Conditioning for Strength and Human Performance [3 ed.] 1138218081, 9781138218086

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CONDITIONING FOR STRENGTH AND HUMAN PERFORMANCE Fully revised and updated, the third edition of Conditioning for Strength and Human Performance provides strength and conditioning students with the clearest and most accessible introduction to the scientific principles underpinning the discipline. Covering bioenergetics and nutrition, a systematic approach to physiological and endocrinological adaptations to training and the biomechanics of resistance training, no other book provides such a thorough grounding in the science of strength and conditioning or better prepares students for evidence-based practice. T. Jeff Chandler, CSCS, NSCA-CPT, FACSM, FNSCA has previously served as Professor and Department Chair at Marshall University, USA, and as Professor and Department Head at Jacksonville State University, USA. Dr. Chandler has 12 years of experience in a clinical sports medicine setting at the Lexington Clinic Sports Medicine Center, USA. He is the Editor in Chief of the Strength and Conditioning Journal, the professional journal of the National Strength and Conditioning Association, serving in that position since 1998. Lee E. Brown, EdD, CSCS*D, FNSCA, FACSM was on the faculty at California State University, Fullerton, USA, from 2002–2017 and was the Director of the Center for Sport Performance and the Human Performance Laboratory. He was President of the National Strength and Conditioning Association (NSCA), the NSCA Foundation, and the Southwest American College of Sports Medicine (SWACSM). He also sat on the Board of Trustees of the national American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) and is a Fellow of both the ACSM and the NSCA.

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CONDITIONING FOR STRENGTH AND HUMAN PERFORMANCE THIRD EDITION

EDITED BY T. JEFF CHANDLER AND LEE E. BROWN

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CONTENTS

Contributors ix Preface xi

PART 2 Organization and administration 189

PART 1  Basic science

1

  8 Facility administration and design 191

 1 Bioenergetics

3

T. Jeff Chandler, W. Britt Chandler, and C. Eric Arnold

  9 Warm-up and flexibility Duane V. Knudson

  2 The cardiorespiratory system

23

  3 The neuromuscular system

51

Andy Bosak

Jared W. Coburn, Travis W. Beck, Herbert A. deVries, Terry J. Housh, Kristen C. Cochrane-Snyman, and Evan E. Schick

  4 The skeletal system

W. Britt Chandler, T. Jeff Chandler, and Clint Alley

77

  5 Biomechanics of resistance training 97 Scott K. Lynn, Guillermo J. Noffal, and Derek N. Pamukoff

  6 The endocrine system

125

 7 Nutrition

163

Andy Bosak

Colin D. Wilborn, Lem Taylor, and Jaci N. Davis

Allen Hedrick

213

10 Test administration and interpretation 233 Megan A. Wong, Ian J. Dobbs, Casey M. Watkins, and Lee E. Brown

11 Resistance exercise techniques and spotting Ryan T. McManus and Andrew J. Galpin

269

PART 3 Exercise prescription 345 12 Needs analysis

347

13 Program design

357

Andy V. Khamoui, Michael C. Zourdos, and Lee E. Brown

Nathan Serrano and Andrew J. Galpin

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Get complete eBook Order by email at [email protected] viii Contents 14 Periodization of resistance training: concepts and paradigms 371 William J. Kraemer and Matthew K. Beeler

15 Aerobic exercise prescription Anthony B. Ciccone, Loree L. Weir, and Joseph P. Weir

397

16 Resistance training prescription 417 Michael C. Zourdos, Andy V. Khamoui, and Lee E. Brown

17 Plyometric, speed, agility, and quickness exercise prescription 433 Casey M. Watkins, Saldiam R. Barillas, Megan A. Wong, and Lee E. Brown

18 Implement training Allen Hedrick

PART 4  Special topics

527

19 Applied sport psychology

529

Traci A. Statler

20 Strength training for special populations 547 Marie E. Pepin, Joseph A. Roche, and Moh H. Malek

21 Age and gender training considerations 573 Tammy K. Evetovich and Joan M. Eckerson

22 Injury prevention and rehabilitation 601 Todd S. Ellenbecker, Jake Bleacher, Tad Pieczynski, and Anna Thatcher

23 Ergogenic aids

Colin D. Wilborn, Lem Taylor, and Jaci N. Davis

479

641

Index 667

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PART 1 BASIC SCIENCE

1 Bioenergetics

3

2 The cardiorespiratory system

23

3 The neuromuscular system

51

4 The skeletal system

77

5 Biomechanics of resistance training

97

6 The endocrine system

125

7 Nutrition

163

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Contents Introduction 3 Enzymes 5 The “creation” of chemical energy

7

Energy systems

7

Lactate 15 Summary of catabolic processes in the production of cellular energy

16

Efficiency of the energy producing pathways

16

Limiting factors of performance

18

Oxygen consumption

18

Metabolic specificity

19

Summary 20 References 20

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CHAPTER 1 BIOENERGETICS T. Jeff Chandler, W. Britt Chandler, and C. Eric Arnold OBJECTIVES After completing this chapter, you will be able to: • Identify the biological energy systems and explain their role in human athletic performance. • Explain the concept of metabolic specificity and sources of energy as related to human athletic performance. • Discuss the role of enzymes in catalyzing chemical reactions. • Explain the role of lactic acid and lactate in human athletic performance. • Demonstrate an understanding of the limiting factors in human athletic performance.

