China's English : A History of English in Chinese Education [1 ed.] 9789882200647, 9789622096639

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CHINA'S ENGLIS H A HISTOR Y O F ENGLIS IN C H I N E S E E D U C A T I O

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CHINA'S ENGLISH

A HISTORY O F ENGLISH IN CHINESE EDOGATIO N

For Annie , Madd y an d Ale x

CHINA'S ENGLIS H

A HISTORY O F ENGLISH IN CHINESE EDOCATIO N

BobAdamson

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* . * if a I K * t

HONG KON G U N I V E R S I T Y PRES S

Hong Kong University Pres s 14/F Hin g Wa i Centr e 7 Tin Wa n Pray a Roa d Aberdeen Hong Kon g

© Hong Kon g Universit y Pres s 200 4 ISBN 96 2 20 9 66 3 8

All right s reserved . N o portio n o f thi s publicatio n ma y b e reproduced o r transmitte d i n an y for m o r b y an y means , electronic o r mechanical, includin g photocopy, recording , o r any informatio n storag e o r retrieva l system , withou t prio r permission i n writin g fro m th e publisher .

British Librar y Cataloguing-in-Publicatio n Dat a A catalogue recor d fo r thi s book i s available fro m th e Britis h Library .

Secure On-lin e Orderin g http://www.hkupress.org

Printed an d boun d b y Liang Yu Printing Factor y Ltd. , Hon g Kong , China .

Contents

Series editor' s prefac e vi

i

Acknowledgements i

x

Note o n transliteratio n x

i

Map o f Chin a xi

i

1 Introductio 2 Barbaria 3 Th

n a s a foreign languag e 2

e Sovie t influence , 1949-6 0 3

4 Toward 5 Th

n1

s qualit y i n education , 1961-6 6 7

e Cultura l Revolution , 1966-7 6 10

6 Modernizatio 7 Integratin 8 China'

n unde r Den g Xiaoping , 1977-9 3 12

g wit h globalization , 199 3 onwards 16

s Englis h 19

1 5 9 7 9 9 5

Appendix 21

1

Notes 21

5

References 21

9

Index

Series editor's preface

The Englis h languag e ha s a lon g an d fascinatin g histor y i n China . Th e firs t English speaker s arrive d i n souther n Chin a i n th e earl y seventeenth century , and b y th e lat e eighteent h centur y varietie s o f pidgi n Englis h wer e bein g spoken i n Guangzho u (Canton ) an d Macau . Fro m th e outset , th e receptio n of th e Englis h languag e wa s influence d b y a rang e o f cultura l an d politica l concerns which reflected th e anxietie s of Qing dynasty China t o the 'stranger s at th e gate' , whose mercantil e an d imperialis t ambition s wer e perceive d a s a major threa t t o th e Qin g governmen t an d imperia l Chines e society . Befor e the tw o Opium War s (1839-42 , 1856-60) , the acces s to English within forma l educational institution s wa s severel y limited , an d existe d onl y i n a smal l number o f missionary schools. After 1860 , access to English in th e educationa l domain increase d greatly , not only within Western Christia n institution s whose numbers multiplie d i n th e latte r decade s o f th e nineteent h century , bu t als o in the first Chines e schools of foreign languages , including the Tongwen Gua n (Interpreter's College ) i n Beijin g (1861) , Guan g Fangya n Gua n (Schoo l fo r Dispersing Languages) i n Shangha i (1863 ) an d th e Jiangnan Arsena l (1867) , also in Shanghai. In the late nineteenth an d early twentieth century, knowledg e of Englis h wa s see n a s essentia l t o th e modernizin g effort s o f 'self strengtheners' an d othe r reformers . Later , durin g th e 1920s , th e Nationalis t government sough t t o regulate th e teachin g of English within a school syste m that serve d th e aim s o f th e government , an d limite d th e influenc e o f missionary institutions. Throughout man y of these years, the guiding principl e for stat e educatio n wa s zhongxue weiti, xixue weiyong (tha t o f 'studyin g Chin a for essence , studyin g th e Wes t for utility') . As thi s boo k demonstrates , simila r cultura l an d politica l concern s hav e continued t o influence th e attitude o f the government an d educationa l policy makers toward s th e Englis h languag e sinc e th e establishmen t o f th e People' s Republic o f Chin a (PRC ) i n 1949 . In thi s work, D r Adamson ha s charte d th e evolution o f government polic y towards the Englis h languag e within th e stat e school system, and his research demonstrate s th e extent t o which suc h policie s

viii Serie

s editor's prefac e

have varied, an d th e rapidl y changing statu s of English an d Englis h languag e teaching durin g th e post-194 9 era . I n 1957 , ther e wer e onl y 84 3 secondar y school teachers of English throughou t th e whole country, compared with som e 400,000 teachers teaching an astonishin g 50 million schoolchildre n b y the year 2002. However, whereas previous researchers hav e tende d t o characterize th e recent histor y o f Englis h educatio n i n Chin a i n term s o f abrup t oscillation s between competin g languag e policie s determine d b y th e politic s o f th e day , Adamson argue s tha t a clos e examinatio n o f th e historica l recor d suggest s a somewhat m o r e comple x pictur e o f evolutionar y development . I n documenting thi s period o f educational, political and socia l change, Adamson draws upon hi s own experience a s an educator an d textboo k advisor in China , as well as on a wealth o f ethnographic an d documentar y evidence. This volume is of singular importanc e i n providin g a detailed recor d o f education policies , curriculum developmen t an d Englis h languag e teachin g i n Chin a fro m th e 1949 t o th e presen t day .

JQngsley Bolto n Stockholm Universit y January 200 4

Acknowledgements

My thanks ar e du e t o man y peopl e wh o helpe d m e i n th e cours e o f writin g this book , an d I would especiall y lik e t o acknowledg e th e assistanc e give n t o me b y Li u Daoyi , Tan g Jun, Li u Jinfang, Yin g Manrong , We i Guodon g an d staff a t th e People' s Educatio n Pres s i n Beijing , wh o wer e exceptionall y generous wit h thei r tim e an d facilitate d thi s stud y i n man y ways , includin g allowing m e t o incorporat e extract s fro m thei r Englis h languag e textbooks . Bonnie Zhan g Wenxi a helpe d wit h translatio n wor k an d a rang e o f tediou s chores wit h skill , efficiency an d goo d humour ; whil e (i n alphabetica l order ) Kingsley Bolton , Davi d Bunton , Jo Carr , Angu s Chen g Yeun g Chuen , Gre g Fairbrother, Nevill e Grant , Pete r G u Yongqi, G u Yueguo , K o Po Yuk, Winni e Auyeung Lai , John Le e Ch i Kin , Le e Win g On , Julian Leun g Ya t Ming , J o Lewkowicz, Philip Stimpson , Anthony Sweeting , Elizabeth Walker , Ye Yuankai and Ange l Y u La i Kin g al l rendere d valuabl e assistance . Tw o anonymou s reviewers also provided detaile d an d constructiv e comment s o n a draft o f thi s book. I n particular , I ow e tremendou s debt s o f gratitud e t o Pau l Morris , fo r his sharp insight s an d constan t encouragement ; an d t o Annie Tong an d Jack and Kathlee n Adamso n fo r thei r unflaggin g support . I a m gratefu l t o th e variou s publisher s fo r permissio n t o reproduc e material fro m m y papers tha t ha d bee n publishe d i n thei r journals. Chapte r 2 draw s upo n 'Barbaria n a s Foreig n Language : Englis h i n China' s Schools' , World Englishes 21(2) (Jul y 2002) publishe d b y Blackwell Publishing ; part s o f Chapter 7 appeare d i n 'Englis h wit h Chines e Characteristics : China' s Ne w Curriculum', Asia PacificJournal of Education 21 (2) (Septembe r 2001 ) publishe d by the National Institut e o f Education, Nanyan g Technological Universit y an d Oxford Universit y Press ; and severa l chapter s dra w o n dat a tha t appeare d i n 'Constructing a n Officia l Englis h fo r China , 1949-2000 ' (co-writte n with Or a Kwo), Asia Pacific Journalof Communication 12(1) (Jul y 2002), published by John Benjamins Publishin g Co .

Note on transliteration

The officia l system o f romanizatio n fo r Chines e character s i n th e People' s Republic o f Chin a i s hanyu pinyin, whic h produce s transliteration s suc h a s Beijing for th e capita l city , Yan 'an for th e communis t bas e establishe d a t th e end o f th e Lon g Marc h an d Mao Zedong {or th e nam e o f th e nation' s leade r after th e revolutio n o f 1949 . This system was not uniformly adopte d i n Englis h language textbook s until Serie s Eight, published i n 1993 . In earlie r textbooks , other system s o f romanizatio n wer e used , givin g form s suc h a s Peking, Yenan and Mao Tse-tung. I n thi s book , hanyu pinyin i s used, excep t fo r author s wh o used anothe r styling , fo r institution s tha t hav e maintaine d long-establishe d English version s o f thei r nam e (suc h a s Peking University) , fo r reference s t o names i n a textboo k an d i n direc t quotations .

I Introduction

Point o f departur e In 1983, 1 took up a teaching post in Taiyuan, Shanxi Province in th e People' s Republic o f Chin a (PRC) . Soo n afte r m y arrival , I was bein g show n aroun d the cit y by one o f my students, Mr Liu , an d we chatted abou t hi s school days . They had bee n disrupte d b y the Cultura l Revolution, a period o f massive social and politica l upheaval , an d a t tha t time , M r Li u tol d me , h e ha d joined th e local Re d Guards , th e juvenile revolutionaries , an d participate d i n variou s activities. He too k me t o see his former secondar y school, where h e indicate d a third-store y windo w i n th e teachers ' dormitories . That , h e said , wa s th e window fro m whic h th e Re d Guard s ha d pushe d thei r Englis h Languag e teacher t o hi s death . 'Why? ' I asked . M r Li u shrugged , 'Becaus e h e taugh t English.' Thi s wa s m y firs t intimatio n o f th e historicall y controversial , eve n deadly, statu s o f Englis h i n China . This revelatio n wa s subsequentl y reinforce d b y colleague s i n Taiyua n and educator s fro m aroun d th e country , man y o f whom ha d suffere d durin g the Cultura l Revolution . On e recalle d ho w h e wa s accuse d o f bein g a n imperialist spy, simply because o f his competence i n English. Another recalle d hearing he r neighbou r bein g beaten t o death b y the Re d Guard s for refusin g to bur n hi s treasure d stam p collectio n tha t include d Britis h an d Australia n stamps. Several month s afte r m y tou r wit h M r Liu , I wa s crossin g th e colleg e grounds afte r clas s whe n I me t a littl e boy , age d abou t six , wh o live d i n a neighbouring courtyard . H e greete d m e wit h a cheerfu l 'Hello! ' an d proceeded t o cha t fo r a while i n Chinese . I was surprise d whe n h e suddenl y asked, 'Ar e foreigner s goo d people? ' No t havin g th e linguisti c resource s t o cope with thi s question i n detail , I replied, 'Mos t are good — and we're goo d friends, aren' t we?' He pause d fo r though t an d the n said , 'Ye s ... bu t why did you start the Opiu m War?' This was another forcefu l reminde r tha t Chin a ha s had a troubled relationshi p with English speakers: at different time s in history ,

2 China'

s English: A history of English in Chinese education

the language ha s been associate d with military aggressors with technologicall y superior weapons, barbarians who ransacked imperia l palaces, imperialists who seized chunks of Chinese sovereign territor y and virulent anti-Communists who denounced th e 'Yello w Peril' . The perceive d threa t pose d b y th e Englis h language 1 t o political , economic an d socia l system s i n Chin a i s on e reaso n why , eve r sinc e th e teaching o f English bega n there , it has vacillated betwee n hig h an d lo w status, as indeed hav e al l foreig n language s sinc e th e Tan g dynast y (Ross , 1993) . I n imperial times , th e empero r rule d a s a sovereig n godhea d i n a hierarchica l social system that combined politic s and religion ; erosion o f power threatene d the very fabric o f the state. It was a system built around th e notions of harmon y and benevolen t government , which include d th e observanc e o f religious rite s (Chen L i Fu , 1986) . Englis h represente d ver y differen t values : i t wa s th e language o f missionarie s wh o p r e a c h e d Christia n religions , som e antagonistically denouncing Chines e beliefs and practices; of philosophers wh o propounded alternativ e social systems; of governments who pursued aggressiv e foreign policies ; o f people s who , th e Chines e believed , lacke d th e sophistication an d refinemen t tha t a long histor y of unified nationhoo d and , in earlie r times , o f technologica l superiorit y bestowe d upo n th e Chines e people. Indeed , i t has bee n argue d (e.g. , Liao , 1990 ) tha t th e fal l o f th e las t emperor was hastened b y the controversies over how to deal with th e powerfu l and aggressiv e foreig n force s tha t wer e seekin g t o ope n u p Chin a fo r trade . And withou t th e bindin g forc e o f th e imperia l system , fou r decade s o f turbulence followe d befor e th e Chines e Communis t Part y (CCP ) establishe d the PR C i n 1949 . Paradoxically, sinc e th e Chines e militar y wa s embarrasse d b y Wester n weaponry, scholar s an d official s i n th e mid-nineteent h centur y (an d periodically thereafter ) calle d fo r th e learnin g o f Englis h t o b e promote d i n China (Ten g an d Fairbank , 1979) . Their ai m was national self-strengthening : English woul d provid e acces s t o Western technolog y an d scientifi c expertis e (Teng and Fairbank , 1979) , and i t was argued that , with care , cultural erosio n might be avoided . There was an added politica l tension afte r 1949 , until Chin a embraced economi c reforms i n the late 1970s . The English language, althoug h desirable fo r nationa l economi c developmen t i n China , wa s perceive d t o embody values that were undesirable an d antithetica l t o the nature o f Chines e culture an d th e ideolog y of th e CC P (Dzau , 1990) . One manifestatio n o f thi s was th e Campaig n agains t Spiritua l Pollutio n (qingchu jinshen wuran) i n th e mid-1980s that targeted vices such a s pornography, gambling , prostitution an d even disc o dancing, which were portrayed a s slipping int o Chin a throug h th e open doo r o f internationa l trade . As a teache r i n Taiyua n a t th e time , I was requested b y th e colleg e authoritie s t o desis t fro m usin g Wester n song s a s teaching material an d m y students were warned t o minimize thei r interaction s with m e t o matter s o f gramma r an d pedagogy .

Introduction 3 Nevertheless, th e growt h o f Englis h i n Chin a ha s bee n phenomenal . Official record s fo r 195 7 sho w tha t ther e wer e just 84 3 secondar y schoo l teachers o f Englis h i n th e whol e countr y (Ministr y o f Education, 1984) . Yet, despite th e traumati c experience s o f th e Cultura l Revolutio n an d othe r political movement s wit h anti-Wester n elements , Chines e peopl e hav e embraced th e study of English in recent decades with fervour. Som e 50 million schoolchildren ar e currently learning English, taught by approximately 400,00 0 teachers. The figures ar e increasing as more an d more primary schools aroun d the natio n offe r th e subject , an d a s mor e an d mor e teacher s tak e u p th e challenge o f teachin g throug h Englis h acros s th e curriculum , a s par t o f th e 'bilingual education ' polic y that promote s th e teachin g o f science an d math s in secondar y school s throug h th e mediu m o f English. Englis h competenc e i s a ke y componen t i n th e tertiar y leve l entranc e examinations , a facto r tha t enhances th e statu s o f th e subjec t o n th e schoo l curriculum . Privat e tutelag e and tuitio n school s offering Englis h courses for schoolchildre n an d th e genera l public abound , poppin g u p lik e bambo o shoot s afte r sprin g rain , t o us e a Chinese metaphor . Englis h i s desirabl e becaus e i t i s th e languag e o f trad e partners, investors, advisers, tourists and technica l experts, and thes e economi c imperatives hav e bee n enhance d b y China' s entr y int o th e Worl d Trad e Organization (WTO ) an d th e awardin g o f th e Olympi c Game s t o Beijin g i n 2008. My personal experience s a s a teache r an d textboo k write r i n Chin a hav e afforded privilege d acces s t o a rang e o f experiences . Afte r trainin g teacher s of Englis h i n Taiyuan , I becam e involve d i n textboo k development , teache r education programme s an d researc h project s nationwide . I n 1994 , I visite d the library in the People's Education Press (PEP) , the curriculum developmen t and publication s unit in th e Ministry of Education i n Beijing, which has a rare, if no t unique , collectio n o f syllabuse s an d textbook s datin g fro m 1949 . Th e materials fo r th e Englis h Languag e curriculu m o n a seclude d shel f seeme d to encapsulat e i n a fascinating wa y the vagaries of China's development sinc e 1949. Gradually , thi s boo k evolve d fro m finding thes e materials . I wanted t o investigate thei r story : th e processe s b y which thes e syllabuse s an d textbook s had com e t o exis t and, i n mos t cases , then fal l int o disuse , and t o analys e th e ideas, values , an d pedagogie s tha t the y incorporated . PE P official s offere d generous encouragemen t an d suppor t fo r th e study , an d thi s acces s allowe d me t o buil d u p m y own collectio n o f curriculum material s an d t o tal k t o ke y people wh o were directl y involve d i n thei r production .

