Basic Anatomy For Yoga Instructors and Everyone In Between 9798642333389

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CONTENTS Basic Anatomy Bones Skeletal Systems Vertebral Column Ribcage Leg and Foot Bones Pelvic Girdle Shoulder Girdle Arm and Hand Bones Cranium Muscles Lower Leg Muscles Upper Leg Muscles Hip Muscles Spinal Muscles Abdominal Muscles Rotator Cuff Muscles Upper Body Muscles Neck Muscles Forearm Muscles Brain Nervous Systems Muscle Contractions Inhibition Foam Rolling Static Stretching Appendix A

Basic Stretches Hamstrings Latissimus Dorsi Quadriceps Chest Appendix B Anatomical Terms Bibliography

BONES Our bones have bony landmarks on them. These bumps, divots and indentations help identify specific areas and some also act as connective areas for tissues. Our bones are affected as we age by a decrease in collagen. This makes the bones more brittle. It is typical that a man will experience less bone loss than a woman, because of hormone and weight differences. Bone density usually starts to decrease in both men and women after age thirtyfive. Ethnicity also plays a role in the amount and rate of bone loss we incur as we age. After menopause some women experience ten times the amount of bone loss vs when they were in their thirties.

SKELETAL SYSTEMS

There are two types of skeletons: The Axial and The Appendicular. The Axial skeleton consists of 80 bones and includes the skull and facial bones, the spinal column and the ribcage. The Appendicular skeleton consists of 126 bones and includes the pectoral girdle, pelvic girdle and upper and lower extremities. Combined this totals 206 bones in the entire human body.

All bones fall into one of four shape categories: Long, flat, short or irregular. Most limb bones are categorized as long bones and are longer than they are wide. The scapulae (shoulder blades), ribs and sternum (breastbone) are some examples of flat bones. Typically, flat bones have some curvature. Carpal (wrist) and tarsal (ankle) bones are good examples of short bones, these bones are typically somewhat cube shaped. Irregular bones are bones that do not fit into one of the other categories. Vertebrae and facial bones are examples of irregular bones.

VERTEBRAL COLUMN

The bones make up the framework of the body. Without them we would not be able to stand tall. The four natural curves of the spine help us maintain good posture. We have 5 Lumbar vertebrae located in the lower back, 12 Thoracic vertebrae located above the lumbar and connecting above to the 7 Cervical vertebrae of the neck. The sacrum and coccyx are typically fused in adults and lie below the lumbar vertebrae where they come together with more bones to form the pelvis. The most flexible part of the spine is the neck. The cervical vertebrae are the smallest of all the vertebrae in the human body. The next largest is the thoracic vertebrae which have an area on them for the ribs to attach. The lumbar vertebrae are the largest and restricted with certain types of movement. The spinal cord runs the length of the spine and comes out the sacrum at the base of the spine.

RIBCAGE

Total we have 12 pairs (24 individual) ribs. All the ribs attach to the spine in the back of the body. Ribs 1-7 are called “true” ribs because they are attached to the sternum (breastbone) by cartilage. Ribs 8-10 are called “false” ribs and are not attached to the sternum but instead to the 7th rib. Ribs 11-12 are also false ribs but are called “floating” ribs because they only attach to the spine. There are different sizes and shapes of bones which serve different purposes in the body. Often the femur is used for leverage. The femur is the thigh bone, it is the strongest and longest bone in the body. The tibia and fibula are the lower leg bones which connect above to the femur to form the knee, and below at the foot to form the ankle joint. There are lots of connective tissue and small bones that connect to form the foot and ankle joint. The knee has four major ligaments which help strengthen and support the joint.

LEG AND FOOT BONES

PELVIC GIRDLE The pelvis supports our body and completes the spinal column. Pelvic bones are unique to each person. They are not the same shape in all women or all men. The pelvis is held together by almost completely immobile joints. The sacrum does allow movement at the pubic symphysis through connective tissue which allows the birth canal to open.

