taken orally to enhance appetite and digestion” (Al-Snafi 2016a) “Cnicus may also be included in an unproven anti-cancer herbal remedy” (Szabo and Pallag, Annamaria and Blidar, Cristian-Felix 2009)

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Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x

“During pregnancy and lactation, it should be avoided” (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007)

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4.160. Hops Scientific Name: Humulus lupulus L. Family: Cannabinaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-worm, anti-fungal, antiseptic, antispasmodic, antitussive, anti-tumour, anti-inflammatory, diaphoretic, laxative, diuretic, expectorant, and a sedative. It is good for stomach health and nervous health, helps treat obesity and liver disease, promotes menstruation, and stimulates the appetite (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007; Dresel et al. 2016; M. Lin et al. 2019). x

The Council of Europe lists hops as a natural source of food flavouring (category N2). This category indicates that hops can be added to foodstuffs in small quantities, with a possible limitation of an active principle (as yet unspecified) in the final product

Constituents: x x x x

Flavonoids: Astragalin, kaempferol, quercetin, quercitrin, and rutin Chalcones: Isoxanthohumol, 6-isopentenylnaringenin, and xanthohumol Oleo resin α-acids: Humulone, cohumulone, adhumulone, prehumulone, posthumulone. β-acids: lupulone, colupulone, and adlupulone Others: Tannins, essential oils, phenolic acids, and gammalinoleic acids

Part(s) Used: Flower (hops cones). Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Hops are used in medicine as a pill, capsule and powder. The fresh or dried flower can be used as herbal tea, and for other beverages, especially beer. x x

For many centuries, hops have been used as an essential ingredient in the brewing process to impart the alluring aroma and typical bitter taste of the final beverage It is used in some skin products

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Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.161. Horehound Marrubium Scientific Name: Marrubium vulgare L. Family: Labiatae, Lamiaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-fungal, antiseptic, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anti-asthmatic, anti-cough, anti-spasmodic, anti-diabetic, anti-anaemic, carminative, expectorant, and diuretic. It treats cold and fevers, appetizes, purifies the blood, heals wounds, and is good for teeth health (Yabrir 2019). x

“Marrubium vulgare is recognized as having many effects on the human body. It is widely used in folk medicine all over the world to treat a variety of ailments” (Yabrir 2019)

Constituents: x x x x

Flavonoids: Apigenin, luteolin, and quercetin Terpenoids: Marrubenol, marrubiol, peregrinol, and vulgarol Essential oils: p-Cymene, limonene, β-pinene, sabinene, αpinene, β-farnesene, 1,8-cineol, carvacrol, thymol, and eugenol Others: Alkaloid, choline, saponin, waxes, tannin, and mucilage

Part(s) Used: Leaf and flower. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The fresh and dried leaves and flowers can be used as herbal tea. The plant is used in some medicine. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x

During pregnancy and lactation, it should be avoided

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4.162. Horseradish, Scurvygrass Scientific Name: Armoracia rusticana, Cochlearia armoracia Family: Cruciferae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-fungal, antiseptic, anti-rheumatic, anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer, anti-cough, anti-asthmatic, anti-bronchitis, antitussive, carminative, expectorant, diuretic, and appetizing. It aids with urinary and gastrointestinal processes (Nguyen, Gonda, and Vasas 2013). x x

x

It has been recommended for stimulating the stomach's work as a diuretic and to treat scurvy, gout and water ascites “It has also been recommended for relieving rheumatic toothaches, headaches, tinnitus, chest and stomach cramps, cruciate pain, freckles and spots” (Nguyen, Gonda, and Vasas 2013) Freshly squeezed horseradish juice could be a dietetic agent. If added to milk, it is supposed to prevent its souring

Constituents: x x x

Coumarins: Aesculetin and scopoletin Mineral elements: Calcium, potassium and phosphorus Others: Caffeic and ascorbic acid, asparagine, resin, starch, essential oils, vitamin B, tannin, and carotene

Part(s) Used: Root. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The fresh and dried root can be used as herbal tea and applied topically. It is used in some medicine. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x

During pregnancy and lactation, it should be avoided

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4.163. Horsetail Plant Scientific Name: Equisetum arvense L. Family: Equisetaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-microbial, anti-inflammatory, anti-cough, anti-spasmodic, anti-cold, antioxidant, carminative, diaphoretic, astringent, diuretic, promotes menstruations, heals wounds healing, and stops bleeding. It is immunomodulatory, improves bone and kidney health, and is a tonic for the kidney, hair and nails (Radulović, G. Stojanović, and Palić 2006). x

“Its sterile stems are used as medicines in various countries, constituting ‘Equiseti herba’ of European Pharmacopoeias” (Radulović, G. Stojanović, and Palić 2006)

Constituents: x x x x x

Flavonoid glycosides: Quercetin 3-O-glucoside, apigenin 5O-glucoside, and kaempferol 3-O-glycoside Essential oils: Thymol, 1,8-cineol, linalool, nonanal, camphor, menthone, and anethol Saponins: Equisetin Mineral elements: Potassium, calcium, selenium, and silicon Others: Caffeic acid, kaempferol quercetin, and luteolin

Part(s) Used: Aerial parts. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: It is used in some medicine, skin and hair products. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x

During pregnancy, it should be avoided

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4.164. Hyssop Scientific Name: Hyssopus officinalis L. Family: Labiatae, Lamiaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-viral, antiseptic, anti-bacterial, anti-fungal, anti-worm, anti-microbial, anti-HIV, anti-spasmodic, anti-inflammatory, anti-bronchitis, antioxidant, anti-cancer, anti-cough, antipyretic, anti-cold, anti-asthmatic, carminative, diaphoretic, wound healer, expectorant, diuretic, and a tonic. It also stimulates the appetite (SaidAl Ahl, Hussein A. H., Abbas, Zahid K., Sabra, Ali S., Tkachenko, Kirill G. 2015; Judžentienė 2016). x x x

“As a medicinal herb, hyssop is used in viral infections such as colds, coughs, sore throats, bronchitis and asthma” (Wesołowska, A., Jadczak, D. and M. Grzeszczuk 2010) “A tea made from the herb is useful in nervous disorders and toothache” (Wesołowska, A., Jadczak, D. and M. Grzeszczuk 2010) “The plant is mentioned many times in the Bible as spiritually purifying” (Judžentienė 2016)

Constituents: x

x x x

Essential oils: β-Pinene, limonene, linalool, β-phellandrene, 1,8-cineole, pinocamphone, iso-pinocamphone, pinocarvone, germacrene-D, methyl eugenol, isopinocamphone, 4carvomenthenol, γ-terpinene, carvacrol, and pinocarvone Acids: Ferulic, chlorogenic, syringic, vanillic, p-coumaric, rosmarinic, caffeic, protocatechuic, and feruloyl quinic acid Flavonoids: Hesperidin Others: Tannin, marrubium, a high content of vitamin C, resin, and glycosides

Part(s) Used: Leaf and flower. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Hyssop oil may be found as a flavour ingredient in many food products in the food industry to improve the aroma and the organoleptic properties of different types of foods.

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x x x x x

The oil is a fragrance component in soaps, cosmetics and perfumes, as well as various household products Essential oils of the plant are applied as a flavouring agent in teas, soft drinks, candies, various snacks, chewing gum, baked goods, ice creams, frozen meals, alcoholic and nonalcoholic beverages, liqueurs and aperitifs The famous French liqueurs Bénédictine and Chartreuse contain hyssop as one of their significant ingredients Due to their fresh, clean, and pleasant aroma, the plant’s dried leaves are often placed in cupboards and coatrooms The flowers of the plant are useful for green salads or vegetables The fresh leaves alone are suitable for softly seasoning cheeses, flavoured butter, sandwiches, and pasta dishes “Hyssop is an ornamental plant, and gardens or areas along walkways are often decorated with its bright flowering shrub” (Judžentienė 2016)

Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x

During pregnancy and lactation, it should be avoided

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4.165. Iceland Moss Scientific Name: Cetraria islandica Family: Lichens Health Benefit(s): Anti-cough, anti-microbial, anti-fungal, antioxidant, anti-astringent, antibiotic, anti-inflammatory, and appetizing (Güven et al. 2018; Patriche et al. 2019). x

x

x x

“Lichens are complex symbiotic associations between a fungus (mycobiont) and an alga (photobiont) used in traditional medicine for various diseases due to several bioactive compounds in their structure” (Mitrović, T., Stamenković, S., Cvetković, V., Nikolić, M., Tošić, S., Stojičić, D. 2011) Cetraria islandica lichen is one of the most used species to treat tuberculosis and acute respiratory diseases (especially those of the upper tract), inflammation of the throat and oral cavity, and stomach and duodenal ulcers Iceland moss can reduce acidity and adjust digestion and absorption after severe illnesses or surgeries Recently, studies intended to show the effects of lichen extracts on various types of cancer have been increasing. They have suggested that lichens and their secondary metabolites can be used as an alternative method for treating cancers due to their immune stimulation effect

Constituents: x x

Natural acids (all are natural antibiotics): Usnic, lecanoric, salazinic, and lobar acid Others: Organic compounds, polysaccharides, carotenoids, and atranorin

Part(s) Used: All parts of the plant. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The fresh and dried plant can be used as herbal tea. It is used in some medicine. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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Iceland Moss on tree branches

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4.166. Indian Abutilon Scientific Name: Abutilon indicum L. Sweet Family: Malvaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-fungal, anti-diabetic, antiseptic, antioxidant, anti-cough, antipyretic, anti-bronchitis, diuretic, styptic, laxative (leaves), astringent (bark), and a sedative. It is a treatment for gonorrhoea and haemorrhoids and reduces blood glucose (Mahalik, Gyanranjan, Jali, Pallavi, Satapathy, Kunja Bihari and Sahoo, Sabuj 2019). x

x x

“The juice of its leaves and flowers is used in the treatment of bleeding, haematuria, bloody piles, and soothing dysuria in gonorrhoea, which helps treat diabetic neuropathy” (Akbar 2020) “A decoction of its leaves is used as a gargle for toothache, diphtheria, tonsillitis and pharyngitis” (Akbar 2020) “In the Philippines, a similar decoction is used for cleansing wounds, ulcers, and enemas, or as a vaginal douche or lotion” (Akbar 2020)

Constituents: x

x x

Flavonoids: Luteolin, chrysoeriol, luteolin 7-O-βglucopyranoside, chrysoeriol 7-O-β-glucopyranoside, apigenin 7-O-β-glucopyranoside, quercetin 3-O-βglucopyranoside, and quercetin 3-O-α-rhamnopyranosyl (1→6)-β-glucopyranoside Fatty acids: Linoleic, oleic, stearic, palmitic, lauric, myristic, caprylic, and capric acid Others: Alkaloids, saponins, tannin, amino acid, β-sitosterol, asparagine, and gallic acid

Part(s) Used: All parts of the plant. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The drug produced from this plant is used to promote hair growth.

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Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.167. Indian Bael, Bael, Bengal Quince Scientific Name: Aegle marmelos L. Family: Rutaceae Health Benefit(s): Antioxidant, anti-fungal, anti-viral, anti-microbial, anti-inflammatory, anti-asthmatic, anti-cold, antitussive, and anti-diabetic. It is a kidney and heart tonic (Akbar 2020). x

x x

“The ripe fruit pulp is sweet, nutritious, delicious, and aromatic. It is an alterative and laxative, haemostatic, a tonic for the stomach, and is useful for chronic diarrhoea, dysentery and ulcerative colitis, as well as being beneficial for all kinds of bleeding, such as bloody diarrhoea, and menorrhagia” (Akbar 2020) “The unripe or half-ripe fruit is regarded as astringent, digestive and stomachic, and prescribed for diarrhoea and dysentery” (Akbar 2020) “The root bark is refrigerant and is used for fevers and asthma with heart palpitations” (Akbar 2020)

Constituents: x x

Mineral elements: Copper, potassium, sodium, zinc, nickel, iron, vanadium, and chromium Others: Mucilage, pectin, tannin, essential oil, bitter compounds, alkaloid, saponin, cardiac glycosides, terpenoid, steroid, valencic acid, and betulinic acid

Part(s) Used: Fruit, leaf, bark, stem, and root. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Its fresh and dried fruits are edible, and its other parts are used in the pharmaceutical industry for different purposes. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.168. Indian Bdellium Tree, Guggul, Mukul Myrrh Tree Scientific Name: Commiphora wightii L. Family: Burseraceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-microbial, anti-worm, antiseptic, anti-asthmatic, anti-cough, antipyretic, anti-diarrhoea, anti-inflammatory, astringent, antioxidant, anti-cancer, anti-tumour, anti-rheumatic, antiarthritis, anti-spasmodic, anti-haemorrhoid, anti-obesity, anti-Parkinson’s, carminative, digestive, and an expectorant. It reduces blood cholesterol, is a hair tonic, and cleans and heals wounds (M. Bhardwaj and Alia 2019; Akbar 2020). x

x

“Gum resin is found in the bark and pith and exudes spontaneously as a juice. It is soft, oily, yellowish (a golden colour), fragrant at first and then becomes roundish, irregular tears or hard masses of a brownish or reddish-brown colour and waxy looking” (Akbar 2020) “This plant is one of the best rewarding herbs for Vata1 diseases. Various preparations of C. wightii are used to treat sciatica, hemiplegia, gout, rheumatic diseases, and facial paralysis, amongst other things” (Akbar 2020)

Constituents: x x x

1

Triterpenes: Myrrhanol A, myrrhanol B, myrrhanone A, myrrhanone B, myrrhanone A acetate, and epimansumbinol Essential oils: Eugenol, d-limonene, ߙ-pinene, linalool, cineole, ߙ-terpineol, d-ߙ-phellandrene, methyl-heptanone, bornyl acetate, and geraniol Flavonoids: Quercetin, quercetin-3-O-ߙ-L-arabinose, quercetin3-O-ߚ-D-glucuronide, quercetin-3-O-ߚ-D galactoside, and quercetin-3-O-ߙ- L-rhamnoside

- Vata people are more susceptible to diseases related to the air, such as emphysema, pneumonia and arthritis.

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Amino acids: Cystine, histidine, lysine, arginine, aspartic acid, serine, glutamic acid, threonine, alanine, proline, tyrosine, tryptophan, valine, leucine, and isoleucine Others: Steroids and lignans

Part(s) Used: Gum resin. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: It is used in the pharmaceutical industry for different purposes. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

Gum Resins

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4.169. Indian Gooseberry Scientific Name: Phyllanthus emblica L. Family: Phyllanthaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-viral, antioxidant, anti-diarrhoea, anti-depressant, anti-neuropathic pain, anti-inflammatory, purifier of body humour, improves the memory, enhances eyesight, is a heart and stomach tonic, relieves palpitation, is a strong rejuvenator, reduces blood sugar and blood cholesterol, and is immunomodulatory (Akbar 2020). x

x x

“Seventeen countries in the world are reported to use various parts of this plant in their medical treatment for hepatitis, cancer, tumours, for stomach function regulation, as a traditional immunomodulator, and as a natural adaptogen” (Akbar 2020) “Avicenna described it as one of the most astringent drugs and thus a beneficial cardiotonic and memory improver” (Akbar 2020) “The plant’s fresh fruits are a laxative and diuretic. Its dried fruits are cooling, astringent and stomachic” (Akbar 2020)

Constituents: x x x x

Phenolic compounds: Gallic acid, ellagic acid, chebulinic acid, quercetin, and chebulagic acid Vitamin: The fruit juice contains more vitamin C than its apple, lime, pomegranate and grape counterparts Mineral elements: Cobalt, sodium, and chromium Others: Tannin, saponin, flavonoid, terpenoid, phenols, alkaloid, and β-glucogallin

Part(s) Used: Fruit (mainly). Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The fruits are used medicinally in both fresh and dried forms and preserved in syrup. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.170. Indigo Plant Scientific Name: Indigofera tinctoria L. Family: Fabaceae, Leguminosae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-worm, anti-cold, antioxidant, and wound healing (Renukadevi and Sultana 2011). x x x

“Its roots and leaves are used for the treatment of epilepsy and hydrophobia” (Renukadevi and Sultana 2011) “When turned into a dry powder the plant is used in the treatment of asthma” (Renukadevi and Sultana 2011) “Indigo is widely used in the ‘Indian System of Medicine’ for epilepsy, nervous disorders, bronchitis and liver ailments” (Renukadevi and Sultana 2011)

Constituents: x x

Glycosides: Indican Others: Alkaloids, flavonoids, quinone, steroid, terpenoid, and saponins

Part(s) Used: Leaf and root. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: A drug produced from this plant is used to promote hair growth. x

The leaves' decoction is used against bites and stings of venomous insects and reptiles to relieve the pain; it is also used for burns and scalds (Renukadevi and Sultana 2011)

Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

Leaves Powder

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4.171. Ivy Scientific Name: Hedera helix L. Family: Araliaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-fungal, anti-bacterial, anti-microbial, antiworm, anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer, anti-tumour, anti-cough, antispasmodic, anti-asthmatic, and antitussive, it promotes menstruation, is a skin tonic, a blood purifier, and has a positive effect on the libido (Tatia et al. 2019). x

x

“In traditional medicine, infusions obtained from young ivy leaves are used in relieving coughs and bronchial spasms, due to their expectorant action. Ivy infusions also exert analgesic, sedative, antiparasitic, cytotoxic and emmenagogue actions” (Tatia et al. 2019) “Topical application can be used for wound healing and against skin inflammation, rickets and verruca” (Tatia et al. 2019)

Constituents: x x x x

Polyphenolic acids: Caffeic and chlorogenic acids Flavonol glycosides: Rutin and rhamnoglucosyl-3campherol Polyacetylenes: Falcarinone and falcarinol Others: Saponin, sterol, anthocyanins, coumarins, amino acids, essential oils, vitamins, and β-lecithin

Part(s) Used: Leaf and fruit. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: It is used in some medicine and as a topical medicine in ointments and lotions. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x

When pregnant, oral use should be avoided

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4.172. Java Plum, Indian Blackberry Scientific Name: Syzygium cumini L. Family: Myrtaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-diarrhoea, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-diabetic, it is a stomach and liver tonic, and reduces blood glucose (Akbar 2020). x x x x x x

“The bark is astringent and is used alone or in combination with other drugs to prepare astringent decoctions, gargles and washes” (Akbar 2020) “The juice extract of leaves and the fresh bark juice are used with goat’s milk in dysentery cases” (Akbar 2020) “The ripe fruit juice or syrup is stomachic, astringent and diuretic, and is used in oliguria” (Akbar 2020) “Extracts of the powdered seeds and dried fruits are used to treat diabetes” (Akbar 2020) “A paste of the leaves is used to promote healthy discharges from indolent sores and ulcers” (Akbar 2020) “At the turn of the 20th century and before discovering insulin, this plant was one of the most commonly marketed and recommended medicinal plants in terms of antidiabetic agents in Europe” (Akbar 2020)

Constituents: x x x x x x

Flavonoids: Myricetin and myricetin deoxyhexoside Mineral elements: Rich in calcium, and also containing phosphorus and iron Anthocyanins: Malvidin, petunidin, delphinidin, cyanidin, and peonidin Essential oils: α-Pinene, (Z)-β-ocimene, (E)-β-ocimene, βpinene, α-caryophyllene, α-limonene, trans-caryophyllene, 1,3,6-octatriene, and delta-3-carene Polyphenols: Gallic, ellagic, cinnamic, syringic, and ferulic acid, and quercetin Others: Fibre, tannin, phenolic acid, and fatty oil

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Part(s) Used: Fruit, seed, leaf and bark. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: “It is one of the two most common anti-diabetic plant medicines, and the leaves are widely used in Brazilian folk medicine to treat diabetes” (Akbar 2020). x

Java plum is one of the most popular fruits, and its juice is used to make red wine

Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.173. Jerusalem Artichoke Scientific Name: Helianthus tuberosus L. Family: Compositae Health Benefit(s): Antiseptic, anti-viral, anti-rheumatic, diuretic, and digestive. It is appetizing, energizing, and reduces blood pressure (Apostol et al. 2019). x

x

“As a source of inulin, which has aperient, cholagogue, diuretic, spermatogenic, stomachic and tonic effects, its tuber has been used as a traditional remedy in treating diabetes and rheumatism” (Apostol et al. 2019) “The leaves are anti-microbial, anti-viral, antioxidant and anti-cancerous” (Apostol et al. 2019)

Constituents: x x x

Vitamins: A, B1, B3, B5, B9 and C Mineral elements: Potassium, iron, phosphor, copper, zinc, and magnesium Others: Inulin (main and most used component)

Part(s) Used: Leaf and tuber. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: It is widely used in the food industry. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.174. Jujube Tree Scientific Name: Zizyphus vulgaris, Z. jujuba Family: Rhamnaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-microbial, antitussive, antipyretic, anti-inflammatory, anti-spasmodic, anti-cough, anti-cancer, antioxidant, anti-tumour, anti-depressant, anti-cold, anti-diabetic, anti-fertility, laxative, sedative, expectorant and immunomodulatory. It promotes menstruation; acts as a uterus tonic, stomach tonic, liver tonic, and nervous tonic; and reduces blood sugar and blood pressure (Al-Reza et al. 2010; L. Bai et al. 2016; Ji et al. 2017). x x x x x x

“The jujuba fruit has been described as the ‘fruit of life’” (Al-Reza et al. 2010) The local tribes people use the bark mixture of jujube to prevent pregnancy “In traditional medicine, the seed of jujube has been used for its action on insomnia and anxiety” (Al-Reza et al. 2010) “Jujube seeds have been deemed effective as a therapeutic regimen for the control of metabolic derangements in adult disease” (Al-Reza et al. 2010) “In an ancient Chinese book on herbal medicine, Huangdi Neijing (475-221 BC), the jujube fruit was considered one of the five most valuable fruits” (Ji et al. 2017) “Jujube fruit is widely used to treat lassitude, anorexia, loose stools, deficiency syndromes of the spleen, and hysteria in women” (Ji et al. 2017)

Constituents: x x x

Phenolic acids: Hydroxycinnamic and benzoic acid Polysaccharides: Rhamnose, arabinose, glucose, and galactose Others: Vitamin C, flavonoids, mucilage, alkaloid, malic, citric, pomonic, benthamic, terminic, oleanic, betulinic, triterpenic, and traumatic acid, as well as apigenin and saponin

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Part(s) Used: Fruit. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The fresh and dried fruit can be used orally and in some medicine. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.175. Juniper Scientific Name: Juniperus communis L. Family: Cupressaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-microbial, anti-fungal, antiviral, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, diuretic, diaphoretic, digestive and a tonic. It is appetizing, and helps heals the kidney, bladder, and rheumatism (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007; Ložienė and Petras Rimantas Venskutonis 2016). x x x x

“Topical application helps with wound healing” (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007) The German Commission E approved its use for dyspepsia “Juniper is stated to possess diuretic, antiseptic, carminative, stomachic and antirheumatic properties” (Ložienė and Petras Rimantas Venskutonis 2016) “Traditionally, it has been used for cystitis, flatulence, colic, and applied topically for rheumatic pains in joints or muscles” (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007)

Constituents: x x x

x

Acids: Diterpene, ascorbic, and glucuronic acid Flavonoids: Amentoflavone, quercetin, isoquercitrin, and apigenin Essential oils: α-Pinene, myrcene, limonene, sabinene, camphene, camphor, β-selinene, 1,4-cineole, p-cymene, α-cadinene, γ-cadinene, β-pinene, γ-terpinene, terpinen-4-ol, terpinyl acetate, α-thujene, and borneol Others: Tannin, resin, sugar, junionone, and geijerone

Part(s) Used: Bark, fruit (cone) and fresh buds. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: “Nowadays, the cones of juniper and their essential oils are recognized by the Official Pharmacopoeias of Austria and Switzerland and the European Pharmacopoeia, and are used for healing cold or as a bacterial and fungal antiseptic” (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007).

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Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x x

“People with inflammation of the kidney and urinary system should avoid” (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007) During pregnancy and lactation, it should be avoided

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4.176. Kaki, Persimmon Scientific Name: Diospyros kaki L. Family: Ebenaceae Health Benefit(s):

x

x

Fruit: “Antioxidant, laxative (when ripened and sweet), strong astringent (when unripe), diuretic, digestive, appetizing, and immunomodulatory. It reduces blood pressure and blood cholesterol; enhances the eyes; is a heart, kidney, skin, and bone tonic; it is useful for dietary purposes; and it has cancer prevention properties” (Kawase et al. 2003; L. Sun et al. 2011; El-Hawary et al. 2020) Leaf: Anti-blood pressure, anti-cancer, anti-histamine, antiinflammatory, and anti-allergic

Constituents: Fruits x x x

Vitamins: A, B1, B2, C and E Mineral elements: Magnesium, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, sodium, iron, zinc, and copper Others: Tannin, sugar, carotenoids, terpenoids, amino acid, dietary fibre, catechin, aspartic acid, and glutamic acid

Leaves x x x

Vitamins: A, B1, B2, C, and E Mineral elements: Magnesium, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, sodium, iron, zinc, and copper Others: Flavonoid, tannin, catechin, aspartic acid, glutamic acid, glycine, alanine, tyrosine, and proline

Part(s) Used: Leaf and fruit. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The fresh and dried fruits are widely used in autumn. x

The leaves are commonly used for tea in Asia

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Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x

Persons with blood glucose and diabetes should take care using kaki

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4.177. Kidney Vetch Scientific Name: Anthyllis vulneraria L. Family: Fabaceae, Leguminosae Health Benefit(s): Antitussive, antioxidant, stomach tonic, blood purifier, laxative, and a diuretic. It treats ulcers and diseases of the mouth and throat. It is also a wound healer (Ghalem, Meriem, Merghache, Salima, Ghalem, Said, and Belarb, Meriem 2012; Csepregi, Bencsik, and Papp 2016). x

x

“This plant is used in folk medicine to treat inflammation, disturbances of metabolism and acne and to accelerate the healing of wounds (internally and externally)” (Ghalem, Meriem, Merghache, Salima, Ghalem, Said, and Belarb, Meriem 2012) The flowers of this plant are used in cosmetology for hair growth enhancement

Constituents: x x

Flavonoids: Quercetin, kaempferol, isorhamnetin, rhamnocitrin, rhamnetin, tri-flavon, fisetin, and geraldol Others: Tannin, mucilage, saponin, anthocyanins, phenolic acid, and carotenoids

Part(s) Used: All parts of the plant. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Its fresh and dried plants can be used as herbal tea and in some medicine. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.178. Kiwi Scientific Name: Actinidia deliciosa Family: Actinidiaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, potent antioxidant, anti-cancer, and immunomodulatory (A. Kaya, Aydın, and Kolaylı 2010). x

x

x

x

“It is widely used in Chinese folk medicines to treat such diseases as hepatitis, oedema, rheumatoid arthritis, gastric cancer and breast cancer” (A. Kaya, Aydın, and Kolaylı 2010) “The fruits, stems and roots are diuretic, antipyretic and sedative. They are used to treat stones in the urinary tract, rheumatoid arthralgia, and cancers of the liver and oesophagus” (A. Kaya, Aydın, and Kolaylı 2010) “Raw kiwi fruit is also rich in the protein-dissolving enzyme actinidin (in the same family of thiol proteases as papain), which is commercially useful as a meat tenderizer but may be an allergen for some individuals” (A. Kaya, Aydın, and Kolaylı 2010) “Actinidin also makes raw kiwi fruit unsuitable for use in desserts containing milk or any other dairy products that will not be served within hours because the enzyme soon begins to digest milk proteins” (A. Kaya, Aydın, and Kolaylı 2010)

Constituents: x x x x

Vitamins: Kiwi fruit has a high level of vitamin C, but also contains vitamins A, K, B1, B2, B3, B6, and B9, as well as a small amount of vitamin E Mineral elements: Potassium, calcium, iron, magnesium, phosphorus, sodium, zinc, and manganese Carotenoids: Provitamin A, beta-carotene, lutein, and zeaxanthin Others: Quinones, phenolic, triterpenoids, phenylpropanoids, omega-3-fatty acid, flavonoids, fibre, and steroids

Part(s) Used: Fruit.

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Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Fresh and dried kiwi fruit are both edible and can be used as a flavouring in beverages and desserts. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.179. Knot Grass Scientific Name: Polygonum aviculare L. Family: Polygonaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-fungal, anti-bacterial, anti-asthmatic, antibronchitis, anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer, anti-tumour, anti-oxidative, diuretic, and a tonic. It is wound healing, and reduces blood sugar and urinary tract infections (B.‑B. Shen et al. 2018). Constituents: x

x

Flavonoids (the primary and secondary metabolites in polygonum species): Kaempferol, baicalin, quercetin, myricetin, 7,4'-dimethyl quercetin, 3-methyl quercetin, iso-quercetin, liquiritin, avicularin, and cinaroside Others: Quinones, tannin, rutin, mucilage, terpenoids, rosemary acid, caffeic acid, coumaric acid, essential oil, and phenylpropanoids

Part(s) Used: Leaf and flower. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Its fresh and dried leaves and flowers can be used as herbal tea, and in some medicine. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.180. Lady’s Bedstraw, Yellow Bedstraw Scientific Name: Galium verum L. Family: Rubiaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-convulsant, antitussive, antioxidant, antispasmodic, diuretic, diaphoretic, wound healing, sedative, and astringent, it helps with liver disorders and kidney stone excretion (Lakić et al. 2010; Vaher 2018). x x

“In the past, its dried plants were used to stuff mattresses because the plants' coumarin scent acted as a flea killer” (Lakić et al. 2010) “Its flowers were used to coagulate milk and, in Scotland, the plant is still used as a dye and in cheese manufacturing” (Lakić et al. 2010)

Constituents: x x

Flavonoids: Rutin, kaempferol-glucopyranoside, and isorhamnetin-rutinoside Others: Asperulosidic acid, neochlorogenic acid, chlorogenic acid, asperuloside glucoside, cryptochlorogenic acid, saponin, tannin, vitamin C, wax, essential oils, alkaloid, and anthraquinone

Part(s) Used: Leaf and flower. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The fresh or dried plants can be used as herbal tea and as/in some medicines. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.181. Lady's Mantle Scientific Name: Alchemilla vulgaris L. Family: Rosaceae Health Benefit(s): Antiseptic, anti-virus, anti-bacterial, anti-microbial, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-proliferative, diuretic, and astringent. It heals mouth wounds, acts as a stomach tonic, and helps with urinary tract infections (Boroja et al. 2018). x

“Lady's mantle is commonly known in traditional medicine for the treatment of ulcers, wounds, and eczema; for digestive problems; and as a remedy for gynaecological disorders, such as heavy menstrual flow, menorrhagia and dysmenorrhoea” (Boroja et al. 2018)

Constituents: x x x x

Phenolic acids: Predominantly ellagic, gallic, and caffeic acid Flavonoids: Quercetin Flavonoid glycosides: Isoquercetin, rutin, avicularin, and tiliroside Others: Phenolic compounds and tannins

Part(s) Used: Leaf and flower. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Fresh and dried leaves and flowers can be used as herbal tea, and in some medicine. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.182. Laurel, Laurel Tree, Bay Leaf, Sweet Bay Scientific Name: Laurus nobilis L. Family: Lauraceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-fungal, anti-bacterial, anti-microbial, antiviral, antiseptic, anti-inflammatory, anti-diarrheal, antitussive, antipyretic, anti-rheumatic, antioxidant, carminative, diaphoretic, sedative, and abortifacient. It promotes menstruation, and acts as a liver and stomach tonic (Fidan et al. 2019; Petkova et al. 2019). x x

x

Topical applications of leaf extracts can be used for skin problems and rheumatism pains “Aqueous extracts of laurel fruits and leaves have been used in herbal medicine as an astringent agent and to treat several neurological, dermatological, and urological disorders” (Georgiev, E., Stoyanova, A. 2006) “Laurel essential oil is currently used in folk medicines to treat different health problems, such as rheumatism and dermatitis” (Kilic et al. 2004)

Constituents: x x x x x x

Essential oils of fruits: 1,8-Cineole, α-terpinyl acetate, sabinene, α-phellandrene, eugenol, methyl eugenol, α-pinene, β-ocimene, and β-pinene Essential oils of leaves: 1,8-Cineole, linalool, α-terpinyl acetate, α-pinene, β-pinene, sabinene, α-terpineol, and terpineol-4 Phenolic acids: p-Coumaric, vanillic, caffeic, syringic, rosmarinic, chlorogenic, ferulic, and cinnamic acid Flavonoids: Myricetin, quercetin, kaempferol, apigenin, luteolin, hesperetin, and rutin Fatty acids of fruits: Caprylic, capric, lauric, myristic, palmitic, margaric, stearic, oleic, linoleic, linolenic, behenic, and arachidic acid Others: Tannins, alkaloid, vitamin, and mineral elements

Part(s) Used: Leaf and seed.

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Herbal and/or Commercial Use: “In some countries (such as Bulgaria) it is a source of constituents for perfumery, cosmetics, and pharmaceutical products” (Georgiev, E., Stoyanova, A. 2006). x

Laurel dried leaves, fruits, and essential oils are used extensively in the food industry as a spice

Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x

In some people, it can induce allergic reactions

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4.183. Lavender Scientific Name: Lavandula angustifolia, Lavandula officinalis Family: Labiatae, Lamiaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-microbial, anti-bacterial, anti-fungal, antivirus, antiseptic, anti-spasmodic, anti-rheumatic, anti-inflammatory, antitussive, antioxidant, anti-diabetic, anti-Alzheimer’s, anti-depressant, carminative, sedative, diuretic, digestive, stomach tonic, and hair growth tonic. It promotes menstruation, and helps to treat insomnia and headaches (Prusinowska and Śmigielski 2014). x x

“Infusions and tinctures of lavender flowers have sedative and analgesic properties” (Prusinowska and Śmigielski 2014) “Lavender tincture is thought to alleviate depression, headaches, and anxiety” (Prusinowska and Śmigielski 2014)

Constituents: x x x

x

Phenolic acids: Caffeic, coumaric, glycolic, valeric, and ursolic acid Mineral elements: Calcium, sodium, magnesium, zinc, and iron Essential oils: The most valuable substance isolated from lavender is the essential oil, and it contains linalool, linalyl acetate, lavandulol, ocimene, cineol, camphor, terpinen-4-ol, and α-terpineol Others: Herniarin, coumarin, tannins, anthocyanins, phytosterols, and sugars

Part(s) Used: Leaf and flower. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Lavender essential oil is one of the famous and ordinary oils, which is widely used in perfume, cosmetics, hygiene products and household chemicals. It is present in toilet water, lotions, and after-shaves, giving them a strong top note, while imparting a scent of freshness and purity to household cleaning preparations.