Analytical approac h This boo k explore s th e comple x interpla y o f political , economic , socia l an d educational factor s tha t hav e shape d th e histor y o f Englis h i n China , wit h

4 China'

s English: A history of English i n Chinese education

particular emphasi s o n th e period afte r th e founding o f the PRC in 1949 . The main focu s i s o n th e forma l educatio n system , mos t notabl y th e Englis h Language curriculu m i n junior secondar y schools , o n th e ground s tha t th e study of curriculum policy , including the processes of curriculum developmen t and th e product s — syllabuse s an d textbook s — a t th e nationa l leve l b y th e Ministry o f Education , allow s insight s int o th e constructio n o f a n 'official ' English, a s well as what was considered a s acceptable conten t i n English . Th e book examine s how , a t time s o f heightene d politica l tension , th e stat e ha s sought to restrict the social and political impact of the language b y controlling the Englis h Languag e curriculu m i n forma l education . O n th e othe r hand , the stat e ha s promote d Englis h Languag e whe n economi c developmen t through internationa l engagemen t ha s been a national priority . However, th e findings o f thi s boo k sugges t tha t i t woul d no t b e accurat e t o describ e th e shifting statu s o f th e languag e i n th e curriculu m i n term s o f a pendulu m swinging fro m on e extrem e t o th e othe r — a s ha s bee n suggeste d b y som e researchers regardin g genera l educatio n polic y i n China , suc h a s Che n Hsi en's (1981 ) portraya l o f swings between 'academic ' (i.e. , related t o citizenshi p training an d huma n resourc e developmen t fo r economi c modernization ) an d 'revolutionary' (i.e. , ideologically-oriented ) education ; o r a 'moderate ' t o 'radical' pendulu m (Ruyen , 1970 , cite d i n Lofstedt , 1980) . Politicizatio n o f state policy does not mean a total neglect of economic concerns, and economi c modernization doe s not mea n tha t othe r agend a ar e absent . Instead , ther e i s a contestatio n o f economic , political , an d socia l goals , resultin g i n tension s and negotiate d outcomes . Th e natur e o f thi s contestatio n an d subsequen t outcomes ha s varied ove r time , but th e genera l thrus t toward s a n acceptanc e of English an d o f the nee d fo r cultura l awarenes s has continued progressivel y throughout th e perio d sinc e 1949 , wit h th e exceptio n o f th e Cultura l Revolution. Th e fortune s o f foreig n languag e curricula , argue s Ros s (1992 : 240), ar e a 'baromete r o f modernization' , i n tha t the y registe r change s i n pressure exerte d b y th e prevailin g socio-politica l climate . English , bein g particularly controversial , make s i t a sensitiv e barometer . This book uses the junior secondar y school English Language curriculu m as the means to examine ho w curriculum developer s and textboo k writers have confronted th e shiftin g ambiguitie s an d dilemma s concernin g English . Th e reasons for selectin g the junior secondar y school curriculum aris e partly fro m convenience (m y involvemen t i n curriculu m developmen t wa s a t thi s level) , partly from importanc e (curriculu m developer s i n th e PE P told m e tha t mos t innovations in the English curriculum i n China have been initiate d at this level, and i t is the stag e o f schooling , Year 7 to Year 9, at which mos t student s hav e studied English ) an d partl y fro m th e nee d t o limi t th e scop e o f th e stud y t o book length . Th e boo k ask s fundamenta l question s concernin g th e Englis h promoted b y the stat e i n China . What role ha s been ascribe d t o English, an d how ha s i t change d ove r time ? Wha t ar e th e characteristic s o f thi s English ,

Introduction 5 and ho w hav e the y change d ove r time ? Wha t ar e th e explanation s fo r suc h changes? What has been viewed as appropriate conten t for Englis h textbooks ? The analysi s adopte d fo r thi s stud y look s a t th e proces s o f curriculu m development a s wel l a s th e product : th e natur e o f th e curriculu m a s constructed b y the PEP . The relationshi p betwee n th e tw o level s i s shown i n Figure 1.1 . Studyin g th e proces s — identifyin g th e stakeholder s an d thei r contributions; sortin g ou t th e priorities ; an d observin g ho w tension s wer e handled — illuminate s th e contemporar y socia l climat e an d value s an d ho w they impinged upo n th e constructio n o f a state English. Studying the produc t reveals the natur e o f this English. Analysing th e change s ove r tim e bring s ou t strongly th e particula r feature s o f China' s English .

Process

policymaking

Product

i r policy document

syllabus & materials design

teachers' lesson planning

^f syllabus & teaching materials

students' learning

V

IF

teaching acts

learning acts

Note: Shaded area represents the main focus of this book. Figure 1.1 Step s in curriculum decision-making (adapte d from Johnson, 1989) The stud y is located i n th e area s o f th e PEP' s involvement i n curriculu m development. Despit e its title as a press, the rol e o f PEP has been t o interpre t state polic y an d operationaliz e i t i n th e for m o f a syllabu s an d textbook s for individua l subjects . Th e PE P form s a bridg e betwee n th e macro-leve l of stat e polic y an d th e micro-leve l o f curriculu m implementatio n i n schools . Recent studie s o f curriculu m developmen t i n Chin a hav e describe d th e complex interpla y betwee n macro - and micro-levels , thereb y challengin g th e common portraya l o f a homogeneou s process , dominate d b y th e centra l authorities and essentiall y centre-periphery in nature (e.g. , Leung, 1989 ; Paine, 1992; Lai , 1994) . Leun g (1991 ) describe s th e proces s a s 'democrati c centralism'. Pain e (1992 ) contend s tha t th e actua l formulatio n o f contemporary nationa l educationa l policie s ha s a strongl y pluralisti c qualit y through a process of mosuo (literally 'groping' o r muddling through) , whereb y policies are formulated i n th e light of successful experiment s a t the grassroot s and 'a n evolutionar y compromise ' i s achieved betwee n centra l bureaucrati c objectives an d th e practica l lesson s o f loca l experience . Whil e thi s boo k identifies th e natur e o f shift s i n th e socio-politica l climat e an d thei r effec t on issue s o f curriculu m desig n an d pedagog y i n Englis h Languag e teachin g

6 China'

s English: A history of English i n Chinese education

at th e macro-level , th e primar y focu s i s o n ho w th e PE P chart s a cours e between competin g an d ofte n conflictin g force s tha t aris e at both th e macro and micro-level . Littl e researc h wor k ha s bee n don e i n th e fiel d o f Englis h Language curriculu m developmen t i n th e PRC , eithe r b y Chines e o r international scholars . Within th e PRC, a large number o f journals are devote d to aspect s o f Englis h Languag e teaching , bu t the y ten d t o b e descriptiv e and prescriptive , bein g principall y designe d t o promulgat e th e particula r pedagogy associate d wit h a ne w innovation . Ho w th e PE P handle s th e politically sensitiv e issue s an d question s o f socio-economi c polic y linke d t o English Languag e curriculu m developmen t ha s rarel y bee n investigated : th e papers o n thi s topi c surveye d fo r thi s boo k wer e al l writte n b y member s of th e PEP , an d tende d t o avoi d critica l analysis . The secon d aspec t of reform, th e natur e o f the curriculu m a s constructe d by the curriculu m developers , will be approached principall y through analyse s of th e Englis h Languag e textbook s produce d b y th e PEP , which, i n China , are th e mai n manifestatio n o f th e intende d curriculum . Th e PEP' s tas k o f interpreting th e polic y statement s o f th e politician s an d translatin g the m into curriculu m document s (suc h a s syllabuse s o r textbooks ) tha t wil l b e used i n school s i s bot h a sensitiv e one , give n th e ofte n volatil e natur e o f policy statement s an d th e historicall y ambivalen t officia l attitude s toward s the English language , and a difficult one , for th e skills , resources and suppor t for Englis h Languag e teachin g i n school s plac e constraint s o n polic y formulation an d o n th e implementatio n o f policy . Adde d t o thi s i s th e influence o f expert s i n th e field , includin g specialist s i n applie d linguistic s in tertiar y institution s an d foreig n consultants ; and , a s emerge d fro m thi s study a s i t developed , o f teachers , whos e acceptanc e o f ne w material s an d pedagogies wa s vita l t o th e succes s o f an y curriculu m reform . Th e politica l and educationa l force s ar e ofte n i n conflict , an d th e PE P ha d t o navigat e a mediatin g course , no t just throug h th e conflictin g current s o f th e politica l ('red') an d economi c ('expert' ) polic y streams , bu t als o throug h variou s competing pedagogies , t o produc e a syllabus and teachin g material s suitabl e for Englis h Languag e instructio n an d learnin g i n Chines e schools . The especiall y contentiou s 'desirabl e evil ' tha t th e Englis h languag e ha s represented t o China makes it an excellen t case study of how the state handle s tensions i n th e schoo l curriculum , a s i t throw s int o particularl y shar p relie f the processe s tha t exis t fo r thi s purpose . Th e issu e o f cultura l transfe r (an d the potential for cultura l erosion tha t is involved in the promotion o f the stud y of English ) i s a centra l them e t o th e boo k — ho w th e Chines e government , through th e Ministr y o f Education , ha s handle d th e 'foreignness ' o f Englis h since 1949 . This book argue s tha t a guiding principl e o f selective assimilatio n has been applie d t o different degree s at different time s by Chinese authoritie s to question s o f internationa l transfe r i n man y fields fo r th e pas t 100 years o r more, and ha s been applie d t o the English Language curriculu m i n th e various

Introduction 7 socio-political an d economi c climate s o f th e differen t phase s o f histor y sinc e 1949. How ha s th e rol e an d statu s ascribe d t o Englis h i n th e educatio n syste m in Chin a changed ove r time? To answer this question, evidence for th e officia l role o f Englis h i s draw n fro m polic y documents , suc h a s thos e relatin g t o curriculum; policy actions, such as the setting up of new institutions; and polic y debates. The questio n o f status is more problematic . In thi s book, attentio n i s given t o bot h th e officia l an d popula r statu s o f English , t o th e relevan t weighting give n t o Englis h Languag e stud y i n th e curriculu m o f stat e educational institutions , an d t o th e us e o f English i n society . The attribut e o f 'low' statu s is applied i n thi s analysis to the statu s of English when stat e polic y reflected th e vie w tha t th e cultura l o r politica l threa t o f th e languag e wa s greater tha n th e technologica l benefits tha t its study might bring. Higher statu s is thus attributable when th e balance o f state policy was more incline d toward s a positiv e vie w o f English . Referenc e wil l als o b e mad e t o popula r attitude s towards th e Englis h languag e whe n thes e see m t o b e a t variance with officia l attitudes. Although th e boo k i s largel y abou t languag e issues , i t als o touche s o n political, socia l an d educationa l matter s tha t ar e onl y tangentiall y relate d t o the Englis h Languag e curriculu m i n China . Fo r instance , th e analysi s o f th e decision-making processe s employe d i n th e variou s curriculu m innovation s indicates ho w Chin a ha s handle d th e relation s betwee n th e centr e an d th e periphery i n educatio n an d othe r sphere s o f politica l activity . Thi s centre periphery tensio n has , historically, bee n a n importan t facto r i n th e histor y o f Chinese politics , give n th e siz e o f th e countr y an d th e diversit y o f regiona l interests an d ethni c backgrounds . Major source s o f dat a wer e ke y informant s — Tan g Jun, Li u Daoyi , Li u Jinfang an d Nevill e Grant . Tan g Jun ha d bee n involve d i n Englis h Languag e curriculum developmen t wit h th e PE P fro m th e earl y 1960 s and , afte r th e Cultural Revolution , ha d serve d a s project leade r fo r th e curriculu m reform s in 197 8 and 1982 . Liu Daoyi , who ha d bee n involve d i n th e PE P work i n th e 1960s a s a consultant , joined th e PE P staf f i n 1977 , and too k ove r a s projec t leader fo r th e developmen t o f th e 199 3 curriculum. Li u Jinfang, wh o joined in 1977 , was anothe r long-servin g membe r o f staf f a t th e PEP . Another ke y informant wa s fro m outsid e th e PE P — Nevill e Grant , a textboo k autho r working for Longma n International , who had bee n th e principal writer of th e textbook serie s fo r th e 199 3 curriculum . I hav e als o draw n o n m y ow n experiences a s a member o f th e tea m o f textboo k writer s working unde r Li u Daoyi an d Grant. 2 The dat a fro m ke y informant s wer e complemente d b y a n analysi s o f textbooks (i n particular), syllabuses, and relate d curriculu m documents , which were obtaine d fro m th e PE P an d othe r sources , suc h a s th e archive s o f colleagues i n Chin a an d my own archives . Apple an d Christian-Smit h (1991 )

8 China'

s English : A histor y o f English i n Chines e educatio n

highlight th e i m p o r t a n t rol e o f textboo k i n th e educatio n process , suggestin g that, i n general , th e curriculu m a s e x p e r i e n c e d b y mos t learner s i s define d m o r e closel y by textbooks rathe r tha n syllabuse s an d othe r documents . Venezk y (1992) a r g u e s t h a t t e x t b o o k s a r e b o t h c u l t u r a l a n d c u r r i c u l a r artefacts , possessing a n i n t e r t e x t u a l i t y t h a t link s t h e m t o t h e i r a n t e c e d e n t s a n d a v a l i d a t i o n b e s t o w e d b y variou s m e c h a n i s m s , s u c h a s p r o d u c t i o n qualit y (binding, design , typography , etc.) , o r b y associatio n wit h th e a u t h o r s h i p a n d affiliation o f authors , o r b y implications o f improvemen t a n d currenc y b y label s such a s 'revise d e d i t i o n ' . A s a cultura l artefact , th e n a t u r e o f textbook s i s circumscribed t o som e exten t b y social , e c o n o m i c a n d technica l conditions , such a s c o n t e m p o r a r y printin g techniques : ... text s are not simply "delivery systems" of "facts". They are at once th e result s of political, economic, and cultura l activities , battles, and compromises . The y are conceived, designed , an d authore d b y real people with real interests. They are publishe d withi n th e politica l an d economi c constraint s o f markets , resources an d power . And what text s mean an d ho w they are used ar e fough t over b y communitie s wit h distinctl y differen t commitment s an d b y teacher s and student s a s well. (Appl e an d Christian-Smith , 1991 : 1-2 ) As a curricula r artefact , textbook s reflec t th e i n t e n d e d curriculum , a s well a s t h e p r o m o t e d p e d a g o g i c a l a p p r o a c h e s , e i t h e r e x p l i c i t (e.g. , p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f c o n c e p t s t o b e g r a s p e d ) o r implici t ( t h e n a t u r e a n d a r r a n g e m e n t o f exercises , fo r e x a m p l e ) , a n d a h i d d e n curriculu m (suc h as t h e value s a n d m e a n i n g s o f th e d o m i n a n t culture ) (Cherryholmes , 1988 ; Venezky, 1992) . I t i s thi s vie w o f textbook s a s reflection s o f pedagogica l constructs a n d socio-politica l value s tha t form s th e basi s o f th e analysi s o f PRC textboo k resource s a d o p t e d i n thi s study . T h e analysi s recognize s tha t English Languag e curriculu m product s ar e shape d b y consideration s relatin g to t h r e e c o m p o n e n t s a t th e leve l o f desig n (adapte d fro m White , 1988) , which are : • pedagogy : explici t a n d / o r implici t belief s a n d practice s fo r teachin g a n d learning; • linguisti c c o m p o n e n t s : grammar , vocabulary , a n d languag e skill s (e.g. , reading, writing , listenin g a n d speaking) ; • c o n t e n t : situationa l context s a n d topics , includin g politica l a n d m o r a l messages. Taken individually , b u t especiall y w h e n i n t e r c o n n e c t e d a s a c o h e r e n t whole , each c o m p o n e n t contribute s t o a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f th e n a t u r e a n d rol e o f English i n Chin a (Figur e 1.2) .