SHOULDER GIRDLE The shoulder is a mobile joint like the hip. The shoulder girdle is made of the shoulder blade (scapula) and the collar bone (clavicle). The humerus is the upper arm bone which connects to the scapula in the glenoid fossa. The glenoid fossa of the scapula is the socket part of the ball and socket joint. The head of the humerus makes up the ball part of the ball and socket joint. The humerus attaches at the other end with the radius and the ulna to make up the elbow joint. The forearm bones connect to the carpals of the hand to form the wrist. Like the foot and ankle, here are a lot of small bones and connective tissue that make up the wrist and hand.

ARM AND HAND BONES

CRANIUM The cranium, or head, is made up of immobile joints called sutures. There are many bones in the face. The mandible, which is the lower jawbone is the only movable bone in the face.

MUSCLES Without muscles and fascia our bones would not be able to move. Fascia is a type of connective tissue that together, with our muscles helps make movement possible. There are three different types of muscle cells: skeletal, smooth and cardiac. The heart is the only body part that is made up of cardiac muscle. The biceps muscle for example, or any body part you can voluntarily control is made of skeletal muscle. Smooth muscle can be found in places like the intestines and other visceral (organ) tissue. Smooth muscle contracts in response to being stretched. The rate at which the muscle tissue is stretched is reflected in the response time of the contraction. Faster stretch results in a faster contraction and slower stretch results in slower contraction. Hormones also help regulate smooth muscle. Both cardiac and smooth muscles are involuntary. Skeletal muscle is voluntary and any movement we make intentionally involves skeletal muscle. Our muscles have slow twitch and fast twitch fibers, they work together to complete tasks efficiently. Our muscles as humans are a combination of the two. Slow twitch or Type I muscle fibers respond slowly to the nervous system, take longer to fatigue and contract slowly for a long amount of time. Fast twitch or Type II muscle fibers respond quickly to the nervous system, fatigue easily and contract rapidly for a short amount of time.

We are not going to cover every single muscle in the body, but we will cover quite a few and what movements or actions they can make. For reference it is good to know that the origin refers to the beginning of the muscles attachment point and the insertion refers to the other end where it attaches. Commonly together the origin, insertion and action of muscles are referred to as OIA. The middle section of the muscle we can “see” is called the muscle belly.

LOWER LEG MUSCLES The muscles of the calf and shin originate on the leg and insert in the foot. Soleus works to point the toes (plantarflexion). Tibialis Posterior inverts the foot (brings the arch medial) and plantar flexes the foot at the ankle. Tibialis Anterior dorsiflexes the foot (pulls the toes towards the shin) and inverts the foot. Gastrocnemius and Plantaris both plantar flex the foot and flex the knee. Peroneus Brevis plantar flexes the foot and creates eversion (pulls the outside edge of the foot up). The Achilles Tendon is not a muscle but is the strongest tendon in the body.

UPPER LEG MUSCLES The hamstrings lie on the back of the thigh and originate in the hip and insert in the leg. The hamstring complex consists of the Biceps Femoris, Semimembranosus and Semitendinosus. They are bundled together and create the hamstrings. Semimembranosus and Semitendinosus work to Flex the knee and extend the hip. The biceps femoris has three attachment points and the longest one of them also extends the hip joint. Biceps Femoris also works to flex the knee and laterally rotate the knee when the knee is flexed.

The quadriceps lie on the front of the thigh and originate in the femur and anterior hip and insert on the lower leg. Like the hamstrings these muscles are bundled together to create the quadriceps. Vastus Medialis, Vastus Intermedius and Vastus Lateralis all work to extend the knee. Rectus femoris extends the knee and flexes the hip. Sartorius flexes and abducts the hip and laterally rotates the hip and the knee.

