By the Light of a Candle: The Diaries of a Reserve Officer in the Ottoman Army - First World War Diaries and Other Records of the Period of 1915-1919 (Analecta Isisiana: Ottoman and Turkish Studies) 9781617198649, 1617198641

Citation preview

the Light of a Candle

IU

f *

Analecta Isisiana: Ottoman and Turkish Studies

A co-publication with The Isis Press, Istanbul, the series consists of collections of thematic essays focused on specific themes of Ottoman and Turkish studies. These scholarly volumes address important issues throughout Turkish history, offering in a single volume the accumulated insights of a single author over a career of research on the subject.

By the Light of a Candle

The Diaries of a Reserve Officer in the Ottoman Army - First World War Diaries and Other Records of the Period of 1915-1919

By

Ragip Nurettin Ege Translated by

Prepared and Annotated by

Gunes N. Ege-Akter

Edward J. Erickson

The Isis Press, Istanbul

preSS 2010

Gorgias Press LLC, 954 River Road, Piscataway, NJ, 08854, USA www.gorgiaspress.com Copyright © 2010 by The Isis Press, Istanbul Originally published in 2009 All rights reserved under International and Pan-American Copyright Conventions. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning or otherwise without the prior written permission of The Isis Press, Istanbul. 2010

ISBN 978-1-61719-864-9

Reprinted from the 2009 Istanbul edition.

Printed in the United States of America

Based on the book Babanun Emanetleri - Ragip Nurettin Ege'nin Birinci Cihan Harbi Gunliikleri ve Harbin Sonrasi Hatirati published by Dergah Yayinlari, Istanbul, Tiirkiye 2006; ISBN 975-995 - 037-5 The Diaries and all original documents have been translated f r o m the original Turkish. The introduction and connecting passages have been modified, sections elucidating the historical context have been added and the Diaries extensively annotated f o r English speaking readers.

ABOUT THE EDITORS Dr. Gtine§ N. Ege-Akter w as born in Istanbul and spent her early childhood in New York where her father Ragip Nurettin Ege served as the first Cultural Attache to the United States of A m e r i c a of the G o v e r n m e n t of the T u r k i s h Republic. A f t e r returning to Istanbul, Gune§ Ege completed her high school studies at the American College for Girls. She subsequently graduated from Barnard College and obtained her medical degree f r o m Harvard Medical School. Following post-graduate training in the United States and the United Kingdom, Dr. Ege settled in Toronto, Canada, practicing radiation oncology and nuclear medicine at the Princess Margaret Hospital affiliated with the University of T o r o n t o . Her qualifications include F R C S , F R C R , F R C P C (RadOnc) F R C P C (NucMed). She has carried out original investigations and published extensively on the scintigraphic visualization of the lymphatic system. Following her retirement in 2001, Dr. Ege has been engaged with the family archives and has published three books. She lives in Toronto with her husband Turgut A. Aktci Dr. Edward J. Erickson retired f r o m the United States Army as a lieutenant colonel of field artillery. During his military career he served in artillery and general staff assignments in the Unites States, Europe and the Middle East. He fought in the Gulf W a r of 1991 and in the invasion of Iraq in 2003. He returned to Baghdad, Iraq in 2007 working as Professor of Political Science at the Ministry of Defense Training and Development College. He has a PhD in history from the University of Leeds in the UK as well as two master's degrees in history and education. Dr. Erickson is widely recognized as an expert in Turkish military history and he has written f o u r books and numerous articles about the Ottoman A r m y . He lives in his hometown of N o r w i c h , New York with his wife Melanie, where he teaches world history at Norwich High School.

DEDICATION In memory of my parents Ragip and Nezahet N. Ege, with gratitude for carefully and lovingly preserving the family treasures, and to the memory of my sister Professor Emerita Seyhan N. Ege, who applauded my journey with the treasures every step of the way. Gune§ N. EGE-AKTER

In memory of my parents-in-law Larry and Ruth Sayles. Edward J. ERICKSON

TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I. Who Knows What Daybreak Will Bring

9 13

- Serving in the East - Historic Backdrop

15

- The Family and the Diaries

21

II. Called to Duty

29

- 1915 Diary

32

- 1 9 1 6 Diary

212

III. In The Service of The Empire - In The Officers' Mess - Life of a Reserve Officer

277 279

- The Passing of a Great Soldier - Obituaries of General Naci Eldeniz

285

IV. A Land Worth Dying For

293

- Historic Perspective on the post-war period prior to the War of Independence

296

- The Duty to Rebel - January 1919

300

- T h e Defense of Izmir - May 1919

309

- D i a r y - A u g - O c t 1919

330

- The Nationalist Resistance Movement in Aydin - IFHAM 22 October 1335/1919

346

V. Called to the Colors

35]

- Epilogue

353

Appendix

356

Glossary

358

Map

363

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The First World War Diaries and other personal documents of ilyas Ragip which you are about to read shed further light on a tragic period of Ottoman history, through the first hand account of a Reserve Officer. How this book came about is also history, a family history and a story about fortuitous - or possibly predestined - coincidences, into which is woven my gratitude to all who have had a part in bringing this work to fruition. M y father i l y a s R a g i p Nurettin, General Inspector of Primary Education, had j u s t been appointed the first Cultural Attache to the United States of A m e r i c a of the ten-year old Turkish Republic at the time of my birth. Consequently our family comprising father, our mother Nezahet, our paternal grandmother Saliha, my older sister Seyhan and myself spent five years in New York, at 375 Riverside Drive, Apt. 7 B , overlooking the Hudson River. With the onset of WW II, the Office of the Cultural Attache was closed and we returned to Istanbul on the last freighter to sail the dangerous waters of the Atlantic Ocean. While our childhood was overshadowed by the anxieties of World War II, my sister and I were a l s o aware that something very significant had happened, a rupture had occurred with the birth of the Tiirkiye Cumhuriyeti' or the Turkish Republic, which came about in 1923, whereby a rich culture had been left behind; nevertheless, not to be forgotten or f o r s a k e n . T h i s conviction of our parents was realized when our father sat us down at a table dimly lit by a bulb, hanging from the high ceiling and shaded with blue paper to conform with wartime blackouts, and started teaching us the old Ottoman Turkish alphabet and script, which would be the keys to our heritage. A s an eight-year-old I was intrigued by the script that moved from right to left and by the importance of the number of dots above and below the ripples and loops that made up the script, but I had little idea about the family treasures it would reveal for me some day. The father I remember so vividly was not a soldier nor an officer, but an educator, a biology teacher at the High School for B o y s in Kiziltoprak, near Kadikoy on the Asiatic side of Istanbul. His students would often come to our home in Erenkoy with its expansive garden of eight acres, which we shared with our grandparents, where he would tutor them while they picked wild flowers to study and paste in their homework scrap-books. Seyhan and I acquired gardening skills early on, were busy with piano lessons and going to school at the American College for Girls in Arnavutkoy on the opposite,

BY

10

THE

LIGHT

OF

A

CANDLE

European side of the Bosphorus. We were hardly preoccupied with family history and the heritage with which our parents wished to entrust us, other than with the story of our parents' twelve-year courtship, which we were old enough to regard as being quite romantic. After finishing school in Istanbul, both Seyhan and I returned to the United States for further studies. What was foremost on everyone's mind was our future and prospective careers and not the tragic events of three decades earlier. After our father retired, he and mother established a school in the big historic house on the expansive property, an enterprise they nurtured with passion and energy while Seyhan and I, far away on another continent, were becoming respectively an organic chemist and a physician. Our father Ragip Nurettin Ege passed away in 1960 and our mother Nezahet Nurettin Ege continued to manage and expand the school. We were equally consumed by the demands of our own careers. It was only after our mother passed away in 1994 and I started going through the very many nooks and crannies, cupboards, chests of drawers, and steamer trunks in the historic house, built at the turn of the century, where I was born, and which had been our homestead for sixty-three years, that I came upon family treasures, some of which dated back one-hundred-and-fifty years. My rusty old Ottoman reading skills came to life as I struggled to grasp the nature of what 1 held in my hands, which included three small diaries, the twelve year courtship correspondence between our parents, many other letters, documents, postcards from the student Ilyas Ragib studying in Lausanne, and stacks of photographs of boys and girls, men and women of all ages, in elaborate garments and stiff poses I had never previously laid eyes upon. I had discovered what our parents intended entrusting to us, as they diligently tutored us back during the early days of WW II. It was with tears and a deep sense of awe that I turned over the cover of the little leather bound Agenda Internationale

1915 and started stammering

through my father's brief opening biographical sketch. I knew then that the Diary was part of our national history and that it would be my duty to see that it reached a wide audience. Undoubtedly, without my parents' foresight in providing me with the rudimentary tools, I would not have had the courage to venture forth. After retiring in April 2001,1 embarked on a journey through uncharted terrain. Other than the stamina, perseverance and discipline acquired in the course of a medical career, I was ill prepared for the task ahead. While transcribing into modern Turkish the three diaries, several letters, documents and photograph inscriptions, I poured diligently over each word and gave it my best effort. But I was not equipped for the challenge. A chance encounter in

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Toronto going back twenty years blessed me with the acquaintance of the late Ismail Otar Bey. In 2002, in his ninetieth year he would generously set aside valuable hours for me every time I turned up in Istanbul with another draft, thus ensuring the accuracy I would not have been capable of otherwise. Ismail Bey followed with genuine and lively interest the gestation of Babamin Emanetleri. Regrettably he passed away at ninety-four years of age, six months before the publication of the book; my affectionate gratitude to him will endure in the Dedication of the book. Even before Babamin Emanetleri appeared in print in Turkey, it seemed inevitable that the historiography it encompassed should be available to the English speaking public, so translating it became my next mission. While I sat at the computer, trying to bring the diaries to life in English, I was bewildered by my presumption in thinking that with no background other than my medical training and vocabulary, I could do justice to an historic and military account. Yet I sensed that the work was meant to go forward. This time fortuitous circumstances put me in touch with Lt. Col. Edward Erickson. With his familiarity with Turkey and Turkish, and particularly his scholarship regarding the Ottoman period surrounding WW I, I could not have been blessed with a more compatible co-author. Without Dr. Erickson's enthusiastic, knowledgeable and congenial collaboration, this work would probably have languished as a draft without a future. When we were at a loss, Major Mesut Uyar of the Turkish Armed Forces provided the English equivalent of Turkish military terms, offered invaluable assistance, and introduced me to Sinan Kuneralp Bey of Isis Ltd. My colleague and friend Professor Gemot P. Tilz of Graz, Austria has kindly elucidated details with regard to the two decorations ilyas Ragib received in 1918, from the King of Prussia and from Charles, Emperor of Austria and King of Hungary. It is a pleasure to acknowledge his assistance while recalling that our acquaintance came about through a mutual love of music a very long time ago at Westminster Hospital in London, England. It is indeed auspicious that unbeknownst to me, our publisher Sinan Kuneralp Bey and I apparently were in London, England at the same time, those many years ago. His father, His Excellency the late Zeki Kuneralp was the Turkish Ambassador to The Court of St. James and I, in my humble capacity as a young oncologist-in-training, trying to serve Turkish patients coming to London to seek treatment, was privileged to have met this most distinguished and gracious gentleman who also knew my father and his many contributions.

12

BY

THE

LIGHT

OF

A

CANDLE

As always, I am indebted to my husband Turgut A. Akter whose skills and patience are for me an invaluable asset. His dedication has so far seen me through three books. So ends the story of By The Light of A Candle as we begin the historycal account between its covers. N. Ege-Akter

/. WHO KNOWS WHAT DAYBREAK WILL BRING

SERVICE IN THE EAST - HISTORICAL BACKDROP

War in the Caucasus The story of the Sarajevo Crisis and events of the fateful summer of 1914 that took Europe into the First World War need not be reiterated here. Suffice it to say the alliance system did not include the Ottoman Empire and it was not dragged immediately into the war. However, the Ottomans did sign a limited scope Secret Treaty of Alliance with Wilhemine Germany on August 2, 1914 that aligned the Ottoman state with the Germans. The treaty did not require the Ottomans to enter the war and served mainly to alienate them from the Entente. Nevertheless, on the same day, the Ottoman Ministry of War declared mobilization of its military forces. Over the next three months, the empire recalled its soldiers, concentrated its poorly prepared army, and laid plans for offensive operations in the Caucasus and in the Sinai. In the fall of 1914, the Ottoman Army comprised thirty-six combat infantry divisions and several cavalry divisions, most of which were centered around Istanbul, the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles in the First and Second Armies. The Third Army remained in the Caucasus and prepared to attack the Russians. The Fourth Army in Palestine made preparations to attack the British and rupture its communications at the Suez Canal. War broke out on November 2, 1914 and in the Caucasus the Russians launched an immediate attack on the Ottoman positions at Kopriikoy. As winter closed in battles raged in the rugged terrain along the frontier north east of Erzurum. The Ottoman Minister of War, Enver Pa§a, decided to launch a bold encirclement of the Russian army along the Caucasian frontier and force it to surrender in a climactic battle of annihilation. He was inspired by Hindenburg's recent success at Tannenberg and hoped to cause a collapse of Russian morale leading to mass surrender. In this vein, he ordered two of three Ottoman army corps in the Third Army to envelop the enemy by seizing the key town of Sarikami§. In freezing weather on December 22 the poorly equipped Ottomans began a seventy-five kilometer march and reached Sarikami§ three days later. However, instead of collapsing, the Russians reacted with alacrity and fought with determination. Rather than surrender the Russians counterattacked and caught the Third Army itself in a Russian encirclement. A disastrous Ottoman retreat followed that destroyed the two corps involved (the IX and X Corps) in the attack. Ottoman casualties were

16

BY

THK

L I G H T OF

A

CANDLE

staggering and totaled about 50,000 men of the 75,000 who had attacked. Most of the losses were in the infantry, who had borne the bulk of the fighting. The operational and tactical situation in the Third Army area on January 8, 1915 was grim The army was short of trained men, ammunition, and much of its equipment had been lost in the retreat. As a result, over the next several months, the army rushed replacements forward, many of which were incompletely trained, but who were desperately needed at the front. The author, îlyas Ragib, a newly arrived reserve officer candidate, was immediately caught up in this chaotic situation.

Ottoman Mobilization and Training The Ottoman mobilization system was adapted from the German model that had proven successful against the French in 1870. All Ottoman men were conscripted into the active forces for periods of two to three years and then served sixteen years in the reserves and a further seven years in the territorial forces. Prior to the Balkan War of 1912, Ottoman reserves were organized into conventional divisions and army corps. However, because of their poor performance in that war, after 1913 all reservists reported to their depots and were assigned as individuals to bring the combat forces up to war strength. Under this system all Ottoman men were registered and were required to report to depots in the event of mobilization. In 1914, the Ottoman military was engaged in a massive reconstitution effort to rebuild its army, which had been badly defeated in the Firsi Balkan War. The Ottoman military was separated into a field army of combat forces and a system of inspectorates composed of military districts that mobilized, equipped and trained soldiers. In each military district, soldiers initially reported to depot regiments and battalions that pushed men into the combat regiments of the field army. When the war began this system transitioned into a training and replacement system that provided a continuous source of new soldiers for the army. The events of this diary concern the training and replacement system of the Tenth Military District, which had its headquarters in the central Anatolian city of Si vas. The Tenth Military District was the home of the Ottoman X Army Corps and its component infantry divisions: the 30th, 31st, and 32nd Infantry Divisions. During the 1914 mobilization, the X Corps was scheduled to completely mobilize its divisions in 29 days. However, reflecting its low readiness levels and shortages of all kinds, it actually took 42 days to mobilize its forces.

WHO

KNOWS

WHAT

DAYBREAK

WILL

BRING

17

The Tenth Military District was heavily populated and by 1915 had sent 205,160 men from the year groups 1869-1893 (1285-1309) to active service in the field armies. Remaining in the personnel and training system the district had 16,048 men from the 1894 (1310) year group who it was preparing for war. Initially these men were assigned to training centers for six weeks of basic soldier training that included drill, m a r c h i n g , and marksmanship. From there the men were sent to depot regiments (organized into subordinate battalions) for a further fifteen days of branch specific training that included tactical training such as entrenching, patrolling and the art of the attack. The regiments in this study provided infantry replacements for the infantry divisions of the X Corps. Sivas was a hub of logistical activity and contained hospitals, magazines, and supply dumps of food and equipment. The city of Erzincan lay one hundred kilometers to the east of Sivas and was also a logistical hub. One hundred kilometers beyond Erzincan lay the heavily armed fortress of Erzurum, the war zone, and direct combat with the Russians. Most of the population of the area was Muslim, but there was a substantial Armenian minority, some of whom were organized into revolutionary committees that were overtly hostile to the Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman Army trained its regular officers in the German style at a military academy called the Harp Okulu. However, the number of regular officers was small and insufficient to provide either the peacetime or the mobilized forces with enough leaders to run the army. Consequently, the Ottomans selected young men of promise, usually university or academic high school graduates, and trained them as officer candidates. Upon successful completion of their training the candidates were commissioned as reserve officers (yedek subay) in the active army. In this capacity they performed similar duties as regular officers of the same grade. The author of this diary, Ilyas Ragib, was one of these reserve officer candidates. Mobilization in the late summer and fall of 1914 provided, oddly, a surplus of manpower that was not immediately needed in the active force structure. Some men were actually sent home to help with the harvest and to await being called to active service with the army. Other men entered the replacement system for training in specialized skills or as officer candidates. Ilyas Ragib was registered with the Sultan Ahmed Recruiting Office (in Istanbul) and was mobilized on August 3, 1914. His unit of assignment was the Third Provisional Battalion of the Reserve Officer Candidate Regiment. It is unclear what his activities were during the fall of 1914; however, in this assignment he would have been taught the basics of officership, including leadership, drill, small unit tactics, map reading, marksmanship training, basic

18

BY

THE

LIGHT

OF

A

CANDLE

administration, writing orders, and other skills necessary to command a platoon of fifty men. Upon completion of this preliminary phase of training, the candidates were then sent to the active army for further practical on-the-job training and observation to determine whether they were fit for commissioning as reserve officers, llyas Ragib evidently finished the preliminary officer training phase and was then assigned to the Uluki§la Depot Battalion for further processing. He was issued winter clothing (for obvious reasons) In the depot battalion, he received orders for the Ottoman Third Army in Erzurum. He was paid as a corporal and then sent on his way to the Caucasus to begin the practical application phase of his training. The military story of the diary begins with a description of his final days with his family while assigned to the Uluki^la Depot Battalion.

Historical Context There are very few f irst World War diaries from lower ranking Ottoman officers in print today. The most well known and readily available are Gallipoli 1915, Bloody Ridge (Lone Pine) Diary of Lieutenant Mehmed Fasih (printed in English by Denizler Kitabevi, Istanbul 2003) and Canakkale Raporu (Gallipoli Report) by Binba§t (Major) Halis Bey (printed in Turkish by Arma Yayinlari, Istanbul 1975). Both of these diaries deal with combat operations in the frontline trenches and offer insights into how Ottoman officers planned and fought the war at battalion level and below. The diary of llyas Ragib presents a different face of the Ottoman Army at war in that llyas Ragib was assigned to depot or training regiments in the Caucasian theater. It offers an important contribution to the extant historiography by illuminating how Ottoman officers in the training camps trained their men for assignment to combat divisions. In this regard, llyas Ragib's diary compliments the diaries of Mehmed Fasih and Halis Bey. This diary is important because it provides a picture of how Ottoman officers worked on a daily basis that is vastly at odds with the contemporary western view of these men. All too often Ottoman officers are characterized in western histories as lazy, corrupt and unprofessional. Clearly this was not the case with llyas Ragib (or Major Halis and Lieutenant Mehmed Fasih for that matter) and he was a representative member of his class. llyas Ragib was a hard working and honest officer, whose activities show a willingness to take responsibility for his men in training them for combat. He was also scrupulous in financial matters and he was diligent in keeping up the records of his men. Throughout this period, he worked hard to

WHO

KNOWS

WHAT

DAYBREAK

WILL

BRING

19

prepare his conscripts by training them in individual skills such as marksmanship and in collective tactical skills such as patrolling and offensive operations. As any officer would, Ilyas Ragib was proud of their successes and records this in his diary. He was acutely concerned over the ever-present problem of desertion, which plagued his regiment as well as the army as a whole. He was intensely patriotic and was clearly a nationalist. Often ilyas Ragib gave lectures and classes on Turanism and contemporary Turkish politics to his peers and to his men. He trained his men hard and he marched, shot, and maneuvered with them. Likewise, he was inoculated, waited for mail, and was interested in news of the war. ilyas Ragib appears to have been immersed in his work as an officer in the Ottoman Army. There was also a lighter side to this man and he enjoyed music, playing backgammon, and occasionally imbibing too much alcohol. He liked to read, he had a wide circle of friends, and he often thought of his family and wrote to them, ilyas Ragib mourned the loss of his comrades and deeply felt the loss of his younger brother. Like all soldiers he was frequently hungry and eating was always something to savor. He was a keen observer of the land through which his duties took him, he was a part of many historic events, and he met quite a number of notable people. In essence, ilyas Ragib was a typical soldier of the First World War and his diary reflects the idea that Ottoman soldiers were not so different from British, French, German, or Russian soldiers. In events not recorded in the diary occuring later in February 1918, ilyas Ragib was awarded the German Army's Iron Cross, which indicates that he continued to perform his duties in a creditable manner. After the war, he became involved in the nationalist resistance movement in southwestern Turkey and his written words reveal how committed he was to the cause of liberation, ilyas Ragib was a combat veteran of the Balkan Wars and the First World War and a participant in the nationalist resistance during the War of Independence. He did his duty and served his country in arduous circumstances which in the final analysis and as this diary shows, marked him as a man of honor and courage. Edward J. Erickson

BY

TUB

LIGHT

OF

A

CANDLE

Soap Box Carried by Ottoman Officers Note diary entry May 28, 1915

Fig. I,i. Frontal view with hook on lid

r Fig. lb. Open soap box shows perforations at the bottom for the drainage of water.