Introduction 9 Role of English

AA

pedagogy

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fi Figure 2. 1 Extrac t fro m th e textboo k fo r compradores; th e ful l tex t i s provided i n Bolto n (2003). In romanize d form , th e tex t reads as follows: 19* nai-din 20 dun-day 21 dun-day won

16 sik-si-din 17 sum-din 18 ai-din

13 tat-din 14 for-din 15 fai-din

10 din 11 lim 12 tui-fung

7 sum 8 ai 9 nai

* The Chines e character s actuall y show 29, which is presumably a misprint .

4 for 5 fi 6 sik-si

1 won 2 dow 3 day-lay

Barbarian a s a foreign languag e 2

5

territorial integrity , wit h al l t h e implication s tha t thi s h a d fo r t h e n a t i o n ' s cultural a n d politica l well-being . C h i n a wa s t h r e a t e n e d o r perceive d hersel f to b e t h r e a t e n e d b y Wester n nation s i n t h r e e areas : militar y technolog y a n d hardware, industria l m a c h i n e r y a n d products , a n d cultur e a n d philosophy . T h e Chines e respons e t o thes e threat s too k th e for m o f tw o conflictin g strands: One was the intellectuals and th e government forces, th e other was the masse s which wer e no t directl y unde r th e tigh t contro l o f th e government . Th e former wer e represente d b y prominen t scholar s an d officials . The y sough t to understan d th e Wes t and searche d fo r a n organize d an d institutionalize d approach t o dete r "imperialism" . Modernizatio n b y means of Westernizatio n has bee n th e ke y approac h t o buildin g u p th e strengt h o f Chin a t o resis t foreign aggression . The failure o f this approach gav e rise to the secon d force : the antiforeign sentiment s of the unorganized masse s — the peasants, workers, students an d merchants . (Liao , 1990 : 3) T h u s som e Chines e official s cam e t o accept , albei t reluctantly , t h e n e e d to stud y Wester n idea s a n d language s t o strengthe n th e natio n s o tha t futur e h u m i l i a t i o n s m i g h t b e avoide d (Bastid , 1987) . A strateg y o f synthesi s wa s p r o p o u n d e d b y scholar s i n t h e Self-Strengthenin g M o v e m e n t d u r i n g t h e s e c o n d hal f o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h century , whic h s o u g h t t o preserv e C h i n a ' s cultural heritag e whil e placin g th e c o u n t r y o n a n equa l technologica l a n d e c o n o m i c footin g wit h others . Scholar s recognize d tha t th e stud y o f foreig n languages wa s necessar y t o gai n acces s t o Wester n idea s (Ten g a n d Fairbank , 1979). Fen g Guai-fen' s suggestion , whic h wa s highl y controversial , wa s t o se t u p officia l college s t o stud y foreig n language s wit h a vie w t o s t r e n g t h e n i n g China t h r o u g h technolog y transfer : If toda y w e wis h t o selec t an d us e Wester n knowledge , w e shoul d establis h official translatio n office s a t Canto n an d Shanghai . Brillian t student s u p t o fifteen year s o f ag e shoul d b e selecte d fro m thos e area s t o liv e an d stud y i n these school s on doubl e rations . Westerners shoul d b e invite d t o teac h the m the spoke n an d written language s of the various nations, and famous Chines e teachers shoul d als o b e engage d t o teac h the m classics , history , an d othe r subjects. A t th e sam e tim e the y shoul d lear n mathematic s .. . I f we no w wish to adop t Wester n knowledge , naturall y w e canno t bu t lear n mathematics . (Translated b y Teng an d Fairbank , 1979 : 51) Feng's ideas , a s wel l a s thos e o f like-minde d scholars , gaine d imperia l consent. I n 1861 , t h e Chines e g o v e r n m e n t establishe d th e Tongwe n G u a n (literally * School o f C o m b i n ed Learning') , a n institut e o f translatio n i n Beijing . A simila r establishment , th e G u a n g Fangya n i n Shanghai , o p e n e d i n 1863 . T h e Tongwen G u a n wa s subordinat e t o th e Zongl i Yamen , a n offic e responsibl e for foreig n affair s tha t wa s als o create d i n th e decre e o f 1861 . O n e dut y o f

26 China'

s English : A histor y o f English i n Chines e educatio n

t h e interpreter s traine d i n th e Tongwe n G u a n wa s t o pas s o n t o th e Zongl i Yamen intelligenc e g a r n e r e d fro m foreig n newspaper s p r o d u c e d i n th e treat y ports. T h u s th e stud y o f Englis h h a d a dua l role : t o gai n acces s t o Wester n t e c h n o l o g y t h r o u g h t h e translatio n o f scientifi c a n d technica l book s i n t o Chinese, a n d t o enabl e th e Chines e g o v e r n m e n t t o engag e i n diplomac y wit h the Wester n powers . Ironically , th e Tongwe n G u a n initiall y suffere d fro m th e stigma t h a t it s p r o p o n e n t , F e n g Guai-fen , h a d n o t e d wit h r e g a r d t o t h e compradores. A t first , a s Borthwic k notes , i t was : filled with the dregs of an old official schoo l for Manch u bannerme n [militar y officers]. Th e student s an d thei r familie s wer e ostracise d b y friend s an d relatives fo r surrenderin g t o th e West . Som e eve n ha d difficult y i n findin g wives. (Borthwick , 1982 : 63) O n e reaso n fo r th e lo w p o p u l a r standin g o f th e institutio n wa s th e belie f that a s o u n d knowledg e o f Chines e woul d endo w student s wit h a statu s a n d position i n society , wherea s a knowledg e o f Englis h promise d a n u n c e r t a i n future (Biggerstaff , 1961) . However , b y th e lat e 1870s , graduate s fro m t h e Tongwen G u a n b e g a n t o gai n a p p o i n t m e n t s withi n th e civi l servic e o r eve n diplomatic posting s oversea s a n d th e statu s o f th e school , a n d therefor e o f studying English , ros e accordingl y (Spence , 1980) . T h e force d o p e n i n g o f Chin a m e a n t tha t Englis h wa s also taugh t i n school s set u p b y missionar y o r g a n i z a t i o n s . F r o m 1842 , missionar y school s wer e established i n Macau , Guangzhou , Tianjin , Shanghai , Ningp o a n d o t h e r treat y p o r t s , a n d , followin g t h e O p i u m Wars , i n t h e h i n t e r l a n d (Bolton , 2002) . Teaching Englis h wa s see n a s a m e d i u m t o chang e Chin a peacefull y a n d t o proselytize. A n editoria l i n th e missionar y j o u r n a l, The Chinese Repository, o n the i m p o r t a n c e o f th e Englis h languag e i n Britis h imperia l history , comments : We entertain n o mea n opinio n o f the strengt h o f th e Chinese ; yet we do no t by an y mean s regar d the m a s invincibl e eithe r b y arm s o r argument . The y could neve r stan d agains t th e disciplin e o f Europea n force s — and w e hop e they will never be put in such a woful [sic ] position ; but if they can be brough t into th e ope n fiel d o f argument, w e are, if possible, still more sur e the y mus t yield. I t i s impossibl e tha t forms , an d usages , an d claim s founde d i n erro r and falsehood , ca n stan d agains t th e force of truth. B y a fre e intercours e o f thought, commercia l an d political , socia l an d religiou s relation s can , an d sooner o r later , certainl y wil l b e improved . (The Chinese Repository, 1834 : 5 ; emphasis i n original ) However, i t was th e economi c rathe r tha n spiritua l benefit s o f learnin g Englis h t h a t a t t r a c t e d m o s t students : t h e stud y o f t h e l a n g u a g e offere d acces s t o lucrative post s with foreig n companies , i n th e custom s service , or th e telegrap h service. T h e wor k o f English-speakin g compradores, which h a d previousl y b e e n

Barbarian a s a foreign languag e 2

7

associated wit h outcasts , b e c a m e a m e a n s fo r b u d d i n g e n t r e p r e n e u r s t o m a k e quick capita l a n d usefu l connection s (Hsu , 1990) . T h e positiv e vie w o f t h e Englis h l a n g u a g e t h a t p r e d o m i n a t e d a m o n g residents o f t h e treat y port s wa s n o t share d b y al l Chinese , m a n y o f w h o m reacted agains t an y for m o f interactio n wit h foreigners , particularl y afte r th e O p i u m Wars . This oppositio n wa s occasionally expresse d i n violen t terms . T h e nobility, especially , whose statu s a n d powe r were derive d fro m traditiona l socia l a n d politica l structures , periodicall y showe d over t hostilit y toward s th e Englis h language b y directin g mas s anti-foreignis t movement s tha t sough t t o eradicat e its trace s fro m C h i n a (Liao , 1990) . M u c h o f t h e violenc e wa s directe d agains t the missionaries , whos e religiou s message s allie d t o Englis h t e a c h i n g wer e perceived a s a t h r e a t t o th e mixtur e o f Daoism , Buddhism , Shintois m a n d Confucianism, t h e stat e philosoph y tha t e m b r a c e d religious , governmental , social a n d familia l affair s i n China . Anti-foreign riot s too k plac e a t various time s in H u n a n , H u b e i , Jiangxi, Tianji n a n d Nanjing , inter alia, a n d c u l m i n a t e d i n the Boxe r Uprisin g o f 1900-01 , whic h sa w th e d e a t h o f 23 1 foreigner s a n d m a n y m o r e Chines e Christians . Whil e man y participant s i n thes e riot s wer e peasants, the y were encourage d a n d organize d n o t onl y by the loca l aristocracy , b u t als o b y high-rankin g official s a n d eve n th e Empres s Dowager , Cixi , wh o wielded significan t powe r i n th e Imperia l C o u r t (Hsu , 1990) . T h e s e anti-foreig n sentiment s forme d a stron g c o u n t e r p o i n t t o t h e t r e n d towards s t r e n g t h e n i n g C h i n a militarily , e c o n o m i c a l l y a n d diplomaticall y t h r o u g h a n educatio n p r o g r a m m e base d o n technica l transfe r fro m overseas , as advocate d b y scholar s suc h a s Z h a n g Zhidong . Zhang' s vie w tha t foreig n science a n d technolog y n e e d e d t o b e grafte d o n t o th e mora l tradition s o f China wa s encapsulated i n th e sloga n zhongxue weiti, xixue weiyong ('stud y Chin a for essence , stud y t h e Wes t fo r practica l u s a g e ' ) . Immediatel y p r i o r t o th e Boxer Uprisin g (an d o n e o f it s probabl e causes ) wa s th e refor m m o v e m e n t of 1898 , know n a s th e H u n d r e d Days ' Refor m becaus e fro m 1 1 J u ne t o 3 0 September, ove r fort y refor m decree s wer e issued . T o assuag e anti-foreignis t sentiments, scholar s a t t e m p t e d t o encapsulat e i n t h e reform s th e principl e o f assimilating Wester n idea s a n d preservin g th e fundamenta l stat e philosoph y (Ayers, 1971) . Foreig n languag e study , fo r instance , woul d b e slotte d int o thi s ethical framewor k fo r purel y functional , rathe r t h a n cultural , goals ; accordin g to We n Ti , a schola r a t th e tim e o f th e H u n d r e d Days ' Reform : If we wish t o receiv e th e benefi t o f Western methods , we must first acquir e a knowledge o f Confucius , Mencius , Ch'en g an d Chu , an d kee p i t a s th e foundation t o mak e peopl e thoroughl y familia r wit h filia l piety , younger brotherhood, loyalty , sincerity , ceremony , righteousness , integrity , a sens e o f shame, obligations and th e teachings of the sages and moral courage, in orde r to understan d an d demonstrat e th e foundation , befor e w e ca n lear n th e foreign spoke n an d writte n language s for som e practica l use . (Translate d b y Teng an d Fairbank , 1979 : 183-4 )

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s English: A history of English i n Chinese education

The decre e o f 1 0 July 189 8 established highe r educationa l institute s base d on th e model o f the Tongwen Guan , and a range of other reform s intende d t o facilitate th e transfer o f technology. However, officials undermine d man y of th e reforms. Fo r instance , th e Boar d o f Rites, which supervise d entranc e t o th e imperial civi l service strongly resisted th e impositio n o f changes to traditiona l examinations. Othe r refor m edict s were ignore d b y central an d provincia l officials (Hsii , 1990) . The aftermat h o f th e Boxe r Uprising , whe n a n arm y despatched b y the various nations with territorial interests in China crushed th e rebellion an d exacte d hars h indemnitie s fro m th e Chines e government , witnessed som e half-hearted attempt s at reform b y a dispirited Imperia l Court , mortally wounded b y internal strif e an d externa l force. I n 1902 , China finall y rejected th e traditiona l syste m o f schooling, which was linked t o th e imperia l civil service. In it s place, one base d o n th e Japanese syste m o f education wa s adopted a s a suitabl e mode l fo r graftin g Wester n idea s o n t o a n Orienta l culture (Hayhoe , 1984) ; th e Chines e ha d als o bee n force d int o grudgin g admiration o f Japan followin g thei r humiliatin g defea t i n th e Sino-Japanes e War o f 1894-1895 . English (a s an alternativ e t o Japanese) wa s among th e subjects include d i n th e mainstrea m curricul a o f secondary school s accordin g to th e 'Regulation s o f Primary and Middl e Schools ' edic t issue d b y Empero r Guangxu i n August 1902 , although Englis h wa s recommended t o be taugh t only to senio r secondar y schoo l students . Further regulation s were issue d i n 1904, spelling out th e underlying objectiv e o f assimilating Western ideas : The principal idea in establishing any school is a basis in loyalty and filial piety. In othe r words, traditional Chinese learning must be the basis of education to form students ' character . After that , th e importance o f Western learnin g is emphasized t o enrich knowledg e an d t o give technical skill s to students . (translated i n Abe, 1987: 65) The ne w mode l aime d t o counte r th e exclusivit y o f Confucia n an d neo Confucian educatio n b y making schoolin g universa l fo r al l childre n o f seve n years o f ag e o r older . Unit s o f educationa l administratio n wer e se t u p throughout Chin a t o implemen t th e ne w measures, bu t a lack o f money an d facilities, a s well a s a shortag e o f teacher s sufficientl y qualifie d t o mee t th e demands o f the ne w curriculum, hampere d suc h a n ambitiou s project. Japan provided som e resource s an d helpe d i n teache r education . However , th e imitation o f the Japanese mode l was short-lived, as fear o f Japanese hegemon y spread an d th e traditiona l element s lacke d relevanc e t o th e need s o f China' s development programme, which, in any case, was thrown into temporary chao s by the revolutio n o f 1911. The eventua l abolitio n o f th e traditiona l examination s an d th e adoptio n of a moder n educatio n syste m wa s a victor y fo r th e Self-Strengtheners . Th e last empero r o f China , Pu-Y i Aisin Guor o (wh o adopte d th e Englis h name , Henry), epitomize d th e officia l recognitio n o f th e valu e o f Englis h b y hirin g

Barbarian as a foreign languag e 2

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a tutor , Reginal d Flemin g Johnston, wh o use d 'Alic e i n Wonderland ' a s a textbook (Pu-Yi , 1964 : 54).