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“Lavender flowers, buds and leaves are edible and used to flavour broths and jellies” (Prusinowska and Śmigielski 2014)

Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x

In some rare cases, it can induce allergies

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4.184. Lemon, Lime Scientific Name: Citrus lemon, C. limonum, C. aurantifolia Family: Rutaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-microbial, antiseptic, anti-cancer (and reduces cancer risk), antioxidant, antipyretic, anti-vomiting, anti-rheumatic, anti-cold, anti-spasmodic, wound healing, diaphoretic, diuretic, astringent, carminative, sedative, immunomodulatory, and astringent. They are a heart tonic, liver tonic, and skin tonic; they improve digestive health; they reduce blood cholesterol and blood sugar; and they help with weight control (Cruz-Valenzuela et al. 2016; Ben Hsouna et al. 2017). x

“In folk usages, they have been recommended to prepare tea from their leaves and essential oils to relieve the common cold and flu. They’re also suggested as an excellent source of vitamin C to prevent scurvy” (Cruz-Valenzuela et al. 2016)

Constituents: x x x

Vitamins: A, B1, B2, B3, C, and E Essential oils: α-Pinene, sabinene, β-pinene, myrcene, limonene, 1,8-cineol, linalool, nerol, geranial, indol, α-terpineol, γ-terpinene, and terpinolene Others: Flavonoids, carotenoids, coumarin, pectin, citric acid, malic acid, and potassium

Part(s) Used: Fruit, fruit peel and leaf. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Lemon essential oils are one of the most crucial flavouring oils, used widely in all kind of beverages, soft drinks, soft drinks powders and tablets, and in baked goods, such as cakes, pastries, pie fillings, confectionery, soft and hard centre candies, gelatine desserts, and ice creams. x

“In the pharmaceutical, cosmetics and hygiene industries, their oil is used as a flavouring agent in syrups and suspensions, and in perfumery, its volatile composition is used as

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x

the base of many citric scents, as well as in some creams, soaps and household cleaning products” (Cruz-Valenzuela et al. 2016) Citrus flavours are most commonly derived from citrus oils obtained from the peel of the citrus fruit or as a by-product obtained during juice concentration

Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

Lime

Lemon

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4.185. Lemon Balm, Balm, Melissa Scientific Name: Melissa officinalis L. Family: Labiatae, Lamiaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, antiseptic, anti-fungal, anti-viral, antitussive, antipyretic, anti-spasmodic, anti-migraine, anti-rheumatic, diaphoretic, carminative, and a sedative. It’s a tonic for the heart, stomach, liver, uterus, and nervous system; it also stimulates the appetite and improves headaches (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007; Pyrzynska and Sentkowska 2019). Constituents: x x x x

Essential oils: Citronellal, geranial, neral, citronellol, geraniol, nerol, β-ocimene, and β-caryophyllene Flavonoids: Luteolin, quercetin, apigenin, and kaempferol Polyphenols: Protocatechuic acid, caffeic acid, chlorogenic acid, rosmarinic acid, and p-coumaric Others: Carotenoids, coumarin, pectin, citric acid, malic acid, and potassium

Part(s) Used: Leaf. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: “Fresh and dried lemon balm can be used as herbal tea. It is used to give fragrance to wine and beer” (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007). It is used in some medicine as a pill, capsule and herbal water. x

“Natural essential oils are obtained from various parts of the plant. Due to its citrus fragrance, they are used in the cosmetic industry and perfumery” (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007)

Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.186. Lemongrass Scientific Name: Cymbopogon flexuosus Family: Graminaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-worm, anti-bacterial, anti-fungal, anti-microbial, antipyretic, anti-cough, anti-cold, antitussive, anti-rheumatic, anti-Alzheimer’s, anti-stress, anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer, carminative, diuretic and digestive. It improves headaches and blood circulation, stimulates the appetite, reduces blood cholesterol and blood pressure, acts as a nervous tonic, and heals infections (Ganjewala 2009). Constituents: x

Essential oils: Geraniol, citronellol, citronellal, linalool, elemol, 1,8-cineole, limonene, geraniol, β-caryophyllene, methyl heptanone, γ-terpinene, α-thujene, α-pinene, sabinene, n-decanol, α-terphenyl acetate, β-caryophyllene, α-humulene, germacrene D, β-bisabolene, and γ-cadinene

Part(s) Used: Leaf and stem. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The essential oils of lemongrass are used as flavours and fragrances in cosmetics, perfume, soaps, detergents and for pharmaceuticals purposes. x x x

For many years lemongrass has been used as a culinary flavouring in Asia “The leaves are cooked with foods, especially curries, and the peeled stems are available in local markets” (Ganjewala 2009) Fresh leaves crushed in water are used as a hair wash and toilet water in India

Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x

During pregnancy, it should be avoided

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4.187. Lentil Scientific Name: Lens culinaris Family: Fabaceae, Leguminosae Health Benefit(s): Anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer, antioxidant, astringent, and wound healing. It reduces blood cholesterol and blood sugar, and acts as a tonic for the stomach and liver (Bhatty 1988). Constituents: x x x

x x

Mineral elements: Phosphorus, calcium, iron, magnesium, sodium, and potassium Fatty acids: Linoleic, oleic, palmitic, linolenic, stearic, arachidic, and eichosenoic acid Amino acids: Tryptophan, lysine, histidine, arginine, aspartic acid, threonine, serine, glutamic acid, proline, glycine, alanine, cystine, valine, methionine, isoleucine, leucine, tyrosine, and phenylalanine Vitamins: B1 and B2 Others: Starch (a significant component of lentil’s carbohydrates)

Part(s) Used: Fruit. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Lentils are widely used in the food industry in several ways. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.188. Lentisk Pistacia, Mastic Tree Scientific Name: Pistacia lentiscus L. Family: Anacardiaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-fungal, antitussive, anticough, anti-cancer, antioxidant, diaphoretic, carminative, diuretic, expectorant, and astringent. It reduces blood pressure and blood sugar and is a stomach tonic (Magiatis et al. 1999). x

“Mastic is an oleoresin which can be extracted from tree bark in a natural way or after being cut” (Magiatis et al. 1999)

Constituents: x x

Essential oils of oleoresin: Caryophyllene, masticoresene, masticin, myrcene, α-pinene, β-pinene, p-cymene, limonene, linalool, α-terpineol, myrtenol, and α-humulene Essential oils of leaves: Myrcene, germacrene, E-caryophyllene, α-cadinol, α-pinene, β-pinene, α-phellandrene, pcymene, linalool, α-terpineol, myrtenol, α-humulene, and γcadinene

Part(s) Used: Mastic (oleoresin) and leaf. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Mastic can be used as a flavour in perfume, mouth products (toothpaste and mouthwash) and other dentistry products. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.189. Lettuce Scientific Name: Lactuca Sativa L. Family: Compositae Health Benefit(s): Anti-stress, anti-depressant, anti-cancer, antianaemic, sedative, immunomodulatory, and suitable for those with high blood sugar and diabetes. It is a hair and skin tonic, a heart tonic, protects skin from UV, reduces blood pressure, is ideal for weight loss, is a liver cleaner, and is good for the pregnancy period. Constituents: x x x

Vitamins: A, B1, B2, B3, C and K Mineral elements: Iron, calcium, phosphor, sodium, potassium, copper, nickel, and cobalt Others: Malic acid and lactucarium

Part(s) Used: Leaf. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Lettuce is widely used in salads and other food. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.190. Lily of the Valley Scientific Name: Convallaria majalis L. Family: Asparagaceae Health Benefit(s): A laxative, diuretic, and heart tonic, it improves heartbeat regulation (its main use), has anti-cancer properties, and reduces blood cholesterol (Matsuo et al. 2017). Constituents: x x

Cardenolide glycosides: Convallotoxin and convallatoxol Saponins: Convallamaroside

Part(s) Used: Leaf, flower and rhizome. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: It is used in the pharmaceutical industry and some specific medicines like heart medicine. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: This plant is toxic, and should be used in standard products following medical doctors’ recommendations.

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4.191. Linden Scientific Name: Tilia cordata Family: Tiliaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-inflammatory, antitussive, anti-cold, antibronchitis, anti-cough, anti-stress, diaphoretic, laxative, digestive and a sedative. It heals infections, reduces blood pressure, and is a blood purifier (l. Fitsiou et al. 2007). x x

The German Commission E approved linden flowers for colds and cold-related coughs “The British Herbal Compendium indicates its use for upper respiratory catarrh, common colds, irritable coughs, hypertension and restlessness” (l. Fitsiou et al. 2007)

Constituents: x x

Essential oils: 1,8-Cineole, γ-terpinene, linalool, nonanal, hotrienol, borneol, α-terpineol, thymol, carvacrol, p-cymene, δ-cadinene, and α-calacorene Others: Mucilage, tannin, cumaric acid, caffeic acid, gallic acid, fraxoide, esculoside, and phoroglucinol

Part(s) Used: Leaf, flower and bark. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The dried inflorescences of the linden tree are widely used traditionally as herbal tea. Besides this, it is used in some medicine. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.192. Lingzhi Mushroom Scientific Name: Ganoderma lucidum Family: Ganodermataceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-tumour, anti-cancer, anti-HIV, anti-histaminic, carminative, sedative and immunomodulatory. It improves brain activity and increases body power; it is a nervous tonic; it reduces blood cholesterol and blood pressure; it is appetizing; and it protects the liver (Boh et al. 2007). x

“Modern uses of Ganoderma include treatment of coronary heart diseases, arteriosclerosis, hepatitis, arthritis, nephritis, bronchitis, asthma, hypertension, cancer and gastric ulcers” (Boh et al. 2007)

Constituents: x x x

Triterpenoids: Ganoderic, lucidenic, ganolucidic, applanoxidic acids, ganodermic, ganoderenic, ucidones, ganoderals, and ganoderols Mineral elements: Magnesium, calcium, manganese, iron, copper, and zinc Others: Alkaloids, vitamin, steroids, lactones, and fatty acids

Part(s) Used: Mushroom. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: It is used in some medicine. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x

Only use it following a medical doctor’s recommendation

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4.193. Linseed, Flax, Flaxseed Scientific Name: Linum usitatissimum L. Family: Linaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-fungal, anti-microbial, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anti-tumour, anti-cough, antitussive, anti-allergic, expectorant, and laxative. It promotes menstruation, increases lactation, acts as a heart tonic, reduces blood cholesterol and blood sugar, has cancer prevention properties, helps with colds, and heals urinary infections (Rashid et al. 2019). Constituents: x x

Mineral elements: Zinc, magnesium, calcium, copper, sodium, and potassium Others: Mucilage, protein, dietary fibre, glucoside, oil, linoleic acid, oleic acid, and linolenic acid

Part(s) Used: Seed. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: “Flaxseed gum has been used in products such as dairy desserts, sausages, salad dressing, carrot juice, beverages, and also in processed foods as a thickener, stabilizer and fat replacer” (Rashid et al. 2019). Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x

In some people, it can induce allergies

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4.194. Liquorice Scientific Name: Glycyrrhiza glabra L. Family: Fabaceae, Leguminosae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-viral, anti-microbial, antiseptic, antitussive, anti-asthmatic, anti-allergic, anti-depressant, anti-inflammatory, anti-spasmodic, carminative, antioxidant, anti-cancer, antipyretic, anti-cough, immunomodulatory, laxative, expectorant, diuretic, and sedative. It aids the libido and protects the liver (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007). x

“Carbenoxolone, an ester derivative of glycyrrhetinic acid, has been used to treat gastric and oesophageal ulcers. It is thought to exhibit a mucosal-protecting effect by beneficially interfering with gastric prostanoid synthesis, and increasing mucus” (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007)

Constituents: x x

x x

x x

Coumarins: Glycyrin (50 times sweeter than sugar), heniarin, liqcoumarin, and umbelliferone Flavonoids: Formononetin, glabrin, glabrol, glabrone, glyzarin, glycyrol, glabridin, kumatakenin, licoflavonol, licoisoflavones A and B, licoisoflavanone, licoricone, liquiritin, phaseollinisoflavan, isoliquiritigenin, licuraside, echinatin, licochalcones A and B, and neo-licuroside Terpenoids: Glycyrrhizin glycoside, glycyrrhetol, glabrolide, liquorice acid, liquiritic acid, and β-amyrin Essential oils: Anethole, benzaldehyde, butyrolactone, cumic alcohol, eugenol, fenchone, furfuryl alcohol, hexanol, indole, linalool, γ-nonalactone, estragole, propionic acid, αterpineol, and thujone Sterols: Stigmasterol, and β-sitosterol Others: Glycosides, bitter compounds, saponin, amino acids, gums, lignin, starch, wax, and sugar

Part(s) Used: Root.

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Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Liquorice extract and oils can be used as a flavouring agent in the confectionery industry, in food and beverages, and in care products like toothpaste and cosmetics. x

“The powder and part of the root can be used as herbal tea, or as a sweet source in the chocolate and candies industry. It is used in some medicine as a capsule and syrup” (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007)

Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x x

People with high blood pressure should take care using liquorice During pregnancy and lactation, it should be avoided

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4.195. Lovage Scientific Name: Levisticum officinale Family: Umbelliferae Health Benefit(s): Anti-microbial, antioxidant, anti-rheumatic, carminative, diuretic, and digestive. It promotes menstruation and stimulates the appetite, it works as a blood purifier, and it’s also a liver and stomach tonic (Raal et al. 2008; Petras Rimantas Venskutonis 2016b). x

x x

“The roots and fruits are aromatic and stimulant, therefore in herbal medicine they have been used in disorders of the stomach, especially for cases of colic and flatulence in children” (Raal et al. 2008) “Among other physiological effects, the root of lovage has been known for centuries as a medicine with carminative and spasmolytic effects” (Raal et al. 2008) “Z-ligustilide (one of the primary and crucial bioactive compounds) was reported to demonstrate various health effects such as an anti-inflammatory, anti-tumour, and anti-thrombotic activity, in addition to it having a positive impact on neurological disorders” (Petras Rimantas Venskutonis 2016b)

Constituents: x

Essential oils: Nonane, α-pinene, camphene, sabinene, β-pinene, myrcene, limonene, β-phellandrene, γ-terpinene, terpinolene, linalool, α-terpineol, Z-ligustilide, α-terpinyl acetate, and Z-β-ocimene

Part(s) Used: Rhizome, fresh leaf and seed. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: “The essential oil from the roots, leaves and seeds of lovage are used as a flavouring in the food, beverage, perfumery and tobacco industries” (Raal et al. 2008).

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x

x x

“Fresh and dried lovage leaves and its dried rhizomes or roots are suitable for flavouring meat soups, meat, fish, vegetable dishes, sauces, and various salads” (Petras Rimantas Venskutonis 2016b) “The reported commercial uses of dried lovage preparations as well as extracts and oils include non-alcoholic and alcoholic beverages, baked goods, some frozen dairy products, hard and soft candies, cheese, gelatine, puddings, meat products, chewing gum, sweet sauces, condiments, relishes, gravies, and soups” (Petras Rimantas Venskutonis 2016b) “The dried rhizomes and roots have also been used to flavour confectionery products, marinates, and liquors” (Petras Rimantas Venskutonis 2016b) Lovage has long been cultivated in Europe. Its leaves have been used as a herb, the roots as a vegetable, and the seeds as a spice

Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

Lovage Leaves & Rhizomes

Lovage Seeds

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4.196. Lungwort Lichen Scientific Name: Lobaria pulmonaria Family: Stictaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-viral, anti-inflammatory, anti-bronchitis, anti-rheumatic, anti-tumour, antioxidant, natural antibiotic, immunomodulatory, appetizing, and helps with losing weight (Atalay et al. 2015). x x x

“Lichens are symbiotic organisms formed by fungi and algae” (Huneck and Yoshimura 1996) Lichen is widely used in treating tuberculosis, stomach pain, lung illnesses, eczema, respiratory and pulmonary diseases, and arthritis It is also used as food and in cosmetics. It is used as a laxative cream, and for treating respiratory disorders in Turkish folk medicine

Constituents: x x

Depsides, depsidones, dibenzofurans, and pulvinic acid derivatives are common metabolites of many lichen samples Others: Bitter compounds, mucilage, stictic acid, gyrophoric acid, constictic acid, ergosterol, episterol, fecosterol, and lichesterol

Part(s) Used: All parts of the plant. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Fresh lichen can be used in salads; fresh and dried lichen can be used as herbal tea. It is used in some medicine. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.197. Madder Scientific Name: Rubia tinctorum L. Family: Rubiaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-fungal, diuretic, digestive, and astringent, it promotes menstruation, acts as a stomach tonic, and helps with urinary tract infections (Essaidi et al. 2017). x x x

“The anthraquinone pigments in the roots of this plant have been used to dye textiles for millennia” (Clementi et al. 2007) The underground parts of the plant have also been used as a natural dye in Turkey Despite the medicinal potential of these plants in Turkey being considerable, knowledge of this area and studies on these plants are scarce. Madder is used as a diuretic and stone inhibitor and is endowed with genotoxic activity

Constituents: x

x

“Common madder produces anthraquinone pigments in its roots” (Dufossé 2014). “These include alizarin (1,2 dihydroxy anthraquinone) and anthraquinones such as pseudopurprin, xanthopurprin, rubiadin and munjistin” (Cuoco et al. 2009) Others: Citric acid, tannin, flavonoid, pectin, sugar, protein, and fatty oil

Part(s) Used: Root. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: It is used in some medicine. The powder of the root is used in the colour industry. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x

Oral use should be avoided (just use standard products following medical doctors’ recommendations)

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4.198. Mahaleb Cherry, Rock Cherry Scientific Name: Prunus mahaleb, Cerasus mahaleb L. Family: Rosaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-microbial, anti-fungal, anti-bacterial, antiinflammatory, antitussive, antioxidant, diuretic, sedative, and astringent, it helps with urinary tract infections and works as a heart tonic (Mastelić, Jerković, and Mesić 2006; Özcelik, Berrin, Koca, Ufuk, Kaya, Durmus, Alpaslan and Şekeroglu, Nazim 2012). x

Mahaleb cherry kernels are used in folk medicine as a tonic, an antidiabetic, and a flavouring agent

Constituents: x

x x x

Fatty acids: Oleic, linoleic, α-eleostearic, β-eleostearic, palmitic, stearic, catalpic, arachidic, palmitoleic, gondoic, behenic, lignoceric, linolenic, pentadecanoic, tetradecanoic, and dodecanoic acid Mineral elements: Potassium, calcium and magnesium Essential oils: Geraniol, linalool, α-terpineol, nerol, β-caryophyllene, and α-humulene Others: Coumarin, herniarin, and a small amount of amygdaline

Part(s) Used: Leaf, flower, fruit, seed (the central and essential part) and bark. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The flower and leaf can be used as herbal tea, the powder of the seeds can be used as a spice in food, and the fresh and dried fruit is for eating. It is used in some medicine. x

Decoctions prepared from stems, fruit stalks, leaves and flowers have been used as herbal tea to treat colds and asthma in the winter

Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.199. Maidenhair Scientific Name: Adiantum capillus-veneris L. Family: Polypodiaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-fungal, anti-bacterial, antipyretic, anticough, anti-infection, anti-diabetic, anti-hair loss, anti-asthmatic, anti-obesity, anti-spasmodic, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, wound healing, laxative, diaphoretic, diuretic, and expectorant. It promotes menstruation, reduces blood sugar, improves colds, and aids with kidney and bladder stone excretion (Dehdari, Sahar, and Hajimehdipoor, Homa 2018; Nazim, Aslam, and S. S. Chaudhary 2018). x

“Maidenhair has been used for medicinal and nutritional purposes, such as the treatment of respiratory problems, and as an astringent, demulcent and emmenagogue” (Dehdari, Sahar, and Hajimehdipoor, Homa 2018)

Constituents: x x x x

Flavonoids: Quercetin, kaempferol, rutin, isoquercetin, querciturone, and kaempferol 3-glucuronide Steroids: β-Sitosterol, stigmasterol and campesterol Alicyclic acids: Alicyclic, shikimic, and quinic acid Others: Triterpenoids, phenylpropanoids, phenolics, coumarins, mucilage, and phytosterols

Part(s) Used: Leaf. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Maidenhair is a very common and widely distributed species and has traditionally been used as a single medicine or in multi-herbal formulations to treat various diseases x x

“An ointment made from it is used to prevent hair loss” (Nazim, Aslam, and S. S. Chaudhary 2018) “The plant’s ashes mixed with olive oil and vinegar are useful in the hair’s growth and for ringworm infestation of the scalp” (Nazim, Aslam, and S. S. Chaudhary 2018)

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Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.200. Maize, Corn Scientific Name: Zea mays L. Family: Graminaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-rheumatic, anti-arthritis, anti-obesity, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, strong diuretic, reduces blood pressure, reduces blood sugar, and helps with kidney stone excretion (Bhaigyabati, Thoudam, Kirithika T, Ramya J, and Usha K. 2011; Okokon, Jude E., Udoh, Anwangabasi E., Obot, Jackson, and Amazu, Louis U. 2019). x

x x x

“In addition to other uses of the plant, maize grains, leaves, corn silks, stalk, and inflorescence are employed in ethnomedicine to treat several ailments. Corn silk is used as an antidiabetic or diuretic, and a decoction of the silk is taken for the treatment of urinary troubles and gallstones” (Okokon, Jude E., Udoh, Anwangabasi E., Obot, Jackson, and Amazu, Louis U. 2019) “The ash of the cob is used for the treatment of coughs, as well as inflammatory diseases” (Gill 1992) “The husks are used in the treatment of pains and arthritis” (Okokon, Jude E., Udoh, Anwangabasi E., Obot, Jackson, and Amazu, Louis U. 2019) “Warm tea from the husk and leaf is taken to treat malaria and depression. The plant has many other uses in traditional Ibibio medicine” (Okokon, Jude E., Udoh, Anwangabasi E., Obot, Jackson, and Amazu, Louis U. 2019)

Constituents: Corn silk x x x

Mineral elements: Potassium, phosphorus, iron, magnesium, sodium, calcium, and silicon Acids: Malic, citric, and tartaric acid Others: Flavonoids, phenols, anthocyanins, tannins, saponins, steroids, alkaloids and terpenoids

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Corn grains x

Mucilage, oil, flavonoids, saponin, alkaloids, and essential oils

Part(s) Used: Leaf, corn silk, corn husk and cob. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The cob is widely used in the food industry in several ways. The cornhusk and its silk are also used in some medicine. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.201. Malabar Nut Scientific Name: Justicia adhatoda L. Family: Acanthaceae Health Benefit(s): Antiseptic, antipyretic, anti-spasmodic, anticough, anti-asthmatic, anti-inflammatory, and expectorant, it also has wound healing properties (Mandal, Sikha, Mandal, Tapas Kumar, and Rath, Jnanendra 2019; Akbar 2020). x

x

“This plant's extract and tincture were used traditionally as an antispasmodic, expectorant and febrifuge in England. It is very much beneficial for typhus fever and diphtheria” (Akbar 2020) “In indigenous systems of medicine, the source of the drug ‘Vasaka’ is well known, particularly for bronchitis” (Akbar 2020)

Constituents: x x

Alkaloids: Vasicoline, vasicolinone, vasicinone, vasicine, adhatodine, anisotine, vasicinol, adhatonine, adhvasinone, and hydroxypeganine Others: Essential oils, resin, organic acid, phenols, tannins, alkaloids, anthraquinone, saponins, and flavonoids

Part(s) Used: Leaf, flower and root. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: It is used in the pharmaceutical industry. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.202. Male Fern Scientific Name: Dryopteris filix-mas L. Family: Polypodiaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-worm, anti-microbial, anti-cough, anti-asthmatic, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, carminative, and laxative (Erhirhie et al. 2019). x

“Traditional healers popularly use its leaf decoction for inflammation, rheumatoid arthritis, ulcers and wounds” (Erhirhie et al. 2019)

Constituents: x x

Acids: Palmitic and oleic acid Others: Phenol, flavonoid, tannin, saponin, steroids, alkaloids, terpenoids, anthraquinones, glycosides, and resin

Part(s) Used: Leaf and rhizome. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: It is used in the pharmaceutical industry. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x

Just use standard products following medical doctors’ recommendations

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4.203. Mallow, Common Mallow Scientific Name: Malva sylvestris L. Family: Malvaceae Health Benefit(s): Antiseptic, anti-microbial, antitussive, antioxidant, anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory, anti-anaemic, anti-cough, antibronchitis, laxative, diuretic, and expectorant. It is useful for sore throats and skin tissue integrity, and it’s a treatment of urinary and kidney diseases, toothache, and gingival and mouth inflammation (Gasparetto et al. 2012). x x x

“As a medicinal food, mallow has been consumed as a mild laxative and a liver cleansing tonic, and used against heartburn” (Gasparetto et al. 2012) “Pharmaceutical preparations can be used to treat conditions such as gastrointestinal disorders, abdominal pain, diarrhoea, and respiratory diseases” (Gasparetto et al. 2012) “This plant has ample potential for use in treating urological problems, insect bites, burns, furuncles and ulcerous wounds” (Gasparetto et al. 2012)

Constituents: Flower and Leaf x x x x x x x

Mucilage: Galactose, arabinose, mannose, glucuronic acid, glucose, xylose, and rhamnose Amino acids: Alanine, threonine, hydroxyproline, serine, glutamine, asparagine, and arginine Coumarins: Scopoletin Fatty acids: Palmitic, oleic, malvalic, lauric, myristic, sterculic, palmitoleic, linoleic, vernolic, and stearic acid Vitamins: C and E Mineral elements: Potassium, magnesium, iron, calcium, phosphorus, zinc, nickel, and copper Others: Flavonoid, terpenoid, enzyme, and anthocyanin

Seeds

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Fatty acids: Caproic, caprylic, capric, lauric, myristic, myristoleic, pentadecanoic, palmitic, palmitoleic, heptadecanoic, stearic, oleic, linoleic, α-linolenic, arachidic, eicosenoic, behenic, tricosanoic, lignoceric, and heneicosanoic acid

Part(s) Used: Leaf, flower and seed. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The fresh and dried flower and leaf can be used as herbal tea. The plant is used in some medicine. x

It can be prepared as soup but is most commonly used in salads

Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.204. Mango, Common Mango Scientific Name: Mangifera indica L. Family: Anacardiaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-cancer, antioxidant, antitussive, antipyretic, anti-inflammatory, anti-cough, diaphoretic, diuretic, heart tonic, stomach tonic, and liver tonic (Maldonado-Celis et al. 2019). x

Its ripe fruit has a laxative effect, and unripe fruit has an astringent effect

Constituents: x x x x x x x x x

Amino acids: Alanine, arginine, glycine, serine, leucine, and isoleucine Fatty acids: Palmitic, stearic, oleic, linoleic, lignoceric, arachidic, linolenic, and behenic acid Organic acids: Succinic, malic, pyruvic, galacturonic, and tartaric acid Vitamins: A and C (primary); B1, B2, B3, B5, B6, B8, and B9; and E and K (in minor quantities) Mineral elements: Iron, magnesium, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, sodium, zinc, copper, manganese, and selenium Phenolic acids: Gallic, vanillic, syringic, protocatechuic, pcoumaric, chlorogenic, ferulic, and caffeic acid Flavonoids: Catechins, quercetin, kaempferol, rhamnetin, anthocyanins, and tannic acid Volatile oils: Pinene, limonene, α-terpinolene, D-carvone, βelement, α-bourbonene, β-cubebene, α-cubebene, aromadendrene, α-humulene, and germacrene D Others: Carbohydrate, carotenoid, lipid, and protein

Part(s) Used: Fruit. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: “Mango is widely used as an edible fruit, as juice, and as a flavour in food products (cakes, desserts,

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ice creams, etc.). It is used in some skin and hair products” (Maldonado-Celis et al. 2019). Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.205. Manne of Alhagi, Manne of Perse, Persian Manna Scientific Name: Alhagi camelorum, A. pseudoalhagi, A. maurorum Family: Fabaceae, Leguminosae Health Benefit(s): Anti-microbial, anti-bacterial, antiseptic, antirheumatic, anti-cough, antipyretic, antioxidant, anti-diarrhoea, diuretic, laxative, diaphoretic, expectorant, and digestive. It aids with kidney stone excretion and is a bone tonic (Awaad Amani, Maitland, and G. A. Soliman 2006; Laghari et al. 2014; Akbar 2020). x x

x x

“Oil from the leaves of the plant is used to treat rheumatism, whereas the flowers of the plant are used for the treatment of piles” (Laghari et al. 2014) “This plant is customarily used in folk medicine to remedy rheumatic pains, bilharziasis, liver disorders, and various types of gastrointestinal discomfort” (Awaad Amani, Maitland, and G. A. Soliman 2006) “The Manna can be extracted from the stem naturally by insects or after cutting the stem by human” (Akbar 2020) “The extracted juice is applied to corneal opacities and is snuffed up the nose as a remedy for migraines” (Akbar 2020)

Constituents: x x x

Mineral elements: Calcium, magnesium, silicon, sulphur, and aluminium Flavonoid glycosides: Kaempferol, chrysoeriol, chrysoeriol7-O-xylosoid, kaempferol-3-galactorhamnoside, isorhamnetin, and isorhamnetin 3-O-β-D-apio-furanosyl. Others: Fatty acid, sterol, coumarin, alkaloid, vitamin, β-sitosterol, cinnamic acid, coumaric acid, and hydroxybenzoic acid

Part(s) Used: Manne, leaf and flower. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: This plant family provides us with many edible plants and a variety of medicinal plants that constitute an

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essential source of raw materials used in the pharmaceutical industries. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.206. Maral Root, Leuzea Scientific Name: Leuzea carthamoides, Rhaponticum carthamoides Family: Asteraceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-microbial, anti-stress, anti-depressant, antioxidant, anti-cancer, and immunomodulatory, it increases muscle volume and the libido; it improves blood circulation; and it is a tonic for the, heart, nervous system, and brain (Kokoska and Janovska 2009). x x

x

“In Siberian traditional medicine, it has long been used in cases of overstrain and for weakness after illness” (Kokoska and Janovska 2009) “In the last century, its muscle and strength-building qualities have been thoroughly investigated in Russia. Elite Soviet and Russian athletes have commonly used various preparations to upgrade psychological and physical reserves that were exhausted by hard training” (Kokoska and Janovska 2009) “The extracts or some compounds from roots and rhizomes are currently used for in various dietary supplements or nutraceutical preparations because of their adaptogens and tonic properties. They promote muscle growth; treat impotence; eliminate physical weakness and mental weariness; and help with recovery after surgery, infectious disease or chemical intoxication” (Kokoska and Janovska 2009)

Constituents: x x x x

Sterols: β-Sitosterol, stigmasterol, campesterol, and cholesterol Lignans: Carthamogenin, carthamoside, tracheloside, tannins, and ellagic acid Sesquiterpene lactones: Cynaropicrin, repdiolide, chlorojanerin, repensolide, and janerin Phenolic acids: Benzoic, salicylic, gentisic, vanillic, gallic, syringic, caffeic, ferulic, and sinapic acid

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Others: β-Ecdysone, ecdysterone, flavonoids, and anthocyanins

Part(s) Used: Root. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: “It is included in the formulas of various non-alcoholic beverages, cosmetic and bath products. Dried underground or aerial parts are included in herbal teas” (Opletal, L., Sovova, M., Dittrich, M., Solich, P., Dvorak, J., Kratky, F., Cerovsky, J., Hofbauer, J. 1997). Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.207. Marjoram, Sweet Marjoram, Oregano Scientific Name: Origanum vulgare L., O. majorana L. Family: Labiatae, Lamiaceae Health Benefit(s): Antiseptic, anti-microbial, antitussive, carminative, antipyretic, anti-cough, anti-inflammatory, anti-spasmodic, antiAlzheimer’s, anti-cancer, antioxidant, diaphoretic, stomach tonic, diuretic, expectorant, sedative, digestive, and astringent, it also promotes menstruation (Fikry, N. Khalil, and Salama 2019). x

x x

“Traditionally, the plant has been employed to remedy different ailments like gastrointestinal disorders, colds, whooping and convulsive coughs, menstrual problems, headaches, depression, and pruritis” (Fikry, N. Khalil, and Salama 2019) “The essential oil composition varies widely according to the geographical area and growth conditions” (Fikry, N. Khalil, and Salama 2019) “Recently, there has been a growing interest in using crude essential oils or their pure isolated compounds in the food and pharmaceutical industries, either as preservatives or antimicrobial agents” (Fikry, N. Khalil, and Salama 2019)

Constituents: x

x

Essential oils: α-thujene, α-pinene, sabinene, β-pinene, βmyrcene, α-phellandrene, α-terpinene, p-cymene, β-phellandrene, γ-terpinene, α-terpinolene, camphore, linalool, estragole, and eugenol Others: Tannin, and labiatic acid

Part(s) Used: Flower and leaf. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The fresh and dried leaves and flowers can be used as herbal tea and spices in foods, as well as in some medicinal, cosmetic and skin products. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.208. Marshmallow, Althaea, Khatmi Scientific Name: Althaea officinalis L. Family: Malvaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-worm, antiseptic, anti-cough, antitussive, anti-inflammatory, expectorant, laxative, and immunomodulatory. It also reduces blood sugar (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007; Al-Snafi 2013). x

x x

The German Commission E approved the use of its root and leaf for irritation of oral and pharyngeal mucosa and associated dry cough, and the root for mild inflammation of gastric mucosa “It is widely used traditionally to treat the irritation of oral, pharyngeal mucosa and associated dry cough, mild gastritis, skin burns, and insect bites” (Al-Snafi 2013) “This plant is used to treat catarrh of the mouth and throat; gastrointestinal tract and urinary tract complains; and inflammation, ulcers, abscesses, burns, constipation and diarrhoea” (Al-Snafi 2013)

Constituents: x x x x

Polysaccharides: Mucilage polysaccharides consisting of galacturono rhamnans, arabinans, glucans, and arabinogalactans Phenolic acids: Caffeic, p-coumaric, ferulic, p-hydroxybenzoic, and syringic acid Flavonoids: Hypolaetin-8-glucoside, kaempferol, isoquercitrin, caffeic acid, and p-coumaric acid Others: Asparagine, calcium oxalate, coumarins, pectin, starch, tannin, phytosterol, and scopoletin

Part(s) Used: Flower, leaf and root. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The fresh and dried leaves, flowers and roots can be used as herbal tea. The plant is used in medicine as

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a pill, capsule, syrup and some cosmetics and skin products as an ointment and shampoo. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.209. Meadowsweet, Queen of the Meadow Scientific Name: Filipendula ulmaria L. Family: Rosaceae Health Benefit(s): Antipyretic, anti-inflammatory, diaphoretic, diuretic, wound healing, sedative, digestive, and antitussive. It is a heart tonic and helps with rheumatism (Krasnov et al. 2006; Joanne Barnes et al. 2007). x x

x x

“Meadowsweet is stated to possess stomachic, mild urinary antiseptic, antirheumatic, astringent and antacid properties” (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007) “Traditionally, it has been used for atonic dyspepsia with heartburn and hyperacidity, acute catarrhal cystitis, rheumatic muscle and joint pains, diarrhoea in children, and specifically for the prophylaxis and treatment of peptic ulcers” (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007) “Flowers of the meadow queen are permitted for use in medical practice as an anti-inflammatory, astringent, and woundhealing agent” (Krasnov et al. 2006) “Extracts of this plant are known to decrease blood vessels' capillary permeability and exhibit distinct anticoagulant, antiulcer, antidiabetic, and anticancer effects” (Krasnov et al. 2006)

Constituents: x x

Flavonoids: Hyperoside, spireoside, kaempferol glucoside, avicularin, quercetin, rutin, quercetin-3-O-glucuronide and kaempferol-4-O-glucoside Others: Tannin, coumarin, mucilage, carbohydrate, and ascorbic acid (vitamin C)

Part(s) Used: Flower and root. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The fresh and dried roots can be used as herbal tea. The plant is used in some medicine.

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Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x

During pregnancy and lactation, it should be avoided

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4.210. Melilot Trifoil, Field Melilot, Yellow Sweet Clover, Yellow Melilot Scientific Name: Melilotus officinalis L. Family: Fabaceae, Leguminosae Health Benefit(s): Anti-inflammatory, anti-spasmodic, expectorant, diuretic, digestive, wound healing, and a sedative. It reduces rheumatism pain, and is used as a treatment for varicose veins and haemorrhoids (Jasicka-Misiak, Makowicz, and Stanek 2017). x x

x x

“Hippocrates, the father of medicine, used sweet clover herb to treat skin ulcers” (Jasicka-Misiak, Makowicz, and Stanek 2017) “In 19th century medicine, herb and flowering shoots were used to prepare mush compresses, whereas herbal tea found application as a wash and rinse for swelling and swollen glands, abscesses, and swelling of the lymph nodes” (Bunney, Sarah, Jiří Stodola, and J. Volák. 1992) “Tea herbs, or the flowers themselves, were applied in cases of cold, mucositis, and respiratory and gastrointestinal catarrh” (Bunney, Sarah, Jiří Stodola, and J. Volák. 1992) An extract of the plant is also used in the treatment of diabetic foot ulcers

Constituents: x

x x

Essential oils: β-Phellandrene, δ-selinene, docosene, 13epimanool, 1-nonadecene, benzaldehyde, caryophyllene, coumarin, β-menthane, p-cymene-8-ol, p-eugenol, thymol, and α-terpinolene Phenolic acids: Gallic, 4-hydroxybenzoic, caffeic, 3-hydroxybenzoic, p-coumaric, ferulic, ellagic, rosmarinic, and cinnamic acid Flavonoids: Catechin, myricetin, quercetin, genistein, pinocembrin, and morin

Part(s) Used: All parts of the plant.