WHO K N O W S

WHAT D A Y B R E A K

WILL BRING

21

THE FAMILY AND THE DIARIES ilyas Ragib Nureddin was the second eldest of five children born to Dr. Abdurrahman and Saliha Nureddin. Dr. Abdurrahman Nureddin, one of four brothers, was born in 1857 in the khanate of Kazan, a Muslim enclave in the territories of the Russian Empire. His father Nureddin Efendi was the leader of the Muslim community and Abdurrahman was home schooled by his father before attending medrese, the local theological high school, which was basically the only type of high school at the time. In view of the growing threats to the Muslim communities the young man came to Istanbul, seeking refuge in the more secure Ottoman territories. He entered the University of Istanbul Faculty of Medicine, graduated in 1881with Diploma Number 118, fluent in R u s s i a n , A r a b i c , Turkish and French. His younger brother Ali Nureddin followed in his footsteps and also become a physician. His next brother Emin Nureddin chose to remain in Kazan while the youngest Lemi Nureddin served in the Ottoman Palace as Russian - Turkish interpreter to the administration. §erife Saliha was born in 1863 in Bah§esaray in the C r i m e a , also a khanate. Her father Haci Hiiseyin Efendi was as well the leader of the local Muslim community and had been to the Hajj in M e c c a a s the title 'Haci' signifies. She was the youngest of two boys and two girls and she and her sister, together with their father immigrated to Istanbul similarly to avoid persecution. Undoubtedly the members of these minority communities under Russian rule were in contact with eachother but it appears that the young Abdurrahman and Saliha met in Istanbul and were married after Abdurrahman qualified as a physician. His first duties were in Trabzon, on the Black S e a Coast, where their first child and son Tevfik was born in 1884. A few years later Dr. Abdurrahman Nureddin returned to Istanbul and went into private practice; ilyas R a g i b w a s born there in 1888. Shortly afterwards Dr. Abdurrahman Bey was appointed Medical Officer of Health to the Province of Aydin, on the west coast of the Anatolia penninsula and the family moved between the cities of Manisa where their third son Mustafa Miinir was born in 1891, then to Tire where their youngest son Hiiseyin Enver was born in 1895, and finally settled in Izmir where their youngest child and only daughter Sacide B e l k i s was born in 1898. Dr. Abdurrahman's younger brother Dr. Ali Nureddin was also practicing medicine in izmir which was the scene of a happy childhood for the two families and eight cousins. Very early on Tevfik Nureddin expressed an interest in the nationalistic movements of the minority M u s l i m communities remaining in Imperial Russia. He travelled frequently to these communities, was fluent in Russian,

22

BY

IHK

LIGHT

OF

A

CANDLE

and eventually established a publishing house and bookstore - (Turk Yurdu Kiituphanesi) Turkish Homeland Library in Istanbul where he started publishing (£ocuk Dlinvasi Mecmuasi) The Childrens'

World

Magazine,

which became the most prominent publication for children during the period of the constitutional government of the Ottoman Empire and continued to be published for several decades. Ragib, four years younger and while still in his teens, started writing articles for the local newspaper. He had an aptitude for music and played his mother's piano. He joined his elder brother in Istanbul where he completed his high school education, graduating from Vefa Secondary School, and aspiring to a medical career like his father, he entered the University of Istanbul Faculty of Medicine. Miinir, three years younger was also a bright and studious lad. While still in grade school he brought home a citation and prize in mathematics, dated 31 August 320/1904, which might have been celebrated with a family photograph. (Fig. 2) He then finished high school with distinction and went to Istanbul to attend law school. Enver, the youngest son spent part of his childhood in the Crimea with his maternal uncle Halil Seyyid Efendi who remained behind when his father and two sisters left for Istanbul. He owned and operated an extensive orchard in the fertile lands and temperate climate of Bah^esaray, exporting fresh fruit to the aristocratic families in Europe. Little Enver seemed to thrive in the wide expanse of the gardens and orchards, under the doting of his childless uncle and aunt. Back in izmir, Sacide, the youngest and only daughter of the family, was debilitated by tuberculous osteomyelitis in the face of which her physician father was quite helpless. Despite her chronic illness, little Sacide managed to maintain a lively presence within the family, amongst her devoted brothers and cousins. During Ragib's third year in medical school, the Ottoman Ministry of Education established a bursary for students to study in Switzerland. Ragib was aware of the financial constraints faced by his father, who had received honors and decorations from the Ottoman Sultan for services rendered during an outbreak of hemorrhagic diarrhea and a major earthquake in the Province of Aydin in 1901, but had limited resources for educating his five children. Furthermore tempted bv the opportunity to study abroad, Ragib took and passed the scholarship exam, withdrew from medical school and in September 1909, together with a group of seven other students embarked on an arduous journey, arriving in Lausanne where he settled into a pension and registered at the University of Lausanne to commence his studies in the natural sciences.

WHO

KNOWS

WHAT

DAYBREAK

WILL

BRING

23

Fig. 2. Thirteen year old Miinir with his parents Saliha Hanim and Dr. Abdurrahman Bey. On the piano behind them is a photograph of Ragib taken in 1903 while in high school.

24

BY

THE

LIGHT

OF

A

CANDLE

Ragib's time in Lausanne was not just spent with academic studies. He was very active in establishing a hostel and center for Ottoman Students, which still stands today. He carried on an extensive post-card correspondence with his beloved little sister Sacide back in Izmir, travelled through Switzerland and parts of France, and translated appropriate stories and items for children from the French literature for his brother Tevfik's magazine. While in Lausanne, Ragib was inspired to write the text of a march set to the music of a Swiss folk tune, (Osmancik Yurdu) 'Homeland of Little Osman', which subsequently served as a rallying cry for Ottoman troops. As we shall see, his nationalistic inclinations would be manifest throughout a great part of his life. While Ragib was still in Lausanne, Enver, with the support of their uncle in the Crimea, joined him to pursue his studies of French and then German, subsequently using his linguistic skills in his career in communications and intelligence. In 1912 Ragib Nureddin completed his studies and returned to Izmir with his University of Lausanne Diploma. Then he voluntarily participated in the conflict in the Balkans. He was wounded in his foot and returned home on medical leave. He was initially assigned to teach biology in Kastamonu in central Anatolia, where he ran afoul with local authorities for teaching the theory of evolution. He was then transferred to Bursa and shortly thereafter in October 1913 he was appointed Inspector of Ottoman Students in Paris. During this period his postcard correspondence continued with his beloved Sacide whose health was failing. By this time Saliha Hanim and Sacide had moved to Istanbul, hoping to find more effective treatments for Sacide, while Dr. Abdurrahman Nureddin was anticipating his retirement from his position of Medical Officer of Health in Izmir and would serve briefly in the same capacity in Bursa. 1914 was a sad year; Sacide succumbed in April (Fig. 3), not very long after her cousin also died of tuberculosis. War was declared and Ragib was recalled from Paris in August and dispatched to military school for training and preparation for his assignment as a reserve officer in the Ottoman Army. His brothers Tevfik and Miinir were also enlisted. (Fig. 4). This is the point at which the diaries begin and carry us forward to August 1916. A word about the Diaries. As we shall see, throughout the different phases of his military service, through thick and thin, amongst his many peers, his Diary served as Ragib's closest companion and confidante. Youthful exhuberances, indiscretions, tragedies, the unexpected

and the mundane,

WHO

KNOWS

WHAT

DAYBREAK

WILL

BRING

25

a n x i e t i e s and r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s w e r e shared w i t h t h e s e e v e r p r e s e n t little dateb o o k s . A n d these records reveal for us a first h a n d a c c o u n t o f s o m e realities w h i c h d o not a l w a y s f i n d their w a y into o f f i c i a l records.

Fig. 3. S a c i d e N u r e d d i n , fall of 1913. O n the back o f the photograph is written in Ilyas Ragib's handwriting: M y b e l o v e d little S a c i d e w h o f r o m her y o u n g e s t years carried the burden of a devastating d i s e a s e f l e w a w a y to eternity Friday e v e n i n g April 10, 1 9 1 4 , l e a v i n g a d e e p w o u n d in our hearts. M a y s h e r e c e i v e Allah's gracious m e r c y .

26

BY

T HH LIGHT

OF

A

C A N D L E

' • a L Fig. 4. Dr. Abdurrahman Nureddin with his sons in 1914. In front, seated on his father's right is Tevfik, Ragib stands behind Tevfik, Miinir stands behind his father and Enver in civilian clothes stands between his brothers. The military headgear they wear, called 'enveriye' was specifically designed by Enver Pa§a so the troops could prostrate themselves in prayer and touch their foreheads to the prayer rug which would not hai e been possible with a military cap with a brim.

WHO

KNOWS

WHAT

DAYBREAK

WILL

BRING

27

The 1915 Diary is a small, pocket sized, leather-bound date-book. On the cover, embossed in gold are the inscriptions both in Ottoman Turkish "Muhtira Defteri" and in French "Agenda International 1915". From the first page we gather that these date-books were printed in Istanbul by Hagop Matteosian, and the headings are in Turkish, French, Greek and Armenian, indicating that they served the many minorities who lived within the borders of the Empire. 1915 being the seventeenth anniversary of the printing, it is apparent that these small items were popular and one cannot help but wonder how many more of them might be tucked away somewhere, to shed further light on a period of history the echoes of which reverberate today. The information provided in French in the first seventeen pages are of a very practical nature such as postal rates, postal insurance rates, postal money order and telegraph rates, currency exchange rates, interest rates, conversions of weights and measures, distances, phases of the moon, eclipses, latitudes and longitudes. A more condensed version of this information is provided in Turkish at the back of the diary. The dating recorded in the diaries reflects the several calendars which were in use at the time. At the top of each entry page the only constant is the day of the week. Otherwise the dates are recorded in old Ottoman Turkish, according to the HicrT Muslim calendar month based on the lunar cycle and the year of the Hegira of the Prophet Muhammed from Mecca to Medina in 622 AD, hence the dates indicated in 1300s, referred to as RumT do not correspond to the Gregorian calendar and conversion of dates are only approximate. The dates of the Gregorian, or western calendar are recorded in French, usually 13 days ahead of the local calendar which is noted as the Rumi calendar. The Greek and Armenian notations follow the Rumi calendar, with indications of Holy Days and other notable events. Similar notable events of the Ottoman Calendar are indicated in bold letters. The 1916 Diary is much more simple and does not contain any information other than the headings for each day and Muslim Holy Days. ilyas Ragib's entries are according to the Gregorian dates, but from time to time he will refer to the Rumi New Year. This was a time when western influence was bringing about changes and allowances must be made for disparities in dates arising from the simultaneous operation of two calendar systems. The reader will recognize these junctures throughout the diaries. Starting in March 1840, the calendar used within the Ottoman Empire which took March 1 as the first day of the year, gradually adjusted so that by January 1,1918 it was synchronized with the western calendar. The Diaries and other documents reflect not only day to day events of historic interest but also the culture of the time. An attempt has been made to retain these nuances to give the reader a flavor of the culture unique to the

28

BY

THK

LIGHT

OF

A

CANDLE

place and time. The use of florid language is part of polite discourse, even amongst the unsophisticated, and although the meaning conveyed might not have been altered by eliminating these touches and resorting to a more straightforward translation, the cultural authenticity would have been lost. Rather than being an awkward translation, such expressions reflect a deliberate intent to convey the practices of the place and time. I hope the reader will come away with more than some historic facts and a sense of having genuinely been transported to a different land and era. In the course of this record, Ilyas Ragib Nureddin will gradually be transformed into Ragip Nurettin Ege. This is because the early use of the letters 'b' and 'dd' were based on usage in the Ottoman alphabet and script. With the adoption of the Latin alphabet in 1928 the consonants 'p' and 'tt' were substituted. Up until the new 'Surname Law' was passed by the new Government of the Turkish Republic in 1935, families used their father's generic name, hence the patronymic 'Nureddin' which was the family surname. At this point Ragip Nurettin looked back to his paternal ancestors the 'Agayeff's from the Kazan region of Russia and chose as the surname of the family the Turkish equivalent of 'Ege', which means 'master, owner or big brother'. And finally, while anticipating the birth of a child, family members usually chose a boy or girls name with which the newborn infant would be christened as the umbilical cord was being cut. Eventually another name would be chosen but the 'umbilical name' is always recorded as part of the identity of the child. These initial names are usually associated with the Prophets, 'ilyas' was Ragib's very first name. Terms frequently encountered such as Bey, Beyefendi, Efendi, denote 'Sir' or 'Mister'; Beyefendi may be used in lieu of a gentleman's name. Aga denotes a 'lord' or 'master' or 'local landowner'. It may also be used to address an illiterate person. Hanim is the female equivalent of Bey. Annotations at the beginning of some entries as well as a brief Glossary and Appendix provide the reader with further context and insight into events, conditions and personalities, cultural practices, as well as other matters of interest and some Turkish words without a precise equivalent in English. Let us now turn over the cover of the 1915 Agenda International

and

start the journey. Giine§ N. Ege-Akter

II. CALLED TO DUTY

1915 DIARY

My Autobiography The Battle ofYenice Greece on 2 November

(or Yanitsa) was fought in what is now northern

1912 between the Greek Army ofThessaly

and the

Corps. The Greeks conducted a brilliant

flanking

Ottoman VIII Provisional

attack that broke the Ottoman position.

The loss of the Yenice

position

opened the way to Salonika, which itself fell six days later. My father, Abdurrahman Nureddin Bey, is Medical Officer of Health for Izmir. I was born in 1304/1888 in Istanbul and spent my childhood years in Nazilli, Tire, Manisa and Izmir in the province of Aydm. I attended the izmir Senior High School for seven years and received my diploma from Vefa Senior High School in Istanbul. Having passed the entrance examinations, I entered medical school. Following the Declaration of the Constitutional Government, I was amongst a group of students who qualified for scholarship support for higher education in Europe. In September 1325/1909 I started my studies in natural sciences at the University of Lausanne. Upon the start of war in the Balkans, I returned home and voluntarily participated in the conflict in Yenice Vardar where I was wounded in my foot and returned home to izmir. Following my medical discharge, I was assigned to teach biology at the Kastamonu High School, where I remained for three months and was subsequently to be transferred to the Harput Senior High School, which I declined. I returnd to Istanbul and after teaching at the Bursa High School, I was appointed by the Ministry of Education. Inspector General of Students in Paris. I assumed my duties there in October 1329/1913. I served in that capacity until mobilization. In accordance with the new conscription law, I have been inducted into the army as a Reserve Officer candidate and am assigned to go to Erzurum. That's where I'm heading. January 22,1331/1915, Thursday Sivas iyas Ragib Saliha Hamm, wife of Dr. Abdurrahman Bey, Izmir Medical Officer of Health Bursa, at dwelling No 5 across from (Acem Firini) The Persian Bakery on (Cafer Aga Hani Sokagi) Cafer Aga Inn Street in the district of Daye Hatun in Mahmud Pa§a, Istanbul

BY

TUB

LIGHT

OF

A

CANDLE

Fig. 5. ('over of Agenda International

1915

CALLED

TO

DUTY

33

ITE11AÎIÔ M,

B W T i O S U

aii-iffiBÄTAitON Hi.

DIRECTION

m

t

i

i

ç

/

&

m

'

S

OÉHiRALE l i U o n m e t

I1iji-mu MitfflAii Horr.au HnrCAtt Hurcûa

CCJitml tonttkl tcnvrdl ccn\r»l »lu'^kul

er

r

I

m

8 f l M U S t r S P f

f

OiS,

'

f /

y

POSTES

T£LEpnom

Hu< Meydindjlk (TUVi.Zaptil), Siunhoul. tic.J o SM»ilh>ul. Rub McvdiuuVk. «les I'oKtw "K* G * l : i t * . 'frit Mcdicwc. lies T«Lóiri«l'>it>. S t m n l o a J , Rue Meydandjik d»tt ToLôff|-Â\>ln-ti du ] V r a , Glande R n t ìG*1hIr SeraìJ. jioiu 1 l e s Coïw l ' o t u a i , PJ.Kc Véni-Dj»"ii, Slin.boiil, TARIF P O S T A L O T T O M A N Sentit interne Visir*-

I.c'.trtl >ffrui>:!ù*». PO'"' c^i'l'Jf ¿ranimct > nflfi ifirancHifS » < 11 > . Cartes posuk-» »inaile« . . . • . aVfcC r*|»irltte p.iyfc v t u o l e s |>nur (-imstiittirtOpîe cl ses enviions Jouriwiix. pulii" cru,m« 50 RnurtriC; Jtinx. "MO gr.) ¡fcrlrc deux bureaux du littoral, lmpTimCs ) pnr mer, pour chaque 7 3 gr. (Poids m " , woo C f . l ^ ^ r tì'jurr«s cas, » 50 . . Eïlire deux bureaux du li4lor.il, Papiers d « i f s i r c i ) _A m t r p a u j . c h l q i i e 7 5 _Ti ma*, rjo0 «r.) Ì P c J n r d'auùtE c i s , » 50 » É m n l i l lotis d« mar(Entre deux bureaux da I[Ii0ri»l. chandhes, jusqu'au I pat mer, pour citarne 75 cr Doids de de îbii 2hii pr. cr. (b) (b) '' P Pû ûu u rr d'autres d'autres oo**.. » 50 » poiâ4

r

-

10 fa) IOW

-

D r o i l fixe de rcconujmidâtion 1 Drwi fixe d'avis de rf«pUra^ « l 1 k>i«sre pour les leitrei f c h a n ^ e i par terre du p u nier. «n»> gf»Mi»M, »oal soumis à une taxe réduite de 5 paris (h) Les «nvow I« poids rfe V A j p . , wnt «uimis A tm* U n i de 20 para» pw 50 jjf. jusqu'il u poids maximum 2000 gr. Stryice international. , P i r . r i * . P»r. L r t l r c t afiraiicliits, pour fli!if|Ui p r r n i i n c unilc de Ä gr.nnnv* . . • I 20 S\mi unité Miivinlr dr » g r i m m e : - , ., . Cade« |)0»liîes simple« . . . . . » » avcc r i f f l n « pa>^c C 20 Cpiivd*iu d iinprir.its, fii»i).i:c SO gr2000 [ r.) 0 10 . ) 0 ID (a) 0 2 0 ( M »ipiet» H V h i r c a , ]>o«r chiiqn« W C r - i 1 2000 , ) (] 10 te) « '¿0(d) ÉeriMililloii* deiiuidi^nJ.chaque5>1 ¡ j ( » TA D r e i l fi>f dt retciumindulion . . . . 1 1 • » il'nvii d t léceptifin . I 1 (a) Minimum dt' pejcipl-ioo

de (bj * » 21 pl^M. 1 id) Minimum » » i > f i t•i ^ i o n 201 ppttafti .i

{

Fig. 6. Front pages of 1915 Diary

BY

I HH LIGHT

OF

A

C A N D L E

_ ¿j?

¡Q ' y £ ' u "

C— »

•. ^ J T

- ^ J ^ i t j

r*

^ V V 'y ^ ^ -a. U

-

£

• •

à

-

^ r»l»J v«*¿>vivV

,1 p V J \ , ^'vJu ^jJ-r

^

—"

£ )

i.

, T^jiT ^

0

äa»

Vi . -

^

!

b>

vi"'

V-XL*** 1

ò

^

"rXÌM-' ¿S Vt^5:

Ài

!

«Àj >

V

Fig. 7a. Ilyas Ru^ib's brief biographical sketch. ( S e e page.31)

CALLED

TO

DUTY

35

Kf

\

\

jf

\

1»

M «1

f rf

\

»

S

tr*

i> W

!

« ••

• •

i i

C >

•J v . V >

vS j n i

»

**

*

-Vi

J

„',

^»V

Fig. 7b. Other records in Ilyas Ragip's hand writing (See page.below) The owner of this Diary: Inspector General of Ottoman Students in Paris, ilyas Ragib, date of birth 1304/1888, registration number 662, member of the Reserve Officer candidate regiment, third provisional battalion.

BY T H H LIGHT

36

OF

A

CANDLE

In the event that I am killed in action, I kindly request f r o m our battalion commander that this be returned to my family at: (Tiirk Yurdu Kuttibhanesi) Turkish Homeland Bookstore at No 77 Bab-i all Avenue

The monetary

units were the lira made up of 100 kariis and the kuru§

made up of 100 para. Not surprisingly

there has been significant

devaluation

of the kuru$ and the lira since WWI and the para has disappeared

altogether.

Kiinye,

for

which

there

does

not seem

to be an exact

English

equivalent,

is the personal

registry entry of a soldier. This constitutes

description

of the soldier

including rank and branch, name or

father's

name, place

physical

description,

of origin

which is not always

year of birth, date of joining

is closed

nick-name,

of birth,

the unit, important

during his stay in the unit such as awards, punishments, when the person is assigned

place

a brief

serious illness

brief events and

to another unit or dies, at which time the kiinye

with the date of departure

and reason.

book, containing this information for all the

Kiinye Defteri

is the log

troops.

Ilyas Ragib Efendi, son of A b d u r r a h m a n , date of birth 1304/1888 registered with the Sultan A h m e d Recruiting Office, date of entry into the Academy, August 3, 1330/1914. Registration No 662 Director General of Military Academic Training, 396 In his possession: ) greatcoat, 1 jacket and pants, 1 pair of shoes, 1 headgear, 1 pair of wool socks, 1 pair of gloves, 1 huntsman's vest, 1 water canteen, 1 bread bag, 1 small blanket. Only ten items. Company Commander Expenses f r o m Uluki§la to Erzurum of four-hundred-nine kuru§ and thirty para have been paid. Ilyas Ragib Efendi, Reserve Officer candidate whose kiinye is noted above, has been paid his salary up till the end of the thirty-first day of the the present month and his daily wages for the thirty three days starting immediately thereafter. Consequently this document will certify that, f r o m the cessation of his daily w a g e s till his a p p o i n t m e n t and commencing with his joining his detachment, he is entitled to a corporal's monthly salary of twenty-eight-and-a-half kuru§. 31 D e c e m b e r 1330/1914 A c c o u n t a n t ; S i g n e d on behalf of the Regimental Commander

C A L L KD TO January 12, 1915

37

DUTY

Tuesday

The city of Erzurum was the headquarters of the Ottoman Third Army. It was also a very modern fortress and the lynchpin of the Ottoman of the Caucasus. It was extremely well equipped emplaced

in twenty concrete

defenses

with 235 artillery

and earth forts that protected

pieces

the city from

Russian attacks from the northeast. In addition to the defenses, the fortress contained hospitals, magazines, and communications Place of [domicile]

centers.

is given with names of some officers. Last names

were not in use at the time so this was one way of identifying

soldiers

We're getting ready and have received our marching orders. Orfi and the rest have made a list and on it are me, Hikmet, ismet, Izzeddin, Ibrahim [Gerede], Kemal [Dersaadet], Ahmed Ziya [Trabzon], Hasan Tahsin [Mugla] and Memduh [Van], I'm fed up with these chaotic days and want to leave as soon as possible. After shopping for some odds and ends I came home in the evening; Miinir was on leave as well and we all spent a pleasant evening together. It is almost certain that I'll be heading to Erzurum... But I only talk about the Uluki§la Depot Battalion with mother. In this regard, I can only focus on two points: (1) our very brief training might likely prevent us from taking part in combat; (2) belonging to the educated classes in a nation overwhelmed with ignorance. I wonder? And the answers will likely emerge in the near future. We're trying to get in touch with friends whose names are on the list but who have not yet been notified. We have to be at the military academy at seven tomorrow morning. I go to bed and amongst visions of lines of skirmishers, firings, attacks and victories, I fall asleep. January 13

Wednesday

Agabey is the term used specifically to denote an older

brother.