English durin g th e Republi c The overthro w o f th e Qin g dynast y an d th e establishmen t o f th e republica n era i n 191 1 ma y b e regarde d a s a Pyrrhi c victor y fo r th e modernizers . Th e English languag e ha d playe d a significant rol e i n th e modernizers ' cause , bu t without a n emperor , th e philosophical , religiou s an d socia l construct s o f th e nation wer e undermined . Th e Republic , founde d o n 1 January 1912 , wa s marked b y politica l uncertainty . Th e brie f provisiona l presidenc y o f D r Su n Yat-sen wa s followe d b y th e appointmen t o f Yua n Shika i a s President o f th e Republic o f China, but Yuan's inclinations appeare d monarchica l rathe r tha n republican. Afte r hi s death , Chin a experience d a furthe r breakdow n i n la w and order : warlord s establishe d contro l o f region s o f th e countr y an d i t was only in 1928 , with th e settin g up o f a Nationalist Party government i n Nanjing , that a semblanc e o f unit y wa s restored . Eve n then , th e relativ e stabilit y wa s short-lived, wit h th e outbrea k o f th e Anti-Japanes e Wa r i n 1937 , followed b y the Civi l Wa r tha t culminate d i n 194 9 wit h th e foundin g o f th e People' s Republic o f China . In th e earl y day s o f th e Republic , studyin g abroad , mos t notabl y i n th e United State s of America, gre w in popularit y (Keenan , 1977) . In 1922 , Chin a decided t o follo w th e mode l o f th e U S educatio n system . Th e US A ha d ploughed bac k th e reparation s receive d followin g th e Boxe r Uprisin g a t th e turn o f the centur y into the establishment of educational institutions in China , many o f whic h ha d America n missionarie s an d othe r teacher s o n th e staff . Military co-operatio n ha d als o reache d a considerabl e level . A majo r advocat e o f learnin g fro m th e industrialize d worl d wa s D r Su n Yat-sen. A t times , h e live d abroa d i n orde r t o stud y foreig n language s (particularly English), literature, politics, mathematics and medicine. His goals, encapsulated i n th e Thre e People' s Principles , wer e th e developmen t o f Chinese nationalism , freedom fro m dominatio n b y the Manch u Qin g dynast y as well as from foreig n powers , democracy, and socialism . He sough t t o creat e a modernize d Chin a tha t existe d o n a n equa l footin g wit h th e industrialize d nations, but which synthesized Chines e tradition with new imported ideas . The young intelligentsia tha t supported Su n Yat-sen included severa l scholars who had studie d overseas . Th e idea s o f Thoma s Huxley , John Dewey , Bertran d Russell, Paul Monroe, Adam Smith an d Charle s Darwin, among others, fuelle d what Hs u call s th e 'Ne w Cultura l Movement ' (Hsii , 1990) . Th e notio n o f Progressivism, whe n espouse d (an d reinterpreted ) b y influentia l reformer s such a s Ta o Xingzhi , briefl y fille d th e vacuu m create d b y th e oustin g o f Confucianism a s the basi s for th e politica l rational e o f education .

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This refor m movement , epitomize d b y the Ma y Fourth Movemen t o f 1919 , aroused grea t d e b a t e i n China , wit h languag e a s a centra l issue . Most notably , the directio n o f Chines e L a n g u a g e e d u c a t i o n wa s t h e mos t hotl y d e b a t e d question: w h e t h e r th e vernacula r a n d oral-focuse d baihua versio n shoul d b e emphasized i n th e curriculu m o r th e classical , literary-focuse d wenyan version . Debates s u r r o u n d i n g English , too , wer e p r o m i n e n t d u r i n g th e 'Intellectua l Revolution' betwee n 191 7 a n d 1923 , a s attitude s toward s th e languag e wer e still ambivalent . Englis h (o r a n o t h e r foreig n language ) wa s o n e o f th e t h r e e c o r e subject s i n t h e s e c o n d a r y schoo l c u r r i c u l u m , b u t t h e wide r rol e fo r English, a s a m e d i u m fo r accessin g p h i l o s o p h i c a l , e c o n o m i c , socia l a n d political ideas , wa s resiste d b y traditionalists . Writin g i n 1933 , a scholar , Fa n Shou-kang, sough t t o c u r b wha t h e perceive d t o b e t h e perniciou s influenc e of English u p o n Chines e cultur e b y boosting patrioti c educatio n a n d restrictin g the stud y o f Englis h t o enabl e pupil s to : ... use th e mos t commo n foreig n languag e i n speec h an d writin g i n orde r t o ... mee t th e mos t commo n an d simpl e need s i n busines s an d i n society , establish th e foundation fo r further stud y in tha t language, and promote thei r interest i n th e stud y o f th e dail y lif e condition s o f foreig n countries , (cite d in Tsang , 1967 : 72-3 ) S o m e s c h o l a r s calle d fo r t h e r e m o v a l o f E n g l i s h a n d o t h e r f o r e i g n languages fro m t h e schoo l curriculum . I n a n articl e entitle d 'Nationalisti c Education a n d t h e M o v e m e n t fo r t h e Abolitio n o f Englis h i n th e Elementar y School', L i Ju-mien wrot e i n 1925 : Not unti l recentl y ha s ther e bee n th e realisatio n o f th e necessit y fo r nationalistic education . Elementar y educatio n ha s th e primar y functio n o f cultivating patrioti c an d efficien t citizenship . Al l kind s o f trainin g an d al l branches o f th e curriculu m shoul d b e centre d o n thi s mission . Subject s unimportant o r irrelevan t t o thi s purpose o f educatio n shoul d b e take n ou t of th e curriculum . Englis h i s a foreig n language . I t ha s n o relatio n t o th e training o f citizenshi p an d shoul d b e abolished , (cite d i n Tsang , 1967 : 72) In time , t h e America n m o d e l o f educatio n was , in turn , discarded , o n th e g r o u n d s tha t i t swun g to o fa r fro m Chines e traditio n and , m o r e persuasively , t h e nationalis t m o v e m e n t fel t i t politi c fo r C h i n a t o s h e d th e leas t h i n t o f foreign i n t e r v e n t i o n i n d o m e s t i c affairs . T h e Nationalis t Part y s o u g h t t o establish a n indigenou s philosoph y a n d syste m o f education. I t faced conflictin g forces: t h e traditiona l n o t i o n o f self-cultivatio n agains t th e progressiv e ide a of socia l utility ; elitis t agains t broad-base d education , and , particularly , th e aspirations o f t h e Nationalis t Part y itsel f agains t t h e n e e d s o f th e c o u n t r y i n g e n e r a l . I n d e e d , t h e Nationalis t Part y i n t r o d u c e d m a n d a t o r y p r o p a g a n d a courses int o schools . However , investmen t i n educatio n wa s severel y limite d

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by economic difficultie s an d th e inability of the Nationalist Party to administe r a natio n which , politically , was rapidly devolvin g int o a patchwork o f warlor d states. A few warlords, like Yan Xishan in Shanxi, demonstrated a n appreciatio n of the importance o f education an d invested in its development (Gillin , 1967). In th e backgroun d t o th e reform s an d instability , Confucia n school s {sz shu) remained i n operation , particularl y i n rura l areas , an d th e teachin g o f traditional value s wer e preserve d i n suc h places . On th e othe r hand , interes t i n learnin g Englis h wa s enhance d b y othe r factors. O n e wa s th e growt h o f internationa l mas s medi a an d mas s entertainment. Chines e people , particularl y i n th e majo r cities , experience d a wider exposure t o English tha n previousl y through th e increased availabilit y of foreign newspapers , journals an d films, wit h th e resul t tha t th e popularit y of Englis h learnin g wa s heightened . Shangha i especiall y ha d a Westernize d elite, typified b y the Soong sisters, Ailing, Meiling — who married Chian g Kaishek, th e leade r o f th e Nationalis t Part y — an d Chingling , wh o marrie d Su n Yat-sen. They were educate d i n a girls' academ y ru n b y Western missionaries : such school s were favoured b y rich Chines e familie s wishing to enhance thei r commercial dealing s with industrialized nation s and t o prepare thei r childre n for oversea s stud y (Cleverley , 1991) . For some , knowledge o f English offere d social advancemen t a s a mark o f education, t o th e outrag e o f some member s of the aristocracy (Borthwick , 1982) . Lower down th e social scale, a smatterin g of English stil l represented a passport to employment i n the treat y ports, albei t in humbl e position s (Borthwick , 1982) . International event s also brought Chin a closer to English-speaking nations . Chinese pressur e le d t o th e numbe r o f treat y port s bein g reduced , an d th e Nine-Power Treat y ( 6 Februar y 1922 ) assure d China , a t leas t o n paper , o f political independenc e an d territoria l integrity . Whe n Japanes e aggressio n against China flared u p seriously in 1937 , China turned t o the USA for support , which came , particularl y afte r Pear l Harbor , i n th e for m o f adviser s suc h a s Joseph Stilwel l an d materiel flown i n 'ove r th e hump ' (th e Himalayas ) fro m India. On e sourc e o f suppor t i n th e Anti-Japanes e Wa r wa s China' s privat e recruitment o f Claire Le e Chennaul t fro m th e U S Army Air Corps t o overse e the Chines e Ai r Force . Hi s commitmen t t o th e Chines e caus e wa s enhance d by a meetin g wit h Soon g Meiling , i n whic h h e wa s apparentl y impresse d b y the wa y she spok e Englis h i n a ric h Souther n draw l (Spence , 1980) . In th e Chinese Civil War, which followed th e Antijapanese War , both sides , the CCP and th e Nationalist Party, wanted suppor t from th e USA in particula r — the CC P for internationa l legitimac y and th e Nationalis t Part y for militar y assistance. U S diplomati c activit y wa s generall y even-hande d whe n th e tw o political group s firs t emerge d a s potentia l governor s o f postwa r China , an d both Zho u Enlai of the CC P and Chian g Kai-shek of the Nationalist Party were able to communicate with US officials i n English (Spence , 1980 ; Wilson, 1984) . After th e meeting between US President Roosevelt and th e USSR leader, Stalin ,

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at Yalt a i n 1945 , th e U S polic y t o bac k th e Nationalis t Part y emerged . Thi s engendered th e ambivalent attitude o f the CCP towards the USA and her allie s that was to set the ton e for th e early decades of the PRC: the CCP understoo d the importanc e o f internationa l recognitio n an d appreciate d th e individua l friendship an d assistanc e o f sympatheti c doctor s an d journalist s suc h a s Norman Bethune , Edga r Snow , Agnes Smedle y and Ann a Louis e Strong , bu t it abhorre d th e anti-Communis t stanc e o f th e U S government an d retaliate d in 194 9 by announcing tha t it would seek solidarity with th e forces o f socialism to comba t imperialism .

Summary English wa s perceive d i n imperia l Chin a a s a threa t t o th e nation' s cultura l integrity, bu t also , paradoxically , a s a mean s t o hel p shor e u p tha t integrity . The cultura l threa t embodie d b y Englis h le d t o violen t resistanc e a t times , especially whe n scholar s an d aristocrats , whos e interest s wer e mos t a t risk , believed tha t th e Imperia l Cour t was incapable o f resisting th e impac t o f th e language an d th e values it embodied. Th e statu s of English was as ambivalen t as its role. The negativ e connotation s o f English meant tha t th e languag e ha d low officia l statu s initially , whe n communicatio n wa s conducte d b y virtua l outcasts from Chines e society , but as the national crisi s developed, Englis h was accorded highe r officia l statu s with th e government's establishmen t o f foreig n language institutions . Popula r approva l o f Englis h als o ros e becaus e o f th e social mobilit y tha t knowledg e o f English mad e possible . In th e Republica n period , th e rol e o f Englis h wa s enhance d i n China' s modernization programme . The officia l statu s of the language als o grew, with its institutionalization i n th e curriculum. Opportunitie s t o learn th e languag e increased, althoug h th e agrarian masse s that made u p th e vast majority o f th e population ha d littl e tim e o r opportunit y fo r schooling . Th e incidenc e o f violent anti-foreignism decrease d (an d where it did occur, was mainly directe d against Japanese militarism) . One reason for th e greater acceptanc e o f English could b e tha t th e debat e ha d los t its political edge : China was facing les s of a territorial crisi s than i n th e latte r years of the Qin g dynasty. Although sh e ha d not ye t shake n of f th e foreig n imperialisti c yoke , Chin a strengthene d he r international position , tendin g toward s alignmen t wit h Wester n rathe r tha n Eastern power s such a s Japan. At the sam e time , China was adopting Wester n ideas to fill some of the void left by the demise of the imperial system, althoug h not a t th e expens e o f a tota l rejectio n o f he r cultura l heritage . Thes e shift s towards a mor e equitabl e relationshi p wit h industrialize d countrie s ar e reflected i n th e developmen t o f a n indigenou s educatio n syste m buil t o n a US mode l an d operatin g i n paralle l an d i n competitio n t o tha t o f th e expanding missionar y movement .

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Nonetheless, ther e wer e dissenter s who sa w the influ x o f foreign idea s a s a threat. The tensio n betwee n th e modernizers an d th e traditionalist s centre d on th e questio n o f nationalism. Th e forme r sough t a re-evaluation o f China' s heritage wit h referenc e t o social , political, economi c an d philosophica l idea s from abroad ; fo r thi s t o tak e place , th e stud y o f Englis h wa s necessary . Th e traditionalists saw the English language a s the thin edg e of a wedge tha t would destroy China' s ric h culture . Th e tensio n wa s no t resolve d durin g th e Republican era . Indeed , i t was t o becom e a n issu e o f grea t controvers y afte r the CC P assumed powe r i n 1949 , particularly i n th e ligh t of the internationa l politics surroundin g th e Chines e Civi l War , whic h create d o r heightene d antipathy toward s th e US A and he r allies .

The Soviet influence, 1949—60

The establishmen t o f th e PR C o n 1 October 194 9 marke d th e en d o f mor e than twelv e years' fighting , firstl y arisin g from th e Japanese invasio n i n 1937 , and the n th e civi l war betwee n th e CC P an d Nationalis t Party . Interna l strif e and weaknes s wer e majo r challenge s t o th e CCP , whose mai n priorit y i n th e 1950s was nation-building. Stat e policy addressed tw o major historica l tension s (Hsii, 1990) . The firs t aros e from th e immediat e past : the nee d t o consolidat e the CCP' s power in th e face o f the lingering influences o f the Nationalist Part y and traditiona l feuda l ideas , b y using mas s campaign s t o unit e th e populac e in suppor t o f CC P policies . Th e secon d wa s connecte d t o th e long-standin g strategy o f nationa l self-strengthening : th e nee d t o buil d a stron g Chin a politically, economically and militarily , in order t o enable he r t o play what was viewed a s an equitabl e rol e i n internationa l affairs . The earl y years afte r th e revolutio n wer e characterize d b y united fron t activities i n urba n area s t o engag e th e loyaltie s o f former Nationalis t Part y sympathizers, particularly the entrepreneurs in the prosperous seaboard area s who coul d provid e th e mean s t o develo p th e nation' s economy . At the sam e time, land reform i n th e rural areas was carried ou t t o eradicate th e influenc e of wealthy landowners (who m the CCP considered t o exploit the peasants); t o reward the poorer peasants for their support in the civil war; and to prepare fo r the introduction o f new agricultural programmes . These programme s sough t to establish a collectivized system of agricultural production tha t was designed to even out former inequalitie s and increase efficiency. Hel p was solicited fro m the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) , which had undergone a similar process after th e revolution in 1917 . Policy advisers and technical experts fro m the USSR arrived in China to assist in the developmental process. The CCP also initiated a series of reforms t o create new political structures . In th e earl y 1950s , Englis h wa s rarel y foun d i n th e schoo l curriculum . Education polic y efforts wer e oriented toward s mother-tongue literac y as a part of the provision o f mass education, an d Russia n was the main foreign languag e in school s because o f the stron g link with the USSR. Political event s rendere d

