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ANTIQUITÉ ET S CI E NC ES H U MA INES LA TRAVE RSÉ E DE S FRONT IÈRE S
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DIRECTEURS DE COLLECTION
Corinne Bonnet Pascal Payen COMITÉ SCIENTIFIQ UE
Zainab Bahrani
(Columbia University, New York)
Nicola Cusumano
(Università degli Studi di Palermo)
Erich Gruen
(University of California, Berkeley)
Nicholas Purcell
(St John’s College, Oxford)
Aloys Winterling
(Humboldt Universität, Berlin)
ANTHROPOLOGY OF ROMAN HOUSING
Edited by Alexandra Dardenay and Nicolas Laubry
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© 2020, Brepols Publishers n.v., Turnhout, Belgium.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise without the prior permission of the publisher.
D/2020/0095/40 ISBN 978-2-503-58860-5 e-ISBN 978-2-503-58861-2 DOI 10.1484/M.ASH-EB.5.119589 ISSN 2466-5916 e-ISSN 2565-9200 Printed in the EU on acid-free paper.
CONTENTS
Alexandra Dardenay & Nicolas Laubry Toward an anthropological approach to the Roman living space 7 Sandra Zanella L’archéologie des espaces domestiques à Pompéi : un point sur la question 21 Antonella Coralini Lucrum facere? Strategie d’uso degli spazi domestici nell’ultima Pompei 53 James N. Andrews Rooms with a view: status, spatial hierarchy, and seasonality in the upper floors of houses at Herculaneum 87 Anna Anguissola Tra domus e villa. Spazio e società nelle abitazioni lungo le mura di Pompei 115 Alain Bouet With all mod cons? Latrines in domestic settings 147 Marin Mauger Sanctuaires et marges de l’habitat : perception et délimitation de l’espace domestique 165 Ria Berg Locating the use and storage of female toiletry items in Pompeian houses 193 Polly Lohmann Where are the women? Approaching domestic space through graffiti 219 5
CONTENTS
Mantha Zarmakoupi Between public and private: the Italian houses of Late Hellenistic / Roman Delos 237 Jesús Bermejo Tirado House form and household structure: the social analysis of urban domestic architecture in Roman Celtiberia 259 Nathalie Baills-Barré & Mélissa Tirel Des morts chez les vivants ? Les enfants en bas âge inhumés dans les espaces domestiques de Gaule romaine 293 PLACE INDEX 319 SOURCE INDEX 323
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TOWARD AN ANTHROPOLOGICAL APPROACH TO THE ROMAN LIVING SPACE
The study of the living space and domestic sphere in the Roman era has long benefited from the combined analysis of textual sources and archaeological data. This field of study has therefore remained entrenched for several decades in a pattern of circular reasoning, in which insights into archaeological vestiges are sought in ancient texts or concrete confirmation of the descriptions provided in the texts are is sought among the material remains. As interesting and fruitful as the results of these exercises have been, it is time to move beyond this methodological approach. From a sociological perspective, such an approach presents a substantial limitation: the textual resources describe almost exclusively the habitats of elites, excluding the modes of life of humble people. Though our knowledge of the domestic lives of elite Romans has developed considerably since the foundational article by Yvon Thébert 1 – published in 1985 – research has been primarily focused, from a social point of view, on the figure of the dominus and the organization of its interior into pars publica and pars privata. More modest dwellings, subject to a wider range of living arrangements, have failed to attract sustained attention, as the archaeological record is not enriched with textual descriptions 2. 1 Y. Thébert, « Vie privée et architecture domestique en Afrique romaine », in P. Ariès, G. Duby (éd.), Histoire de la vie privée. 1. De l’Empire romain à l’an mil, Paris, 1985 (L’Univers historique), p. 295-415. 2 Among other examples, we note here some references made by Martial: see J.-M. Pailler, « Martial et l’espace urbain », Pallas 28.3 (1981), p. 79-87.
Anthropology of Roman Housing, ed. by Alexandra Dardenay and Nicolas Laubry, Turnhout, 2020 (ASH, 5), pp. 7–20 © FHG DOI 10.1484/M.ASH-EB.5.119728
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Curiously, some of our colleagues in the discipline of geography have expressed a seeming indifference to what they have called the “geography of the domestic space.” In his article entitled “L’espace domestique: Pour une géographie de l’intérieur”, published in 2001 in the Annales de Géographie, Jean-François Staszak remarks that “The social sciences and specifically geography are hardly interested in the domestic space. This space is anthropic, differentiated, private, familial, corporal and constitutes a fundamental territory. As a geographic space, it is the product of a society whose norms it reflects and, simultaneously, it structures daily life and participates in social reproduction” 3. He also points out that “The scarcity of scholarship dedicated to private life and domestic spaces stands in contrast to the abundance of literature devoted to social life and public space.” Staszak presents us with the paradox: “How can the social sciences and particularly geography ignore the place where we spend so much time, in which we invest so much emotionally and financially, in which the most important moments of our lives unfold, where we are ‘truly ourselves’?” These reflections seem pertinent to the study of Antiquity. Disciplinary boundaries have shifted in recent years, driven primarily by the vitality of the Anglo-Saxon school, which – through attention to the material culture of the past – has taken an interest in the plebeian domestic environment. These recent works owe a great deal, notably though not exclusively, to the works of Lisa Nevett 4 and Penelope Allison 5. A number of productive approaches have recently emerged that seek to apply anthropo3 J.-F. Staszak, « L’espace domestique : pour une géographie de l’intérieur// For an insider’s geography of domestic space », Annales de géographie 110.620 (2001), p. 339-363; trans. from original French. 4 L. C. Nevett, Domestic space in classical antiquity, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2010; L. Nevett, « Greek houses as a source of evidence for social relations », British School at Athens Studies 15 (2007), p. 5-10. 5 P. M. Allison, Pompeian households: an analysis of material culture, 1 vol., Los Angeles, Cotsen Institute of Archaeology, University of California Press, 2004 (Monograph Cotsen Institute of Archaeology) ; P. M. Allison (éd.), The archaeology of household activities, Londres, Routledge, 1999; P. M. Allison, « How do we identify the use of space in Roman housing? », in E. M. Moormann (éd.), Functionnal and Spatial Analysis of Wall Painting. Proceedings of the Fifth International Congress on Ancient Wall Painting. Amsterdam, September 1992, Leiden, Babesch, 1993, p. 1-8.
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logical methodologies to the study of Roman modes of living, placing common people at the centre of these discussions: these recent studies thus analyse the domestic sphere through the lenses of sensorial approaches, gender studies, the place of visual culture among plebeians, and the organization of and movement in living spaces 6. We should note as well the contributions that carpological studies have made to our understanding of structures, and the seasonality of the occupation of different spaces in the house. This “archaeology of the invisible,” applied to the domestic space, has recently received stimulating treatment in the work of S. R. Joshel and L. Hackworth on “the material life” of Roman slaves 7. The authors employ innovative analytical tools in order to identify, in the architecture, the décor, the graffiti, and other subtle material traces, indications of the ways that domestic spaces were occupied. It is from this perspective that the height of the doors in a home, for example, can reveal strategies of circulation based on status (enslaved/free) of its occupants 8, within the space occupied by a familia. The combination of archaeological and anthropological methodologies opens the door to new interpretive possibilities, on one hand, and also presents an opportunity to revisit the records of previous studies that have not produced fully satisfying results. I refer specifically to the question of the interpretation of the layout of the Roman house, of the domus, certainly – even and especially when it is divided into multiple living spaces –, but also of the apartments in multi-family buildings. 6 For instance: E. Betts, Senses of the Empire: Multisensory Approaches to Roman Culture, London, Routledge, 2017; H. Platts, « Approaching a Lived Experience of Ancient Domestic Space? », in S. Griffiths, A. von Lunen (éd.), Spatial Cultures: Towards a New Social Morphology of Cities Past and Present, London, Routledge, 2016 (Design and the built environment series), p. 43-53 ; M. Bradley, Smell and the Ancient Senses, London, 2015; P. M. Allison, « Characterizing Roman Artifacts to Investigate Gendered Practices in Contexts Without Sexed Bodies », AJA 119.1 (2015), p. 103-123; Y. Hamilakis, Archaeology and the Senses : Human Experience, Memory and Affect, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2013; K. Milnor, Gender, Domesticity, and the Age of Augustus: Inventing Private Life, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2005 (Oxford studies in classical literature and gender theory). 7 S. R. Joshel, L. H. Petersen, The material life of Roman slaves, New York, Cambridge University Press, 2014: “Invisilibity in Archaeology”, p. 4-7. 8 Ibid., p. 37-59.
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Toward a methodological evolution applied to the interpretation of Roman ways of living The traditional analysis of the layout of a model domus is without doubt entrenched in an all too strong “eurocentrism.” In seeking to research or identify in the organisation of a Roman house a duplicata of contemporary Occidental modes of occupation, do we not largely set aside Roman practices? In seeking to attribute a specific function to the rooms – bedroom, dining room, banquet hall, office of the Master of the house – are we proceeding in such a way that will lead us to an accurate reconstruction of the Roman ways of living? Numerous archaeologists have expressed doubts, in recent years, regarding the legitimacy of this approach. A first step toward better understanding how the Roman house functioned could be to free ourselves from the shackles of Vitruvian terminology. Since the end of the twentieth century, numerous works have attempted to set in motion a “dévitruvisation” of classical domestic spaces. This phrase is borrowed from Jean-Pierre Guilhembet who, in his 2007 paper 9 examined from a historiographic perspective both the phenomenon and its effects, particularly the “vacancy,” or void, thus created that leaves room for abundant experiments, sometimes fruitful, sometimes futile. Ultimately, we can only acknowledge the fragility of studies founded on “a purely spatial [or architectural] point of view” that ignores the anthropological dimension of the dwelling. The work of Andrew Wallace-Hadrill marks a veritable turning point in this field of study. These articles, collected in a volume titled Houses and Society, offers a social historian’s perspective on Roman dwellings 10. Proposing heuristic tools uncommon among the “Pompeiianist” community, he presents a new method of analysis largely founded on the approaches of grand French theorists like Philippe Ariès and Pierre Bourdieu, whose works had not 9 He draws, for example, on the works of E. Leach, P. Allison, M. Grahame: cf. J.-P. Guilhembet, « Normes romaines et résidences pompéiennes : remarques historiographiques », in Contributi di archeologia vesuviana. III. La norme à Pompéi (Ier siècle avant - Ier siècle après J.-C.), Roma, “L’Erma” di Bretschneider, 2007 (Studi della Soprintendenza archeologica di Pompei), p. 93-107 (in particular p. 101-102). 10 A. Wallace-Hadrill, Houses and society in Pompeii and Herculaneum, Princeton, Princeton University press, 1994.