Mother woke me up at five o'clock. My agabey and Miinir were also up. Enver, as usual, was fast asleep. We had breakfast amidst the usual small talk. I left after bidding farewell once more to mother and Miinir, and at the bridge met up with Sabit, Ahmet and the others who will make up the first contingent. I was at the academy at exactly seven o'clock and pretty soon the rest came along. Apparently two deserters from two of the battalions will join us. So we had to remove two from the list-Tahsin and ismet. Then Memduh stayed behind and ismet was included in his place, ihsan and I walked to Ma$ka and from there to Sirkeci. After a good meal at the Ali Efendi

38

BY T H E

LIGHT

OF

A

CANDLE

Restaurant, we set off for the garrison, which turned out to be a cold, filthy building. After all the formalities, they showed us into a big room; apparently everyone passes through this room and now it is our turn. We spent part of the night singing and playing games. According to our regimental commander we're not to move a step from this spot; otherwise we would be considered AWOL! So this adds to the insults heaped upon us all through our military training! Never mind... At the moment what is more important is Turan. (See Appendix). They gave us 97 kuru§ at the academy and here we received exactly four liras. January 14

Thursday

It is a strange dilemma... We've received close to five liras in payment and there is talk of promotion to corporal but what's going on? So far it is unclear. We spent the night dozing on the hard floor of the mosque. At: five am we were up and ready to head to Haydarpa§a. A military police escorted us to the dock, we boarded the ferry and arrived at Haydarpa§a. The soldier deputy of the military police completed all formalities and gave us our documents. From now on we're on our own. Ten of us will be travelling on a single ticket till Ulukisla. We boarded the train and amidst the songs and marches pouring out of our compartment, pulled out of the station at 9:10 pm. We'll be traveling for three davs. With every passing minute, the train takes us further away from Istanbul, heading towards unknown lands. We stopped in Izmit, which I found unremarkable. I left a note for Kazim, Nami and Arif. Our major destination after Izmit is Eski§ehir, where we may spend a night. But unfortunately the very slow progress of our train deprived us of that possibility; we arrived at 4:45 and departed at 6:15. So maybe we'll have a chance to sleep in Konya... Who knows?.. January 15

Friday

After a two hour break in Eski§ehir we're back on the road. For now our only wish is to make it to Afyonkarahisar and Konya. After many delays Karahisar, an impressive city with its unmistakable fort, finally appeared. Vendors on camels, selling kaymak give the station an authentic Anatolian atmosphere. We entered the station at one o'clock. Osman from the first contingent of our company joined us and at two-fifteen we pulled out of the station. We're proceeding towards Konya through endless meadows and plains. We played the usual parlor games to dispel the agony of a sleepless night. After seemingly unnecessary - but maybe not - stops at many stations, we

CALLKD

TO

DUTY

39

could finally see the lights of Konya. We entered the station at 11:45. As a special favor, the station master showed us into the Ladies Waiting Room where we settled down briefly and at 2:15 we said farewell to Konya. Long military convoys were accompanying our train. There seems to be an expression of contentment on the faces of soldiers. Now with the Grace of Allah, once more, for the umpteenth time we utter the word Ulukigla! Dusk settled in and given our extreme exhaustion, we all collapsed in a heap. January 16

Saturday

A kaymakam is the head official of a district and therefore a person of authority. Uluki§la... Uluki§la... The hero of our journey! Beyond that is unknown! But not exactly unknown for we know we're heading to Erzurum, but how? Under what circumstances?.. It would be great if they just gave us directions and left us to our own devices. But we don't want to be ramdomly assigned to military detachments. We slept soundly through the night. We proceed, pausing at small stations like Bulgurlu, etc.. Come on Uluki§la, where are you? Finally, at 1:30 we arrived. Despite it's rather awesome reputation, Uluki$la is in reality a rather shabby, small township. Fortunately the kaymakam turned out to be our friend Ahmed Bey, which pleased me no end. Now with his assistance we've been moved from the coffee-house, where friends had initially made room for us, to the municipal office. We spent the night in the municipal building. I consider it a good omen that we haven't encountered any of the conduct we had been expecting in Uluki§la. We'll be here tomorrow and have pretty much decided to move on on Monday. January 17

Sunday A day in Uluki§la; a memorial service

Enver Pa§a launched his first invasion of Persia in mid-December 1914. In fact, Tabriz was not captured and the Russians expelled the Ottoman invasion force from Persia in April 1915. Enver Pasa (1881-1922) was one of the Young Turk triumvirate that ruled the Ottoman Empire. Enver served as the Minister of War and he was an ardent nationalist and was very proGerman. He was charismatic, volatile, and flamboyant. He was later accused as one of the architects of the destruction of the Armenians. He survived the war and was killed in combat in southern Russia. The recitations are all works of nationalistic nature, 'Osmancik Yurdu' being Ilyas Ragib's own creation back when he was in Lausanne. 'E§ber' is an epic poem by Abdiilhak Hamid (1852-1937) and familiarity with this literature is a testament to the education these young men had received.

BY

40

T HH LIGHT

OF

A

CANDLE

Despite the tiresome mud, it won't be too difficult spending a day in Ulukigla. Upon Ahmed's suggestion, we agreed to have a memorial service. With a drum roll, the capture of Selmas and Tebriz was announced to the crowd. Primary and middle school students came marching along reciting (Ey Masum) 'Oh You Innocent' and (Osmancik Yurdu) 'Homeland of Little Osman'. At the last moment I remembered Orfi and izzet who recited two poems from (Turk Sazi) Turkish Melodies'. Other verses were recited and then there were prayers. Sabit and the rest had left already. In the afternoon Izzet, ismet and I climbed the peak, following which §evket, Lutfi and friends arrived and we settled them in. We signed up for meat, potatoes, salt, etc., from the commissariat and cooked dinner. We're going to prepare some cold meat for tomorrow. We all spent the evening in the municipal building singing and chatting with Ahmed, izzeddin's performances from 'E§ber' were very good indeed, ismet and I spent the night in Ahmed's home. Despite our expectations from Uluki§la, all we saw was a rather helpless major and one or two officers. The dispatch of troops is handled by these retired gentlemen, towards whom one can't help but feel compassion. There seems to have been an improvement in the military. January 18

Monday

Getting ready for departure.

Departure at 11:30, arrival in Kilisehisar at 5:00, spent the night at the inn. Five wagons were ready in the morning so both groups could leave at once. With salutations to Uluki§la we departed in the two wagons. There are now nineteen of us. Our next major stop will be Nigde. After passing through hills and plains without a single tree in sight, we arrived at a village called Kilisehisar at 5:00 o'clock and settled into a big room in a new inn. Like previous nights spent on hard wooden floors, we spent this night as well twisting and turning. We were treated most favorably after rescuing the innkeeper from the spittle of a soldier! No sooner had we arrived at the inn than Enver Papa's car went by; Captain Salih was in it. We spent the evening engaged in fun and songs January 19

Tuesday

9:30 departure from Kilisehisar, 11:30 arrival in Nigde

CALLED Mutassarif

is a Governor

TO

DUTY

of a Sancak which is a subdivision

41 of a

Province. After singing and wandering through the village all morning, we boarded our wagons at 9:30 and set off for Nigde. It is said to be a three hour journey but by 10:00 o'clock we could see the yellow mud structures of Nigde. Like the towns and villages we've encountered up till now, these yellow mud houses arouse a peculiar feeling in me. On arrival in Nigde at 11:30 we checked in at Sergeant Ishak's inn where we were shown a large room with prayer rugs spread on the floor. They want to send us on in the wagons which brought us from Uluki§la, but since travel in these wagons is quite unbearable, we applied to the mutasarrif who turned out to be Cevad's father. We chatted a bit. He promised to find us five carriages with springs for tomorrow. We had plenty of grilled meat but could barely find a coffee-house. In the evening, we wandered through the city, drowning this quiet corner of Anatolia in song, then returned to our room. Riza took charge of the samovar. January 20

Wednesday

Farewell ceremony and departure from Nigde at 12:00

As usual, and like previous nights, we managed to get through this one on the bare floors as well. Last evening we decided to have a farewell ceremony. I phoned the mutassarrif in the morning and he gladly accepted our proposal. We had just finished drinking our morning milk when students bearing flags came marching to the inn; there were drummers who accompanied us to government square. The mutasarrif was at the telegraph station and joined us shortly. I was the first to speak. As appropriate for the occassion, I said, "We wanted to see this part of the country and now that we've seen it, it is truly worth killing and dying for. Everything we have seen has given us a new determination and sense of sacrifice." or words to that effect. Orfi's recitation of (Cenge Giderken) 'On The Way To Battle' brought people to tears; izzet recited Ya (Gazi Ya §ehid) 'A Veteran Or A Martyr'. We were addressed by one of the school teachers, followed by the Armenian priest. After the mutasarrifs speech, prayers were said. The mutasarrif served tea and kissed us all. While the carriages were being prepared for departure **.

42

BY

T HH LIGHT

January 21

OF

Thursday

A

CANDLE

5:00 arrival in Misti. Departure

at 10:00, arrival at Arabli Inn at 1:15; w e spent the night in Bedros' home; billeting soldiers and feed for the horses Private requisitioned historically frontiers

homes, as troop

businesses, billets

used by Ottoman in the wars

barns

throughout expeditionary

of expansion

and

public

the war. forces

buildings

were

This practice that marched

was to the

of the 16th and 17th centuries

remained in use until 1923. Officers were, if possible,

and

lodged in inns.

Tezek is fresh dung mixed with hay and dried, to be used as fuel. **vve started singing and walking ahead. The people of Nigde poured into the field after us and amidst prolonged applause and prayers, we climbed into the carriages. Nigde apparently had a day the likes of which it had never seen before. After proceeding through treeless fields, w e arrived at a rather miserable inn; we told the drivers to drive on to Misti Koy in that area, and within three quarters of an hour we had arrived. Since people are obliged to provide board and lodging for soldiers passing through, we were split into groups of two or three, izzet, Hikmet, ismet and I were to be billeted in Bedros's home. One could smell the burning tezek. These folks, who speak a variant of Greek, are most industrious. H o w e v e r their village as a whole appears quite destitute. But they do have a large church. After a comfortable night, we departed at 10:00 a m , were in A r a b l i at 1:15 and arrived at the township of Karahisar at 5:00. January 22

Friday

Departure at 10:00, arrival in Incesu

at 3:00. This is the wretch which got us drunk and made fools of us all ! Firm is a public o\en; each village had one and families their trays of foodstuffs

to be baked

could

Kilim, a woven rug without a pile, usually has a very colorful A strong alcoholic

beverage,

bring

there. raki has an anise

design.

flavor.

In Karahisar we bought a lamb for 23 kuru§, had it slaughtered and were exhausted by the whole process. Finally the roast arrived f r o m the firm. Some friends had managed to take a nap, but everyone woke up in time for dinner. After chatting for a while we all stretched out on the kilims and managed to sleep soundly till morning; then the usual preparations and off again. By 3:00 o'clock we had arrived at Incesu. Ibrahim Zeylan is Chief Engineer Sergeant in the engineering battalion. In keeping with Kemal's plans, we organized a

CALLED

TO

D UTY

43

party. We obtained a kilo-and-a-half of local raki; izzet, ismet, Hikmet, Kemal, Ibrahim and Ziya and I got down to the business of drinking and had a most enjoyable evening! We spent the night at the school. In the morning, after a breakfast of milk, we were back on the road. January 23

Saturday

9:15 departure from incesu, 2:30

arrival in Kayseri; overnight in Kayseri and hamam Hamam is a public bath-house, allocated for the use of men and women on different clays of the week. Attendants are present to scrub the clients A hamam is what is typically known in the west as a Turkish bath. Pastirma is meat processed and cured with garlic and other spices. We left incesu and now we're heading for Kayseri. We finally arrived at 2:30. Like other forgotten Anatolian towns, Kayseri was not very entertaining. According to orders from our Regimental Commander, our departure tomorrow has been decided. This was annoying and we tried to reverse the order. I went to the mutasarrif and asked permission to have a ceremony, to which he agreed but emphasized that our departure could not be deferred. We gave up on the ceremony. Walking around, we saw nothing of note in this city famous for its pastirma. We then all decided to go to the hamam and after a long and jolly evening we returned to our residence at the high school. We doubled the cots and I slept with ismet. We had a good nights sleep. In the morning we found out that two other groups had joined us. Sabit and the rest left by car. January 24

Sunday

Fasil is a performance are in the same mode.

A hasty departure from Kayseri 9:00

by a group of musicians of works all of which

After hastily getting ourselves together, at 9:00 o'clock we left Kayseri in seven wagons. Since none of the wagons have springs, no doubt we're going to have an uncomfortable journey, but it's likely we'll have an agreeable and entertaining one, especially since we've decided not to rush. On the way we stopped at Humarli Koy, wandered about, visited the caves, then continued our journey. By 3:30 we had arrived at Gome'-. „

y

...

1

ifif S 's

V

a

.4-

^

-

ti''J

*

> Ä

t

-

^ * - N< »

-

'

«y«'**

"

1

,y-»r' . „ > -

'

»

-

-

" *

>-««*

i»jiìiW- ^ .i.•/ y ' - y

A r */5y

' iV r* * : r ' l

, .i j

--\

. \

1

V

v< -, ; ' 'J

"•>

rt . ^- . i i - " — ^

J*/ 'i.1

e

-I

:

'^-^Cf-c-fe1 • ~ . v.

'

/v > (* )< it it !' S

J, >

I j % „ c Cv / i Vtr ffV ^ > *• I

einevjeftäi

bee

JKafl*.

Mönwon

Alf

À S3

¿jitjtJk

Âjé»:, . jartftts

ÂfaïTtf wriufo»

' ' "

ivoxbtw

•»$!f«§«>-

î>tv lUnalMr,

Fig. 23. Citation of Prussian Decoration

IN

THH

SHRVICH

OF

THE

EMPIRE

283

Fig. 24. The Medal of Merit with Crown and Ribbon On one face of the Medal is FJ, which stands for Emperor Franz Joseph, the father of His Majesty Charles, and on the other face is the date 1849 the year of his accession. Inscribed around the face of the Medal is VIRIBUS UNITIS, Latin for 'Common Forces' and at the very top of the face of the Medal is the figure of two clasped hands. The Seal in the case of the Medal shows the Arms of the Empire with the Imperial Crown and the Eagle with two heads symbolizing Austria and Hungary and underneath two lions supporting the cross.

284

BY

THE

LIGHT

OF

A

CANDLE

Serial No. 1207

Statement Regarding the Possession of the Iron Cross 2nd Class

In the name of His Majesty, The King of Prussia

The Iron Cross 2nd Class was awarded to Lieutenant of the Reserves Elias Ragip Effendi, Adjutant to the Inspector General of the First Troops

Constantinople 2 / 2/ 1918 Liman von Sanders Royal Prussian General of the Cavalry in the Services of Turkey Seal Military Mission - Constantinople

While we have the Citation of the Iron Cross, 2nd Class, we do not have the medal itself. However, the Medal of Merit with Crown and Ribbon depicted on the next page has been preserved.

IN

THE

SERVICE

OF

THE

EMPIRE

285

The Passing of a Great Soldier Obituary of Naci bin Halil by Ragip Nurettin Kge, ULUS, May 30, 1948 On March 20th an exceptional son of the nation and an outstanding example of Turkish nobility completed his unblemished life of seventy-three years and amidst the sincere respect and admiration of all those who knew him, withdrew to his eternal resting place. As one who had the rare pleasure of serving under him for a few years during WWI, I consider it my sad duty to entrust our youth with some truths about this outstanding Turk whom I admire greatly and hold in the highest esteem. Naci Pa§a is the son of Halil Pa§a of the nobility of Manastir [Yugoslavia]. This is the same Halil Pa§a who, in the Russian War of '93 (1293/1877) spared no expense in preparing a volunteer army with which he participated in the war, went into debt after exhausting all his resources, and falling on hard times when the government failed to provide the assistance it had promised and his pride wounded, put an end to his honest life with a bullet to his heart. Naci Pa§a who had inherited dignity and nobility from such a father could not remember anything about his father whom he lost at a very early age. But he expressed his deep bond to him by always signing his name as Naci bin Halil (1). General Naci Eldeniz, worthy of being considered a symbol of nobility and refinement not only for Turkey but for the world wide community, was an exceptional personality worth pausing to ponder upon deeply. After progressing through our school system of the day, he entered the Military Academy which he completed, and despite the prevailing rowdiness, emerged as pure as a single pearl without sacrificing any aspect of his great virtues consisting of fine manners, decency, and nobility of character, each of which would be considered a sufficient asset for any single individual. Subsequently after spending several years in Coblenz, considered the harshest headquarters of German militarism, he returned to his country having retained the untarnished purity of his character. I believe the source of such moral strength was a nobility of spirit, which would constitute an honor not only for the Turkish nation but for all of mankind. Many felt alienated from Naci Pa§a because of a peculiar state of mind brought about by affectionate awe and admiration aroused by his spirituality based on a belief in God and self-sacrifice derived from a deep

religious

286

BY

1HH

LIGHT

OF

A

CANDLE

conviction; his courtesy. gentleness, compassion and especially humility endowed by a totally assimilated noble family upbringing, as well as his knowledge and comprehension based on an extensive cultural background. Everyone liked him, everyone respected him, and anyone who met him once could never forget him. And this feeling came directly from an expression of amazement that our nation had produced such an individual. Given his academic duties during a long military career, the entire army and nation knew, respected and loved him. No one throughout the ranks, from the highest to the lowest, had anything derogatory to say and not even the slightest unfavorable thought about him. During WWI, to this crowd of admirers were added the civilian youths, the reserve officers, and thus Naci Pa§a became an exceptional personality who was known, loved and respected throughout the country. Naci Pa§a, who bore the burden of this prestige till the end of his life, now lies and rests in all these hearts.

Graduates of the Military Academy who were raised under Bach Pa§a will no doubt remember the following incident. While the academy was on a big maneuver during which it had to cross the Kagithane stream, Bach Pa§a, with his deputy Naci Bey at his side for the first time, stood up to their waists in water until the whole school had crossed the stream. The requirements of a military career can always give rise to such circumstances. Naci Bey was of such a character as to be able to repeat without hesitation, in the face of true necessity, what was pure showmanship on the part of Bach Pa§a. But he, above all, would prepare his troops to achieve the maximum with minimum expenditure of energy. His first concern was how to feed and clothe his troops. If Naci Bey had been commander of this maneuver, undoubtedly his first priority would be to find a bridge over the stream and if not available, it would be to select the shallowest part of the stream. And if that were not possible, he would stand in the water up to his waist but find a path along which those under his command would cross knee deep in water. As a matter of fact those impertinent students who disparagingly viewed Naci Bey's teachings of these subtleties of military practice as theoretical and elitist, reversed the fortunes of a huge frontier by dispatching to the Allah-u-ekber Mountain a hundred thousand sons of the nation without a coat on their back or ?ariks on their feet. If one were to ponder carefully, it is obvious that these mistakes repeated on several fronts, devastated the great army of the [Ottoman] empire.

IN

THE

SERVICE

OF

THE

EMPIR B

287

We attended numerous inspections and maneuvers at different military drill grounds, under all weather conditions. I would specifically note that at the conclusion, before gathering the training staff and presenting his critique, Naci Bey would first and foremost ensure that the troops had been distributed appropriately or returned to their barracks. And his critiques always satisfied and convinced his audience and taught them something new; they always constituted positive lessons supported by events. The late Pa§a was very brave and bold. We were going from Sivas to Samsun, inspecting the military drill grounds en route. After Amasya, in order to reach Samsun as soon as possible, the Pa§a wanted to take a shortcut to Ladik. The Amasya Recruitment Officer at the time, Pertev Bey, did not approve of this idea and tried to intervene. The area was full of deserters and apparently these deserters had congregated into large groups of outlaws. Under these circumstances it was unwise to stray from the highways, which were more or less kept under supervision. But Naci Bey wouldn't give up on his idea, so the five of us, himself, myself, two grooms and an unarmed carriage driver made it through Morek and Karakilise, arriving in Ladik in the middle of the night. On an inspection tour he made from Erzincan to Malatya, Naci Bey and a staff of five had crossed Kemah Bogazi, which was renowned at the time for its danger, and returned safely. No doubt the greatest source of Naci Bey's courage was his faith and trust in God as well as the esteem in which he was held in the region. In fact when the military drill grounds were established, many houses in the area were commandeered and the area turned into barracks. The owners who were understandably anxious that their property would be destroyed by the troops, would visit the commander frequently to complain. Naci Bey always welcomed them with modesty and affability, listened to them and would try to reassure them with kind words. Folks treated with such consideration wouldn't know what to say, would forget their grievances and clasping the hands of the commander, would leave his room much relieved and reassured. Finally, soldiers of the military drill grounds would recognize daily the caliber of the commander at their head and would sense the importance of these traits in the treatment they personally received. In a short time all these events reached such proportions and Naci Bey's reputation spread so widely that many deserters would quietly sneak into the military drill grounds to seek refuge. The commander would then organize their contact with various branches of the military and expedite their transfer to the front with the first convoy. I was convinced that if we had been attacked by a crowd of deserters in remote areas, Naci Bey had such influence and authority that, with a single word, he could

288

BY

THE

LIGHT

OF

A

CANDLE

gather and steer these men ahead and ensure their inclusion in the first detachment encountered

This was my impression and not something w e

discussed. He always trusted in the c o m m o n sense and good j u d g m e n t of human beings and was convinced all problems could be solved by such means. ***

Naci Bey had an extensive knowledge of literature and history and a rich command of the language. He spoke clearly, with a very effective voice and his writing was equally lucid. In his conversation and during receptions you would never hear him utter a coarse word. I'll never forget one day in the course of conversation I used the expression "He collected all his junk and stuff..." A s if afraid of hurting my feelings and seemingly amused by the words, he smilingly said "But Ragip Bey, what kind of words are those?" which for one w h o understood the Pa§a's language was a lesson in itself. Because of this, when many of his colleagues came to see him, they would think at great lengths and collect their wits. Many of them would pour forth their troubles, say to me frankly: "Yaver Bey (2), it's impossible to talk with this blessed man... May Allah have mercy on you... Who knows how difficult it must be for you". And having dealt with the matter at hand, they would break into a sweat and dash out the door! Amongst Naci Bey's guests, the Germans were the ones I enjoyed the most. Like all colonialists, these Pa§as or Beys would march into his presence noisily and full of arrogance, and after much grandiose talk, they would gradually lower their voices, cower, shut up and like a cat w h o spilt milk, button up their jackets, click their heels in Prussian manner and, afraid of committing any offense, would quietly depart. A German Officer from Alsace by the name of Freundlieb w h o spoke very good French, and was in the Sled Regiment in Erzincan, once said to me, "We are learning f r o m a Turk in Erzincan such pure and refined German we have neither read nor heard in our own country". I should emphasi/.e another aspect of this great man and that is that Naci Pa§a, out of consideration for the welfare and continuity of the profession, attributed an almost sacred deference to the hierarchy in the military and had an unwavering loyalty to those above him in rank. Actually, what we call gossip was a concept entirely alien to Naci Bey. I never heard Naci Bey utter a single critical word about a third person during his conversations with colleagues.