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English unpopular . A n u m b e r o f English-speaking countrie s faile d t o recogniz e t h e PRC , a n d t h e USA , whic h r e m a i n e d a stron g supporte r o f th e Nationalis t Party tha t h a d d e c a m p e d t o Taiwa n i n 1949 , impose d a n e c o n o m i c blockade . A tid e o f anti-U S s e n t i m e n t swep t th e c o u n t r y wit h th e effec t tha t i t ' b e c a m e s o m e h o w u n p a t r i o t i c t o stud y t h e languag e o f o u r e n e m i e s ' (Tan g Lixing , 1983: 41) . Recallin g thi s period , Tsan g Chi u Sa m writes : The social movements and though t reform movement s have scared th e peopl e to such a n exten t that , a s far a s possible, they keep awa y from an y associatio n with imperialism. It was reported tha t the sons and daughters of the professor s of Englis h i n th e universitie s were unwillin g t o tak e u p th e stud y o f English . It was explained tha t the y did no t want t o fac e th e sam e misfortun e o f thei r fathers i n th e socia l movement s an d though t reform s whe n the y ha d t o pa y the penalt y fo r havin g bee n Englis h scholars . A t on e time , i n elementar y English i n th e lowe r schools , "Jack " an d "John " wer e supersede d b y suc h Chinese name s a s "L i Fong " o r "S o Ming" , an d "sir " wa s replace d b y "comrade". Progres s i n foreig n languag e learnin g i s handicappe d b y thi s emotional strain . (1967 : 203-4 ) O n th e o t h e r h a n d , th e g o v e r n m e n t di d n o t completel y los e sigh t o f th e practical valu e o f t h e Englis h languag e a s a m e a n s o f acces s t o scienc e a n d technology. T h e draf t c u r r i c u l u m fo r foreig n languag e facultie s i n tertiar y institutes issue d i n 195 0 state d t h a t t h e m a i n p u r p o s e o f studyin g foreig n languages wa s fo r th e purpose s o f translatio n (Ministr y o f Education , 1950a) . I n t e r p r e t e r s o f Russia n wer e r e q u i r e d fo r t h e Sovie t specialist s workin g i n China, a n d translator s o f Russia n a n d Englis h wer e n e e d e d a s mos t technica l a n d scientifi c m a n u a l s i m p o r t e d b y C h i n a wer e i n thes e languages . T h e officia l r e c o m m e n d a t i o n wa s t h a t Russia n s h o u l d b e t h e foreig n l a n g u a g e studie d i n schools , a l t h o u g h school s t e a c h i n g Englis h woul d b e allowed t o c o n t i n u e (Ministr y o f Education , 1950b) . However , t h e r e wer e n o s c h o o l t e x t b o o k s fo r E n g l i s h p r o d u c e d i n C h i n a a t t h a t t i m e , a n d t h e importation o f book s fro m th e USA , U K a n d o t h e r English-speakin g nation s was b a n n e d. School s h a d t o rel y o n revision s o f ol d Nationalis t Part y textbook s for Englis h (whic h wer e tolerate d b y th e authoritie s becaus e o f th e lac k o f alternatives) o r writ e thei r ow n material s (Tan g J u n, 1986) . Thes e condition s favoured th e teachin g o f Russian , fo r whic h expertis e a n d teachin g material s were m o r e readil y available . Man y forme r Englis h Languag e teacher s switche d to teachin g Russia n — t o th e extent , whe n officia l record s bega n i n 1957 , ther e were onl y 7 3 j u n i or secondar y schoo l Englis h Languag e teacher s i n t h e whol e c o u n t r y (Tan g Lixing , 1983 ; Ministry o f Education , 1984) . O n 2 8 Apri l 1954 , the ministr y a n n o u n c e d tha t al l foreign languag e teachin g o t h e r tha n Russia n would ceas e i n s e c o n d a r y school s i n o r d e r t o r e d u c e t h e d e m a n d s o f t h e c u r r i c u l u m o n students . Priorit y wa s give n t o l e a r n i n g Chines e a n d o t h e r subjects (Lofstedt , 1980 ; Tan g Lixing , 1983 ; Tang J u n, 1986) .

The Soviet influence, 1949-6 0 3

7

Industrial expansio n i n th e mid-1950 s serve d t o rekindl e officia l interes t in English as a valuable language o f science and technology . At the same time , China's foreig n polic y wa s developing , largel y throug h th e diplomac y o f Premier Zho u Enlai , toward s a degre e o f detente with countrie s i n Asi a tha t were no t aligne d wit h eithe r th e communis t o r capitalis t blocs . An exampl e of thi s diplomac y wa s th e agreemen t o f th e Fiv e Principle s o f Peacefu l Coexistence a t Bandun g i n 1955 , involvin g non-aligne d countries . Th e increased internationa l activity , together wit h a general revie w of educationa l standards i n th e countr y resulte d i n a range o f educationa l reform s (Wilson , 1984; Pepper, 1996) . In 1956 , the Ministry of Education announce d that , fro m the followin g year , junior secondar y school s woul d teac h eithe r Englis h o r Russian, and tha t th e targe t ratio of schools offering Russia n t o those offerin g English woul d b e 1: 1 (Qu n an d Li , 1991) , althoug h thi s provisio n woul d b e initially limite d t o thos e school s i n th e bi g cities , suc h a s Beijing , Shangha i and Tianjin , tha t possessed sufficien t resource s t o teach Englis h (Tan g Lixing, 1983). In th e event , th e numbe r o f full-time junior secondar y schoo l Englis h Language teacher s multiplie d mor e tha n 2 5 times to 1,85 9 betwee n 195 7 an d 1959 (Ministr y o f Education, 1984) . The decad e ende d wit h politica l movement s tha t ha d a drasti c effec t o n people's lives : the Anti-Rightist Campaig n i n 195 7 against dissen t o r criticis m directed toward s th e government ; th e institutio n o f People' s Communes , i n which many aspects of work and family life were collectivized, and th e frenzie d Great Leap Forward. The las t of these, which starte d i n 1958 , was designed t o mobilize al l sectors of society to make contributions t o industrial developmen t — eve n t o th e exten t o f establishin g small , makeshif t stee l furnace s i n wor k units an d communes . Whil e outpu t di d increase , qualit y wa s sacrifice d an d the emphasis on industr y over agriculture mean t tha t the Grea t Leap Forwar d resulted i n mas s famine , especiall y i n th e rura l areas , an d a n estimate d 5 0 million deaths . All thes e movement s place d pressur e o n th e hig h degre e o f national solidarit y an d consensu s tha t th e CC P ha d achieve d afte r takin g power: factionalism appeare d i n the CCP ; the persecutions for politica l error s were bewildering ; th e People' s Commune s wer e unproductiv e an d wasteful ; the Grea t Lea p Forwar d wa s a disaster , an d disconten t wa s growin g amon g the peopl e (Lofstedt , 1980 ; Hsii, 1990 ; Liao, 1990 ; Wang, 1995) . Between 195 7 and 1960 , there were thre e set s of innovations in th e junior secondary schoo l Englis h Languag e curriculu m i n China ; an d thei r feature s are summarize d i n Table 3. 1 (se e p . 38) . The commo n feature s o f thi s phas e lie in th e proces s of development. Al l innovations were produced a t the tim e of Sino-Sovie t collaboration , whic h clearl y impinge d upo n th e Englis h Language curriculum , especiall y i n term s o f politica l conten t an d intende d pedagogy. Th e PE P i n th e Ministr y o f Educatio n relie d o n staf f i n tertiar y institutions to write th e syllabuse s and textboo k resources , and ther e was little planning o r consultation with grassroots members of the teachin g profession .

Table 3 1 Feature s of the Englis h Languag e curriculum , 1949-6 0 1960: Serie s Tw o

1957: Serie s On e

call t o strengthe n politica l conten t

Genesis

reassessment o f rol e o f Englis h i n economic developmen t

Role an d statu s of Englis h

promote loyalt y t o CC P an d patriotism , technology transfer , cultura l information, low/mediu m officia l statu s low officia l statu s

Role o f agencie s commissioning an d publishin g PEP writing syllabu s an d textbook s Consultants none Teachers

1960: Serie s Thre e plan t o creat e unifie d primar y an d secondary curriculum , durin g politicization promote loyalt y t o CC P an d patriotism, lo w officia l statu s

commissioning an d publishin g writing textbook s none

commissioning an d publishin g writing syllabu s an d textbook s some pilotin g an d feedbac k

adaptation o f Serie s One , referenc e t o Chinese Languag e textbook s fo r political message s

reference t o Chines e Languag e textbooks an d politica l tract s fo r political message s

Process

adaptation o f tertiar y materials , reference t o Sovie t model s

Syllabus

not published , guideline s stres s accurat e unchanged pronunciation an d basi c gramma r

not publishe d (experimenta l curriculum)

Resources

two textbook s

three textbook s

18 textbook s ( 8 fo r junior secondary )

Organization

integrated topic-based , linea r sequenc e

integrated topic-based , linea r sequence , no clea r underpinnin g organization , disjointed betwee n Boo k 1 and Book s 2 passage-based, widel y varying n u m b e r and 3 of vocabulary item s

Discourse

from weakl y t o strongl y realisti c

from weakl y t o strongl y realisti c

mainly strongl y realisti c

Linguistic components

focus o n pronunciation , grammar , vocabulary, som e contro l

focus o n readin g an d vocabulary , littl e control

focus o n readin g an d vocabulary , little contro l

Intended pedagogy

Structural an d Grammar-Translatio n teacher-centred, focu s o n accurac y and writte n language , memorization , Kairov's fiv e step s

Structural an d Grammar-Translatio n teacher-centred, focu s o n writte n language, pronunciatio n an d grammatical structures , memorizatio n

Grammar-Translation teacher centred, focu s o n writte n language , memorization

Political an d moral message s

mainly 'healthy ' lifestyle , patriotis m an d mainly politica l values , som e socia l participation i n CC P yout h activitie s values an d 'healthy ' lifestyl e

almost exclusivel y politica l message s

The Soviet influence, 1949-6 0 3

9

The curriculu m o f 195 7 The firs t curriculu m stemme d fro m th e increas e i n China' s internationa l diplomatic activity , whic h wa s followe d b y a revie w o f th e educatio n system . The focu s wa s on ho w educatio n coul d hel p socialis t economi c constructio n and cultura l developmen t (Tan g Jun, 1986) . When th e Ministry of Educatio n announced o n 1 0 July 195 6 that English, a s well as Russian, was to be a junior secondary schoo l subjec t fro m Septembe r 1957 , th e nee d fo r appropriat e resources becam e pressing . Th e PEP , bein g responsibl e fo r curriculu m development i n secondar y schools , was asked t o produce a syllabu s an d a se t of textbook s fo r English . Previously ther e ha d bee n n o recommende d textbook s fo r Englis h i n China: schools had t o rely on pre-Revolutio n material s or produced thei r own , and ther e was no unifie d syllabus , apart from rathe r sketch y guidelines in th e 'English Curricul a Criteri a fo r Junio r Secondar y Schools ' (1948) . Thes e guidelines (cite d i n Zhou , 1995 : 880-1 ) promote d a positiv e approac h t o Western countries , listing , a s tw o objectives , 'Understandin g th e Britis h an d American nationa l mindse t an d customs' , an d 'Arousin g interes t i n learnin g Western things' . The intende d pedagog y focuse d o n buildin g a 'foundation ' in th e fou r skill s o f listening , speaking , readin g an d writing , wit h th e latte r stages o f th e cours e centrin g o n reading . Also, th e guideline s stipulate d tha t 'all ora l an d writte n exercise s shoul d b e strictl y limite d t o repetition . Fre e creative us e o r practic e shoul d b e avoide d s o tha t student s ca n lear n pure r English.' However , th e senio r secondar y schoo l guideline s encourage d fre e use o f Englis h b y students, onc e the y ha d a soli d foundation . Student s wer e encouraged t o stud y fro m film s an d gramophon e record s featurin g nativ e speakers. The tas k of developing th e new curriculum was pioneering work, as ther e was n o stron g traditio n o f indigenou s textboo k productio n fo r th e teachin g of English i n junior secondar y school s in China . Previously , school s had use d textbooks produce d oversea s or written b y foreigners workin g in th e country . Although th e target readership was relatively small — the Ministry of Education envisaged Englis h bein g offere d onl y by those school s in larg e citie s tha t ha d the necessar y resources , includin g competen t staf f — th e abilit y rang e o f teachers was broad. The teacher s in school s offering Englis h would hav e bee n trained befor e th e revolutio n o f 1949 , and thei r ow n competenc e i n Englis h would depend , t o a large extent , upo n th e kin d o f education the y themselve s had received. According to Tang Lixing (1983) , those who had graduated fro m missionary schools or schools with a good academic reputation would probabl y have goo d all-roun d abilit y in English , wherea s graduate s fro m non-religiou s and les s prestigious schools would scarcel y be abl e t o read o r write in English . Another complicatin g facto r facin g th e PE P wa s th e relativel y shor t tim e available fo r producin g th e materials . Commissione d i n Jul y 1956 , th e

40 China'

s English: A history of English i n Chinese education

textbooks wer e require d fo r us e i n classroom s fro m Septembe r 1957 . Th e process of subsequent curriculu m developmen t proces s was quite centralized , but pragmatic. The crucia l definin g facto r o f the curriculu m was the availabl e resources, not th e centrally-determine d educationa l policy , which onl y set th e parameters. Three majo r influence s ar e discernible: the socio-political climate , that se t a rol e fo r Englis h Languag e curriculu m i n nationa l developmen t d u r i n g a tim e o f som e tensio n wit h English-speakin g countries ; a n international influenc e fro m th e USS R o n th e content s an d pedagogy ; an d an historica l intertextuality , whereb y th e writer s referre d t o thei r ow n pas t experience an d materials , a s well a s those fro m overseas . The PE P ha d bee n establishe d i n Decembe r 195 0 t o research , compil e and publis h teachin g material s i n th e ne w PR C (PEP , 1990) . Whe n the y received instruction s t o produc e a n Englis h curriculum , PE P official s fel t they lacke d th e expertis e i n Englis h t o writ e th e syllabu s an d textbook s in house. Therefor e the y decide d t o see k hel p fro m tertiar y institutes , bu t th e majority o f universities and college s specialized i n Russian Languag e teaching . The exceptio n wa s th e Beijin g Foreig n Language s Institute . A s thi s institut e had bee n se t u p t o trai n cadre s an d interpreter s fo r th e Ministr y o f Foreig n Affairs, i t possesse d a stron g Englis h department . It s staf f wer e als o experienced curriculu m developer s an d textboo k writer s a t tertiar y level , and, mor e importantly , ha d considerabl e experienc e i n designin g an d teaching course s fo r beginners , a s man y student s a t th e institut e ha d no t previously studie d English . Fo r thes e reasons , th e PE P engage d a tea m o f lecturers fro m th e Beijin g Foreig n Language s Institute , under th e leadershi p of Yin g Manron g an d Fa n Ying , t o produc e a n Englis h syllabu s fo r junio r secondary school s an d t o write accompanyin g textbook s (whic h w e will refe r to a s Serie s One). 1 In writin g th e syllabu s an d textbooks , Ying Manrong, Fa n Yin g and thei r colleagues firs t dre w u p a pla n o f th e material s t o b e covere d i n thre e year s of junior secondar y schooling , give n tha t onl y thre e lesson s a week would b e devoted t o English . Accordin g t o Yin g Manrong , the y use d tw o source s fo r reference: th e course s fo r beginner s tha t the y ha d writte n a t th e Beijin g Foreign Language s Institute, and secondar y school English textbook s from th e USSR.2 Th e latte r choic e wa s restricted b y th e politica l climate , which rule d out th e possibilit y o f borrowin g fro m Wester n countries . Th e obviou s sourc e was th e USSR , wher e th e teachin g o f Englis h create d simila r dilemma s fo r educationalists, in tha t th e tw o countries share d a n antipath y towards Western nations, an d bot h th e USS R and Chin a use d schoo l textbook s a s a means fo r promoting a simila r prevailin g politica l ideology . Furthermore , Sovie t textbooks wer e readil y available , unlik e Wester n textbooks , whic h ha d bee n banned fro m China . There were pedagogical reasons that also made th e Sovie t textbooks attractive . Thes e book s generall y stresse d grammatica l rule s an d followed th e pedagogica l principle s o f 'three-centred ' teachin g — classroom -