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Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The fresh and dried plants can be used as herbal tea. They are used in some medicine, and as a flavour and aroma to foods and beverages. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.211. Mexican Prickly Poppy Scientific Name: Argemone mexicana L. Family: Papaveraceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-fungal, anti-inflammatory, anti-cough, diuretic, wound healing, sedative, expectorant, and laxative (Akbar 2020). x x x

The yellow juice of the plant is used for the treatment of dropsy, jaundice, and cutaneous afflictions (Akbar 2020) “Its seed oil is a drastic purgative, nauseating, expectorant, aperient, sedative, and used for cholera, dropsy, and painful colic” (Akbar 2020) “In Mexico, the entire plant's infusion is used to relieve kidney pain and to help expel the torn placenta” (Akbar 2020)

Constituents: x x x x

Alkaloids: Protopine and berberine Iso-quinoline alkaloids: Dehydrocorydalmine, jatrorrhizine, columbamine, and oxy-berberine Iso-flavonoids: Mexitin, 8-methoxydihydrosanguinarine, 13-oxoprotopine, quercitrin, and rutin Others: Flavonoid, tannin, sterol, resin, linoleic acid, and oleic acid

Part(s) Used: Aerial parts. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: It is used in the pharmaceutical industry for different purposes. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.212. Miswak, Toothbrush Tree Scientific Name: Salvadora persica L. Family: Salvadoraceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-microbial and antiseptic, it works against gum inflammations and wounds and is a teeth tonic (M. Khatak et al. 2010). x x

x x x

“The fresh leaves are used in traditional medicine for coughs, asthma, scurvy, rheumatism and piles” (M. Khatak et al. 2010) “The fresh leaves are corrective, astringent, a tonic for the liver, diuretic, analgesic, anthelmintic, and useful in ozoena and other nose troubles, as well as for piles, scabies, leukoderma, lessening inflammation, and strengthening the teeth” (M. Khatak et al. 2010) “The use of miswak is a pre-Islamic custom adhered to by the ancient Arabs to get their teeth white and shiny” (M. Khatak et al. 2010) “The fruits are carminative, diuretic, and have stomachic properties. They are used for biliousness and rheumatism” (M. Khatak et al. 2010) “The decoction of the root bark is used as a tonic in amenorrhea. The decoction dose is half a teacupful twice daily and is also beneficial as a stimulant in low fevers and as an emmenagogue” (M. Khatak et al. 2010)

Constituents: x x x

Essential oils: β-thujones, α- thujones, camphor, cineole, βcymene, limonene, β-myrcene, borneol, linalool, and bornyl acetate Mineral elements: Zinc, iron, cobalt, nickel, manganese, and copper Others: Tannin, saponin, resin, silica, alkaloid, and trimethylamine

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Part(s) Used: Leaf, fruit, root and young stems are an essential part of this tree. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: “The fresh leaves are eaten as a vegetable in eastern tropical Africa and are used to prepare a sauce. The tender shoots and leaves are eaten as a salad” (M. Khatak et al. 2010). x x

“A fermented drink is reported to be made from the fruits” (M. Khatak et al. 2010) The fresh and young stem bark can be used as a toothbrush. Some toothpastes and mouthwashes contain miswak extract

Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.213. Mezereon, Mezereum Scientific Name: Daphne mezereum L. Family: Thymelaeaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-rheumatic, diuretic, diaphoretic, and laxative. It improves blood circulation and aids with wound healing (Kupchan and R. L. Baxter 1975). x

“Daphne mezereum L. and other Daphne species have been used to treat cancers from the time of Aphrodisias, and references to their use in folk medicine have appeared in many countries' herbal literatures” (Kupchan and R. L. Baxter 1975)

Constituents: x x

Glycosides: Daphnin and daphnetin Others: Tannin, resin, coumarin glycosides, p-coumaric acid, and caffeic acid

Part(s) Used: Leaf, fruit and branch bark. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: It is most commonly used in topical applications. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x x

Oral use should be avoided Topical application should be done upon a medical doctor’s recommendation

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4.214. Milk Thistle Scientific Name: Silybum marianum L. Family: Compositae Health Benefit(s): Anti-fungal, anti-viral, antioxidant, anti-cancer, anti-allergic, anti-depressant, anti-inflammatory, anti-hepatitis, laxative, diaphoretic, diuretic, and digestive. It promotes menstruation; reduces blood cholesterol; is a liver, stomach, and kidney tonic; and is a treatment for fatty livers (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007). x

x

x x

“In Germany, milk thistle is approved to treat toxic liver disorders and as a supportive treatment in chronic inflammatory liver disease and hepatic cirrhosis” (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007) “Several controlled clinical trials have investigated the effects of milk thistle in a range of liver disorders, including acute viral hepatitis, chronic hepatitis, alcoholic liver disease, cirrhosis and toxic liver damage” (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007) “Traditionally, milk thistle seeds have been used for liver, spleen, and gall bladder disorders such as jaundice and gall bladder colic” (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007) “Milk thistle has also been used for nursing mothers for stimulating milk production, as a bitter tonic, for haemorrhoids, for dyspeptic complaints and as a demulcent in catarrh and pleurisy” (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007)

Constituents: Seed x

x x x

Flavolignans: Silymarin, a mixture containing approximately silibinin, silichristin and silidianin, silimonin, isosilichristin, isosilibinin, silandrin, silhermin, neosilihermins A and B, 2,3-dehydrosilibinin, and silybinomers Flavonoids: Quercetin, taxifolin, and dihydrokaempferol Lipids: Linoleic acid, oleic acid and palmitic acid Sugars: Arabinose, rhamnose, glucose, and xylose

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Others: Sterol, mucilage, amines, and saponin

Leaves x x

Flavonoids: Apigenin, luteolin, and kaempferol Others: β-Sitosterol, and triterpene acetate

Part(s) Used: Leaf and seed. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The fresh and dried roots can be used as herbal tea. The plant is used in some medicine. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x

Just use standard products following medical doctors’ recommendations

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4.215. Mint, Spearmint Scientific Name: Mentha spicata, M. viridis L. Family: Labiatae, Lamiaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-fungal, anti-microbial, anti-bacterial, antiviral, anti-worm, antiseptic, antioxidant, antitussive, anti-inflammatory, anti-cough, anti-spasmodic, anti-cold, carminative, astringent, sedative, diaphoretic, expectorant, and digestive. It is wound healing, acts as a heart and stomach tonic, and promotes menstruation (Bimakr et al. 2011; Meloni et al. 2019). Constituents: x

x

Essential oils: α-Pinene, sabinene, β-myrcene, β-pinene, pcymene, limonene, 1,8-cineol, linalool, α-terpineol, carvone, carvacrol, piperitone oxide, β-bourbonene, β-elemene, βcaryophyllene, menthol, α-humulene, and δ-cadinol Flavonoids: Catechin, epicatechin, rutin, myrecitin, luteolin, apigenin, naringenin, and eriodictyol

Part(s) Used: Leaf and flower. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The fresh and dried leaf and flower can be used as herbal tea, in salads and food, or as a beverage. x

x

“Spearmint's essential oil with the name of ‘carvone’ is widely used in the fragrance, spice and pharmaceutical industries. It is also used as a flavour in confectioneries, chewing gums, candies, liqueurs, drinks, and cosmetic or other products” (Meloni et al. 2019) “Mint oil can be used to prevent food material from pathogenic organisms and inhibit sprouting in stored food” (Meloni et al. 2019)

Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.216. Mistletoe Scientific Name: Viscum album L. Family: Loranthaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-mycobacterial, anti-microbial, anti-viral, anti-tumour, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-cardiovascular, diuretic, and immunomodulatory, it also reduces blood pressure (OnayUçar, Karagöz, and Arda 2006; Joanne Barnes et al. 2007; Dai et al. 2019). x x x

“Traditionally, it has been used for high blood pressure, arteriosclerosis, nervous tachycardia, hypertensive headaches, chorea and hysteria” (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007) Modern use of mistletoe preparations is focused on usage as a treatment and adjuvant treatment in cancer This plant is found growing on different host trees

Constituents: x x x x x

Fatty acids: Oleic, palmitic, myrisitic, caffeic, p-coumaric, gentisic, p-hydroxybenzoic, protocatechuic, vanillic, anisic, quinic, and shikimic acid Amines: Acetylcholine, choline, β-phenylethylamine, histamine, propionylcholine, and tyramine Terpenoids: β-Sitosterol, stigmasterol, β-amyrin, betulinic acid, oleandrin, and oleanolic acid Polyalcohols: Mannitol, pinitol, quebrachitol, and viscumitol Others: Alkaloids, flavonoids, saponin, lectin, viscotoxins, lignan, phenylpropanoids, and polysaccharides

Part(s) Used: Leaf and fruit. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: It is used in the pharmaceutical industry. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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Just use standard products following medical doctors’ recommendations

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4.217. Moldavian Balm, Moldavian Dragonhead Scientific Name: Dracocephalum moldavica L. Family: Labiatae, Lamiaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-microbial, anti-bacterial, anti-viral, antispasmodic, antipyretic, anti-nervous pain, anti-migraine, anti-teeth pain, anti-inflammatory, carminative, sedative, astringent, and diaphoretic. It reduces blood pressure, is a heart tonic, and heals wounds (Dastmalchi et al. 2007; Nikitina et al. 2008; L.‑N. Yang et al. 2014). x

Herbal infusions are used for headache and toothache, fainting, tachycardia, catarrhal diseases, and neuralgias

Constituents: x x x x

Essential oils: α-Pinene, limonene, linalool, nerol, citronellol, geraniol, citral, and α-terpineol Phenolic acids: Gallic, caffeic, ferulic, and rosmarinic acid Flavonoid: Apigenin, luteolin, esculetin, salvigenin, quercetin, kaempferol, acacetin, santaflavone, and diosmetin Others: Ascorbic acid, ferrozine, hypoxanthine, iron, chloride, potassium hydroxide, potassium phosphate, coumarin, and lignan

Part(s) Used: Leaf and flower. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The fresh and dried leaf and flower can be used as herbal tea, and in some medicine. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.218. Momordica, Bitter Melon, Bitter Gourd Scientific Name: Momordica charantia L. Family: Cucurbitaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-worm, anti-bacterial, anti-HIV, antioxidant, anti-mutagenic, anti-tumour, anti-cancer, anti-obesity, anti-malarial, anti-rheumatic, anti-inflammatory, and a laxative. Though it also reduces blood sugar, its common uses in most countries are for diabetes, as a carminative, to treat colic, to treat wounds, and as an immunomodulatory. It also stimulates the appetite (Grover and Yadav 2004; Fang and Ng 2016). Constituents: Fruits x x x

Vitamins: A and C Mineral elements: Phosphorus and iron Others: Glycosides, saponins, alkaloids, fixed oils, triterpenes, proteins, steroids, momorcharins, momordenol, momordicilin, momordicins, momordicinin, momordin, momordolol, charantin, charine, cryptoxanthin, cucurbitins, cucurbitacins, cucurbitanes, cycloartenols, diosgenin, elaeostearic acids, erythrodiol, galacturonic acids, gentisic acid, goyaglycosides, goyasaponins, and multiflorenol

Seeds x x

Fatty acids: Butyric, caproic, caprylic, capric, lauric, myristic, palmitic, palmitoleic, stearic, oleic, linoleic, and arachidic acid Essential oils: Apiol, cis-dihydrocarveol, germacrene D, spathulenol, β-selinene, α-selinene, carvone, and safrole

Part(s) Used: Leaf, fruit and seed. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: It can be used in salads, other food, and in juice, but only after the strong bitter taste of the fruit has been

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removed. It is used in some medicine, especially for blood sugar and diabetes. x x x

Momordica is a favourite culinary ingredient in many Asian kitchens “The internal sweet red pulp of the ripe fruit can be eaten directly” (Fang and Ng 2016) In Taiwan, white bitter gourd juice mixed with honey is a welcoming beverage

Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

Ripe Fruits

Unripe Fruit

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4.219. Monk’s Pepper, Chasteberry, Chaste Tree, Agnus Castus Scientific Name: Vitex agnus castus L. Family: Verbenaceae Health Benefit(s): Antiseptic, anti-fungal, anti-worm, antitussive, anti-rheumatic, carminative, hair tonic, and a sedative, it promotes menstruation and the libido (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007). x

“Traditionally, agnus castus has been used for menstrual problems resulting from corpus luteum deficiency (including premenstrual symptoms and spasmodic dysmenorrhoea), for certain menopausal conditions, and for insufficient lactation” (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007)

Constituents: x x x x

Flavonoids: Casticin, penduletin, chrysoplenol, isoorientin, isovitexin, luteolin, artemetin, and isorhamnetin Essential oils: Sabinene, α-pinene, β-caryophyllene, and trans-β-farnesene Fatty acids: Oleic, stearic, palmitic, linoleic, and α-linolenic acids Others: Iridoids, tannin, and alkaloid

Part(s) Used: Leaf, flower and fruit. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: It is used in the pharmaceutical industry for different purposes. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x x

It should only be used following medical doctors’ recommendations During pregnancy, it should be avoided

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4.220. Monk’s Rhubarb, Sorrel Scientific Name: Rumex alpinus L., R. acetosa L., R. patientia L. Family: Polygonaceae Health Benefit(s): Antiseptic, anti-infection, anti-microbial, antibacterial, antipyretic, anti-inflammatory, anti-anaemic, antioxidant, anti-cancer, appetizing, diuretic, digestive, blood purifier, wound healer, liver tonic, heart tonic, skin tonic, and immunomodulatory. It reduces blood pressure and blood cholesterol (Prakash Mishra et al. 2018). x

“In traditional medicine in Turkey, this plant is used to treat various disorders such as constipation, diarrhoea, and eczema” (Prakash Mishra et al. 2018)

Constituents: x x x

Flavonoids: Quercetin, kaempferol-3- O-β-D-glucoside, isoquercitrin, and catechin Vitamins: A, B9 and C Others: Rumex species are rich in anthraquinones, naphthalenes, stilbenoids, triterpenes, carotenoids, phenolic acids, Chrysophanol, physcion, catechin, emodin, flavan-3-ol, 6chlorocatechin, chrysophanol-8-O-β-D-glucopyranoside, emodin-8-O-β-D-glucopyranoside, and orcinol

Part(s) Used: Leaf, seed and rhizome. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: “In some countries young leaves of this species are used as a vegetable, stuffed in meat, or in the preparation of herby cheese as a preservative and aroma source” (Prakash Mishra et al. 2018). x x

“Currently, the Rumex species are used for cooking, particularly in soups” (Prakash Mishra et al. 2018) “In the Mediterranean parts of Croatia, these species are usually sold at the markets as a part of wild leafy vegetable mixes” (Prakash Mishra et al. 2018)

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Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.221. Motherwort Scientific Name: Leonurus cardiaca L. Family: Labiatae, Lamiaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-stress, anti-spasmodic, antidepressant, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, carminative, diaphoretic, heart tonic, nervous tonic, sedative, antitussive, expectorant, and astringent. It reduces blood pressure and promotes menstruation (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007; Wojtyniak, Szymański, and Irena Matławska 2013). x

x x

“Traditionally, it has been used for cardiac debility, simple tachycardia, effort syndrome, amenorrhoea, and specifically for cardiac symptoms associated with neurosis” (Wojtyniak, Szymański, and Irena Matławska 2013) Externally, the raw material's infusion is recommended as a rinse for wraps and wounds, skin abrasions, and burns “Motherwort is mainly used in European medicine, but the aerial parts and the ripe dried fruits of other Leonurus species are used in traditional Chinese medicine, and the range of their applications is concerned with heart palpitations caused by hyperthyroidism or hormonal changes during menopause” (Wojtyniak, Szymański, and Irena Matławska 2013)

Constituents: x x x x

Alkaloids: Stachydrine, betonicine, turicin, leonurine, leonuridin, and leonurinine Flavonoids: Glycosides of apigenin, kaempferol, quercetin, hyperoside, kaempferol-3-D-glucoside, genkwanin, quinqueloside, quercitrin, and rutin Iridoids: Ajugol, ajugoside, galiridoside, and leonuride Essential oils: Caryophyllene, ߙ-humulene, ߙ-pinene, ߚ-pinene, linalool, and limonene

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Others: Tannin, terpenoids, citric acid, malic acid, oleic acid, ursolic acid, bitter compound, carbohydrate, choline, resin, and saponin

Part(s) Used: Leaf and flower. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The fresh and dried leaf and flower can be used as herbal tea, and in some medicine. x

“Besides its traditional medical use, motherwort is used in some cuisines as a condiment in various vegetable soup recipes (particularly lentil or split peas ones), or for flavouring beer and tea” (Wojtyniak, Szymański, and Irena Matławska 2013)

Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x

During pregnancy and lactation, it should be avoided

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4.222. Mugwort Scientific Name: Artemisia vulgaris L. Family: Compositae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-microbial, anti-worm, antifungal, antiseptic, antitussive, anti-allergic, anti-inflammatory, antispasmodic, anti-cold, antioxidant, carminative, appetizing, digestive, diaphoretic and diuretic. It is a stomach tonic, teeth and gum tonic, immunomodulatory, reduces blood sugar, and promotes menstruation (Malik et al. 2019). x

“Mugwort is widely used to treat dyspepsia, rheumatic pains, fevers, diarrhoea, worm infestations, vomiting, constipation, cramps, colic, hysteria, flatulence, menstrual problems, distention, epilepsy, to promote circulation, and as a sedative” (Malik et al. 2019)

Constituents: x x

Essential oils: α-Pinene, β-pinene, myrcene, sabinene, camphor, caryophyllene, camphene, germacrene D, 1,8-cineole, α-thujone, and borneol Others: Bitter compound, flavonoid, mucilage, resin, inulin, triterpene, and coumarin

Part(s) Used: Leaf and flower. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The fresh and dried leaf and flower can be used as herbal tea, and in some medicine. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x

During pregnancy, it should be avoided

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4.223. Mulberry, Black Mulberry Scientific Name: Morus nigra L. Family: Moraceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-microbial, anti-fungal, antiworm, anti-cancer, antitussive, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antidiabetic, anti-obesity, anti-depressant, laxative, nervous tonic, kidney tonic, expectorant, diuretic, and immunomodulatory. It reduces blood pressure, lowers blood sugar, cleans the blood and liver, and promotes hair growth (Lim and Choi 2019). x

“In Asian countries, mulberry plants have grown to produce silkworms because their leaves are a significant nutrient source for them” (Lim and Choi 2019)

Constituents: x x

Vitamins: A, B1, B2, B3, B6, B12, C, D, E and K Others: Bitter compound, flavonoid, mucilage, resin, inulin, triterpene, coumarin, malic acid, citric acid, tartaric acid, anthocyanin, pectin, gallic acid, and chlorogenic acid

Part(s) Used: Leaf and fruit. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: “Mulberry fruit is used widely all over the world as a fresh fruit. Most European countries have usually used mulberry fruits to prepare jams, marmalades, vinegar, juices, wine, and cosmetic products” (Lim and Choi 2019). Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.224. Mulberry, White Mulberry Scientific Name: Morus alba L. Family: Moraceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-microbial, anti-fungal, antiworm, anti-cancer, antitussive, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antidiabetic, anti-obesity, anti-ageing, laxative, nervous tonic, kidney tonic, expectorant, diuretic, and immunomodulatory. It reduces blood pressure and lowers blood sugar (Butt et al. 2008; Pyrzynska and Sentkowska 2019). x

x

“In traditional Chinese medicine, white mulberry is said to act on the meridians of the heart, liver, kidneys, lungs, and spleen, aiding in treating everything from anaemia and constipation to the prevention of colds, flu, cavities, and premature grey hair” (Butt et al. 2008) The extract of the leaves is very rich in ferulic acid

Constituents: x x x x

Mineral elements: Iron, zinc, calcium, phosphorous, and magnesium Vitamins: A, E, D, K, C, and B-complex Flavonol glycosides: Rutin, iso-quercitrin, and astragalin Others: Ascorbic acid, tannic acid, citric acid, malic acid, tartaric acid, gallic acid, chlorogenic acid, β-carotenes, carbohydrate, protein, and flavonoids

Part(s) Used: Fruit and bark. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The fresh and dried fruit is widely used for eating. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.225. Mullein Scientific Name: Verbascum Thapsus L. Family: Scrophulariaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-microbial, anti-worm, anti-infection, anti-cough, anti-inflammatory, anti-asthmatic, anti-spasmodic, anti-rheumatic, antioxidant, antitussive, anti-headache, antimigraine, anti-stress, anti-anaemic, diuretic, expectorant, sedative, diaphoretic, stomach tonic, nervous tonic, and a natural antibiotic, it is also appetizing (Jamshidi-Kia et al. 2019). x x

“For centuries, some species of mullein have been used to treat internal and external infections” (Jamshidi-Kia et al. 2019) “Physicians in the old days recommended the plant as the best softener. It is considered useful in curing acute digestive tract diseases, urinary tract ailments, and diarrhoea” (Jamshidi-Kia et al. 2019)

Constituents: x

Flavonoids, iroides, saponins, polysaccharides, steroids, spermine, alkaloids, phenolic acids, mucilage, and fatty acids

Part(s) Used: All parts of the plant. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The fresh and dried plant can be used as herbal tea and in some medicine. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.226. Musk-mallow, Bisamstrauch Scientific Name: Abelmoschus moschatus Medik Family: Malvaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-microbial, anti-spasmodic, anti-diabetic, anti-ageing, anti-convulsant, antioxidant, anti-cancer, antiinflammatory, anti-arthritis, antipyretic, astringent, anti-depressant, carminative, stimulant, liver tonic, eye tonic, cardiac tonic, and a diuretic. It prevents kidney stones and reduces blood glucose (Lalmuanthanga, C, Roy, DC, Ayub Ali, M, Roy, RK, Sarma, Yadav, Borah, P, Tamuli, S, and Shantabi, Longjam 2019; Akbar 2020). x x x

x

“Seeds are used to treat gonorrhoea and nocturnal emissions. They are also used for hysteria, nervous debility, and other nervous disorders” (Akbar 2020) “In the Hawaiian Islands, the leaves and flower buds are primarily used to soften stomach and bowel contents in constipation cases” (Akbar 2020) “In the Philippines, a seed decoction has been used as a tonic. It has anti-hysteric, diuretic and carminative properties. The mucilaginous decoction of roots and leaves have also been used to treat gonorrhoea” (Akbar 2020) “In Trinidad and Tobago, it is used to treat menstrual pain, unspecified female complaints, childbirth and infertility” (Akbar 2020)

Constituents: x

Polyphenols, flavonoids, gum, albumin, fixed oil, resin, mucilage, carbohydrate, protein, tannin, steroid, essential oil, gallic acid, thiobarbituric acid, and carboxylic acid

Part(s) Used: All parts of the plant. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: “The young leaves, shoots and unripe seedpods are cooked and used as vegetables” (Lalmuanthanga, C, Roy, DC, Ayub Ali, M, Roy, RK, Sarma, Yadav, Borah, P, Tamuli, S, and Shantabi, Longjam 2019).

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“The seed is also used as a flavouring for liqueurs or to scent coffee” (Akbar 2020) Essential oil is obtained from the plant and is used to flavour baked goods, ice cream, sweets and soft drinks

Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

Musk-mallow Oil

Musk-mallow Gum

Musk-mallow Seeds

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4.227. Musk Willow Scientific Name: Salix aegyptiaca L. Family: Salicaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-microbial, anti-worm, anti-inflammatory, anti-cough, antipyretic, antitussive, anti-headache, antioxidant, antianaemic, anti-vertigo, carminative, heart tonic, liver tonic, sedative, and laxative. It reduces blood cholesterol and rheumatism pain (Asgarpanah 2012). x

“The decoction of leaves in honey is used as a nervonic functional food. This decoction plus sugar has been used among Iranian and Turkish people for disorders like depression, neuropathic pain and rheumatoid arthritis” (Asgarpanah 2012)

Constituents: x x x

Essential oils: p-Methoxybenzene, eugenol, decanol, o-cymene, carvone, cedrane oxide, geraniol, carvacrol, and citronellol Phenolic compounds: Gallic acid, caffeic acid, vanillin, pcoumaric acid, catechin, and epigallocatechin gallate Flavonoids: Salicin, myricetin, quercetin, rutin, and luteolin

Part(s) Used: Flower, leaf and bark. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: It is used in some medicine, and as a syrup. It is also used as an aroma to produce candles, creams, lotions, incense sticks, and perfumes. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.228. Mustard, Black Mustard Scientific Name: Brassica nigra L. Family: Cruciferae Health Benefit(s): Anti-microbial, antitussive, anti-rheumatic, anticancer, laxative, diaphoretic, sedative, appetizing, digestive, and carminative, it improves blood circulation and boosts the libido (Ahmed, Sayed A, and Kamel, Emadeldin M. 2013; Mejía-Garibay, Palou, and López-Malo 2015). x x

“This plant has traditionally been used in Africa for treatment of inflammation and rheumatism” (Ahmed, Sayed A, and Kamel, Emadeldin M. 2013) “It has also been used as a simple rubefacient, diuretic, emetic, and vesicant, as well as for pneumonia, bronchitis, and nerve stimulation” (Ahmed, Sayed A, and Kamel, Emadeldin M. 2013)

Constituents: x x

Fatty acids: Oleic acid and stearic acid Flavonoids: Kaempferol-3,7-di-O-β-D-glucopyranoside, 7O-β-D-glucopyranosyl kaempferol 3-O-α-L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)-β-D-glucopyranoside, kaempferol 3-O-β-Dglucopyranoside, Kaempferol 3-O-β-D-galactopyranoside, kaempferol 3-O-α-Lrhamnopyranosyl-(1→ 2)-β-D-glucopyranoside, Kaempferol and kaempferol 7-methyl ether

x

Others: Essential oils, glycosides, mucilage, and alkaloids

Part(s) Used: All parts of the plant, but the seeds are essential. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The seeds and powder of the seeds are widely used in food. The leaves can be used in salads or as food. The plant is also used in some medicine. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x

In some people, it can induce allergies

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4.229. Mustard, White Mustard, Yellow Mustard Scientific Name: Sinapis alba L. Family: Cruciferae Health Benefit(s): Anti-fungal, anti-worm, anti-bacterial, antiseptic, anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer, carminative, diaphoretic, laxative, digestive, diuretic, expectorant, and appetizing (W. Cui, Eskin, and Biliaderis 1993; Ekanayake et al. 2016; Morra, I. E. Popova, and Boydston 2018). Constituents: x x x x

Glycosides: Glucosinolate sinalbin Polysaccharides: Arabinose, xylose, rhamnose, galactose, mannose, and galacturonic acid Mineral elements: Potassium, calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, sulphur, iron, zinc, manganese, and copper Others: Aspartic acid, threonine, serine, glutamic acid, proline, glycine, alanine, valine, leucine, tyrosine, phenylalanine, lysine, histidine, arginine, cystine, methionine, and tryptophan

Part(s) Used: Seed. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The seeds and powder from them are widely used in the food industry, in addition to being used in some medicine. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x

In some people, it can induce an allergic reaction

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4.230. Myrtle Scientific Name: Myrtus communis Family: Myrtaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-fungal, anti-worm, anti-bacterial, anti-microbial, antiseptic, anti-spasmodic, anti-cough, anti-asthmatic, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, wound healing, carminative, diaphoretic, diuretic, expectorant, astringent, and digestive, it also reduces blood sugar (Hennia et al. 2019). x

x

x

“Myrtle has been used for relieving several ailments due to its virtues. It has been used to treat burns, external ulcerations and wounds, haemorrhoids, coughs, to cure respiratory complaints, diarrhoea, for urinary disorders, heartburn, pain, swelling, stiffness of the limbs and for removing the phlegm from the chest, as a contraceptive agent, for menstrual problems, and to remedy the bites of poisonous spiders and scorpions” (Hennia et al. 2019) “Myrtle has also been referred to as being used in folk veterinary medicine. In Italy, it is used for treating gastrointestinal complaints or problems of the skin and wounds” (Hennia et al. 2019) “Lotions and ointments with essential oils of myrtle can relieve pain during defecation, anal irritation, anal itching and anal heaviness in patients with haemorrhoids types” (Hennia et al. 2019)

Constituents: x

x x

Essential oils: Terpenoids, particularly α-pinene, 1,8-cineole, geranyl acetate, linalool, α-terpinolene, α-terpineol, limonene, p-cymene, linalyl acetate, myrtenol, eugenol, β-caryophyllene, camphene, (E)-β-ocimene, β-elemene, and tricyclene Flavonoids: Quercetin, catechin and myricetin derivatives, and anthocyanins Fatty acids: Linoleic, palmitic, oleic, and stearic acid

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Phenolic acids: Caffeic, gallic, and ellagic acids Others: Coumarins, tannin, galloyl-glycosides, ellagitannins, and oligomeric nonprenylated acylphloroglucinol compounds

Part(s) Used: Leaf, flower and fruit. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Myrtle can be used in food preparations for flavouring meat and sauces, in the perfume and cosmetics industries, and for traditional medicinal purposes. x

“Its berries and leaves are used to produce sweet liquors with advertised digestive properties” (Hennia et al. 2019)

Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.231. Nasturtium, Garden Nasturtium Scientific Name: Tropaeolum majus L. Family: Tropaeolaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-fungal, anti-cancer, antioxidative, blood purifier, hair growth tonic, and digestive, it reduces coughs and promotes menstruation (Jakubczyk et al. 2018). x x

“Nasturtium is used in dermatology. The fresh garden nasturtium's vinegar extracts can kill skin parasites such as mites, fleas, and lice” (Jakubczyk et al. 2018) “Nasturtium alcohol is used for problems with seborrhoea, eczema, pimples and skin lumps. Infusions of the dried herb diluted with nasturtium wine, water or vinegar can be used against acne” (Jakubczyk et al. 2018)

Constituents: x x x x

Mineral elements: Potassium, phosphorus, calcium, magnesium, zinc, copper, iron, and sulphur Fatty acids: Erucic, oleic, and linoleic acid Flavonoids: Quercetin 3-glucoside, kaempferol, and isoquercetin Others: Carotenoid, phenolic acid, lutein, chlorogenic acid and vitamin C

Part(s) Used: Leaf, flower and fruit. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Nasturtium is used in phytotherapy, cosmetology and cooking. x x

The fresh flowers and leaves can be used in salads The essential oil is used in the perfume industry

Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.232. Neem Scientific Name: Azadirachta indica Family: Meliaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-microbial, anti-fungal, antiviral, antiseptic, anti-histamine, anti-inflammatory, anti-arthritic, anti-rheumatic, anti-diabetic, anti-asthmatic, antipyretic, antioxidant, anti-cancer, anti-mutagenic, blood purifier, kidney tonic, hair and skin tonic, heart tonic, appetizing, natural antibiotic, and immunomodulatory, it also reduces blood pressure (Tembe-Fokunang et al. 2019). x x

x

“In most cases, neem is used to produce bioactive molecules with pesticidal, antifeedant and insect repellent potential to control insects” (Tembe-Fokunang et al. 2019) “In the Indian traditional Ayurveda Pharmacopoeia, the fresh leaves and bark are mostly used locally as a preventive therapy for many illnesses, such as periodontal tooth decay, gum disease, and other poverty-related diseases such as malaria” (Tembe-Fokunang et al. 2019) “Neem bark and leaves prepared as a strong decoction are mostly applied as a paste to treat skin and other dermatological conditions and purify the blood” (Tembe-Fokunang et al. 2019)

Constituents: x x x x

Mineral elements: Calcium, phosphorus, iron, sodium, and potassium Essential oils: Azadirachtin, gedunin, isomargolonone, margolone, margolonone, nimbidin, nimbin, nimbolide, and salannin It has antibiotic effects as it contains tetracycline, ampicillin, and ciprofloxacin Others: Thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, vitamin C, carotene, oxalic acid, salt, quercetin, fatty acid, coumarin, tannin, flavonol-glycosides, and flavonoids

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Part(s) Used: Leaf, fruit and bark. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Neem is widely used in hair and skin products as a lotion, cream, massage oil, face mask and shampoo. It is also used in medicine. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x

During pregnancy and lactation, it should be avoided

Neem Oils

Neem Leaves

Neem Fruits

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4.233. Nettle Scientific Name: Urtica dioica L. Family: Urticaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-microbial, anti-fungal, antiviral, anti-HIV, anti-worm, antiseptic, anti-spasmodic, anti-inflammatory, antitussive, antipyretic, anti-asthmatic, antioxidant, anti-cancer, anti-diabetic, diuretic, expectorant, astringent, and immunomodulatory. It promotes menstruation; helps with losing weight; reduces blood pressure and blood sugar; and acts as a blood purifier (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007; B. C. Joshi, Mukhija, and and Ajudhia Nath 2014; Kalia, BhuwanChandra Joshi, and Mukhija 2014). x

x

x x

“This plant is commonly known as the stinging nettle. The public has taken advantage of this sting by flailing arthritic or paralytic limbs with the fresh plant. It stimulates circulation and brings warmth to joints and extremities in management known as urtication” (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007) The German Commission E approved the internal use of nettle leaf as supportive therapy for rheumatic ailments; as irrigation therapy for the lower urinary tract's inflammatory disease and prevention of kidney gravel; and for internal and external use for rheumatic disorders. The root is approved for those with difficulty urinating due to benign prostatic hyperplasia “In Balkan countries, the leaves are used in the form of an infusion to remedy diarrhoea, vaginal discharge, and internal and external bleeding” (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007) “In Europe, the flowers, leaves and seeds are used as a diuretic, astringent and tonic” (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007)

Constituents: x

Acids: Carbonic, caffeic, caffeoylmalic, chlorogenic, formic, silicic, citric, fumaric, glyceric, malic, oxalic, phosphoric, quinic, succinic, and threonic acid

496 | H E R B S F O R H E A L T H x x x x x x

Fatty acids: Palmitic, stearic, oleic, linoleic, and linolenic acid Amines: Acetylcholine, betaine, choline, lecithin, histamine, serotonin, and glycoprotein Flavonoids: Iso-rhamnetin, kaempferol, quercetin, astragalin, and rutin Mineral elements: Calcium, potassium, silicon, iron, magnesium, sodium, and phosphorus Vitamins: C, B, and K Others: Lignan, scopoletin, tannin, sitosterol, coumarin, lectin, saponin, sterol, protein, carotenoid, and essential oils

Part(s) Used: Leaf and root. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The fresh and dried leaf can be used as herbal tea, the leaf can be used in soups and food, and the plant in general is used in some medicines. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x x

During pregnancy and lactation, it should be avoided In some people, it can induce allergic reactions

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Stinging hairs on Nettle leaf

Stinging hairs on Nettle steam

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4.234. Nutmeg Scientific Name: Myristica fragrans Family: Myristicaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-microbial, anti-fungal, antiviral, anti-cancer, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-rheumatic, anti-obesity, anti-diabetic, carminative, digestive, diuretic, diaphoretic, expectorant, sedative, stomach tonic, liver tonic, heart tonic, and eye tonic. It promotes menstruation, reduces blood cholesterol, boosts the libido, has skincare properties, and possesses memory-enhancing activities (Arumugam, Purushotham, and Swamy 2019). x x x x

Nutmeg refers to the dried kernel of the ripe seed “In India, nutmeg seed oil is used for treating intestinal disorders, stomach cramps, and flatulence” (Arumugam, Purushotham, and Swamy 2019) “In Indonesia and Malaysia, nutmeg is being used as a tonic after childbirth, to induce menses, and has been used as an abortifacient” (Arumugam, Purushotham, and Swamy 2019) “In traditional Arabian medicine, nutmeg is used to treat colds and fevers; as a digestive stimulant, tonic, and aphrodisiac; and for general respiratory complaints” (Arumugam, Purushotham, and Swamy 2019)

Constituents: x x x

Essential oils: α-Pinene, β-pinene, myrcene, myristicin, 1,8cineole, carvacrol, terpinen-4-ol, eugenol, isoeugenol, sabinene, α-thujene, limonene, and safrol Fatty acids: Palmitic, linoleic, and myristic acid Others: Tetrahydrofuroguaiacin B, saucernetindiol, verrucosin, nectandrin B, nectandrin A, fragransin C1, galbacin, oleoresin, and resin

Part(s) Used: Seed. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Nutmeg is predominantly used as a spice to prepare sweets, savoury dishes and drinks.