IN

I H H S HR V I C H 0 V THE

EMPIR H

289

I often witnessed those in his company trying to steer the conversation in that direction, but Naci Bey could sense the situation and would prevent these occurrences by very cleverly diverting the conversation to other areas. If we also add to this attribute his respect for his superiors, we can easily grasp what a virtuous and true soldier he was. When Vehib Pa§a was asked why he hadn't given Naci Bey the command of a division, it was rumored that he replied "It would be a pity on the division and a pity on Naci Bey..." It is still unknown whether Naci Bey actually heard these words for, of course, I never told him. That someone like Vehib Pa§a, who had been principal of the Military Academy, could have uttered these words is an example, as I indicated above, of how little even the ostensibly intelligent people of the time understood Naci Bey. Vehib Pa§a's view that under the circumstances it would have been a pity on Naci Bey may be quite true and I accept it because there was such a great difference between Naci Bey's and their concept of military service; indeed it would have been impossible to explain all this to his commanders on the job and at the front and thus it would have been a pity on Naci Bey. But a pity on the division? Quite the contrary! This division would have been the only unit of the Turkish army trained according to scientific and modern concepts. Finally battle detachment service was given to this great soldier by his pupil Gazi Mustafa Kemal in the last phase of the War of Independence, during the Pitched Battle of Commanders. But such was Fate that according to plans, by the time Naci Bey's detachment entered the front, everything was over and victory was at hand. Naci Pa§a, the teacher of the distinguished army of the country and himself an esteemed member of that army, had never had an opportunity to fire a single bullet at the enemy during any of the conflicts encountered in the course of his long military career, and thus he had missed his last opportunity. After continuing his peacetime duties in the army for six more years, Naci Pa§a retired in 1928, removing the uniform that he so loved and which he always kept spotless. Naci Papa's life and philisophy are too profound to be encompassed by a mere newspaper article and their description and analysis are far beyond the capabilities of this puny pen. On his own, he was the embodiment of the tradition of Turkish nobility, decency, compassion and affection. With his attributes of unconditional honesty, unconditional love and unconditional kindness, which he carried in his soul, he could be considered a true representative of the Oxford school of spiritual sciences. * * *

292

BY

THE

LIGHT

OF

A

CANDLE

back on all of this. But what can one do? When the hour of death, which is the will of Allah, arrives, it won't hesitate for a moment. There is no alternative but to trust with submission in Allah. Naci performed inestimable duties during the Balkan War, the Great War, and the War of Independence. From the depth of my heart I honor and revere the sacred memory of the great Naci and offer a Fatiha (2) for his blessed soul. My deepest condolences go not only to his esteemed wife and daughter Makbule Hanim and Perihan Hanim respectively, but to the Turkish nation who, with the departure of Naci from amongst us, has lost a great and noble son. General Pertev Demirhan (1) The word 'miimtaz' means 'exceptional, distinguished, eminent' (2) Fatiha, the opening chapter of the Koran, is the prayer traditionally offered to the soul of the deceased. * * *

Neither the newspaper nor the date on which this Obituary appeared is available; the clipping was preserved together with a copy of the previous Obituary written by Ragip Nurettin Ege, which appeared in ill us May 30,1948 . *

*

*

IV. A LAND WORTH DYING FOR

POST-WAR STRUGGLES

Following his discharge from the army on November 30, 1918, ilyas Ragib, like many of his peers, was to become involved in efforts to liberate the country from the occupying forces and establish stability and prosperity. He belonged to the (Tiirk Ocagi) Turkish Hearth organization, comprised of a group of like-minded idealistic citizens who were engaged in trying to set a course for the nation during the turbulent and uncertain times in the aftermath of the devastating war. It was at the Turkish Hearth that he met the eighteen-year-old, idealistic, aspiring social scientist, Nezahet Nazmi, the youngest of the three women members, one of whom was Halide Edip (Adivar), the prominent Turkish feminist and author. Nezahet had been working at the (Himaye-i Etfal Cemiyeti) Society for the Protection of Children, she was a strong proponent of Anglo Saxon education and agricultural reforms. Together with ilyas Ragib and a few others they formed a committee of (Koyciiler) Villagers whose aim it was to send volunteer youths to the villages to provide basic education for the peasants, promote more productive agricultural practices and generally raise their standards of living, thus instituting reforms at the grass roots level. In the 1919 Diary entries we will see that the Villagers are busy trying to locate a parcel of land to set up a model farm to put in practice their ideas and ideals. This specific venture did not come to fruition and was supplanted by the establishment of the (Koy Enstitiileri) Village Institutes by the new government. Using the pseudonym of Demir Polat, Ragib Nureddin wrote a series of articles concerning the prevailing threats to nationalism, for the ( Z a m a n ) Epoch newspaper, which appeared between November 1918 and February 1919. He was also involved in the formation and organization of The Society of Reserve Officers. From his first hand accounts that follow the Historic Perspective on unfolding events of the post-war period we are about to read, we will bear witness to the involvement of Ragib Nureddin and his comrades in the various phases of the struggle which finally gave birth to the new Turkish Republic.

296

BY

THE

LIGHT

OF

A

CANDLE

HISTORIC PERSPECTIVE In the s u m m e r of 1918, the Ottoman strategic position

seemed

reasonably secure. The British were halted by logistics and force reductions in both Palestine and M e s o p o t a m i a and both fronts appeared stable. In the Caucasus Mountains, the l urks had unleashed in the spring of 1918 forces that recaptured Erzincan, Erzurum and Kars. By mid-summer Ottoman Army units were marching eastward toward the oil port of Baku on the Caspian S e a . It was a house of cards, however, and by the fall of 1918, the strategic situation turned from acceptable to dismal. British general Sir Edmund Allenby attacked the Ottoman Army under Liman von Sanders at Megiddo on 19 September. Allenby accomplished one of the few breakthroughs of the entire war and soon his Imperial cavalry divisions were racing toward Damascus, which fell on 1 October. The startling campaign continued and on 25 October, A l e p p o fell as well. Allenby's army closed in on Hatay province, the gateway to Anatolia. More worrisome and dangerous to the Ottoman state was the collapse of the Salonika position from which the allies now advanced toward Constantinople. The Turks had sent most of their forces elsewhere and the capital stood defenseless. Only in Caucasia did the Ottomans enjoy success, taking Baku on 15 September 1918. A s Bulgaria and then Austria-Hungary suffered national collapse, the ruling triumvirate of Enver, Talat, and Cemal recognized that the war was finally lost. In mid-October, the government sent Major General Charles Townshend, the vanquished POW commander from Kut A1 A m a r a , out to the Royal Navy's blockading fleet in an attempt to negotiate surrender. Although the Townshend mission was rebuffed, the surrender process began and an armistice ending the First World War in the Near East was signed on 3 0 October 1918 in Mudros harbor. The Ottoman Army still maintained twentyfive infantry divisions in the field at that point in the war, although it was plagued by desertions and abysmal logistics. The armistice was comprehensive and the Ottomans were forced to give up their gains in C a u c a s i a as well as concede control of the Dardanelles, Constantinople, and the I aurus and Amanus railway tunnel complexes to the allies. Unlike the armies of Russia, Austria-Hungary, and B u l g a r i a , which melted away in 1918. the Ottoman A r m y did not s e l f - d e m o b i l i s e . Its remaining units marched home to Anatolia. The army was then scheduled for demobilisation and by early spring 1919, its strength was eroded f r o m 9 0 0 , 0 0 0 men under arms to roughly 4 0 , 0 0 0 . Importantly, the hard cadre of tough seasoned combat commanders remained intact and led the army through this difficult period.

A LAND

WORTH

DYING

FOR

Unlike the German armistice, under which the German

297 Army

surrendered 25,000 machine guns and 5,000 artillery pieces, the Ottoman Army was not obligated to immediately surrender its equipment. The reorganized Ottoman Army under the armistice consisted of ten reduced strength divisions, itself equipped with 240 cannons and 48,000 rifles. The army's remaining weapons were stored in depots deep in the Anatolian heartland against the time when they might be needed again. Under this plan, the Turks put away 791,000 rifles, 4,000 machine guns, and 945 artillery pieces, which, despite allied efforts, remained under Turkish control. The cost of the war was phenomenal. The Ottoman Empire lost nearly all of its territory except for Thrace and the Anatolian heartland. Its population was cut by half and its economy ruined. The number of men, who died in the war numbered about 425,000 or 17% of the nearly three million men who were mobilized. The productive Armenian community was destroyed, as was the economic base of eastern Anatolia. Moreover, hundreds of thousands of Ottoman civilians died f r o m the cumulative effects of the allied naval blockade. As 1918 faded into 1919, the allies sent large numbers of troops to occupy the key points of the empire, in particular, the Greeks sent troops to occupy Smyrna (modern Izmir) and, shortly thereafter, they began to persecute the Turkish population. [The Defense of Izmir 1919. See page 309], Fighting began in 1919 between Turkish nationalists and the occupation forces. A strong current of dissent against the allied puppet government in Constantinople ran through the remaining leadership and ranks of the army. In many of the cities, patriotic ex-officers organized local resistance groups to stir public support and enthusiasm against the allies. The activities of the Turkish Hearth movement were especially prominent in this regard. [The Duty to Rebel. See page 300) On May 19, 1919, Mustafa Kemal landed in the Black Sea port of Samsun to begin the process of rallying the nationalists. In June 1919, he and a close circle of friends and military comrades issued the Amasya Circular, which stated that the independence of the country was in danger. Kemal went on to rally the Turks of Anatolia to resist the occupation [1919 Diary; National Resistance Movement in Aydin. See page 346] and he helped to form the Grand National Assembly of Turkey on 23 April 1920. The immediate physical and demographic impact of nearly six years of war (which actually began for the Turks with the Balkan Wars of 1912-13) was catastrophic to say the least. However, this was not the end of the Turkish troubles. During the war itself, the allies conspired among themselves to partition the Ottoman Eimpire at the conclusion of the war. In particular, the infamous Sykes-Picot agreement drawn up by Britain's Mark Sykes and

298

BY

THh

LIGHT

OF

A

CANDLE

France's Georges Picot neatly partitioned the Near East between the t w o powers or so it seemed al Ihe time. In fact, the self-serving and poorly thought out agreement opened the door for larger and significant difficulties that led to great regional instability in the second half of the twentieth century. More to the issue for the Turks themselves, the Treaty of Sevres, signed in August 1920, formally ended the First World War in the Near East. Under this treaty, France acquired Cilicia as a mandate, while the nation states of Armenia and Kurdistan were established in eastern Anatolia. Italy acquired parts of the southern coast while Britain was charged with the occupation of the Turkish straits and Constantinople Greece received the important Aegean coastal city of Smyrna and its hinterlands. This left the Turks with a small rump state in central Anatolia. By late 1920, the victors were advancing and carving out their territories guaranteed by the Treaty of Sevres. The Treaty of Sevres may be seen as one of the major factors leading to the birth of the modern Turkish Republic. Although the Turks were defeated, they maintained a strong national identity and attachment to the Anatolian heartland. As 1919 progressed into 1920 and it became apparent that the allies intended to carve up Anatolia, the Turkish nationalist m o v e m e n t emerged f r o m the ashes of d e f e a t . Writing in 1997*, Simon Mayall noted the movement had its focus, inspiration and leadership in the person of Mustafa Kemal, w h o later become known as Atatiirk (Or the 'father of the Turks'). Mayall also noted that Churchill's judgment on Atatiirk should be quoted in full to give some measure of the moment and the man. "Loaded with follies, stained with crimes, rotted with misgovernment, shattered by battle, worn down by long disastrous wars, his empire falling to pieces around him, the Turk was still alive. In his breast was beating the heart of a race that had challenged the world, and for centuries had contended victoriously against all comers. In his hands was once again the equipment of a modern army, and at his head a Captain, who with all that is learned of him, ranks among the four or five outstanding figures of the cataclysm. In the tapestried and gilded chambers of Paris were assembled the law givers of the world. In Constantinople, under the guns of the Allied fleets, there functioned a puppet Government of Turkey. But among the stern hills and valleys of 'the Turkish Homelands' in Anatolia, there dwelt that company of poor men ... w h o would not see it settled so; and at their bivouac fires at this moment sat, in the rags of a refugee, the August Spirit of Fair Play." Mustafa Kemal drew together the scattered pieces of the army and energized it with a remarkable fighting spirit. H e inspired the T u r k s of Anatolia to mobilize their entire society in support of reclaiming their homeland. The weapons and equipment, which had been stored under the terms

A LAND

WORTH

DYING

FOR

299

of the armistice, were taken in hand and returned to service. After a series of dramatic retreats, Kemal reversed the defeats and stopped the Greek offensive at the decisive battle of Sakarya (August - September 1921). He then spent a year gathering and training his army of liberation. In August 1922, Kemal attacked the overextended Greeks in what the Turks called The Great Offensive, crushing them in an encirclement and driving them back. On September 9, 1922, the victorious Turks reclaimed Smyrna ending what the Turks would come to call the War of Independence. Negotiations to end the struggle began shortly thereafter in Lausanne, Switzerland. Under strict orders from Kemal, the Turkish representative, ismet inonii, refused to consider any allied attempts to compromise the integrity of the newly won lands. In the end, the Turks secured the boundaries of the modern Turkish state and they signed the treaty on 24 July 1923. The victorious nationalists proclaimed the Republic of Turkey on 29 October 1923 and Mustafa Kemal became its first president shortly thereafter. *Simon Mayall; Turkey: Thwarted Ambition; Washington

DC:

National Defense University Press, 1999, pp. 15-16. Edward J. Erickson ***

The following leaflet issued by the members of the Turkish Hearth as a rallying cry to the nation was found amongst Ragib Nureddin's papers; the Enormous Meeting called for did come about in Sultan Ahmet Square and helped sow the seeds of resistance. He was likely a member of the Meeting Committee. The one hundred days and one hundred nights refers to the signing of the armistice of Mudros on 30 October 1918. ***

"31/1/1919 at 1:15 and subsequently a small meeting was held and Niizhet Sabit attained his wishes. R.N."

300

BY T H E L I G H T

OF A

CANDLE

The Duty to Rebel Nations are in turmoil, civilizations are in turmoil, rights and thoughts are constantly being transformed, factions split apart and then come together. A state of confusion, a revolution and then two groups emerge; the civilized and the barbarians. Too bad for the barbarians! Oh my nation! In the midst of all these revolutions you remain alone and helpless! You are silent and remain in silence. You are rejected and unrecognized by civilization! And we, your forsaken, miserable, educated children... who knows with what filthy motives, with what petty fears, who knows for what wretched and abject aspirations keep saying "Silence... Silence!" and deceive you... No, I can't be that miserable child of yours. When all nations are claiming virtue and civilization, while struggling and shedding blood on the path to civilization, 1 cannot say to you, "Be silent!" No, you are not going to be quiet! You too, like all other nations, are to shout and claim your rights! You're going to say "A Turk as well has rights!" Neither my mind nor my soul can endure it... One hundred days and one hundred nights! And you, my nation, have remained locked in silence? And this silence of yours in the face of the contempt of all nations; in the face of all accusations, this silence?.. But young men, don't you hear this painful admission? One hundred days and one hundred nights!.. Oh wretched and contemptible young men of the motherland, can't you hear? The Armenians insult us, the indigenous Greeks insult us, the Arabs and Jews insult us. The Knglish, the French and the whole civilized world insult us and yell to our face "Murderous and cowardly nation!" Oh my nation if 1 hadn't known you by sharing grievances with your elderly, playing with your children, laughing and crying with your youths; if I hadn't learned how virtuous and innocent you are, if I hadn't grasped the essence of your soul, you could truly have been considered a wretch and a murderer! Your sacred affection could not really have deterred me. Like a Gladstone, I too would have said, "Because Turks are humans, I'm ashamed of humanity!" But then, I would have pierced my brain with a bullet because I am a Turk! But no, today, tomorrow and as long as I live I have shouted and I will continue to shout; with all my soul, my conviction and conscience I will shout, "You my nation are pure and innocent, merciful, compassionate, forgiving; and because of all this you deserve inclusion in a truly civilized

A

LAND

WORTH

D YIN G

FOR

301

community". Let the universe unite, if it should so choose, in claiming the contrary. I will say: "The universe has united in going astray!" And the universe may unite in going astray and has actually done so. I'm going to shout and rebel. "Oh civilization, you've gone astray!" 1 will shout. But my nation... you, why are you so quiet? Why don't you rebel against the murderous organization that has caused civilization to unite against you? Why not raise your strong voice and demand punishment of the murderers and oppressors; why don't you rebel against idleness, cowardice, treachery? Why don't you rebel against incompetence, corruption, exploitation and indifference? Don't you know that to those w h o don't demand their rights, rights aren't granted? Don't you know that the weak have no recognized rights? Well, are you weak? Is the determination and perseverance you showed for four years, for four long years in the trenches a sign of helplessness? My people, the courage you showed in the trenches must now be shown on the road to civilization! Brothers! Don't forget that the greatest courage is civic courage! Youths! Be brave and civilized! Helplessness and complaints are unbecoming to our youth! Declare that the land is yours and take ownership of your country... But again, don't forget that only those w h o know their rights and duties can claim ownership of their country. Youths, have you asked yourselves, "What are my rights and duties?" I ask myself every day and in m y brain that mysterious

voice

continuously moans; "Choose to be civilized, ask for civilization!" And civilization is based upon rights and justice. Youths! Demand rights and justice and damn tyranny! Rebel for rights and justice! Rebel! Rebel! Youths! Are you frightened? N o , the timid need not be afraid, the brave should not be fooled. I am not asking for the rebellion of power but the rebellion of righteousness! Iron, fire, bullets... like tyranny, may they be damned as well! I want rebellion in calmness, rebellion in dignity, rebellion in justice! I want the rebellion of righteousness, not of tyranny and force! And aren't Turks part of the universe? And don't they have rights? Naturally one must recognize their rights as well. How can you or England or anyone separate your destiny from that of the Muslims and Turks? N o matter what anyone says, it is your duty to assure the future happiness and prosperity of millions of Muslims. And of course you are going to fulfill this historic duty!

302

BY

THE

LIGHT

OF

A

CANDLE

Oh representatives of civilization! As you try to open a new era in the universe of the civilized, be an impartial judge of rights and oppression! If Turks are criminals, if they are an element harmful to civilization, eliminate them as you would destructive rabbits and crows; this would be within your capability and it would be your duty to do so. Civilization should survive and savagery should be eradicated! But if Turks are innocent and guiltless, do not accuse the innocent and guiltless of the most heinous crimes in the court of humanity; that would be a great pity! Now I close my eyes and hear the voice of the united conscience of the millions crying out "Wretched Turks..!" Oh representatives, don't be fooled! Don't be provoked by the external appearances of Istanbul! There is a complex social equation within the soul of the east; one that penetrates the consciences, the minds and souls! It is then that you will tearfully become convinced that the Turks are truly innocent and unfortunate. Oh my nation, am I lying? What nation is there more dejected than us? But why are we silent, why are we reluctant, what is left to us? What other disaster do we await in order to save our national honor? Is there a greater tragedy for any nation than to lose its national honor and not to be included in the family of civilized nations? The civil rights of Algiers and Tunis together, of the Arabs of Hejaz and Syria, indigenous Greeks, Armenians, Jews, and every nation... yes every nation will be recognized. But an oversight which has never been permitted... are Turks to be deprived of their civil rights? Oh the tyrants of Berlin and their shameless slaves... Eternal damnation to you! Oh universe of civilization... Crush the tyrannical, pitiless arm that wants to crush you under its boot! But in the name of justice and equity, don't forget that that power that could not crush civilization, crushed and destroyed Turkey, physically and morally. Just as it destroyed Belgium - with whatever justification - it similarly destroyed Turkey... Don't forget the Turks are as innocent and desperate as the BelgiansJustice and fairness demand that vengeance should be exacted not from the Turks but from the powers that have annihilated the Turks! Oh youths! Oh those who have been dozing in university classrooms, those who are caught in a struggle of submission and yearning! Wake up! Oh conscience of the nation! Don't cry in silence! Shed your tears in clear view of the universe! Don't talk softly! Raise your voice so as to be heard by the universe! Your tears and your voice! Oh my nation, it is time to rebel! Demand, demand... Demand your rights!

A

LAND

WORTH

DYING

FOR

303

Demand them f r o m civilization!. Demand them f r o m the Sovereign! Demand them f r o m the government! Demand them f r o m all your children! And then each of you individually, demand them f r o m yourselves! Oh my nation... my nation, you are innocent! If some wretched and cowardly elites hadn't sacrificed your innocence and purity to their own petty ambitions, today you would have been happily standing shoulder to shoulder with pride and honor amongst your historic friends in the assembly of nations. Yes, the inertia and cowardice of the elites gave birth to the C U P brigands! Oh responsible youths, the time has come for regret and rebellion! Let us speak for the conscience of the nation! Youths, you must reflect the conscience of the nation! Yes, let the voice of justice rise and rebel! T h r o u g h the voices of its youth, its elders, its women and m e n , its invalids and the dejected, the nation must rebel! One hundred days ago the quivering voice of my heart had echoed in the soul of the nation. Youths were agitated. Partisan pens went wild saying "Don't believe it, the country needs calm and quiet now more than at any other time!.. T h e slightest excitement will destroy us!" and together with the government they strangled the national enthusiasm. Now you understand why that enthusiasm was strangled, don't you? Because the tyrants were going to escape, documents of oppression were to be destroyed, but oppression would not disappear. And thus, my nation, oppression and the tyrants have not disappeared and you have b e c o m e the supporters of oppression. But will you continue to support it? When will you understand that silence in the face of oppression is support for oppression? And in the family of the civilized, nations known as oppressors have no rights. Oh youths, or have you abandoned your right to life? For heaven's sake, what is this indifference? How can it be that when every day, every minute 9 0 % of the nation is subjected to oppression, 9 0 % of the nation is against oppression? T h a t despite clenched teeth and fists, there is still oppression and oppression should still rule! And those tyrants, those carnivorous murderers w h o feed on the blood of the nation, those wretches who slander history and the national honor and amuse themselves with rights and honor! N o , short of madness, my mind cannot fathom this heedless cowardice. I reflect with all my equanimity, with all my spiritual insights, with all my impartiality, with all my faith and convictions I reflect... and still my mind cannot comprehend.