HIP MUSCLES The hip adductors lie in the inner thigh and are commonly referred to as the “groins”. Gracilis and Adductor Magnus work to adduct, flex and extend the hip. Gracilis also flexes the knee because it crosses the knee joint. Pectineus and Adductor Longus both work to adduct and flex the hip. Adductor Brevis adducts the hip.

The hip muscles originate in the pelvis. Some originate on the femur and attach further down on the femur. Some originate in the lumbar fascia in the lower back and go towards the lower body and attach on the pelvis or femur. Gluteus Maximus and Piriformis laterally rotate and abduct the hip. Gluteus maximus also works to extend the hip. Quadratus Femoris laterally rotates the hip. Gluteus Medius and Gluteus Minimus medially rotate and abduct the hip. They also work to prevent adduction of the hip. Tensor Fasciae Latae (TFL) medially rotates, abducts and flexes the hip. TFL also laterally rotates the knee. Iliopsoas is two muscles commonly referred to as one. Iliacus and Psoas Major work to flex the hip.

SPINAL MUSCLES Our spinal muscles help us to move in multiple directions, these muscles are layered deep in the body. There are several layers and different spinal muscles, these are just a few. The semispinalis muscles work to extend the spine and rotate the neck. Erector spinae muscles work to extend, laterally flex and rotate the spine. The multifidus muscles also extend and rotate the spinal column. In addition, when contracted bilaterally (both sides at once) they create extension in the spine. Unilaterally (one side contracting) the multifidus muscles side bend the spine. Quadratus Lumborum or QL bilaterally depresses the twelfth rib and unilaterally works to laterally flex the spine.

ABDOMINAL MUSCLES The abdominal muscles are part of our core along with our back. There are several abdominal muscles, these help us in everyday activities. Rectus abdominis works to flex the lumbar spine. When someone has a visual “six pack” what you are seeing is the rectus abdominis. The Internal obliques when contracting bilaterally compress the contents of the abdomen along with the Transverse abdominis. When contracted unilaterally the internal obliques rotate the trunk to the same side. The External obliques work to rotate the torso to the opposite side.

ROTATOR CUFF MUSCLES The rotator cuff muscles all lie in the shoulder and work to stabilize the shoulder joint. They are also called the “SITS” muscles. We are also going to cover their other actions. Supraspinatus works to abduct the humerus. Infraspinatus and Teres minor work to laterally rotate the shoulder. Subscapularis lies on the anterior surface of the shoulder blade (scapula) and creates medial rotation of the shoulder and adducts the humerus.

UPPER BODY MUSCLES There are many more muscles, we will be covering the main muscles. Serratus Anterior lies near the scapula and ribs and works to protract (pull the shoulder blades away from the spine) and stabilize the scapula. It is also a synergist (helper muscle) in upward rotation (pulling the bottom angle away from the spine) of the scapula. The pectoral muscles lie in the chest. Pectoralis minor sits beneath the pectoralis major and can either depress (pull down) the scapula (shoulder blade) or elevate the ribs. Pectoralis major adducts and medially rotates the humerus. It also draws the scapula forward and down (anteriorly and inferiorly). The deltoid muscle is actually one muscle, but it is typically considered three: anterior, lateral and posterior. Broken down all three act on the humerus and shoulder joint. Anterior deltoid works to create flexion, lateral deltoid works to create abduction and the posterior deltoid works to extend the humerus. The humerus has several muscles, some act on the forearm, elbow and shoulder while some act on just one joint. The biceps and triceps both have more than one attachment point. Bi= 2 Tri= 3 Biceps brachii is active in the forearm, elbow, shoulder. Biceps brachii flexes the elbow and shoulder, abducts the shoulder and supinates the forearm (turns the palm up). Brachialis flexes the elbow joint only. Triceps brachii and lies on the back side (posterior) of the humerus while the biceps brachii lies on the front (anterior). Triceps brachii extends the forearm, the long head (attachment point) adducts and extends the humerus.