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“Nutmeg extract is used as a butter and oleoresin. The essential oils are also commercially used, primarily as a flavouring, and in the fragrance and pharmaceutical industries” (Arumugam, Purushotham, and Swamy 2019)

Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x

During pregnancy, it should be avoided

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4.235. Oak Scientific Name: Quercus robur L. Family: Fagaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-viral, anti-worm, anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, anti-tumour, anti-cancer and cancer preventer, immunomodulatory, expectorant, and astringent (Pérez et al. 2017). x

“Topical application helps for the treatment of skin problems such as skin inflammation, burns and skin diseases” (Pérez et al. 2017)

Constituents: Leaves and Bark x

Tannin, ellagitannin (a high amount in the bark), saponin, starch, resin, pectin, gallic acid, malic acid, quercetin, and mucilage

Fruits x

Tannin, protein, sugar, and oil

Part(s) Used: Leaf, fruit and young bark. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The quality of oak wood is well recognized in the furniture industry due to its hardness and durability. x x

Oak has also been widely used in the manufacture of barrels used for ageing wines and spirits “Oak is recognized as a promising anticancer drug or is used in combination with other medicines for chemotherapy as a strategy to overcome multidrug resistance in cancer treatments” (Pérez et al. 2017)

Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.236. Oats Scientific Name: Avena sativa L. Family: Graminaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-viral, anti-fungal, anti-inflammatory, antidepressant, anti-rheumatic, antioxidant, anti-cancer, anti-infection, laxative, digestive, wound healer, diuretic, sedative, liver tonic, bone tonic, and immunomodulatory. It reduces blood cholesterol and blood uric acid (S. Kaur et al. 2019). x

“The oat has been referred to as a “super-grain” as it offers potential health benefits” (S. Kaur et al. 2019)

Constituents: x x

Mineral elements: Magnesium, calcium, iron, and zinc Others: High level of lipid, protein, vitamin, β-glucan, carbohydrate, polyphenolic compounds, phytic acid, oleic acid, palmitic acid, flavonoids, carotenoid, saponin, tannin, and fibre

Part(s) Used: Grain. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Oats are widely used in the food industry, and in some medicinal, skin and hair products. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.237. Okra Scientific Name: Hibiscus esculentus L. Family: Malvaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-inflammatory, stomach tonic, heart tonic, bone tonic, laxative, and a diuretic, it reduces blood cholesterol and blood pressure, and is very good for those with high blood sugar and diabetes (Udayasekhara Rao 1985). x x x

“In India, okra's tender pods are used as a vegetable, and the seeds are used for making chutney” (Udayasekhara Rao 1985) Some also use okra seeds as a substitute for coffee beans “In Egypt, cornflour is supplemented with flour of okra seeds in breadmaking to obtain a better quality dough” (Udayasekhara Rao 1985)

Constituents: x x x x

Mineral elements: Magnesium, calcium, iron, copper, manganese, zinc, and phosphorous Vitamins: A, B and C Amino acids: Lysine, histidine, arginine, aspartic acid, threonine, serine, glutamic acid, proline, glycine, alanine, methionine, isoleucine, tyrosine, and tryptophan Others: Fibre, flavonoid and mucilage

Part(s) Used: Fruit. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Okra is widely used in the food industry and in medicine. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.238. Oleaster, Russian Olive Scientific Name: Elaeagnus angustifolia L. Family: Elaeagnaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anti-cancer, anticough, antitussive, astringent, liver tonic, stomach tonic, diuretic, and appetizing (Ahmadiani et al. 2000; Z. Hassanzadeh and Hassanpour 2018). x

Decoctions and infusions of its fruits are considered good remedies for fevers, jaundice, asthma, tetanus and rheumatoid arthritis

Constituents: x x x

Mineral elements: Potassium, magnesium, sodium, iron, calcium, zinc, and copper Fatty acids: Linoleic, palmitoleic, and palmitic acid Others: Alkaloids, flavonoid, tannin, terpenoids, saponin, phenolic acid, caffeic acid, amino acid, carotenoids, and vitamins

Part(s) Used: Fruit (primary usage), root, flower, leaf and fresh bark. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: All parts of oleaster: the root, wood, bark, flowers, leaves and fruits have medicinal properties, and are used in the food, sanitary, pharmaceutical, perfumery and timber industries. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.239. Olibanum, Persian Turpentine Tree, Frankincense Scientific Name: Pistacia atlantica, Boswellia species Family: Anacardiaceae, Burseraceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-microbial, antiseptic, anticancer, anti-tumour, antioxidant, anti-cough, antipyretic, anti-asthmatic, anti-inflammatory, and anti-rheumatic. These species are stomach tonics and work against stomach ache; they are also nervous tonics and heart tonics. They are a treatment for cold and flu; digestives, laxatives, and diuretics; they improve blood circulation and enhance the eyes and memory; they are appetizing; they are blood sugar regulators; they reduce joint and muscle pain; and they are carminatives and expectorants (Benhammou, Bekkara, and and Panovska 2008; H. Hussain, Al-Harrasi, and Green 2016). x

x x

x

“The aerial part of Pistacia atlantica has traditionally been used as a stimulant, for its diuretic properties, and to treat hypertension, coughs, sore throats, eczema, stomach aches, kidney stones and jaundice” (Benhammou, Bekkara, and and Panovska 2008; Bentley RY 1980) The oleoresin of Pistacia atlantica is a green or yellow oil that can be extracted from the bark “The olibanum in Pistacia atlantica and Boswellia species is more or less the same in its shape and benefits. Still, in Pistacia atlantica the olibanum is soft and comfortable to chew while in Boswellia it is hard. Most of the time, people think incorrectly that the olibanum from these two plants is the same” (Bentley RY 1980) “The Burseraceae consist of approximately 700 species from 18 genera. The genus of Boswellia is widespread in dry areas. Some of the essential species are Boswellia carterii, B. sacra, B. papyrifera, and B. serrata” (H. Hussain, AlHarrasi, and Green 2016)

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Constituents: x x x

Essential oils: α-Pinene, terpinen-4-ol, β-pinene, α-phellandrene, γ-terpinene, α-thujene, camphene, and linalool Mineral elements: Iron, sodium, zinc, potassium, phosphorus, calcium, magnesium, selenium, and copper Others: Vitamin C, caffeic acid, gallic acid, myristic acid, palmitic acid, and resin

Part(s) Used: In Pistacia atlantica the fruit and olibanum (resin), in Boswellia species the olibanum (resin). Herbal and/or Commercial Use: In Pistacia atlantica the fresh and dried fruits are used in the food industry. The olibanum of these two species are used in some medicines, in the perfume industry, and in hair and skin products. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.240. Olive Scientific Name: Olea europea L. Family: Oleaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-microbial, anti-fungal, antioxidant, anti-spasmodic, antipyretic, diuretic, expectorant, and a tonic. It reduces blood sugar, blood uric acid, and blood pressure (Tanilgan, Özcanb, and Ünverb 2007). x x

“In ancient times, the Mediterranean people considered olive oil not only excellent for food but also as a healing agent” (Tanilgan, Özcanb, and Ünverb 2007) “Olive oil is a crucial component of the traditional Mediterranean diet, which is believed to be associated with relatively long life in good health” (Tanilgan, Özcanb, and Ünverb 2007)

Constituents: x x x

Mineral elements: Iron, calcium, potassium, magnesium, sodium, and phosphorus Fatty acids: Oleic, palmitic, linoleic, stearic, and linolenic acid Others: Flavonoids, phenolic acid and protein

Part(s) Used: Fruit and leaf. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Olive fruit and olive oil are widely used in the food industry, as well as in a lot of hair, skin and cosmetic products. x x

Topical application of olive oil can help treat skin problems such as wounds, eczema, and burns The fresh and dried olive leaf can be used as herbal tea

Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.241. Onion Scientific Name: Allium cepa L. Family: Liliaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-microbial, anti-fungal, antiworm, antiseptic, anti-asthmatic, anti-allergic, anti-histamine, anticancer, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-spasmodic, anti-diabetic, carminative, diaphoretic, diuretic, expectorant, stomach tonic, heart tonic, sedative, and digestive. It promotes the libido, menstruation and the appetite, and reduces blood cholesterol, blood pressure, and blood sugar (Teshika et al. 2019). x x

x

“The essence of onion proliferated in ancient Greece, where it was used as a blood purifier for athletes” (Teshika et al. 2019) “It is also used in various preparations for internal and external use to relieve several ailments including digestive problems, skin diseases, metabolic disease, and insect bites, among others” (Teshika et al. 2019) “In folk medicine, onions have been used against different infectious diseases for many centuries” (Teshika et al. 2019)

Constituents: x x x x x

Mineral elements: Potassium and sodium Vitamin: B1, B12, and C Flavonoids: Quercetin and kaempferol Sulphur compounds: Diallyl sulphide and diallyl disulphide Others: Saponin, pectin, phenolic acid, organosulfur, anthocyanins, ferulic acid, gallic acid, protocatechuic acid, allicin, methiin, propiin, and iso-alliin

Part(s) Used: Bulb (onion). Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Onions are widely used in the food industry.

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Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.242. Opium Poppy Scientific Name: Papaver somniferum L. Family: Papaveraceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, antitussive, anti-inflammatory, antipyretic, anti-cough, anti-spasmodic, antioxidant, carminative, sedative, diuretic, laxative, and abortifacient, it also reduces blood pressure (Shaghaghi et al. 2019). x x

“Baine (alkaloid compound) has been used as the primary precursor for the semi-synthesis of other pentacyclicmorphinan based drugs” (Shaghaghi et al. 2019) “Morphine (an alkaloid compound) is a narcotic pain reliever while codeine is an antitussive agent. Noscapine and its derivatives are anti-tumour and anti-cancer agents” (Shaghaghi et al. 2019)

Constituents: x x

Alkaloids (the main and essential compounds in this plant): Codeine, thebaine, morphine, papaverine, and noscapine Others: Pectin, mucilage and resin

Part(s) Used: Seed and capsule. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The opium poppy is used in the pharmaceutical industry. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x x

During pregnancy and lactation, it should be avoided Just use standard products following medical doctors’ recommendations

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4.243. Orange, Sweet Orange Scientific Name: Citrus sinensis Family: Rutaceae Health Benefit(s): Antiseptic, anti-microbial, anti-fungal, anti-bacterial, antioxidant, anti-anaemic, expectorant, diuretic, laxative, skin tonic, sedative, and relaxant (W. Hu et al. 2017; El-Sawi and and Ibrahim 2018). x

Oranges are one of the most important fruit tree crops in the world

Constituents: x x x

Vitamins: Rich in vitamins C and B9 Essential oils: 3-Carene, β-phellandrene, β-pinene, D-limonene, linalool, nonanal, citronellal, decanal, sabinene, myrcene, α-pinene, and γ-terpinene Others: Flavonoid, carotenoid, tannin, coumarin, and β-carotene

Part(s) Used: Fruit and fruit peel. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Orange fruit is widely used as an eaten fruit, for juice, cooking, salads, desserts and cakes. x x

x

Orange oil can be used in green pesticides to control biological pests Orange peel essential oils and their major constituents have gained acceptance in the food industry because they have been generally recognized as safe, and many foods accept their presence In the pharmaceutical industry, oranges are employed as elements of spices to hide the unpleasant tastes of drugs. They are also used in cosmetics and perfumery

Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.244. Orchis Scientific Name: Orchis mascula L., O. latifolia L. Family: Orchidaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-inflammatory, antitussive, antipyretic, anticold, antioxidant, expectorant, nervous tonic, stomach tonic, and digestive. It reduces blood cholesterol and blood sugar, and boosts the libido (N. Aziz et al. 2009). x

x

“In the folk medicine of Pakistan and India, it is prescribed individually or along with other herbs for nervous, muscular and cardiovascular diseases, and sexual dysfunction” (N. Aziz et al. 2009) “It is also useful in alleviating diarrhoea, dysentery and chronic inflammation” (N. Aziz et al. 2009)

Constituents: x x

Mineral elements: Potassium and calcium Others: Mucilage, essential oils, sugar, starch, saponin, flavonoids, tannin, phenols, coumarins, sterol, terpenes, alkaloids, and anthraquinones

Part(s) Used: Root. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The fresh and dried root can be used as herbal tea, and the plant is used both in some medicines and the food industry. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

Orchis Root

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4.245. Papaya Scientific Name: Carica papaya L. Family: Papayaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-worm, anti-infection, anti-microbial, antifungal, anti-bacterial, antioxidant, anti-cancer (and cancer preventer), anti-inflammatory, asthma preventer, bone tonic, heart tonic, digestive, and immunomodulatory. It improves blood sugar and promotes wound healing (Krishna, Paridhavi, and and Petal 2008). x

x x

Ripe fruit: “Digestive, carminative, diuretic, sedative, and a tonic. It helps with wounds of the urinary tract, ringworm and skin disease psoriasis, and relieves obesity” (Krishna, Paridhavi, and and Petal 2008) Unripe fruits: “A laxative, the dried fruit also reduces an enlarged spleen and liver, and has antibacterial and abortifacient activities” (Krishna, Paridhavi, and and Petal 2008) Leaves: “As a vegetable, it helps with urinary complaints and gonorrhoea, dressing wounds, and abortion” (Krishna, Paridhavi, and and Petal 2008)

Constituents: x x x

Vitamins: A, B, B1, B3, E, K, and a good source of vitamin C Mineral elements: Copper, magnesium, iron, calcium, phosphorous, and potassium Others: β-Carotene, zeaxanthin, papain (the primary chemical compound in papaya fruit and stem latex), alkaloids (carpains), glycosides, saponin, lectin, carbohydrate, amino acid, malic acid, and essential oils

Part(s) Used: Fruit and leaf. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The fresh fruit is edible and can be used for juice and flavour in baking and food. It is used in some medicinal, skin and hair care products.

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Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.246. Parsley Scientific Name: Petroselinum crispum Family: Umbelliferae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-microbial, anti-fungal, antiseptic, anti-inflammatory, anti-arthritis, antipyretic, anti-spasmodic, antioxidant, anti-cancer, anti-rheumatic, anti-anaemic, antitussive, carminative, diuretic, expectorant, digestive, laxative, sedative, abortifacient and a liver tonic. It reduces blood pressure and blood uric acid, in addition to promoting menstruation (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007). Constituents: x x x

x

Flavonoids: Apigenin, luteolin, apiin, luteolin-7-apiosylglucoside, apigenin-7-glucoside, and luteolin-7-Diglucoside Furanocoumarins: Bergapten, oxypeucedanin, 8-methoxy psoralen, imperatorin, iso-imperatorin, iso-pimpinellin, psoralen, and xanthotoxin Essential oils: Apiole, myristicin, tetra-methoxyallylbenzene, various terpene aldehydes, ketones, alcohols, apiole, 1,3,8-p-menthatriene, 1-methyl-4-isopropenylbenzene, methyl disulphide, α-pinene, β-pinene, β-myrcene, β-ocimene, β-phellandrene, p-terpinene, and caryophyllene Vitamins: A and C

Part(s) Used: Fruit and leaf. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The fresh and dried leaf are used in a great variety of foods. The seed powder is used as a spice and flavour in food also. Oil from the seeds is used in some hair and skin care products, and some medicine. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x

During pregnancy, it should be avoided

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4.247. Parsnip Scientific Name: Pastinaca sativa, Peucedanum sativum Family: Umbelliferae Health Benefit(s): Anti-inflammatory, antipyretic, anti-anaemic, anti-asthmatic, antioxidant, heart tonic, kidney tonic, nervous tonic, skin tonic, laxative, diuretic, expectorant, and sedative. It helps with weight loss, stimulates the appetite, and reduces blood sugar. Constituents: x x x

Vitamins: A, C, K, B1 and B2 Mineral elements: Potassium, calcium, iron, phosphorus, and sodium Others: Fibre, protein, sugar, starch, oleic acid, and linoleic acid

Part(s) Used: Root. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Parsnip is used in food, baking, sweets, jams and marmalades, and medicine. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x x

Use during pregnancy is very good and nutritious Parsnip is a bit hard to digest. It is better to use it in combination with sugar or honey for easier digestion

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4.248. Passion, Passion Flower Scientific Name: Passiflora incarnata L., P. caerulea L. Family: Passifloraceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-microbial, anti-fungal, antiseptic, antitussive, anti-diabetic, anti-asthmatic, anti-inflammatory, anti-spasmodic, anti-stress, antioxidant, heart tonic, uterus tonic, digestive, sedative, and immunomodulatory. It reduces blood pressure, and improves insulin sensitivity (H. Khan and Nabavi 2019). Constituents: x x x x x x

Essential oils: Limonene, linalool, cumene, α-pinene, prezizaene, zizaene, zizanene, benzyl alcohol, carvone, p-ionone, and transanethole Flavonoids: Isoorientin, vitexin, iso-vitexin, schaftoside, isoschaftoside, swertisin, apigenin, chrysin, kaempferol, and luteolin Alkaloids: Harman, harmol, harmine, harmalol, harmaline, and β-carboline Fatty acids: Oleic and palmitic acid Vitamins: The fruits contain a high level of vitamins C and A Mineral elements: The fruits contain calcium, potassium, magnesium and iron

Part(s) Used: Flower, leaf and fruit. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Passion flowers can be used as herbal tea and some medicine. x x

“Passion fruit contains a soft pulp and lots of seeds inside a hard rind. People can eat the seeds and pulp, juice it, or add it to other juices” (H. Khan and Nabavi 2019) The fruits can be eaten as fresh fruit, or squeezed through a sieve to make juice, which can be added to cocktails or used to create a cordial or to flavour water. The fruit is often used as a topping or flavouring for cakes and desserts like

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cheesecake or mousse. It can be used to add a crunchy texture and sweet flavour to salads, and it can also mix with natural yoghurt Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x

The fruit can cause allergic reactions in some people

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4.249. Peanut, Ground Nut Scientific Name: Arachis hypogaea L. Family: Fabaceae, Leguminosae Health Benefit(s): Antioxidant, anti-cancer, anti-fungal, anti-Alzheimer’s, astringent, and immunomodulatory. It boosts the libido, increases high-density lipoproteins and lactation, and reduces blood pressure (Toomer 2018). x x

Peanuts are a great vegetarian source of protein and healthy fats “A study published in the New England Journal of Medicine reported that eating nuts daily can reduce death from heart disease by 29%, and even eating peanuts just twice a week can reduce the risk by 24%” (Toomer 2018)

Constituents: x x x x x x x

Vitamins: B1, B2, B3, B5, B6, B9, D and E Mineral elements: Potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, zinc, selenium, iron, manganese, and copper Iso-flavonoids: Daidzein and genistein Phenolic acids: p-Coumaric acid Phytosterols: β-Sitosterol Stilbenes: Resveratrol Fatty acids: Palmitic, oleic, and arachidic acid

Part(s) Used: Flower, leaf and fruit. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Peanuts can be eaten either raw, boiled, or roasted and are widely used to prepare various packaged foods (such as peanut butter, candies, confections, and snack products). Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x

In some people, peanuts can cause allergies

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4.250. Peach Scientific Name: Persica vulgaris, Prunus persica Family: Rosaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-worm, antitussive, antioxidant, anti-cancer, antipyretic, diuretic, appetizing, laxative, stomach tonic, liver tonic, and a heart tonic, it also boosts the libido (Andreotti et al. 2008). Constituents: Fruits x x x

Vitamins: A, B1, B2, B3, C and E Mineral elements: Potassium, iron, calcium, and phosphorus Others: Neochlorogenic acid, chlorogenic acid, catechin, epicatechin, procyanidin, rutin, quercetin, cyanidin glucoside, and peel and pulp of the single cultivar

Leaves x

Amygdalin and sucrose

Bark x

Tannin

Part(s) Used: Fruit, flower, leaf and bark. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Peach fruits are edible and can be used for juice, jams, marmalades, desserts, compotes and cakes. x

Peaches are used in some hair, skin and cosmetic products

Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.251. Pear Scientific Name: Pyrus communis L. Family: Rosaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-anaemic, antioxidant, diuretic, and laxative (M. Mushtaq et al. 2019). x

x

“Pear fruit offers a diversity of health benefits when eaten raw or in the form of other products—particularly against cancerous diseases, macular degeneration, type 2 diabetes, osteoporosis, inflammatory problems, and acne, pimples and skin infections” (M. Mushtaq et al. 2019) “A recent report on pear seed oil's nutritional profile, the key bioactive responsible for its potential health benefits and organoleptic properties” (M. Mushtaq et al. 2019)

Constituents: x x x

Vitamins: A, B1, B2, B3, B12, C and E Mineral elements: Potassium, iron, boron, calcium, and phosphorus Others: Flavonoids, hydroxycinnamic acid, fibre, quercetin, pectin, glutathione, organic acid, phytosterol, and fatty acids

Part(s) Used: Fruit, fresh leaf and bark. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Pear fruits are edible and can be used for juice, jams, marmalades, desserts, compotes and cakes. x

The leaf and bark can be used as herbal tea

Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x

Pear fruit is very good during pregnancy

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4.252. Peony Rose, Common Peony, Garden Peony Scientific Name: Paeonia officinalis L., P. emodi Family: Paeoniaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-microbial, anti-spasmodic, anti-diarrhoeal, anti-asthmatic, antioxidant, anti-cancer, anti-tumour, anti-inflammatory, anti-diabetic, diuretic, tonic, astringent, and immunomodulatory. It aids with wound healing, and is a treatment for brain and nervous disease, for hysteria, epilepsy, palpitations, asthma and convulsive affections (Dienaitė et al. 2019; Akbar 2020). Constituents: x x

Phenolic compounds: Quinic acid, gallic acid, digallic acid, and methyl gallate Others: Alkaloids, tannins, saponins, glycosides, flavonoids, terpenes, steroids, carbohydrates, proteins, oleanolic acid, betulinic acid, anthocyanin, methyl grevillate, 1,5-dihydroxy-3-methyl anthraquinone, and β-glucuronidase

Part(s) Used: All parts of the plant. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The peony rose has been used mainly for medicinal purposes, as an antiepileptic and antispasmodic drug. The flowers have been used to produce syrup. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.253. Black Pepper, White Pepper, Green Pepper, Red Pepper Scientific Name: Piper nigrum L. Family: Piperaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-microbial, anti-bacterial, anti-fungal, antipyretic, anti-cold, antioxidant, antibiotic, anti-cancer, anti-tumour, antidiarrhoea, anti-inflammatory, anti-depressant, digestive, and carminative. They stimulate the appetite and reduce blood cholesterol (F. Zhu, Mojel, and G. Li 2018). x x x x x x

Black, white, green and red pepper are all the fruit of the Piper nigrum plant, but they are processed differently Black pepper “is made from the green and unripe drupes. The enzymatic browning contributes to the black colour of surface skin” (F. Zhu, Mojel, and G. Li 2017) White pepper is without the dark skin and just a white seed Green pepper is produced from the unripe green fruit, and it is freeze-dried using sulphur dioxide Red pepper is produced from ripe pepper fruits and most of the time preserved in vinegar White pepper tastes hotter than black but is less complex, with fewer flavour notes

Constituents: x x x

Vitamins: A, B3, C, E, and K Mineral elements: Iron, calcium, zinc, magnesium, potassium, and phosphorous Others: Piperine, piperethine, piperolein A and piperolein B, feruperine, camphene, β-caryophyllene, β-alanine, pipecolic, β-carotene, α-carotene, and lycopene

Part(s) Used: Fruit. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Black pepper is widely used as a spice ingredient in food. x

Black pepper is also used in the pharmaceutical and cosmetics industries for different purposes

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Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x x x x

It needs to be used carefully in people with gastritis, burning sensations and sensitive stomachs Men with infertility problems should avoid long time usage Some people have an allergy in the form of vomiting, diarrhoea, abdominal cramps and watery eyes It needs to be used carefully during pregnancy and lactation

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4.254. Peppermint Scientific Name: Mentha piperita L. Family: Labiatae, Lamiaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-fungal, anti-microbial, anti-viral, anti-worm, antiseptic, anti-bacterial, antioxidant, anti-tumour, anti-allergic, antitussive, anti-inflammatory, anti-cough, anti-spasmodic, anti-cold, carminative, diaphoretic, heart tonic, stomach tonic, sedative, and expectorant. It also has wound healing properties and promotes menstruation (McKay and J. B. Blumberg 2006). x

“The list of purported benefits and uses of peppermint as a folk remedy or alternative medical therapy includes biliary disorders, dyspepsia, enteritis, flatulence, gastritis, intestinal colic, and spasms of the bile duct, gallbladder and gastrointestinal tract” (McKay and J. B. Blumberg 2006)

Constituents: x x x x x

Essential oils: Menthol, menthone, iso-menthone, limonene, menthyl acetate, 1,8-cineole, pulegone, β-caryophyllene, βmyrcene, and carvone Fatty acids: Palmitic, linoleic, and linolenic acid Mineral elements: Calcium, sodium, magnesium, potassium, zinc, manganese, and cobalt Flavonoids: Eriocitrin, rosmarinic acid, luteolin 7-O-rutinoside, and hesperidin Others: Carotene, tannin, carotenoids, and ascorbic acid

Part(s) Used: Leaf and flower. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The fresh and dried leaf and flower can be used as herbal tea. The plant is used in some medicinal, food, skin, hair and cosmetic products. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.255. Periwinkle Scientific Name: Vinca minor L. Family: Apocynaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-cough, anti-cancer, astringent, anti-anaemic, anti-malaria, tonic, diuretic, diaphoretic, and expectorant, it is a blood purifier and promotes menstruation. (Farahanikia et al. 2011). x x

“In folk medicine, it is used for circulatory disorders, cerebral circulatory impairment and the brain’s metabolism support” (Farahanikia et al. 2011) “Vincamine (an alkaloid compound) is used for the prevention and treatment of cerebrovascular insufficiencies and disorders. A large body of clinical evidence indicates the favourable effect of vincamine in several brain disorders of elderly patients, such as memory disturbances, vertigo, transient ischemic deficits, and headaches. It increases cerebral blood flow, oxygen consumption and glucose utilization” (Farahanikia et al. 2011)

Constituents: x x

Alkaloids (the primary and essential compound in this plant): Minovincine, vincaminoreine, vincaminorine, minovine, and vincamine Others: Tannin, pectin, formic acid, acetic acid, ascorbic acid, and saponin

Part(s) Used: All parts of the plant. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The fresh and dried leaf and flower can be used as herbal tea, and in some medicine. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.256. Physalis, Alkekengi Scientific Name: Physalis alkekengi L. Family: Solanaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-worm, anti-bacterial, antipyretic, anti-rheumatic, anti-asthmatic, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anti-malaria, laxative, and a diuretic, it purifies the blood, promotes menstruation, aids with kidney and urinary stone excretion, and is a kidney tonic (Mahmoud Bahmani et al. 2016; Lv et al. 2018). x x x x x

Fruit oil accelerates the healing of a wound Homoeopaths use extracts from the fruit An ointment from its fruits is used externally to relieve the inflammatory processes of the skin, and a decoction of the fruits is ingested to treat syphilis “This plant can speed up uric acid excretion and is used for renal and urinary tract diseases, gout, and rheumatism” (Mahmoud Bahmani et al. 2016) “Modern medical investigations have demonstrated that physalis is useful in the immune system, works against cancer, and has a positive effect on thyroid hormones, liver enzymes, and sexual and reproductive hormones” (Mahmoud Bahmani et al. 2016)

Constituents: x

Carotenoids, a high level of vitamin C, fatty acids, alkaloid, glucocorticoids, lycopene, steroid, flavonoid, citric acid, and physaline

Part(s) Used: Fruit and leaf. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The fruits are edible and can be used for jams, marmalades, drinks and desserts. An extract of the leaves and fruits is used in some medicine. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.257. Picrorhiza, Kutki Scientific Name: Picrorhiza kurroa L. Family: Plantaginaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-worm, anti-bacterial, anti-viral, anti-asthmatic, anti-allergic, anti-eczema, anti-psoriasis, antioxidative, antiinflammatory, anti-diabetic, anti-tumour, anti-cancer, carminative, anti-arthritic, anti-obesity, laxative, stomachic, immunomodulatory, and antioxidant, it reduces blood glucose and blood cholesterol (Akbar 2020; Debnath et al. 2020). x

“Picrorhiza is one of the most important medicinal plants commonly used in traditional medicinal systems. The plant has several medicinal properties due to the presence of bioactive components” (Akbar 2020)

Constituents: x x x x x x x

Iridoids: Pikuroside, picroside I and picroside II (which are used in more than 2000 herbal formulations), picroside Ⅲ, 6-feruloyl catalpol, and cucurbitacin Iridoid glycosides: 6-Feruloylcatalpol, minecoside, and veronicoside Flavonoids: Vanillic acid and apocynin Phenol glucosides: Picein and androsin Carbohydrates: D-Mannitol Aromatic acids: Vanillic, cinnamic, and ferulic acid Others: A phenolic component

Part(s) Used: Rhizome and root. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: It is one of the most commonly used drugs in polyherbal preparations. Furthermore, it finds clinical use in India for various liver diseases due to its potent anti-hepatotoxic activity. x

It is used in the pharmaceutical industry for different purposes

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Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.258. Pine Cone Scientific Name: Pinus sylvestris L. Family: Pinaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-asthmatic, anti-inflammatory, anti-ageing, anti-cancer, anti-stress, anti-rheumatic, anti-anaemic, anti-arthritic, and anti-infection. It is a diuretic and a sedative, it reduces blood cholesterol, it’s a tonic for the heart and eyes, and it adjusts one’s blood pressure. x

Topical seed oil applications can help treat skin problems like eczema, hair loss, and psoriasis

Constituents: x x

Mineral elements: Iron, magnesium, and potassium Others: Vitamin A, resin, essential oils, and pinolenic acid (decreases the appetite and helps with weight loss)

Part(s) Used: Seed. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The seeds are edible and can be used in food (e.g., in salads). Besides this, the seed oil is used in the cosmetics and perfume industries. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x

Those with high blood pressure and kidney problems should avoid oral use

Seeds without skin Seeds with skin

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4.259. Pineapple Scientific Name: Ananas comosus Family: Bromeliaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-worm, and anti-cancer, it also reduces the risk of cancer. It is an anti-inflammatory, antipyretic, antitussive, and an antioxidant. It works against infections and bronchitis; is a digestive and diaphoretic; is immunomodulatory; aids with asthma prevention; and facilitates speed recovery after surgery. Constituents: x x x

Mineral elements: Iron, magnesium, manganese, potassium, calcium, copper, zinc, and sodium Vitamins: A, B1, B2, B3, B5, B6, B9 and C Others: β-Carotene, fibre, and bromelain (digestive enzyme)

Part(s) Used: Fruit. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Pineapple is widely used for juice, in desserts, compotes (and food more generally), and in some medicinal and skincare products. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x x

During pregnancy, it should be avoided Those with liver, kidney, heart and uterus problems should take care using pineapple

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4.260. Pistachio Scientific Name: Pistacia vera Family: Anacardiaceae, Pistaciaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-anaemic, anti-HIV, antioxidant, anti-cancer, anti-Alzheimer’s, and a heart tonic. It reduces blood cholesterol, helps with weight loss, and boosts the libido (Tomaino et al. 2010). x

“The pistachio has recently been ranked among the first 50 food products highest in antioxidant potential” (Tomaino et al. 2010)

Constituents: x x x x

x

Mineral elements: Iron, magnesium, manganese, potassium, calcium, phosphorus, and zinc Vitamins: C, B1, B2, B3, B5, B6 and B9 Fatty acids: Myristic, palmitic, and stearic acid Phenolic compounds: Anthocyanins, flavan-3-ols, proanthocyanidins, flavonols, isoflavones, flavanones, stilbenes acid, phenolic acids, gallic acid, catechin, quercetin, luteolin, kaempferol, and apigenin Essential oils: α-Pinene, carvone, limonene, and camphene

Part(s) Used: Fruit and fresh fruit skin. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Pistachio nuts are mainly used as a snack food, both raw and toasted, and are a confectionery ingredient in fermented meats, ice cream, bread, sauces, and pudding manufacturing. x

The green and fresh fruit skin can be used as a jam, and it has an anti-vomiting effect

Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.261. Plantago, Psyllium, Ispaghula Scientific Name: Plantago ovata Family: Plantaginaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-microbial, anti-viral, anti-inflammatory, antipyretic, anti-cough, and anti-diabetic, it reduces blood cholesterol, blood pressure, and blood uric acid. It has wound healing properties, is a strong laxative, and works against obesity (Gonçalves and Romano 2019). x

“Millions of people use ispaghula to regulate bowel habits and clean their intestines, taking it as a functional food and dietary supplement product” (Gonçalves and Romano 2019)

Constituents: x x

Arabinoxylan: Arabinose and xylose Others: 4-O-Methylglucuronic acid, aucubin, campesterol, linoleic acid, oleic acid, palmitic acid, L-cystine, L-asparagine, mucilage, rhamnose, sterol, β-sitosterol, and tannins

Part(s) Used: Leaf and seed. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: “The seeds after absorbing water take on a gel form. This gel can be used in some medicine and skincare products” (Gonçalves and Romano 2019). The leaf can be used in fresh salad. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.262. Plantain Scientific Name: Plantago lanceolate L., P. major L. Family: Plantaginaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-fungal, antiseptic, anti-worm, anti-Alzheimer’s, anti-tumour, anti-cancer, anti-arthritic, anti-rheumatic, anti-inflammatory, antipyretic, anti-cough, diaphoretic, digestive, expectorant, immunomodulatory, and a laxative. It reduces blood cholesterol, has wound healing properties, and is a uterus tonic (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007). x

“Traditionally, it has been used for cystitis with haematuria, and specifically for haemorrhoids with bleeding and irritation” (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007)

Constituents: x

x x x x x

Acids: Benzoic, caffeic, chlorogenic, cinnamic, p-coumaric, ferulic, fumaric, gentisic, hydroxybenzoic, neo chlorogenic, salicylic, syringic, ursolic, vanillic, oleanolic, and ascorbic acid Carbohydrates: L-Fructose, D-glucose, planteose, saccharose, stachyose, d-xylose, sorbitol, tyrosol, mucilage, and gum Flavonoids: Apigenin, baicalein, scutellarein, baicalin, homoplantaginin, nepitrin, luteolin, hispidulin, and plantagoside Iridoids: Aucubin, aucubin, plantarenaloside, aucuboside, and melitoside Mineral elements: Zinc and potassium Others: Alkaloids, steroids, tannin, choline, allantoin, emulsin, resin, and saponin

Part(s) Used: Leaf and seed. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Like Plantago plant the seeds after absorbing water take on a gel form. This gel can be used in some medicine and skincare products. The leaf can be used in fresh salad.

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Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x x

During pregnancy and lactation, it should be avoided In some people, it can cause an allergic reaction

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4.263. Plane Tree, Oriental Plane Leaf Tree, Sycamore Tree Scientific Name: Platanus orientalis L. Family: Platanaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-microbial, anti-allergic, anti-asthmatic, antieczema, antipyretic, anti-cough, antitussive, a nervous tonic, and an expectorant (Mitrokotsa et al. 1993; Güler, Dursun, and D. Özkan 2017). x

“The buds are used in folk medicine as antiseptic and antimicrobial remedies of the urinary system” (Mitrokotsa et al. 1993)

Constituents: x x

Essential oils: Citronellal, linalool, β-pinene, β-cubebene, myrcene, limonene, γ-terpinene, p-cymene, terpinolene, caryophyllene, citronellol, and acetate Others: Kaempferol glycoside, flavonoid, and caffeic acid

Part(s) Used: Leaf. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The extract of the leaf is used as herbal water. The leaves can be used as herbal tea. x x

“Topical application of the herbal water can help for the treatment of a wound, for burns and for skin problems” (Mitrokotsa et al. 1993) “Recently, the tea of the plane leaf tree has widely been used for treating joint pains in folk medicine in Turkey” (Güler, Dursun, and D. Özkan 2017)

Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.264. Plum, Garden Plum Scientific Name: Prunus domestica L. Family: Rosaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-viral, anti-bacterial, antioxidant, anti-cancer, anti-ageing, antipyretic, anti-anaemic, anti-inflammatory, digestive, laxative, heart tonic, bone tonic, stomach tonic, and immunomodulatory. It reduces blood sugar and the risk of diabetes, and has a positive effect on blood pressure adjustment (El-Beltagi et al. 2018). Constituents: x x x x x x x

Vitamins: A, B2, B3, B6, C and K Mineral elements: Potassium, sodium, iron, copper, manganese, magnesium, and phosphorus Acids: Citric, malic, and salicylic acid Phenolic compounds: Chlorogenic, benzoic, vanillic, caffeic, and gallic acid Flavanols: Myricetin, quercetin and kaempferol Carbohydrate: Fructose, sucrose, glucose, and sorbitol Others: Anthocyanin, pectin, flavonoid, sugar, fibre, β-carotene, α-tocopherol, γ-tocopherol, and tannin

Part(s) Used: Fruit. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Plum fruits are edible and widely used for juice, salads and other foods. The oil of the plum seed is used in some medicine, and in the cosmetics and perfume industries. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.265. Poly Germander Scientific Name: Teucrium polium L. Family: Labiatae, Lamiaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-fungal, antiseptic, anti-inflammatory, antipyretic, anti-inflammatory, anti-spasmodic, antioxidant, anti-cancer, anti-rheumatic, antitussive, anti-diabetic, carminative, diaphoretic, diuretic, appetizing, astringent, and a blood purifier. It reduces blood pressure and aids with wound healing (Vokou and Bessiere 1985; Sharififar, Dehghn-Nudeh, and Mirtajaldini 2009; Fallah Huseini et al. 2020). Constituents: The phytochemicals in this plant vary dramatically according to its environment and location. x x

Essential oils: α-Pinene, β-pinene, myrcene, p-cymene, 1,8 cineol, limonene, linalool, borneol, carvone, carvacrol, βcaryophyllene, β-bourbonene, and α-humulene Others: Tannin, terpenoid, saponin, sterol, and flavonoid

Part(s) Used: Leaf and flower. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The (fresh and dried) leaf and flower can be used as herbal tea. The plant is used in some medicinal and skincare products. x x

“The tea of this plant is used to stimulate the appetite, especially in children. It is also used as a spice” (Sharififar, Dehghn-Nudeh, and Mirtajaldini 2009) “An infusion of the leaves and flowers of the plant is consumed as a refreshing beverage” (Sharififar, Dehghn-Nudeh, and Mirtajaldini 2009)

Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.266. Polypody Scientific Name: Polypodium vulgare L. Family: Polypodiaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-worm, anti-viral, anti-rheumatic, anti-cough, anti-bronchitis, anti-asthmatic, anti-inflammatory, anti-spasmodic, carminative, expectorant, diuretic, laxative, tonic, heart tonic digestive. It improves heart functions, boosts the libido, is appetizing, and reduces blood pressure (Ahmad Dar, Sofi, and and Jafri 2012). x

x

x

x

“The Greek physician Dioscorides noted in the 1st century AD, that polypody was used to purge phlegm and was an ingredient of a plaster applied to dislocated fingers and sores between the fingers” (Ahmad Dar, Sofi, and and Jafri 2012) “In Germany, there was a myth in ancient times that the plant sprang from the milk of the goddess Freya, and in more recent times the virgin Mary was credited with its origin. Owing to the rhizome's sweetness, it is, in some parts of France, called “reglisse” or “liquorice”” (Ahmad Dar, Sofi, and and Jafri 2012) “The polypod rhizome has been cooked with milk and sugar to counteract the common cold, and with liquorice and candy-sugar as a cure against respiratory catarrh” (Ahmad Dar, Sofi, and and Jafri 2012) “In the past, polypody was considered an essential drug for lung and liver ailments. Tea made from the rhizome was used for liver ailments, pleurisy and worms” (Ahmad Dar, Sofi, and and Jafri 2012)

Constituents: x x x x

Saponin glycosides: Polypodosapogenin Essential oils: Lauric, butyric, succinic, and hexoic acid Mineral elements: Calcium, magnesium, potassium, iron, sulphur, and chloride Others: Tannin, terpenoid, saponin, sterol, flavonoid, ecdysteroids, resin, alkaloid, glycosides, and protein

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Part(s) Used: Leaf and rhizome (primarily). Herbal and/or Commercial Use: It is used in the pharmaceutical industry for different purposes. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.267. Pomegranate Scientific Name: Punica granatum L. Family: Punicaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-microbial, anti-fungal, antiworm, anti-viral, anti-herpes virus, antiseptic, antipyretic, antitussive, anti-Alzheimer’s, anti-inflammatory, anti-anaemic, antioxidant, anticancer, anti-tumour, anti-diabetic (type 2 diabetes), and carminative. It has cardioprotective effects, neuroprotective activity, and boosts the libido. It is a heart tonic, stomach tonic, skin tonic, and uterus tonic. It promotes menstruation; reduces blood cholesterol, blood sugar, and blood pressure; is perfect for dieting; is a diuretic; and improves the memory (Bonesi et al. 2019). x x x

x

“The sour pomegranate has an astringent effect” (Bonesi et al. 2019) “The sweet pomegranate has a laxative effect” (Bonesi et al. 2019) “The fruits of pomegranate have been used in the traditional medicine of several countries. In Unani medicine, pomegranate is used for the treatment of diabetes” (Bonesi et al. 2019) “In Ayurveda, the ancient Indian medicinal system, pomegranate is recommended for treatment of diarrhoea and ulcers and operates as an anti-parasitic” (Bonesi et al. 2019)