The Soviet influence, 1949-6 0 4

1

centred, teacher-centre d an d textbook-centre d — propounde d b y the Sovie t educator an d one-time Minister of Education, I. A. Kairov (Tan g Lixing, 1983). These approache s resemble d traditional , indigenou s method s fo r learnin g Chinese (Dzau , 1990) . After th e tea m ha d drafte d th e syllabus , one grou p unde r Yin g Manron g then too k responsibility for writing the first textboo k i n Serie s One, while Fa n Ying and tw o colleagues wrote Book 2. Because of time constraint s and t o eas e the divisio n o f labour , onl y tw o textbook s wer e written , bu t the y containe d sufficient materia l fo r th e three-yea r junior secondar y programme . Th e PE P published th e two textbooks in Series One, 'English Book 1 ' and 'Englis h Boo k 2', i n Septembe r 195 7 and Augus t 195 8 respectively . Although th e syllabu s was written concurrentl y with Book 1 of Series One , it wa s neve r published . Instead , i t remaine d a n interna l workin g documen t that guided th e material developmen t teams . Focusing mainly on pedagogica l goals, i t se t ou t a numbe r o f aim s fo r teachin g English , notabl y t o 'motivat e students t o lear n Englis h i n th e future , an d t o provid e student s wit h th e necessary knowledge , skill s an d technique s tha t ar e neede d whe n the y us e English'. 3 Th e syllabu s stresse s tha t particula r attentio n shoul d b e pai d t o accurate pronunciatio n an d t o basi c grammar , an d list s approximately 1,00 0 vocabulary item s an d formulai c expressions , a s well a s identifying th e tense s and othe r grammatica l structure s t o b e taught . Yin g Manrong acknowledge s that th e orientatio n o f th e syllabu s was influenced b y her wor k a t th e Beijin g Foreign Language s Institute , wher e goo d pronunciatio n an d grammatica l accuracy wer e hel d t o b e importan t attribute s o f capabl e interpreters. 4 Th e use o f a specified vocabular y list was intended t o control th e level of difficult y of th e textbooks . Thi s measur e ha d bee n use d prio r t o th e foundin g o f th e PRC: th e 194 8 curriculu m guideline s stipulat e tha t two-third s o f th e 2,00 0 words to be covered in secondary school should be drawn from th e list of 5,000 words draw n u p b y Thorndik e an d Lorg e (1944) . Th e notio n o f usin g vocabulary t o contro l languag e difficult y wa s also use d i n Chines e Languag e teaching, wher e a restrictio n wa s place d o n th e numbe r o f character s t o b e taught pe r schoo l year . As Serie s On e wer e th e onl y textbook s permitte d t o b e use d i n junio r secondary schools , th e relationshi p betwee n th e syllabu s an d th e textboo k content was inextricably an d symbioticall y linked. This di d no t aris e from th e skilful writin g o f a new set of textbooks t o precisely meet th e requirement s o f a newly-create d syllabus . Essentially, Serie s One wa s the syllabus . This unifie d entity was develope d b y adapting a n existin g cours e (i n whic h material s an d syllabus were likewis e a unified entity ) fo r a differen t se t o f learners . Technically, th e tw o books were relativel y simple productions , measurin g 13 cm x 1 9 cm, with plai n whit e cover s and th e titl e printe d i n gree n (Figur e A.l, p . 211) . The pape r wa s of poor quality . Som e page s were illustrate d wit h black an d whit e lin e drawings . Boo k 1 , with 18 6 pages , contain s 4 6 'lessons '

42 China'

s English: A history of English in Chinese education

(or units, as a lesson doe s not correspond t o a class period), while Book 2 has fewer (3 6 lessons) t o allow time for revision , and i s consequendy shorter , wit h 168 pages. Pedagogy According t o Ying Manrong, th e course was organized t o follow an integrate d topic-based approach. 5 Th e mai n featur e o f thi s approac h i s th e interactio n between th e discours e an d th e linguisti c component s (suc h a s the grammar , vocabulary an d pronunciation) : eac h lesso n ha s a theme , whic h i s explore d principally i n th e readin g passage , an d th e them e dictate s th e vocabulary , grammar an d othe r linguisti c component s (suc h a s pronunciation ) t o b e covered i n th e relevan t section s o f th e lesson . At th e sam e time , th e leve l o f difficulty o f th e linguisti c component s i n th e readin g passag e wa s intende d to b e carefull y controlle d s o a s t o facilitat e students ' comprehensio n an d learning. In Serie s One, th e integrate d topic-base d approac h i s evident in tha t the main organizationa l feature i s a piece of discourse (i.e. , an extended stretc h of language). The lesson s generally start with the discourse , which, in the earl y stages o f th e course , cove r topic s relate d t o dail y life , an d the n broade n t o include societa l issues and literature. The vocabulary, grammar an d other item s that ar e presente d ar e al l derive d fro m th e discourse . At th e sam e time , th e linguistic component s ar e controlle d i n orde r t o follow linea r syllabuse s tha t are se t out o n th e content s pages . T h e genera l organizatio n reflect s clos e attentio n t o pedagogica l considerations, a s evidence d b y th e linguisti c contro l an d th e linea r sequencing, whic h ar e feature s o f th e Structura l Approach . However , th e centrality o f discours e indicate s a vie w tha t languag e ha s a communicativ e function, an d tha t language teachin g shoul d no t be restricte d t o the learnin g of grammatica l rules . Th e focu s o n writte n passage s i s indicativ e o f th e Grammar-Translation Method . The lesson s i n Serie s On e al l contai n example s o f discours e i n English . In thi s study , 'strong ' discours e i s language , eithe r ora l o r written , tha t i s oriented mor e toward s th e purpose s o f communication tha n just toward s th e practice o f discrete linguisti c components . An analysis of the discourse , usin g the strong-wea k discours e continuum , wil l provid e insight s int o th e kin d o f communication tha t i s being promoted , a s well a s into th e views of languag e pedagogy tha t underpi n th e contents . The discours e i n Serie s On e i s mainl y foun d i n th e readin g passages , although som e exercise s fo r student s t o complet e i n Boo k 2 involv e th e production o f communicativ e text . Mos t o f th e discours e i n th e firs t par t o f Book 1 is weak, being relatively unrealistic. For instance, th e mai n purpos e o f Lesson 4 , T se e Ann' , th e firs t t o includ e complet e sentences , i s t o presen t

The Sovie t influence , 1949-6 0 4

3

the syntagmati c p a r a d i g m I see + OBJECT(S). T h e passag e comprise s sentences , such as : I se e Ann . I se e Pete . I se e Ann an d Pete . I se e Ann . I se e a cat . I se e Ann an d a cat . (Serie s One , Boo k 1 : 14) 6 In a fe w passages , th e discours e i s expressed i n stilted , relativel y unrealisti c language ( ' m e d i u m ' realism) . An exampl e i s Book 2 Lesso n 5 , 'Wha t Ar e Yo u Doing?', which clearl y serve s t o sho w th e us e o f th e presen t c o n t i n u o u s tense , but, a t t h e sam e time , ha s a messag e a b o u t exemplar y behaviour : What ar e yo u doing , boys ? We ar e working i n th e fields . We are pickin g cabbages . We are helpin g th e farmers . What ar e yo u an d you r friend s doin g here , Wang Ping ? I a m workin g o n th e bus . Chang L i is helping a n ol d woma n t o find a seat . Yang Pao i s helping th e conducto r t o collec t th e tickets . What ar e thos e boy s an d girl s doing there ? They ar e diggin g hole s i n th e ground . They ar e plantin g trees . They ar e makin g ou r countr y gree n an d beautiful . (Serie s One , Boo k 2 : 14) A n o t h e r t e c h n i q u e use d t o balanc e realisti c discours e wit h a focu s o n individual languag e structure s i s th e us e o f questio n a n d answe r dialogue s following a description . Thus , i n Boo k 1 Lesson 30 , a description o f a classroo m is followe d b y question s a n d answer s tha t provid e practic e i n th e us e o f there is/are a n d it is in b o t h statemen t a n d interrogativ e forms : Our Classroo m We hav e a larg e classroom . I t ha s tw o door s an d thre e windows . I t i s brigh t and clean . There i s a pictur e o f Chairma n Ma o o n on e o f th e walls . O n anothe r wal l there i s a map . I t i s a ma p o f China . There are three blackboards i n our classroom. There is a table for th e teacher . There ar e forty-fiv e desk s an d chairs . They ar e fo r th e pupils .

44 China'

s English : A histor y o f English i n Chines e educatio n — I s there a map i n you r classroom ? — Yes , there is . — Wha t ma p i s it? — I t i s a map o f China . — Wher e i s it? — I t i s on on e o f th e walls. — Wha t i s there o n anothe r wall ? — Ther e i s a pictur e o f Chairma n Mao . — Ho w man y blackboards ar e ther e i n you r classroom ? — Ther e ar e three . — Ar e ther e desk s for th e pupils ? — Yes , ther e are . Ther e ar e forty-fiv e pupil s i n ou r class . Ther e ar e forty five desk s an d chair s i n ou r classroom . (Serie s One , Boo k 1 : 98-9)

This passag e i s ' m e d i u m ' strength , i n tha t i t combine s relativel y stron g discourse (suc h a s i n th e descriptio n o f th e classroo m i n th e passage) , wit h relatively wea k discours e (suc h a s th e unrealisti c n a t u r e o f th e dialogue , a n d t h e repetitiv e us e o f structures , suc h a s There is/are t h r o u g h o u t ) . T h e r e i s a shif t fro m wea k t o stron g discours e i n th e series , wit h t h e firs t p a r t o f Boo k 1 carefull y controllin g linguisti c c o m p o n e n t s i n th e discourse , a n d th e res t o f th e serie s graduall y loosenin g th e control . T h e linguisti c contro l in th e las t passag e i n th e serie s (Boo k 2 Uni t 36 ) i s les s eviden t t h a n i n ' O u r Classroom', fo r instance , a l t h o u g h som e d e g r e e o f contro l i s f o u n d i n th e passages: Summer Summer i s the hottest season of the year, and no w summer i s here. The night s are short ; th e day s are long . There ar e flower s an d gree n leave s everywhere . Very soo n examination s wil l b e ove r an d summe r holiday s wil l begin . M y friends an d I ar e goin g t o a pionee r camp . W e shal l ge t plent y o f exercis e and fres h air . W e shal l gathe r firewoo d an d coo k ou r ow n meals . W e shal l collect insect s an d stud y them . Whe n i t rains, we shall liste n t o storie s abou t heroes an d mode l workers . We shal l discus s ho w pioneer s ca n hel p t o buil d Socialism. Whe n i t i s fine , w e shal l visi t factorie s an d wor k o n farms . Th e workers will show us how they work a t the machines . The farmer s wil l tell u s how the y work i n th e fields . W e shal l wor k wit h the m an d lear n a lo t abou t the workin g people . W e shal l understan d the m bette r an d lov e the m more . (Series One , Boo k 2 : 115-6 ) This support s th e indication s n o t e d earlie r tha t th e pedagogica l u n d e r p i n n i n g of thes e tw o textbook s i s a vie w tha t languag e learnin g i s bes t b r o u g h t a b o u t initially t h r o u g h t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n a n d practic e o f discret e linguisti c components, suc h a s vocabulary a n d grammatica l structures , a n d late r throug h the presentatio n o f m o r e comple x a n d realisti c writte n passages . A specifi c pedagogical a p p r o a c h i s described i n a readin g passag e i n Boo k 2 Lesso n 15 :

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5

Our Englis h Lesson s We have a new text every week. Ou r teache r read s th e tex t and w e read afte r her. Then sh e explains the text. We listen carefully because there are many new words i n it . I f we do no t understand , w e put u p ou r hands , an d sh e explain s again. Our teache r asks us questions. When we answer her questions, we must try t o spea k clearly . We do a lot of exercises in class . We make sentences . We have spelling and dictation. Sometimes we write on the blackboard. Sometime s we write i n ou r notebooks . We learn t o write clearl y an d neatly . I like our Englis h lessons . I think we are making goo d progress . (Serie s One , Book 2 : 46) This pedagogica l approac h bear s th e hallmark s o f th e Grammar T r a n s l a t i o n M e t h o d , whic h i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d as : e m p h a s i z i n g r e a d i n g a n d writing skills ; making constan t reference s to , a nd explanation s in , th e learners ' m o t h e r t o n g u e ; focusin g o n grammatica l forms ; requirin g m e m o r i z a t i o n o f g r a m m a t i c a l p a r a d i g m s ; a n d highl y t e a c h e r - c e n t r e d ( T a n g Lixing , 1983 ; Larsen-Freeman, 1986) . A n o t h e r passage , i n Boo k 1 Lesso n 25 , reinforce s several o f thes e features , mos t notabl y th e focu s o n form s o f t h e languag e r a t h e r t h a n o n c o m m u n i c a t i o n . T h e teache r conduct s th e pupil s i n activitie s which involv e r e a d i n g aloud , recitin g a n d writing , b u t th e languag e p r o d u c e d is n o t s p o n t a n e o u s o r g e n e r a t e d freel y b y th e pupils : At an Englis h Lesso n Teacher: Goo d morning , boy s (girls) . Pupils: Goo d morning , comrad e teacher . Teacher: Si t down, please . (Th e pupil s si t down. ) Teacher: Ope n you r books . L i Min g an d Li u Teh-Ian ! Stan d u p an d rea d lesson 25 ! (L i and Li u stan d u p an d read. ) Teacher: Ver y good. Si t down, please . (L i an d Li u si t down. ) Teacher: Clos e you r books , boy s (girls) . Coun t fro m on e t o twenty . (Th e pupils coun t fro m on e t o twenty. ) Teacher: Good . Now , Wan g Mi n an d Chan g Li ! Com e t o th e blackboard . Please writ e th e number s eleve n t o twenty . (Wan g an d Chan g g o to th e blackboar d an d write. ) Teacher: That' s good. Go back to your seats. Now boys (girls), put your books in you r desk s an d tak e ou t your notebooks . (Th e pupil s pu t thei r books i n thei r desk s an d tak e ou t thei r notebooks. ) Teacher: Writ e i n you r notebooks : "Thi s is an Englis h lesson . At thi s lesso n we rea d an d writ e i n English. " (Serie s One , Boo k 1 : 84-5 ) T h e w o r k o f Kairov , t h e Sovie t e d u c a t o r , wa s i n f l u e n t i a l o n E n g l i s h Language pedagog y in Chin a in th e 1950 s (Penner , 1991) . Ying M a n r o n g 7 doe s n o t explicitl y a t t r i b u t e t h e i n t e n d e d p e d a g o g y o f Serie s O n e t o Kairov' s influence, sayin g only that the writing teams m a de referenc e t o Soviet textbooks ,

46 China'

s English: A history of English i n Chinese education

but thes e Sovie t books were base d o n Kairov' s methods (Tan g Lixing , 1983) . Kairov's pedagogy ha d five step s (Yu , 1984; Penner, 1991) , namely: 1. reviewin g ol d materia l 2. sitin g ne w materia l 3. explainin g th e ne w materia l 4. consolidatin g newl y learned materia l 5. givin g assignment s There ar e echoe s o f thes e step s i n th e tw o passage s fro m Serie s On e quoted above : th e teache r explainin g th e ne w material i n a reading passage , and a class reviewing newly learned materia l by reading th e passage aloud an d recalling th e numbers . Th e arrangemen t o f th e component s o f a lesso n als o indicates a n adherenc e t o th e fiv e steps . Typically , th e gramma r item s t o b e taught ar e site d i n a shor t passag e o r dialogu e first . Th e nex t sectio n o f th e lesson present s th e ne w vocabular y i n a box , followe d b y th e grammatica l structure i n tabulate d form , t o facilitat e explanatio n o f th e material . Thi s structure i s the n practise d fo r consolidatio n throug h variou s exercises , suc h as transformatio n drill s (rewritin g a sentence , changin g a n elemen t suc h a s the tense) , translatio n (from/int o bot h Chines e an d English) , blank-fillin g (with o r withou t a cu e wor d i n Chinese ) o r substitutio n exercise s (e.g. , replacing italicize d phrase s wit h a pronoun) . Th e approac h t o gramma r exemplified b y suc h exercise s (an d whic h run s throughou t th e series ) — a graded, linea r syllabu s startin g wit h th e presen t simpl e tense , presente d i n reading passages , explaine d i n Chines e an d practise d throug h translatio n o r transformation exercise s — is consistent with the Structural Approach blendin g with th e Grammar-Translatio n Method . At first sight , ther e i s an apparen t contradictio n betwee n th e pedagogica l approaches overtl y advocated i n thes e lesson s and th e approache s inherentl y suggested b y th e natur e o f som e o f th e passages . Fo r instance , althoug h th e emphasis a s stated i n Boo k 1 Lesson 2 5 is on readin g an d writin g i n English , there ar e a number o f passages in both book s that take the form o f a dialogue. This woul d sugges t a n emphasi s o n spoke n English . However , close r examination o f th e exercise s i n th e textbook s reveal s tha t ther e ar e n o exercises tha t allo w free o r guide d ora l productio n b y the pupils : th e spoke n work is limited t o recitation o f the passages. In other words, spoken productio n only involves readin g aloud .