KEY TERMS Activation energy Anabolic ATP Bioenergetics Blood lactate Carbohydrate Cardiorespiratory endurance Catabolic Chemical energy Cytoplasm Deaminated

Electron transport system (ETS) Endergonic Enzymes Excess post-exercise oxygen consumption Exergonic Gluconeogenesis Krebs cycle Mechanical energy Mitochondria

INTRODUCTION Human movement requires energy, and energy is vital for athletic performance. Bioenergetics

Oxygen consumption Oxygen deficit Phosphate Phosphofructokinase (PFK) Q10 effect Rate limiting enzyme Reactant Specificity of training Steady state Substrate Thermodynamics

is the flow of energy in biological systems and is a key consideration during exercise. For any physical activity, energy must be generated, and used by the body to accomplish the task.

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Get4complete eBook Order by email at [email protected] T. JEFF CHANDLER ET AL. The source of energy influences the ability of the sprinter to complete the 100-meter dash, the marathoner to complete a run, and the weightlifter to complete a lift. Understanding metabolism, specifically understanding the energy systems that are used during various types of exercise, is vital in developing effective activity-specific conditioning programs. With a basic knowledge of bioenergetics, the student can understand why specific chemical reactions that take place in skeletal muscles are turned on and how energy from these chemical reactions fuel muscles during exercise. Bioenergetics is the study of sources of energy in living organisms, and how that energy is ultimately utilized.

The food we eat contains energy in the form of chemical energy. We store this chemical energy in our body in the forms of glycogen, fat, and protein. Ultimately, the chemical energy stored can be released to provide energy to produce adenosine triphosphate (ATP). ATP is the primary source of energy to support muscle contraction during exercise. The structure of ATP is comprised of an adenine group, a ribose group, and three phosphate groups joined together (Figure 1.1).

The formation of the ATP occurs by combining adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and inorganic phosphate (Pi). This process requires a substantial amount of energy that must be captured from the food we eat. ATP is the high energy molecule responsible for muscular contraction and other life sustaining metabolic reactions in the human body.

ATP is a high energy molecule that stores energy in the form of chemical bonds. Energy is released when the chemical bonds that join ADP and Pi together to form ATP are broken (Figure 1.2). The chemical energy derived from the breaking of the chemical bonds provides energy to generate ATP, and thus energy to perform various types of exercise. Metabolism is the total of anabolic and catabolic processes. A catabolic process breaks larger compounds into smaller compounds. In metabolism, this involves the breakdown of substances such as carbohydrate to provide fuel for the muscles during exercise. An anabolic reaction builds larger substances from smaller substances. METABOLISM = CATABOLISM + ANABOLISM.

Adenine group

Phosphate group Pi

Pi

Pi

ATP Ribose group

Figure 1.1  The basic structure of ATP. Energy is stored in the three phosphate bonds.

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Pi

Pi

ATP

Pi

Energy released and utilized by metabolic reactions

Energy captured from cellular respiration Pi

Pi

Pi

ADP

Figure 1.2  Regeneration of ATP. Energy is released when ATP is broken down into ADP and Pi. ATP is regenerated from ADP and energy captured from food.

Enzymes are protein structured molecules

that speed or facilitate certain chemical reactions by lowering the energy of activation of a chemical reaction (7). The energy of activation is considered an energy barrier that must be overcome for a chemical reaction to occur (Figure 1.3). Enzymes lower the activation energy, or the amount of energy needed to cause a specific chemical reaction to occur. In this way, enzymes facilitate metabolic chemical reactions. The enzyme does not become a part of the product, but remains intact as an enzyme. A chemical reaction is classified as either an exergonic or an endergonic reaction. An exergonic reaction gives up energy and an endergonic reaction absorbs energy from its surroundings. During a 100-meter sprint, ATP is being broken down in the muscle and energy is being released (exergonic reaction) and utilized by the muscles (endergonic reaction)

that are being actively recruited during the activity. An exergonic reaction is illustrated in Figure 1.4 where A → B is a spontaneous

Activation energy without enzyme Activation energy with enzyme Energy

ENZYMES

Course of action

Figure 1.3  Energy of activation. An enzyme lowers the amount of energy that must be overcome for a chemical reaction to occur.

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Get6complete eBook Order by email at [email protected] T. JEFF CHANDLER ET AL. Reactants A

Enzymes – lower the energy of activation

Products

Energy of activation

D

Reaction gives off energy

Reaction requires an input of energy

Reactants

Products

C

B

Figure 1.4  Exergonic chemical reaction. In an exergonic reaction, the energy level of the reactant(s) is greater than that of the product(s).