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thus far appeared in the bibliographies of publications on Roman archaeology. A. Wallace-Hadrill saw the Roman House as a space of representation, appointed and arranged to serve the needs of meetings between patrons and their clientes. He established a precept for sectioning the domus in terms of status (humble/ powerful) and accessibility (public/private). Another innovation in his approach is the introduction of statistical tools, which provide a clear vision of the spaces as a whole. A. Wallace-Hadrill has greatly influenced recent research, but two factors have limited the impact of these works: on one hand, they remain largely dependent on the writings of Vitruvius, and on the other, they serve to reinforce a distorting emphasis on the dominant class of Roman society and elite males, relegating females and members of the lower classes to the shadows. The presence of the latter is mentioned, but never emphasized, as if they were no more than satellites of the powerful. Claude Lévi-Strauss observed in 1958 that there is often “a relationship between the organization of space and the structure of society” 11. In effect, it seems elementary that the analysis of the spatial organisation of a Roman house be paired with a sociological analysis of the organisation of the household. The house seems undoubtedly to be a common space, but it is useful to repeat here that Roman society was a fundamentally patriarchal one. Relationship to the father appears as the backbone of familial relations and must in one way or another shape the organisation of the domestic sphere. In this aspect, Roman society more closely resembles certain African and Oriental societies than Occidental societies. The anthropological approach allows analogies to be made, with all of the precautions entailed, in order to propose alternative interpretation of Roman ways of living. As Claude Calame and Bruce Lincoln have already emphasized 12, the comparative approach is esteemed for its heuristic value: in raising new lines of inquiry, it contributes to changing the ways we interrogate the available data, and allows us to see problems from a new angle. C. Lévi-Strauss, Anthropologie structurale, Paris, Librairie Plon, 1958. C. Calame, B. Licoln, Comparer en histoire des religions antiques : controverses et propositions, Liège, Presses universitaires de Liège, 2012 (Religions). 11 12
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By way of example, we have chosen to present a type of dwelling outside the European norm, the study of which could be invigorating in terms of the research problems we are addressing today. If we examine the traditional Moroccan “medina house”, for example, the subject of numerous studies published since the end of the twentieth century, we can make several thought-provoking observations. We must, of course, bear in mind the limitations and precautions that ought to accompany such an analogy, as we are dealing with a culture very different from classical Roman society. Among those studies, the work of Daniel Pinson has contributed to a sociological and anthropological understanding of the Moroccan dwelling, demonstrating, among other things, the influence of culture, family hierarchy, and religion (and questions of identity more broadly) on the morphology of ways of living 13. In the layout of the traditional medina house, there are four rooms on the ground floor, arranged around an interior courtyard and thus occupying the four sides of the house 14. These rooms generally have no particular function. The central area of the rooms, facing the door, remain bare or furnished only with light pieces that are low to the ground and easy to move. Mats, cushions, rugs, sheepskins can be easily arranged and re-arranged as needed. The heavier furniture is usually limited to a few pieces, such as an armoire or some benches 15. 13 In particular, examples in migratory contexts. Pinson’s work on this phenomenon is extensive. He categorizes the traditional Moroccan house as a “cen tred space”: D. Pinson, M. Zakrani, « Maroc : l’espace centré et le passage de la maison médinale à l’immeuble urbain », Les Cahiers de la recherche architecturale et urbaine 20-21 (1987), p. 104-111, D. Pinson, « Lecture de l’habitat : les registres de la maison de l’émigré marocain », in R. de Villanova, M.-A. Hily (éd.), Construire l’interculturel ? De la notion aux pratiques, Paris, L’Harmattan, 2001 (Espaces interculturels), p. 308-325. D. Pinson, Modèles d’habitat et contre-types domestiques au Maroc, Tours, Urbama-URA 365 CNRS-Université de Tours, 1992 (Fascicule de recherche). 14 On the primordial role of the central courtyard in classical and Islamic architecture: P. Pinon, « Des cours de dégagement aux cours centrales dans les architectures domestiques antiques et islamiques : processus et significations d’une évolution typologique », in F. Braemer, S. Cleuziou, A. Coudart (éd.), Habitat et société : actes des xixe rencontres internationales d’archéologie et d’histoire d’Antibes, 22, 23, 24 octobre 1998, Antibes, 1999, p. 255-270. 15 S. Atif, Typologie de logements marocains. Modèles d’habitat entre persistances et mutations, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, 2011 (Enoncé théorique de Master EPFL-ENAC-SAR), p. 128: “The junctures between the
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The traditional Moroccan house does not, like the typical European house, have specific rooms that are dedicated to gathering, eating, or sleeping. In many Arabic and Asian societies, the inhabitants of a home do not, for example, tend to sleep in separate spaces. Thus the rooms have no fixed, or even intended, purpose. Shama Atif, Moroccan specialist in domestic architecture, observes a “gendered division of spaces, creating areas whose boundaries vary according to circumstances”, and remarks upon the “interior nomadism, tied to the seasons”; finally, she notes “the use of familial space that is more collective than individual, and a loose specialization of the different rooms in the dwelling.” 16 Furthermore, in a traditional socioeconomic system, based on conservation of family ties and in which boys are, even after marriage, subject to the authority of their fathers, the family home constitutes the only – or at least the primary – lodging of a patriarchal family composed of the father, his sons, and his grandsons. In this case, it is only after the grandsons have reached adulthood and the grandfather’s home no longer suffices for everyone, or after the death of the grandfather, that the son builds his own home for his own family. This model of dwelling is currently being replaced by those inspired by Western examples. Of course, as we note above, this is not to suggest that the traditional Moroccan dwelling is the most appropriate model for describing the domestic organisation of a Roman dwelling. What is more, I am not the first to suggest this comparison, as Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie has already proposed the North African house as an analogue for what he called the “medieval Ariégois domus” in his famous book Montaillou, village Occitan, based on the works of Bourdieu 17. walls and ceilings are very often adorned with lambris stucco panelling, very finely rendered. Aside from the impressive decorated ceilings, the elements in wood, for their part, include the doors, shutters, balustrades, and chests. Within the rooms, often scantly furnished, cabinets are practically absent and are replaced by small closets built into the walls or shrouded by the wall hangings. Embroidered cushions and rugs complete the traditional furnishings and form the basis of the textile art”. 16 See previous note. 17 In 1975, in Montaillou, village Occitan, Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie demonstrated the relevance of a comparative approach with his example the medieval Pyrenean home (“domus ariégeoise”) interpreted in comparison to the Berber
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Without neglecting that “to compare” consists not only of identifying similarities, but also of highlighting differences, which are equally significant. For example, in the case at hand, the layout of the medina house differs from that of the Roman house in terms of its staggered entryway, whose structure and function departs substantially from the axial organisation of the Roman fauces. In fact, in the Roman model, the alignment of the fauces/ atrium/tablinum/garden provided a clean line of sight through the house and onto the street. In contrast, with its staggered arrangement, the entryway to the medina house shields the interior space from view. Finally, it is not our intention to exchange one rigid interpretive framework for another, equally inflexible, as the Roman dwelling has proven to be plural, and above all, dynamic and flexible, in its architecture, as in its lived reality. As such, it seems to us that the characteristic ways of inhabiting the medina house, with its architectural structures that are not without similarities to the atrium house 18, suggest instead a rejection of any preconceived interpretive grid in approaches to the Roman house. In the case of the Roman house, the restriction of a given room to a particular function is a reflection of the norms of the European house from the nineteenth century on 19. More broadly, this analogy also Kabyle house (analysed by Pierre Bourdieu). Cf. E. Le Roy Ladurie, Montaillou, village occitan: de 1294 à 1324, Paris, Gallimard, 1975 (Bibliothèque des histoires), p. 87: “The analyses of the Kabyle house published by Bourdieu seemed to me a relevant source for the comparison of North African and Pyrenean data. It is reasonable to assume a certain archaic unity in the agrarian highland civilizations of the western Mediterranean. The Kabyle house, like the Ariégeoise house of the past, transcends the specific fates of the individuals who compose it (…). There are many reasons that call for a comparative study of the these two representations of the domus, in farming cultures of great time depth, which flourished on either coast of the western Mediterranean.”. For Bourdieu and the Kabyle house see: P. Bourdieu, « La maison ou le monde renversé », in Esquisse d’une théorie de la pratique. Précédé de Trois études d’ethnologie kabyle, Paris, 1972 (Travaux de droit, d’économie, de sociologie et de sciences politiques), p. 45-59. 18 The architectural similarity is emphasized by Jean Hensens (Belgian architect) in his work on the origins of the layout of the Moroccan house: S. Mouline, J. Hensens, Habitats des qsour et qasbas des vallées présahariennes, Rabat, Ministère de l’Habitat, 1991. 19 A. Daumard, « Quelques remarques sur le logement des Parisiens au xixe siècle », Annales de Démographie Historique 1975.1 (1975), p. 49-64.
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serves as a reminder of the multiplicity of ways of living that are possible in architectural structured with spaces that are subdivided, even those centred on a common point. It also highlights the importance of a global analysis of the family unit (in its broad sense) and the ways in which it functions: it is this, and not the architecture, that dictates the organization of the house and the modes of occupation. What is more, the scholarship of recent decades (of which I have cited several examples above) reveals that, with regard to Roman domestic architecture, research has focused on the development of new questions and new methodologies of analysis. This deconstruction of the Vitruvian framework of interpretation has been established gradually. Today, we no longer seek to systematically determine the function of spaces but seek instead to envision the ways of living and the familial organisation, through the lens of their living spaces. It is the individuals who inhabited these dwellings that lie at the heart of our inquiries. The last decade of research in the archaeology of the dwelling has focused on re-centring its question on the human, moving thus in a decidedly anthropological direction. A final point must be emphasized. The important role that experiments in the 3D reconstruction of architectural features have played in Classical archaeology can hardly go unnoticed. The discipline that we now call the “Digital Humanities” maintains goals that are at once the development of new epistemological tools and innovation in the ways that knowledge is shared and valued. In the field of research on the Roman home, several recent research programs have made good use of 3D reconstructions as laboratories for testing the hypothetical reconstructions proposed by members of the team. But 3D models allow for much more than experimentation or the demonstration of the results of a research project. Paired with a database, or GIS dataset, they also allow for the distribution of large bodies of data. The experiment conducted under the auspices of the Vesuvia Project (on the House of Neptune and Amphitrite at Herculaneum) has also proven that a 3D model can dynamically inform an anthropologiC. Bauhain, « Masculin et féminin, les habitations bourgeoises au xixe siècle », Les Annales de la Recherche Urbaine 41.1 (1989), p. 15-26.
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cal approach 20. In fact, the first stages of digital reconstruction focused exclusively on the archaeological data of the built environment and on architectural reconstruction, and then on the restoration of elements of the décor that were altered or removed. But once the building had been reconstructed and the décor reintegrated, the emptiness of the interior spaces was striking. This raises the question of how and to what extent the lived experience and the human element should be reconstructed in these spaces whose essential purpose was to be inhabited. The process of building a 3D reconstruction, from a methodological and heuristic perspective, thus encourages reflection on the experiences lived in a space by its occupants. The contributions presented in this volume do not presume to exhaustively address all of the questions posed by an archaeology of the Roman dwelling informed by an anthropological approach; rather, they constitute a sampling of aims, problems, and methods that such an approach allows. The article by Sandra Zanella, like a number of other authors in this work, centres on the incomparable site of Pompeii as a starting point, developing a critical historiographical account of the nomenclature of Roman domestic spaces. In particular, she analyses the relationships between Vitruvius’ treaty On Architecture and the discovery of the Campanian city, tracing their interactions through successive interpretive trends since the nineteenth century, and the manner in which a veritable lexicon has emerged from this interplay and became ingrained in archaeological practice, while recent approaches has clearly shown that it needs to be questioned. Indeed, one of the most notable achievements in recent studies of the Roman dwelling is the acknowledgment that domestic spaces are multifunctional and fluid by nature, defying the univo20 A. Dardenay, « Restituer l’espace domestique à Herculanum grâce aux outils informatiques de reconstruction virtuelle : enjeux et problèmes », Anabases. Traditions et réceptions de l’Antiquité 27 (2018), p. 41-51; A. Dardenay, H. Eristov, A. Grand-Clément, M.-L. Maraval, N. Monteix, P. Mora, M. Mulliez, « Herculanum. Conception du modèle 3D de restitution et restauration virtuelle de la Casa di Nettuno ed Anfitrite. Campagne 2016 du projet ANR VESUVIA », Chronique des activités archéologiques de l’École française de Rome (2017), http://journals.openedition.org/cefr/1739.
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cal characterisations that are often imposed by efforts to identify – and thus to name – the spaces. The current uncertainty regarding reliance on nomenclature or on Vitruvian taxonomy certainly derives from the disconnection between the Augustan ideals presented in On Architecture and the actual products of domestic architecture observed in the field: it is also a consequence of the strictly archaeological bias by which we identify these spaces. Antonella Coralini thus reminds how crucial it is, in the Pompeian context, to “excavate in the archives” and, with the example of insula IX, 8, demonstrates how a superficial approach, or one that is oblivious to the manner in which an ensemble was excavated, can affect the interpretation and presumed function of the space, which was at first glance interpreted as domestic, but could have lived a much more complex reality in the wake of the earthquake of 62/63. The rejection of categories that now seem too narrow and restrictive has followed the development of a more dynamic approach to studying living spaces, which pays more attention to patterns of movement and circulation that are conditioned by factors as diverse as rules of social interaction, roles within the household, social rank, gender, or simply the time of day, the climate, or the season. Several contributions elaborate on these aspects. With the analysis of the upper levels of houses at Herculaneum often considered to be of secondary importance, James Andrews demonstrates that these spaces played an important role in constructing the hierarchy of domestic spaces, as some of them have proven to be veritable spaces of representation. This observation raises questions about issues of accessibility, visibility, and also seasonal patterns of occupation. These elements resonate in the contribution of Anna Anguissola. Taking the example of the “urban villas” constructed upon the city walls of Pompeii, she shows how the organization of different rooms, understood in terms of patterns of circulation reconstructed through the décor, systems of passage, opening or closing of spaces, can be seen as expressions of variable and versatile experiences within the same dwelling. Acknowledging this skilful management of pathways allows us to see beyond the normative rigidity imposed by the Vitruvian outline and to glimpse the manner in which these spaces might have been adapted to a wide diversity of individuals and activities. 17
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Though one must take care not to project modern impulses or practices into the past, the articulation of these spaces and, by extension, the rapport between the exterior environment and daily life plays a central role in matters related to cleanliness and hygiene – two notions we must be careful to distinguish. Reconsidering the presence of latrines in houses and drawing heavily on the examples of Pompeii and Delos, Alain Bouet reaffirms the often strict segregation of domestic latrines, especially common in the Roman era, though we cannot necessarily univocally confirm that they contributed to the improvement of hygiene in the home. He shows nonetheless that certain latrines could have been open to use, possibly for fee, and thus contribute to the city-wide management of human waste. Though developing a concrete understanding of the Roman conception of domestic space or its boundaries solely on basis of archaeological evidence is not always a straightforward process, we nonetheless find rare opportunities to gain clearer insights. The religious construction of space is a difficult subject to take on, but one that merits consideration. Marin Mauger chose to examine it at Pompeii and Ostia through an analysis of the placement of religious domestic spaces and, especially, the modes of representation of the lares and household gods, as iconographic compositional layouts sometimes present opportunities to reflect on the extent of spaces and the potential articulation between them from the point of view of rituals and, by extension, of the occupants who performed them. To study patterns of circulation within the Roman dwelling necessarily requires determining precisely who the actors and occupants were in terms that are not simply generic: yet we rarely have detailed information on them. One approach that has proven fruitful, drawing on the archaeology and history of gender, consists of examining the presence of women. In the tradition of previous studies, Ria Berg examines the contexts of discovery of objects that belong undeniably to the realm of the mundus muliebris in seven Pompeian domus, demonstrating in certain cases that these objects were actually discovered in spaces, such as cubicula or œci or even tablinum, where the use or storage of feminine toiletries would, a priori, be unexpected. This observation demands that we reconsider the common assumption that 18
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these rooms were predominantly male. In her contribution, Polly Lohmann presents a synthetic analysis of graffiti in the domestic space that depict women or, more rarely, were made by them. Relying heavily on anthroponymy, this study confirms above all that women, like children and slaves, currently remain a largely invisible group. Departing from the Campanian region, the next two contributions also explore the subject of the relationships between the arrangement of living spaces and their occupants. Mantha Zarmakoupi examines the manner in which the Italic houses of Delos at the end of the Hellenistic Period, could, in certain cases, blur the boundaries between the private and the public. In her analysis, this tension is especially evident in the space of the entryway, in the religious altars or frescos referencing the celebration of the Compitalia, as well as the usage of formal (dedications) and informal (graffiti) inscriptions. Once again, religion and writing constitute in this regard two prisms that shed light on past perceptions of living spaces. Jesús Bermejo Tirado invites us to turn our gaze toward the province of Hispania Tarraconensis, and more specifically Roman Celtiberia, a region in which Roman dwellings have been little analysed. He presents a comparative examination of familial structures, as documented in epigraphic sources and reflected in a Space Syntax approach to analysing domestic spaces. By cross-referencing these two sources of data, he defines three distinct models of dwelling, each with its own familial structure: the “paterfamilias model”, which most closely matches Italic Roman models; the local “vernacular model”, and a third, the “local non-traditional model,” which presents a sort of fusion of the first two as an adaptation of local societies to Roman rule. The final contribution, by Nathalie Baills-Baré and Mélissa Tirel, widens the scope to include a less conventional, though not entirely exceptional if certain Classical sources are to be believed, category of occupants: the dead. In the context of Roman Gaul, they give an overview based on the systematic review of the tombs of infants and young children – nearly exclusively represented – in urban and rural dwellings, providing a resource that will prove highly useful in expanding our reflections on this form of cohabitation. 19
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As is clear from the summary provided above, these studies do not constitute an exhaustive account of the questions and results produced by an archaeology and anthropology of the Roman dwelling. Rather, our aim has been to provide a sufficiently diverse survey of current perspectives that recognizes the contributions of previous works while at the same time widening the scope of research to consider new areas, in the provinces of the Roman world as well as in the living spaces of Campanian cities, where, in spite of the conventional belief that they are too well studied, much remains to be known.