Linguistic components There i s also a reflection o f the influence o f the USSR in the linear progressio n and controlle d presentatio n o f linguistic components. The earl y stages of Series One pay attention t o accuracy, especially in pronunciation an d grammar. Muc h

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of Boo k 1 , a s n o t e d above , contain s wea k discourse , d e n o t i n g a focu s o n grammatical form s r a t h e r t h a n o n communicativ e messages . F r o m Boo k 1 Lesson 4 onwards , sentenc e structure s ar e introduced , suc h a s / see a pen. I see a nib. I see a pen and a nib. Wor k o n th e presen t simpl e tens e i s t h en develope d in th e res t o f th e book . A typica l lesso n i n th e textboo k ha s th e followin g forma t ( B o o k l Lesso n 38) : 1. 'Ca n You Swim?': a dialogue between friend s with repetition o f the moda l can + swim in positiv e an d negativ e statement s an d questions . 2. Grammar : can + swim in positiv e an d negativ e statement s an d questions . 3. Exercises : phoneti c practic e o f vowe l sounds ; transformatio n o f statements into questions and negative responses; questions based o n Can you ... ? for th e student s to answer (e.g . Can you count the stars in the sky ?); and a further transformatio n exercis e converting sentences into questio n forms usin g highlighte d words . T h e g r a m m a r section s o f th e firs t thirtee n lesson s o f Boo k 2 ar e mainl y c o n c e r n e d wit h regula r a n d irregula r ver b forms . I n th e latte r par t o f th e book , verb form s a n d differen t tense s ar e covere d — t h e futur e simple , p r e s e n t continuous, pas t simpl e a n d presen t perfec t tense s — a s are ordina l n u m b e r s , adverbs, possessiv e a n d relativ e p r o n o u n s , r e p o r t e d speech , a n d s o on . T h e g r a m m a r syllabu s o f Boo k 2 build s o n th e f o u n d a t i o n o f Boo k 1 w i t h o u t overlap, thu s creatin g a linea r g r a m m a r syllabus . Li u Daoyi 8 note s tha t thi s a r r a n g e m e n t reflect s Professo r Z h a n g D a o z h o n g ' s idea s e x p r e s s e d i n ' A Practical Englis h G r a m m a r ' , whic h wer e base d o n Sovie t practice s prevalen t in C h i n a d u r i n g th e 1950s . Vocabulary item s ar e controlle d t o n o m o r e tha n 1 7 new words o r phrase s in a singl e lesso n i n Boo k 1 (a t a n averag e o f approximatel y 9 ne w item s p e r lesson), a n d 2 1 i n Boo k 2 (averag e = approximately 1 2 ne w item s p e r lesson) , although som e lesson s hav e a n extr a loa d i n th e shap e o f past tens e ver b forms . This averag e i s simila r t o late r serie s tha t emphasiz e pedagogica l m o r e t h a n political goals . T h e vocabular y i s presente d i n boxe s afte r t h e passage , a n d occasionally t h r o u g h pictures . I n th e boxes , a translatio n int o Chines e i s given , as wel l a s p h o n e t i c t r a n s c r i p t i o n s fo r w o r d s t h a t a r e p r o b l e m a t i c fo r pronunciation. T h e p r i n c i p a l feature s o f t h e linguisti c c o m p o n e n t s ar e t h e focu s o n p r o n u n c i a t i o n , vocabular y a n d grammar , whic h indicate s carefu l a t t e n t i o n b e i n g pai d t o accurac y o f languag e production ; a n d th e focu s o n linguisti c c o m p o n e n t s — vocabulary , grammatica l items , etc . — i n writte n discours e (a s o p p o s e d t o spoke n discourse) . T h e i m p o r t a n c e attache d t o readin g skill s i s evidence d b y th e fac t tha t b o t h textbook s ar e c e n t r e d o n r e a d i n g passages , wit h c o m p r e h e n s i o n a n d g r a m m a r exercises , a l t h o u g h t h e r e ar e instance s o f dialogue s a n d phrase s fo r oral use , particularl y i n Boo k 1 .

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s English: A history of English i n Chinese education

Content The genre s o f discours e i n Serie s On e cove r thre e basi c categories : thos e related t o th e students ' dail y experiences ; thos e wit h a mora l message , an d those tha t have an explicit political message. The passages include description s of th e dail y activitie s o f character s a t home , a t schoo l o r a t pla y (suc h a s 'L i Ming's Day ' i n Boo k 1 Lesson 34) , fable s (suc h a s 'Th e Lam e Ma n an d th e Blind Man' i n Book 2 Lesson 26) , informational passage s (suc h as 'The Moon ' in Boo k 1 Lesson 42) , an d positiv e o r negativ e description s o f lif e i n othe r countries (suc h a s 'Tw o America n Boys ' i n Boo k 1 Lesson 3 9 an d ' A Negr o Boy i n th e Sovie t Union ' i n Boo k 1 Lesso n 40) . Th e orientation s i n th e discourse reveal a belief that the English Language curriculu m ca n be a vehicle for broade r educationa l (informational , mora l an d political ) goals , an d tha t language competenc e i s not th e sol e aim. Thus, English i s not see n a s a threa t to the socio-political fabric o f the nation, but rather a s a means for transmittin g desirable messages . Havin g sai d that , Serie s On e i s no t highl y political . A n analysis o f 8 8 example s o f communicativ e discours e i n Serie s On e foun d 9 4 messages, of which 5 6 are o f a moral or political nature . The othe r 3 8 presen t information tha t ha s n o obviou s mora l o r politica l connotatio n (Tabl e 3.2) . Compared wit h late r series , th e percentag e o f mora l an d politica l message s (60% of all messages) i s relatively low, and most occur when example s of stron g discourse predominate , fro m th e latte r stage s o f Book 1 onwards. Table 3.2 Politica l and moral messages in Series One Discourse total

Messages total

88

94

Nil

Moral

Political

30 26 38 (40.43%) (31.91%) (27.66%)

Political Political Political (attitude) (information) (role model) 16

2

8

Of th e serie s analysed i n thi s study, the mora l message s in Serie s One ar e the highes t i n percentag e terms , a t 31.91 % (3 0 messages) o f all 9 4 messages. The overal l projectio n o f ideal mora l behaviou r containe d i n th e message s i s leading a 'healthy ' lifestyl e b y rising early , studyin g har d an d happily , goin g to be d early , keepin g fit , helpin g others , an d enjoyin g a harmoniou s relationship a t hom e an d wit h friends . Political messages , which for m 27.66 % (i.e. , 26 messages), are a relativel y low percentage, compared with later series. They are primarily concerned wit h fostering positiv e attitude s toward s th e CC P an d it s institutions , suc h a s th e Young Pioneer s an d th e Communis t Yout h League ; an d toward s th e nation . The passag e i n Boo k 2 Lesso n 8 , 'O n Nationa l Day' , fo r instance , describe s pupils waving to Chairma n Ma o in Tiananmen Square ; the passag e i n Boo k 2 Lesson 3 1 includes a geographica l descriptio n an d a politica l message :

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China China is the larges t country i n Asia. It has many rivers, mountains an d cities . The Yellow River is in the North. The Pear l River is in the South . The Yangtz e is between th e two . The Yello w River i s longer tha n th e Pear l River , bu t th e Yangtze i s the longes t o f th e three . I t i s the longes t rive r in China . Peking i s th e capita l o f China . I t i s a bi g city . It i s in th e North . Pekin g ha s many beautifu l buildings . I t i s one o f th e mos t beautifu l citie s i n th e world . Our grea t leade r Chairma n Ma o live s and work s there . The Chines e peopl e work hard an d lov e peace. They are building Socialism . Now there ar e more schools , more factories an d mor e hospitals in Chin a tha n before. Ho w happ y th e Chines e peopl e are ! (Serie s One , Boo k 2 : 97-8 ) T h e Youn g Pioneer s ar e portraye d a s enjoyin g health y o u t d o o r pursuit s d u r i n g s u m m e r camps , o r helpin g farmer s b y catchin g rats , killin g sparrow s or cleanin g t h e farmers ' houses . Thes e activitie s ar e linke d t o politica l aim s (such a s i m b u i n g enthusias m fo r socialis m a n d socialis t policies) , a s show n i n the passag e fro m Boo k 2 Lesso n 3 6 q u o t e d earlier . A n o t h e r exampl e i s Boo k 2 Lesso n 16 : A Visit t o a Far m It is a bright autumn day . A group of pioneers are visiting the Red Star People's Commune. The y tel l th e chairma n o f th e commun e tha t the y lik e th e far m very much . "May I com e t o work with yo u whe n I finish school ? I shal l tr y har d t o b e a good farmer. " "I want t o work o n th e far m too, " says a girl. 'Yo u hav e man y pig s and cows . I thin k I ca n lear n t o tak e goo d car e o f them. " "And I shal l lear n t o b e a tractor-driver . Ther e wil l b e man y tractor s o n th e farm." "What will you be, little girl?" the chairman o f the commune ask s the youngest girl o f th e group . "I shall b e a teacher . I n th e mornin g I shal l teac h th e childre n here , an d i n the afternoo n I shal l work i n th e field s wit h al l o f you. " "Thank you , boy s an d girls, " says th e chairma n o f th e commune . "W e shal l be gla d t o hav e you with us. " (Serie s One , Boo k 2 : 49-50 ) T h e Yout h League , a n organizatio n fo r olde r children , i s portraye d a s requiring virtuou s behaviour , althoug h i t i s n ot specifie d i n th e passage s wha t the virtue s are . Boo k 2 Lesso n 3 2 tell s o f a fourteen-year-ol d bo y r e t u r n i n g h o m e , presumabl y fro m boardin g schoo l o r fro m livin g with relatives , t o spen d a wee k wit h hi s siste r a n d brother . I t concludes :

50 China'

s English : A histor y o f English i n Chines e educatio n We had a very good tim e together. We often playe d ping-pong. I can play pingpong quit e well , bu t m y siste r play s bette r tha n I . Sh e i s th e bes t playe r i n her class .

I staye d wit h m y brothe r an d siste r fo r a week. Whe n I lef t home , m y siste r said t o me , 'Yo u ar e makin g goo d progres s i n man y ways. But i f you want t o join th e Yout h Leagu e nex t year , yo u mus t tr y harde r t o overcom e you r shortcomings." (Serie s One , Boo k 2 : 101-2 ) O n e influenc e fro m t h e Sovie t U n i o n i s th e us e o f p r o p a g a n d a , mostl y bleak portrayal s o f aspect s o f lif e i n capitalis t countries . O n e t h e m e i s t h e hardships o f th e blac k communit y i n th e USA : 'Tw o America n Boys ' (Boo k 1 Lesson 39 ) contrast s th e privilege d lif e o f a white bo y with tha t o f a blac k boy : Jimmy an d Bill y are tw o American boys . Jimmy i s a Negro boy , and Bill y is a white boy . Jimmy an d Billy' s fathers ar e workers. They ar e poor . Jimmy an d Bill y are friends , bu t the y d o no t g o t o schoo l together . The y d o not g o t o th e cinem a o r th e par k together . Jimmy an d Bill y like t o g o t o schoo l together . The y lik e t o g o t o th e cinem a and t o the park together . They like to play together. But they cannot, becaus e Jimmy i s a Negro . — Wh o ar e Jimmy an d Billy ? — The y ar e tw o American boys . Jimmy i s a Negr o boy , an d Bill y is a whit e boy. — Ar e the y friends ? — Yes , they are . They ar e goo d friends . — D o the y g o t o schoo l together ? — No , the y d o not . The y lik e t o g o t o schoo l together , bu t the y cannot . — D o the y go t o th e cinem a together ? — No , the y do not . The y lik e t o g o t o th e cinem a an d t o th e par k together , but the y cannot . — D o the y ofte n pla y games together ? — No , the y d o not . The y lik e t o pla y game s together , bu t the y cannot , because Jimmy i s a Negro boy . (Serie s One , Boo k 1 : 124-5 ) T h e t h e m e o f t h e followin g lesson , Boo k 1 Lesso n 40 , present s a m u c h rosier portrai t o f lif e fo r a blac k boy : A Negro Bo y in th e USS R Sam i s a Negro boy . He i s an American, bu t h e doe s no t liv e in America. H e lives with hi s father i n th e Sovie t Union. Hi s father work s there . Sam does not feel lonely . He ha s many Soviet friends. Sa m and hi s friends g o to schoo l together . The y ofte n g o t o th e cinem a an d t o th e par k together .

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Sometimes Sa m goe s t o hi s friends' homes , an d sometime s hi s friends com e to his home. I n winter the y often g o t o skat e together . I n summe r the y go t o camp together . — Doe s Sa m liv e in America ? — No , h e doe s not . H e doe s no t liv e in America . — Wher e doe s h e live ? — H e live s in th e Sovie t Union . — Doe s h e fee l lonel y there ? — No , h e doe s not . H e doe s no t fee l lonely , becaus e h e ha s man y Sovie t friends. — Doe s Sa m g o t o schoo l togethe r wit h hi s friends ? — Yes , he does . And i n summe r h e goe s t o cam p wit h the m too . — I s Sam happy ? — Yes , he is . He is very happy in th e Soviet Union. (Serie s One, Book 1 : 1268) This indicate s tha t thes e passage s ar e borrowe d directl y fro m textbook s published i n th e USSR . O t h e r passage s i n a simila r vei n includ e 'Blac k J i m m y' (Book 1 Lesso n 46 ) a n d 'Jimm y Pick s Cotto n i n th e Field ' (Boo k 2 Lesso n 17). 'Lizzy' , t h e descriptio n o f t h e lif e o f a twelve-year-ol d gir l workin g i n a cotton factor y i n n o r t h e r n England , i s written i n th e pas t tens e a n d therefor e does n o t sugges t tha t th e contex t i s contemporary , b u t th e fina l p a r a g r a p h draws a m o d e r n conclusion : Today many children i n capitalis t countries ar e like Lizzy. They are poor an d miserable. (Serie s One , Boo k 2 : 112 ) T h e vie w t h a t childre n i n capitalis t countrie s wer e poverty-stricke n wa s c o m m o n l y h e l d i n C h i n a a t thi s time : recallin g h e r c h i l d h o o d i n t h e 1950s , J u n g C h a n g writes , ' W h e n I was i n th e b o a r d i n g nurser y a n d di d n o t wan t t o finish m y food , th e teache r woul d say , "Thin k o f al l th e starvin g childre n i n the capitalis t world! " ' (Chang , 1991 : 326) . To a lesse r extent , t h e politica l message s incorporat e rol e models . T h e s e are mainl y description s o f youn g p e o p l e j o i n i n g politically-relate d activities , such a s h e l p i n g farmers , b u t t h e r e i s o n e heroi c stor y i n Boo k 2 Lesso n 3 3 that wa s t o r e a p p e a r i n futur e serie s o f textbooks :

52 China'

s English : A histor y o f English i n Chines e educatio n

Lesson Twenfy-£*ra r MUrfMM Grandfather It i s evening , Mother , L i Ming , L i La a an d L i Pen g mm a t home . The y ar e sittin g roun d th e table * U Mingt Mother , te U ns about Grandfather . Tel l u s abou t hs$ Mf e. Mother: A H tight. Yo w grandfathe r wa s a poo r worker * He- worked from mornin g til l night . H e ha d littl e time* fo r rest , Vegy often h e ha d n o mone y t o bu y food. H e wa s always tired, and w e were often hungry . Before liberation , a worker' s lif e wa s *rar y hard * His home wa s poor . Hi s foo d wa s poor . Hi s clothe s were poor . Whe n h e wa s ill , h e ha d n o help * Hi s children, too , worke d al l day . The y cowl d no t g o to schooL Th e school s wer e for childre n fro m rich families. Now i n Chin a th e workers live in good hou ses. The y hav e tim e fo r rest Tfeei r childre n ca n go to school* The workers in Ne w Chin a ar e Uvin g a ves y happy life * *U * I Figure 3. 1 Readin g passag e from Serie s One Boo k 2 (p . 75) The passag e promote s th e messag e tha t th e revolutio n ha s benefite d thos e wh o suffere d under th e previou s regime. The linguisti c component s ar e controlled , althoug h ther e ar e authentic touche s t o th e dialogue , such a s the mother' s respons e 'Al l right' .