Latissimus Dorsi is a large muscle that spans from the lower back area to the humerus. The Latissimus dorsi adducts, and medially rotates the humerus and extends the shoulder joint. Teres major also adducts the humerus. Teres major lies near the rotator cuff muscles. It also extends the humerus from a flexed position and protracts (pulls the shoulder blade away from the spine) the scapula. Rhomboids major and minor lie in the mid back and work to retract (pull the shoulder blades towards the spine) and rotate the scapulae. They also hold the scapulae into the thoracic wall. The rhomboid minor can also slightly elevate the scapula. Levator scapulae is a muscle which lies in the neck and shoulder. It works to elevate, retract and rotate the scapulae. It also laterally (side to side

movement) flexes the neck.

The Trapezius is a large muscle, which like the deltoid, is broken down in to three portions: upper, middle and lower. Together this whole muscle works to rotate, retract, elevate and depress the scapulae. The upper portion also works to extend the neck. Like the deltoid muscle, the different portions of the trapezius have actions.

NECK MUSCLES The neck can move in multiple directions. These muscles can also affect the jaw and ears. The Sternocleidomastoid or SCM unilaterally (one side) contracted flexes the head and neck to the same side and rotates the head and neck to the opposite side. Bilaterally (both sides) contracted it flexes the neck. The Scalenes flex, laterally flex and rotate the neck. They also raise the first and second ribs during forced inhalation. The Splenius capitis muscles extend, laterally flex and rotate the neck.

FOREARM MUSCLES The forearms have what are called flexors and extensors. The forearm flexors are engaged when you make a fist. The extensors are engaged when you open the hand and reach the fingers back. The tendons of the forearm muscles extend all the way to the fingers. The hairy side (posterior) of the arm contains the extensors, the smooth or less hairy side (anterior) contains the flexors. These sides work together to accomplish things like writing.

Connective Tissues

Connective tissue is located throughout the body in several forms. Ligaments connect bone to bone. Tendons connect muscle to bone. Ligaments and tendons help stabilize joints. Cartilage is in several different locations and in three different forms with different densities and flexibilities. Fascia covers and runs through all our muscles and is layered within the body, it is sort of like a spiderweb helping hold everything together. Connective tissues are less vascular, which means they get less blood flow. Therefore, they take longer to heal than muscles.

BRAIN The brain is divided into the brainstem, cerebellum, diencephalon and the cerebrum.

Brainstem: Connects the brain to the cerebrum. The brainstem is composed of the medulla oblongata, the pons and the midbrain. The medulla oblongata contains the pathway for ascending and descending nerve tracts. The Pons and Midbrain both contain ascending and descending nerve tracts. The Medulla Oblongata is the most inferior part of the brainstem, at its inferior end it is continuous with the spinal cord. It handles the important responsibilities of reflexes with the heart, breath, swallowing, and vomiting. The Pons is located just superior to the medulla. It is the location of the reflex

center. It relays information between the cerebrum and cerebellum. It also interacts with the airways and rapid eye movements of sleep. The smallest part of the brainstem is the Midbrain, which is located just superior to the pons. Combined, different parts of the midbrain help with many functions. Including reflexes which move the eyes, head and body towards stimuli. Auditory input that causes visual reflexes. Other parts are involved in maintaining muscle tone and coordination of movements. The brainstem has Reticular formation scattered throughout which controls many brainstem activities. These activities include motor control, perception of pain, rhythmic contractions and the sleep-wake cycle. Cerebellum: Connects to the brainstem posterior to the pons. It is broken down into different parts, together this part of the brain helps us with our balance and movements of our eyes. It also combines the control of posture, locomotion and coordination of fine motor skills to help us create smooth flowing movements. Most of the lateral portions of the cerebellum work with the frontal lobes of the cerebral cortex to allow us to plan, practice and learn complex motions. Diencephalon: Connects the brainstem to the cerebrum. It consists of the thalamus, subthalamus, epithalamus and hypothalamus. The thalamus is the largest portion of the diencephalon, making up about four fifths of its weight. The thalamus is also thought of as the sensory relay center due to the fact that all sensory information but olfactory (smell) come to the thalamus first. The thalamus is involved in visual, pain and motor function. Feelings of rage and fear are associated with the thalamus. Parts of the limbic system are connected to the thalamus through the prefrontal cortex and help to regulate mood. The part of the brain that is involved in controlling our motor functions comes from the subthalamus which is located just inferior to the thalamus. There is a small area located near the thalamus, it is posterior and superior to it and is called the epithalamus. Parts of the epithalamus are involved in the behavior of motivational control. It ties in closely with the limbic system and other parts of the brain.