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L’ARCHÉOLOGIE DES ESPACES DOMESTIQ UES À POMPÉI : UN POINT SUR LA Q UESTION
Cette contribution se propose de faire le point sur les différentes approches qui ont été développées sur le site antique de Pompéi dans l’étude de l’architecture domestique en tant qu’expression d’un groupe social et pour cela s’adaptant à un ensemble de normes, de codes, compris et partagés par cette société. Faire un point sur cette question est une tâche des plus ardues ; il s’agit, avant tout, de porter un regard critique sur un des sujets les plus complexes auxquels nous confronte l’étude du monde ancien. En effet, cela revient à enquêter sur les comportements d’un groupe social, la famille, qui est changeante par définition, dans un espace, la maison, qui est en même temps fini, confiné entre ses murs, mais aussi infini en ce qu’il développe en son sein un système de renvois et d’allusions au monde externe, et se rapporte ainsi à la ville au sens large du terme 1. Il sera question d’un objet en mouvement dans un espace versatile que nos méthodes appréhendent à travers ses éléments fixes, à un moment de leur histoire. Cette réflexion impose également, voire surtout, de se question Je remercie Alexandra Dardenay par la confiance qu’elle m’a accordée en me chargeant de faire un point sur l’étude de la maison à Pompéi dans l’histoire désormais pluriséculaire de la recherche sur la ville. Les remarques présentées ici ne peuvent être que partielles : ce sujet est central et intriqué dans une multitude de champs de recherche que je n’ai pas la présomption de pouvoir maîtriser. Il ne s’agira donc que d’une approche à l’analyse anthropologique de la maison romaine à Pompéi. Cette approche se veut critique non par principe mais par nécessité, pour permettre une avancée de notre discipline. L’examen critique proposé doit être lu comme le résultat d’une démarche fondée sur l’idée que la remise en cause des acquis est le chemin à emprunter pour préserver l’ouverture d’esprit nécessaire à l’étude du fait humain. 1
Anthropology of Roman Housing, ed. by Alexandra Dardenay and Nicolas Laubry, Turnhout, 2020 (ASH, 5), pp. 21–52 © FHG DOI 10.1484/M.ASH-EB.5.119729
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ner sur nos méthodes de travail, issues d’une tradition historiographique à l’image des sociétés contemporaines qui l’ont produite. Cette étude de la maison romaine et des différentes manifestations sociopolitiques qu’elle représente ne saurait qu’être partielle. J’ai choisi de focaliser mon attention sur l’étude de la maison à Pompéi en essayant, autant que faire se peut, de brasser l’immense bibliographie sur ce sujet. Le but est d’analyser quelques-unes des approches mises en œuvre depuis les débuts de l’étude de l’espace domestique dans les années 1810, d’en souligner les potentialités et les limites, de nous remémorer les chemins empruntés pour suivre cette thématique centrale mais fuyante qu’est l’étude anthropologique d’un fait avant tout archéologique. Se cantonner à Pompéi peut engendrer les distorsions propres à l’étude d’un site très particulier dans le panorama archéologique ; cependant, utiliser l’étude de la maison à Pompéi pour retracer l’historiographie de l’approche à l’habitat se justifie pleinement par la primauté en ce domaine de cette ville qui nous a fait voir pour la première fois la vie domestique des Anciens. La découverte de Pompéi a comblé un vide documentaire qui était, au début des fouilles, abyssal. Avant celle-ci, la maison romaine était un sujet peu traité faute de données ; les vestiges pompéiens ont été une source d’informations très généreuse, au point qu’on a pu la croire presque exhaustive 2. Se focaliser sur Pompéi engendre tout naturellement des risques, au premier rang desquels se trouve l’autoréférence 3. Néanmoins, les conditions de destruction et de conservation du site justifient l’intérêt qui lui a été porté pour aborder l’habitat romain au ier siècle de notre ère. Avant d’entrer dans le vif du sujet, il apparaît important de reprendre brièvement les conditions de destruction de Pompéi, la faible reprise de la vie après l’éruption puis son 2 Voir en ce sens les remarques de J.-P. Guilhembet qui parle de la découverte de Pompéi comme d’un « véritable choc pour les historiens de l’architecture privée » : J.-P. Guilhembet, « Normes romaines et résidences pompéiennes. Remarques historiographiques », in Contributi di archeologia vesuviana, 3, Rome, « L’Erma » di Bretschneider, 2007 (Studi della Soprintendenza archeologica di Pompei 21), p. 93-107. 3 Voir à ce sujet les observations éclairantes de J.-P. Guilhembet, « Normes romaines et résidences pompéiennes », p. 98-99 et n. 35 pour la bibliographie de référence.
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abandon successif, pour en arriver à sa redécouverte à l’époque moderne.
1. Pompéi : lumière et ombres d’un site archéologique Lorsque le Vésuve entra en éruption en 79 de n. è., Pompéi vivait une activité « normale ». Bien qu’il soit difficile de définir la normalité d’une ville antique, nous pouvons observer que toutes les activités plus importantes s’y déroulaient : les élections, les jeux à l’amphithéâtre, les cérémonies religieuses avaient lieu, les bains étaient actifs, les différents artisans au travail, les commerces alimentaires en activité. La ville présentait donc un fonctionnement que l’on peut définir comme normal en dépit de l’absence d’autres points de repères. Cela peut paraître banal, mais il faut souligner ce fait : ce postulat de départ vient modifier une vision pessimiste qui a longtemps affecté la perception de Pompéi (Fig. 1). Cette idée a notamment été véhiculée par Amedeo Maiuri qui considérait que la ville, en 79 de n. è., ne s’était pas encore relevée de cet événement traumatique majeur que fut le tremblement de terre qui frappa la région en 62/63 de n. è. Maiuri se fondait notamment sur l’observation des conditions de découverte du forum, dépourvu de toute décoration, laissé à l’abandon après cette catastrophe pour être remplacé par la « città mercantile » 4. Cette vision, acceptée sans discussion pour de longues années, a eu un effet direct sur l’interprétation des données archéologiques 5. Il est désormais acquis que l’état de ruine dans lequel le forum a été trouvé est le fruit, avant tout, des opérations accomplies par le pouvoir central qui a œuvré pour récupérer tout le matériel réutilisable immédiatement après l’éruption. Par la suite, des 4 A. Maiuri, « La cité marchande », in Pompéi, Paris, Editions Alpina, 1930, p. 103-125. 5 Une reconstruction largement acceptée qui a des influences majeures sur les lectures économiques et plus en général sur l’histoires de la ville. Voir par exemple l’acceptation de cette interprétation par R. Étienne, La vie quotidienne à Pompéi, Paris, Hachette, 2e éd., 1966, p. 20-21 ou encore par J. Andreau, « Il terremoto del 62 », in F. Zevi (éd.), Pompei 79. Raccolta di studi per il decimonono centenario dell’eruzione vesuviana, Napoli, Gaetano Macchiaroli, 1984, p. 40-44.
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Fig. 1. Plan schématique de Pompéi. En évidence les différents secteurs d’activité en 79 de n. è. (d’après N. Monteix, Les lieux de métier : boutiques et ateliers d’Herculaneum, Roma, École française de Rome, 2010 (BEFAR 344), pl. IV, et S. Zanella, « Des tas et des remblais. Le remploi des enduits à Pompéi ? Un point sur la question », in M. Carrive (éd.), Remployer, recycler, restaurer : les autres vies des enduits peints, Roma, École française de Rome, 2017 (Collection de l’École française de Rome 540), p. 19-34, fig. 2, modifiées et complétées).
S. ZANELLA
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« visites » continuelles du site, accomplies par des particuliers à différentes époques et en différentes circonstances, ont amené d’autres spoliations avant le début officiel des fouilles en 1748 6. Ce point est fondamental pour appréhender l’objet sur lequel ont été expérimentées différentes méthodologies liées à la compréhension de la maison antique et de ses habitants : Pompéi n’est pas un site figé par l’éruption de 79 de n. è., mais un objet perturbé à l’histoire complexe. Le site archéologique, malgré un état de conservation de structures presque sans égal, a ainsi subi de multiples dommages. À l’échelle de la maison, cela se matérialise par des contextes incomplets, fruit de pillages, dont les traces les plus évidentes sont les trous à travers les murs (Fig. 2), marque indiscutable du passage de personnes à la recherche de tout objet précieux ou réutilisable. Il suffit de lire les récits de fouilles : dans les années 1810/1820, ils soulignent encore quand un édifice ou une pièce portent ces traces ; à partir du milieu du xixe siècle, l’optique s’inverse et seuls les espaces qui semblent ne pas avoir encore été touchés par des fouilles sont remarqués, ce qui démontre en creux la fréquence des pillages. Un autre cas de figure, plus difficile à repérer à la lecture des journaux de fouille, tient à la modification des contextes, c’est à dire au déplacement des objets entre une pièce et une autre, une déposition secondaire qui avait déjà pu être entrainée par les différentes forces en action lors de l’éruption du Vésuve. Ces spoliations ont fortement influencé notre objet dont les structures avaient déjà souffert du tremblement de terre engendré par l’éruption, de l’écroulement d’une partie des élévations et de la sélection opérée par les habitants en fuite qui ont prélevé de leurs maisons des objets utiles à leur survie après l’éruption, notamment des objets en métaux précieux et de sommes d’argent 7 et qui devaient probablement être stockés dans des 6 Sur cette phase de l’histoire de Pompéi, voir S. Zanella, La caccia fu buona. De Titus à l’Europe : pour une histoire des fouilles de Pompéi, Napoli, Centre Jean Bérard, 2019 (Mémoires et documents sur Rome et l’Italie méridionale n.s. 10). 7 Ce fait est confirmé par la fréquence avec laquelle les corps des victimes de l’éruption ont été découverts avec de petit trésors (monnaies et autres objets). Voir en dernier lieu les aurei retrouvés parmi les squelettes des fugitifs mis au jour
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Fig. 2. Le mur entre l’atrium de la maison de Balbus (I 8, 18) et la maison des Q uattro stili (I 8, 17.11) vu depuis l’atrium de cette dernière en cours de fouille. On remarque l’importante lacune qui témoigne d’un pillage perpétré dans le temps à l’intérieur de ces deux édifices (ASSAN 142, b. 16, F34 – 14/09/1937).
espaces précis 8. Enfin, les méthodes de fouille ont subi une forte évolution pendant les 200 dernières années, gagnant en précision mais, pour le début des fouilles, provoquant des pertes irrémédiables, en particulier une sélection variable des objets. Outre ces facteurs qui ont pu perturber un cadre supposément figé de la réalité domestique pompéienne à l’aube de l’éruption, un deuxième point important à souligner est le contexte architectural qui caractérise alors la ville. En 79 de n. è., Pompéi est une cité vieille de plus de cinq siècles 9. Cette histoire longue a engendré des transformations profondes dans des boutiques de porta Ercolano (S. Zanella, « Progetto: Porta Ercolano 2012-2016 », RSP 28 (2017), p. 131-136, en part. p. 135). 8 Voir le cas de la maison du Ménandre (I 10, 4.14) et des pièces d’un service en argent découvertes dans le sous-sol de l’édifice enveloppées dans un tissu. Voir P. M. Allison, Pompeian households. An on-line companion [en ligne], 2004 (https://web.archive.org/web/20190619221951/http://www.stoa.org/projects/ ph/house?id=9). 9 Une des synthèses les plus complètes de l’évolution historique de Pompéi est dans : P. G. Guzzo, Pompei storia e paesaggi della città antica, Milano, Electa, 2007.
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dans les formes architecturales privées, notamment en réponse aux changements politiques qui ont touché la ville. Si nous n’avons que de faibles attestations pour les premiers siècles, l’architecture privée connaît son moment d’apogée dans la première moitié du iie siècle av. n. è., en phase avec un moment propice pour Pompéi et pour les rivages de la Méditerranée en général. C’est durant cette période que nous pouvons compter le plus grand nombre de réalisation de maisons du type à atrium 10. D’un point de vue politique, Pompéi est alors, pour ce que nous pouvons en reconstruire des sources disponibles, indépendante de Rome : sa population parle l’osque, suit ses propres traditions funéraires. Aucun indice de « romanisation » précoce n’apparaît 11. En dépit de cela, elle est pleinement immergée dans un climat politico-culturel marqué par l’expansion romaine en Orient 12 mais qui ne semble pas encore avoir miné son autonomie politique. D’un point de vue architectural, la ville se caractérise par une architecture privée fortement standardisée où la forme de base qui définit presque l’intégralité des édifices à destination domestique est structurée autour d’un espace découvert, un atrium (avec ou sans pièces latérales – une partie seulement de ces édifices présentent l’axe atrium- tablinum-péristyle et une structure en T). Sur le site, cela se décline par la suite en une multiplicité de solutions qui vont de l’exemple 10 Pour l’architecture privée de cette période, voir : F. Pesando, « Il “secolo d’oro” di Pompei, aspetti dell’architettura pubblica e privata nel II secolo a.C. », in M. Osanna, M. Torelli (éd.), Sicilia ellenistica, consuetudo italica : alle origini dell’architettura ellenistica d’Occidente, Roma, 2006, p. 227-241 ; F. Pesando, « Case d’età medio-sannitica nella Regio VI di Pompei. Periodizzazione degli interventi edilizi e decorativi », in M. Torelli, G. F. La Torre (éd.), Pittura ellenistica in Italia e in Sicilia linguaggi e tradizioni, Roma, Giorgio Bretschneider, 2011, p. 425-435. 11 Pendant la période italique de la ville, la grande majorité des sépultures est à incinération : P. G. Guzzo (éd.), Pompei oltre la vita: nuove testimonianze dalle necropoli, Pompei, Soprintendenza Archeologica di Pompei, 1998, p. 15-16 et 26-32. 12 Notamment avec la participation de Pompéi à la prise de Corinthe, à laquelle renvoie le titulus Mummianus (Vetter 61). A. Martelli, « Titulo mummiano nel tempio di Apollo a Pompei: l’iscrizione Vetter 61 », in P. G. Guzzo, M. P. Guidobaldi (éd.), Nuove ricerche archeologiche a Pompei ed Ercolano. Atti del convegno internazionale, Roma, 28-30 novembre 2002, Napoli, Electa Napoli, 2005 (Studi della Soprintendenza archeologica di Pompei 10), p. 383 ; M. H. Crawford (éd.), Imagines Italicae: a corpus of Italic inscriptions, 3 vol., London, Institute of Classical Studies University of London, 2011 (Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies supplement 110), n. 615.