304

BY

IHK

LIGHT

OF

A

CANDLE

My mind does nol comprehend not rebelling against such insolent representatives of oppression and dishonesty! All over the country, in the skies and on land, waves of tyranny and destitution are building up... And like shipwrecked craft, the youth of the country are tossed about upon these waves... with neither will-power nor determination. Oh shipwrecked, determined yet irresolute youths! Come, join me in raising your voices; say "Oh nation, my nation... If we wish to live freely and independently, respected and elevated like the civilized, amongst the civilized, you have to prove you are not an enemy of civilization and justice; you have to make your voice heard by the civilized universe". You must say: "I didn't make war, I didn't support the unjust, I didn't endorse the crimes... On the contrary, I too am the victim of an oppressive despotism. You must distinguish those who wage war and carry out injustices, who commit crimes, and who betray their historic friends. This is your right and specifically your duty. Raise your voice so civilization can hear! At last civilization is close enough to hear your voice. The representatives of civilization, rights, and justice are amongst you and live within the seat of your government; flags that nurture civilization in their shadow are visible on your horizons; no longer are the barbarous Berliners a barrier between civilization and you. Raise your voice! One hundred days ago, in reflecting your conscience I had called out saying: Oh representatives of civilization! Turks are not your mortal enemy. Turks did not want to wage war against you. If you don't believe the Turks, look at the declaration on the leaflets you dropped from your airplanes. It said: "We are not fighting with the Turkish nation but with the CUP brigands!" And you undoubtedly were telling the truth. Yes, the Turks did not wage war against you and have always borne a deep respect and affection towards you. If, on the day you entered this land, there had not been a heedless government at the head of the nation and a hypocritical organization threatening the nation with military occupation and an indigenous Greek uprising, the Turks would have greeted each of you as a saviour and you would have found all those who dragged the country to war hanged on the quay of Istanbul ! Today the Turkish nation still accepts you as a saviour and you, the French and the English, can be nothing other than saviours; you cannot commit torture, you cannot distort the truth! You, France... the France who has given birth to the loftiest, most humanitarian concepts of civilization! The Declaration of the Rights of Man is yours, it is the product of your wisdom and conscience!.

A LAND

WORTH

DYING

FOR

305

Thus it is your duty and it is our duty... Oh resolute sons gathered under the banner of duty, where are you? Who are you? How many of you are there? What are you waiting for! Are we a handful? That's enough! Because the whole nation and all of civilization is behind us... Rebel... I want you to rebel; I want justice and virtue to rebel! Oh my nation, demand and claim your rights! But first of all demand them from me, demand your rights from me! Face me, stare into my eyes and ask the following: "What does it mean to rebel and by inviting me to rebel, do you know what you are doing?" Oh my nation, you are finally asking me this question, aren't you? And finally you are going to demand your rights, aren't you? The apprehension in your heart has finally abated and you ask with your common sense don't you? Alright, here is my reply... Civilization accuses us of waging war against civilization, of assisting the German military government, of injustices against the Armenians, the indigenous Greeks and the Arabs... And our response is to say that we did not wage war. We were dragged into war by the Germans and by a pro-German illegitimate and criminal government. They were the ones who perpetrated the atrocities. And the Turks were probably victimized to a much greater extent by the oppression of these two forces. They undoubtedly accept this in theory. But in order to accept it in practice, they await the following actions on our part: 1. Punishment of the perpetrators of all crimes and atrocities 2. Establishment of a just and constitutional government. ***

One hundred days have gone by and have we been able to do anything? No! Why not? Because you, my nation have not cried out in a loud voice what you think and what you want, and you have not concentrated your strength and determination in support of your government. Now one hundred days later I call you once more to duty and say to you: You must cry out; you must demand the punishment of crimes and atrocities; you must establish a civilized and just government; you must take charge of yourself and your destiny! And in order to raise our voices all together, we are to gather as part of an enormous meeting. All the children of the nation, including the youngsters, the women, the youths and the aged must fill all the public spaces of Istanbul and always with calm and dignity, demand their rights!

306

BY

THH

LIGHT

OF

A

CANDLE

Firstly from the civilized world: "I'm as civilized as all other eastern nations, I have the right to life and I am capable of establishing a just government!" Secondly, from the government: To determine accountability for all crimes and atrocities and by arresting and punishing those responsible, delivering the innocent and honest from accusations; and also immediately recovering the usurped national resources to spend on the needs of the poor. Thirdly, from the imperial office and the Sultanate: By bringing about a National Council made up of the notables and the educated of the country in order to establish the elements of the fundamental reforms of which the country is in need, and to move from theory to practice, by forming a national cabinet made up of those with shared views and convictions. Finally and specifically from the civil servants: To try and distance yourself from the corrupt and misguided practices of the past and become a conscientious, just and upright member of the administrative structure. ***

I should point out as well that the current state of the country is not as grave and beyond salvation as it has been made out to be. It is true that the catastrophe is immense and daunting. But as long as economies are made, provisions for the future are possible. It is possible to draw up a balanced budget and even eliminate a significant part of the war taxes. It is entirely possible to bring about an orderly organization similar to that under the supervision of the Department of War Taxes, with the majority of the civil servants currently in position. With some modifications and improvements in the current status of the gendarme and police organizations, it would be possible to return the country to law and order in a short time. The manpower necessary to move all this from theory to practice is also available, so long as we abandon the usual administrative practices and resort to all the resources of wisdom and determination in our nation. And for this the Caliph and the entire Sovereign family including men and women should provide leadership in abolishing national inertia and encouraging the population and generating enthusiasm. I have always claimed and will continue to claim that even in the criminals, murderers, thieves and profiteers of this country, there is a peculiar sense of compassion, honesty and sacrifice; one should be able to take advantage of these sentiments as well.

A LAND

WORTH

DYING

FOR

307

The underlying cause of maybe more than ninety percent of crimes committed in this country is the wretched state of the government. With a just government, in a short time this country could become as peaceful as a Switzerland or a Sweden. The moral resources of this country are as untarnished as are its material resources. It is a societal mistake to label as a decline in morals, the social state of mind brought about so forcefully by the prevailing system; because in our country immorality is not inherent but only symptomatic. Oh... to dispel what seems like inertia and pessimism that has sent roots deep into the soul of the nation today! This, I swear to Allah, is much easier than the defense of (,'anakkale! There is such enlightenment in the soul of the nation. But it would like to see leadership from its elders. It would like to be assured of their concern for it. Youths, I would like to see national enthusiasm in your young souls! T o make the enlightenment of the nation flourish, I want enthusiasm, I want rebellion, I want determination and this is your sacred duty. What I asked from you one hundred days ago I want again. But this time I want it unconditionally. Clasping your hands and looking straight into your eyes, I beg of you on behalf of my nation. All political parties, all societies, universities, the enlightened, writers, and especially journalists! Let us unite and tell the government and civilization what it is we want. What the civilized world insistently expects from us and will force us to do tomorrow, let us ourselves do today. And for this, first of all:

AN ENORMOUS MEETING! Youths, children, mothers, father, brothers, sisters... don't stop, don't rest... Bring together in all the public places all the children of this nation, including the sick and disabled - who are determined to hold an Enormous Meeting; don't forget that every voice is a voice. And when voices are united they will roar! Following is the program: 1. On Friday January 31st (1919) at one o'clock in the afternoon we will meet in the square in front of the War Ministry. 2 . The above stated decisions will be submitted for the approval of the nation. 3. After a decision has been reached, everyone will disperse with calm and dignity

308

BY T U B

LIGHT

OF

A

CANDLE

4. A decision will be expressed by show of hands. When a flag is raised from the site of the Meeting Committee, hands are to be raised. 5. The decisions reached will be submitted to the Sovereign and the government by the Meeting Committee. I want this for the welfare of my nation and particularly to prove the sovereignty of the nation. I consider silence and waiting, inertia and lack of spirit the true assassin of my country and national honor. I will shout and will continue to shout. The nation will either recognize me as its true child and clasp me to its bosom, or banish me forever. I rebel against and will continue to rebel against those powers who trample upon my rights and treat me with contempt or wish to do so. Youths of the nation! Your duty as well is to rebel against those who trample upon your rights, who treat you with contempt and wish to annihilate you. Civilization stands before us, sneering at and demeaning us, calling us "Murderers and cowards!" I rebel against those who label my nation thus! Youths, if you don't want to remove the label of "Murderer and coward!" then you deserve it: you deserve it eternally. But oh innocent Anatolia... I see a dark fate written on your forehead... I hear the cry for help from the depth of your conscience. You are a martyr bearing a crown of light on your head. And we, your cowardly sons are your assassins! To be the moral assassin of an innocent nation! Oh my Allah, do forgive me! Oh conscience of the nation, give me your judgment! Deliver me! For I despair of eternal darkness! ***

In early 1919 Ragib Nureddin was in Istanbul engaged in Turkish Hearth activities, writing articles, helping his brother Tevfik Nureddin. On March 11, 1919 he wrote a letter to Nezahet Nazmi, telling her that upon the request of the Moralizade brothers, his childhood friends from Izmir, he would be going to izmir and any correspondence should be addressed c/o the Moralizades. The stationery of his subsequent correspondnce with her, detailing his involvement in defending the activities of the Turkish Hearth in Izmir, bears the heading Society for the Defense

of Ottoman

Rights.

Through a retrospective account approximately a quarter century later, the following documents provide the details of the activities during the subsequent months, and what may be considered the earliest resistance movement against occupying forces, predating by four days Mustafa Kemal's landing in Samsun on May 19, 1919.

A LA N D WORTH

•Ííi V»-' V-

309

FOR

„-J,^^: j,, * - '

•/•}-,'

>??*' »;>.:. ¿u^-

WÊ:•M^iê

--

; -i- ¡. .. , ,

«-•.-I-'.... . •f 'í

,, ,

,>

4x

•'MÉSSÎilJfeÂÉIll - ..... .

Fig. 25. First and last page of the original document - The Duty to Rebel The Defense of Izmir - 1919 TBMM

Celal Bey affectionately kisses your eyes

(The Turkish Parliament) Private My dear and noble brother, The former Prime Minister Celal Bayar is writing his recollections regarding Izmir and is attempting to determine events immediately preceding the occupation. He has requested information and my opinions in this regard, and particularly with regard to (Redd-i ilhak - Miidafaa-i Hukuk) Rejection of Annexation - Defense of Ottoman Rights, he requested any information that might shed further light on history. However given my poor memory and the passage of a quarter of a century in this interval, I couldn't provide any helpful response.

310

BY T H H

LIGHT

OF

A

CANDLE

Following the occupation of izmir, when I had been posted to Kastamonu, I had written ten articles for the (Agik Soz) Free

Speech

newspaper entitled "How izmir was Occupied". In one of these articles, I mentioned that on the evening of the occupation, the people of Izmir were left stunned and full of suspense, and something to the effect that Ragip Nurettin who was in izmir at the time inspecting the Turkish Hearth operations sent telegrams signed (Ilhak ve Miidafaa-i Hukuk Cemiyetleri) Annexation

and

Society for the Defense of Ottoman Rights, to fictitious branches of these organizations throughout the provinces to inform all of Anatolia of the occupation. Celal Bayar read this and asked me for detailed information. In order to avoid any errors and to highlight your perspicacity and patriotism, I am compelled to request information from you. The following is w hat I know: 1. That night you and I and a doctor - 1 believe his name was §erifT got together, but where? Possibly and probably it was at the Turkish Hearth. 2.1 recall the telegrams you immediately composed and signed (Redd-i Ilhak Cemiyeti) Society for the Rejection of Annexation, were taken to the telegraph office, possibly by Feyzi, the manager of the (Anadolu) Anatolia newspaper. Feyzi had reported that the communications officer, who had the courage to assume the responsibility for dispatching the ones destined for Thrace, was a Jew. 3. §erifi and I had distributed the 'Daily Orders', which you had written out that night and reproduced with the mimeograph machine. Since I escaped three days later I could not follow what transpired subsequently. What I don't know are the following: 1. What inspired you to come up with the term (Redd-i ilhak

-

Miidafaa-i Hukuk) Rejection of Annexation - Defense of Rights? 2. Who was your friend, the doctor? Was he the §erifi who subsequently became a deputy? 3. It is likely that you have the drafts of the telegrams you wrote because you have always been in the habit of recording and retaining daily events and documents. 4. Even if you don't have the drafts, it is most likely that you recall accurately the gist of the texts. 5. Do you have any information regarding the name and duties of the Jewish communications officer? 6. Do you recall any thing about the 'Daily Orders'?

A LAND

WORTH

DYING

FOR

311

So my dear brother, my request from you is the following: Please spare an hour of your time to write me something about events on the eve of the occupation, Rejection of Annexation - Defense of Ottoman Rights. If you wish, what you write could be written on my behalf. Because there is nothing that will dishonor history. The intent is to elucidate a very significant chapter of our history. Particularly since the role subsequently played by the terms Rejection of Annexation and Defense of Ottoman Rights is obvious. This honor is due you and the favor could possibly extend to those of us who were with you that evening. Since I would like to write this part of the memoir, I hope you will see no objection in trusting me in this regard. As I now remember, at the Turkish Hearth and the High School that night, hearing some from amongst Izmir's noble sons shouting "You are unionists, this is a unionist plot, we don't want to see our country soaked in blood!", and seeing that the occupation was applauded by one or two newspapers appearing the day following the occupation, I felt faint and grief stricken. It seemed that evening no one other than us was shedding tears over the fortunes of the land. In summary my dear brother, I await your reply as soon as possible. Even if you don't write anything, please let me know so I am not kept in suspense. My affection and respect are reserved for virtuous friends like yourself. March 8, 1945, Rankin Deputy Talat Onay ***

The available reply to this letter is only in rough draft and has been published in part in Prens Sabahaddin - Hayati ve ilmt Mtidafaalan; Nezahet Nurettin Ege, Fakulteler Matbaasi, 1977, pp 383-389. The same details are included in Ragip Nurettin Ege's response to a request from the Odemi§ Public Community Center, which follows. ***

ODEMI§ Directorate of the Public Community Center No: 304 23.10. 1946 Mr Ragip Nurettin Ege Erenkoy Bagba§i Sok No. 7 Over the past several years we have been in the process of preparing a modest book regarding the (Mill! Mticadele) National Struggle as it applied to

BY

312

THE

LIGHT

OF

A

CANDLE

western Anatolia, and have received very helpful responses and significant documents from distinguished individuals and institutions, which demonstrate interest and appreciation, for which we are extremely grateful. Writing the grand history of a whole nation and determining all the events was not a task that could be accomplished on our own. And for this reason, when we undertook this important assignment, our goal was to obtain the views of distinguished individuals who had personally lived through those historic days, as well as national institutions representing our region, to give this small work a national profile and thereby augment its value. Remarkable writings and documents which arrive daily reveal such significant events that each and every one constitutes a separate epic, and it is impossible not to feel excitement and to rejoice that such important events are hereby being saved from obscurity. It could not have been otherwise. There is no nation in the world to which history bears witness, which has confronted the tragic outcome which befell the Turkish nation at the end of W W 1 and which has then been able to resurrect itself. This salvation of our heroic nation cannot be characterized as anything other than miraculous. It is worthy of gratitude that thanks to the lofty sentiments and efforts of our fellow countrymen, we are trying to pass on to coming generations the facts surrounding those miracles, and given the necessity to f u r t h e r enlighten ourselves, we have formulated some questions, which follow. Even if you can provide information regarding only one of these questions, it would be a great favor and assistance to our organization. Therefore we eagerly anticipate the favor of your reply regarding these historic events. With our deep respect,

Director of the Odemi§ History Museum

Director of Public

(Signed) Ali Orhan tlkkur§un

Community Center

Seal

Questions Regarding the Occupation of Izmir: 1 .What were the duties and the extent of the sacrifices of Nurettin Pa§a, the Governor of Izmir prior to the occupation; the organizations he brought about, what precautions he may have taken and if there were any precautions pertaining to defense, what were they and why and how was the Pa§a removed from Izmir?

A LAND

WORTH

DYING

313

FOR

2. The past history of (Greek) Bishop Hiristos T o m m a s , his upbringing, the roles he played, the clandestine or transparent organizations he brought about, whether he played a part in the Izmir massacre, his actions and activities on that day and why he was exiled by Governor Rahmi Bey prior to mobilization? 3. What were the initial reasons for the formation of the Izmir

Society

for the Defense of Ottoman Rights; by whom and how was it established; who were the president and the members of the Administrative Board; how many meetings were held and what actions were taken; where were these meetings held? What were the mandate and the membership of the organization; what did the By-laws consist of and would it be possible to obtain a copy; what did the Society accomplish? Some of the replies we are receiving in this regard indicate that Cami Bey was the president, and others indicate Tokadizade §ekip Bey, and still others mention the mayor of Izmir, Hasan Pa§a. In view of this, on days when meetings were being held, were there interim presidents chosen from amongst those who were present? If this is the case, who was the permanent president, or were there resignations, constantly requiring the election of new presidents? 4. Is the Society for the Rejection

of Annexation

different from

Society for the Defense of Ottoman Rights? If it is different, who established this society and what did it do? Is it possible to find the manifesto issued the night of the occupation? If available, could you kindly provide it? 5.Who were the gentlemen who sent telegrams to the provinces? Is it possible to obtain a copy of this telegram? How was permission obtained from Governor izzettin in order to send these telegrams from the Izmir Telegraph Office; who obtained the permission? 6. Was an Islamic congregational organization brought about in Izmir? If so, was it before or after the occupation? Were Muftus from the provinces brought over by the Society for the Defense of Ottoman Rights performing this duty by forming (C'emaat-i

islamiye) Islamic

Congregational

organizations when they returned to their native provinces? If services were performed by the Islamic Congregation of Izmir, what were these services? 7. What, if any, incidents were occurring at the sites of Greek and Armenian establishments before the occupation, during the occupation, and subsequently what antagonism was demonstrated by these groups? 8. During the occupation, what was the conduct of battleships and transport ships, how many were there, at what intervals and with what precautions did they proceed and how did they manage to disembark? During this time were the enemy ships anchored and were they in any way demonstrating that they were supporting the occupation? Or had they docked

314

BY

THE

LIGHT

OF

A

CANDLE

one or two days in advance, aft to shore? During this time what were the Greek and Armenian exuberances like? In other words, is it possible to establish as vividly as possible that tragic scene? 9. If the massacre was personally witnessed, what incidents took place? At the time, were there witnesses to murders committed elsewhere as well? 10. W h a t kind of official or private accounts were there at the time regarding the type and nature of crimes committed by the Greeks in Izmir and the number of our citizens killed during the early days of the occupation? In an attempt to conceal from foreigners at least some of our martyrs, the Greeks likely burned their corpses or disposed of them in other ways; is it possible to obtain any detailed information in this regard? 11. It was observed that shortly after the massacre some American consular officials came to the districts where thousands of Turkish citizens were gathered and taken prisoners of w a r , and that these

gentlemen

demonstrated a genuine concern for the protection of the Turks. Likewise, we gather f r o m the communications coming in f r o m foreigners, that following the cessation of the rain which fell during the massacre, the Americans flew their flag over the municipal hospital, in order to gather the dead and wounded in the hospital, and that they took photographs of all the dead, which raises the question as to whether there was active intervention on the part of the Americans to prevent the massacre, or were these gestures carried out after everything had occurred. Therefore, is it possible to further elucidate these very important historic aspects'? 12. What was the effect upon the indigenous Greek population of tzmir, as well as the Greeks in general, of the Odemi§ battle of the 'firing of the first shot', the restitution of Aydin, the Akhisar, Ayvalik and Ahmetli battles? 13. Would the Greeks bring the remains of their soldiers killed in the battles in the provinces, to izmir and what would they do with them? 14. During the course of the occupation what other important events took place in Izmir? 15. We would appreciate detailed information about the patriotism and sacrifices of Rahmetullah. the M Lift Li of Izmir, 16. What might have been the thoughts or objectives of izzet, w h o was the Governor of Izmir at the time of the infamous occupation? What should be the judgment of our future historians regarding this Governor? If you have any opinions in this regard, on what evidence are they based? 17. Can you identify by n a m e t h o s e e n l i g h t e n e d citizens

who

demonstrated patriotism and made sacrifices during the days of the occupation, their contributions and the nature of their proposals? W e would appreciate receiving the addresses of those w h o may still be alive.

A LAND

WORTH

DYING

FOR

315

18. What was it like when izmir was finally united, as had been anticipated, with it's brave army and glorious flag? If you have any impressions of that exciting and sacred event, would you kindly give some examples. 19. How did the enemy forces bring about the fire in Izmir which suddenly poisoned the atmosphere after the infinite joy and jubilation brought about by the happiness of liberation, and how were they punished? * *

*

Ragip Nurettin bge 7 Bagba§i Sokak, Erenkôy, Istanbul November 28,1946 Directorate of the Odemi§ Public Community Center I received on the twenty-sixth of last month your kind letter conveying your graciousness in remembering me. Two holidays and some family matters that intervened have delayed my answer till this time, for which I apologize. I am in a position of being able to provide answers to only some of your questions. I believe I will be able to provide some sources or authorities for those questions to which I cannot respond directly. On account of the many years of service rendered in Izmir and the surrounding area by my father Dr. Abdurrahman Nureddin Bey, I spent my childhood sequentially in Nazilli, Tire, Manisa and finally for the longest duration in Izmir, and therefore consider this region my native homeland and love it as such. Our departure from Izmir came about around 1912, due to my pursuit of higher education and my father's transfer. During WWI in which I participated as a reserve officer and subsequently during the period of the armistice, while establishing and organizing the The Society of Reserve Officers, I had heard that, like every segment of our country, Izmir and its surroundings were also the object of foreign ambitions and that in response, the Izmir Society for the Defense of Ottoman

Rights

had been established. Since those responsible for this

endeavor were my very dear childhood friends and neighbors from the Arab Finn district, they remembered me and invited me to come to head the organization and bring about some order in its agenda; naturally I accepted and responded in the middle of March 1919. This is the time at which I got actively involved, although the organization had been established and functioning for quite some time before my arrival.

BY

316

TUB

LIGHT

OF

A

CANDLE

Now I will try and respond to your questions: 1. I cannot remember who the governor was at the time I arrived in Izmir. But during the occupation the governor was 'Hunchback' izzet and since it is unlikely that the governor would have changed during this short interval, one must a s s u m e that this izzet must have c o m e to Izmir s o m e time previously. Having said that, you could obtain the most accurate answer to this question from Moral 1 Halit Bey of Izmir w h o established the Society the Defense

of Ottoman

Rights,

for

paid for all its expenses out of his own

pocket and was truly drained in every respect; w h o insisted on this undertaking, gathered others around him, and called me to i z m i r . This gentleman would be the person w h o could provide the most accurate account of events of the time. Because truthfully, the individual w h o created this organization, carried it along, nurtured it and after the occupation continued the activities of this Society

for

the Defense

of Ottoman

Rights,

which

relocated to Istanbul, is the same Halit Bey. Almost all of the individuals w h o s e names appear in accounts of these events at certain

intervals,

accompanied Halit Bey at varying times but then left. Halit Bey was, from the beginning to the end, in charge of this matter and worked day and night, physically and mentally in the true sense of the w o r d . Consequently you should be able to get information from him about Nurettin Pa§a because at the time I had heard that he had had ongoing discussions with the Pa§a. 2. I've known Bishop Hristos T o m o s since my childhood. He was one of the most senior Greek Bishops of Izmir. I used to hear about his political activities. But I am unable to provide any specific response to your questions. 3. As I referred to above, you should be able to find out everything f r o m Morali Halit Bey who single-handedly initiated and then maintained this movement. After I saw first hand how hard this devoted young man worked to recruit people and collect money at the time, once order was restored and 1 saw and heard from all the so-called altruists, I laughed heartily at the time. 4 . A s I have prev iously written, the Society

for

the Defense

of

Ottoman Rights had been previously established and was functioning. Shortly prior to the occupation, they had held a meeting in izmir and had taken some decisions regarding their organization and activities. A t this time as 1 was running around busily writing and sending members some printed material, I was only able to attend the meetings sporadically and spent much of my time elsewhere. Therefore I am unable to say anything about the conduct or the presidents of the meetings. Halit Bey could possibly provide these answers with relevant documents.