The most inferior portion of the diencephalon is called the hypothalamus, parts of which are involved in emotional and reflex responses to smells. It is possible this same portion of the hypothalamus could be somewhat involved in memory. The hypothalamus is the main control for the endocrine system and is connected to the pituitary gland. The hypothalamus helps regulate the pituitary gland which secretes hormones. The pituitary gland regulates several areas such as responses to stressful situations, production of urine, reproduction and metabolism. The hypothalamus is involved in feelings of pleasure and rage, feelings of thirst and the ability to swallow and taste. It also gives us the ability to shiver and or sweat. The hypothalamus also serves as the center of control for the autonomic nervous system, which helps regulate things like heart beats, breathing and digestion. The list goes on, the hypothalamus even influences your biological clock and is the main control hub of the endocrine system. In short, the hypothalamus is involved in the emotions, sexual drive and wants to eat or drink during, before or after specific occurrences. The largest portion of the brain is the cerebrum. It is the part which appears to most as “the brain” from a visual image standpoint. Larger brains are not necessarily smarter, they match their body size and vice versa. The left and right hemispheres of the cerebrum are divided into lobes which are named respectively to the bones which protect them. The frontal lobes anterior portion is called the prefrontal cortex and influences personality and decision making. The rest of the frontal lobe is involved in sense of smell, mood, aggression, motivation and voluntary motor function. The parietal lobe is the center hub for evaluating sensory information, excluding only smell, hearing, taste and vision. The occipital lobe is not well defined from the other lobes of the cerebrum, its function is to receive and interpret visual information. The temporal lobe is important in the function of memory. It also receives and interprets auditory and olfactory information. The insula or “fifth lobe”

processes and evaluates information regarding taste. The cerebrum can override other systems, it is involved with learning and memory. Social emotions are also influenced by the cerebrum as well as behavior and the control of muscle activity and posture. Memory, thought, emotion and perception are also controlled by the cerebrum.

NERVOUS SYSTEMS The nervous system is divided into the central and peripheral nervous systems. The central nervous system (CNS) is made up of the brain and the spinal cord. The main job of the CNS is to interpret information. The peripheral nervous system (PNS) is made up of cranial and spinal nerves. The PNS sends information it gathers from inside and outside the body to the CNS.

The autonomic nervous system is divided further into the parasympathetic and the sympathetic nervous systems. The parasympathetic nervous system is the “rest and digest” system while the sympathetic nervous system causes the “fight or flight” response.

MUSCLE CONTRACTIONS Muscles have memory, they like to go back to the positions they are most often in. Once a muscle is shortened it usually takes much longer to retrain the muscle. When a muscle shortens due to frequently repeated activity it is called adaptive shortening. Our muscles will help each other out if needed. If you have a weak or inhibited muscle the helper or synergistic muscles will engage more to try to make the movement happen. This is called synergistic dominance. The Agonist muscle or muscle group is the prime mover, it is responsible for the motion. The Antagonist is the opposing muscle or muscle group. The Synergist muscles are smaller helper muscles, sometimes also called fixators, in which case they help stabilize the movement.