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3

Lo Sheng-chia o There i s a monument i n Korea. It tells the world who Lo Sheng-chia o was. It tells us ho w L o Sheng-chia o gav e hi s life fo r a Korea n boy . Lo Sheng-chia o wa s a brav e soldie r o f th e Chines e People' s Volunteers . H e loved th e Korea n peopl e an d helpe d the m i n man y ways. One mornin g L o Sheng-chia o wa s working nea r a river . Fou r Korea n boy s were skatin g o n th e ice . They di d no t kno w tha t th e ic e wa s thin . Suddenl y one o f them fell throug h th e ice into the water. The boys cried for help . When Lo Sheng-chia o hear d them , h e ra n t o th e rive r an d jumped int o th e water . With grea t difficult y h e helpe d th e bo y u p throug h th e hole . H e save d th e boy, but h e himsel f die d i n th e river . Lo Sheng-chia o i s dead , bu t hi s nam e wil l alway s liv e i n th e heart s o f th e Korean an d th e Chines e people . (Serie s One , Boo k 2 : 104-5 ) T h e s e l e c t i o n o f v o c a b u l a r y i n t h e serie s reflect s t h e m i l d politica l orientation. Slightl y m o r e t h a n o n e q u a r t e r o f th e vocabular y item s (25 3 o u t of 852 , o r 29.69% ) ar e n o t f o u n d i n T h o r n d i k e ' s word-list , t h e prescribe d source fo r th e cor e vocabulary . Thi s i s n ot a hig h percentag e w h e n c o m p a r e d with o t h e r series , a nd mos t o f th e non-Thorndik e item s ar e non-political , bein g related t o th e students ' dail y lif e a n d interest s (suc h a s clothing , furniture , school, sport s a n d leisur e activities , animal s i n a zoo) , a n d t o t h e n e e d s o f second languag e learner s (suc h a s n u m b e r s , day s o f th e wee k a n d m o n t h s o f the year) , a n d China-specifi c term s (suc h a s place-names) . Onl y a b o u t fort y are relate d t o politica l t h e m e s (suc h a s comrade, pioneer, commune, Youth League, Communist, liberation, Socialism and Chinese People's Volunteers).

The curriculu m o f 196 0 T h e curriculu m o f 195 7 wa s short-lived . I t wa s replace d i n 196 0 b y a ne w curriculum, whic h i n c l u d e d a ne w se t o f textbook s publishe d b y t h e PEP . T h e c h a n g e wa s g e n e r a t ed b y a shif t i n th e politica l climate , a s C h i n a u n d e r w e n t a p e r i o d o f politicization, wit h campaign s suc h a s the Grea t Lea p Forward . Anti Soviet rhetoric also built up a t the e nd o f the 1950s , as tensions over Khrushchev' s policies — includin g a reassessment o f Stalin — emerged . M e m b e r s o f the CC P such a s Kan g Sheng , a clos e all y o f Ma o Zedong , expresse d concerns , s h a r e d by M a o , t h a t t h e politica l message s t r a n s m i t t e d t h r o u g h e d u c a t i o n wer e insufficient (Lofstedt , 1980 ; Pepper, 1996) . In 1958 , various reforms i n educatio n s o u g h t t o a d d r e s s thi s issue , i n c l u d i n g t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f part-study , part-labour school s a n d th e revisio n o f al l schoo l textbook s (Pepper , 1996) . In a statemen t i n July 1958 , Kan g S h e n g declare d tha t textbook s shoul d b e revise d t o i n c o r p o r a t e a m o r e labour-oriente d t h e m e , a n d tha t student s a n d technician s shoul d assis t professiona l educator s i n revisin g t h e textbooks .

54 China'

s English : A histor y o f English i n Chines e educatio n

T h i s r e s u l t e d i n e i g h t e e n province s writin g t h e i r ow n Englis h L a n g u a g e textbooks (Tan g J u n, 1986) . T h e criticism s b y nationa l leader s tha t c u r r e n t textbooks faile d t o devot e sufficien t attentio n t o politica l educatio n a n d wer e c o n t a m i n a t e d b y th e borrowing s fro m th e USS R als o applie d t o Serie s O n e . Despite (o r becaus e of ) th e politica l content , th e serie s 'wa s criticise d a n d c o n d e m n e d a s being divorce d from politics , from productio n a n d fro m reality' , according t o Tan g J u n . 9 In Apri l 1960 , th e Ministr y o f Educatio n o r d e r e d a revisio n o f al l th e PE P textbooks publishe d sinc e 1954 . I n revisin g th e Englis h Languag e textbooks , t h e PE P decide d tha t t h e ne w serie s (Serie s Two) shoul d hav e t h r e e textbook s instead o f two , i n o r d e r t o c o r r e s p o n d wit h th e three-yea r j u n i o r secondar y school p r o g r a m m e . A s with Serie s O n e , th e PE P t u r n e d t o a n outsid e agenc y for a s s i s t a n c e . Staf f f r o m S h a n g h a i F o r e i g n L a n g u a g e s I n s t i t u t e w e r e c o m m i s s i o n e d b y t h e PE P t o writ e J u n i o r Englis h Boo k 1 , t o b e u s e d t h e following September . T h e Ministr y o f Education , whic h wa s overseein g th e work o f th e PEP , t h en decide d t o rus h t h r o u g h th e productio n o f th e complet e series, a t ver y shor t notice . A s Tan g J un recalls : In th e summe r o f 196 0 th e Ministr y o f Educatio n suddenl y assigne d th e Beijing Foreig n Language s Institut e th e tas k t o writ e Junior Englis h Boo k 2 and Book 3 which were to be used in September when school s began. Perhap s they though t tha t th e Institut e ha d a grea t numbe r o f experience d Englis h teachers an d coul d tak e o n th e work . To write tw o books within tw o month s was reall y har d work . Al l th e teacher s o f th e Englis h Departmen t o f th e Institute wer e mobilised . Wit h th e effor t o f th e teacher s th e tw o books wer e written an d publishe d i n th e autumn. 10 Tang J un worke d o n thi s series , a s sh e wa s t h e n a lecture r a t th e Beijin g Foreign Language s Institute . T h e writer s use d tw o principa l sources : Serie s O n e (man y passage s a n d exercise s ar e r e p r o d u c e d i n Serie s Two ) a n d Chines e L a n g u a g e textbooks , mainl y fo r politica l passages . Som e o f thes e a n t e c e d e n t s are show n i n Tabl e 3. 3 (se e p . 55) . Al l th e passage s fro m Serie s O n e wer e a d a p t e d i n Serie s Two , wit h change s t o phrasing s a n d content . Despit e th e now tainte d association , som e passage s o f Sovie t origi n wer e r e t a i n e d a n d (curiously) som e ne w one s praisin g th e USS R introduced , a l t h o u g h thos e explicitly locate d i n t h e USS R wer e n o t used . T h e antecedent s i n Chines e L a n g u a g e textbook s ar e primar y schoo l textbooks , a s thes e hav e traditionall y c o n t a i n e d t h e storie s a n d message s tha t wer e considere d mos t suitabl e fo r English L a n g u a g e c u r r i c u l u m developer s t o transfe r t o thei r textbooks , according t o Li u Jinfang. 1 1 Given t h e ver y s h o r t notic e fo r p r o d u c i n g a ne w se t o f textbooks , n o syllabus was issued t o g o wit h Serie s Two. Tang J un recollect s tha t th e linguisti c c o m p o n e n t s a n d organizatio n o f Serie s O n e wer e use d fo r Serie s Two. 12 T h u s the Sovie t influenc e n o t e d i n thi s regar d wit h Serie s O n e wa s retained .

The Soviet influence, 1949-6 0 5

5

Table 3.3 Antecedent s of some passages in Series Two Title

Passage i n Serie s Tw o

Antecedent

Book 1 Lesson 2 1

T h e Ne w Ter m

Series O n e Boo k 1 Lesson 2 6

Book 1 Lesson 3 6

A Negr o Bo y

Series O n e Boo k 1 Lesson 4 6

Book 2 Lesso n 2

O u r Classroo m

Series O n e Boo k 1 Lesson 3 0

Book 2 Lesso n 1 5

Black Jimmy

Series O n e Boo k 1 Lesson 4 6

Book 2 Lesso n 1 8

In Sprin g

Series O n e Boo k 2 Lesso n 2 9

Book 2 Lesson 1 9

Counting

Series O n e Boo k 2 Lesso n 2 2

Book 3 Lesso n 5

O n Dut y

Series On e Boo k 2 Lesso n 2 1

Book 3 Lesso n 7

Lizzy

Series O n e Boo k 2 Lesso n 3 5

Book 3 Lesso n 1 3

Lo Sheng-chia o

Series O n e Boo k 2 Lesso n 3 3

Book 3 Lesso n 1 7

Yu Kun g Remove d th e Mountains

'Chinese Languag e fo r Primar y School' Boo k 3 Lesso n 1 9 (1948 )

Book 3 Lesso n 1 9

Chairman Ma o an d th e Wounded Soldie r (I )

'Chinese Languag e fo r Primar y School' Boo k 3 Lesson 1 5 (1948 )

Book 3 Lesson 2 0

Chairman Ma o an d th e Wounded Soldie r (II )

'Chinese Languag e fo r Primar y School' Boo k 3 Lesson 1 5 (1948 )

Series Tw o was published i n tim e fo r us e i n junior secondar y school s i n September 1960 . The books are the same dimensions, 1 3 cm x 19 cm, as Series O n e , bu t th e cover s ar e mor e sophisticated , wit h a whit e an d gree n background, th e titl e i n red , an d th e Englis h alphabe t printe d i n whit e o n the gree n background , wit h vowel s i n re d (Figur e A.2 , p . 211) . Th e serie s contains black and whit e illustrations . The thre e book s comprise a total o f 82 lessons, but ther e i s difference i n th e numbe r o f pages. 'Junio r Englis h Boo k 1', writte n b y member s o f staf f a t Shangha i Foreig n Language s Institute , i s about twic e th e length , with 21 2 page s a s opposed t o 11 1 and 9 6 respectivel y of th e secon d an d thir d books , which were written b y staff a t Beijing Foreig n Languages Institute . Book 1 has 3 7 lessons and thre e appendices , while Boo k 2 ha s 2 5 lessons , an d Boo k 3 just 2 0 lesson s plu s on e appendix . Th e tota l o f 82 lessons is the sam e a s in Serie s One, which comprise d tw o books for thre e years' study . Th e divisio n o f conten t int o thre e book s i n Serie s Tw o wa s intended be consistent with the number o f years of junior secondar y schooling, but th e allocatio n o f lessons to each boo k is lopsided, suggestin g tha t th e lac k of tim e prevente d a more coheren t arrangement . Further difference s betwee n Boo k 1 and Book s 2 and 3 are evident , mos t notably in th e internal organizatio n o f lessons, which is compared i n Table 3. 4 (see p. 56). The lessons in Books 2 and 3 follow the pattern o f reading passag e

56 China'

s English: A history of English i n Chinese education Table 3.4 Organizationa l structure of lessons in Series Two Book 1

1. Vocabular y lis t 2. Readin g Passag e 3. Focu s o n on e ite m 4. Exercise s 5. Homewor k exercise s

Books 2 an d 3 1. Readin g Passag e 2. Vocabular y lis t 3. Note s t o th e Tex t 4. Grammar/Phonetic s focu s 5. Exercise s 6. Revisio n

— vocabulary list s — grammatical note s t o th e tex t — [phonetics/grammar ] — exercises. In Boo k 1 , presentations o f grammatical point s ar e found i n th e 'Exercises' section , bu t i n Book s 2 an d 3 , the y ar e accorde d a n individua l section ('Grammar' ) o f thei r own . Anothe r differenc e i s th e positionin g o f vocabulary lists : in Boo k One , th e ne w vocabulary come s befor e th e readin g passage, wherea s i n Book s 2 an d 3 th e ne w vocabular y i s place d afte r th e passage. The compariso n i n Table 3.4 shows that the organization i s consistent in Book s 2 and 3 , which mean s tha t th e variance s fro m Boo k 1 arose fro m a different approac h b y the tw o writing teams , rathe r tha n fro m a deliberatel y planned progressio n i n instructiona l techniques . Pedagogy In term s o f pedagogy , however , thes e difference s i n organizatio n ar e no t significant — the y ar e just variation s o n a similar approach . Lik e Serie s One , Series Two adopts a thematic approach, in that the central focus is the readin g passages, to which th e presentation o f new vocabulary, grammar an d phonetic s is related. At the sam e time, these linguistic components ar e controlled i n th e passage, s o tha t th e amoun t o f ne w languag e i s no t to o demandin g fo r th e pupils. I n thi s respect , th e organizatio n resemble s Serie s One , reflectin g a concern fo r principle s o f languag e teachin g an d learning , an d a vie w o f language learnin g a s bein g bes t achieve d throug h master y o f grammatica l paradigms an d th e stud y o f written passages . The discours e i n Serie s Tw o shift s fro m wea k t o strong , suggestin g a pedagogy tha t start s a s grammar-oriente d an d the n move s t o th e stud y o f grammar an d vocabular y i n th e contex t o f a mor e realisti c readin g passage . This is consistent with a blend o f the Structura l Approach an d th e Grammar Translation Method . Boo k 1 starts with a numbe r o f weakly realistic passage s that ar e designe d t o present specifi c linguisti c components , suc h a s commo n vocabulary items , e.g. , Boo k 1 Lesson 3 :

The Sovie t influence , 1949-6 0 5

7

This i s a pencil . That i s a pen . This i s a book . That i s a map. (Serie s Two, Book 1 : 8) T h e s e sentence s ar e p r e s e n t e d withou t picture s o r indicatio n a s t o t h e location o f thes e objects . The y ar e uncontextualized , a l t h o u g h th e sentence s which follo w d o hav e a pictur e o f a finge r pointin g a t a n e a r a n d a fa r objec t to distinguis h betwee n 'This ' a n d 'That' . Likewise , som e discours e present s grammatical structures , suc h a s positiv e a n d negativ e statement s i n Boo k 1 Lesson 5 , whic h include s fiv e shor t dialogues , suc h as : — I s this a book ? — Yes , that i s a book . — I s that a map . — Yes , that i s a map. (Serie s Two, Book 1:13 ) Again, n o contex t o r illustratio n i s provide d t o sho w t h e m e a n i n g o f thi s dialogue. A s t h e linguisti c resource s i n c o r p o r a t e d int o t h e passage s increase , the d e g r e e o f realis m likewis e increases . I n th e followin g e x a m p l e fro m Boo k 1 Lesso n 19 , t h e passage , whic h incorporate s n u m b e r e d p a r a g r a p h s fo r eas e of reference , describe s th e children' s r o u t i n e o n a Sunday , usin g a limite d r a n g e o f linguisti c item s ( p r e s e n t simpl e tense , s h o r t sentences , c o m m o n action verb s a n d adverbs , etc.) : (1) O n Sunda y w e d o no t g o t o school . W e ge t u p earl y i n th e morning . Before breakfast we do morning exercises . We clean our rooms. After breakfas t we go ou t t o play . (2) Sometime s m y schoolmates an d I go t o th e par k i n th e afternoon . Th e park i s ver y large . W e lik e i t ver y much . Sometime s w e hav e ou r Pionee r meeting in th e park . We sing and dance . We play games. Sometimes we work in th e fields . Sometime s w e go t o th e factory . W e work there . (3) Afte r suppe r we review our lessons . Then w e brush ou r teet h an d g o t o bed. (Serie s Two, Book 1 : 82) T h e i n t e n d e d pedagogica l a p p r o a c h i s describe d explicitl y i n a passag e in Boo k 2 Lesso n 1 3 (se e p . 59) :

58 China'

s English : A histor y o f Englis h i n Chines e educatio n

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