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le plus écrasant par ses dimensions, la maison du Faune, aux maisons les moins étendues. Il est néanmoins possible de reconnaître les éléments d’une sorte de koiné architecturale que l’on désignera ici comme « la maison pompéienne italique » : née dans une ville samnite, cette maison devient romaine lorsque les colons s’y installent dans les années 70 du ier siècle av. n. è. Comme l’avait déjà souligné B. Tamm 13, il importe donc de garder à l’esprit que l’articulation spatiale de bon nombre d’édifices qui ont servi de décor aux scénarios proposés par les différentes écoles d’analyse de l’espace domestique sont le fruit d’une société qui n’est pas romaine ; a priori, ils n’ont donc pas été pensés pour satisfaire des exigences propres au monde romain mais pour répondre aux exigences d’un peuple à propos duquel nous ne conservons pas de sources littéraires qui nous décriraient la place de la maison dans leur société, ou de traité d’architecture qui nous aiguillerait sur la fonction des espaces. Certes, on peut imaginer que la population italique de Pompéi a pu partager les mêmes pratiques sociales que celles des Romains de l’époque tardo-républicaine et haute impériale. Cependant, un tel présupposé ne minerait-il pas dès le départ toute objectivité dans l’interprétation des données ? Il me semble que, à l’heure actuelle, aucun élément qui permette de superposer la culture romaine à l’intégralité des populations vivant en Italie au cours des iiie et iie s. av. n.è. n’a encore pu être mis en évidence. Ces prémisses nous semblent fondamentales en ce qu’elles nous permettent de nous plonger dans les différentes approches développées sur la pluralité sémantique et architecturale que revêt la maison romaine de Pompéi.
2. L’apport de Pompéi à la connaissance de l’habitat romain : entre tâtonnements et rigueur scientifique 2.1. Vitruve et la maison romaine, théorie et pratique Avant la découverte de Pompéi, Andrea Palladio, dans le deuxième livre dédié aux édifices destinés à la vie des hommes de son traité sur l’architecture, explicite clairement la difficulté de reconstruire les maisons des Anciens, faute d’exemples. Pour com13 B. Tamm, « Some Notes on Roman House », Opuscula Romana 9 (1973), p. 53-60.
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bler ce manque, l’architecte humaniste se tourne alors vers le seul texte d’architecture que l’Antiquité nous ait transmis : le traité de Vitruve. […] E perche in questa parte [les constructions privées] noi habbiamo pochissimi esempi antichi, de’ quali ce ne possiamo servire; io porrò le piante, & gli impiedi di molte fabriche da me per diversi Gentil’huomini ordinate: & i disegni delle case de gli Antichi, & di quelle parti, che in loro più notabili sono, nel modo, che ci insegna Vitruvio, che cosi essi facevano 14.
Palladio, en s’appuyant sur ce traité pour essayer de reconstruire la maison romaine, amorce un filon d’études qui eut comme but de contextualiser le traité de l’architecte césarien, devenu luimême dans un second temps le véritable protagoniste de l’enquête 15. Environ 240 ans plus tard, alors que Pompéi avait livré au grand jour ses maisons, Fr. Mazois ouvre le deuxième volume de ses Ruines de Pompéi, consacré aux édifices privés, avec un Essai sur les habitations des anciens Romains 16. Pour reprendre ses mots, il veut ainsi : […] familiariser le lecteur avec des distributions [des pièces] étrangères à nos usages, et des termes peu usités qui […] auraient chaque fois nécessité des digressions et des explications 14 « Parce que pour cette partie [les constructions privées] nous n’avons que peu d’exemples antiques dont on pourrait se servir, je réaliserai les planimètries et les élévations des édifices pour des hommes illustres de notre temps selon la manière dont Vitruve nous apprend que les Anciens réalisaient leurs maisons et les parties plus remarquables » (traduction de l’autrice). A. Palladio, I quattro libri dell’architettura di Andrea Palladio, Apresso Bartolomeo Carampello, 1581, p. 6. 15 Je renvoie notamment aux travaux de Pierre Gros dont une partie des essais dédiés à l’architecte ont été recueillis dans : P. Gros, Vitruve et la tradition des traités d’architecture : Fabrica et ratiocinatio, Rome, Publications de l’École française de Rome, 2013 (Collection de l’École française de Rome 366). Pour l’interprétation du texte vitruvien à la Renaissence : P. Gros, « Les lectures vitruviennes du xvie siècle et quelques-unes de leurs conséquences à l’âge classique : l’exemple de la domus », in J.-P. Garric, F. Lemerle, Y. Pauwels (éd.), Architecture et théorie. L’héritage de la Renaissance. Actes de colloque [en ligne], Paris, Publications de l’Institut national d’histoire de l’art, 2012 (Actes de colloques), http://books.openedition.org/inha/3436 (consulté le 11 décembre 2019). 16 Fr. Mazois, Les ruines de Pompéi. Seconde partie, Paris, F. Didot frères, 1824, p. 3-29.
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sans fin. En parcourant le traité et les explications qui vont suivre, on sera peut-être étonné de me voir ranger les maisons de Pompei dans la classe des habitations romaines ; car cette sorte de tradition du goût grec, qui domine dans les ornements de ces intéressantes ruines, semble avoir accoutumé tout le monde à regarder les maisons de cette ville comme grecques : mais les descriptions données par Vitruve dans son sixième livre appuient mon assertion ; et l’existence de l’Atrium, bien constatée dans les maisons de Pompei, ne laisse aucun doute à cet égard. D’ailleurs il est facile de comparer leurs plans à ceux des maisons romaines que l’on voit sur les fragments antiques du plan général de Rome, conservés au Capitole. Cette conviction achèvera de convaincre quiconque pourrait douter de ce que j’avance. J’aurais pu rendre cette seconde partie plus volumineuse qu’elle ne l’est ; mais les habitations de Pompéi ont un tel caractère d’uniformité, qu’il eût été fatigant autant qu’inutile de les donner toutes. J’ai choisi les plus intéressantes dans divers genres ; […] 17.
Le texte de Mazois est capital : il résume de manière assez complète toutes les thématiques qui, pendant les deux siècles qui se sont écoulés depuis son écriture, ont généré des débats et des réflexions sur la maison romaine et que nous essayerons de reprendre ici. Commençons par l’origine de la maison pompéienne à atrium : romaine, ou grecque, ou bien étrusque, voire italique … Le sujet a été récemment repris par V. Jolivet dans un ouvrage dont les conclusions ne laissent pas de doutes et font remonter l’invention du plan dit « canonique » de la maison au monde étrusque. Ce plan connut par la suite une importante diffusion dans la péninsule italienne et au-delà 18. À Pompéi, la maison a été étudiée dans le cadre plus large de la question des origines étrusques de la ville, notamment soutenue par G. Patroni et A. Sogliano 19, sur laquelle A. Maiuri a exprimé des doutes 20. Fr. Mazois, Les ruines de Pompéi. Seconde partie, p. 1-2. V. Jolivet, Tristes portiques. Sur le plan canonique de la maison étrusque et romaine, Rome, 2011 (BEFAR, 342). 19 Voir notamment les comparaisons entre la maison à atrium toscan de Pompéi et les maisons de Marzabotto dans A. Sogliano, « La fase etrusca di Pompei », Studi Etruschi 1 (1927), p. 173-185, en part. p. 176. 20 Ce n’est pas le lieu ici de développer cette question. Voir A. Maiuri, « A proposito di un problema di archeologia campana », Historia 4 (1930), 17 18
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Nous avons jusqu’à présent esquivé la question : quel est notre sujet, comment se présente-t-il et, de là, comment le reconnaître ? Nous avons évoqué cette sorte de koiné architecturale dictée par les témoignages archéologiques pompéiens, déjà remarquée par Fr. Mazois. Cette uniformité morphologique est donnée par l’atrium, cette cour partiellement découverte dans la plupart des exemples connus, que l’on retrouve presque immédiatement dès que l’on passe la porte de la maison. Il n’y a guère de doute, continue Fr. Mazois, que cette cour corresponde à l’atrium décrit par Vitruve 21. Dès lors, les maisons de Pompéi, bien qu’adoptant un goût grec dans leur décor, seraient romaines. De cette manière, l’apport de Pompéi à la connaissance de l’habitat romain apparaît fondamental. En fait, c’est plutôt le site qui a constitué un apport primordial à la compréhension du traité de l’architecte césarien. Si en effet la lecture de Vitruve a été d’approche difficile, en raison de la perte de son apparat iconographique 22, Pompéi, avec ses nombreuses maisons bâties autour d’un atrium et avec toutes les variantes préconisées, venait enfin illustrer le texte de l’architecte. Pendant longtemps, l’étude de la maison romaine ne s’est faite que par l’analyse des sources littéraires 23 ; les vestiges archéologiques ne venaient qu’illustrer, au strict sens du terme, le texte et, pour la maison romaine, donner une matérialité à celui-ci.
p. 274-279, mais aussi C. Chiaramonte Treré, « Sull’origine e lo sviluppo dell’architettura residenziale di Pompei sannitica », Acme 43.3 (1990), p. 5-34. Pour la discussion sur les origines étrusques de Pompéi et, plus en général, sur le rôle de cette population en Campanie, voir M. Osanna, S. Verger (éd.), Pompei e gli Etruschi, Milano, Electa, 2018. 21 Pour la réception de l’ouvrage de Mazois chez ses conteporains voir : R. Robert, « François Mazois, Vitruve et l’atrium des Romains », Cahiers des études anciennes 48 (2011), p. 303-322. 22 Sur la place réservée à l’apparat iconographique dans le traité de Vitruve voir : P. Gros, « Les illustrations du De architectura de Vitruve : histoire d’un malentendu. Les littératures techniques dans l’Antiquité romaine », in P. Gros (éd.), Vitruve et la tradition des traités d’architecture : Fabrica et ratiocinatio, Rome, École française de Rome, 2013 (Collection de l’École française de Rome, 366), p. 363-388. 23 Pour une recensions de toutes les sources qui nous ont transmis des termes latins renvoyant à la maison : W. A. Wilhelm, A. Becker, Gallus; or, Roman scenes of the time of Augustus: with notes and excursuses illustrative of the manners and customs of the Romans, London, Longmans, Green, 1891.
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Les débuts de l’examen de l’habitat à Pompéi ne dépassent donc pas les confins de l’analyse planimétrique : ils se focalisent en particulier sur la détermination d’une correspondance entre les pièces de la maison idéale et tardo-républicaine de Vitruve et les exemples préromains de Pompéi, transformés pour s’adapter à la vie de la colonie romaine. Cette question de la nomenclature, de la définition des espaces, est donc rapidement devenue centrale. La nécessité de décrire les ruines amène, de manière précoce, à l’utilisation d’une terminologie spécialisée qui puise à pleines mains dans le traité vitruvien. Déjà, les fouilleurs, entre la fin du xviiie et le début du xixe siècle, adoptent une terminologie transmise par les sources écrites pour décrire les pièces des maisons en train d’être déblayées. Au début, c’est une pratique réservée aux seuls érudits, les comptes-rendus des chefs des ouvriers utilisant encore un vocabulaire neutre et générique : corte, stanza, giardino, compreso. Très rapidement les mots latins s’imposèrent et pas seulement pour les spécialistes 24. Aujourd’hui, un visiteur de Pompéi, bien avant d’arriver sur le site, connaît déjà l’espace qui se cache derrière les mots atrium, péristyle et, pour les plus informés, compluvium et impluvium. C’est pour cette même raison que l’on peut esquiver cette question quant à la forme de la maison romaine de Pompéi. Si je parle d’un atrium, de cubicula, des alae, d’un vestibulum ou bien d’un tablinum, d’un peristylium jusqu’à en arriver à la cella ostiarii, il sera possible à tout lecteur de suivre mon discours sans qu’il ne soit nécessaire de l’accompagner avec des images. Q u’il s’agisse d’une maison « canonique » avec l’intégralité de ces pièces ou bien d’une petite maison qui de canonique ne présente que le seul atrium, ces mots sont si familiers qu’ils n’ont point besoin d’explication pour être compris ; ils se réduisent alors au statut de simple convention lexicale.
24 Le mot péristyle est déjà utilisé en 1771 (G. Fiorelli, Pompeianarum Antiquitatum Historia quam ex cod. mss. et a schedis diurnisque R. Alcubierre, C. Weber, M. Cixia, I. Corcoles, I. Perez-Conde, F. et P. La Vega, R. Amicone, A. Ribau, M. Arditi, N. d’Apuzzo ceteror. quae in publicis aut privatis bibliothecis servantur nunc primum collegit indicibusque instruxit Ios. Fiorelli ordini Academ. Herculanens. adlectus, 3 vols, Neapoli, 1860, vol. I, 1, p. 260) alors que tablinum dans sa translittération italienne, tablino, est employé déjà en 1784 (G. Fiorelli, Pompeianarum Antiquitatum Historia, vol. I, 2, p. 24).