There are three types of muscle contractions. Concentric, eccentric and isometric. We use all three types of contractions daily when we move our bodies. Concentric contractions are when we move against gravity like in a biceps curl. The biceps muscle is in a concentric contraction while the triceps muscle is in an eccentric contraction. Eccentric contractions are controlled lengthening of a muscle, like the triceps muscle when you are bringing the arm out of a biceps curl. Isometric contractions do not involve any movement, they just involve contracting the muscle. Isometric contractions create tension of the muscle without creating any movement. During a plank exercise the abdominal muscles are in an isometric contraction.

Concentric contractions shorten the muscle, eccentric contractions lengthen the muscle and isometric contractions activate the muscle without motion.

In a biceps curl the biceps muscle is the agonist and the triceps muscle is the antagonist. In a plank the core is engaged in an isometric contraction. The muscles contract but do not shorten.

INHIBITION When there is an imbalance in the muscular system it throws off the whole body. Reciprocal inhibition is when one muscle or muscle group contracts concentrically and the opposing muscle or muscle group contracts eccentrically. It is an agonist and antagonist scenario. In an individual with no muscle imbalances when the biceps muscle is flexed (concentrically contracted) the triceps muscle lengthens (eccentrically contracts). If there is a muscle imbalance, then the reciprocal inhibition is altered, and things do not happen so smoothly. If the biceps muscle is tight it causes altered reciprocal inhibition by decreasing the signal the triceps muscle receives therefore making it less effective and causing joint dysfunction. Synergistic dominance is a result of altered reciprocal inhibition. Muscle spindles lie parallel to the muscle fibers in skeletal muscle tissue. Muscle spindles detect the change and speed at which a muscle is moving. Their job is to protect a muscle from stretching too far or too quickly. When altered reciprocal inhibition is present the muscle spindles get stretched out. That information is sent to the brain through the nervous system which typically results in excitement of the muscle spindles, so the lengthened muscle receives the signal to contract. This usually results in a feeling of tightness or micro muscle spasms. Golgi tendon organs (GTO) are located where the muscle and tendon meet. They detect changes in muscular tension and the rate at which the tension changes. When stimulated GTOs cause the muscle to relax, protecting it from excessive stress, which can cause damage. When golgi tendon organs are stimulated for a longer amount of time they cause what’s called autogenic inhibition. Autogenic inhibition is when the golgi tendon organ stimulation inhibits the signal to the muscle spindles of the same muscle. According to Davis’s law lines of stress are what soft tissue molds around

when it rebuilds itself. Basically, according to this law, the rebuilt tissue does not run along the same lines as the original muscle fibers. Typically, this results in adhesions or knots. All these things together combine into a cycle. We want to break the cycle! Stretching and strengthening can help us break this cycle.

FOAM ROLLING

Foam Rolling or Self-myofascial release (SMR) some now call it Self myofascial rolling. Whether or not someone can actually create a “release” in the fascia through foam rolling is unknown at this time so some are calling it rolling instead of release due to the fact that we can prove the benefit of the rolling aspect. There are many techniques, below you will find the technique I learned and practice myself. There are ways to change how you roll based on warming up or cooling down but we will not get into detail on that here, these are just some basics for common knowledge and to learn what happens in the body when you foam roll as suggested here. By finding a tender spot or adhesion and holding the pressure on it for at least thirty seconds we can stimulate the GTOs and encourage the muscle to relax. This is using autogenic inhibition because the golgi tendon organ is overriding the muscle spindle activity. Please know this is not an instructional book for learning how to foam roll, there are some precautions to consider before using a foam roller.

STATIC STRETCHING

Static stretching is when we passively lengthen a muscle. When the muscle is taken to the point of tension and held usually for thirty to sixty seconds. This utilizes autogenic inhibition. If you engage the opposing muscle group isometrically while you are holding the stretch, then you are utilizing reciprocal inhibition to help you in the stretch. Therefore, depending on how you perform static stretching either autogenic inhibition or reciprocal inhibition is active.

APPENDIX A

BASIC STRETCHES Before starting any physical regime please obtain clearance from your physician.