Constituents: x x x x x x

Vitamins: B1, B2, B3, B5, B6, B9 and C Mineral elements: Potassium, phosphorus, calcium, magnesium, sodium, nitrogen, zinc, and iron Organic acids: Ascorbic, malic, and citric acid Fatty acids: Linoleic and gallagic acid Phenolic acids: Caffeic, ellagic, chlorogenic and ferulic acid Others: Tannin, alkaloid, pectin, anthocyanin, proanthocyanidins, isoflavones, punicalagin, epicatechin, punicalin, and kaempferol

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Part(s) Used: Fruit (mainly), leaf, fresh bark and root. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The fruits of pomegranate are widely used for baking, cooking, desserts, meal garnishes, smoothies, juice blends, and alcoholic and non-alcoholic beverages. x

The extract of pomegranate is used in hair and skincare products and some medicine

Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.268. Potato Scientific Name: Solanum tuberosum L. Family: Solanaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-fungal, antitussive, antispasmodic, antioxidant, a heart tonic, diuretic, sedative, and expectorant, it is appetizing, easy to digest, and reduces blood pressure (J. Tian et al. 2016) x

x

“Potatoes contain folate. Folate plays a role in DNA synthesis and repair, and so it prevents many types of cancer cells from forming due to mutations in the DNA” (J. Tian et al. 2016) “Red and purple-fleshed potato varieties contain high levels of anthocyanins, and these coloured potatoes may serve as a valuable source for natural anthocyanin pigments because they are inexpensive crops” (J. Tian et al. 2016)

Constituents: x x x

x

Vitamins: B1, B2, B3, B6, B9 and C Mineral elements: Phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, zinc, and iron Alkaloid: Glycoalkaloids are the main alkaloids in potatoes. The majority of glycoalkaloids are removed during peeling (70%) and blanching (29%). Domestic cooking can reduce the remaining glycoalkaloids (Mulinacci et al. 2008) Others: Fibre, calories, protein, carotenoid, and flavonoid (quercetin)

Part(s) Used: Tuber. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Potatoes are widely used in food and baking industries for different purposes. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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The green part of the potato contains solanine (a mild natural toxin), and it is dangerous for humans, so it should not be used

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4.269. Pulsatilla, Pasque Flower Scientific Name: Pulsatilla vulgaris, Anemone pulsatilla L. Family: Ranunculaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-microbial, anti-bacterial, anti-fungal, anticough, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anti-cancer, antitussive, antiheadache and migraine, anti-stress, anti-rheumatic, anti-asthmatic, anti-bronchitis, diaphoretic, expectorant, nervous tonic, immunomodulatory, and a sedative. It has wound healing properties, adjusts menstruation, boosts the libido, improves brain activity, and helps with skin rashes (Łaska et al. 2019). Constituents: x x x

Glycosides: Hederagenin 3-O-β-D-galactopyranosyl-(1→2)β-D-glucopyranoside, and Hederagenin 3-O-β-D-glucopyranoside Acids: Benzoic, caffeic, malic, succinic, glyceric, quinic, and protocatechuic acid Others: Ranunculin, anemonin, protoanemonin, triterpenes, saponins, polyphenol, flavonoid, anthocyanins, and mucilage

Part(s) Used: Leaf and flower. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: It is used in the pharmaceutical industry. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x

Just use the standard products following medical doctors’ recommendations

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4.270. Pumpkin Scientific Name: Cucurbita pepo Family: Cucurbitaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-worm, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anticancer, antipyretic, expectorant, laxative, and a nervous tonic, it reduces blood cholesterol and blood sugar (Gohari Ardabili, Farhoosh, and and Haddad Khodaparast, M. H. 2011). x

“Pumpkin seed oil is applied in treating small disorders of the prostate gland and urinary bladder caused by hyperplasia” (Gohari Ardabili, Farhoosh, and and Haddad Khodaparast, M. H. 2011)

Constituents: x x x

Fatty acids: Palmitic, palmitoleic, oleic, stearic, linoleic, and gadoleic acid Mineral elements: Potassium, phosphorus, magnesium, calcium, sodium, manganese, iron, zinc, and copper Others: Triterpenes, phytosterols, lignans, and carotenoids

Part(s) Used: Fruit, flower and seed. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: “Raw or roasted pumpkin seeds are used as a snack food for human consumption in many cultures worldwide. The kernels of pumpkin seeds have been utilized as flavour enhancers in gravies and soups and used in cooking, baking and ground meat formulations as a nutrient supplement and a functional agent” (Tsaknis, Lalas, and Lazos 1997; El-Adawy and Taha 2001). x

Pumpkin seed oil is used for cooking

Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.271. Purging Cassia Scientific Name: Cassia fistula L. Family: Caesalpinaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-viral, anti-fungal, anti-bacterial, anti-microbial, anti-worm, antipyretic, anti-inflammatory, anti-diabetic, anticancer, and a laxative. It reduces blood sugar and helps with wound healing (Bahorun, Neergheen, and and Aruoma 2006; Malkhede et al. 2019). x x x

In some countries, this tree is known as an ornamental tree because of its beautiful yellow flower branches “The plant has a high therapeutic value, and it exerts an antipyretic and analgesic effect” (Bahorun, Neergheen, and Aruoma 2006) In the Indian literature on traditional medicine, this plant has been described as useful against skin diseases, liver troubles, tuberculous glands and its use has been recommended in the treatment of haematemesis, pruritus and leukoderma

Constituents: x x x

Fatty acids: Linoleic, stearic, palmitic, caprylic, and myristic acid Mineral elements: Potassium, calcium, iron, and manganese Others: Alkaloids, flavonoids, glycosides, phenols, polyphenol, tannins, mucilage, steroid, anthraquinone glycoside, lupeol, β-sitosterol, hexacosanol, cephalin, lecithin phospholipids, and essential oil

Part(s) Used: Leaf, flower and fruit. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The young leaves and flowers can be used as a vegetable, the fruit can be used as a spice in food, and the plant is also used in some medicine. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.272. Purple Coneflower Scientific Name: Echinacea angustifolia, E. purpurea Family: Compositae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-microbial, anti-fungal, antiviral, antiseptic, anti-inflammatory, anti-spasmodic, anti-infection, anti-cold, anti-cancer, antioxidant, antitussive, and immunomodulatory (Barrett 2003). x

Its most widespread use is for the treatment of acute upper respiratory infection

Constituents: x x

Polysaccharides: Arabinogalactans, fructofuranosides, and heteroxylans Others: Flavonoid, essential oil, resin, sterol, alkylamides, caffeic acid, cichoric acid, chlorogenic acid, cafeolytartaric acid, and glycoproteins

Part(s) Used: Leaf, flower and root. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: It is used in some medicines as a pill, capsule, drop, syrup, etc. It can also be used as herbal tea. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x

During pregnancy and lactation, it should be avoided

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4.273. Purslane, Common Purslane Scientific Name: Portulaca oleracea L. Family: Portulacaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-microbial, anti-fungal, antiviral, anti-worm, antiseptic, anti-infection, antipyretic, anti-cough, antioxidant, laxative, antitussive, anti-inflammatory, diuretic, and immunomodulatory. It is a heart tonic, uterus tonic, liver tonic, kidney tonic; it is appetizing; it reduces blood pressure and blood sugar; it boosts the libido; and it acts as a blood purifier (Mahmood Habibian, Sadeghi, and Karimi 2020). x

x

“Purslane is a widely distributed plant which was introduced as one of the most commonly used medicinal herbs by the World Health Organization (WHO, 1990); therefore, it has been deemed a global panacea” (Mahmood Habibian, Sadeghi, and Karimi 2020) Its topical application can treat skins problems such as burns, wounds, eczema, inflammations, and acne

Constituents: x x x x x

Vitamins: A, B1, B2, B3, C and E Mineral elements: Calcium, sodium, potassium, magnesium, and iron Flavonoid: Kaempferol and quercetin Alkaloids: Oleracein A, B, and E Others: β-Carotene, β-cyanine, tannin, carotenoid, coumarin, phenolic acid, terpenoids, glutathione, melatonin, and saponin

Part(s) Used: Leaf, flower and seed. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: This plant is edible and can be eaten raw as a vegetable in salads or cooked in soups. It is also widely used for medicine.

0.5 - 0.8 mm

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Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.274. Quince Scientific Name: Cydonia oblonga Family: Rosaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-microbial, anti-cough, antipyretic, anti-cancer, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-diabetic, carminative, diuretic, expectorant, laxative, and digestive. It is wound healing, it’s a heart and kidney tonic, and it reduces blood pressure (Al-Snafi 2016b). x x

“Traditionally, the leaves were used as astringent and antiseptic. The unripe fruit has an astringent effect” (Al-Snafi 2016b) “The ripe and sweet fruit has a laxative effect” (Al-Snafi 2016b)

Constituents: Fruits x x x

Vitamins: A1, B1, B2, B3 and C Mineral elements: Calcium, phosphorus, iron, zinc, potassium, magnesium, copper, manganese, and sodium Others: Pectin, flavonoid, tannin, malic acid, lipid, essential oil, and fibre

Leaves x

Organic acids: Oxalic, citric, malic, quinic, shikimic, and fumaric acid

Part(s) Used: Fruit, seed, leaf and bark. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Quince fruit can be used as herbal tea and in other beverages, for eating in foods such as jams, marmalades, desserts, and cakes, and it is also used in some medicine. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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Quince Marmalade

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4.275. Quinquina, Quinine, Cinchona Scientific Name: Cinchona officinalis L., C. calisaya L., C. succirubra Family: Rubiaceae Health Benefit(s): x

x

“Cinchona officinalis: It is used as a tonic, cholagogue, aperitive, digestive, astringent, febrifuge, antiprotozoal, antiseptic and wound healing agent. It is suitable for loss of appetite, liver dysfunction, flu, asthenia, convalescence, prophylaxis and the treatment of cardiac difficulties and arrhythmias, cramps and myalgia” (Ahmad Mir et al. 2019) “Cinchona calisaya and C. succirubra: Cinchona species bark and its alkaloids remained the most efficient malaria treatment until the 1940s when chloroquine and other synthetic antimalarial compounds were developed. Quinine has remarkable biological activities such as anti-inflammatory, anti-ageing, anti-tumour, antioxidant, anti-microbial, antibacterial and astringent activity” (Aye and Noe Oo 2019)

Constituents: Cinchona officinalis x

Tannin, alkaloids, phenolic compounds, and volatile oils

Cinchona calisaya and Cinchona succirubra x x x

Alkaloids: Quinine, quinidine, cinchonine, and cinchonidine Mineral elements (Cinchona succirubra): Iron, manganese, copper, magnesium, zinc, calcium, lead, and cadmium Others: α-Amino, saponin, phenolic compounds, glycosides, organic acid, flavonoids, terpenoids, and steroids

Part(s) Used: Bark. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The bark extract is used in some medicine and some kinds of wine.

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Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.276. Radish Scientific Name: Raphanus sativus L. Family: Cruciferae Health Benefit(s): Anti-cancer, antioxidant, anti-rheumatic, anti-diabetic (it helps prevent diabetes), anti-inflammatory, anti-allergic, expectorant, and diuretic. It is a bone tonic, improves eczema, treats urinary diseases, and reduces cholesterol gallstones (Banihani 2017). x

x

“In folk medicine, radish is used as a household remedy for treating many diseases such as jaundice, gallstones, liver diseases, rectal prolapses, indigestion, and other gastric pains” (Banihani 2017) “Radishes have different skin colours (red, purple, black, yellow, and white through pink), while its flesh is typically white” (Banihani 2017)

Constituents: x x x x x

Vitamins: B1, B2, B3, B5, B6, B9 and C Mineral elements: Calcium, iron, magnesium, manganese, zinc, potassium, and phosphorous Glucosinolates: Glucoraphanin, glucoraphanin, 4-hydroxyglucobrassicin, glucoerucin, glucoraphasatin, glucobrassicin, 4-methioxyglucobrassicin, and neoglucobrassicin Isothiocyanates: Sulforaphane, sulforaphane, and indole-3carbinol Others: α-Amylase, α-glucosidase, fibre, fluoride, and anthocyanin

Part(s) Used: Leaf, seed and root. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Usually, people eat it raw as a crunchy vegetable, mainly in a salad, but it also appears in many European dishes. At least in the Middle East, some people prefer to drink its juice to pursue specific health benefits.

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Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.277. Ramsons, Wild Garlic, Bear’s Garlic Scientific Name: Allium ursinum L., A. akaka L. Family: Liliaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-microbial, anti-worm, antiseptic, anti-bronchitis, antitussive, anti-rheumatic, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, diuretic, and appetizing, it is a digestive, laxative, nervous tonic, and stomach tonic. It reduces blood pressure, blood sugar, and blood cholesterol; it is a blood purifier; and it aids with kidney and urinary stone excretion (Sobolewska, Podolak, and Makowska-Wąs 2015). x

x

x

“In European traditional medicine, ramsons has been generally recommended as a digestive stimulant, antimicrobial agent, for removing toxins from the body, and to prevent cardiovascular diseases” (Sobolewska, Podolak, and Makowska-Wąs 2015) “There are some records that in the nineteenth century in Switzerland butter was made from the milk of cows fed on ramson. The milk tasted slightly of garlic” (Sobolewska, Podolak, and Makowska-Wąs 2015) “Apparently, in Eberbach in Germany, there is a festival called Bärlauchtage (or Bear’s Garlic Days), which is devoted to this plant” (Sobolewska, Podolak, and MakowskaWąs 2015)

Constituents: x x

x x

Cysteine sulfoxides: Allin, methiin, isoallin, propiin, and ethiin Essential oils: Sulphide, methyl 2-propenyl, di-2-propenyl, propylene sulphide, disulphide, methyl 2-propenyl, methyl propyl, trisulphide, tetrasulfide, dimethyl, propylthiol, cumene, β-caryophyllene, geranyl acetone, and β-ionone Fatty acids: Palmitic, linoleic, palmitoleic, stearic, α-linolenic, and myristic acid Others: Flavonoid, mucilage, sulphur, and steroidal glycosides

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Part(s) Used: Leaf and flower. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The fresh and dried leaf and flower can be used as herbal tea. x

x

“The fresh leaves can be eaten raw or cooked and as a kind of pesto. They are often added to soups, gnocchi, risotto, ravioli, or used as a spice to flavour hard cheeses or spreads based on cottage cheeses” (Sobolewska, Podolak, and Makowska-Wąs 2015) The leaves and flowers can be used as a garnish to salads, while ramsons bulbs can be used like common garlic

Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.278. Raspberry Scientific Name: Rubus idaeus L. Family: Rosaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-microbial, anti-bacterial, antitussive, antipyretic, anti-inflammatory, anti-tumour, anti-cancer, and a potent antioxidant, it reduces blood cholesterol, blood pressure, and blood sugar, it is a digestive, heart tonic, eye tonic, is immunomodulatory, and it improves brain activity (Veljkovic et al. 2018). x x

“Raspberry has been used for prevention of cardiovascular diseases and type II diabetes” (Veljkovic et al. 2018) “The leaves of wild and cultivated raspberry are listed in traditional Balkan and Southeast European medicine, with evidence of its use for relieving morning sickness during pregnancy, preventing miscarriages and easing labour pains” (Veljkovic et al. 2018)

Constituents: x x x x x

Phenolic compounds: Hydroxycinnamic acid, gallic acid, and pantothenic acid Flavanols: Quercetin and kaempferol Vitamin: B6, C and K Mineral elements: Iron, calcium, magnesium, manganese, phosphorus, and zinc Others: Anthocyanin, β-carotene, tannin, and organic acid

Part(s) Used: Leaf and fruit. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The fruits are edible and used for jam, marmalade, desserts and in juice. They are also used in some skincare products, cosmetics and medicines. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.279. Real Thyme Scientific Name: Thymus vulgaris L. Family: Labiatae, Lamiaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-microbial, anti-bacterial, antiseptic, antifungal, anti-worm, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antispasmodic, antitussive, antipyretic, anti-cough, anti-Alzheimer’s, anti-arteritis, carminative, sedative, expectorant, astringent, diaphoretic, abortifacient and immunomodulatory. It is a wound healing agent, and reduces both blood pressure and blood cholesterol (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007). x

x

x

“Traditionally, it has been used for dyspepsia, chronic gastritis, asthma, diarrhoea in children, enuresis in children, laryngitis, tonsillitis (as a gargle), and specifically for pertussis and bronchitis” (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007) “The German Commission E approved its internal use for treating symptoms of bronchitis, whooping cough and catarrh of the upper respiratory tract” (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007) “Thymus vulgaris is a common species, but the Zataria multiflora and Thymus daenensis are from the same family, and they have more or less the same benefits and constituents, differing only in their place of origin” (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007)

Constituents: x x x

Essential oils: Thymol, carvacrol, α-pinene, γ-terpinene, linalool, p-cymene, and thymine Flavonoids: Cirsilineol, 8-methoxycirsilineol, thymonin, and eriodictyol Others: Caffeic, oleanolic, ursolic, and rosmarinic acid, resin, saponin, and tannin

Part(s) Used: Aerial part.

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Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The fresh and dried plant can be used as herbal tea and as a spice in food. It is used in some skin and hair products. It is also used in some medicine as a syrup for coughs and colds. x

Thyme essential oil and extracts retard food spoilage and increase the shelf-life of foods

Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x

During pregnancy, it should be avoided

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4.280. Red Clover Scientific Name: Trifolium pratense L. Family: Leguminosae Health Benefit(s): Anti-spasmodic, anti-asthmatic, anti-cancer, antiinflammatory, anti-rheumatic, anti-cough, laxative, expectorant, and heart tonic. It promotes menstruation and is a blood purifier (Booth et al. 2006). x

x

x x x

“Clover has been studied for use in menopause, maintenance of bone health, and cardiovascular health improvement. There is evidence for its efficacy in preventing loss of mineral density in specific bones” (Booth et al. 2006) “Red clover blossoms have been incorporated into ointments or decocted to make compresses for ulcers. These preparations were traditionally used to treat burns, wounds, gout, and fungal infections” (Booth et al. 2006) “The extracted juice of the clover has been used for eye diseases” (Booth et al. 2006) “The Iroquois referred to red clover as a blood medicine” (Booth et al. 2006) “Red clover tea or tincture was used as an anti-spasmodic, and for whooping cough, measles, bronchitis, laryngitis, and tuberculosis in the 19th and 20th centuries” (Booth et al. 2006)

Constituents: x

Rich in isoflavones (daidzein and genistein), flavones, and flavanols

Part(s) Used: Flower. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The fresh and dried flowers can be used as herbal tea and some medicine. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

582 | H E R B S F O R H E A L T H x x

During pregnancy and lactation, it should be avoided In some people, it can cause an allergic reaction

583 | H E R B S F O R H E A L T H

4.281. Red Poppy, Corn Poppy Scientific Name: Papaver rhoeas L. Family: Papaveraceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-microbial, anti-inflammatory, anti-bronchitis, antioxidant, diaphoretic, laxative, expectorant, antitussive, and sedative (Kostic et al. 2010). x x

“Corn poppy flowers are used in China to treat jaundice” (Kostic et al. 2010) “The fresh petals were formerly made into syrup and used to alleviate pain. They are still used today for coughs, colds, bronchial complaints, whooping cough, asthma, and insomnia” (Kostic et al. 2010)

Constituents: x x

Alkaloids: Rhoeadine Others: Mucilage, resin, rhoeadic acid, papaveric acid, and anthocyanin

Part(s) Used: Flower. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: It is used in the pharmaceutical industry for different purposes. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x

Just use the standard products following medical doctors’ recommendations

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4.282. Rhubarb Scientific Name: Rheum officinale L. Family: Polygonaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-inflammatory, carminative, and appetizing, it is a stomach tonic, heart tonic, laxative, digestive, and blood purifier (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007). Constituents: x x x

x x

Anthraquinone O-glycosides: Aloe-emodin, chrysophanol, physcion, and emodin Dianthrone glycosides: Rhein A and B Heterodianthrones: Palmidin A (aloeemodin, emodin), palmidin B (aloe-emodin, chrysophanol), palmidin C (chrysophanol, emodin), sennidin C (rhein, aloeemodin), rheidin B (rhein, chrysophanol), and reidin C (rhein, physcion) Hydrolysable tannins: Glucogallin, gallic acid, epicatechin gallate, and catechin Others: Calcium oxalate, rutin, resins, essential oils, and starch

Part(s) Used: Rhizome and leaf. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The fresh and dried leaf and rhizome can be used as herbal tea; the leaf is used in salads and in some medicine. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x

During pregnancy and lactation, it should be avoided

585 | H E R B S F O R H E A L T H

Rhubarb Leaves & Steams

Rhubarb Rhizomes

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4.283. Rice Scientific Name: Oryza sativa L. Family: Gramineae Health Benefit(s): Anti-inflammatory, antitussive, anti-cough, and antioxidant, it is a carminative, laxative, digestive, diuretic, stomach tonic, sedative, and boosts the libido. It reduces blood pressure and gastrointestinal inflammation (mostly brown rice), prevents type 2 diabetes and colorectal cancer (primarily brown rice also). x

Brown rice is an intact whole grain, containing both the bran (grain coat) and the germ (embryo). For this reason, brown rice contains substantially more fibre than white rice

Constituents: x x x

Vitamins: B1, B2, B3, B5, B6 and B9 Mineral elements: Phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, manganese, zinc, selenium, copper, and iron Others: Fibre, amylose, phytic acid, ferulic acid, and lignan

Part(s) Used: Grain. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Rice is widely used in the food industry. Bran extracts are used in some hair and skin products. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.284. Rosary Pea, Abrus Scientific Name: Abrus precatorius L. Family: Fabaceae, Leguminosae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-fungal, anti-inflammatory, antipyretic, anti-cough, anti-cold, antitussive, anti-malarial, diuretic, emetic, and immunomodulatory. It is a blood purifier, reduces blood glucose, is a tonic, a laxative, a libido booster, and has wound healing properties (Akbar 2020; Okoro et al. 2020). x

x x x

“The leaves are used to relieve hoarseness of voice and as a cure for aphthous ulcers of the mouth. It is used topically in skin diseases, such as leukoderma and eczema, and recommended as a cure for baldness” (Akbar 2020) “Detoxified or purified seeds are used to treat alopecia, oedema, helminths, skin diseases, itching, and urinary disorders” (Akbar 2020) “Juice from the fresh leaves mixed with some light oil can be applied to painful swellings” (Akbar 2020) The rosary pea has many folkloric medicinal uses, including managing diabetes, and treating haemoglobinuria, sore throats, rheumatism, skin infections, and jaundice

Constituents: x

Abraline, abrine, abrussic acid, campesterol, 5b-cholanic acid, squalene, cycloartenol, precatorine, trigonelline, gallic acid, hepaphorine, glycoside, alkaloid, and flavonoid

Part(s) Used: Leaf, seed and root. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: It is used in the pharmaceutical industry for different purposes. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.285. Rose Pepper, Pink Pepper Scientific Name: Schinus molle L. Family: Anacardiaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-microbial, anti-bacterial, antioxidant, antiparasitic, antiseptic, anti-viral, anti-fungal, anti-inflammatory, antirheumatic, anti-toothache, anti-spasmodic, and an anti-tumour, it is a laxative, diuretic, and sedative. It also helps with urinary tract infections (Guala et al. 2016; Giuffrida et al. 2020). x x x x x

“The bark can be used to prepare ointments for dermatological use” (Guala et al. 2016) “Infusions prepared with its leaves have been widely used in popular Peruvian medicine as a blood pressure-lowering drug and against veterinary infections” (Guala et al. 2016) “In Mexico, an emulsion of its gum is used to heal ocular ailments and bronchitis” (Guala et al. 2016) “In Argentina, the leaves and resin are employed in popular medicine as an emmenagogue and to treat bronchitis” (Guala et al. 2016) “Its anti-parasite properties ensure the absence of contamination of meat and milk in livestock production and the safety of honey, wax and propolis in apiculture” (Guala et al. 2016)

Constituents: x

x

Essential oils: α-Thujene, α-pinene, β-pinene, sabinene, myrcene, α-phellandrene, α-terpinene, γ-terpinene, terpinolene, α-copaene, β-elemene, β-caryophyllene, aromadendrene, α-humulene, allo-aromadendrene, germacrene D, βselinene, bicyclogermacrene, γ-cadinene, spathulenol, caryophyllene oxide, α-muurolol, α-cadinol, limonene, and linalool Carotenoids: β-Carotene and β-cryptoxanthin

Part(s) Used: Fruit, leaf, bark and root.

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Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The essential oil of rose pepper is being employed as a co-adjuvant in several food derivates both directly and indirectly, as an antiparasitic substance in cattle, and as an antimicrobial and antioxidant agent. x

In cooking preparations, its fruit and essential oils are sometimes used as a “black pepper” substitute

Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.286. Rosemary Scientific Name: Rosmarinus officinalis L. Family: Labiatae, Lamiaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-microbial, anti-viral, anti-fungal, anti-worm, antiseptic, antitussive, antispasmodic, antioxidant, anti-cancer, antipyretic, anti-asthmatic, anti-inflammatory, anti-Alzheimer’s, anti-rheumatic, and anti-stress, it is a carminative, diuretic, diaphoretic, and digestive, and promotes menstruation (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007). x

The German Commission E approved its internal use for dyspeptic complaints and external use as a supportive therapy for rheumatic diseases and circulatory problems

Constituents: x x x

Essential oils: Limonene, camphene, borneol, α-pinene, βpinene, camphor, linalool, verbenol, terpineol, and 1,8-cineol Flavonoids: Luteolin, hispidulin, nepetin, nepitrin, and apigenin Phenolic compounds: Caffeic, chlorogenic, labiatic, neo chlorogenic, and rosmarinic acids

Part(s) Used: Leaf and flower. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The fresh and dried leaf and flower in a small amount can be used as herbal tea, and as a flavour in food and food preservation, especially for meat and fish. Besides this, it is used in some medicinal, skin, hair and cosmetic products. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x

During pregnancy and lactation, it should be avoided

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4.287. Rowan, Mountain Ash Scientific Name: Sorbus aucuparia L. Family: Rosaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-microbial, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and a diuretic, it is also a vasoprotective and reduces blood sugar (Šavikin et al. 2018; Raspé, Findlay, and Jacquemart 2000). x

Sorbus aucuparia is a tree widely distributed in the mountain regions of Europe, and it is also famous as an ornamental plant

Constituents: Fruits x x x x

x

Mineral elements: Potassium, calcium, sodium, magnesium, phosphorous, iron, manganese, zinc, and copper Vitamins: A and C Fatty acids: Linoleic, oleic, palmitic, α-linolenic, succinic, and methoxymalic acid Phenolic compounds: Trans-chlorogenic, caffeic acid, pcoumaric, ferulic acids, cyanidin-3-galactoside (red pigment), cyanidin-3,5-diglucoside, quercetin, iso-quercetin, and rutin Others: Fibre, ash, lipids, carotenoids, and tocopherol

Bark x x x

Antifungal phenolics: Catechin and epicatechin Mineral elements: Potassium, calcium, phosphorous, sodium, and magnesium Others: Tannin, lupeol, botulin, and 23-hydroxybetulin

Leaves x

Source of polyphenols

Part(s) Used: Leaf, bark and fruit.

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Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The fresh and dried leaf and fruit can be used as herbal tea; the fruits are used for jam or marmalade, and other foodstuffs in some countries. Besides this, it is used in some medicine. x

The wood is of a good quality and is used for home furniture such as tables and chairs

Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.288. Rue Scientific Name: Ruta graveolens L. Family: Rutaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-microbial, anti-worm, anti-allergic, anti-spasmodic, antipyretic, antitussive, anti-inflammatory, anti-cough, and antioxidant, it is a sedative, carminative, and digestive. It improves blood circulation, reduces blood pressure, and is a treatment for eczema and psoriasis (Semerdjieva et al. 2019). Constituents: x x x

Essential oils: α-Pinene, limonene, eucalyptol, terpinen-4-ol, β-caryophyllene, and α-caryophyllene Vitamins: P and K Others: Rutin, flavonoid, alkaloid, coumarin, fatty acid, and phenolic acid

Part(s) Used: Leaf, flower and fruit. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: It is used in the pharmaceutical industry. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x x x

Just use standard products following medical doctors’ recommendations Some people can have allergic reactions The touching of the plant should be avoided, and it can induce skin allergies

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4.289. Safflower Scientific Name: Carthamus tinctorius L. Family: Compositae, Asteraceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-microbial, anti-worm, antifungal, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anti-cancer, antipyretic, and antitussive, it is a diuretic, expectorant, diaphoretic, laxative, uterus tonic, heart tonic, and sedative. It promotes blood circulation, promotes menstruation and treat menstrual problems, and reduces blood cholesterol (Jia-Xi et al. 2019; Zemour et al. 2019). x

Safflower is similar to saffron in shape and colour and can even be used as saffron

Constituents: x x

Fatty acids (seed): Linoleic, oleic, stearic, and palmitic acid Others: Flavonoids, alkaloids, polyacetylenes, quinochalcones, formic acid, acetic acid, succinic acid, glucose, fructose, trigonelline, choline, saffloquinoside C, saffloquinoside A, anhydrosafflor yellow B, rutin, (2S) −4,5,6,7-tetrahydroxyflavanone 6-O-β-D-glucoside, 5,7,4-trihydroxy-6methoxy flavone-3-O-β-D-rutinoside, and kaempferol-3-Oβ-D-glucoside

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Part(s) Used: Flower and seed. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The fresh and dried flower can be used as herbal tea. The flower can be used in food (in desserts, for instance) as a flavour and colour like saffron. It is also used in some medicine. x

The seed oil has been deemed anti-inflammatory in pharmaceutical and cosmetic products

Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x

During pregnancy, it should be avoided

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4.290. Saffron Scientific Name: Crocus sativus L. Family: Iridaceae Health Benefit(s): Antiseptic, anti-bacterial, anti-fungal, antitussive, anti-spasmodic, anti-tumour, anti-cancer, antioxidant, anti-depressant, and anti-inflammatory, it is a diaphoretic, carminative, sedative, stomach tonic, uterus tonic, nervous tonic, heart tonic, digestive, expectorant, and eye enhancer. It reduces blood cholesterol and blood pressure; it promotes the libido and menstruation; it’s abortifacient and immunomodulatory; it benefits the cardiovascular system; and it works against the prevention of Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s (Moratalla-López et al. 2019). Constituents: x x x x

Kaempferol glycosides are the major flavonoids in saffron stigma flowers Anthocyanins are responsible for the attractive colour of the flowers Vitamins: B1 and B2 Others: Carotenoids, alkaloid, fibre, mineral elements, crocetin, crocin (responsible for the colour of saffron), picrocrocin (responsible for the bitter taste of saffron), and safranal (responsible for the aroma) in its stigma

Part(s) Used: Flower stigma. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Saffron is widely used as a flavour and colour in foodstuffs, particularly desserts. It can be used as herbal tea.

600 | H E R B S F O R H E A L T H x

x x

Kaempferols in saffron are gaining increasing interest for their antioxidant activity as a food supplement, in functional foods, in pharmaceutical preparations, and in cosmetic formulations The use of the whole flower can be contemplated as a new ingredient in the food industry and phytopharmacy Saffron oil has food preservation qualities, and is one of the most important and costliest oils globally

Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x

During pregnancy, it should be avoided

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4.291. Sage Scientific Name: Salvia officinalis L. Family: Labiatae, Lamiaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-microbial, anti-viral, anti-fungal, anti-worm, antiseptic, anti-cancer, antioxidant, anti-tumour, antimutagenic, anti-spasmodic, anti-inflammatory, anti-Alzheimer’s, antipyretic, anti-asthmatic, anti-bronchitis, and immunomodulatory, it is a diaphoretic, carminative, laxative, stomach tonic, heart tonic, expectorant, diuretic, sedative, and digestive. It improves blood circulation, and reduces blood sugar, blood cholesterol, and rheumatism pain (D. Altindal and N. Altindal 2016; Jakovljević et al. 2019; Rguez et al. 2019). x x

“Sage can be helpful for muscle pains and chronic stress or mental tension” (D. Altindal and N. Altindal 2016) “Sage can be used as a mouth wash for sore throats, infected gingiva, mouth ulcers and colds” (D. Altindal and N. Altindal 2016)

Constituents: x x x

Essential oils: α-Thujone, β-thujone, 1,8-cineol, camphene, camphor, carnosic acid, rosmarinic acid, carnosol, rosmadial, manool, borneol, b-caryophyllene, and α-humulene Phenolic acids: Caffeic, syringic, rosmarinic, ferulic, and vanillic acid Flavonoids: Quercetin, apigenin, and luteolin

Part(s) Used: Leaf and flower. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The (fresh and dried) leaves and the flower can be used as herbal tea, a herbal beverage, or as a flavour for food. The essential oils of sage are used in medicine, and in the perfume and cosmetics industries.

602 | H E R B S F O R H E A L T H x x

In Italy, fresh sage leaves are consumed together with bread and butter by villagers to protect their health This herb is also used in making Dutch cheeses and brewing tea

Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.292. Sambac Jasmine, Arabian Jasmine, Motia Scientific Name: Jasminum sambac Family: Oleaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-worm, anti-bacterial, anti-microbial, antiseptic, anti-fungal, antitussive, anti-spasmodic, anti-diabetic, anti-depressant, anti-inflammatory, anti-tumour, antioxidant, and anti-acne, it is a sedative, laxative, expectorant, and diaphoretic. It promotes menstruation, boosts the libido, and is a wound healing agent (Sabharwal et al. 2012; Anima, Arun, and Satish 2019). x x x

x x

The essential oils of this plant are used in aromatherapy for reducing stress, as anti-depressant, and to adjust the heart beating and blood pressure The extract of the root has an antipyretic and anti-inflammatory effect “Traditionally, its leaves are used for fevers or coughs, indolent ulcers, abdominal distension, diarrhoea, lower blood glucose levels, regulating menstrual flow, clean kidney waste, and inflamed or bloodshot eyes” (Sabharwal et al. 2012) “The fresh juice from the leaves is employed in treating skin problems like dermatitis, eczema and cancer” (Anima, Arun, and Satish 2019) Jasmine flower oil is famous for the treatment of dry, greasy, irritated and sensitive skin

Constituents: x x

Essential oils: Citral, linalool, 2-phenyl ethyl acetate, geraniol, eugenol, farnesol, citrinyl acetate, benzyl acetate, benzyl benzoate, nerol, and citronellol Others: Flavonoid, tannin, alkaloid, phenolic compound, mucilage, steroid, glycosides, saponin, coumarin, and fixed oil

Part(s) Used: Leaf, flower and root.