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2.2. La codification terminologique On doit notamment à Johannes Adolf Overbeck puis à August Mau d’avoir fixé l’utilisation d’une nomenclature latine pour décrire la maison pompéienne. Dans un ouvrage dédié à la description de la ville 25, repris et réédité avec A. Mau quelques années plus tard 26, J. Overbeck théorise le Plan des römischen Normalhauses, évolution d’une maison « originelle » reconnue autour de l’atrium (Fig. 3). Cet ouvrage fige le mariage entre le plan d’une
Fig. 3. La maison « ursprünglicher » avec l’indication des noms des pièces selon la terminologie vitruvienne (d’après Overbeck, Pompeji in seinen Gebäuden, 3e éd., fig. 132). J. A. Overbeck, Pompeji in seinen Gebäuden, Alterthümern und Kunstwerken, Leipzig, Wilhelm Engelmann, 1re éd., 1856, p. 189-195 et fig. 146 et J. A. Overbeck, Pompeji in seinen Gebäuden, Alterthümern und Kunstwerken, Leipzig, Engelmann, 3e éd., 1875, p. 212-220. 26 J. A. Overbeck, A. Mau, Pompeji in seinen gebäuden, Alterthümern und Kunstwerken dargestellt von Johannes Overbeck, Leipzig, W. Engelmann, 4e éd., 1884. Sur la théorisation de la maison à plan canonique romaine républicaine voir : V. Jolivet, Tristes portiques, p. 7-24. 25
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maison type pompéienne et la terminologie latine véhiculée, entre autres, par le traité de Vitruve. D’une part, cette identification implique la définition d’une pièce par ses caractéristiques formelles et planimétriques à l’intérieur de l’édifice et, d’autre part, elle permet de reconnaître, dans une pièce une fonction à l’intérieur de la société romaine, fortement structurée. En effet, le deuxième apport du texte de Vitruve, mais également des auteurs plus tardifs, consiste à révéler la codification sociale véhiculée par le schéma planimétrique de la maison. En effet, l’architecte tardo-républicain non seulement nous informe sur les proportions d’une maison et des pièces qui la composent, mais il donne également une lecture de l’édifice selon des clés sociales. Dans son traité, les pièces sont ainsi plus organisées selon leur fonction publica ou privata, que par leur distribution et leurs connexions ; c’est la structure sociale, telle que définie par les rapports entre le patronus et ses clientes, qui détermine le caractère plus ou moins accessible des espaces, leurs dimensions et leur décoration. Après la fixation de cette convention et l’exploitation des sources textuelles disponibles, des recherches plus spécifiques ont été menées pour relier un espace non seulement à son nom latin mais surtout à sa fonction dans la société romaine entre les époques tardo-républicaine et flavienne. C’est ainsi que l’attention s’est parfois focalisée sur une pièce. Par exemple, le mot vestibulum a été l’objet d’études spécifiques, menées notamment par Eleanor Winsor Leach 27 et Xavier Lafon 28 qui, à travers l’analyse croisée des sources écrites et architecturales, s’interrogent sur la forme et l’usage que les Anciens pouvaient entendre derrière ce mot. Nous conviendrons avec Pierre Gros de la dangerosité d’essayer de concilier un texte et la réalité archéologique en utilisant un traité dont le propos n’est pas de décrire un objet réel mais 27 E. W. Leach, « The entrance Room in House of Iulius Polybius and the nature of the roman Vestibulum », in E. M. Moormann (éd.), Functional and spatial analysis of wall painting: Proceedings of the fifth International Congress on Ancient Wall Painting, Leiden, Stichting BABESCH, 1993 (BABesch Supplement 3), p. 23-28. 28 X. Lafon, « Dehors ou dedans ? Le vestibulum dans les domus aristocratiques à la fin de République et au début de l’Empire », Klio 77 (1995), p. 405423 ; E. W. Leach, The social life of painting in ancient Rome and on the Bay of Naples, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2004.
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les proportions qui régissent une typologie générale 29. En dépit de cela, des générations d’archéologues et d’historiens n’ont soulevé aucune objection à cette approche qui, par son caractère rassurant, permet de relier un objet complexe comme la maison à un vocabulaire qui lui est propre, en dépit des difficultés déjà exprimées par les Anciens pour apparier le mot et la chose. 2.3. Les années 1990 : la révolution méthodologique À partir de la fin des années 1980 et du début des 1990, les acquis sur la maison romaine pompéienne connaissent un fort renouveau grâce aux travaux de deux protagonistes principaux, Andrew Wallace-Hadrill et Penelope Allison, dont les recherches demeurent encore aujourd’hui au centre du débat méthodologique sur ce sujet. L’approche expérimentée par A. Wallace-Hadrill a clairement révolutionné la manière de penser la maison, en inaugurant une véritable réflexion anthropologique sur la maison romaine à Pompéi. Cette nouvelle approche a pu se développer notamment grâce aux travaux menés depuis la fin des années 1970 sur le site. On rappellera, entre autres, le travail de l’équipe allemande qui, en 1984, publia le premier volume de la série Häuser in Pompeij, dédié à la maison du Principe di Napoli (VI 15, 8) 30. Cet édifice de dimensions assez réduites présente la particularité de conserver une décoration unitaire, réalisée autour des années 50 de n. è. par un seul atelier de peintres. Ce contexte a permis à Volker Michael Strocka d’observer que les différents secteurs de la maison ont été peints avec des décorations assez modestes pour les espaces de vie et plus articulées dans les espaces de représentation. 29 P. Gros, « Les illustrations du De architectura de Vitruve : histoire d’un malentendu. Les littératures techniques dans l’Antiquité romaine », § 28. 30 V. M. Strocka (éd.), Casa del Principe di Napoli (VI 15, 7.8), Tubingen, E. Wasmuth, 1984 (Häuser in Pompeji, 1). Voir le compte de rendu de A. Wallace-Hadrill, « Häuser in Pompeji. Vol. I. Casa del Principe di Napoli (VI 15, 7·8). By Volker Michael Strocka, Tübingen, 1984-1985 », AntJ 66.2 (1986), p. 433-434. Pour une description du projet : V. M. Strocka, W. Ehrhardt, « “Case di Pompei”: un progetto scientifico internazionale dell’Istituto Archeologico Germanico », RSP 1 (1987), p. 203-208. Entre 1984 et 2004, 12 volumes, chacun dédié à une ou deux maisons, ont été publiés.
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Daniela Corlàita Scagliarini 31 avait déjà souligné le lien indissoluble entre la décoration et les espaces grâce à la fonction structurante des décorations peintes qui permet de formuler des liens sémantiques et structurels. Ce faisant, elle posait de facto les termes d’une analyse de la peinture davantage intégrée à l’édifice et s’écartant d’une vision purement stylistique des parois peintes selon des clés chronologiques, ce qui avait caractérisé les études antérieures. Bien qu’utilisant toujours les sources littéraires comme point de départ, démarche qui lui sera reprochée comme on le verra, A. Wallace-Hadrill souligne le rapport intrinsèque entre vie privée et publique et l’impact direct que cela avait sur l’architecture des maisons. Le titre du premier article, The social structure of the Roman house 32, annonce clairement le changement de paradigme : le point d’observation s’éloigne d’une vision planimétrique et distributive des espaces pour explorer le fonctionnement d’un groupe à travers l’analyse de l’architecture déployée par celui-ci puis exploitée selon des clés politiques et sociales. La morphologie de la maison assume ainsi pleinement une structure que l’on pourrait définir comme tridimensionnelle où les différentes sphères de la vie antique sont projetées dans un espace complexe. Dans la lignée des travaux de Pierre Bourdieu et d’Yvon Thébert, la maison se transforme ainsi de récipient passif en instrument actif qui aide à véhiculer le message du groupe humain l’occupant. A. Wallace-Hadrill montre de la sorte l’importance de considérer la maison non seulement comme un lieu de vie mais également comme un lieu de production et d’autoreprésentation du monde des élites, qui met en scène son pouvoir à travers l’architecture 31 D. Corlàita Scagliarini, « Spazio e decorazione nella pittura pompeiana », Palladio n.s. 23-24 (1974), p. 3-29. 32 A. Wallace-Hadrill, « The social structure of the Roman house », PBSR 56 (1988), p. 43-97. Ce premier article suivi par A. Wallace-Hadrill, « The social spread of Roman luxury: sampling Pompeii and Herculaneum », PBSR 58 (1990), p. 145-192 ; A Wallace-Hadrill, « Elites and Trade in the Roman Town », in J. Rich, A. Wallace-Hadrill (éd.), City and country in the ancient world, London, Routledge, 1991 (Leicester-Nottingham studies in ancient society, 2), p. 241-272 ; A. Wallace-Hadrill, « Houses and Households: Sampling Pompeii and Herculaneum », in B. Rawson (éd.), Marriage, divorce, and children in ancient Rome, Canberra-Oxford, Humanities Research Centre – Clarendon Press, 1991, p. 191-227, réunis ensuite dans un volume unique : A. Wallace-Hadrill, Houses and society in Pompeii and Herculaneum, Princeton (N. J.), Princeton University press, 1994.
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et le décor. Le concept de correspondance entre la position sociale d’un homme et sa demeure est ainsi développé. Le traité de Vitruve reste en cela un point de référence précis grâce auquel A. Wallace-Hadrill souligne l’interdépendance sémantique entre l’architecture privée et publique, la seconde servant de modèle à la première. À l’intérieur, dans l’espace public de la maison indiquée par Vitruve, dans l’atrium notamment, le dominus met donc en scène les pratiques liées à la salutatio et à l’accueil de son propre public, les clientes, acteurs et protagonistes de la vie publique du dominus. À côté de cela, les espaces de service, cuisines et lieux de production, fréquentés par les esclaves, cantonnent ces derniers, dans les maisons les plus développés, aux marges de l’édifice, les prive notamment de visibilité, dans un système centripète dont le cœur est l’atrium. Le mérite d’A. Wallace-Hadrill a été également de souligner la différence sémantique qui sépare notre culture contemporaine des concepts de familia, amici, et notamment de ce qui est publicus et ce qui est privatus. Cette nouvelle approche pourrait être résumée avec le schéma proposé par l’auteur, qui décrit les vecteurs de lecture et d’articulation de la maison (Fig. 4). Les deux grands axes indiqués par Vitruve, public/ privé et éminent/humble, délimitent un espace social de circulation à l’intérieur de la maison, dans lequel tout l’entourage du dominus trouve sa place.
Fig. 4. Schéma reproduisant les lignes sur lesquelles s’articule une maison romaine (d’après A. Wallace-Hadrill, Houses and society, p. 38).
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L’homme et les normes sociales viennent donc peupler la maison pompéienne. Soulignons l’homme car, dans le travail d’A. Wallace-Hadrill, seul le point de vue du dominus est traité. Grandes absentes, les femmes dont la place à l’intérieur du foyer n’est guère discutée et rapidement évacuée en soulignant la difficulté de déterminer si des pièces leur étaient destinées 33. D’autre part, le système d’A. Wallace-Hadrill – justement parce qu’il a réussi à créer un compromis entre le texte de Vitruve et les sources archéologiques – paralyse la réflexion dans une reconstruction univoque et indépassable écartant toute possible critique constructive. Une fois intégrés ces nouveaux paradigmes, les chercheurs se tournent désormais vers une véritable étude anthropologique de la maison. Le travail d’A. Wallace-Hadrill, bien que présentant des limites propres à sa démarche – laquelle est encore profondément liée à une primauté des textes littéraires par rapport aux données archéologiques – a le mérite de stimuler un débat dans lequel émergent notamment les travaux de P. Allison. Dans le but d’étudier le comportement de l’homme romain et les relations interpersonnelles dans leur vie quotidienne (households archaeology), P. Allison bâtit une critique sévère contre l’approche classique privilégiant les sources écrites, simplement complétées et illustrées par les données archéologiques, contre la seule autre clé de lecture d’ordre architectonique. Avec une méthode qui n’avait pas encore été tentée à Pompéi 34, P. Allison sélectionne 30 maisons dans lesquelles elle cherche à identifier des ensembles d’artefact et leur distribution dans l’espace en fonction de l’architecture. La sortie de sa monogra-
33 En cela, A. Wallace-Hadrill discute notamment la position d’A. Maiuri, « Ginecèo e “Hospitium” nella casa pompeiana », Atti della Accademia nazionale dei Lincei. Memorie della Classe di scienze morali, storiche e filologiche 5.9 (1954), p. 449-467. Cette critique sur le travail d’A. Wallace-Hadrill a été formulée par L. C. Nevett, Domestic space in classical antiquity, Cambridge, Cambridge University press, 2010, p. 94-95. 34 Dans une recension à l’ouvrage de P. Allison, V. Jolivet manifeste sa surprise sur le fait qu’une telle approche n’ait pas été appliquée systématiquement auparavant : V. Jolivet, « La maison romaine en Italie : planimétrie, décor et fonction des espaces. Compte rendu de P. Allison, Pompeian Households. An Analysis of the Material Culture. Cotsen Institute of Archaeology, UCLA, Monograph 42 », Perspective 1 (2009), p. 63-68, en part. p. 68.
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phie Pompeian households: an analysis of material culture 35 avait été précédée par une série d’articles dans lesquels les termes du débat étaient posés 36. Les travaux d’A. Wallace-Hadrill et de P. Allison sont en fait intimement liés : ils partagent les mêmes questionnements et la recherche de P. Allison se pose en contrepoint de celle menée par A. Wallace-Hadrill. En effet, une différence, probablement essentielle, existe entre ces deux analyses. Il s’agit d’une question d’échelle : le travail d’A. Wallace-Hadrill vise à identifier le contexte socio-culturel large dans lequel l’homme romain évolue 37, tandis que P. Allison descend à un niveau de détail plus poussé, menant l’expérience jusqu’à l’objet, dans la pièce, qui est le plus petit dénominateur de son enquête 38. Tous deux travaillent presque de manière simultanée sur le sujet, et en 1990 lorsque A. Wallace-Hadrill publie The social spread of Roman luxury: sampling Pompeii and Herculaneum 39, la thèse de P. Allison, soutenue en 1992, est presque achevée et sa méthode déjà 35 P. M. Allison, Pompeian households: an analysis of material culture, Los Angeles, Cotsen Institute of Archaeology, University of California Press, 2004. 36 Voir en particulier : P. M. Allison, « How do we identify the use of space in Roman housing? », in E. M. Moormann (éd.), Functional and spatial analysis of wall painting. Proceedings of the fifth International Congress on Ancient Wall Painting, Leiden, Stichting BABESCH, 1993 (BABesch. Supplement 3), p. 1-7 ; P. M. Allison, « Artefact distribution and spatial function in Pompeian houses », in P. R. C. Weaver, B. Rawson (éd.), The Roman family in Italy : status, sentiment, space, Canberra-Oxford, Humanities Research Centre – Clarendon Press, 1997, p. 321-354 ; P. M. Allison, « The Household in Historical Archaeology », Australasian Society for Historical Archaeology 16 (1998), p. 16-29 ; P. M. Allison, Archaeology of Household Activities, London-New York, Routledge, 1999 ; P. M. Allison, « Using the material and written sources: turn of the millennium approaches to roman domestic space », AJA 105.2 (2001), p. 181-208. 37 Voir sur ce point les réflexions et les précautions exprimées par l’auteur notamment quant à une approche statistique de l’étude de la maison (A. Wallace-Hadrill, Houses and society, p. 66-87). 38 Voir les critiques de J. Berry qui considère la pièce comme un cadre trop contraignant : J. Berry, « Households artefacts: towards a re-interpretation of Roman domestic space », in R. Laurence, A. Wallace-Hadrill (éd.), Domestic space in the Roman world: Pompeii and beyond, Portsmouth, Journal of Roman Archaeology, 1997 (JRA. Supplementary series 22), p. 183-195, en part. p. 194. 39 A. Wallace-Hadrill, « The social spread of roman luxury: sampling Pompeii and Herculaneum », article dont le texte est réédité dans le chapitre IV : Houses and urban texture de Wallace-Hadrill, Houses and society, p. 65-90.