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Following you will find some basic static stretches

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Stretching should not be painful

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Static stretches are typically held for between 30-60 seconds You do not have to hold the stretch for that long if it is not comfortable ❖

It is important to maintain good posture while stretching

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Continue to breath as you stretch- Don’t hold your breath

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Stretch near a mirror if you can, to help you become aware of what good posture feels like

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If you want to make the stretch more effective contract the opposing muscle group in an isometric contraction

HAMSTRINGS

Sit on the floor with a tall spine. If you are struggling to maintain good posture place a towel or blanket underneath your bottom. Shrug your shoulders, then roll them down and back. Spread your legs apart to a comfortable distance for you and pull your belly button towards your spine. ❖

Pull your toes up towards your shins

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Isometrically activate your quadriceps (thighs) to help utilize reciprocal inhibition (to do this without moving your legs pull your kneecap up towards your hips-your quads will contract) ❖ Bend at the hip joint (find the front of your hip points with your hands and bend there) ❖

Keep your back flat as you bend forward you should feel your hamstrings stretch

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Hold approximately 30 seconds and breath with the stretch

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If you choose to reach to the feet grab the outside edges to keep good posture

LATISSIMUS DORSI

Stand tall*, pull the belly button towards the spine and press the feet into the floor. Pull the shoulders down and back to maintain proper upright posture. For this stretch we will start on one side then repeat on the other. * You can also sit and do this, just keep the hips down. ❖

Press the outside edge of the foot into the floor to engage your arches

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Engage your glutes (butt muscles)

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Pull your belly button towards your spine

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Raise your arm up away from you (abduct), roll the palm open and pinkie out to maintain posture (otherwise your shoulder will start to roll in medially)

QUADRICEPS

Stand tall near a wall or sturdy chair/couch for support. Start on one side of the body and repeat on the other. ❖

Pull your belly button towards your spine

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Engage your glutes (butt muscles)

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Start to bend one knee, when ready reach down and grab the foot

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Keep the bent leg in line (engage your groin muscles)

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Do not lock opposite knee, actively press the foot into floor

CHEST

Stand or sit down, maintaining tall posture with your belly button pulled towards your spine. ❖

Laterally rotate both arms, making an “L” shape on both sides

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Press shoulders down away from the neck

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Keep your neck in line (don’t send it too far forward)

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Pull your belly button towards your spine

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Inhale and breath into the space between your scapulae (shoulder blades)

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Exhale and pull your scapulae together towards your spine (retraction)

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Keep forearms and elbows in line with each other

APPENDIX B

ANATOMICAL TERMS Anatomical position is our reference point when discussing positions of the body. It refers to a person standing tall, facing forward palms open and forward. The midline is another point of reference and refers to an imaginary line that runs up and down the body. Superior: above Inferior: below Medial: towards the midline Lateral: away from the midline Anterior: the front of the body Posterior:the back of the body Superficial: towards the surface (skin) Deep: towards the internal body Medial or internal rotation of the shoulder: reach the hand onto the lower back palm facing away. Lateral or external rotation of the shoulder: reach the arm out to create an “L” shape Medial or internal rotation of the hip: rolling the thigh in Lateral or external rotation of the hip: rolling the thigh out Abduction: taking the body part (arm or leg for example) away from the body. Adduction: bringing a body part (arm or leg for example) towards the rest of the body. Flexion: decreasing the angle between two points. Extension: increasing the angle between two points. Inversion: pulling the arch of the foot up towards the inner ankle. Eversion: pulling the outside edge of the foot up towards the outer ankle.

Plantar surface: bottom of the foot Palmar surface: palm of the hand Dorsal surface: back of foot or hand Bilateral: both sides Unilateral: one side

BIBLIOGRAPHY National Academy of Sports Medicine. (2018). NASM Essentials of Personal Fitness Training 6th edition. VanPutte, C. (2019). Seeley's Anatomy & Physiology 12th edition . NY: McGraw Hill Education.