A

LAND

WORTH

DYING

317

FOR

As for Rejection of Annexation, this was not an organization; there was no such thing. On the night of the occupation, while telegrams were being dispatched here and there, I made it up in lieu of a signature. In order not to use a personal signature in a matter of such importance and of national significance, I thought of it and made the decision on my own. In other words, there was no such established organization in izmir at the time. There were only an odd fellow by the name of Ragib Nureddin, behind the title of the National Committee for the Rejection of Annexation, changed to Annexation

- which was shortly

Rejection National Committee - hidden behind the

screen at the Turkish Hearth, below the Haci Hasan Inn, and the hundreds of youths and citizens who came running excitedly from all corners of the city to receive orders and instructions from him. That night the Turkish Hearth had turned into a beehive. At this time, as a possible reply to your fifth question, I will try and record my recollections of this sad event. " 14 May 1919 - something was going on; some news was trickling out. Finally the matter could no longer be concealed and the news of the impending occupation of Izmir exploded like a bomb amongst us. On our way to the telegraph office to dispatch to European governments the long telegram submitted under the heading of the Society for the Defense

of

Ottoman

Rights, and written in French by Muvaffak Menemencioglu, we saw the quay along the harbor at the Kordon overflowing with Greeks. My companions went towards the telegraph office while I parted and headed for the municipal offices. I wanted to see the officials and find out a few things. Everywhere all the shops and markets were closed. On the sidewalks I saw some arrows in chalk. The municipal offices were shut as well. There seemed to be no one left in the streets. I found small groups of people congregated and talking in some of the coffee-houses, at the military coffee-house in front of the barracks, and in government square. I approached and listened to some of the groups made up of figures familiar to me. The majority view was that an exhausted nation that had just emerged from the war had no strength left for any other resistance. Leading to this conclusion was a long and loud discussion of the culpability of the CUP. Some friends heading towards the barracks changed their minds when they came across Colonel Kazim Ozalp Bey. They were going to Abdiilkerim Pa§a, but they turned back when they saw Kazim Bey; I couldn't hear their conversation. Confronted with this stunning and indecisive, not so much indecisive but rather negative situation, I had made up my mind. Adopting a defeatist attitude was unthinkable. It was imperative to somehow engage in some action and show some resistance. Even in the absence of leadership, it would be very critical to raise an out-cry, to take some precautions and to arouse a response in the rest of the country, and thereby to

318

BY

THE

LIGHT

OF

A

CANDLE

bring about some resistance. Consequently it was essential to get to work immediately. And for this it was necessary to gather the elite citizens around Kemeralti and the vicinity, at some meeting place close by, such as the high school building, in order to reach a consensus and take some action. And this we did. We urged everyone we encountered by calling out, "There's a meeting at the high school... Come on, we're all going... We are all meeting there..." and words to that effect. Many came as far as the clock tower and even to the school door but then turned back and walked towards the Kordon; I couldn't figure it out... With what seemed to be a strange and incomprehensible hesitation, they were turning back. There wasn't a big crowd at the high school. Everybody seemed to hesitate as if something was expected from them. Those that had entered the class-room just stared at each other. I waited, anticipating that someone amongst those present would speak. But no one seemed to have reached a decision or had anything to say. Thereupon I went up to the lectern and started to talk. 1 briefly summarized the situation and then came to the nub of the matter and tried to explain that this occupation could not be accepted with our hands tied; that such weakness would be an inauspicious tragedy; that the rest of the country could never remain indifferent to the tragic fate that would befall izmir; and consequently that any resistance shown by us would immediately rumble like an avalanche, bringing about a resistance in the whole country. In particular, for us to refrain from resistance meant that the whole nation would be reproached and reviled the next day; a response to our resistance could always be organized, which I repeated and upon which I insisted. In summary I told them that the Turkish Hearth had been set up as the headquarters for the resistance and that everyone should report there to determine what steps would be taken this evening. No one else spoke and everyone dispersed in silence. Amongst those dispersing, I could hear insidious references to "unionist maneuvers... a unionist so and so..." wafting away. While listening to these words with a cool head, 1 felt tormented. I asked myself... In this land there are pa§as, soldiers, high-ranking officers, governors, etc, etc.. Amongst all of them, what could my ideas of resistance mean? When all power was in their hands, what would I be able to do on my own? What orders did they receive? Did they really receive anything? Had they reached any decisions? All of these queries were a source of anguish for me... My whole being was focused on these issues... But there was nothing else to do, and deciding to proceed till such time as I found a better alternative to pursue, I pulled myself together with determination. While passing through Kemeralti, I was calling right and left to everyone... "A decision has been reached... We're getting ready for resistance... get your orders from the Turkish Hearth... Don't stop... Off to work..." I kept muttering on my way.

A LAND

WORTH

DYING

FOR

319

It was quite late and darkness was beginning to settle in. The first thing to do was to let the whole country know, and in order to do this we had to take control of the telegraph office which was under Governor Izzet's control. I immediately prepared a draft telegram. I don't remember the exact text of this telegram. I didn't see it in any of the newspapers published at the time. I faintly recall that somehow having escaped the censors it appeared in Suleyman Nazif's (Hadisat) Events News paper, where I recall seeing it. The text of the telegram with 95 % accuracy read something like the following:

They are giving izmir to the Greeks; we are full of suspense and apprehension; all our hopes are with you; be prepared to join the national army! This was the only telegram. Mazhar with glasses, a recently discharged reserve officer took it to the telegraph office. (The two friends who ran errands with me that night whose names I remember are the two Mazhars. One of them was Little Mazhar whom I have known for a long time and who practically lived with me and the other was the other Mazhar who took the telegram. These fellows acted as my aides-de-camp. I didn't see the latter Big Mazhar again but Little Mazhar was always with me. He hid me in Izmir, and then through a circuitous route brought me to Basmahane and saw me off. He is probably in Istanbul at the present. At one time he was in Ankara and was the private secretary of Cami Baykurt Bey, the Minsiter of the Interior). Pretty soon Big Mazhar returned, saying the telegraph operator wouldn't accept the telegram and was waiting for orders from the Governor. I sent the telegram to the Governor with one or two of the folks who were there. They returned a little later; the telegram had been sent. I remember very well, Governor izzet had added: "maintain your dignity and calm" and gave permission for it to be sent. So it was for the first time while signing this telegram that I used the term National Committee for the Rejection of Annexation as the signature; I thought it more dignified to leave the signatories to this great national cause anonymous. The Turkish Hearth was like a beehive, there was no end to those coming and going; I didn't let anyone sit for too long and immediately assigned duties and sent them off. These duties were the following: 1. Maximum activity would be maintained throughout Izmir all during the night, and everyone was to congregate in the Jewish Cemetery, above Bahribaba, which I had designated as the gathering place. 2. Prayer calls from the minarets would rouse the population, and special funeral prayers were to be chanted all through the night. 3. All the village drummers were to take part in this process.

BY

320

THE

LIGHT

OF

A

CANDLE

4. There would be bonfires in the Jewish Cemetery and the crowds would be kept occupied. 5. Anyone capable of bearing arms would be armed and sent towards the interior. 6. Very early in the morning there would be a meeting held and a declaration of protest would be drafted and distributed to the foreign consulates. By holding such a meeting in the cemetery, my intention was to create an opportunity to demonstrate to the British and American warships in the harbor, and as per the Wilson Principles, the overwhelming majority of the Turkish population. And in a declaration I prepared that evening which was printed and distributed widely, I emphasized that point. A friend by the name of Re§at who worked for the Anatolia newspaper took the draft and made copies at the Turkish Hearth, which we distributed to everyone who came to the Hearth and sent them around the city. The text of this declaration is as follows: Oh wretched Turks... Under the humanitarian guise of the Wilson Principles your rights are being usurped and your honor is being violated. It has been said that the Greeks in this area constitute the majority and that you will happily accept annexation by Greece. And consequently your beautiful land has been handed over to the Greeks. Now we ask you... Are the Greeks greater in number than you? Do you accept Greek sovereignty? It is time to speak up... All your brothers are at the cemetery... Show up in the thousands and demonstrate to the whole world your overwhelming majority. Declare and prove it!! Here there are no rich or poor, no educated or illiterate but only an overwhelming majority who do not want Greek rule! This is your most important duty. Don't hesitate; sorrow and regret are of no use! Come in the hundreds, in the thousands and take your orders from the National Committee The National Committee for the Rejection of Annexation [A copy of this declaration has appeared in (Tiirkiye

Cumhuriyeti

Tarihi 1918 1944) The History of the Turkish Republic 1918-1944 written by EnverZiya Karal.]

A

LAND

WORTH

DYING

FOR

321

Fig. 26. Declaration of the Rejection of Annexation. At the bottom written in Ragib Nureddin's handwriting: "Date of Distribution 14/15 May 335/1919, Wednesday/Thursday" W e hear that people are gathering in the cemetery. I tell them to keep the fires burning. T h e fellows say they're tearing down a structure there and burning it to keep several fires going. The sounds of the drummers and those chanting and calling the faithful to prayer get closer and closer and then farther and farther as they move through the district, izmir is living through a day, or rather a night, of pandemonium. Amidst the commotion, the day dawns. At

322

BY

THE

LIGHT

OF

A

CANDLE

one point we heard that ihe arms depot had been opened, that weapons had been removed and that the prison had been evacuated. Just before daylight I go to the cemetery together with friends who were at the Hearth. We didn't find it as crowded as we had anticipated but there was a significant gathering. There were a few ships in the harbor; there was an American ship as well and they communicated by flashing signals all night. Finally the day is dawning. The declaration we prepared last evening is being read and then will be distributed to the consulates in Izmir in the form of a protest. The gist of this protest is: izmir is Turkish. It can't be given

to anyone; those who want to seize it will end up with nothing but an owl's nest in their hands! As I was reading this aloud, the mayor Hasan Pa§a was passing by in his car. I told Little Mazhar to call out to him to leave his car and come, but I'm not sure whether he came or not. However Muftii Rahmetullah was with us and recited a long prayer. We all said "Amen..." amidst our tears. After this we decided that everyone should retreat towards Seydikoy so we dispersed. I thought it appropriate to remain in izmir for a while and returned to my hotel. This was the Asya Hotel on the street parallel to Beyler Street. I hid there for a while. But when I learned my name was mentioned in the Greek newspapers and I was being pursued, with Mazhar's help I hid in the home of an acquaintance of his by the name of Firdevs Hanim in the Damlacik district. I hid there for fifteen days. On a rainy day, concealed under an umbrella and through the back alleys I came to Basmahane and from there I left for Istanbul by train, in the compartment of French soldiers. This is the end of my story. So you see, I am not in a position to respond to your other questions. Because I know nothing. Because I was in hiding, I had no contact with the outside world and my only concern was to find a way of escaping. Therefore I will leave your remaining questions unanswered. With my warmest greetings Gentlemen, I wish you success in your recently undertaken aforementioned endeavor. January 11,1947 Addendum: The reason for this long delay in my letter, which I started on November 28th is the following: I have not recorded anywhere my memories of that night. However, I had been writing articles from Istanbul for the (Yeni Adana) New Adana newspaper and following the liberation of Izmir, I took advantage of the situation to write up my impressions of that evening. Since this was only three years following the events, and assuming

A LAND

WORTH

DYING

FOR

323

my recollections would have been more accurate, I have been trying to locate a copy of that article and consequently my response to you has been delayed. As yet, I have not heard from them so their archives may be incomplete and they may be unable to find it. However, if I should locate the article and if the contents vary from what I have reported to you, you can be assured that I will let you know. ***

The copy of an article written by Haydar Riigtii appearing in his Anatolia newspaper: What I remember is as follows: 14th of May, between 3 - 4 pm I was sitting in the coffee-house adjacent to the barracks with Muhami Sadik, lawyer Hayrettin, Mahmut Re§at, teacher Selahattin (who committed suicide during his term as the Uskiidar Deputy in the first parliament), and a few other people whom I can't remember at the moment. Commander Nadir Pa§a and a few officers left the Governor's mansion and were heading for the barracks. We asked Muhami Sadik to ask the Commander for news, since he had that authority at the time. He was able to communicate with the Governor and the Commander. Sadik spoke with the Commander in front of the gate of the barracks for about five minutes. On his return he reported that the Commander said "Don't worry, everything is alright". However just as recently as May 12th and 13th, we had heard from the Americans, through §erif Remzi, that Izmir would be occupied by the Greeks and that the occupation forces were in Midilli getting ready for the occupation. We sent Sadik Bey to the Governor. The Governor apparently said that in anticipation of the terms of the armistice, Greek forces would only occupy Yenikale on behalf of the allies. This news aroused our suspicions. We went to the Turkish Hearth. There we discussed bringing together the elite and notables of the area to hold a meeting. At this time it was suggested that the meeting should be held in a neutral venue such as the high school. Those civil servants and elites in the area who had heard of the meeting at the Turkish Hearth had gathered and together we went to the high school. I remember that the former Superintendent of Education Ahmet Naili, Morali Halit, Muhami Sadik, Mahmut Re§at, teacher Selahattin, lawyer Hayrettin were there. Sadik said the occupation was a certainty. Lawyer Hayrettin asked those present what should be done. Ragip Nurettin suggested it was important to have the already established Society for the Defense

of Ottoman

Rights involved in the

matter and that by calling everyone to the Jewish cemetery a meeting of protest would constitute a national response.

324

BY

T HK LIGHT

OF

A

CANDLE

1. The meeting to be organized would appear to be under the auspices of the Society for the Defense of Ottoman Rights. 2. A declaration would be immediately drafted and distributed to the population, inviting them to the meeting to protest occupation and annexation. A committee was selected to write this draft and Ragip Nurettin and Morali Halit were on this committee. They returned to the Turkish Hearth to write up the declaration. The declaration was written at the Turkish Hearth. Muhami Sadik and Morali Halit had it delivered to the mayor Haci Hasan Pa§a and members of the Society for the Defense

of Ottoman Rights (X) and

others, to ensure that they would be at the meeting to be held at the cemetery that night. It was printed at the Anadolu Printing-House, which was on Beyler Street at the time, and with the help of the paperboys it was widely distributed by midnight. After nighttime prayers, drums were beaten, the night watchmen called out and everyone was invited to come to the cemetery. There were bonfires in the cemetery all night and meetings were held. I don't know who was or who were responsible for these activities because once the declaration was printed, I locked up the printing-house and together with the late Necati, we went through the fields of the Katipoglu hills to watch the adventure unfolding at the cemetery. What I mean to say is that neither I, nor Necati were present at the meeting in the cemetery. One can conclude from this that: I. Those who lit the bonfires in the cemetery are presently unknown. II. There would not have been a gathering in the cemetery if the Rejection of Annexation proponents had not printed and distributed the Declaration. III. Haci Hasan was brought to the meeting from his home and under duress. None of the other Defense of the Rights of the Ottomans members came. Who the speakers at the cemetery were has not been established. It is certain that a Protest Committee was set up there and it was decided that very early the following day they would go to the consulates and protest against the occupation and annexation. §erif Remzi reminds me that this committee consisted of the Mevlevi §eyh Nurettin, Haci Hasan Pa§a, Tokatizade §ekip and §erif Remzi who, while on the way to the European quarter where the consulates were located, were turned back at the Kantar police station, due primarily to the enthusiastic crowds watching the Greek naval ships.

A LAND

WORTH

DYING

325

FOR

The 'Rejection of Annexation' declaration was most likely composed by Ragip Nurettin and written down by a reserve officer by the name of Mehmet Bey who had been discharged and was in Izmir at the time, likely working as secretary at the Society for the Defense

of Ottomans

Rights.

This M e h m e t

Bey was working as a cashier at the i§ Bank head office in Ankara a few years ago and may still be there today. He should be contacted. T h e telegrams informing the other provinces that izmir was being occupied and that the population of izmir rejected this were possibly not identical to the declaration distributed within Izmir. It could have been just a s u m m a r y of the declaration. And possibly these telegraphs were signed (Committee

or Society

Annexation).

But it is certain that the declarations distributed in Izmir are

or National

Committee

for

the

Rejection

of

identical to the one submitted. Through the mediation of Muhami Sadik Bey who was held in esteem by Governor izzet, and through a combination of request and possibly threats generated by the demonstrations in the cemetery, an order was extracted and these telegrams were thereby accepted by the telegraph office and subsequently dispatched. R a g i p Nurettin was once Superintendent in charge of elementary education in the Ministry of Education and later served as Inspector of Turkish Students. He may now be in some high position at the ministry. (X) The members of the Society whom I remember were MevlevT §eyh Nurettin Efendi, Tokadizade §ekip, Morali Halit, Muhami Sadik, and §erif Remzi. ***

The 'firing of the first shot' alluded to in the following account refers to fire opened on the Greek soldiers who landed in izmir on May 1 5 , 1 9 1 9 , by a Turkish journalist by the name of Hasan Tahsin (1888-1919). In this first phase of Greek occupation which lasted more than three years and extended over a large part of Western Anatolia, which came to be known as the GrecoTurkish War (1919-1922), this first shot fired led to inter communal rioting and the killing of many people, including Hasan Tahsin. ***

326

BY

I HE

LIGHT

OF

A

CANDLE

Directorate of Odemi§ Public Community Center 7/2/47 No: 32 Dear Mr. Nurettin I ge. W e have received your esteemed writings and thank you for your graciousness and compliments. I read your lucid text over and over again and it is not possible to describe the awe and gratitude I felt as I was taking notes. T h i s account, which will constitute a very valuable d o c u m e n t in preparing our modest book, has already enhanced and adorned our history file. A s we convey our gratitude for your exalted kindness, we plead that you avail us of all possible assistance till our task is completed. Ali Orhan ¡lkkur§un

Osman Yiiksel

Director of History Museum

Director, Public Community Center ***

Last letter from Ali Orhan ilkkur§un, Mr. Ragip Nurettiri Bge Bagba§i Sokak, Erenkoy, Istanbul Most esteemed Ragip Nurettin Bey, T h e modest book entitled The First Dark Days of the National

Struggle

and the Firing of the First Shot which we have been working on for the past few years, had been prepared some time ago. When the opportunity arose not long a g o , I took it to Ankara to have it printed. Since Celal Bayar, Hakki §evket and Refik §evket were involved in these events to a significant extent, I went to them as well. Celal Bayar who was aware of our undertaking in this regard and who had kindly provided his oral account, had expressed the wish to see the finished product and particularly parts relating to him, so 1 took it to him first of all. He kept it for some time and I believe he read through it. Then Hakki §evket Be_\ kept it for a while. A h m e t Rifat K e m e r d e r e , the current principal of the Police Institute had played an important part in the

A LAND

WORTH

DYING

FOR

327

events of the firing of the first shot and through his recollections, further light was shed on aspects of these events. Since he insisted that the work should be illustrated, in order to obtain further information in this regard, as well as to address other perceived deficiencies, I returned to Odemi§ and the file remained in Ankara. Under the circumstances it goes without saying that what came first to mind was your valuable photograph. I must record here with my feelings of eternal respect and gratitude that our modest book has achieved its value and honor from your recollections, which are a lucid record of our history. It is on this account that the real history of the National Committee for the Rejection of Annexation could be written in full and accurate detail. I have included the entirety of your memoirs, augmenting your account with those noted by Kazim Ozalp and Haydar Rusdi, the owner of the Anatolia newspaper, regarding the Committee for the Rejection of Annexation. Thus this important event has taken shape in a manner, which our future historians can accept with complete confidence, for which I must congratulate you. I consider it my duty to include your autobiographical sketch, which I read with great admiration. And since I myself am a reserve officer, I confess it gave me great pleasure to do so. Since I was in the midst of the massacre on the day of the occupation, that bloody scene has been recorded in all its painful detail. To determine the repercussions throughout the Aegean Provinces of the telegrams you dispatched from Izmir to all corners of the country the evening of the occupation, telling the population to get ready to join the national army, I enquired from all the Public Community Centers. Through the enlightening responses I received from many of them, the overall situation of the country at the time has been clearly displayed. Since I personally supervised and managed the response to the firing of the first shot, that event recorded as a memoir has also been documented in full detail. Most esteemed Ragip Nurettin Bey, Although there are some records on file regarding the meetings convened at the Istanbul University auditorium and other meetings held at Vefa (High School) and in Sultan Ahmet, mainly through the initiatives of the youths from the Aegean region at the time, since these are not very detailed, the anxieties associated with those dark days have not been well elucidated. Although we gather from having heard from different sources and know that these were of great importance and especially that the Sultan Ahmet Meeting was an enormous event the like of which had not been seen in our history, naturally it is not possible to record these events based on such hearsay. If you personally were present and lived through these important

BY T H H

328

LIGHT

OF

A

CANDLE

events and would be kind enough to offer us your assistance in this regard, I will write them up and dispatch them to Ankara to be added forthwith to the pages already on file. With your permission I must however inform you that there is a possibility that this work may be printed imminently so our time is limited; consequently I request with my deep respects that a photograph of you from that period, as well as your valuable writings, be sent to me as soon as possible. 25/1/1951 (Signed) Ali Orhan llkkur§un *

*

*

No other response lo this latest correspondence is available. In Ragib Nureddin's account of events surrounding the defense of Izmir, he mentions hiding for a fortnight in the home of the friend of Little Mazhar and then on a rainy day escaping through the back streets and boarding a train, in the compartment of French soldiers. As children we were told that he was actually disguised as a woman wearing a flowing skirt and a ^ar§af (shawl covering the head and shoulders) to facilitate his escape from Izmir. At the time it had been widely reported that he had been captured or killed. As soon as he returned to Istanbul, he wrote the following brief note to Nezahet Nazmi, dated June 9, 1919: "Cognizant of the effect upon those who know me of some rumors based on misinformation I wish to confirm my good health and well-being..." Within two months Ragib Nureddin undertook another mission, combining the idealistic aspirations of finding a site for a model farm for the Villagers as well observing first hand and documenting the national struggle for independence and the torture inflicted by the Greeks upon the Turks. These activities will be detailed in the 1919 Diary and in an interview which appeared in ( i f l i a m ) Elucidation newspaper under the title The Nationalist Resistance Movement in Aydin. It is worth noting that the 1919 Diary was printed by Agop Matteosian, an Armenian citizen committed to keeping the nation supplied with diaries over these decades. The notations are in Ottoman Turkish and French, retaining the Rumi dates iri addition to the Gregorian calendar that had become the standard. In addition to the prayer times noted for each month, at the back of the diary is a page for recording telephone numbers, which was a significant development since the earlier diaries. There are also some very useful tips such as on some conversions, gardening, how to preserve eggs, how to concoct inexpensive tooth powder and how to extinguish a fire.