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au point. Son influence dans le travail de Wallace-Hadrill est clairement explicitée par ce dernier. Dans l’article de 1990 consacré aux éléments qui marquent l’opulence dans la maison romaine, les caractères discriminants qu’il exploite demeurent strictement liés à la forme architecturale et au décor ; seule une partie congrue (deux pages) de son article est dédiée aux objets, paradoxalement définis comme « the crucial part [of the study] » 40. Dans un rare mouvement d’autocritique, il admet la limite majeure de son enquête : n’avoir utilisé que la structure et la décoration des maisons alors que les objets pourraient parler beaucoup plus clairement du statut social des habitants. La raison en est simple : les objets ont subi premièrement un filtre au moment de leur conservation, lors des fouilles, et d’autre part il n’existe pas, à ce moment (en 1990, mais cela n’a pas changé depuis), une étude systématique sur leur provenance et, pour beaucoup de classes de matériaux, une interprétation (univoque) de leur fonction. Avec cela, tout en reconnaissant en 1994 à Penelope Allison d’avoir souligné l’importance et la difficulté de l’étude des objets en contexte, il persiste à considérer que la prise en compte de ces éléments n’est pas envisageable, se positionnant ainsi dans une claire provocation à l’encontre du travail de cette dernière. Toute étude partielle ne pourra pas être retenue, seule une vision exhaustive pourrait (le conditionnel est indispensable) apporter des éléments de réflexion plus précis ou, pour le dire avec les mots d’A. Wallace-Hadrill : « When this has been done, it may be possible to give more sophisticated and reliable answers to some of the questions raised in this book » 41. L’étude de P. Allison est en effet partielle, et il ne pouvait en être différemment. Cependant, ce caractère limité n’est pas l’élément le plus problématique, contrairement au filtre imposé par l’autrice. Dans un travail qui se veut objectif, une volonté soulignée à plusieurs reprises, P. Allison établit une barrière gênante : elle ne tisse pas de lien avec l’objet, protagoniste central de son raisonnement. En effet, elle ne procède pas à une étude directe des objets mais utilise principalement les descriptions transmises par les journaux de fouille au moment de leur découverte puis de leur inventaire 42. Ce faisant, P. Allison soumet son travail aux aléas de Wallace-Hadrill, « The social spread of roman luxury », p. 187-189. Wallace-Hadrill, Houses and society, p. 89. 42 Allison, Pompeian households, p. 35. 40 41
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ces documents marqués par une forte instabilité lexicale, qu’elle souligne, accrue par l’évolution continuelle de la terminologie déployée pour la définition des objets, des problématiques qui lui sont pourtant familières. Ses sources souffrent également d’une inégalité dans la description des contextes, qui varie sensiblement en fonction des périodes 43. Ce choix, s’il est compréhensible en raison des difficultés évidentes – les objets de son échantillon de maisons sont au nombre de 16 000 –, sape la base même de son travail 44. Les limites – fixées et subies – sont doubles : l’éloignement de sa source primaire et un emploi peu critique – ou avec une critique très inachevée – des documents d’archive. Si cela constitue des points faibles dans sa recherche, ses travaux offrent toutefois un instrument innovant qui, pour ceux qui le souhaitent, permet une vérification et une reprise précise de ses interprétations : une base de données accessible en ligne 45. Cette démarche projette le travail dans un système en open access dès 2004, alors que ce n’est que difficilement, et seulement depuis quelques années, devenu une pratique déployée en archéologie. D’une manière très honnête, bien qu’en défendant comme de juste sa position, P. Allison ne cache pas les limites de sa méthode, au risque des contradictions. Sans entrer ici dans le détail, un point important est celui où, bien que considérant que la fonction de chaque pièce est définie par le matériel qu’on y retrouve, elle admet que la vaisselle pouvait être conservée dans des pièces prévues à cet effet, dans des armoires, et non pas dans leur lieu d’uti P. M. Allison, Pompeian households, p. 29-36 ; pour les archives de fouilles de Pompéi voir une présentation générale dans S. Zanella, « Archives de fouilles de Pompéi : mode(s) d’emploi. Un parcours dans les archives », in S. Zanella, J.-P. Brun, M. Denoyelle, P. Rouillard, S. Verger (éd.), Les archives de fouilles : modes d’emploi, Paris, Collège de France, 2017 (Institut des civilisations), http://books.openedition.org/cdf/4911 (consulté le 22 mai 2017). 44 Ce problème a été partiellement corrigé lors de la publication des objets de l’îlot du Ménandre (P. M. Allison, The insula of the Menander at Pompeii. Volume III: the Finds, Oxford, Clarendon Press, 2006). Sur les problèmes qui y subsistent, voir N. Monteix, « Compte rendu de Penelope M. Allison, The insula of the Menander at Pompeii, III: the finds, a contextual study, Oxford, Clarendon Press, 2006 », RA 48.2 (2009), p. 401-404. 45 La base de donnée est disponible en ligne : Pompeian households: analysis of the material culture, Monograph 42. Los Angeles: Cotsen Institute of Archaeology, UCLA (2004) : https://web.archive.org/web/20190619221951/http:// www.stoa.org/projects/ph/home. 43
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lisation 46. Cette remarque mine une partie de son objectif qui est, avant tout, d’observer la distribution d’objets dans l’espace et de les considérer comme la marque des activités se déroulant dans la pièce. Le stockage, la « maison rangée » de Ria Berg 47, est difficilement compatible avec cette analyse 48. Q uelles sont les conclusions auxquelles parvient P. Allison ? Une question sous-tend l’intégralité de son travail : quel est l’usage des pièces qui transparaît de la répartition des objets dans une maison pompéienne en 79 de notre ère ? Les réponses à cette question sont, somme toute, assez décevantes. La plupart des critiques sur cette monographie ne retient que l’exemple de l’atrium (le front hall). Cet espace ne serait pas destiné, comme les sources écrites nous l’ont transmis, à une fonction de représentation. Il aurait, au contraire, une fonction assez utilitaire en raison du nombre d’éléments de stockage qu’on y retrouve ainsi qu’une fonction de circulation et de rencontre pour des activités variées liées à trois sphères différentes : domestique, production et commerce 49. Elle visait à une définition exclusive de l’utilisation de l’espace. C’est certainement sur cette absence de prise en compte de la multi-fonctionnalité des pièces qu’on peut être le moins en accord avec P. Allison : une fonction n’exclut pas l’autre 50. Si les limites que nous avons soulignées rendent ses conclusions difficilement partageables, les méthodes et les outils développés sont en revanche des innovations fondamentales qui restent encore fondamentaux aujourd’hui. Assurément, l’apport majeur de ce travail réside dans les questionnements posés, plus que sur les résultats de définition fonctionnelle ou sur la critique ouverte de la représentation de Pompéi que les Modernes ont construite 51. Allison, Pompeian households, p. 132. R. Berg, « La casa come cassaforte. Riflessioni sulle zone di attività e zone di deposito », in Centro y periferia en el mundo clasico, Merida, Museo Nacional de Arte Romano, 2014, vol. 1, p. 41-44. 48 L. C. Nevett, Domestic space, p. 103-105. 49 Voir les différentes définitions données par Allison, Pompeian households, p. 70 et 166. 50 Voir les remarques en ce sens de S. T. A. M. Mols, « Compte rendu à : Pompeian Households. An Analysis of the Material Culture. Cotsen Institute of Archaeology, UCLA, Monograph 42 », BMCR 07.29 (2005), p. 1-6. 51 J. Dubouloz, « Compte rendu de P. Allison, Pompeian Households. An Analysis of the Material Culture. Cotsen Institute of Archaeology, UCLA, Monograph 42 », BMCR 40.2 (2005), p. 414-417. 46 47
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Un autre élément innovant de l’approche de P. Allison tient dans son refus de la terminologie latine pour étiqueter les pièces des maisons. La valeur sémantique entraîne des cercles vicieux où les éléments architecturaux et décoratifs d’une pièce servent à valider le terme latin qui, à son tour, valide l’interprétation proposée. P. Allison développe ainsi un système qui se détache le plus possible des textes anciens en regroupant les pièces en 22 types, décrits par des locutions modernes se voulant objectives. D’un point de vue méthodologique, cet exercice est très intéressant car il oblige le lecteur à une autocensure visant à bâtir une approche la plus détachée possible des a priori portés par la valeur sémantique cachée derrière les termes latins. S’il était indispensable pour l’autrice d’aller jusqu’au bout de sa méthode, il faut reconnaître que cela entraîne une complexification telle qu’elle aboutit, en dernière analyse, à l’effet inverse de celui qui était recherché. Un tableau recueille en effet les différents types de pièces, déclinés en fonction de trois « secteurs » différents, la partie antérieure de la maison, les pièces entourant le jardin et les autres espaces. Dans ces trois sections, les pièces sont rangées selon leur localisation puis, paradoxalement, une correspondance avec les mots latins communément utilisés est proposée (Fig. 5). Ce tableau d’équivalence entre les termes latins et les locutions modernes déployées pour décrire les espaces génère une série de questionnements : il introduit une identité entre un mot latin et sa possible identification dans les vestiges ; on revient au plan de J. Overbeck. Si le lecteur reste donc assez déçu quant aux résultats et aux questionnements posés, la méthode devient le centre du discours. Il s’agit certainement d’un autre apport majeur du travail de P. Allison. Parallèlement, un ouvrage vient en quelque sorte marquer le changement et faire un point sur les méthodes d’analyse développées face à la complexité de la maison romaine : Domestic space in the Roman world: Pompeii and beyond 52. Né à la suite d’un colloque tenu à l’Université de Reading en 1994 et publié en 1997, ce volume rassemble une partie des acteurs de la recherche sur la 52 R. Laurence, A. Wallace-Hadrill (éd.), Domestic space in the Roman world: Pompeii and beyond, Portsmouth, Journal of Roman Archaeology, 1997 (JRA. Supplementary series 22).
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Type
1
Section
Front hall area
Location/description
Latin term commonly used
Fauces, vestibula
Main entranceway
2
Room leading directly off front entranceway
Cella ostiaria
3
Front hall, usually with central opening and pool
Atrium
4
Small closed room off side of front hall
Cubiculum
5
Open-fronted area off side of front hall
Ala
6
Large/medium room off corner of front hall
Triclinium
7
Open-sided room opposite main entrance or leading to garden
Tablinum
8 9
Fauces, andrones
Lang, narrow internal corridor Main garden area Main garden, colonnaded garden and ambulatories, or terrace
Peristylun, ambulatio, viridarium Triclinium
10
Large/medium closed room off garden/ terrace but with no view
11
Large/medium open-fronted room off garden/ terrace with window Oecus, exedra, triclinium or wide entranceway giving view of garden or lower floor
12
Small closed room o:ff garden/ terrace or lower floor
Cubiculum
13
Small open-fronted area off garden / terrace or lower floor
Exedra
14
Other areas
15 16 17
Room with cooking hearth or associated room (kitchen area)
Culina
Latrine as entire room
Latrina
Other room outside main front-hall/ garden complex
Repositorium, cubiculum, stabulum, praefurnium
Stairway
18
Secondary internal garden or court, usually not colonnaded
Hortus, xystus, atrium, vestibulum
19
Secondary entrance or entrance courtyard
Fauces, posticum, stabulum
20 21 22
Room at front of house open to street (shop)
Tabernae
Bath area
Balnea, atriolum, apodyterium, tepidarium, calidarium, frigidarium, laconicum
Upper floor rooms and material in upper-level deposits
Cenaculum
Fig. 5. Tableau d’équivalence entre les termes latins et les locutions modernes déployées pour décrire les espace (d’après Allison, Pompeian households, Tab. 5.a).
maison romaine et sa société. Outre les approches déjà commentées, on s’arrêtera sur le travail de Mark Grahame qui présente à cette occasion une partie de sa thèse de doctorat, dans laquelle la maison romaine de Pompéi est analysée selon les paradigmes de la Space Syntax Analysis 53. M. Grahame, « Public and private in the Roman house. The spatial order of the Casa del Fauno », in R. Laurence, A. Wallace-Hadrill (éd.), Domestic space in the Roman world: Pompeii and beyond, Portsmouth, Journal of Roman Archaeology, 1997 (JRA. Supplementary series 22), p. 137-164 ; M. Grahame, Reading space: social interaction and identity in the houses of Roman Pompeii: a syntactical approach to the analysis and interpretation of built space, Oxford, Archaeopress, 2000 (BAR International series 886). 53
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L’analyse de la syntaxe de l’espace, développée notamment par Bill Hillier et Julienne Hanson, fonde ses bases sur un postulat assez simple : la société – scil. contemporaine – a une logique spatiale qui lui est propre ; l’espace présente, à son tour, une logique sociale particulière. En utilisant l’alpha-analysis, l’analyse syntactique des environnements habités appliquée à la maison, les promoteurs de cette théorie, pour les paraphraser, veulent par ce biais montrer comment les édifices peuvent être décrits et mis en parallèle en fonction de leur organisation interne, mais également comment l’édifice sert d’interface pour les relations entre les occupants et les visiteurs. Avec cela, ils veulent donc démontrer « que, en principe, l’organisation spatiale est une fonction de la forme de solidarité sociale – ou des principes organisateurs de la reproduction sociale – dans cette société » 54. L’espace est ainsi principalement considéré comme une construction sociale, et observé notamment en recourant à l’access analysis, dont le but est de quantifier le degré d’interaction sociale possible à l’intérieur d’une configuration architecturale 55. L’accessibilité est un concept qui devient central dans le travail de M. Grahame qui étudie un échantillon de maisons pompéiennes de la Regio VI. Dans son travail, fondé sur l’observation du plan de l’édifice, à partir du plan édité en 1984 56, chaque pièce se voit attribuer un degré d’accessibilité et le rapport entre les différentes pièces est étudié en fonction de celui-ci 57. Deux éléments sont importants dans son raisonnement : la relative asymmetry et la control value. Le premier est la valeur absolue d’accessibilité qui s’obtient avec un regard global sur les espaces de la maison. Plus cette valeur est haute, plus l’espace est intime : pour pouvoir y accéder, un plus grand nombre d’espaces doit être traversé. La control value est un facteur interne à l’édifice, il mesure le 54 B. Hillier, J. Hanson, The social logic of space, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1984, p. 143. Voir également B. Hillier, Space is the machine: a configurational theory of architecture, London, Space Syntax, 2007. 55 R. Taylor, « ‘Reading’ space in the houses of Pompeii’s Regio VI », in M. Grahame (éd.), Reading space: social interaction and identity in the houses of Roman Pompeii: a syntactical approach to the analysis and interpretation of built space, Archaeopress, Oxford 2000 (BAR International Series 886), p. 439-444. 56 H. B. Van der Poel, Corpus Topographicum Pompeianum, Rome, Bardi Editore, 1984 (Researches in Campanian archaeology). 57 Voir en particulier l’exemple de la maison du Faune.