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Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Essential oils of this plant are used as topically, as a flavour in tea, and for a wide range of medicinal applications. They can be used in perfumery, soaps, flavourings, the cosmetics industry, and for food preservation. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x

During lactation, it should be avoided

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4.293. Sand Cherry Scientific Name: Ephedra sinica, E. distachya L. Family: Ephedraceae, Gnetaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-viral, anti-bacterial, anti-inflammatory, antiallergic, and antitussive, it is an astringent, heart tonic, diaphoretic, diuretic, and expectorant. It is immunomodulatory, increases blood pressure, and reduces blood sugar (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007). x

“Ephedra has traditionally been used to treat bronchial asthma, hay-fever, coughs and colds, fevers, urticaria, enuresis, narcolepsy, myasthenia gravis with chronic postural hypotension, and rheumatism” (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007)

Constituents: x x x x

Alkaloids: Ephedrine, pseudoephedrine, methyl ephedrine, norephedrine, and methyl pseudoephedrine Essential oils: α-Terpineol, limonene, terpinen-4-ol, and linalool Tannins: Catechin and gallic acid Acids: Citric acid, malic acid and oxalic acid

Part(s) Used: Aerial part. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The fresh and dried leaf and the flower can be used as herbal tea (standard product), and in some medicine. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x x

Children under six years should not use it Others should only use standard products following medical doctors’ recommendations

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4.294. Sanicle, Wood Sanicle Scientific Name: Sanicula europaea L. Family: Umbelliferae Health Benefit(s): Anti-worm, anti-viral, anti-microbial, anti-bacterial, anti-depressant, anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, anti-cold, and an antioxidant, it is a wound healing agent, astringent, a heart tonic, promotes menstruation, reduces blood pressure, and aids with kidney stone excretion (Pavlović et al. 2006). x x

“Sanicle is used as a traditional medicinal plant in treating diarrhoea, bleeding, and as a wound-healing agent” (Pavlović et al. 2006) “The European Commission approved the use of sanicle for the treatment of mild catarrh of the respiratory system” (Pavlović et al. 2006)

Constituents: x

x

Essential oils: α-Pinene, p-cymene, limonene, n-undecane, n-nonanal, α-campholenal, safranal, thymol, α-cubebene, αylangene, α-copaene, α-selinene, α-muurolene, β-bisabolene, γ-cadinene, and α-cadinene Others: Tannin, bitter compounds, saponin, resin, and mineral elements

Part(s) Used: All parts of the plant, but the leaf is the most crucial part. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: It is used in the pharmaceutical industry. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.295. Savin Scientific Name: Juniperus sabina L. Family: Cupressaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-viral, anti-worm, anti-microbial, anti-bacterial, anti-fungal, antioxidant, anti-rheumatic, diuretic, and abortifacient. It also promotes menstruation (Asili et al. 2010; Abdel-Kader et al. 2019). x

“Essential oils obtained from the fruits and leaves of savin have been proven to possess inhibitory activity against protein glycation and oxidative stress” (Asili et al. 2010)

Constituents: x

x

Essential oils: α-Pinene, sabinene, α-thujene, p-cymene, βpinene, myrcene, limonene, pinocarvone, carvone, linalool, verbenone, ceraneol, citranellol, elemene, α-humulene, αmuurolene, γ-terpinene, 4-terpinene, and cadinene Others: Tannin, resin, and savinine

Part(s) Used: Leaf and fruit. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: It is used in the pharmaceutical industry. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x x

Just use standard products following medical doctors’ recommendations During pregnancy, it should be avoided

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4.296. Savory, Summer Savory Scientific Name: Satureja hortensis L. Family: Labiatae, Lamiaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-microbial, anti-viral, anti-herpes, anti-fungal, anti-worm, antiseptic, anti-cancer, antioxidant, antispasmodic, antitussive, anti-inflammatory, diaphoretic, laxative, sedative, and digestive, it is a stomach tonic and is immunomodulatory (Popovici et al. 2019). x

“Savory was traditionally used in folk medicine to treat various disorders, such as cramps, muscle pains, and stomach, intestinal, and infectious diseases” (Popovici et al. 2019)

Constituents: x

x x

Essential oils: Carvacrol, thymol, o-cymene, (+)-4-carene, cis-terpinene, citronellol, geraniol, limonene, linalool, myrcene, p-cymene, α-pinene, α-thujene, α-thujone, β-pinene, βmyrcene, γ-terpinene, β-terpinene, β-phellandrene, camphor, and β-caryophyllene Phenolic acids: Rosmarinic, caffeic, gallic, protocatechuic, coumaric, and ferulic acid, epicatechin, and rutin Flavonoids: Apigenin, quercetin, naringenin, and kaempferol

Part(s) Used: Leaf and flower. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The fresh and dried leaf and the flower can be used as herbal tea, as a flavour and spice in some food and drinks, and in some medicine. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.297. Saw Palmetto Scientific Name: Serenoa repens L. Family: Arecaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-inflammatory, anti-prostate cancer, anti-androgenic, diuretic, and reproductive, it is a urinary tonic and boosts the libido (Marti et al. 2019; Perini et al. 2019). x

The use of saw palmetto as a medicinal plant is not recent. As early as the 1800s, scientific literature described its therapeutic properties, particularly for the treatment of prostate disorders or as an aphrodisiac

Constituents: x x x

Fatty acids: Palmitic, myristic, oleic, lauric, caproic, caprylic, capric, linolenic, stearic, and linoleic acid Essential oils: β-Amyrin and β-sitosterol Others: Carotenoids, tocopherol, polyphenol, hydrocarbons, phytosterol, flavonoid, tannin, and organic acid

Part(s) Used: Fruit. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The extract of the fruit is widely used in some medicine. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.298. Sea Buckthorn, Sea Berry Scientific Name: Hippophae rhamnoides L. Family: Elaeagnaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-worm, anti-microbial, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anti-cancer, anti-cold, and anti-ageing, it is a laxative, heart tonic, eye tonic, and improves circulation (Slynko et al. 2019; Sytařová et al. 2020; C. Wang et al. 2020). x

“Seaberry is a rich source of nutraceuticals for human health. As such, it has been called a functional food” (Slynko et al. 2019)

Constituents: x x x x

x

Vitamins: B1, B2, C, E, and K (high amount) Carotenoids: α-Carotene, β-carotene, δ-carotene, and lycopene Xanthophylls: Lutein and zeaxanthin Essential oils: Toluene, diethyl carbonate, furfural, styrene, 3-methylbutanoic acid, o-xylene, hexanoic acid, nonanal, linalool, camphor, safranal, β-cyclocitral, γ-selinene, shyobunon, elemicin, γ-asarone, α-calacorene, and cedrenol Others: Phenolic acid, phytosterol, flavonoid, fatty acids, mineral elements, and organic acids

Part(s) Used: Fruit, leaf, root and fresh bark. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: At present, more than 200 products are being made from sea buckthorns, such as juice, jam, marmalade, chocolate, oil, and some vodka drinks. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.299. Self-Heal Scientific Name: Prunella vulgaris L. Family: Labiatae, Lamiaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-viral, anti-HIV, anti-bacterial, anti-fungal, anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer, anti-tumour, antioxidant, anti-mutagenic, anti-stress, and anti-diabetic, it is a treatment for eye pain, headaches, and cold sores. It is a wound healing agent, is immunomodulatory, reduces blood glucose, and enhances insulin sensitivity (Raafat, Wurglics, and Schubert-Zsilavecz 2016; G. Ahmad et al. 2020). x

“The plant has been used in Asian folk medicine in blood glucose homeostasis and upper respiratory tract infections” (G. Ahmad et al. 2020)

Constituents: x x x

Phenolic compounds: Rosmarinic, caffeic, and p-coumaric acid Flavonoids: Rutin and quercetin Others: Alkaloid, saponin, tannin, carbohydrate, and anthraquinone glycosides

Part(s) Used: Leaf and flower (primarily). Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The fresh and dried aerial parts of the plant can be used as herbal tea; the young and fresh leaves can be eaten raw in a salad. The plant is used as a flavour in beverages. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.300. Senna, Senna Makkai, Cassia Senna Scientific Name: Cassia angustifolia, Senna alexandrina Family: Caesalpinaceae, Leguminosae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-fungal, anti-inflammatory, antitussive, antioxidant, and anti-cancer, it is a strong laxative, a blood purifier, promotes menstruation, and is a natural antibiotic (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007; S. I. Ahmed et al. 2016). x x

“It is widely used as an antipyretic in typhoid, splenic enlargements, cholera, for anaemia, and as a laxative” (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007) “The Council of Europe lists senna as a natural source of food flavouring. Previously, senna has been named as GRAS (Generally Recognised as Safe)” (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007)

Constituents: x x x x

Hydroxyanthracenes: Sennosides-A, -B, -C, and -D (rhein aloe-emodin heterodianthrones) Carbohydrates: Mucilage (arabinose, rhamnose, galactose, galacturonic acid), galactomannan (galactose and mannose), and sugars (fructose, glucose, pinitol, sucrose) Flavonoids: Isorhamnetin and kaempferol Others: Glycosides, salicylic acid, chrysophanic acid, saponin, resin, and essential oils

Part(s) Used: Leaf and seed. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: It is used in some medicine against constipation. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x x

During pregnancy and lactation, it should be avoided Those with asthma problems should not use it

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4.301. Sesame Scientific Name: Sesamum indicum L. Family: Pedaliaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anti-cancer, and antipyretic, it is a diuretic, promotes menstruation, is a laxative, a nervous tonic, reduces cholesterol, and boosts the libido (Afroz et al. 2019; Majdalawieh and Mansour 2019). x x

It has been applied topically as a hair tonic, for wounds, burns and pain healing “From ancient times, sesame oil (derived from the sesame seed) has been used for various purposes including food, as a salve, and as a medicine” (Afroz et al. 2019)

Constituents: x x x x x

Fatty acids: Linoleic, oleic, palmitic, stearic, arachidic, behenic, octanoic, decanoic, lauric, and eicosenoic acid Lignans: Sesamolin, sesamin, sesamol, sesaminol, sesamolinol, pinoresinol, lariciresinol, and asarinin Phytosterol: Campesterol, δ-sterol, and β-sitosterol Mineral elements: Iron, calcium, sodium, potassium, magnesium, and phosphorus Vitamins: A, B, E and K

Part(s) Used: Seed. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Sesame is widely used in the bakery and food industry. Sesame oil is used for topical applications. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x

In some cases, it can cause allergic reactions

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4.302. Shepherd’s Purse Scientific Name: Capsella Bursa-Pastoris L. Family: Cruciferae Health Benefit(s): Antiseptic, anti-bacterial, anti-microbial, antibiotic, anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer, and antioxidant, it is an astringent, a urinary antiseptic, a diuretic, reduces blood pressure, is a nervous tonic, blood coagulator, and a sedative (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007; Al-Snafi 2015). x x x

x x

“Traditionally, it has been used for menorrhagia, haematemesis, haematuria, diarrhoea and acute catarrhal cystitis” (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007) “The whole plant was used to treat oedema caused by nephritis, dysuria, hemafecia, menorrhagia, chyluria and hypertension” (Al-Snafi 2015) “A tea made from the dried herb was considered a sovereign remedy against haemorrhages of all kinds, the stomach, the lungs, the uterus and more specifically the kidneys” (AlSnafi 2015) “The plant has been ranked 7th amongst 250 potential antifertility plants in China” (Al-Snafi 2015) “A homoeopathic remedy is made from the fresh plant to treat nose bleeds and urinary calculus” (Al-Snafi 2015)

Constituents: x x x x x x

Amines: Acetylcholine, choline, proline, histamine, tyramine, and unidentified crystalline alkaloids Flavonoids: Quercetin, tricin, diosmetin, luteolin, rutin, diosmin, and hesperidin Essential oils: Camphor (primarily) Vitamins: A, B1, B2, B6, C and K Mineral elements: Zinc, manganese, potassium, iron, calcium, sodium, copper, and cobalt Acids: Malic, citric, and acetic acid

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Fatty acids: Azelaic, palmitic, stearic, oleic, linoleic, linolenic, and arachidonic acid Others: Carotenoids, sinigrin, fumaric acid, saponin, tannin, choline, acetylcholine, histamine, and fibre

Part(s) Used: All parts of the plant. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The fresh or dried plants can be used as herbal tea and in some medicine. x

“In some countries, the plant's leaves and roots have been used as an edible vegetable, eaten raw or cooked” (Al-Snafi 2015)

Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x

During pregnancy and lactation, it should be avoided

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4.303. Shiitake Mushroom Scientific Name: Lentinus edodes Family: Polyporaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-viral, anti-bacterial, anti-microbial, anti-fungal, anti-HIV, anti-tumour, anti-cancer, antioxidant, anti-diabetic, anti-cold, and immunomodulatory, it is a tonic and protects the liver and heart (Bisen et al. 2010). x

x

“The shiitake is the world’s second-largest cultivated medicinal and edible mushroom used as a functional food. It has a long history in oriental folklore for treating tumours, flu, heart diseases, high blood pressure, obesity, problems related to sexual dysfunction and ageing, diabetes, liver ailments, respiratory infections, exhaustion and weakness” (Breene 1990) Shiitake is a wood-decaying basidiomycete, gregarious on fallen wood of a wide variety of deciduous trees, especially shii, oak, chestnut, beech, maple, sweetgum, poplar (aspen, cottonwood), alder, hornbeam, ironwood, chinquapin, and mulberry (in a warm and moist climate)

Constituents: x x x

Vitamins: B1, B2, B3, B9, B12, C, and D (highest content) Mineral elements: Magnesium, phosphorus, calcium, iron, zinc, manganese, copper and chromium Others: Lignans (in which it is rich), ash, and fibre

Part(s) Used: Mushroom. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: It is used in clinical applications as an adjuvant to standard chemotherapy. Other potential uses for this mushroom is as a foodstuff, consumed whole, as a concentrated extract, or as a dietary supplement. x

Commercial preparations are available as tablets, capsules, or elixirs, and are available in most Asian countries and are

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increasingly available in the USA, New Zealand, Australia, and Europe Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x x

They should only be used following a medical doctor’s recommendation In some cases, it can cause skin allergies

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4.304. Silverweed Scientific Name: Potentilla anserina L. Family: Rosaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, antioxidant, anti-tumour, antispasmodic, anti-inflammatory, antitussive, anti-diabetic, and immunomodulatory, it is an expectorant and astringent. It helps with blood coagulation and kidney stones; it also treats chronic liver diseases (T. Guo, Qing Wei, and Ping Ma 2016)(Guo et al., 2016; Wu et al., 2019b). x

“Silverweed is recorded in many famous Chinese medical books, including Chinese Tibetan Herbal Medicine and The Illustrated Book of Qinghai Plateau Materia Medica as a folk medicine for coughs, phlegm, malnutrition, anaemia, diarrhoea, bleeding, and hepatitis B” (T. Guo, Qing Wei, and Ping Ma 2016)

Constituents: x x

Saponin: Rosamultin is a major pentacyclic triterpenoid isolated from this plant's root and has various pharmacological activities Others: The root of the plant contains tannins, flavonoids, lysine and histidine

Part(s) Used: Leaf, flower and root (the most important part) Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The fresh and dried plant can be used as herbal tea and in some medicine. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.305. Soapwort Scientific Name: Saponaria officinalis L. Family: Caryophyllaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-fungal, anti-bacterial, anti-bronchitis, antirheumatic, anti-anaemic, and anti-inflammatory, it is a laxative, diuretic, expectorant, blood purifier, tonic, and diaphoretic (Petrović et al. 2018; Jurado Gonzalez and Sörensen 2020). x

“An extract from soapwort root is present in desserts such as tahini halvah, nougat, and Turkish delight. Its use in tahini halvah, a sweet dessert made from tahini, sugar or honey, and soapwort or egg white as emulsifiers, is believed to date back to ancient time” (Jurado Gonzalez and Sörensen 2020)

Constituents: x x x

Saponins: Quillaic acid Essential oils: Tricosane-6,8-dione and tricosane Others: Flavonoid, phenolic compounds, resin, sapotoxine, and saponarine

Part(s) Used: Leaf and root. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: It is used in some medicine. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.306. Sour Orange, Bitter Orange Scientific Name: Citrus aurantium, C. bigaradia Family: Rutaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-fungal, anti-bacterial, anti-viral, anti-microbial, anti-depressant, antioxidant, anti-tumour, anti-cancer, antiseptic, anti-allergic, anti-inflammatory, anti-cough, anti-spasmodic, anti-diabetic, and immunomodulatory, it is a carminative, heart tonic, liver tonic, stomach tonic, nervous tonic, skin tonic, sedative, laxative, diaphoretic, expectorant, and digestive. It also reduces blood cholesterol and blood pressure (S. Anwar et al. 2016; Ben Bnina et al. 2019). x

x

Sour orange has been utilized in folk remedies to treat upset stomachs, infections, obesity, gastric conditions, liver cancer, insomnia, epilepsy, inflammation of the eyelid, bruised skin, muscle pain and as an appetite stimulant The bitter orange oil obtained from different parts (peel, leaves and flowers) has other names: x

x

x

Cold-pressed EOs: “Prepared from the peel of the fruits. A yellowish-brown liquid, it has a fresh floral odour because the cold-pressed extraction method is used to prepare it” (S. Anwar et al. 2016) Petitgrain bigarade oil: “Prepared by steam distillation of the leaves and twigs from the pruning of the trees collected at different times throughout the year, it has a pale-yellow colour with a woody odour” (S. Anwar et al. 2016) Neroli oil: “Prepared from the steam distillation or hydro distillation of the flowers, it is pale yellow with a light bittersweet floral odour” (S. Anwar et al. 2016)

Constituents: x

Phenethylamine alkaloids: Octopamine, synephrine, tyramine, N-ethyl-tyramine, and hordenine

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x

Flavonoids: Hesperidin, neohesperidin, naringin, myrcene, and tangaretin Essential oils: Geraniol, neroli, linalool, limonene, α-terpineol, E-β-ocimene, (E)-nerolidol, δ-3-carene, tricylene, αthujene, α-pinene, α-fenchene, camphene, β-pinene, sabinene, myrcene, α-phellandrene, α-terpinene, β-phellandrene, nonanal, 1,8-cineol, γ-terpinene, o-cymene, p-cymene, citronellal, β-elemene, β-caryophyllene, γ-elemene, neral, geranial, β-bisabolene, nerol, and geraniol Others: Saponin and tannin

Part(s) Used: Flower, fruit, fruit peel and leaf. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The fruit is used for eating and for juice; the peel and flower are often used in marmalade and jam; and the flowers can be used in tea. x

Oils and extracts from the bitter orange are of commercial interest for their pharmacological properties

Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

Neroli oil

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4.307. Soya, Soybean, Soja Scientific Name: Glycine soja, G. hispida Family: Fabaceae, Leguminosae Health Benefit(s): Anti-fungal, anti-bacterial, anti-viral, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory, it is a heart and liver tonic. It has anti-cancer properties, particularly with regards to prostate cancer, and reduces the risk of cancer overall. It reduces blood cholesterol and blood pressure, and is good for bone health. Constituents: x x x x

Vitamins: A, B1, B2, B3, B9, D, E, F and K1 Mineral elements: Iron, potassium, calcium, manganese, phosphorus, copper, and molybdenum Fatty acids: Palmitic, linoleic, and stearic acid Others: Starch, fibre, albumin, iso-flavones, phytic acid, saponin, and high protein content

Part(s) Used: Seed. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The soybean and soybean oil are widely used in the food industry, in different models such as soybean flour, soy milk, soy sauce, soy oil and soy protein. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x

In some people, it can cause allergies

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4.308. Spinach Scientific Name: Spinacia oleracea Family: Chenopodiaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-worm, anti-viral, anti-microbial, anti-fungal, anti-anaemic, antipyretic, anti-cough, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anti-cancer, anti-tumour, and anti-obesity, it is a carminative, diuretic, and laxative. It reduces blood sugar, blood pressure, blood cholesterol, and oxidative stress; it is immunomodulatory; it is good for eye health; and it helps to prevent cancer and asthma (Roberts and Moreau 2016). Constituents: x x x x x x x

Vitamins: A, B2, B3, B6, B9, C, D, E and K Mineral elements: Iron, copper, manganese, calcium, potassium, zinc, phosphorus, selenium, and magnesium Fatty acids: α-Linolenic, linoleic, oleic, capric, stearic, and myristic acid Flavonoids: Quercetin and kaempferol Phenolic acids: Ferulic and p-coumaric acid Carotenoids: Lutein, zeaxanthin, and β-carotene Others: Fibre, nitrates, quercetin, zeaxanthin, phenolic compound, and gallic acid

Part(s) Used: Leaf. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Spinach is a versatile plant that is consumed raw (in salads, smoothies, etc.) and is cooked (it is steamed, or used in casseroles, soups, etc.). Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.309. St John's Wort, Hypericum Scientific Name: Hypericum perforatum L. Family: Hypericaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-microbial, anti-viral, anti-inflammatory, anti-cold, antitussive, anti-headache, anti-migraine, anti-spasmodic, anti-depressant, anti-stress, anti-cancer, and an antioxidant, it is a diuretic, astringent and a sedative. It helps to heal infections, wounds and burns, promotes menstruation, and is appetizing (J. Barnes, L. A. Anderson, and Phillipson 2001; Joanne Barnes et al. 2007). x

x

“Hypericum has been used traditionally to treat excitability, neuralgia, fibrositis, sciatica, menopausal neurosis, anxiety, depression, and as a nerve tonic. It has also been used in topical preparations for the treatment of wounds” (J. Barnes, L. A. Anderson, and Phillipson 2001) Today, St John's wort is best known for its use in treating mild-to-moderately severe depressive disorders

Constituents: x x x x x

Anthraquinone derivatives: Hypericin, pseudo-hypericin, and iso-hypericin Flavonoids: Kaempferol, quercetin, luteolin, hyperoside, iso-quercitrin, quercitrin, rutin, biapigenin, and catechins Essential oils: α-Pinene, β-pinene, α-terpineol, geraniol, myrcene, limonene, caryophyllene, and humulene Fatty acids: Palmitic, stearic, nicotinic, myristic, and iso-valerianic acid Others: Hyperforin, adhyperforin, tannin, caffeic acid, chlorogenic acid, p-coumaric acid, ferulic acid, p-hydroxybenzoic acid, vanillic acid, carotenoids, choline, nicotinamide, pectin, and hydrocarbon

Part(s) Used: Leaf and flower. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The fresh and dried leaf and flower can be used as herbal tea. It is used in some medicine, especially for

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skins problems in different forms, like capsules, drops, ointments, lotions, pills and oils. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.310. Star Anise Scientific Name: Illicium verum Family: Magnoliaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-microbial, anti-fungal, antiviral, and an antioxidant, it is a digestive, sedative, carminative, nervous tonic, and expectorant (G.‑W. Wang et al. 2011). x

x x

“Star anise is an essential traditional Chinese medicine as well as a commonly used spice. It has been applied traditionally to treat vomiting, stomach aches, insomnia, skin inflammation and rheumatic pain” (G.‑W. Wang et al. 2011) It has also been used in traditional teas to treat nervousness and sleeplessness and as a sedative “The essential oil of star anise is used topically for rheumatism and as an antiseptic. Star anise oil distilled from its fruits is more popular than the fruit itself. Its liquorice flavour enhances red-cooked dishes and eggs simmered for a lengthy period in black tea” (G.‑W. Wang et al. 2011)

Constituents: x x x

Essential oils: (E)-Anethole is the primary essential oil, estragole, limonene, (Z)-anethole, pinene, β-phellandrene, and α-terpineol Flavonoids: Kaempferol and quercetin Others: Lignan, shikimic acid, sesquiterpenes, mucilage, anisatin, neoanisatin, and tashironin

Part(s) Used: Fruit. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The essential oils can be used as a flavouring in confectionery, food, tobacco, liqueurs, pastilles and pharmaceutical preparations. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.311. Stevia, Candy Leaf Scientific Name: Stevia rebaudiana Family: Asteraceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-microbial, anti-fungal, antitooth decay, antioxidant, and anti-cancer, it reduces blood glucose and blood pressure (S. K. Goyal, Samsher, and R. K. Goyal 2010). x

x x x

“Diterpene glycosides are the group of natural sweeteners extracted from Stevia. They are around 20-30 times sweeter than sugarcane. Stevia has been used to help control weight in obese persons” (S. K. Goyal, Samsher, and R. K. Goyal 2010) The use of stevia as a sweetener can be found in many parts of Central and South America, where this species is indigenous “In Japan, people use stevia as a sweetener in seafood, soft drinks, and candies” (S. K. Goyal, Samsher, and R. K. Goyal 2010) This plant has been used as a natural remedy for diabetes in several areas of the world, such as Brazil and Paraguay

Constituents: x x

Mineral elements: Manganese, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, chromium, selenium, cobalt, silicon, sodium, iron, and magnesium Others: Dulcoside A, rebaudioside A-E, steviolbioside, stevioside, fibre, ash, β-carotene, flavonoids, chlorogenic acids, and lignan polyphenol (5´)

Part(s) Used: Leaf. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Stevia is used in baking, confectionery, the beverage industry, and household products. x

It’s available in various products, as a drop, tea bag, sugar and/or sugar cube, and candy

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Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.312. Strawberry Scientific Name: Fragaria vesca L. Family: Rosaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-microbial, anti-fungal, antirheumatic, anti-arthritic, antioxidant, anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory, and immunomodulatory, it is a kidney tonic, eye tonic, and digestive. As well as being a skin tonic it’s also generally beneficial for the health of the skin, it reduces blood cholesterol, it regulates blood pressure and blood sugar, and has a positive effect on cardiovascular health (Giampieri et al. 2012). Constituents: x x x x x

Mineral elements: Iron, potassium, zinc, copper, manganese, selenium, sodium, phosphorus, magnesium, calcium, silica, sulphur, and iodine Flavonoids: Kaempferol and quercetin Vitamins: A, B1, B2, B3, B5, B6, B9, B12, E, K, and a high vitamin C level Tannins: Ellagitannin and Gallo-tannins Others: Fibre, fructose, sucrose, glucose, protein, ash, fatty acids, carotenoids, tocopherols, betaine, lutein, zeaxanthin, β-tocopherol, γ-tocopherol, δ-tocopherol, anthocyanin, proanthocyanin, and phenolic acid

Part(s) Used: Fruit. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Strawberries are widely used for eating, in jam, jellies, and marmalades; they are a staple of the baking and food industry. They are also a popular juice for drinking, and are used for skin products as a mask, cream, etc. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.313. Sumac, Tanner’s Sumac Scientific Name: Rhus coriaria L. Family: Anacardiaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-microbial, anti-bacterial, anti-fungal, antiviral, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anti-cancer, and DNA protective. It has wound healing agents; reduces blood sugar, blood uric acid, and blood cholesterol; it is an astringent; it aids with blood coagulation; and it’s a stomach tonic (Shabbir 2012). x

x

“The plant has both nutritional qualities and medicinal values as it is used as a spice by crushing and mixing the dried fruits with salt. It is commonly used as a medicinal herb in Persia” (Shabbir 2012) Sumac has been used traditionally to treat diarrhoea, haemorrhoids, liver disease, animal bites and pain (Shabbir 2012)

Constituents: x x x x x

Mineral elements: Iron, potassium, selenium, sodium, phosphorus, zinc, aluminium, strontium, titanium, sulphur, copper, magnesium, manganese, barium, and calcium Fatty acids: Oleic, palmitic, stearic, linoleic, azelaic, and tetradecanoic acid Flavonoids: Myricetin, quercetin, and kaempferol Essential oils: β-Caryophyllene alcohol, β-caryophyllene, αterpineol, α-pinene, cembrene, and carvacrol Others: Fibre, phenolic acid, malic acid, citric acid, tartaric acid, anthocyanins, ash, gallic acid, gallo-tannins, and tannins

Part(s) Used: Fruit. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Fresh and dried sumac can be used as a spice in food and drinks, and in some medicine.

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“Sumac contains colouring matter and tannins which are used in dying and tanning fine leather. The leaves are also exported for this purpose” (Shabbir 2012)

Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.314. Sundew Scientific Name: Drosera rotundifolia L. Family: Droseraceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-microbial, anti-spasmodic, anti-cough, antipyretic, and anti-inflammatory, it is an expectorant, a treatment for oral infectious disease, and it reduces blood pressure (Kačániová et al. 2014). x x

“Sundew has commonly been used in the treatment of convulsive or whooping cough since the 17th century” (Kačániová et al. 2014) “This plant can digest insects by using stalked mucilaginous glands covering its leaf surfaces” (Kačániová et al. 2014)

Constituents: x x

Glycosides: Droseroside and droserine Others: Flavonoid, ellagic acid, malic acid, citric acid, resin, and naphthoquinones

Part(s) Used: All parts of the plant. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: It is used in the pharmaceutical industry for different purposes. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.315. Sunflower Scientific Name: Helianthus annuus L. Family: Compositae Health Benefit(s): Anti-microbial, anti-HIV, anti-worm, anti-inflammatory, antipyretic, antioxidant, anti-cancer, and anti-diabetic, it is a laxative, expectorant, diuretic, and bone tonic. It is useful for wound healing; reduces blood cholesterol, blood pressure, and the risk of heart attacks; it protects the skin; and it improves rheumatoid arthritis (Pal 2011). x

x

“Its seeds are highly valued for treating bronchial, laryngeal, and pulmonary infections, as well as coughs and colds. The plant is used to reduce the risk of colon cancer, the severity of hot flushes in women going through menopause, and diabetic complications” (Pal 2011) “The seeds are also prescribed for snakebites and scorpion stings” (Pal 2011)

Constituents: x x x x

Vitamins: A, B1, B5, B6, E and K Mineral elements: Manganese, magnesium, iron, zinc, phosphorus, potassium, and copper Fatty acids: Oleic, stearic, palmitic, and arachidic acid Others: Fibre

Part(s) Used: Seed. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The oil from the seeds is used in the food industry for cooking and as an ingredient in many pharmaceutical preparations. It is used for the treatment of lesions, psoriasis, and rheumatism. x x

Its oil is also used for other purposes: as a lubricant, candle, biodiesel, and biofuel Its seeds can be sprinkled over cereals, salads, and soups, and mixed with vegetables and snacks

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Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.316. Swertia Scientific Name: Swertia chirata Family: Gentianaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-microbial, anti-viral, anti-inflammatory, anti-arthritic, anti-cold, antipyretic, anti-diabetic, and an antioxidant, it is a laxative, tonic, digestive, blood purifier, stomachic, diuretic, and treatment of skin disease. It is appetizing; it’s a beneficial remedy for lung, liver, stomach and kidney ailments; it reduces blood glucose; and it’s a treatment for certain types of mental disorders (Akbar 2020). x x x x

“This plant is used in the treatment of atonic dyspepsia, liver affections, and intermittent fevers” (Akbar 2020) “It is considered an essential medicinal plant in Nepal and is used for various diseases, including type-2 diabetes” (Akbar 2020) “European practitioners in India have used it as a substitute for official Gentiana preparations” (Akbar 2020) “It is one of the most frequently used species in traditional Tibetan medicine, in which it is used to treat liver diseases” (Akbar 2020)

Constituents: x x

Mineral elements: Calcium, potassium, iron, sodium, manganese, zinc, cobalt, copper, and lithium Others: Xanthones, alkaloids, glycosides, flavonoid, saponin, steroid, triterpenoids, swerchirin, swertiamarin, swertanone, mangiferin, amarogentin, gentiopicrin, and chiratol

Part(s) Used: The aerial part. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: It is used in the pharmaceutical industry for different purposes.

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Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

Swertia tea

Swertia dry leaves

Swertia pods Swertia fresh leaves

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4.317. Sweet Flag, Sweet Sedge, Calamus Scientific Name: Acorus calamus L. Family: Araceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-microbial, anti-bacterial, anti-fungal, antianaemic, and an antioxidant, it is a carminative, nervous tonic, stomach tonic, kidney tonic, and diaphoretic. It helps with blood coagulation and is appetizing (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007; Balakumbahan, Rajamani, and and Kumanan 2010). x

x x

x x

“It has a variety of names, including cinnamon sedge, flag root, gladden, myrtle flag, myrtle grass, myrtle sedge, sweet cane, sweet myrtle, sweet root, sweet rush and sweet sedge” (Balakumbahan, Rajamani, and and Kumanan 2010) “The ancient peoples of China used it to lessen swelling and for constipation” (Balakumbahan, Rajamani, and and Kumanan 2010) “In Ayurvedic medicinal practice in India, the rhizomes have been used to cure several diseases like fevers, asthma and bronchitis. They have also been used as sedatives” (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007) “Native tribes used it to treat coughs, made a decoction as a carminative, and used an infusion of it for cholic” (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007) “In Western herbal medicine, the herb is chiefly employed for digestive problems such as gas, bloating, colic, and poor digestive function. Calamus helps distended and uncomfortable stomachs and headaches associated with weak digestion” (Balakumbahan, Rajamani, and and Kumanan 2010)

Constituents: x x

Essential oils (rhizome): Calamenol, calamene, calamone, methyl eugenol, eugenol, acorenone, acoragermacrone, and isoacolamone Essential oils (leaves): β-Asarone is the principal constituent in the leaves

650 | H E R B S F O R H E A L T H x x

Fatty acids: Myristic, palmitic, palmitoleic, stearic, oleic, linoleic, and arachidic acid Others: Tannin, resin, mucilage, starch, acorin, acoric acid, and amines

Part(s) Used: Rhizome (primary), leaf and stem. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The scented leaves and rhizomes of the sweet flag have been traditionally used as a medicine, and the dried and powdered rhizome has a spicy flavour. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x

During pregnancy and lactation, it should be avoided

Acorus calamus Rhizome

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4.318. Syrischer Christusdorn, Christ's Thorn Jujube Scientific Name: Ziziphus spina-christi Family: Rhamnaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-microbial, anti-fungal, anti-bacterial, anti-allergic, antipyretic, antitussive, anti-inflammatory, anti-bronchitis, anti-cough, antioxidant, anti-cancer (cancer preventor), anti-tumour, anti-diabetic, anti-spasmodic, and anti-convulsant, it is a stomach tonic, hair growth tonic, nervous tonic, laxative, sedative, and reduces blood sugar (Asgarpanah 2012). x

x

x

“Christ's Thorn Jujube has been among the essential plants of Iranian traditional medicine since ancient times. It is indigenous and naturalized throughout Iran, and it has been known as ‘Sedr’” (Asgarpanah 2012) “The fruits are applied on cuts and ulcers. They are also used to treat pulmonary ailments and fevers, to promote the healing of fresh wounds, and to combat dysentery” (Asgarpanah 2012) The tree’s flowers are an essential source of honey

Constituents: Fruits x x

Flavonoids: Quercetin, rutin, hyperin, and apigenin-7-Oglucoide Others: Alkaloids, triterpenoids, saponin, free sugars, and mucilage 1-2 cm

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Leaves x x x

Essential oils: Geranyl acetate, methyl hexadecanoate, methyl octadecenoate, farnesyl acetone C, hexadecanol, and ethyl octadecenoate Flavonoids: Christinin-A (a major saponin of the leaves) Others: Saponin, betulinic acid, ceanothic acid, tannin, and triterpenes

Part(s) Used: Leaf and fruit. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The fruits are edible and very nutritious. Furthermore, the plant is used in some hair care products such as shampoo, as well as in some medicines. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.319. Tamarind Scientific Name: Tamarindus indica L. Family: Caesalpinaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-microbial, anti-vomiting, antipyretic, antitussive, anti-cold, anti-asthmatic, anti-arthritis, antiinflammatory, antioxidant, and anti-cancer, it is a carminative, laxative, heart tonic, stomach tonic, skin tonic, and digestive. It reduces blood cholesterol and blood pressure, and has wound healing properties (Ferrara 2019). x

x x x

“According to the World Health Organization tamarind can be considered a source of all essential amino acids except tryptophan. As a food, it is rich in nutrients, fibres and phenolic compounds with antioxidant activity” (Ferrara 2019) “The leaves are used as decoctions for their anti-helminthic action (i.e., anti-parasitic action [e.g., against worms]) and to fight malarial fever” (Ferrara 2019) “The root decoction is used to cure asthma” (Ferrara 2019) “The leaves and roots are used for wound healing” (Ferrara 2019)

Constituents: x x x x x x

Organic acids: Tartaric, malic, citric, and succinic acid Vitamins: A, B1, B2, B3, B5, B6, C, and K Mineral elements: Calcium, potassium, phosphorus, magnesium, sodium, and selenium Flavonoids: Taxifolin, apigenin, eriodictyol, luteolin, and naringin Fatty acids (seeds): Palmitic, oleic, and linoleic acid Others: Essential oils, bitter principle, stigmasterol, sitosterol, fibre, and carotenoids

Part(s) Used: Leaf, fruit, seed, root, flower and bark.