A

LAND

WORTH

DYING

FOR

Let us now join Ragib Nureddin on his next adventure.

Fig. 27. Cover of 1919 Diary.

330

BY

THE

LIGHT

OF A

CANDLE

Diary - 1 9 1 9 August 20

Wednesday

Departed from Istanbul via the s/s Yoriik and arrived in Bandirma at four o'clock. August 21

Thursday

Hoping to catch the train tomorrow, I spent the night as Ihsan's guest. August 22

Friday

Departure from Bandirma - I almost couldn't find a ticket. Thanks to §akir, I found a 3rd class ticket. Traveled on the platform. After running into Vasif in Balikesir I was able to travel 2nd class till Akhisar. August 23

Saturday

Efe is leader of a group of west Anatolian zeybeks, Turks from southwestern Anatolia who wear a traditional costume and dance to music of a specific rhythmic pattern Arrival in Akhisar, afternoon departure and arrival in Golmarmara. I was a guest at the headquarters of the Nationalist Independence Army. Haydar Bey, Head of the National Committee Tahir Bey, Mehmed Efe and followers. Two photographs. §evki Bey is the new commander. August 24

Sunday

I'm in Salihli. Evidently I have missed the train. I'm heading for Ala§ehir tomorrow. August 25

Monday

Departure atl 1:00 pm, destination Ala§ehir. Ran into Salih Vecdi at the station; together went to Madam's hotel. August 26

Tuesday

I'm in Ala$ehir. We went to the thermal springs. Edhem and his group received their orders. Salih, Hacim and I were left on our own. An official meeting was held and m\ recommendations were discussed by the congress.

A

LAND

WORTH

DYING

FOR

Fig. 28. Ragib Nureddin, with the Efes and Zeybeks (above) and with the General Forces (below)

BY

332 August 27

IHH

LIGHT

OF

A

CANDLE

Wednesday

Salih and I left Alasehir and came to Salihli. August 28

Thursday

I'm in Salihli for the second time. We arrived at Salihli with the 2:00 am train. There was a skirmish between the Poyraz, Re§id and the Edhem forces. We spent the night merely dozing. There were noisy skirmishes till three o'clock. The locals intervened. There were four casualties with two on each side. August 29

Friday

After bidding farewell to Yusuf, Re§id and Edhem Bey, Salih and I left for Bozdag. After journeying through difficult terrain and lovely valleys we arrived at two-fifteen; reminded me of Switzerland. A few days amongst the armed zeybeks, Mestan life, (Avci) Hunter Mustafa, Mustafa Ali, Karaerkek. August 30

Saturday

I'm in Bozdag. I got up at ten in the morning and shaved. We took a short walk around. Before lunch I took photographs of Mustafa Bey, Mestan Efe and the cavalry zeybeks who were going to Salihli. Towards five o'clock we started climbimg Bo/.dag with Salih and friends; the two of them stayed behind, Salih and I made it to the first peak. I took a photograph of Salih. We descended pretty late. Wt retired at midnight. August 31

Sunday

Edhem and Re§id Bey

These notes indicate the areas under the control of the

Nationalist

Forces Salihli front, Mersinli Dere, Yara§li, Kapanizade farm are empty; Sart is ours. Gediz, the Odemi§ front, Milas, Mustafa Bey, Mestan Efe, Subatan, the Lob Bey plains are ours. Golciik, Ovacik, Akfakmak, Almacik, the Birgi stream, Kavak, Kemer, Dokuzlar, the Ceviz field, the Kadin stream are ours. The Adagide front, Gokcen, §akir Efe, Kaymakca, Balyanbolu is on our side. Bademli is neutral, Bey Dag, U9 Yol, the peaks above Fatalar, Tire, the Aydin front, Haci §ukrii, Demird Efe, Yoruk Ali Efe, Domalan, Omiirlii vertically and as far as Menderes is ours.

A LAND

WORTH

DYING

FOR

333

Notes August 31

Sunday

We slept quite late. I awoke at ten. Mustafa Bey and Mestan Efe had gone to Salihli, so we were alone in the room. We got up at eleven. Before lunch we went as far as £ a v u § ^e§mesi. After lunch we passed the time in pleasant conversation. We then went up to Yediler. We stayed till quite late and chatted with Salih. We returned via Dereboyu. Mustafa had returned from Salihli and brought some medicine (likely raki). The two Ismail Efes, Mustafa Efe, Saadettin, Salih and 1 drank and chatted till quite late. September 1

Monday

I'm at Bozdag. In the morning I wrote the protest to be delivered to the Greek Command. In the afternoon Salih, Cengiz and I had photographs taken of us in zeybek costumes; thus this wish of ours was fulfilled... Later on Salih, Mehmed, Cengiz and I were climbing to Almacik when the two of them stayed behind. We proceeded and saw the stunning panorama of the Odemi§ plains. September 2

Tuesday

We got up at ten. We wrote out the clean copy of the memorandum to be delivered to the members of the War Crimes Investigation Commission. It was pretty overcast towards evening so we didn't go anywhere. We have postponed the Golciik trip till tomorrow. Salih and I made an excursion towards Degirmenler. In the evening we found some medicine. Salih and I chatted till quite late at night. September 3

Wednesday

I'm at Bozdag. Notwithstanding our plans for going to Golciik, we were awoken by a big thunderstorm and rain. We puttered about till noon. At two o'clock Salih and I decided to go, come what may! Going through Teke and Ovacik, we reached the Golciik mountain range and witnessed a gorgeous view. We then descended to the front and spent some time amongst the troops. We went up to A l m a c i k to look for the pistol but couldn't find it. We returned along the stream. Had some fun in the evening and then to bed.

September 4

Thursday

I'm at Bozdag. We spent a quiet night. In the morning I thought of returning immediately to Istanbul in order to deliver the war crimes, etc., documents to Izmir. However I was too late and changed my mind. Salih and I walked about and ate some walnuts. In the afternoon we took Mustafa along on an excursion in the meadow. We're departing tomorrow. Salih will be coming as far as Ala§ehir. Thus I'm living the last day of an unforgettable week I spent in this unexplored land.

A

LANR

WORTH

September 5

DYING

FOR

335

Friday

In the morning we were woken up by Mustafa's pebbles. T h e horses were barely saddled by ten o'clock. Salih is going to Ala§ehir on assignment, which makes me very happy. I obtained a certificate from the Efe; it will be a historic memento. W e chatted away as we descended. It was pretty cold. We had coffee at Allah Diyan. There is a freight train in the evening, which we're planning to take. W e went to the Headquarters and discussed the situation with Re§id Bey. W e ate dinner and climbed into a huge freight car. A t Ala§ehir we had a drink in anticipation of the train. I parted f r o m Salih and rolled about till morning amidst great pandemonium!

_ ... te s

•I i

*

»

J»»

»

-.-I

"

if

*

.

«* m m 0

-

** »•»•Ji*

Fig. 30. Document from Mestan Efe

**

i

336

BY

THE

Bozdag September Front

LIGHT

4, 335/1919;

OF

A

Command

CANDLE

of the Bozdag

National

Detachment This certificate

hereby

detachment

and the Committees

Annexation,

all considerations

requests

that on behalf

of National

Operations

of our

national

and Rejection

be shown Ragib Nureddin

of

Bey, who as

President of the Izmir Society for the Defense of Ottoman Rights has been carrying out duties in this region. Signed: Commander

of Bozdag Front National

Detachment

Postlu

Mestan (Postlu Mestan was killed on June 28, 336/1920 on the Nazilli

front

during an exploratory expedition. RN)

September 6

Saturday

Kurban Bayram

I'm at U§ak at seven in the morning. Everyone is at prayers. I located the hamam and had a good wash. I got myself a room at the (Merkez) Central Hotel. It seems Cengiz arrived yesterday. He's going to be surprised when he sees me. I looked for him but apparently he has left again. I walked about the city and towards the station. While returning, I ran into Ibrahim Bey. He took me to his home. We walked about under a full moon. I had a comfortable night. September 7

Sunday

They woke me up at eight-thirty. After breakfast we went to the General Forces Headquarters. I sent telegrams of greeting to my mother, Naci Bey and Ferid. I stayed at the headquarters till evening. We ate quite late. I decided to return with the one o'clock train and took leave of Ibrahim Bey. Hilmi Bey and I walked around. We went to the restaurant and had a drink; actually we drank too much! We departed for Afyon in second class. The locomotive broke down and we were left sitting on the siding. September 8

Monday

We're still on the siding, waiting for a locomotive from U§ak. It finally made it. After a long delay, we arrived in Afyon. I found inceoglu Hamid at the station. We came to the Safa Hotel. And before long we went down to the station. §efik Bey and I bought tickets; I got off at Alayunt and finally came

A LAND

WORTH

DYING

FOR

337

to Kiitahya. It seems everything closes in the evening. I was nearly going to starve, but fortunately I found something to eat. 1 immediately retired to my room at the Anadolu Hotel and went to bed. I must have fallen asleep at once. When I opened my eyes I realized I had slept for ten hours. September 9

Tuesday

As discussed earlier, (Koyciiler) Villagers were a group of idealistic youths, members of (Turk Ocagi) Turkish Hearth who planned to set up Utopian villages in rural communities, headed by volunteer youths, as a means of educating and training the local peasants in order to improve their standards of living. This movement was subsequently supplanted by other initiatives. The carriage drivers came. I hired Molla Hiiseyin for three liras and toured the city. I went to the tile factory. I sent a telegram to Ferid et al. At twelve o'clock noon I set off. It rained some and I entered T a v § a n h as the evening prayer call went out. Re§id and HayatT had come to meet me. Together we came home. The mayor Mustafa Bey together with Vahidi Bey of the local notables, came as well. We talked till eleven-thirty. I went to sleep in a clean bed. Finally I am amongst Koycii brothers! September 10

Wednesday

Telegrams to mother and Adnan Bey

I woke up at eight-thiry in the morning. I went downstairs and got washed and waited for the rest of them to wake up. They finally got up. After breakfast Re§id and I went to Muymul and returned together. We had a late lunch. After chatting a bit, they went to see patients and I wanted to take a nap but couldn't sleep. I was about to go out when they returned. Together we went to see the woman with gangrene. I couldn't stand it and left to join Hayati. The mail had arrived from Bali Baba. We returned home, read newspapers and chatted. September 11

Thursday

In the morning, after breakfast I took a photograph of Hayati. I went for a walk around the market and came back. After lunch I wanted to take a nap but they wouldn't let me and we spent time discussing the matter of the land. Towards five o'clock Ferid and I went to M e y h a n e Bogazi at Bali Dede; Re§id was waiting for us. We ate corn in the shade. Hayati and the rest joined us. We then went to B a l i k l i . We talked with R e a d ' s stepfather; then we slowly ambled home.

338

BY

September 12

IHH

LIGHT

OF

A

CANDLE

Friday

Last evening I spent some time with repairs and laundry; 1 went to bed quite late. I didn't go an\ where all day. Towards seven o'clock we went to the Gobel hamam and fooled around in the pleasant warm water till eleven o'clock. We returned and had dinner. We then made music upstairs. We talked about the land. Today my nice, new watch took a bath as well! September 13 Baglama plectrum;

Saturday

is a folk instrument

a bozuk is a form of folk

with three double strings played

with a

music

Apparently toda\ is the Tav§anli market. In the morning Hayati brought the baglama he had promised Re§id. The chap he brought with him plays very well it seems. So we listened to a lovely bozuk. I then walked through the market. After lunch I napped for about an hour. In the afternoon we went to the vacant lot all together to determine our prospective property, and marked the borders. Ferid isn't feeling very well and immediately went to bed. We were alone at dinner. Then we chatted for a while in Ferid's room and eventually dispersed to our respective beds. September 14

Sunday

Ferid came downstairs for breakfast but then went back to bed. I spent the morning at home. After lunch I went to the government offices. At ninethirty the horses were ready and we set off for Beykoy. Everything was ready. I sensed that the feast had been prepared in response to the miller's story. We returned home at five o'clock under a full moon. Tomorrow I'll be going to Emet. A mule was hired for two-and-a-half liras. September 15

Monday

I picked the clover in Suliye

I woke up at eleven-thirty in the morning and got ready. I roused Miinire Hamm and she made coffee. It was nearly one o'clock and there was no sign of anyone. Finally everyone got up and we had breakfast. Apparently the gendarme and the mule were waiting for me at the government offices. So we sent for them. After piling some blankets on the saddle, it was two o'clock when we set off. After crossing the plains, the valley of the £ortlen stream we entered was full of wild fruit. That took a while too. We had a rest in Suliye.

A LAND

WORTH

DYING

FOR

339

After passing through the valley of the Ceviz stream, to which the piles of basalt give a terrifying appearance, and the Derengi valley of the brigand clashes, we met up with Fazil and Mustafa at ten o'clock. Amazement and cries of joy!... The isa Bey stream... At night conversations with the principle and Hiir§id Bey.

Fig. 31. Clover picked in Suliye September 16

Tuesday

I spent a comfortable night and woke up late in the morning. Today was a historic day for Emet. Of the sons of Okan, the famous brigand, Mustafa was killed within the city and Hiiseyin captured alive. Jubilation and congratulations all around! Hiiseyin is a skinny thing and Mustafa's corpse was kicked around by everyone. We watched the goings on. Together with Bekir Efendi we toured the battle site, where the capture took place, the summit of the hill and the Ilica villages. We were alone in the evening. Since Mustafa is leaving early tomorrow, we went to bed early. I read my book and it was six o'clock when I went to sleep. There were sounds of jubilation and celebration all around.

BY

340

September 17

THK

LIGHT

OF

A

CANDLE

Wednesday

We got up early in the morning. Mustafa was ready. Others came by. I took a photograph but since the light wasn't right, it didn't turn out. But a little later I took two photographs of the gendarme and brigands which kept me busy. Chatted with Fazil in the evening. September 18

Thursday

Today we were invited to Hasan's place. We had arranged to go at eight o'clock in the evening. However it was ten o'clock by the time we got ready, the horses were saddled and we departed as a group. It was t w o hours to Hasan's home. W e spent the night at Hidayet Efendi's home. Native songs and dances at night. September 19

Friday

W e couldn't sleep very well and got up early. I took photographs of Fazil in native costume together with Hidayet Efendi's sons. After an early breakfast I went to the Y enice hamam with the major. It was very hot and we had a good bath. At ten o'clock we came to Yenice K o y . Haci Halil made it possible f o r us to visil s o m e of the old houses. W e had a pleasant conversation with Cinci Hoca. It was late when we returned to Emet. September 20

Saturday

I'm departing tomorrow for certain. I stayed h o m e till noon. A f t e r breakfast I took a nap. At ten o'clock I went to the top of the little hill and took a photo of Emet. Then I stopped by Fuad Efendi's vineyard and ate some grapes. On my return, I spent the rest of the time chatting with Fazil. September 21

Sunday

A t mid-day I mounted the mail horse and bid farewell to Fazil. O n c e more I trotted through wild terrain and beautiful scenery and arrived at T a v § a n h by nine o'clock It seems Mustafa is here as well. After a brief rest we went with Re§id and Ferid to explore our prospective land. If only the place had some water... We returned quite late. Apparently Hayati had called for me. I went to the Haci Kadi home. From there we went and had dinner at the home of Zeytunzade hmin Efendi.

A LAND September 22

WORTH

DYING

FOR

341

Monday

I woke up at three in the morning. After breakfast I spent the rest of the day at home. In the evening Mustafa, Ferid and I went looking for Mehmed Aga's vegetable garden and ate some melons. We returned via A d a . After dinner we heard a lot of shots fired. Its possible the brigands who came down to Gundiiz Bey Koy had invaded the city. Kutahya has been occupied by the National Independence Army and munitions have been recovered from the English. September 23

Tuesday

We got up as usual. We received news that the tracks beyond Kutahya have been blocked. In the afternoon we went up to the mountains with Re§id and Ferid. Late in the day we found water in the valley. We were ecstatic and delighted at having found a site for our future home! We returned late and were caught up in conversation about our farm and village. September 24

Wednesday

In the morning we thought of going to our prospective property and to start clearing it. Just as we were leaving with Re§id, they called for him from Ba§koy. There was no alternative but to go with Ferid and Mustafa at four o'clock. The distance to the city is exactly 3225 meters. We ate dinner. We searched for water in the streambed. We returned at eleven o'clock. At night the mayor of Soma, Haci Bey, apparently arrived from Kutahya. He's leaving tomorrow. We briefly visited with him. September 25

Thursday

In the morning Mustafa and I went to Hayati. The Soma National Independence Army left from the inn. In the afternoon we went to our plot with Re§id and Ferid and walked all around. We took measurements, etc.. When, in the evening, we discovered all this land was part of the f u k u r Koy grazing pasture, we were bitterly disappointed! At night we went to Haci Kadi. We were hoping to discuss our objectives but since the family were present, we didn't broach the subject. We ate some melon.

342

BY

THH

September 26

LIGHT

OF

A

CANDLE

Friday

I sent my shoes to be repaired so I stayed home all day. We all had a rest. In the evening Haci Kadi and his family were our guests at dinner. After dinner I broached the subject of the land. We calculated that at ten kuru§ a bushel, a threshing machine could bring in three-thousand liras. September 27

Saturday

The tracks have re-opened. Mustafa is leaving tomorrow. He is overjoyed! The car, etc.. were prepared. The boil on my neck is beginning to bother me. September 28

Sunday

In the morning Fend and I suddenly decided to go to the Kalin Agil watering hole. After an arduous journey, we reached Vahdt Bey's farm in threeand-a-half hours. We had lunch and ate some melon. We departed at two-thirty and arrived home by seven. We were quite exhausted. Mail had arrived from Istanbul. We read the newspapers. Ferid likes the wooded property but I'm not so keen. I went to bed at ten. September 29

Monday

The boil on my neck was lanced and I felt quite faint. I went to the government offices and visited Hayati. And we ate a melon. In the afternoon I had an operation on the back of my neck. I spent the rest of the day at home and we discussed various projects concerning our future property. September 30

Tuesday

I woke up quite early in the morning. Towards noon the dressing of the surgical site on my neck was changed. Later in the afternoon we went with Ferid to the Koca Cay river, sat on the shore and played backgammon. On the way back a fire seemed to have started and shots were fired. In the evening Re§id and I drew up the main outlines of our village project.

A LAND

WORTH

DYING

FOR

343

Notes I had left Istanbul for ten days. Today it will be one month and ten days, and I'm still at Tav§anli. I'm happy that we've established the initial outlines of our future endeavors. As for my mother, who knows how worried she must be... However, she is always very forgiving... October 1

Wednesday

In the morning Ferid and Re§id were getting ready to go to Kalin Agil; I was planning to go but it wasn't to be. We left altogether. We found some yogourt at Zeytunzade's sheepfold. The hunters gave us a rabbit. We followed the stream. We didn't like the look of the land so we returned and stopped by Geldir. Every day I'm getting to like it more and more over here. In the evening the nationalists, including ishak Bey, Rafet Bey and Muzaffer Bey came by. October 2

Thursday

In the morning I walked about the market; then I stayed home all day. In the evening I went to Ada on my own and strolled around in the sunset. I returned along Koca Cay. After dinner I went to Haci Kadilar who had called for me. I stayed there till quite late. October 3

Friday

In the morning I went to the government offices. The commission made up of town elders evidently was discussing the distribution of the 8,250 liras allocated to Tav§anh. After lunch I took a nap at home. At nine o'clock I went back to the government offices. We mounted horses and went to D e d e l e r . We returned quite late. We heard the news that the cabinet had fallen. October 4

Saturday

Today is the Tavjanli market. At the same time T h e National Independence Army is putting on a demonstration. We had lunch at Haci Kadilar. The September 30th issues of (Vakit) Time and (ileri)

Forward

arrived. The nationalist army and local volunteers started from Bali Dede and marched through the city, accompanied by fife and drum. I was invited to Haci Kadilar in the evening. At two-thirty Ishak and Mustafa left in pursuit of brigands.

344

BY October 5

THE

LIGHT

OF

A

CANDLE

Sunday

I spent the whole day at home. The Gobel feast had to be postponed since colleagues hadn't returned from the pursuit. Mail arrived from Istanbul so we read plenty of newspapers. October 6

Monday

Out of the clear blue and following the suggestion of the Kazan migrants we arranged to go to Hamidabad in the morning. We left the house at four-thirty, arrived at eight-thirty, left at nine-thirty and were back at home at ten past one. They had called for us from Haci Kadilar so we went there. Mehmed Efendi and Rail" 1 f'endi had arrived. They are admirers of Enver (Pa§a), of which I heartily disapprove! The nationalist organization is being destroyed. Let's see whether we can prevent it... October 7

Tuesday

In the morning I went as far as the government offices. Mehmed Efendi was there. The court case of the former judge was in progress. I came home for lunch. Late in the day I went up to Bali Dede and walked around on my own. On my way home I ran into Muzaffer so I stayed there for a while. Ishak went home and returned. We stayed there till quite late. October 8

Wednesday

Together with Haci Kadizade Mehmed Efendi we strolled around Kelepir and inspected the surroundings. Mail arrived in the evening. I don't feel too well. The weather has turned cold. October 9

Thursday

At the government offices today there is the ceremony of the reading of the governmental declaration. I also was asked to give a speech but since there wasn't much of a crowd, I declined. We've invited the mutasarrif home so we got ready. We waited till one-thirty. We started to eat. Finally he arrived as well. We had a pleasant conversation all together till six o'clock

A LAND October 10

WORTH

DYING

FOR

345

Friday

I didn't leave the house all day. Re§id swabbed my throat with iodine and ruined my day! The mutasarrif left. In the evening I mounted the horse and went to Gobel where I had a good bath. At four-thirty I returned home. October 11

Saturday

In keeping with our decision yesterday, today we went by horse to the Dogan Arslan, Melek §ah and Viran villages. We looked over the area. While returning we stopped at Kayi Koy on account of the rain. In spite of the heavy rain and storm, we hardly got wet. We came home at twelve o'clock. At night we worked on the projects concerning our future village. October 12

Sunday

Our departure today was postponed. We spent time at home all day. The mail arrived. Ferid cleaned my teeth. In the evening friends were invited to Muymul; I didn't go. October 13

Monday

Return to Kiitahya

I got up early in the morning and got ready. The horse was also saddled with some difficulty. At two o'clock we bid farewell and were on our way and at the clover field we turned towards the mountain. After stopping at the headquarters in Qamlica, I came to the city. Siileyman Bey turned out to be the gentleman I knew quite well. I spent the night at Izhak's home. Necati came as well. October 14

Tuesday

I got up quite early in the morning. After Necati and I had our milk, I shaved and got myself together. I spent the rest of the day at the National Independence Army headquarters. Siileyman had the ear of one of the brigands cut off. I boarded the five o'clock train to Alayunt. We waited quite some time for the train from Konya.