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poids qu’a un espace dans le contrôle de l’accès à d’autres pièces. Ce système est représenté graphiquement par un diagramme à nœuds, le Johnson graph ou J-graph (Fig. 6). Malheureusement, les conclusions de Grahame sont très ambiguës, et les règles qui en découlent sont abstraites à l’extrême. La manière dont les résultats de l’analyse se traduisent en termes d’interaction humaine, ou la contribution qu’ils apportent à notre compréhension de la société pompéienne, sont deux points cruciaux jamais clarifiés. Si la méthode est très intéressante, elle manque ici, dans son application au contexte pompéien, d’une approche tridimensionnelle et diachronique. L’évolution d’un être humain dans l’espace est en effet écrasée par l’utilisation d’une planimétrie bidimensionnelle et non évolutive où la maison est dépouillée de tout l’apparat architectural et du mobilier qui la caractérise.
Fig. 6. Configurations spatiales représentées à l’aide de j-graph (d’après Hillier, Space is the machine, fig. 1.3).
Une application de la Space Syntax Analysis au niveau de la maison 58 a été tentée par Michael Anderson qui, dans un article Rappelons en effet que, à l’échelle de la ville, la Space Syntax Analysis a été exploitée dans M. Weilguni, K. Fridell Anter, Streets, spaces and places: three Pompeiian movement axes analysed, Uppsala, Uppsala Universitet, 2011. 58
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paru en 2011, présente les résultats d’une enquête menée sur l’impact des tas de matériaux de construction entreposés dans les maisons en 79 – relatifs à des travaux en cours dans les édifices entre 62/63 et 79 – sur la visibilité des différentes pièces 59. Son but est de comprendre si et comment le tremblement de terre de 62/63 a bouleversé l’organisation et la fréquentation des maisons et comment cela a influencé la vie quotidienne des habitants. La méthode utilisée combine les principes de la Space Syntax Analysis aux potentialités d’un SIG afin d’appréhender, d’un point de vue quantitatif, deux des plus importants aspects de la construction de l’espace : le mouvement et la visibilité. Cela amène M. Anderson à créer le modèle micro-topographique d’une sélection de maisons dont les pièces ont été analysées selon leur degré de visibilité : plus une pièce est visible, moins elle est intime ; moins une pièce est visible plus elle est isolée ou bénéficie d’intimité. Ainsi la combinaison de l’analyse des accès et de la visibilité donne des informations sur les qualités spatiovisual d’une pièce (Fig. 7) 60. L’échantillon pris en considération recoupe en partie celui étudié par P. Allison et exploite les résultats obtenus par cette dernière sur la répartition des objets dans les différentes pièces 61. L’analyse de la distribution et de la visibilité de matériaux de construction entreposés dans les pièces porte l’auteur à conclure que la position de la plupart de ces matériaux a été choisie pour nuire le moins possible à la vie domestique. Il conclut notamment en expliquant que le souci de cacher ces matériaux implique que les portes de la maison demeuraient ouvertes, estimant ainsi que les rites sociaux propres à la vie romaine continuaient. L’analyse menée est très précise et a un impact très important pour l’historiographie pompéienne : elle donne un argument fort pour écarter la thèse d’A. Maiuri d’un abandon généralisé des maisons et de l’invasion des anciennes domus par les ate59 M. Anderson, « Disruption or Continuity? The Spatio-Visual Evidence of the Post Earthquake Pompeii », in E. Poehler, M. Flohr, K. Cole (éd.), Pompeii: art, industry, and infrastructure, Oxford, Oxbow Books, 2011, p. 74-84. L’article présente synthétiquement les résultats de sa thèse de doctorat (M. Anderson, Visitors, inhabitants, space and power in the Pompeian house, soutenue à l’University of Cambridge, 2005). 60 Anderson, « Disruption or Continuity? », p. 78. 61 Anderson, « Disruption or Continuity? », Tabl. 5.1.
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Fig. 7. Plan d’accessibilité et de visibilité d’une maison de Pompéi (casa del Sacello Iliaco I 6, 4) (d’après Anderson, « Disruption or Continuity? », fig. 5.4).
liers de production, dans un climat de décadence par rapport à une gloire passée ; une thèse qui se trouvait en toile de fond du travail de P. Allison et qui en a influencé pour partie les résultats. Ceci est donc plus que suffisant pour compter l’étude de M. Anderson parmi les plus innovantes de ses dernières années sur la maison pompéienne. En même temps, il révolutionne l’histoire sociale et économique de la ville : contrairement aux héritages historiographiques, on apprend que les Pompéiens œuvraient afin de pouvoir conduire « normalement » leur vie, même dans des conditions imparfaites. En revanche, la volonté de M. Anderson de projeter son travail dans l’univers des rites sociaux transmis par les sources textuelles l’entraîne plus loin. Pour lui, si les matériaux de construction étaient invisibles depuis la porte d’entrée, cela signifie que les portes de la maison de48
L’ARCHÉOLOGIE DES ESPACES DOMESTIQ UES À POMPÉI
meuraient ouvertes au public, permettant ainsi aux rites sociaux, et à la salutatio en particulier, de se dérouler normalement 62. Cependant, aucun indice n’indique que les portes de la maison demeuraient ouvertes. La porte d’entrée est le point central, voire exclusif, d’accès à la maison ; elle se présente donc comme le point de vue principal sur la maison lorsque l’on y accède. Aucune visibilité permanente n’y est pourtant imposée : en séjour nant par exemple, dans le péristyle, en adoptant ainsi un point de vue inversé, les tas de matériaux de construction demeuraient également invisibles, parce qu’ils étaient stockés dans des pièces souvent dotées de portes – qui pouvaient être fermées – ou dans des angles morts. On reconnaît là encore l’influence culturelle des sources textuelles auxquelles nous sommes soumis, ce qui est probablement la barrière la plus difficile à dépasser. En dépit de ce glissement, qui trahit le poids d’une approche traditionnelle à l’étude de l’espace domestique, le travail de M. Anderson montre clairement l’intérêt de combiner différentes méthodologies : l’adéquation stricte au résultat de l’analyse de tous les témoignages archéologiques, issue des travaux de P. Allison, est exploitée dans le cadre de la théorie de la Space Syntax Analysis et insérée dans des cas d’étude concrets, présentés dans un système SIG qui ouvre les portes à des analyses multiscalaires de l’espace.
3. Q uelques éléments de réflexions Les méthodes déployées par les chercheurs pour explorer le vaste champ d’étude de la maison romaine – et leurs limites –, montrent clairement la nécessité d’un travail qui soit avant tout interdisciplinaire. Aucun chercheur, pris isolément, ne peut plus penser être à même de maîtriser parfaitement plusieurs domaines de recherche parfois éloignés. L’étude des peintures, des pavements, de la culture matérielle, de l’architecture, le champ des mathématiques, des statistiques, les systèmes de base de données, les textes littéraires, etc. doivent désormais être déployés simultanément. Cette liste, certainement incomplète, souligne la né Anderson, « Disruption or Continuity? », p. 87.
62
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cessité d’autant de spécialistes en mesure de porter la recherche à un niveau de détail et de compréhension globale qui requiert une forte implication. Les études « spécialisées » qui sont en train de se développer vont clairement en ce sens. L’étude d’aspects spécifiques, tels que l’étude des quartiers d’hiver, des étages, de la question de la circulation d’air et de lumière, ou encore des aménagements et réaménagements des espaces, sont en fort développement. Tout comme le sont des aspects plus strictement anthropologiques comme l’interaction directe et quotidienne entre hommes et maison, comme la place de la femme, des enfants dans la maison, comme la gestion et l’interaction entre différents groupes sociaux au sein de l’espace domestique. Les grands absents de cet essai de synthèse sont les autres maisons, romaines certes, mais qui ne sont pas organisées selon la structure canonique résumée par l’axe atrium-tablinum-péristyle. Pour ces maisons, le discours est plus complexe ou, au contraire, plus librement analytique et socialement stratifié : il est moins influencé par les sources littéraires. Je pense aux travaux par exemple de James Packer, Felix Pirson, Salvatore Ciro Nappo, Miko Flohr 63. Mais ce sont les études spécifiques qui permettent probablement les avancées plus significatives : celle sur les espaces du travail domestique de Pia Kastenmeier 64 ; celle sur le sacré dans la maison 65 ; celle sur la maison comme lieu de 63 J. E. Packer, « Inns at Pompeii: a short survey », Cronache Pompeiane 4 (1978), p. 5-53 ; F. Pirson, Mietwohnungen in Pompeji und Herkulaneum. Untersuchungen zur Architektur, zum Wohnen und zur Sozial- und Wirtschaftsgeschichte der Vesuvstädte, München, F. Pfeil, 1999 (Studien zur antiken Stadt 5) ; S. C. Nappo, « Alcuni esempi di tipologie di case popolari della fine III, inizio II secolo a.C. a Pompei », RSP 6 (1993), p. 77-104 ; M. Flohr, « Keeping up appearances. Design, history and use of domus VI 14, 21-22 », RSP 16 (2005), p. 37-63 ; M. Flohr, « Working and living under one roof. Workshops in Pompeian atrium houses », in A. Anguissola (éd.), Privata luxuria: towards an archaeology of intimacy Pompei and beyond international workshop, Center for advanced studies, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München (24-25 march 2011), München, H. Utz, 2012 (Münchner Studien zur Alten Welt 8), p. 51-72. 64 P. Kastenmeier, I luoghi del lavoro domestico nella casa pompeiana, Roma, « L’Erma » di Bretschneider, 2007 (Studi della Soprintendenza archeologica di Pompei 23). 65 M. Bassani, Sacraria. Ambienti e piccoli edifici per il culto domestico in area vesuviana, Roma, Q uasar, 2008 ; W. Van Andringa, « Dal sacrificio al banchetto. Rituali e topografia della casa romana », in M. Bassani, F. Ghe-
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mémoire et de mnémotechnique de Catherine Baroin 66 ; ou encore les études sur des pièces particulières comme les cubicula par Anna Anguissola 67 et Laura Nissin 68 ; le péristyle par Samuli Simelius 69 et Yukiko Kawamoto 70 ; le tablinum par Alexia Maquinay 71 ; les alae par Elisabetta Cova 72. J’ai déjà évoqué l’étude de la décoration ; il faut également rappeler l’importance de l’étude de la maison sous les aspects juridiques 73. À terme, ces études spécifiques toucheront l’ensemble des aspects décrivant les activités et les rapports sociaux dans la maison. Pour terminer ce survol, état de l’art partiel des approches anthropologiques de la maison romaine à Pompéi, il me semble utile de rappeler les limites de cet objet. Pompéi n’est pas une ville figée à un moment précis de sa vie : tremblements de terres, éruption, pillages plus ou moins autorisés, vie qui reprend à 10 mètres au-dessus de la ville pendant un temps indéterminé, fouilles non comparables méthodologiquement, restaurations et reconstructions modernes … Pompéi a été marquée par une perte continuelle et des transformations profondes des informations disponibles. Il importe de prendre en compte ces limites ; dini (éd.), Religionem significare: aspetti storico-religiosi, strutturali, iconografici e materiali dei Sacra privata. Atti dell’Incontro di studi (Padova, 8-9 giugno 2009) Università degli studi di Padova, Dipartimento di Archeologia, Roma, Q uasar, 2011 (Antenor quaderni 19), p. 91-98. 66 C. Baroin, « La maison romaine comme image et lieu de mémoire », in Images romaines, Paris, Presses de l’École normale supérieure, 1998, p. 177-191. 67 A. Anguissola, Intimità a Pompei: riservatezza, condivisione e prestigio negli ambienti ad alcova di Pompei, Berlin-New York, De Gruyter, 2010 (Image & context). 68 L. Nissin, Roman sleep: sleeping areas and sleeping arrangements in the Roman house, Helsinki, University of Helsinki, 2016. 69 S. Simelius, « Activities in Pomppeii’s private peristyles. The place of the peristyle in the public-private dichotomy », in K. Tuori, L. Nissin (éd.), Public and private in the Roman house and society, Portsmouth, 2015 (JRA. Supplementary series 102), p. 119-131. 70 Thèse soutenue en 2015 au King’s College London et intitulée « The Vitruvian Peristyle: A Textual and Archaeological Study ». 71 Thèse soutenue en 2018 sous la direction de Gilles Sauron à l’Université Paris IV intitulée : « Le tablinum à Pompéi, formes fonctions décors » (source : http://www.theses.fr/2018SORUL186). 72 E. Cova, « Stasis and Change in Roman Domestic Space: The Alae of Pompeii’s Regio VI », AJA 119 (2015), p. 69-102. 73 J. Dubouloz, « Formes et enjeux de la gestion quotidienne du territoire urbain dans la cité tardive », CCG 14.1 (2003), p. 99-114.
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Pompéi demeure cependant un des sites les mieux préservés pour étudier les phénomènes humains se déroulant dans un espace domestique et, de manière plus large, pour appréhender le fait urbain. Les méthodes variées présentées ici en restent la preuve la plus éclatante. Le nombre et la complexité de ces différentes approches pour un seul sujet, les comportements humains dans la maison, ne peuvent que nous faire espérer le développement encore possible de théories et d’outils. Je rappellerai cependant l’évidente nécessité de multiplier les études systématiques, les corpus d’objets, de peintures, d’architectures. L’analyse de la culture matérielle, la Space Syntax Analysis, les systèmes décoratifs, etc. nécessitent d’élargir les échantillons déjà pris en compte pour que les résultats soient toujours plus représentatifs. Toutefois, si, à Pompéi, on peut reconnaitre des facteurs communs auxquels toute la société a été soumise (tremblement de terre et éruption), qui peut nous dire que les reconstructions dont nous conservons les traces ne sont pas dues au désir de transformer son logement, au vieillissement « naturel » des structures, au changement de statut de son occupant, aux changements du groupe familial ? Le champ des possibilités reste large. C’est uniquement en étant en constante alerte face à l’objet archéologique, sans que ses intérêts ne masquent ses limites, que l’on pourra exploiter pleinement la complexité avec laquelle il nous est parvenu.