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Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Tamarind leaves and flowers are both used. A marked sour taste characterizes both; the former is added to spicy soups, main courses, and salads. x x

The fruits are widely eaten and used for taste in food “The whole-ground seeds provide a powder with high nutritional value, they can be roasted or kept soaked in water to remove the peel, then boiled or fried, or ground to obtain flour or extract starch” (Ferrara 2019)

Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.320. Tansy Scientific Name: Tanacetum vulgare L. Family: Compositae Health Benefit(s): Anti-worm, anti-bacterial, antibiotic, antioxidant, antiseptic, antipyretic, and anti-inflammatory, it is a diuretic and digestive. It improves blood circulation and promotes menstruation; it is hepatoprotective and cytotoxic (destroys cancer cells) (Coté et al. 2017; Mishchenko et al. 2019). x

“Traditionally, tansy has been used as an anthelmintic (antiparasitic), tonic, emmenagogue1, anti-hypertensive2, carminative, anti-spasmodic, anti-diabetic, diuretic, and an antiinflammatory” (Coté et al. 2017)

Constituents: x

x

Essential oils: β-Thujone, 1,8-cineol, bornyl acetate, α-terpinene, α-pinene, β-pinene, γ-terpinene, р-cymene, camphene, camphor, caryophyllene oxide, limonene, terpinene4-ol, terpinolene, sabinene, linalool, α-thujone, β-thujone, borneol, α-terpineol, myrtenal, myrtenol, eugenol, and βcaryophyllene Others: Flavonoid, tannin, resin, phenolic compounds, and gallic acid

Part(s) Used: Leaf and flower. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: It is used in the pharmaceutical industry. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x

1 2

During pregnancy, it should be avoided

- The herbs are which stimulate blood flow in the pelvic and uterus - Reducing blood pressure

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4.321. Tarragon, Estragon Scientific Name: Artemisia dracunculus L. Family: Compositae Health Benefit(s): Anti-worm, anti-microbial, anti-bacterial, antifungal, anti-inflammatory, anti-allergic, anti-spasmodic, anti-diabetic, antitussive, antipyretic, antioxidant, anti-cancer, anti-tumour, and DNA protective, it is a carminative, sedative, diuretic, stomach tonic, laxative, and reduces blood pressure (Behbahani et al. 2017; Basiri and Nadjafi 2019). x

Tarragon is traditionally used for curing rheumatism and arthritis. It is also employed for strengthening the stomach

Constituents: x x

x x

Flavonoids: Quercetin Essential oils: α-Pinene, estragole, sabinene, β-pinene, βmyrcene, α-phellandrene, limonene, ocimene, α-terpinolene, linalool, p-allylanisole, carvone, camphene, methyleugenol, spathulenol, and dillapiole Mineral elements: Calcium, phosphorus, iron, magnesium, sodium, and potassium Others: Alkaloid, glycosides, tannin, saponin, flavones, anthocyanins, phenol, anthraquinones, fibre, and terpene

Part(s) Used: Leaf. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Fresh and dried tarragon can be used as herbal tea, as flavouring in foods, salads, and beverages, and as tarragon vinegar. x

The essential oils of tarragon are used in the cosmetics, medicine and perfume industries

Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x

During pregnancy, it should be avoided

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4.322. Tea Scientific Name: Camellia sinensis Family: Theaceae, Camelliaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-microbial, anti-viral, antiseptic, antioxidant, anti-cancer, anti-spasmodic, antitussive, anti-Alzheimer’s, anti-depressant, anti-diabetic, anti-arthritic, anti-obesity, anti-inflammatory, anti-diarrhoeal, anti-ageing, and anti-Parkinson’s, it is a heart tonic, nervous tonic, and liver tonic. It is immunomodulatory; reduces blood cholesterol and blood pressure; is a diuretic; and it improves blood circulation and relaxation (Mitscher et al. 1997; Namita, Mukesh, and and Vijay 2012; Liang Zhang et al. 2019). x

x x

x

x

“Tea is one of the most popular beverages in the whole world. Asians consume green and oolong teas, but Europeans and North Americans drink black tea because of its mellow flavour and low astringency” (Liang Zhang et al. 2019) “According to the manufacturing process, tea can be classified into green, white, yellow, oolong, black, and dark” (Liang Zhang et al. 2019) “Each tea type has a unique and crucial manufacturing process, such as withering for white tea, rocking for oolong tea, yellowing (heaping for deactivated tea leaves) for yellow tea, oxidation for black tea, and post-fermentation (pile-fermentation with environmental or special micrograms) for dark tea” (Liang Zhang et al. 2019) “The oxidation process is often incorrectly called a fermentation, but it is now known that the enzymes involved are indigenous to the plant and do not originate in associated microbes” (Mitscher et al. 1997) “Green tea is a non-fermented (non-oxidated) tea and contains more catechins, epicatechins, epicatechins gallate, epigallocatechin gallate and pro-anthocyanidins” (Namita, Mukesh, and and Vijay 2012)

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Constituents: x x x x x

Polyphenols: Flavan-3-ols Flavonoids: Quercetin, kaempferol, myricetin, and catechins Tannins: Hydroxybenzoic, hydroxycinnamic, quinic, galloylquninic, and caffeoylquinic acid Alkaloids: Caffeine, theophylline, and theobromine Others: Theaflavins, glycosides, flavonol, nonprotein amino acid, L-theanine, gallic acid, fluoride, lignin, and organic acid

Part(s) Used: The leaf (young and mature), stem and flower. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Tea is widely used in skincare, haircare, cosmetics, and medical products (like shampoo, lotion, cream, or sun cream). Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

White Tea

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Green Tea

Black Tea

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4.323. Tea Tree Scientific Name: Melaleuca alternifolia Family: Myrtaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-microbial, anti-viral, antifungal, antiseptic, anti-spasmodic, anti-cough, anti-inflammatory, anti-acne, anti-oxidative, antioxidant, expectorant, and diaphoretic (Brun et al. 2019). Constituents: x

The essential oils are the main and important compounds of this plant and they contain linalool, α-terpineol, terpinene-4ol, cineol, γ-terpinene, α-terpinene, 1,8-cineol, p-cymene, limonene, δ-cadinene, sabinene, globulol, and viridiflorol

Part(s) Used: Leaf. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: It is used in the pharmaceutical industry, for skin and hair care products, as hand-cleansing formulations, in shampoos, and in topical preparations for the treatment of cutaneous infections and other ailments. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.324. Teasel Scientific Name: Dipsacus fullonum L. Family: Dipsacaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, antitussive, antiseptic, antioxidant, anti-cancer, anti-Alzheimer’s, and anti-inflammatory, it is a laxative, diuretic, and diaphoretic, and it improves blood circulation (Witkowska-Banaszczak 2018; Oszmiański et al. 2020). x

In folk medicine, it has long been used externally for small wounds, eczema, and rheumatism

Constituents: x x x

x

Iridoids: Loganic acid, loganin, sweroside, cantleyoside, and sylvestroside Ⅲ Polyphenols: Neochlorogenic acid, chlorogenic acid, cryptochlorogenic acid, caffeoylquinic acid, luteolin, orientin, and saponaretin Essential oils: Pyridine, 3-ethyl, ethenone, 2,2-dihydroxy-1phenyl, benzaldehyde, furan, 2-pentyl, octanal, cyclodecanol, terrain, isoquinoline, eugenol, α-farnesene, αbisabolene epoxide, pentadecanoic acid, n-hexadecanoic acid, phytol, and pregnanetriol Others: Resin, alkaloids, and essential oil

Part(s) Used: All parts of the plant. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: It is used in the pharmaceutical industry. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.325. Thorn-Apple, Stramonium Scientific Name: Datura metel L., D. stramonium L. Family: Solanaceae Health Benefit(s): Datura metel: Anti-microbial, anti-inflammatory, antitussive, anti-spasmodic, anti-diabetic, antioxidant, antipyretic, antiasthmatic, anti-bronchitis, anti-cough, anti-insanity, and antiepilepsy, it is used for treating skin disorders (psoriasis), hair loss, and heart disease. It is a sedative, an expectorant, a laxative, an eye tonic (also being used in eye surgery), and it relieves dental pain (Al-Snafi 2017). x

This plant is also known as devil’s trumpet

Datura stramonium: Anti-microbial, anti-bacterial, anti-fungal, anti-convulsant, anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, anti-asthmatic, antioxidant, anti-cancer, antitussive, antispasmodic, and immunomodulatory, it is a carminative and a sedative, boosts the libido, and improves Parkinson's disease. It also treats the urinary tract, dental pain and skin infections (Al-Snafi 2017). Constituents: Datura metel x x x x

Flavonoids: Gallic acid and quercetin Alkaloids: Scopolamine is the major bioactive component in this plant Essential oils: Phytol, ketone and ethyl palmitate Others: Saponin, palmitic acid, tannin, and steroids. It is also rich in withanolides

Datura stramonium x

Alkaloids: Scopolamine, atropine, belladonnine, tropine, and hyoscyamine (the principal component)

667 | H E R B S F O R H E A L T H x

x

Essential oils: Citral, geraniol, linalool, levomenthol, 4,8-dimethyl-3,8-dien-2-one, and sesquirosefuran (which are significant constituents), but also geranyl acetate, α-bisabolol, α-farnesol, geranyl linalool, and phytol Others: Glutamic acid, enzymes, saponin, phenol, glycosides, tannin, steroids, flavonoids, citric acid, leucine, malic acid, and etheric oil

Part(s) Used: Leaf, flower, root and seed. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: It is used in the pharmaceutical industry for different purposes. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x

Both varieties are very toxic: just use the standard products following medical doctors’ recommendations

Datura metel Datura stramonium

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Datura metel Seeds

Datura stramonium Seeds

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4.326. Thyme Scientific Name: Ziziphora tenuior L., Z. clinopodioides L. Family: Labiatae, Lamiaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-microbial, anti-bacterial, anti-fungal, antiviral, anti-cold, antiseptic, anti-cough, antioxidant, anti-cancer, and anti-tumour. It is a carminative, a stomach tonic, an expectorant, and a sedative (Naeini et al. 2010; Alp et al. 2016; Ganjali, Harati, and Kaykhaii 2016). x

In Iranian traditional medicine, the people who suffered from fevers, dysentery, and uterus infections were successfully treated with Ziziphora tenuior (Naeini et al. 2010)

Constituents: x

Essential oils: o

o

Ziziphora clinopodioides: α-Pinene, camphene, sabinene, β-pinene, β-myrcene, limonene, γ-terpinene, 1,8cineol, piperitenone, menthol, menthone, thymol, carvacrol, and pulegone Ziziphora tenuior: Pulegone is the main constituent of essential oil of this variety. Also present are: α-pinene, αthujene, sabinene, β-pinene, myrcene, limonene, isopulegone, terpinolene, 2-cyclohexane, β-cubebene, germacrene D, γ-cadinene, iso-menthone, menthone, and thymol

Part(s) Used: Leaf and flower. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The fresh and dried leaf and flower can be used as herbal tea. The herb is used as a spice in food and salads, and also in some medicine. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.327. Toadflax, Yellow Toadflax Scientific Name: Linaria vulgaris Family: Scrophulariaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-worm, anti-bacterial, anti-fungal, antimigraine, anti-epilepsy, anti-cough, anti-cancer, anti-spasmodic, antirheumatic, antipyretic, anti-asthmatic, antitussive, and antiinflammatory, it is a carminative, laxative, diaphoretic, liver tonic, nervous tonic, sedative, blood purifier, diuretic, and stimulator of gall-bladder secretion (Mashcenko et al. 2008; Vrchovská et al. 2008). x x x

“This plant's ointment is useful for remedying skin disease and is used for treating liver and kidney diseases, tonsillitis, asthma, and dermatomes” (Mashcenko et al. 2008) “In traditional folk medicine, the fresh or dried flowering herb is used internally to aid digestion problems and urinary disorders” (Vrchovská et al. 2008) “The plant is applied to the treatment of haemorrhoids, ablution of festering wounds, and skin rashes” (Vrchovská et al. 2008)

Constituents: x x x

Organic acids: Oxalic, aconitic, citric, ketoglutaric, ascorbic, malic, shikimic, and fumaric acid Glycosides: Linarine, linaracrine, linaresine, and linarosmine Others: Alkaloid, flavonoid, triterpenoid, steroid, iridoid glycosides, and essential oils

Part(s) Used: Aerial parts. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: It is used in the pharmaceutical industry. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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During pregnancy, it should be avoided

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4.328. Tobacco Scientific Name: Nicotiana tabacum L. Family: Solanaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-fungal, anti-microbial, antiseptic, antioxidant, antitussive, anti-inflammatory, and anti-Alzheimer’s, it also improves the memory (Y. Sharma et al. 2016). x

x x

“In India, tobacco leaves have been used as a sedative, antispasmodic, anti-worm and antiseptic, and the decoction of its leaves has been applied for muscle relaxation and relieving pains” (Y. Sharma et al. 2016) “Tobacco contains 30-40% vegetable oil and can produce oil and biodiesel” (Y. Sharma et al. 2016) “Tobacco also consists of citric acid that can be used for the production of dye and varnishes” (Y. Sharma et al. 2016)

Constituents: x x x

Alkaloids: Nicotin, nicoteine, nicotimine, and nicotelline Flavonoids: Quercetin Others: Resin, tannic acid, malic acid, citric acid, pectic acid, ascorbic acid, saponin, terpenoid, inulin, tannin, phenol, carbohydrate, and naphthoquinone

Part(s) Used: Leaf and root. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: It is used in pharmacy and research for pharmacological purposes. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: This plant is narcotic and should not directly be used. Use standard products following medical doctors’ recommendations.

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4.329. Tomato Scientific Name: Lycopersicum esculentum, Solanum lycopersicum Family: Solanaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-fungal, anti-worm, antiseptic, antitussive, anti-prostate cancer, anti-breast cancer, anti-rheumatic, anti-cough, antioxidant, and anti-tumour, it reduces the risk of cancer and heart disease. It is a laxative, digestive, blood purifier, and diuretic; it lowers blood pressure; reduces blood cholesterol and blood glucose; increases the health of the hair and skin; and protects the eyes. Constituents: x x x x

Mineral elements: Calcium, potassium, phosphorus, sodium, zinc, manganese, iron, and cobalt Vitamins: A, B1, B2, B5, B9, C, E and K Carotenoids: Lycopene, lycoxanthin, β-carotene, and lutein Others: Carbohydrate, protein, and fibre

Part(s) Used: Fruit. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Tomato is widely used in the food industry for cooking, use in salads, making ketchup and sauces, etc. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x x x

It is excellent during pregnancy In some people, it can cause allergies The green tomato has solanine and should not be used

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4.330. Trehala Manna, Globe Thistle, Thistle Scientific Name: Echinops cephalotes L., E. ritro L., E. adenocaulos L. Family: Compositae Health Benefit(s): Anti-fungal, anti-depressant, anti-cough, antipyretic, anti-allergic, anti-asthmatic, anti-cancer, and antitussive, it is a laxative and diuretic (Papadopoulou, Couladis, and Tzakou 2006; Heshmati, Madani, and Amjad 2016). x

“There are insects from the Larinus species constructing trehala, whose larvae make capsules in the plant's stems and produce manna, and this manna has a medicinal usage” (Heshmati, Madani, and Amjad 2016)

Constituents: x

x

Essential oils: (E)-2-Hexanal, α-pinene, 1,8-cineole, 2-amylfuran, octanal, p-cymene, γ-terpinene, linalool, nonanal, αthujone, β-thujone, camphor, menthone, (E)-2-nonenal, αterpineol, decanal, and tridecanal Manna: Starch and trehalose (sugar)

Part(s) Used: Aerial parts (essential oils and manna). Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The essential oil and manna of this plant are used in the pharmaceutical industry. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.331. Truffle Mushroom, Black Truffle Scientific Name: Tuber aestivum Family: Tuberaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-microbial, anti-viral, anti-microbial, antiageing, antioxidant, anti-cancer, anti-mutagenic, anti-inflammatory, and a natural antibiotic, they reduce blood sugar, are a treatment for eye disease, and help protect the liver (S. Wang and Marcone 2011; Rossbach et al. 2019). x x x x

x

x

“The truffle mushroom is one of the most expensive mushrooms in the world” (S. Wang and Marcone 2011) The genus of Tuber serves as a food source Its different species include the summer truffle, white truffle (Tuber magnatum, T. borchii) and black truffle (Tuber melanosporum, T. aestivum, T. brumale, T. indicum) “Its fruiting bodies grow underground (hypogeous) in calcareous soils and its mycelium form mycorrhizal associations with host tree roots such as oak (Quercus robur), hazel (Corylus avellana), hornbeam (Carpinus betulus), and beech (Fagus sylvatica)” (Rossbach et al. 2019) “In Germany truffles are listed on the red list of endangered species of the Bundesamt für Naturschutz (Federal Agency for Nature Conservation), compiled by the DGfM (Deutsche Gesellschaft für Mykologie)” (Rossbach et al. 2019) “Rather than having the soft and fragile feature of ordinary mushrooms, mature truffles tend to be firm, dense, and woody” (S. Wang and Marcone 2011)

Constituents: x x

Mineral elements: Sodium, calcium, manganese, zinc, sulphur, aluminium, copper, silicon, potassium, magnesium, and iron Others: Carbohydrate, protein and ascorbic acid

Part(s) Used: Mushroom.

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Herbal and/or Commercial Use: This mushroom is used for cooking and pharmaceutical properties. x

Truffle oil can be used in modern and professional cooking

Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

Pasta with creamy cheese sauce and Truffle pieces and Thyme leaves

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Truffle mushroom

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4.332. Turnip Scientific Name: Brassica rapa, B. napus Family: Cruciferae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-viral, antiseptic, antidepressant, anti-inflammatory, anti-bronchitis, anti-cough, anti-cold, antioxidant, anti-asthmatic, anti-rheumatic, anti-cancer, and immunomodulatory, it is a blood purifier, laxative, and diuretic. It boosts the libido and helps with kidney stone excretion (F. Fernandes et al. 2007). Constituents: x x x

x x

Mineral elements: Calcium, potassium, phosphorus, iron, and sodium Vitamins: B1, B2, B3 and C Phenolic compounds: 3-p-Coumaroylquinic, caffeic acid, ferulic acid, sinapic acid, kaempferol 3-O-sophoroside-7-Oglucoside, kaempferol 3-O-sophoroside-7-O-sophoroside, kaempferol 3,7-O-diglucoside, isorhamnetin 3,7-O-diglucoside, kaempferol 3-O-sophoroside, 1,2-disinapoylgentiobiose, kaempferol 3-O-glucoside and isorhamnetin 3-O-glucoside Organic acids: Aconitic, citric, ketoglutaric, malic, shikimic, and fumaric acid Others: Fibre, phenylpropanoid, essential oils, allozyme, glycosylate and flavonoid

Part(s) Used: Leaf, flower bud and root. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Turnip root is used in food in different ways and models. In some countries, the leaf and flower buds are also used. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.333. Valerian, Cat’s Valerian Scientific Name: Valeriana officinalis L. Family: Valerianaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-microbial, anti-worm, antiseptic, antibiotic, antitussive, anti-convulsant, anti-spasmodic, anti-cancer, antioxidant, anti-HIV, anti-stress, anti-depressant, antirheumatic, anti-inflammatory, anti-Alzheimer’s, and antiParkinson’s, it is a carminative, diuretic, diaphoretic, sedative, digestive, and nervous tonic. It is a mental treatment disorder, a remedy for urinary tract infections, it improves brain activity and blood circulation, it protects the liver, and it reduces blood pressure and fevers (Sermukhamedova et al. 2017; Nandhini, Narayanan, and Ilango 2018). x x

x

“Valerian has been used medicinally for 2,000 years” (Nandhini, Narayanan, and Ilango 2018) “It was first used as a treatment for brain disorder during the late 16th century. It is habitually used for the treatment of varied nervous diseases” (Nandhini, Narayanan, and Ilango 2018) “Valerian root has been used for a century as a relaxing and sleep-promoting plant” (Nandhini, Narayanan, and Ilango 2018)

Constituents: Valerian consists of about 150-200 chemical constituents. x x x

Essential oils: α-Pinene, α-fenchene, and camphene Sesquiterpenoids: Volvalerenals A-F, volvalerenic acid AD, volvalerelactones A-B, valeneomerins A-D, valerenal, valerenone, valerenol, valerenyl acetate, and Valerenic acid Others: Flavonoid, lignan, triterpenes, and alkaloid

Part(s) Used: Rhizome.

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Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The primary use of valerian is in medicine, for sleeping, relaxing, combatting stress, as an anti-depressant and for mental problems. x x x

“It is a valuable remedy for cancer and neuroprotective disorders” (Nandhini, Narayanan, and Ilango 2018) The dried root can be used as herbal tea More than 50 different medicines contain valerian extracts

Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.334. Vanilla Scientific Name: Vanilla planifolia Family: Orchidaceae Health Benefit(s): Antiseptic, anti-convulsant, antioxidant, anticancer, anti-spasmodic, and antipyretic, it promotes menstruation, boosts the libido, and has wound healing properties (Gallage and Møller 2018; Hernández-Fernández et al. 2019). x x

“After saffron, vanilla is the most expensive spice in the world” (Gallage and Møller 2018) The vanilla's green beans are cured for six months to obtain the final product, which contains all of the vanilla flavour compounds

Constituents: More than 300 compounds have been identified from cured vanilla beans. x

x

Essential oils: The most important compound is vanillin, which confers vanilla’s sweet and creamy taste. Also present are nonanal, nonanoic acid, vanillic acid, p-creosol, and guaiacol Fatty acids: Myristic, palmitic, palmitoleic, heptadecanoic, stearic, oleic, and linoleic acid

Part(s) Used: Fruit. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Vanilla is widely used as a flavouring in food, chocolate, ice cream and the baking industry. It is a volatile oil, and is used as a scent for the manufacture of fragrances and perfumes. It is also functional as a critical intermediate for pharmaceutical products. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.335. Verbena, Lemon Verbena Scientific Name: Lippia citriodora Family: Verbenaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-microbial, anti-fungal, anticancer, antioxidant, antitussive, anti-arthritis, anti-cough, antipyretic, anti-spasmodic, and anti-convulsant, it is a digestive, carminative, diaphoretic, expectorant, laxative, sedative, diuretic, and heart tonic (Choupani, Arabshahi-Delouee, and and Alami 2014; E. Fitsiou et al. 2018). Constituents: x

x

Essential oils: Geranial, limonene, spathulenol, 1,8-cineol, nerol, geraniol, α-pinene, myrcene, nonanal, linalool, piperitone, α-terpineol, thymol, carvacrol, eugenol, geranic acid, and α-copaene Phenolic compounds: Verbasoside, phenyl perionoides, and iso-verbascoside

Part(s) Used: Leaf. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The fresh and dried leaf can be used as a tea flavour, in food, and in other drinks. It is used in some medicine, perfume and cosmetics. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.336. Violet, Common Violet, Sweet Violet Scientific Name: Viola odorata L. Family: Violaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-microbial, anti-fungal, antiinsomnia, antioxidant, anti-cancer, anti-tumour, anti-inflammatory, anti-arthritic, anti-rheumatic, anti-cough, anti-cold, antipyretic, antiheadache, anti-migraine, and antitussive, it is a laxative, diaphoretic, sedative, diuretic, nervous tonic and skin tonic. It reduces blood pressure, and is a treatment for skin diseases and lung disorders (Feyzabadi et al. 2017). x x

“Violet has been used for treating skin diseases such as urticaria, eczema, and allergic dermatitis, among others” (Feyzabadi et al. 2017) The violet oil has been reported as a tonic for the hair and nails

Constituents: x x

Essential oils: Butanone, linalool, benzyl alcohol, α-cadinol, globulol, and viridiflorol Others: Saponin (Viola-quercetin), glycoside, mucilage, vitamins, an alkaloid (violine), tannin, salicylic acid, and anthocyanin

Part(s) Used: Leaf, flower, seed and rhizome. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The fresh and dried plants can be used as herbal tea, in salads, for food, and in baking. x x

It is used in pharmaceuticals, in some medicines, and some skin and hair care products In the perfume industry it can be used as a colour and flavour

Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.337. Violet, Three Colour Violet, Wild Pensy, Heartsease Scientific Name: Viola tricolor L. Family: Violaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-microbial, anti-worm, antiseptic, antipyretic, anti-cough, anti-cold, antitussive, antiasthmatic, anti-arthritic, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antirheumatic, anti-bronchitis, and anti-cold, it is a blood purifier, sedative, laxative, diaphoretic, expectorant, and diuretic (Vukics et al. 2008; Khoshkam et al. 2016). x

x

“Many plants of the Violaceae family have been used in traditional remedies. Viola tricolor has been used in folk medicine externally and internally as an adjuvant in treating various skin conditions such as eczema, impetigo, acne and pruritus. It has also been used internally as an auxiliary agent to promote the metabolism” (Vukics et al. 2008) Heartsease has a long history in phytomedicine. It has been utilized to treat various skin disorders and upper-respiratory problems

Constituents: x x

Flavonoids: Violanthin, orientin, scoparin, saponaretin, and vicerinin Others: Anthocyanidins, carotenoid (violaxanthin), mucilage, tannin, and saponin (Viola-quercetin)

Part(s) Used: Leaf, flower and rhizome. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The fresh and dried plants can be used as herbal tea, in salads, for food, and in baking. x

They have been used in pharmaceuticals, in some medicines and various skin and hair care products

Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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It should not be used for a long time During pregnancy and lactation, it should be avoided

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4.338. Wall Pepper, Biting Stonecrop, Goldmoss Stonecrop Scientific Name: Sedum acre L., S. telephium L. Family: Crassulaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-microbial, anti-worm, antipyretic, antioxidant, and anti-cancer, it is a sedative, laxative, and reduces blood pressure (Stankovic et al. 2012; Chiocchio et al. 2019). x x

x

x

“Sedum is the largest genus of the Crassulaceae family. It includes 420 species, and some of them are used in folk medicine” (Chiocchio et al. 2019) “Sedum telephium has been frequently used for various indications, including the treatment of burns, ulcers, warts, abscesses and wounds. In modern herbal medicine, it has been used in clinical practice even in severe emergency cases, such as treating open wounds and deep burns of 2nd and 3rd degrees” (Chiocchio et al. 2019) “In traditional medicine, Sedum acre is widely used to treat ulcers and infected wounds, and as a hypotensive. In folk medicine, it is used as an emetic, cathartic, and to counteract dropsy and itches” (Stankovic et al. 2012) This plant is found growing between stones. Therefore, it was named stonecrop

Constituents: x x x

Flavonoid: Rutin, isorhamnetin glucoester, triglucoside, isorhamnetin 3-glucosides, and isorhamnetin-7-glucosides Alkaloid: Sedinone, sedridine, and sedamine Others: Gallic acid, mucilage, and tannin

Part(s) Used: All parts of the plant. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: It is used in the pharmaceutical industry for different purposes.

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Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: All parts of the plants are toxic: just use standard products following medical doctors’ recommendations.

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4.339. Walnut Scientific Name: Juglans regia L. Family: Juglandaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-microbial, anti-worm, antiseptic, anti-fungal, antitussive, anti-cancer, antioxidant, and antiinflammatory, it is a diuretic, astringent, and blood purifier. It reduces blood glucose and blood cholesterol, is good for heart and brain health, coagulates the blood, and boosts the libido (Fernández-Agulló et al. 2019; P. Gao et al. 2019). x

x

x

“Walnut leaves have been intensively used in traditional medicine, and various studies have demonstrated the antimicrobial and antioxidant properties of the extract from the walnut leaves” (Fernández-Agulló et al. 2019) “Walnut oil is a high-value oil product extracted from the walnut kernel that is used widely in food and health care, and adding walnut oil to the daily diet of patients with type 2 diabetes can improve their conditions” (P. Gao et al. 2019) “Walnut oil can affect tumour growth and metastatic potential in oesophageal cancer cells” (P. Gao et al. 2019)

Constituents: Leaves x

x x x

Phenolic compounds: 3- and 5-Caffeoylquinic acids, 3- and 4-p-coumaroylquinic acids, p-coumaric acid, quercetin 3-Ogalactoside, quercetin 3-O-pentoside derivative, quercetin 3O-arabinoside, quercetin 3-O-xyloside, and quercetin 3-Orhamnoside Flavonoids: Myricetin, epicatechin, kaempferol, rutin, catechin hydrate, isorhamnetin, quercetin, and quercetin 3-β-Dglucoside Phenolic acids: Ellagic, ferulic, gallic, and p-coumaric acid Others: Essential oils, alkaloids, and tannin

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Fruits x x x x

Fatty acids: Palmitic, stearic, oleic, linoleic, linolenic, and polyunsaturated fatty acid Mineral elements: Copper, phosphorus, and manganese Vitamins: B6, B9 and E Others: Ellagic acid, catechin, melatonin, and phytic acid

Part(s) Used: Leaf, fruit and green skin fruit. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Walnut fruit is widely used for eating, in food and in baking. Besides this, walnut oil is used as an oral and topical application for various purposes. x x

Walnut leaves can be used as herbal tea and can reduce cholesterol and glucose levels The topical application of the leaves can help against skin problems, including wounds and eczema

Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.340. Watercress Scientific Name: Nasturtium officinale L. Family: Cruciferae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-microbial, anti-worm, antiseptic, anti-cancer, antioxidant, anti-cough, anti-cold, antiasthmatic, anti-bronchitis (especially in children), anti-stress, anticoagulation, antitussive, and immunomodulatory, it is a laxative, eye tonic, heart tonic, nervous tonic, diuretic, expectorant, sedative and digestive. It promotes menstruation, it’s appetizing, it helps with urinary stone excretion, it boosts the libido, and is a blood purifier (Amiri 2012; Aline Augusti Boligon et al. 2013; Ek et al. 2018) x x

Topical application helps with the treatment of skin problems such as acne The name of watercress comes from this plant’s growth around water

Constituents: x x x x x x x

Glycosides: Gluconasturtine Vitamins: B1, B2, B3, B6, B9, C, D, E, and K Mineral elements: Iron, calcium, sodium, phosphorus, magnesium, manganese, potassium, and iodine Phenolic acids: Chlorogenic and caffeic acid Flavonoids: Rutin Essential oils: Limonene, α-terpinolene, p-cymene-8-ol, βcaryophyllene, caryophyllene oxide, and neophytadienen Others: Fibre, phenolic compounds, triterpenes, steroids, saponin, and phenylpropanoid

Part(s) Used: All parts of the plant. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Watercress is one of the most popular cruciferous vegetables consumed in the world, be it fresh, cooked in a salad, used in soup, or as a part of other recipes.

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Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x

During pregnancy, it should be avoided

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4.341. Water-hyssop, Brahmi Scientific Name: Bacopa monnieri L. Family: Plantaginaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-microbial, anti-bacterial, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anti-cancer, antitussive, antipyretic, anti-asthmatic, antidepressant, and anti-ageing, it is a nervous tonic, brain tonic, sedative, and diuretic. It promotes mental health and improves the memory; is a treatment for rheumatism pain, Parkinson’s disease, and schizophrenia; and it improves Alzheimer’s disease (Akbar 2020; Bhandari, Sendri, and Devidas 2020). x

“This plant is highly regarded in Ayurveda for its memory and mental acuity-enhancing effects” (Akbar 2020)

Constituents: x x x

Alkaloids: Brahmin Triterpenoid glycosides: Bacopasides and bacopa saponins Others: Apigenin, saponins, cucurbitacin, monnierin, her saponin, monnierasides I-III, plantain side B, D-mannitol, herpestine, and nicotine

Part(s) Used: All parts of the plant. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: “Behavioural and neuropharmacological effects of the herb and its constituents have been reported since the early 1960s, and it is used in the pharmaceutical industry for different purposes” (Akbar 2020). Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.342. Wheat Scientific Name: Triticum aestivum L. Family: Graminaceae Health Benefit(s): Antiseptic, antipyretic, anti-cancer, antioxidant, anti-Alzheimer’s, anti-anaemic, and anti-inflammatory, it is a laxative, digestive, reduces blood cholesterol, boosts the libido, and is good for heart health (Stevenson et al. 2012; Hemdane et al. 2016). x

x

“The principal health benefits of wheat grain relate to the wheat bran (the hard-outer layers of cereal grains). Bran is used in the production of brown and wholemeal flours” (Stevenson et al. 2012) “Gluten is a family of proteins in cereal grains, including wheat. Some people have difficulty tolerating this type of protein and celiac disease is an autoimmune disease in which the body mistakenly targets gluten as a foreign threat to the body, causing digestive symptoms like abdominal pain and diarrhoea. So, people with celiac disease and gluten sensitivity should avoid grains that contain gluten” (Hemdane et al. 2016)

Constituents: x x x x

Vitamins: A, B1, B3, B6, B9 and E Mineral elements: Iron, potassium, magnesium, phosphorus, zinc, and calcium Amino acids: Lysin and tryptophan Others: Lignin, phenolic acid, phytic acid, carotenoid, tocopherol, α-linoleic acid, fibre, polyphenol, phenolic acid, flavonoid, lignan, alkyl resorcinol, and phytosterol

Part(s) Used: Grain. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Wheat grains and flours are widely used in the food industry as bread, cookies, breakfast cereals, pasta, beer, cake, etc.

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Some hair and skincare products contain wheat seedling oil

Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.343. White Bryony Scientific Name: Bryonia dioica L. Family: Cucurbitaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-worm, anti-rheumatic, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anti-cancer (especially breast cancer), anti-tumour, antidiabetic, and anti-cough, it is an expectorant, a laxative, and reduces blood pressure (Benarba 2015). Constituents: x

Flavonoid, sterol, triterpenoid, cucurbitacin D, cucurbitacin E, cucurbitacin Ⅰ, cucurbitacin K, kaempferol, kaempferol glycosides, cabenoside D, bryoniosides A-G, bryodulcosigenin, bryoamaride, bryoside, elaterinide, alkaloid, and tannin

Part(s) Used: Root. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: It is used in the pharmaceutical industry. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x

This plant is toxic, just use the standard medicine following medical doctors’ recommendations

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4.344. White Hellebore Scientific Name: Veratrum album L. Family: Liliaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-worm, anti-convulsant, anti-thrombotic, anti-inflammatory, anti-depressant, anti-cancer, and an antioxidant, it reduces blood pressure, is an astringent, an eye tonic, and promotes menstruation (Dumlu et al. 2019). Constituents: x x

Alkaloids (which are the primary and essential components of this plant): Jervine, pseudo-jervine, rubijervive, veratramine, and cyclopamine Others: Stearic acid, flavonoid, and stilbenoids

Part(s) Used: Rhizome. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: It is used in some medicine. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x x

This plant is toxic, just use the standard medicine following medical doctors’ recommendations During pregnancy, it should be avoided

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4.345. White Sandalwood Scientific Name: Santalum album L. Family: Santalaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-worm, anti-bacterial, anti-fungal, anti-viral, antiseptic, anti-inflammatory, antipyretic, antitussive, anti-stress, anti-cough, anti-depressant, anti-cancer, and anti-tumour, it is an astringent, sedative, carminative, heart tonic, diuretic, diaphoretic and expectorant. It is appetizing and is used as a treatment for bronchitis (Kusuma and Mahfud 2018; G. R. Kumar et al. 2019). x x x x

“The volatile oil distilled from sandalwood derived from the heartwood is a colourless to yellowish viscous liquid, and has a heavy sweet odour” (G. R. Kumar et al. 2019) “For more than five decades, India has been the traditional sandalwood oil production leader for perfumery and pharmaceuticals” (G. R. Kumar et al. 2019) “The use of sandalwood oil in the treatment of skin problems is legendary. It is an excellent moisturizer and nourishes all types of skins” (G. R. Kumar et al. 2019) “Sandalwood has been used for healing wounds, scars, eczema, psoriasis, rashes and acne” (G. R. Kumar et al. 2019)

Constituents: x

x x

Essential oils: α-Santalol, β-santalol, camphene, α-pinene, βocimene, α-terpinene, α-curcumene, α-farnesene, β-patchoulene, β-santalene, α-guaiene, seychellene, α-patchoulene, γ-elemene, and α-bergamotol Fatty acids: Palmitic, santalbic, and oleic acid Others: Stearic acid, flavonoid, and stilbenoids

Part(s) Used: Bark. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The sweet powerful and lasting odour make sandalwood oil useful in the perfume industry (sandalwood oil has exceptional stability, and provides the perfume with its best fixative property), soaps, candles, incense and cosmetic products.