Figure 1.5  Endergonic chemical reaction. In an endergonic reaction, the energy level of the product(s) is greater than that of the reactant(s).

downhill reaction. In this example, the reactant’s (A) (ATP) energy level is greater than the product(s) (ADP + Pi) (7). An endergonic reaction is illustrated in Figure 1.5 where C → D is a nonspontaneous uphill reaction (7). In this example, the energy level of the product(s) is greater than the reactant(s) (7). The C → D transition will not occur unless an enzyme is present to lower the energy of activation (7). The energy of activation serves as an energy barrier to the chemical reaction (7). Metabolism is a series of enzyme controlled chemical reactions to store or use energy. Metabolism (Figure 1.6) begins with a substrate, which is the beginning material in the reaction. In each step, the substrate undergoes a chemical change catalyzed by enzymes.

At each step, the substrate is modified, and the modified compounds are referred to as intermediates. In the final step, the resulting compound is referred to as the product. In a series of metabolic reactions, one enzyme is generally referred to as the rate limiting enzyme. A rate limiting enzyme is defined as an enzyme that catalyzes the slowest step in a series of chemical reactions (Figure 1.7). Generally, the rate limiting enzyme catalyzes the first step in the series of chemical reactions. To stimulate or inhibit a series of reactions, a substance must affect the rate limiting step. This is referred to as a negative feedback system, because the change that occurs is in the opposite direction from what was happening before the feedback.

Enzyme 1

Substrate

Enzyme 2

Intermediate 1

Enzyme 3

Intermediate 2

Enzyme 4

Intermediate 3 Products

Figure 1.6  Metabolism. In this metabolic pathway, enzymes facilitate chemical reactions that change a substrate to intermediates and, finally, to a product.

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Get complete eBook Order by email at [email protected] BIOENERGETICS 7 Inhibition (from negative feedback)

Rate-limiting enzyme

Substrate

Enzyme 2

Intermediate 1

Enzyme 4

Enzyme 3

Intermediate 2

Intermediate 3 Products

Figure 1.7  Inhibition of a chemical reaction. A rate limiting enzyme is inhibited by the final product of the reaction through negative feedback mechanism.

Enzymes are influenced by changes in both pH and temperature. Changes in pH can influence key enzymes that control metabolic pathways. During high-intensity exercise pH decreases within muscle which may affect enzyme function and could slow down glycolysis, reducing the amount of ATP available for muscle contraction. Temperature can have an important effect on enzymatic reactions. This effect is studied by changing the temperature in multiples of 10° C and is referred to as the Q10 effect. Increasing the temperature by 10° C doubles the speed of the enzymatic reaction. From a practical perspective, warming up the muscles prior to engaging in physical activity allows the athlete to take advantage of the Q10 effect.

THE “CREATION” OF CHEMICAL ENERGY Where does energy come from? Energy is neither created nor destroyed but can be changed from one form to another. This concept reinforces the first law of thermodynamics, the physical science dealing with energy exchange, where energy is “changed” from one form to another. The first law of thermodynamics can be applied to muscle contraction. During exercise, chemical energy in the form of ATP is transformed into mechanical energy in the

form of muscle contraction. Without chemical energy from the breakdown of ATP, mechanical energy in the form of muscle contraction could not occur. The origin of the chemical energy that we take into our bodies is an anabolic process called photosynthesis. In photosynthesis, green plants, in the presence of sunlight and chlorophyll, take carbon dioxide and water and change it into carbohydrate (a carbon/ hydrogen/oxygen compound) with oxygen given off into the atmosphere. It is this reaction that converts the sun’s energy to chemical energy that we need to live and replenishes the oxygen supply in our atmosphere. These carbohydrate compounds formed in green plants are the basic form of energy needed by man. This carbon structure can be modified through anabolic reactions to form fats, which also contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, and proteins, which contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen.

ENERGY SYSTEMS There are three distinct yet closely integrated energy systems that operate together in a coordinated fashion to provide energy for muscle contraction: the phosphocreatine system, the anaerobic glycolytic system, and the oxidative system. The phosphocreatine and anaerobic glycolytic systems provide ATP at a high rate

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Get8complete eBook Order by email at [email protected] T. JEFF CHANDLER ET AL. to support muscle contraction during short bursts of high intensity exercise such as a 200meter sprint. However, the supply of ATP by the phosphocreatine and anaerobic glycolytic energy systems is limited. There are three energy systems that provide ATP for muscular work: the phosphocreatine system, the anaerobic glycolytic system, and the oxidative system.

The oxidative system predominates during low to moderate exercise intensity when oxygen is available to the muscle. At lower exercise intensities such as during walking, ATP demand is low and energy can be supplied at a high enough rate through the oxidative energy systems (20). At higher exercise intensities, ATP demand is high; energy cannot be supplied solely by oxidative metabolism (20). The anaerobic glycolytic system, therefore, must fill this gap between the phosphocreatine system and the oxidative system. During high intensity exercise, the supply of ATP must be derived from the phosphocreatine and anaerobic glycolytic energy systems. It is important to note that all three energy systems are active at a given point in time, but one system will predominate based on the conditions at that time (Table 1.1). Each energy system operates like a dimmer switch in that they are not completely turned off but transitioned from one energy system to the next based on energy requirements of the muscle during exercise.

Energy system Oxidative system