BY

346 October 15

THE

LIGHT

OF

A

CANDLE

Wednesday

We're proceeding in the state of sleeplessness so typical of train journeys. Close to Akhisar the locomotive broke down. At ten o'clock another locomotive arrived and is now transporting us. A f t e r a long journey and a meeting with Hamdi in Izmit, at seven-thirty in the evening w e arrived in Istanbul. I reached home by the company motorboat and tram. Everybody was amazed! I sense that everyone is annoyed with me... A journey intended for ten days has thus ended two months later!

The Nationalist Resistance M o v e m e n t in Aydin T w o fronts - Amongst the efes and zeybeks - At Akhisar and Salihli A description of some Turkish heros - Bounderies of the occupation IFHAM - 22 October 1335/1919 Statement by Ragip Nureddin Bey, General Secretary of the Izmir Society for the Defense of Ottoman Rights: Approximately two months ago Ragip Nureddin Bey, the General Secretary of the Izmir Society for the Defense of Ottoman Rights, had gone to Anatolia. He returned to Istanbul after a very busy two-month trip. As soon as we saw him, naturally our first thought was to ask him about everything he saw and heard. In order to share with our readers the memories and explanations conveyed by our friend, we are reporting our interview below. Ragip Nureddin is one of our long-time nationalists who. while pursuing his education in Switzerland some time ago, established the Lausanne Turkish Homeland ***

- We heard of your return f r o m Anatolia. Will you share with us what you saw and heard while you were there? - During my last trip it was possible to visit many parts of Anatolia. What would you like me to tell you about? - For example w hat you saw in the Province of Aydin, which you were specifically interested in.... and about the Nationalist Independence Army there. - No doubt no one in the world could have imagined that in this u n f o r t u n a t e country, a frontier would be established and that Turkish nationalist forces would be in face to face combat with Greek soldiers, in such a beautiful corner as the province of A y d i n , which has been eternally Turkish,.. But unfortunately today this deplorable adventure is a reality.

A LAND

WORTH

DYING

FOR

347

It is a situation beyond comprehension. For example in the Papasli village of Manisa, or in Ahmedli or Birgi, etc., two battle frontiers thirsting for each other's blood have come about, and are waiting... Not just waiting, but ready for a slightest sign... And there should not be any shadow of a doubt that this sign must be a decision by the Peace Conference to bring about equity and justice, as well as words to the effect to "render unto Caesar that which belongs to Caesar". Otherwise I wonder who will bear the responsibility of the blood that will be shed and the hearths that will be destroyed. - Should we not be optimistic about the impartial and compassionate assessment of the Investigative Tribunal, which has been traveling through the area and witnessing events first hand? - Sir, please don't misunderstand me. I am convinced and assured that the members of the respected Tribunal are performing their duties with extreme nobility of spirit and impartiality. However our enemy is so arrogant and so bold that while the Commission was still in Aydin, the cries and laments coming f r o m the Odemi§ and Bayindir prisons reached our ears in Bo/.dag. The cries of our brothers who are being subjected to incomprehensible cruelties are rising to the heavens. For example a child of fourteen years, Emin Efendi, son of Sara? Haci Ismail Efendi of the notables of Birgi, was subjected to such deplorable torture just because his older brother was in the Nationalist Independence Army. As for his buddies?... And so my friends, all this was going on in the Bayindir and Odemi§ prisons while the Investigation Commission was in Aydin. - What were your impressions of your time spent amidst the Nationalist Independence Army? - My friend... I could say unequivocally that the days I spent with the Nationalist Independence Army were the happiest and most hopeful minutes of my life. While rushing to make it to the Ala§ehir Congress, starting at Gol Marmara in Akhisar, I was very close to the frontier. Due to an unavoidable delay in Gol Marmara, when I was the guest of Tahir Bey and Haydar Bey at their headquarters, from the overall situation expressed by Mehmed Efe and his friends, who came to welcome me, as well as from events going on in the area, I understood very well that I was face to face with the bitter truth. We were no longer in the valley of poetry and illusion but had entered the land of life, truth and action. The same was true in Salihli. While visiting with Re§id Bey and Ibrahim Bey in the mansion that was their headquarters, Yusuf Bey's pleasant conversations conveyed the same spirit and apprehension. When I went up to Bozdag, this sense was further reinforced. You have no idea what moral lessons I learned from these energetic and honest folks who do not

348

BY

I Hh LIGHT

OF

A

CANDLE

hesitate for a moment to confront their enemies in the mountains facing the beauties of the Odemi§ valley. These efes and zeybeks who once were more or less opponents, have now united as one around a sacred cause. If you only knew what a gentle and mild tempered, shy fellow is their leader Mestan Efe. And Mustafa Ali Efe who doesn't seem to take things too seriously, and who, while out on a mission with a force of ten, can easily handle an enemy force of one hundred, which suddenly appears before him. Hunter Mustafa... a stocky young man of twenty-five, who always has a smile on his lips. As the name he inherits from his father suggests, he is an unbelievable marksman... Dark Zeybek never smiles... But he is a pure young man with no ill will in his heart. Ismail [Miirsel], a valuable efe, who spends all he has on his followers and so far has claimed nothing from the Nationalist Independence Army till. As for ismail [izmir], he is a brave lad who loves to keep the tips of his mustache always curled! Of these characters who constitute the dynasty of Bozdag heroes, Dark Zeybek, and Ismail |izmir| are followers of Mestan Efe. There are cavalry and infantrymen attached to the others as well. Sir, one can witness amongst these folks the concept of collective resistance so well expressed by the French. Do you know what these brave lads, who laughingly relate the most difficult skirmishes, who happily run to the most dangerous duties, and who return with an air as if nothing had happened after hours of battle and exhaustion, inspire in one? Determination and faith! I recall with extreme appreciation and respect Sarafoglu Salih Efe, who continuously struggled with great effort in this land of bravery and valor, without realizing someday would come when his name would be recorded in history. With such modesty in appearance and manner that wouldn't yield a hint to anybody, it is this Salih, who got word of the atrocities and tragedies perpetrated by the Greeks before they reached Odemi§, gathered his friends, and for the first time - even before Ayvalik - stood against the enemy and caused the first armed revolt to burst forth. But unfortunately at the time luck was not on his side. My dear friend, I have come across many people in Istanbul who can't c o m p r e h e n d the concept of a nationalist military. "How can this simultaneously coexist with the regular army?" they ask. For their sake, please write the following; if they can't believe in an organization with its commander, general staff, transport branch and lines of communication, in summary everything supported by the nationalists, and which has received nothing but obstruction and torment f r o m the government, if they can't believe it, let them go and see for themselves. Their troubles will not be in vain.

A LAND

WORTH

DYING

FOR

349

- Could you give us some information about the present situation of the Greek occupation forces? - Here you are... please record the following. When I was departing from the frontier, the situation was as follows. Salihli or the Sart frontier, Mersinlidere, Yara§li, the Kapantzade Farm is between the two frontiers and is unoccupied. Sart is in the hands of the nationalist forces. The Odemi§ and Kelesi frontiers; Subatan, Lop Bey plains and Golciik, Ovacik, Ak Cakmak, Almacik, the Birgi stream, Kavak, Kemer, Dokuzlar, the Ceviz plateau, Kadin stream is on the border, about to be reclaimed by the nationalist forces. The Ada Gide frontier: Bademli being in between and unoccupied, Bey Dagi, U§ Yol, and the heights above Fatalar are in the hands of the Nationalist Forces. The Tire and Aydin frontiers: Domalan and Umurlu are separated by the boundary that descends straight down to Menderes. My friend, don't ever forget that all this formality, all the difficulties endured, all these troubles and obstacles, all the blood being shed, is nothing other than the expression of the rightful and legitimate demands by the Turks for justice from the civilized world.

BY

350

TUR

LIGHT

OF

A

CANDLE fW

4 * L *

C J S +*

,

$

j « ^

L>* ¿aj* a

jr J t T i - S

J t a „ «mj-»

¿ t j u ^ i i j ^ .

i*'4

¿ i W yiu , ¿1 ¿ . i u y

>¿.1 dt.

**

*

y.fitf^ixf,

.xfj>«r:

« J j W t Ji1

..>*/ ¿ - i ^ J j ^ - . ¿ L i j w J W

» < »

*

¿¡¿¿S** ¿ ¿ ¿ I

«1

^

J j W ^ » - « ^¿ t J ^ l T . J u a - U .

•t JC ^

Ji-i

jtf

j u .

cvi» J *

....

...

.i.*Jjk#

ßjc

¿C wi-i

j f -

a *

.jaVj^j^jr^jWjc.™ ¿ W W

4 » tfiji . . . J 4 . ^

«-Jr

*

z1—"

aV.

¿Ajtuj.^ vSbJtwJ i

^

J

. j u « /

¿m

J3f

3

¿f J X.'

J*

Fig. 32. / / ^ a m newspaper Introductory section of the article on the Nationalist Resistance Movement in A y d m .

V. CALLED TO THE COLOURS

EPILOGUE

Let us pause briefly and ponder the following moment captured in Ilyas Ragib's diary entry for July 14,1915: "...The companies were ready. Naci Bey gave a speech that ended in a very stirring scene. He asked for all those with a brother in the army to stand up and most of us stood up; all those with a relative in the army he said and everyone stood up. He couldn't contain himself and started to cry. It was really very moving. We sent the troops off in the care of Allah and returned to the tent...." A very somber reminder of the sacrifices called for. The diaries and documents have revealed a small part of what took place during this tragic chapter in the history of the Turkey of today. Through these pages we have traveled to many remote corners of Anatolia, accompanied a group of young men through their trials and tribulations in the service of their country, met different personalities and witnessed varied events. Ragip Nurettin's collection includes some photographs of unidentified officers (Fig. 33) who undoubtedly were amongst those who stood up when called upon by Naci Bey and played a vital part on the stage of the events just concluded. These photographs represent the very many officer comrades-inarms who served their country with self-sacrifice, idealism, and loyalty and we honor their memory with gratitude. And not to be forgotten are those unnamed thousands who left no photograph behind, identified simply in the kiinye defteri, wearing just rawhide sandals on their feet, carrying their heavy ammunition and hard-tack on their backs, trudging ahead, freezing in the trenches, and finally laying down their lives. We wish to honor the memory of all those whose steadfast courage served as the foundations of a new nation. It is very likely that Ragip Nurettin, with youthful energy noting the historic events unfolding around him, sent his 1915 Diary to his agabey with §akir (15 July 1916), because he recognized that the records he had kept constituted a valuable document. He may have intended some day to share his experiences with a wider public. If he had personally written this book, his first hand account would have been so much more detailed, informative and colorful.

Fig. 33. Photographs of some unidentified officers f o u n d amongst Ragip Nurettin's collection.

CALLED

TO

THE

COLOURS

355

However, immediately following the war Ragip Nurettin resumed his career in education, first in Istanbul and then in Adana as Principle of the High School for Boys and subsequently as Superintendent of Education in the southern provinces. In 1927 he was called to Ankara and appointed General Inspector of Elementary Education, a portfolio that also included foreign language schools, which had been established by missionaries over the preceding centuries, primarily to serve the minorities. Ragip Nurettin and Nezahet Nazmi were married in 1930. Far f r o m dwelling on the tragic events of two decades earlier, they were engaged in a spirited effort to convince the new government of the Turkish Republic to send students to the United States of America, where their horizons would be expanded by an Anglo-Saxon education. He was appointed the first Cultural Attache of the government of the Turkish Republic to the United States of America in 1933 where he served in New York until the onset of WWII, where the story began. He continued his career in education until his death in 1960. Thus he never embarked upon a personal memoir, other than his recollections regarding General Naci Eldeniz and the Defense of Izmir. In a way, during those early years of WWII, I was being entrusted with the duty of bringing to you Ragip Nurettin Ege's WWI Diaries and personal testimony to subsequent events during a pivotal time in the history of modern Turkey. With Dr. Edward J. Erickson's collaboration, which has enriched this account, it has been an education and a pleasure fulfilling my duty.

Giine§ N. Ege-Akter Toronto, Canada, 2008

APPENDIX

Turan and Turanism - S o m e events and changes which took place within the Ottoman Empire during the 19th C gave rise to the currents of 'Turkic Unity, Turanism or pan Turkists'. - After the French Revolution, the ideas of nationhood or nationalism took hold amongst the Christian minorities such as the Serbs, the Bulgarians, the Greeks and the Albanians - The establishment of independent nations based on national identity - The tendency of the Muslim population to become estranged from the Ottoman Empire - The migration to Anatolia of the Turkish peoples oppressed in the territories lost by the Ottomans. - Statesmen were beginning to think in terms of the establishment of a constitutional government in which the people had a say. - Pressure upon the Turks from the Europeans - The contact of Turkish youths with Europe and the wider world community The Doctrine of 'Turkists started developing during the reign of Sultan Abdiilaziz. (1861-1876) The search for a national geography, history and language fuelled the academic and emotional side of this endeavour. The word 'Turk' began to have some significance, and pride was felt in pan-Turkism. The belief by statesmen I hat the Turks should constitute the foundations of the Ottoman nation and should be protected by them formed the political aspect of the movement.. However, at the o f f s e t , the movement dependent pretty much on personal initiatives. During Sultan Abdiilhamid's reign (18761909) the pan Turkist concept developed in the fields of language, literature and history and

was accepted by the enlightened,

intellectual citizenry.

Mehmed Emin Yurdaktil's poetry was widely published and w a s admired. Turkish youths who were outside the country in various European capitols, were vocal in defending the Turks against the critics. On the other hand, intellectuals, such as Y u s u f Ak§ura and Ahmet A g a o g l u f r o m the Turkic territories within the Russian Empire promoted the idea of "Turanism" or the gathering of all Turkic peoples around the Ottoman state. In 1909 (Turk Dernegi) The Turkist Association was established and started publishing a journal. B y 1912 the association had been transformed into the (Turk Ocagi) The Turkish Hearth and started promoting its views

357

APPENDIX through the publication known as (Turk Yurdu) Turkish Homeland.

While

the idea and ideal of uniting all the Turks was an important part of the pan Turkist m o v e m e n t , gradually this ideal was relegated to the long term and instead the Turkist objective of uniting, developing and strengthening of the Turks within the borders of the Ottoman state gained popularity during the period of the Second Constitutional Government (1909-1918). Although Pan-Turkism in the sense of the uniting of all Turks was supported by the Ctte of Union and Progress | C U P | during W W 1 , nothing positive was achieved, despite the fact that Enver Pa§a personally went to Turkmenistan to pursue these objectives. T h e concept of pan Turkism or Turkish nationalism constituted by the Turks within the Ottoman empire and based in Anatolia gained popularity through the ideas of intellectuals such as Ziya Gokalp and was an important factor in the formation and establishment of the Turkish Republic. * From: Veli §irin; Anahatlariyla Siyasi ve Kulturel Osmanh Tarihi, Marifet Yayinlan Istanbul 1996; pp 154-155. ***

Turan Prayer Oh great God, bless with health the Turk Bless all brothers with a leader Grant the Graywolf saviour to rally an exalted nation New Turan, o beloved land Pray tell, how do w e reach you Our noble ancestor Oguz calls us Oh great God, shed light for the Turk Brighten up the path of Turan, may hearths come alive May all nooks and corners glow day and night.

GLOSSARY

A aga :

term used to denote the lord or master or a local landowner; it may be used to address an illiterate person,

agabey:

used to denote specifically an older brother

amer:

an alcoholic drink, bitters

â§ik:

a musician singer

ayran:

a drink made by diluting yogourt

B baklava:

sweet pastry made in a big tray out of numerous layers of very thin dough, spread with butter, with ground walnuts in the center and a thick syrup poured over it. It is usually cut and served in diamond shaped pieces.

baglama:

a folk instrument with three double strings played with a plectrum also referred to as Eid, denotes a religious f e s t i v a l such as festivities observed immediately following the month of Ramadan called (Seker Bayrami) Candy Festival, the commemorations during Hajj of Kurban Bayrami or the Feast of the Sacrifice, or national festival,, in celebration of the establishment of the Republic which is also called a Bayram.

Bayram:

Bey:

denotes 'Sir' or 'Mister' and comes after the name.

Beyefendi:

term used to address a gentleman, or in lieu of his n a m e , while addressing him

bozuk: bôrek:

a folk musical inbstrument similar to a lute. can be considered the savoury equivalent of baklava, where cheese mixed with parsley or spinach, or a filling of ground and onions are spread in the middle of multiple layers of dough, spread with butter and whipped eggs. It is baked in a big and cut up in squares for serving, a folk musical instrument similar to a lute

bozuk:

feta beef thin tray

C, Q §arik:

rawhide sandals which constituted the f o o t w e a r of the infantry during WW1

§erkes tavugu: Circassian chicken made with ground walnut and bread mixed with chicken broth to make a thick sauce which is spiced with paprika and spread over small pieces of chicken and served cold. §orek:

savoury pastry made individually out of dough, stuffed with feta cheese or ground beef, painted with eggs and baked in the oven

G LO SS A RY D dag: E Efendi :

359

mountain

gentleman, master. Note it is the second part of the word 'beyefendi'. the call to prayer from the minaret of a mosque, which can be heard in the vicinity of the mosque. The time of the ezan changes over the course of the year in keeping with the phases of the sun.

F fasi]: finn: G gazel: girnataci:

a concert program or performance, all the works of which are in the same mode public oven; each village had one and families could bring over their trays of food-stuffs to be baked.

lyric poem of a specific pattern the player of an instrument very similar to a clarinet

H Haci: hamam:

one who has been to Mecca and performed the rituals of the pilgrimmage which is one of the five pillars of the faith of Islam, public bath-house, allocated for the use of men or women on different days.of the week. Attendants are present to scrub clients, inn

han: hammjiammefendi: the courteous way of addressing women, helva: a sweet prepared with sesame oil, various cereals and syrup or honey. hoca: teacher; if capitalized as Hoca it means a muslim teacher, one versed in religious teachings ho§af: a desert made by stewing fruits with added sugar and usually had with pilav.

I, i Irmak: iftar: imam: imam suyu: in§allah:

river, stream. meal taken at sundown during the month of Ramadan the one who leads the faithful in prayer, conducts marriage ceremonies and funerals probably a euphemism for raki an expression very often used, implying that what is wished for might be fulfilled with the Grace and Will of God

K kadayif: kâhya:

a type of pastry not unlike shredded wheat wrapped around ground walnuts doused with butter, baked in the oven and soaked in syrup a steward or caretaker

360

BY

THF.

LIGHT

OF

A

CANDLE

katik:

anything thai is added and eaten with the basic dietary constituent

kaymakam:

head official of a district and therefore person of authority,

of bread kaymak, kurukaymakxlotted cream f r o m buffalo milk which is literally solid and can be cut with a knife, kebab:

roasted or grilled meat

kilim:

woven matting or rug without a pile,

kôy:

village or countryside, as opposed to town

Kurban Bay rami: see Bay ram kuru§:

the Turkish monetary unit w h i c h is l / 1 0 0 t h of the lira. Not surprisingly there has been a very significant devaluation of the kuruç and lira since WWI

kuyruklu dag odunu: another term f o r 'tezek' which is dung mixed with hay and dried, to be used as fuel, ktinye:

personal

registry

entry

of s o l d i e r s . T h i s

constitutes

a brief

description of the soldier which includes rank and branch, name or n i c k - n a m e , if any, father's n a m e , place of origin w h i c h is not always place of birth, brief physical description, year of birth, date of joining the unit, important events during his stay in the unit such as awards, punishments, serious illness and when the person is assigned to another unit or dies, at which time the kiinye is closed with the date of departure and reason, ktinye defteri: log book of all the ktinye entries.

L lira:

Turkish monetary unit made up of 100 kuruç

lokum:

traditional Turkish sweet often called Turkish Delight

M Maçallah: mangal:

What wonders God has willed, Wonderful, Marvelous a brazier in which charcoal is burned and around which folks can gather to warm themselves. Turkish c o f f e e used to be made in a cezve, a small pot with a long handle, buried in the charcoals of a mangal.

mecidiye:

an Ottoman silver coin worth 20 kuru§

mevlûd :

special prayer about the birth of the Prophet

molla:

chief judge or doctor of Muslim Law

muhtar:

head man or elder of a quarter or a village

mutassarif:

Governor of a Sancak, which is a subdivision of a province. the one who calls Muslims to prayer, usually f r o m the balcony of the minaret of a mosque.

N nahiye miidiirii: governor of a township namaz:

the ritual prayer of Muslims carried out on a special prayer rug or

name:

mat, facing Mecca love poetr\

ne§ide:

popular poetry, often recited alternately by a several people.

GLOSSARY O okka:

361

weight equivalent of 2.8 lb

P

pilav:

monetary unit, l/100th of one kuruj meat pressed and cured with garlic and other spices Highest civil or military official title; the term is also used as a compliment. Turkish rice traditionally cooked in a meat broth and may contain pine-nuts and currants.

R

very strong alcoholic beverage with an anise flavor

para: pastirma: Pa§a:

raki: S, § sancak: santur: selamlik:

an administrative subdivision of a province dulcimer like musical instrument the part of the house usually reserved for men . The converse is the 'haremlik' which was that part of the Ottoman palaces where the women resided, hance the 'Harem'. simit: a circular bread dough covered with sesame seeds and crisply baked, often sold in the streets and a favorite snack of all Turks, baggy loose pants, usually made of a colorful fabric, worn by both ¡jalvar: men and women. §ekerli kahve: one has three choices of kahve or Turkish coffee; it is either 'sade' or plain which means it is very strong ; or 'orta' which means moderately sweet or '§ekerli' which means very sweet. This is the coffee which is taken in very small cups, leaves a ground at the bottom of the cup and fortunes are told by the pattern of the grounds left in the bottom of the cup after the cup has been turned upside down, once the coffe has been drunk. T tandir:

an oven made in a hole in the earth; bread and meat can be baked in a tandir and some small villages still have a similar arrangement. tezek: fresh dung mixed with hay and dried, to be used as fuel. tulumba tatlisi: a rich desert made out of dough, shaped in small cylinders with characteristic grooves on the surface, deep fried and soaked in syrup u , i) ud:

y

a lute-like instrument with six pairs of strings played with a plectrum.

362

BY

I HE

LIGHT

OF

A

CANDLE

Y yorgan: probably the original, heavier duvet made with sheeps wool instead of down. Making yorgans was an art. Every year the cloth covering of the yorgan w ould be ripped open, the wool removed and thrashed by a professional thrasher to make it nice and f l u f f y . The wool would then be put back into the cloth sac which had been washed and ironed, smoothed out and then overstitched in fancy patterns, yurt^u:

term applied to the nationalist youths of the time.

Z zavar.

a type of grain fed to livestock.

- 3 -Ö 3 3 c J3 0 c o> •c 0 X a jC c« CJ 73 3 U 73 X Ë 73 u cd Z 3 O o w .a ttC " 3 73 3 U a> > e ed S3 -C a. ¡U