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Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.346. White Water Lily, Water Lily Scientific Name: Nymphaea alba L. Family: Nymphaeaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-microbial, anti-fungal, antiviral, anti-convulsant, anti-diabetic, anti-Alzheimer’s, anti-stress, anti-depressant, anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer, anti-tumour, antioxidant, antitussive, anti-spasmodic, anti-diarrhoea, anti-wound, anti-bronchitis, and anti-neoplastic (i.e., it is used as a treatment of metastatic colon, leukaemia, lung and prostate cancer). It is also a sedative and an astringent (Cudalbeanu et al. 2019). Constituents: x

x

Flavonoids and polyphenols: Quercetin, apigenin, caffeic acid, ferulic acid, quinic acid, p-coumaric acid, gallic acid, ellagic acid, rutin, naringenin, naringin, catechin, epicatechin, orientin, luteolin, vanillic acid, chlorogenic acid, and tannic acid Others: Isoprenoids, alkaloid, sterol, saponin, tannin, castalin, corilagin, and brevifolin

Part(s) Used: All parts of the plant. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Water lily is used in the pharmaceutical industry for different purposes. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x

Just use standard products following medical doctors’ recommendations

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4.347. Wild Lettuce Scientific Name: Lactuca virosa L. Family: Compositae Health Benefit(s): Anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and antitussive, it is a diuretic, laxative, and sedative. It also reduces blood glucose (Gromek et al. 1992). x

“Dried brown latex from the aerial part of this plant known as the ‘lactucarium’ or ‘lettuce opium’” (Gromek et al. 1992)

Constituents: x

Sesquiterpene lactones: Lactucin, jacquinelin, lactucopicrin, 8-desoxylactucin, and lactuside A

Part(s) Used: Leaf and latex. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: Wild lettuce is used in some analgesic medicine to relieve pain and inflammations. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x

Just use standard products following medical doctors’ recommendations

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4.348. Wild Thyme Scientific Name: Thymus serpyllum L. Family: Labiatae, Lamiaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-microbial, anti-worm, anti-convulsant, antiseptic, anti-asthmatic, anti-bronchitis, antitussive, anti-rheumatic, anti-spasmodic, anti-cough, anti-cold, anti-migraine, anti-cancer, and an antioxidant, it is a carminative, diuretic, nervous tonic, stomach tonic, liver tonic, and digestive. It is appetizing, helps with urinary stones excretion, enhances the eyes, and reduces blood pressure (Aćimović et al. 2019). x

It is used in traditional medicine mainly for treating illnesses and problems related to the respiratory and gastrointestinal systems

Constituents: x

x x x

Essential oils: Germacrene D-4-ol, α-humulene, trans-β-farnesene, α-farnesene, α-pinene, β-pinene, myrcene, δ-cadinene, camphene, α-phellandrene, p-cymene, limonene, trans-β-ocimene, γ-terpinene, linalool, camphor, thymol, trans-caryophyllene, caryophyllene oxide, γ-muurolene, αmuurolene, and trans-nerolidol Vitamins: A, B2, B3, B9, C, D, E and K Mineral elements: Phosphorus, calcium, iron, sodium, magnesium, potassium, zinc, manganese, sulphur, and chlorine Others: Carotene, tannin, riboflavin, flavonoid, and fibre

Part(s) Used: Leaf and flower. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The fresh and dried leaf and flower can be used as herbal tea, as a spice in food and salads, and in some medicine. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x

During pregnancy, it should be avoided

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Some people using it for a long time may develop an allergy

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4.349. Willow, White Willow Scientific Name: Salix alba L. Family: Salicaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-microbial, antiseptic, anti-infection, antipyretic, anti-cough, anti-allergic, antioxidant, antitussive, antiinflammatory, anti-rheumatic, anti-Alzheimer’s, and immunomodulatory. It is a carminative, stomach tonic, liver tonic, and bone tonic; it helps with weight management and combatting obesity; and it is a treatment for skin disease (Shara and Stohs 2015; Maistro et al. 2019). x x

“Use of willow bark extract to treat pain and fever was reported in 1763 in England” (Shara and Stohs 2015) “White willow bark extract is widely used for conditions associated with pain, inflammation, or fever, such as joint or knee pain, acute back pain, osteoarthritis, headaches, menstrual cramps, tendonitis, flu symptoms (including fever), and generalized pain” (Shara and Stohs 2015)

Constituents: x

x

Salicylate compounds: Salicin (the main component), saligenin, salicylic acid, isosalicin, salidroside, picein, triandrin, salicoylsalicin, salicortin, isosalipurpuroside, and salipurpuroside Others: Polyphenolics, flavonoid, catechin, amelopsin, taxifolin, 7-O-methyltaxifolin-3’-O-glucoside, 7-O-methyltaxifolin, and tannin

Part(s) Used: Bark. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: It has applications in medicines such as aspirin, and is also used in sports performance products and weight control. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.350. Witch Hazel, Hamamelis Scientific Name: Hamamelis virginiana L. Family: Hamamelidaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-viral, anti-inflammatory, antitussive, antiacne, anti-diaphoretic, antiperspirant, anti-haemorrhoid, antioxidant, and anti-mutagenic. It is a wound treatment and skin tonic; it is also a treatment of skin problems such as acne, eczema and psoriasis. It is an astringent, helps with blood coagulation, and improves blood circulation (Theisen et al. 2014). Constituents: x x

The bark is rich in tannins such as epi-catechin, epi-gallocatechin moieties, and hamamelitannin Others: Gallic acid and tannic acid pentagalloylglucose

Part(s) Used: Bark and leaf. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: It is used in some skin and hair care products. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x x

During pregnancy and lactation, it should be avoided In some case, it can cause allergies

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4.351. Withania, Ashwagandha, Indian Ginseng Scientific Name: Withania somnifera L. Family: Solanaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-bacterial, anti-viral, anti-fungal, antiparasitic, anti-anaemic, anti-inflammatory, antitussive, anti-herpes, antipyretic, anti-arthritis, anti-bronchitis, anti-asthmatic, antioxidant, anti-tumour, anti-cancer, anti-convulsant, anti-spasmodic, and antistress. It is a treatment for menstrual problems, Parkinson’s disease, chronic liver disease, schizophrenia, and neurological disorders. It boosts the libido, enhances one’s energy, and reduces blood pressure and blood sugar. It is rejuvenating, immunomodulatory, a sedative, a diuretic, and it improves both brain activity and fertility problems in men and women (Bhasin, M. Singh, and and Singh 2019). Constituents: x x x

Alkaloids: Isopelletierine, cuseohygrine, anahygrine, and anaferine Steroidal lactones: Withaferin A, withanolides, withanolide A, and withanolide D Others: Saponin, steroids, tannin, phenol, glycosides, terpenoids, and flavonoids

Part(s) Used: Leaf, fruit and root. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: It is used in some medicine. Its products include pills, capsules, extracts and root powder. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x

The plant should not be used directly, just use standard products following medical doctors’ recommendations

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4.352. Woody Nightshade, Bittersweet Scientific Name: Solanum dulcamara L. Family: Solanaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-viral, anti-bacterial, anti-microbial, antiseptic, anti-cancer, antitussive, antipyretic, anti-inflammatory, anti-asthmatic, anti-psoriasis, and anti-herpes, it is an astringent, a diuretic, sedative, diaphoretic, heart tonic, expectorant, and it reduces blood sugars (P. Kumar, B. Sharma, and Bakshi 2009; Sabudak, O. Kaya, and Cukurova 2015). x

Woody nightshade is a poisonous plant that has a long history of use for the treatment of skin diseases, rheumatism, cancers, warts, tumours, and felons (P. Kumar, B. Sharma, and Bakshi 2009)

Constituents: x x

Alkaloids: Solanine (from the fruit), solasodine (from the flower), and β-solamarine (from the root) Others: Flavonoid, triterpene, steroidal glycosides, steroids, steroidal saponins, alkaloid glycosides, biflavonoid, β-sitosterol, tannin, and lycopene

Part(s) Used: Leaf, fruit and root. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: It is used in the pharmaceutical industry. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x x

All parts of this plant are very toxic, just use traditional medicine following a medical doctor’s recommendation During pregnancy and lactation, it should be avoided

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4.353. Wormwood Scientific Name: Artemisia absinthium L. Family: Compositae Health Benefit(s): Anti-worm, anti-fungal, anti-microbial, antiseptic, antipyretic, anti-depressant, anti-inflammatory, antispasmodic, anti-tumour, anti-cancer, antioxidant, anti-malaria, antiobesity, and anti-fertility, it is a tonic, carminative, digestive, and diuretic. It improves blood circulation, promotes menstruation, and relieves rheumatism pain. It is immunomodulatory, neuroprotective, and appetizing (Bhat et al. 2019). x

“This plant has been developed towards a ‘general remedy for all diseases’. The internal parasite-expelling activity of wormwood was mentioned in an Egyptian scroll that is 3,600 years old” (Bhat et al. 2019)

Constituents: x x x

x x x x

Flavonoids: Rutin, quercetin, quercetin-3-O-D-glucoside, isoquercitrin, quercitin-3-O-rhamnoglucoside, isorhamnetin-3-glucoside, and isorhamnetin-3-O-rhamnoglucoside Phenolic acids: Syringic, chlorogenic, caffeic, ferulic, sinapic, p-hydroxyphenyl acetic, vanillic, salicylic, and p-coumaric acid Essential oils: α-Thujone, β-thujone, α-pinene, β-pinene, limonene, camphene, p-cymene, 1,8-cineol, methyl heptanone, β-phellandrene, caryophyllene oxide, α-terpineol, geraniol, caryophyllene, α-himachalene, α-cardinene, and elemol Sesquiterpene lactones: Artemetin, artabin, matricin, isoabsinthin, and artemolin Bitter principles: Artamarin, artamaridin, artamaridinin, artamarinin quebrachitol, and artemitin Glucosides: Absinthin and anabsinthin Others: Terpenoid, coumarin, polyphenolic, caffeoylquinic acids, sterol, and acetylenes

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Part(s) Used: Leaf and flower. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: “Wormwood is grown as an ornamental plant and is used as an ingredient in the spirit absinthe and some other alcoholic drinks (including different liqueurs, wines and vermouth). By the early twenty-first century, nearly 200 brands of absinthe were being produced in a dozen countries, most notably in France, Switzerland, Australia, Spain, and the Czech Republic” (Bhat et al. 2019). Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x x x x

During pregnancy, it should be avoided Use for children under the age of 18 should be avoided Just use standard products following a medical doctor’s recommendation This plant has a negative interaction with alcohol, anti-angiogenic and anti-arrhythmic medicine

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4.354. Ylang-Ylang Scientific Name: Cananga odorata L. Family: Annonaceae Health Benefit(s): Antiseptic, anti-microbial, antioxidant, antistress, anti-phobias, and anti-trauma, it is a sedative, and boosts the libido (Mallavarapu, Gurudutt, and Syamasundar 2016). x x

“The essential oils of Ylang-Ylang have a relaxing effect, for instance during a massage” (Mallavarapu, Gurudutt, and Syamasundar 2016) “Ylang-Ylang oil is one of the essential oils which has been in use as a flavouring agent for a very long time” (Mallavarapu, Gurudutt, and Syamasundar 2016)

Constituents: x

Essential oils: p-Methyl anisole, methyl benzoate, linalool, benzyl acetate, geranyl acetate, (E)-cinnamyl acetate, (E)caryophyllene, germacrene D, (E, E)-α-farnesene, benzyl benzoate, and benzyl salicylate

Part(s) Used: Flower. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The essential oils of this plant are a highly fragrant oil of great value in the cosmetics, soap, aromatherapy and perfume industries. It is particularly valuable in the production of high-grade perfumes. x x x

Ylang-Ylang oil has been used in food products as a food additive and flavouring agent for more than 100 years The oil is used for flavouring alcoholic and non-alcoholic beverages, baked goods, chewing gum, gelatine, puddings, and ice cream, as well as hard and soft candies In trade, five grades of Ylang-Ylang oils are recognized: 1. 2. 3.

Ylang-Ylang extra Ylang-Ylang first Ylang-Ylang second

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4. 5.

Ylang-Ylang third Ylang-Ylang extra super

“These oil grades are obtained by collecting the fractions at different time intervals during steam or hydro distillation of the mature flowers. The physicochemical and odour characteristics of these grades vary slightly. The oils of different super, extra, and first grades collected early during distillation are superior in terms of aroma. They contain more volatile components and the other qualities that are rich in less volatile components” (Mallavarapu, Gurudutt, and Syamasundar 2016) Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.355. Yarrow Scientific Name: Achillea millefolium L. Family: Compositae Health Benefit(s): Anti-viral, anti-bacterial, anti-worm, antiseptic, antitussive, anti-inflammatory, anti-proliferative against human tumour cells, antioxidant, anti-spasmodic, and antipyretic, it is a diuretic, carminative, diaphoretic, an astringent, expectorant, and a sedative. It is appetizing, promotes menstruation, reduces blood sugar and blood pressure, is a stomach tonic, treats wounds, stops blood flow, treats kidney diseases, and has urinary antiseptic properties (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007; Hussein, Al-Ezzy, and Abdallah 2019). x

“Traditionally, it has been used for bruises, swellings, strains, fevers, the common cold, essential hypertension, amenorrhoea, dysentery, diarrhoea, and specifically for thrombotic conditions with hypertension, including cerebral and coronary thromboses” (Joanne Barnes et al. 2007)

Constituents: x x x x x x x

Fatty acids: Linoleic, myristic, oleic, palmitic, and stearic acid Acids: Ascorbic, caffeic, folic, salicylic, and succinic acid Alkaloids: Pyrrolidine, pyridine, betaine, choline, achiceine, and achilleine Flavonoids: Artemetin, casticin, isorhamnetin, and rutin Essential oils: Camphor, 1,8-cineol, eucalyptol, limonene, sabinene, terpinene-4-ol, terpineol, α-thujone, achillicin, achillin, millefin, and millefolide Sugars: Arabinose, galactose, dextrose, dulcitol, inositol, maltose, mannitol, and sucrose Others: Tannin

Part(s) Used: Leaf and flower. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: This plant is used in different ways in the pharmaceutical, cosmetic, and fragrance industries.

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Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects. x

During pregnancy and lactation, it should be avoided

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4.356. Yellow Goat's Beard Scientific Name: Tragopogon pratensis L. Family: Compositae Health Benefit(s): Anti-microbial, anti-inflammatory, antirheumatic, anti-tumour, anti-cough, and antitussive, it is an astringent, a stomach tonic, liver tonic (and liver protector), it is an expectorant, and a diuretic. It is appetizing, wound healing, reduces blood cholesterol, and treats warts and stomach ache (Abdalla and Zidorn 2020). x

“‘Zakariya Razi’, the Iranian physician and scholar, used this plant's root as a poison antidote and its extract to treat skin scars” (Abdalla and Zidorn 2020)

Constituents: x x x x x x

Flavonoids: Apigenin, luteolin, quercetin, and quercetin 3O-β-D-glucoside Flavonoid-C-glycosides: Iso-vitexin, iso-orientin, swertisin, vitexin, and orientin Phenolic acids: Benzoic, gallic, vanillic, syringic, salicylic, gentisic, caffeic, p-coumaric, ferulic, and sinapic acid Vitamins: A and C Mineral elements: Calcium, phosphorus, and potassium Others: Tormentic acid ester glucoside, tragopogonosides A-1, mucilage, and bitter compounds

Part(s) Used: All parts of the plant. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The leaves can be used as a fresh vegetable in salads or other food, in chewing gum, and in drinks. It has also been used as a lotion to manage coyote bites. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: Usage, as indicated, will not lead to unwanted side effects.

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4.357. Yew Scientific Name: Taxus baccata L. Family: Taxaceae Health Benefit(s): Anti-cancer (main use), anti-spasmodic, anticough, and anti-rheumatic, it is a diaphoretic and a laxative (Malik et al. 2011; Kajani et al. 2016). Constituents: x

x x

Alkaloids: “Taxol is the leading and essential alkaloid in this plant, and is one of the most successful anti-cancer drugs developed in the past 50 years. Taxol is one of the most important chemotherapeutic agents approved by the FDA to treat breast, ovary, and lung cancer. A compound, it belongs to the naturally occurring class of diterpenes known as taxanes, comprised of approximately 350 identified forms extracted originally from yew trees” (Malik et al. 2011) Mineral elements: Nitrogen, potassium, phosphorus, manganese, zinc, molybdenum, and boron Others: Lignan, flavonoid, steroids, carotenoid in fruit, and rhodoxanthin

Part(s) Used: Leaf, bark and fruit. Herbal and/or Commercial Use: The yew tree is widely used in cancer treatments and as an anti-cancer medicine. Side Effects, Toxicity and Warnings: It should only be used following medical doctors’ recommendations in the form of standard products. x

This plant is very toxic, and direct use should be avoided

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CHAPTER FIVE Classification of Medicinal Plants

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Classification of Medicinal Plants Medicinal and aromatics plants may be classified in various ways, such as based on their use (medicinal herbs, culinary herbs, aromatic herbs, ornamental herbs etc.), their active constituents or chemotaxonomic properties (bitter compounds, tannins, volatile oils etc.), their period of life, and their botanical taxonomy. Medicinal plants can also be classified based on their habit (herb, shrub, liners, climbers, trees, etc.), nutrition, and habitat (Alamgir, 2017). According to their longevity or life cycle, medicinal plants or herbs are classified as annuals, biennials, or perennials. Annuals complete their life cycle in one season or year and then die (anis, basil, borage, calendula, chamomile, saffron, etc.); biennials live for two years or seasons (caraway, teasel, etc.) and bloom in the second season; and perennials live over winter and bloom in each season (alfalfa, aloe vera, lavender, lemon balm, mint, thyme, etc.). x

Botanical Classification or Taxonomy of Medicinal Plants Families

All medicinal and aromatics plants produce chemical compounds like secondary metabolites and pigments, and botanical or taxonomic identity of medicinal plants is necessary for their effective therapeutic use. Plant classification, taxonomy (giving names to things in a way that reflects their type), phylogeny (the hierarchical evolutionary structure by which every life-form is related to every other life-form), and systematics (the variety of plants and animals according to their phylogeny) are interrelated terms describing the procedure of arranging of organisms into groups. Systematics is an essential tool in pharmacognostic practice. Research and knowledge about the systematic position of a particular plant may be helpful with guessing the probable presence of secondary metabolites in it; for example, many members of the Apiaceae

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family contain essential oils, there are highly aromatic compounds in the Lamiaceae family, there is a strong presence of alkaloids in Solanaceae and Papaveraceae plants, and tannins in members of the Sapindaceae family. x

Systems of Plant Classification: Artificial, Natural and Phylogenetic

Regarding the artificial or mechanical system, only one or a few characters were used to group taxa; for the natural system, many characters were used; while in the phylogenetic system, the evolutionary relationship among taxa was considered in addition to all possible characters from the morphology, anatomy, cytology, biochemistry, and physiology of the concerned group of plants.

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REFERENCES Alamgir, A. N. M. “Pharmacognostical Botany: Classification of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (MAPs), Botanical Taxonomy, Morphology, and Anatomy of Drug Plants.” In Therapeutic Use of Medicinal Plants and Their Extracts: Volume 1, edited by A. N. M. Alamgir (2017), 177–293. Cham: Springer International Publishing. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-63862-1_6.

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MEDICINAL PLANTS INDEX: ENGLISH NAME Name Abrus Aconite Adonis African Cardamom Agnus Castus Agrimonia Agrimony Ajowan Ajwan Alder Buckthorn Alfalfa Alkekengi Almond Aloe Aloe Vera Althaea Alyssum Ammoniacum Angelica Anise Apple Apricot Arabian Jasmine Arctic Root Arnica Artichoke Asafoetida Ash, Manna Ash Ashwagandha Asian Pigeon Wings Asparagus Assyrian Plum Aubergine Avocado Avocat Bael Balloon Vine Balm

Page Number 587 24 26 136 465 28 28 30 30 283 32 537 35 37 37 442 40 251 42 45 47 48 603 311 49 52 54 58 718 55 60 208 256 61 61 364 63 401

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Name Banana Barberry Barley Basil Bastard Teak Bay Leaf Bean Bear’s Garlic Bearberry Beccabunga Belladonna Bengal Kino Bengal Quince Berberis Bergamot Betony Bilberry Birch Bisamstrauch Bistort Biting Stonecrop Bitter Gourd Bitter Melon Bitter Orange Bittersweet Black Bryony Black Cardamom Black Cohosh Black Cumin Black Hellebore Black Mulberry Black Mustard Black Nightshade Black Pepper Black Truffle Blackberry Blessed Thistle Blue Gum Tree Blueberry Bogbean

Page Number 66 67 69 71 74 394 77 574 79 105 81 74 364 67 84 326 85 87 478 89 693 462 462 627 720 91 136 93 95 179 474 482 97 530 678 99 347 266 85 107

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Name Borage Brahmi Broad Beans Brooklime Brown Cardamom Buckbean Buckthorn Buckwheat Burdock Burnet Butcher's Broom Butterbur Butterfly Pea Cabbage Cacao Cacao Tree Calamus Calendula Caltrops Camphire Camphor Camphor Tree Candy Leaf Caper Caper Bush Capsicum Caraway Cardamom Carob Carrot Cassia Senna Castor Oil Plant Cat’s Valerian Catalonian Jasmine Catmint Catnip Cayenne Pepper Celandine Celery Centaury

Page Number 100 699 103 105 136 107 109 111 114 116 118 119 55 121 123 123 649 125 128 344 129 129 637 131 131 133 134 136 138 140 617 142 683 144 146 146 133 148 151 154

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Name Ceylon Leadwort Chaff Flower Chamomile Chaste Tree Chasteberry Chebulic Myrobalan Cherry Chestnut Chickpea Chicory Chili Pepper Chinaberry Chitraka Christ Thorn Christmas Rose Christ's Thorn Jujube Cinchona Cinnamon Clasping Pepper Weed Clove Clubmoss Cluster Fig Cocaine Tree Coconut Coffee Coffee Beans Colchicum Colocynth Colocynthis Coltsfoot Columbine Comfrey Common Bean Common Buckthorn Common Buckwheat Common Butterbur Common Comfrey Common Couch Common Dodder Common Hazel

Page Number 157 159 161 465 465 164 166 167 170 171 133 174 157 177 179 652 570 181 40 183 185 187 189 191 193 193 196 197 197 199 201 203 77 109 111 119 203 217 246 332

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Name Common Mallow Common Mango Common Peony Common Purslane Common Violet Conium Cordia Coriander Corn Corn Poppy Cornelian Cherry Costmary Couch Grass Cowberry Cowslip Cranberry Croton Seeds Cuckoopint Cucumber Cumin Curcuma Cuscuta Damask Rose Dandelion Date Palm Dead Nettle Devil's Claw Digitalis Dill Dodder Dog Rose Dorema Drumstick Tree Dwarf Elder Ecballium Eggplant Elder Elecampane Ergot of Rye Estragon

Page Number 432 434 528 566 689 206 208 210 427 583 212 215 217 219 221 223 224 226 228 229 232 246 234 237 239 241 242 243 244 246 249 251 252 258 255 256 258 262 264 658

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Name Eucalyptus European Elderberry European Pennyroyal Evening Primrose Farfara Fava Beans Fennel Fenugreek Field Melilot Fig Flax Flaxseed Flixweed Fragrant Screw Pine Frangula Frankincense French Tamarisk Fumitory Galangal Galbanum Garden Cress Garden Nasturtium Garden Peony Garden Plum Garland Thorn Garlic Garlic Mustard Gentian Geranium Rosat German Chamomile Ginger Ginkgo Ginseng Globe Thistle Goat's Rue Golden Root Goldenseal Goldmoss Stonecrop Gooseberry Gotu Kola

Page Number 266 258 268 270 199 103 272 274 446 277 414 414 278 280 283 506 284 286 288 290 292 490 528 550 177 294 296 298 300 161 302 304 307 676 309 311 313 693 314 316

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Name Grape Grape Vine Grapefruit Greater Celandine Greater Galangal Green Chiretta Green Pepper Ground Nut Guduchi Guggul Gulancha Tinospora Gum Acacia Gum Ammoniac Gum Arabic Gum Asafoetida Hairy Tea Hamamelis Haritaki Harmel Hawthorn Hazelnut Hazelnut Kernels Heart-leaved Moonseed Heartsease Hedge Hyssop Hedge Nettle Hemlock Hemp Henbane Henna Holly Holy Thistle Hops Horehound Marrubium Horseradish Horsetail Plant Hypericum Hyssop Iceland Moss Indian Abutilon

Page Number 318 318 320 148 288 322 530 523 334 366 334 324 324 324 54 326 716 164 328 330 332 332 334 691 336 338 206 340 342 344 346 347 349 351 353 355 634 357 360 362

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Name Indian Bael Indian Bdellium Tree Indian Blackberry Indian Ginseng Indian Gooseberry Indigo Plant Inula Ispaghula Ivy Java Plum Jerusalem Artichoke Jujube Tree Juniper Kaki Khatmi Kidney Vetch Kiwi Knot Grass Kutki Lady’s Bedstraw Lady's Mantle Land Caltrops Laurel Laurel Tree Lavender Lemon Balm Lemongrass Lemon Verbena Lemon, Lime Lentil Lentisk Pistacia Lettuce Leuzea Lily of the Valley Linden Lingonberry Lingzhi Mushroom Linseed Liquorice Lovage

Page Number 364 366 375 718 369 371 262 544 373 375 377 379 381 383 442 385 387 389 539 390 392 128 394 394 396 401 403 687 399 405 406 408 438 409 410 219 412 414 416 418

815 | H E R B S F O R H E A L T H

Name Lungwort Lichen Madder Mahaleb Cherry Maidenhair Maize Malabar Nut Male Fern Mallow Mango Manne of Alhagi Manne of Perse Maral Root Marjoram Marsh Trefoil Marshmallow Mastic Tree Meadowsweet Melilot Trifoil Melissa Mexican Prickly Poppy Mezereon Mezereum Milk Thistle Mint Mistletoe Miswak Moldavian Balm Moldavian Dragonhead Momordica Monk’s Pepper Monk's Rhubarb Monkshood Motherwort Motia Mountain Ash Mountain Holly Mountain Tobacco Mugwort Mukul Myrrh Tree Mulberry

Page Number 420 422 423 425 427 429 431 432 434 436 436 438 440 107 442 406 444 446 401 448 452 452 454 456 458 450 460 460 462 465 467 24 469 603 592 346 49 472 366 474

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Name Mullein Musk Willow Musk-mallow Mustard Myrtle Nasturtium Neem Nettle Nutmeg Oak Oats Okra Oleaster Olibanum Olive Onion Opium Poppy Orange Orchis Oregano Oriental Plane Leaf Tree Papaya Parsley Parsnip Pasque Flower Passion Passion Flower Peach Peanut Pear Pennyroyal Peony Rose Peppermint Periwinkle Persian Manna Persian Turpentine Tree Persimmon Pheasant’s Eye Physalis Picrorhiza

Page Number 477 481 478 482 487 490 492 495 498 500 501 502 504 506 508 510 512 514 515 440 548 517 519 520 559 521 521 524 523 526 268 528 533 535 436 506 383 26 537 539

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Name Pine Cone Pineapple Pink Pepper Pistachio Plantago Plantain Plane Tree Plum Poison Hemlock Poly Germander Polypody Pomegranate Pot Marigold Potato Psyllium Pulsatilla Pumpkin Purging Cassia Purging Croton Purple Betony Purple Coneflower Purple Foxglove Purslane Queen of the Meadow Quince Quinine Quinquina Radish Ramsons Raspberry Real Thyme Red Clover Red Pepper Red Poppy Rhodiola Rhubarb Rice Rock Cherry Rosary Pea Rose Hip

Page Number 541 542 589 543 544 546 548 550 206 551 553 555 125 557 544 559 561 562 224 338 565 243 566 444 568 570 570 572 574 577 579 581 133 583 311 584 586 423 587 249

818 | H E R B S F O R H E A L T H

Name Rose Pepper Rosemary Roseroot Rose-Scented Geranium Rowan Rue Russian Olive Safflower Saffron Salad Burnet Sambac Jasmine Sand Cherry Sanicle Savin Savory Saw Palmetto Sacred Tree Scurvygrass Sea Berry Sea Buckthorn Self-Heal Senna Senna Makkai Sesame Shepherd’s Purse Shiitake Mushroom Silverweed Soapwort Soja Sorrel Sour Orange Soya Soybean Spanish Jasmine Spearmint Spinach Squirting Cucumber St John's Wort Star Anise Stevia

Page Number 589 591 311 300 592 595 504 597 599 116 603 605 607 609 610 611 74 353 613 613 615 617 617 619 621 623 625 626 630 467 627 630 630 144 456 632 255 634 636 637

819 | H E R B S F O R H E A L T H

Name Stinking Asa Stramonium Strawberry Succory Sumac Summer Savory Sundew Sunflower Sweet Bay Sweet Cherry Sweet Flag Sweet Marjoram Sweet Orange Sweet Sedge Sweet Violet Swertia Sycamore Tree Syrischer Christusdorn Tamarind Tanner’s Sumac Tansy Tarragon Tea Tea Tree Teasel Thistle Thorn-Apple Three Colour Violet Thyme Toadflax Tobacco Tomato Toothbrush Tree Trehala Manna Truffle Mushroom Turmeric Turnip Uva-Ursi Valerian Vanilla

Page Number 54 666 639 171 641 610 643 645 394 166 649 440 514 649 689 647 548 652 654 641 657 658 659 662 664 676 666 691 669 671 673 675 450 676 678 232 681 79 683 685

820 | H E R B S F O R H E A L T H

Name Verbena Violet Wall Pepper Walnut Water Lily Watercress Water-hyssop Wheat White Bryony White Butterbur White Dead Nettle White Hellebore White Leadwort White Mulberry White Mustard White Pepper White Sandalwood White Water Lily White Willow Wild Carrot Wild Chamomile Wild Garlic Wild Lettuce Wild Pensy Wild Saffron Wild Thyme Willow Witch Hazel Withania Wood Betony Wood Sanicle Woody Nightshade Wormwood Yarrow Yellow Bedstraw Yellow Gentian Yellow Goat's Beard Yellow Melilot Yellow Mustard Yellow Sweet Clover

Page Number 687 689 693 695 709 697 699 701 703 119 241 705 157 476 484 530 707 709 714 140 161 574 711 691 196 712 714 716 718 326 607 720 721 727 390 298 729 446 484 446

821 | H E R B S F O R H E A L T H

Name Yellow Toadflax Yew Ylang-Ylang

Page Number 671 731 724

MEDICINAL PLANTS INDEX: SCIENTIFIC NAME Name Abelmoschus moschatus Medik Abrus precatorius L. Abutilon indicum L. Sweet Acacia nilotica Acacia senegal Achillea millefolium L. Achyranthes aspera L. Aconitum napellus L. Acorus calamus L. Actinidia deliciosa Adiantum capillus-veneris L. Adonis vernalis L. Aegle marmelos L. Agrimonia eupatoria L. Agropyron repens L. Alchemilla vulgaris L. Alhagi camelorum Alhagi maurorum Alhagi pseudoalhagi Alliaria petiolata Allium akaka L. Allium cepa L. Allium sativum L. Allium ursinum L. Aloe barbadensis Aloe capensis Aloe vera Alpinia galanga L. Althaea officinalis L. Alyssum homolocarpum

Page Number 478 587 362 324 324 727 159 24 649 387 425 26 364 28 217 392 436 436 436 296 574 510 294 574 37 37 37 288 442 40

822 | H E R B S F O R H E A L T H

Name Amygdalus communis L. Ananas comosus Andrographis paniculata Anemone pulsatilla L. Anethum graveolens L. Angelica archangelica Anthyllis vulneraria L. Apium graveolens L. Aquilegia vulgaris L. Arachis hypogaea L. Archangelica officinalis Arctium lappa L. Arctostaphylos uva-ursi L. Argemone mexicana L. Armeniaca vulgaris Armoracia rusticana Arnica montana L. Artemisia absinthium L. Artemisia dracunculus L. Artemisia vulgaris L. Arum maculatum L. Asparagus officinale L. Asparagus officinalis L. Atropa belladonna L. Avena sativa L. Azadirachta indica Bacopa monnieri L. Berberis vulgaris L. Betula pendula Borago officinalis L. Brassica napus Brassica nigra L. Brassica oleracea L. Brassica rapa Bryonia dioica L. Butea monosperma L. Calendula officinalis L. Camellia sinensis Cananga odorata L. Cannabis sativa L.

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823 | H E R B S F O R H E A L T H

Name Capparis spinosa L. Capsella bursa-pastoris L. Capsicum annuum L. Capsicum frutescens L. Cardiospermum halicacabum L. Carica papaya L. Carthamus tinctorius L. Carum carvi L. Cassia angustifolia Cassia fistula L. Castanea sativa Centaurium erythraea Centaurium minus Centella asiatica L. Cerasus avium L. Cerasus mahaleb L. Ceratonia siliqua L. Cetraria islandica Chelidonium majus L. Chrysanthemum balsamita Cicer arietinum L. Cichorium intybus L. Cimicifuga racemosa L. Cinchona calisaya L. Cinchona officinalis L. Cinchona succirubra Cinnamomum camphora L. Cinnamomum verum Cinnamomum zeylanicum Citrullus colocynthis L. Citrus aurantifolia Citrus aurantium Citrus bergamia Citrus bigaradia Citrus lemon Citrus limonum Citrus paradisi Citrus sinensis Claviceps purpurea Clitoria ternatea L.

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824 | H E R B S F O R H E A L T H

Name Cnicus benedictus L. Cochlearia armoracia Cocos nucifera L. Coffea arabica L. Colchicum autumnale L. Commiphora wightii L. Conium maculatum L. Convallaria majalis L. Cordia myxa L. Coriandrum sativum L. Cornus mas L. Corylus avellana L. Crataegus oxyacantha L. Crocus sativus L. Croton tiglium L. Cucumis sativus L. Cucurbita pepo Cuminum cyminum L. Curcuma longa L. Cuscuta chinesis Cuscuta epithymum Cydonia oblonga Cymbopogon flexuosus Cynara cardunculus L. Cynara scolymus L. Daphne mezereum L. Datura metel L. Datura stramonium L. Daucus carota L. Descurainia sophia L. Digitalis purpurea L. Diospyros kaki L. Dipsacus fullonum L. Dorema ammoniacum Dracocephalum moldavica L. Drosera rotundifolia L. Dryopteris filix-mas L. Ecballium elaterium L. Echinacea angustifolia Echinacea purpurea

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825 | H E R B S F O R H E A L T H

Name Echinops adenocaulos L. Echinops cephalotes L. Echinops ritro L. Elaeagnus angustifolia L. Elettaria cardamomum Ephedra distachya L. Ephedra sinica Equisetum arvense L. Erythraea centaurium Erythroxylum coca Eucalyptus citriodora Eucalyptus globulus Eugenia caryophyllus Faba vulgaris Fagopyrum cymosum L. Fagopyrum esculentum L. Fagopyrum tataricum L. Ferula asafoetida L. Ferula gummosa Ficus carica L. Ficus racemosa L. Filipendula ulmaria L. Foeniculum vulgare Fragaria vesca L. Frangula alnus Fraxinus ornus L. Fumaria officinalis L. Galega officinalis L. Galium verum L. Ganoderma lucidum Gentiana lutea L. Ginkgo biloba L. Glycine hispida Glycine soja Glycyrrhiza glabra L. Gratiola officinalis L. Hamamelis virginiana L. Harpagophytum procumbens Hedera helix L. Helianthus annuus L.

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826 | H E R B S F O R H E A L T H

Name Helianthus tuberosus L. Helleborus niger L. Hibiscus esculentus L. Hippophae rhamnoides L. Hordeum vulgare Humulus lupulus L. Hydrastis canadensis L. Hyoscyamus niger L. Hypericum perforatum L. Hyssopus officinalis L. Ilex aquifolium L. Illicium verum Indigofera tinctoria L. Inula helenium L. Jasminum grandiflorum L. Jasminum sambac Juglans regia L. Juniperus communis L. Juniperus sabina L. Justicia adhatoda L. Lactuca sativa L. Lactuca virosa L. Lamium album L. Laurus nobilis L. Lavandula angustifolia Lavandula officinalis Lawsonia inermis L. Lens culinaris Lentinus edodes Leonurus cardiaca L. Lepidium perfoliatum Lepidium sativum L. Leuzea carthamoides Levisticum officinale Linaria vulgaris Linum usitatissimum L. Lippia citriodora Lobaria pulmonaria Lycopersicum esculentum Lycopodium clavatum L.

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827 | H E R B S F O R H E A L T H

Name Malus orientalis Malva sylvestris L. Mangifera indica L. Marrubium vulgare L. Matricaria chamomilla L. Medicago sativa L. Melaleuca alternifolia Melia azedarach L. Melilotus officinalis L. Melissa officinalis L. Mentha piperita L. Mentha pulegium Mentha spicata Mentha viridis L. Menyanthes trifoliata L. Momordica charantia L. Moringa oleifera Morus alba L. Morus nigra L. Musa sapientum L. Myristica fragrans Myrtus communis Nasturtium officinale L. Nepeta cataria L. Nicotiana tabacum L. Nigella sativa Nymphaea alba L. Ocimum basilicum L. Oenothera biennis L. Olea europea L. Orchis latifolia L. Orchis mascula L. Origanum majorana L. Origanum vulgare L. Oryza sativa L. Paeonia emodi Paeonia officinalis L. Paliurus spina-christi Panax ginseng Pandanus odorifer

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828 | H E R B S F O R H E A L T H

Name Papaver rhoeas L. Papaver somniferum L. Passiflora caerulea L. Passiflora incarnata L. Pastinaca sativa Peganum harmala L. Pelargonium graveolens Pelargonium roseum Persea americana Persea gratissima Persica vulgaris Petasites albus Petasites hybridus Petroselinum crispum Peucedanum sativum Phaseolus vulgaris L. Phoenix dactylifera L. Phyllanthus emblica L. Physalis alkekengi L. Picrorhiza kurroa L. Pimpinella anisum L. Pinus sylvestris L. Piper nigrum L. Pistacia atlantica Pistacia lentiscus L. Pistacia vera Plantago lanceolate L. Plantago major L. Plantago ovata Platanus orientalis L. Plumbago zeylanica L. Polygonum aviculare L. Polygonum bistorta L. Polypodium vulgare L. Portulaca oleracea L. Potentilla anserina L. Primula officinalis Primula veris Prunella vulgaris L. Prunus avium L.

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829 | H E R B S F O R H E A L T H

Name Prunus domestica L. Prunus mahaleb Prunus persica Pulsatilla vulgaris Punica granatum L. Pyrus communis L. Quercus robur L. Raphanus sativus L. Rhamnus cathartica L. Rhamnus frangula Rhaponticum carthamoides Rheum officinale L. Rhodiola rosea L. Rhus coriaria L. Ribes uva-crispa L. Ricinus communis L. Rosa canina L. Rosa damascena Rosmarinus officinalis L. Rubia tinctorum L. Rubus fruticosus L. Rubus idaeus L. Rumex acetosa L. Rumex alpinus L. Rumex patientia L. Ruscus aculeatus L. Ruta graveolens L. Salix aegyptiaca L. Salix alba L. Salvadora persica L. Salvia officinalis L. Sambucus ebulus Sambucus nigra Sanguisorba minor L. Sanguisorba officinalis L. Sanicula europaea L. Santalum album L. Saponaria officinalis L. Satureja hortensis L. Schinus molle L.

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830 | H E R B S F O R H E A L T H

Name Sedum acre L. Sedum telephium L. Senna alexandrina Serenoa repens L. Sesamum indicum L. Silybum marianum L. Sinapis alba L. Solanum dulcamara L. Solanum lycopersicum Solanum melongena L. Solanum nigrum L. Solanum tuberosum L. Sorbus aucuparia L. Spinacia oleracea Stachys lavandulifolia Stachys officinalis Stachys schtschegleevii Stevia rebaudiana Swertia chirata Symphytum officinale L. Syzygium aromaticum L. Syzygium cumini L. Tamarindus indica L. Tamarix gallica L. Tamus communis L. Tanacetum balsamita Tanacetum vulgare L. Taraxacum officinale Taxus baccata L. Terminalia chebula Teucrium polium L. Theobroma cacao Thymus serpyllum L. Thymus vulgaris L. Tilia cordata Tinospora cordifolia L. Trachyspermum copticum L. Tragopogon pratensis L. Tribulus terrestris Trifolium pratense L.

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831 | H E R B S F O R H E A L T H

Name Trigonella foenum-graecum L. Triticum aestivum L. Tropaeolum majus L. Tuber aestivum Tussilago farfara L. Urtica dioica L. Vaccinium macrocarpon Vaccinium myrtillus Vaccinium vitis-idaea L. Valeriana officinalis L. Vanilla planifolia Veratrum album L. Verbascum thapsus L. Veronica beccabunga L. Vicia faba Vinca minor L. Viola odorata L. Viola tricolor L. Viscum album L. Vitex agnus castus L. Vitis vinifera L. Withania somnifera L. Zea mays L. Zingiber officinale Ziziphora clinopodioides L. Ziziphora tenuior L. Ziziphus spina-christi Zizyphus jujuba Zizyphus vulgaris

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