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LUCRUM FACERE ? STRATEGIE D’USO DEGLI SPAZI DOMESTICI NELL’ULTIMA POMPEI
1. Percorsi di ricerca: presupposti e finalità 1.1. Specchi e riflessi: metodo di lavoro e caso di studio “Houses … are mirrors”: con questa felice formula, di grande forza evocativa, K. Bowes sintetizzava, quasi dieci anni, il modo in cui il mondo attuale guarda alla casa 1. E il modo in cui si presume che lo facessero anche le società precedenti: come al luogo di intersezione e intreccio fra le consuetudini sociali e il libero arbitrio dei singoli, in proporzioni ed equilibri variabili. In che cosa consistono le “reflective qualities” dei resti materiali dell’abitare? Q uali sono il potenziale e i limiti informativi di quelle tracce, anche indipendentemente dalla loro consistenza quantitativa? Sono queste le domande cui da alcuni decenni, almeno dagli anni Ottanta del Novecento, tenta di rispondere, fra gli studia domestica 2, l’indirizzo di ricerca che porta il nome di Household Archaeology, uno dei terreni di indagine in cui l’incontro fra archeologia, sociologia e antropologia è più fecondo 3. 1 K. D. Bowes, Houses and Society in the Later Roman Empire, London, Duckworth, 2010, p. 11. 2 Sic B. A. Ault, The excavations at ancient Halieis, 2. The houses. The organization and use of domestic space, Bloomington Ind., Indiana University Press, 2005, p. 1. 3 Sull’Household archaeology, che si è sviluppata nell’ambito dell’archeologia preistorica, per poi produrre interessanti risultati anche nell’archeologia classica, sono a mio avviso fondanti, sia per la chiarezza dell’impostazione di metodo, sia per l’importanza dei risultati, i lavori di M. Daviau, Houses and their Furnishings in Bronze Age Palestine: Domestic Activity Areas and Artefact Distribution in the
Anthropology of Roman Housing, ed. by Alexandra Dardenay and Nicolas Laubry, Turnhout, 2020 (ASH, 5), pp. 53–86 © FHG DOI 10.1484/M.ASH-EB.5.119730
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Nell’archeologia dell’abitare gli indicatori sociali, culturali e antropologici sono individuati in strutture e ornati, artefatti e ecofatti. Nell’interpretazione di questi indicatori è indispensabile un rigoroso approccio critico: sempre occorre fare un passo indietro, adottando una prospettiva da “dietro le quinte”, e quindi verificando i processi (di ricerca e documentazione, di studio ed edizione) che hanno portato a quelle “case di carta” sulle quali si esercitano gli storici delle società antiche. La verifica delle stratigrafie bibliografiche e archivistiche (che in altre sedi ho già proposto di definire “scavi alibi”, o “archeolo gie alibi”) costituisce il presupposto irrinunciabile 4. Middle and Late Bronze Ages, Sheffield, Sheffield Academic Press, 1993 (Journal for the Study of the Old Testament Suppl. 143), e S. Souvatzi, A social archaeology of households in Neolithic Greece. An anthropological approach, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2008, per la fase preclassica; per quella classica, di L. Nevett, House and Society in the Ancient Greek World, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1999; Domestic Space in Classical Antiquity, Cambridget, Cambridge University Press, 2010; B. A. Ault, Halieis, 2. The houses, Indianapolis, Indiana University Press, 2005; N. Cahill, Household and City Organization at Olynthus, New Haven & London, Yale University Press, 2002, per il mondo greco, oltre che, per il mondo romano, di P. M. Allison, The Archaeology of Household Activities, London and New York, Routledge, 1999; Ead., Pompeian Households: Analysis of the Material Culture, Los Angeles, Cotsen Institute of Archaeology, UCLA, 2004 (Monograph 42); Ead., The Insula of the Menander in Pompeii III: The finds, a contextual study. Oxford 2006; Ead., « Understanding Pompeian household practices through their material culture », in FACTA. A Journal of Roman material culture studies 3 (2009), p. 11-32; Ead., People and Space in Roman Military Bases, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2013, nonché le riflessioni di J. Bermejo Tirado, « Arqueologia de las Actividades Domésticas; una propuesta metodologica para el mundo romano », in AnMurcia 23-24 (2007-2008), p. 231-251 e i contribute, sul caso di studio di EuroposDura, di J. A. Baird, The Inner Lives of Ancient Houses: An Archaeology of Dura- Europos, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2014. Per un inquadramento generale, B. J. Parker, C. P. Foster (éd.), New Perspectives on Household Archaeology, Eisenbrauns, Winona Lake, Indiana, 2012 (in particolare R. Matthews, « About the archaeological house: themes and directions », p. 559-566) e il più recente M. Müller (éd.), Household Studies in Complex Societies. (Micro) archaeological and textual approaches, Papers from the Oriental Institute Seminar (Chicago, 15-16 March 2013), Chicago, 2015 (in particolare, J. A. Dickmann, « Crucial Contexts: A Closer Reading of the Household of the Casa del Menandro at Pompeii », p. 221-228). 4 A. Coralini, Vesuviana. Lavorare per progetti, in A. Coralini (éd.), Vesu viana. Archeologie a confronto. Atti del Convegno Internazionale (Bologna, 14-16 gennaio 2008), Bologna (Studi e Scavi del Dipartimento di Archeologia, n.s. 23, Vesuviana, 2), 2009, p. 19-38; Ead., « In situ et alibi. Dallo scavo integrato alla
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La portata e l’attendibilità di questi riflessi della vita di un tempo nei resti materiali dei siti antichi costituiscono tuttora un assunto che è difficile mettere in discussione anche nella letteratura scientifica. Nell’evidenza archeologica, sempre più finemente indagata e documentata, si sono cercati punti fermi: nelle sequenze stratigrafiche, indicatori cronologici, in termini assoluti e relativi; nelle strutture e negli ornati, riflessi della cultura e del gusto di una società e di personalità individuali; nelle cose e nei loro insiemi, gli artefact assemblages, indizi dei modi d’uso degli spazi 5. Ogni tentativo di deduzione di modelli e linee di tendenza dalla varietà delle situazioni note è minato alla base dalla molteplicità delle combinazioni attestate e dalla casualità dei processi di deposizione, ma questo vizio di origine non ha scoraggiato la ricerca scientifica moderna e contemporanea. Il potenziale informativo degli artefact assemblages, in particolare, è stato e continua ad essere l’oggetto di una diffusa sopravvalutazione. L’assunto secondo il quale la situazione di rinvenimento riflette, più che una stratificazione di modi d’uso contingenti, una funzione durevole di un ambiente è tuttora molto radicato. Nella realtà della ricerca archeologica pochissimi sono, però, i casi in cui questo assunto corrisponde al vero: tale condizione si verifica solo in contesti chiusi, in cui la vita si è interrotta improvvisamente, che non sono stati interessati, e quindi inquinati, da azioni successive, fino al loro rinvenimento e che sono stati esplorati, documentati e analizzati con la massima cura e con metodi e tecniche adeguati 6. cultura dell’abitare: Vesuviana a Ercolano », in Anabases. Traditions et réceptions de l’Antiquité 26 (2017), p. 67-102. Sulla stessa linea, J. A. Baird, « The Houses of Dura-Europos: Archaeology, Archive, and Assemblage », in L. Brody, G. Hoffman (éd.), Dura-Europos: Crossroads of Antiquity, Boston, University of Chicago Press, 2011, p. 235-250; « L’habitat d’époque romaine à EuroposDoura: replacer les artéfacts en contexte », in P. Leriche, S. de Pontbriand, G. Coq ueugniot (éd.), Europos-Doura Varia 1, Beirut, Institut français du Proche-Orient, 2012, p. 231-240; « Re-excavating the Houses of Dura-Europos », in JRA 25 (2012), p. 146-169. 5 Sulle relazioni fra artefact assemblages e activities areas, R. Joyce, J. Pollard, « Archaelogical assemblages and practices of deposition », in D. Hicks, M. C. Beaudry (éd.), The Oxford Handbook of Material Culture Studies, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2010, p. 291-311. 6 Così, per citare uno dei casi di più recente pubblicazione, nell’Earthquake House di Kourion a Cipro: B. Costello, Architecture and Material Culture from the Earthquake House at Kourion, Cyprus: a late Roman non-elite house
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Pompei, come ormai dimostrato dalla “nuova Pompeianistica” 7, non rientra in questo sparuto gruppo: un gruppo nel quale, comunque, anche i pochi casi privilegiati possono fornire indicazioni, ma non devono essere utilizzati come paradigmi. La formula Pompeii premise ha ancora diritto d’uso, ma il suo significato è oggi all’opposto di quello originario. Nel 1981, L. Binford intendeva così evidenziare l’eccezionalità di un campione, quello pom peiano, in grado di restituire un’immagine frozen in time della vita nel momento della sua interruzione, e quindi dati di prima qualità e massima attendibilità per la ricostruzione dei contesti d’uso in antico 8. La sua posizione appare in parte come l’esito e in parte come la causa di un fraintendimento che tuttora miete vittime anche eccellenti fra i “non Pompeianisti” e che è determinato dalla sopravvalutazione della qualità documentaria e informativa dei siti vesuviani. Nel mezzo secolo seguente la formula coniata da Binford è stata diffusamente adottata con la medesima accezione, nonostante non siano mancate posizioni critiche e voci non concordi 9. Oggi di Pompeii premise si può ancora parlare, ma come sintesi del vero quid del campione pompeiano (e vesuviano in genere): a Pompei i contesti di rinvenimento non riflettono direttamente i modi d’uso in antico degli spazi in cui gli scavi moderni li hanno riportati alla luce, ma di quei modi d’uso devono essere considerati un’eco lontana, e spesso distorta. Tale mancata corrispondenza si deve a ragioni antiche e post-antiche. destroyed in the 4th century, Oxford, Archaeopress, 2014 (BAR International Series, 2635). 7 Con questa formula, come già ho proposto in altre sedi (A. Coralini et alii, « Domus Herculanensis Rationes (DHER). Dal rilievo archeologico alla cultura dell’abitare », in Ocnus 14 (2006), p. 83-116), intendo designare quel l’orientamento nelle ricerche e negli studi che dagli inizi degli anni Duemila sta cercando di restituire a Pompei la sua vera natura di sito sì eccezionale (per la ricchezza quantitativa della sua evidenza materiale) ma di città fra le mille del l’Impero, da rileggere alla luce dei progressi della ricerca su altri siti meglio indagati e documentati. 8 L. Binford, « Behavioral Archaeology and the “Pompeii Premise” », in Journal of Anthropological Research 37-33 (1981), p. 195-208. 9 Per una rassegna, P. Lohmann, « Tracing the activities of female household members within the Roman domus? A methodological discussion of artefact distribution in Pompeii », in R. Berg (éd.), The Material Sides of Marriage. Women and Domestic Economies in Antiquity, Roma, Q uasar, 2016 (Acta Instituti Romani Finlandiae, 43), p. 191-201.
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A Pompei la fine della vita della città è stata una situazione straordinaria, che i modi del suo recupero, fra scavo e documentazione, troppo spesso poco rispettosi delle situazioni di rinvenimento e inadeguati nella registrazione dei dati, hanno allontanato ancor più dallo status quo originario, già di per sé complesso e pluristratificato 10. Il livello di affidabilità dei contesti riportati alla luce, ed in particolare degli artefact assemblages (in questo caso, all’interno di spazi strutturati, ovvero architettonicamente definiti), è nel campione pompeiano, e vesuviano in genere, drasticamente ridotto. Q uesto limite vale anche nei casi migliori, quelli in cui i modi dell’indagine dal sedimento eruttivo, e della relativa documentazione, sono stati quelli propri dello scavo stratigrafico (come nei casi delle insulae meridionali delle regiones I e II e del l’insula IX 12, cosiddetta dei Casti Amanti, oltre che dei recentissimi interventi nella Regio V) 11. Q uesti casi costituiscono, tuttora, episodi isolati nella storia del recupero della Pompei antica, per la maggior parte riportata alla luce in modo corsivo e sommario, quasi esclusivamente attento alle sole strutture e decorazioni e perlopiù non interessato alla cultura materiale, eccezion fatta per i reperti di maggior pregio. Q uello pompeiano è, di conseguenza, 10 P. M. Allison, « Artefact Assemblages: not “the Pompeii Premise” », in E. Herring, R. Whitehouse, J. Wilkens (éd.), Papers of the Fourth Conference of Italian Archaeology, 3. New Developments in Italian Archaeology, 1, London, 1992, p. 49-56; Ead., « On-going seismic activity and its effect on living conditions in Pompeii in the last decades », in Th. Fröhlich, L. Jacobelli (éd.), Archäologie und Seismologie: La regione vesuviana dal 62 al 79 d.C.: pro blemi archeologici e sismologici, München, Biering & Brinkmann, 1995, p. 183190; Ead., « Pompeian house contents: data collection and interpretative procedures for a reappraisal of Roman domestic life and site formation processes », in Journal of European Archaeology 3-1 (1995), p. 145-176; Ead., « The Pompeian compromise. The consuming evidence », in F. Scriba, W. Ernst, K. Gilliver (éd.), Archaeology, Ideology, Method. Inter-academy seminar on current archaeological research 1993, Rome, Canadian Academic Centre in Italy, 1996, p. 97-106; Ead., Pompeian households; Ead., Understanding Pompeian household practices; Ead., « The A.D. 70 eruption of Mt. Vesuvius », in D. G. Bolender (éd.), Eventful archaeologies. New approaches to social transformation in the archaeological record, New York, State University of New York Press, 2010, p. 166-178. 11 A. De Simone, « Le insulae su Via di Nocera. L’insula 8 della Regio II », in RStPomp 2 (1988), p. 184-186. S. C. Nappo, « Regio I, insula 20 », in RStPomp 2 (1988), p. 186-191; A. Varone, « L’insula pompeiana dei Casti Amanti (IX 12). Dallo scavo alla fruizione », in F. Morandini, F. Rossi (éd.), Domus romane. Dallo scavo alla valorizzazione, Atti del convegno di studi (Brescia, 3-5 aprile 2003), Milano, Edizioni Et, 2005, p. 297-306.
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un campione tanto ricco quantitativamente quanto qualitativamente povero, sul piano del potenziale informativo, per quella lettura antropologica dei modi dell’abitare su cui il convegno romano del giugno 2018 si è proposto di disegnare uno status quaestionis, in linea con l’indirizzo dell’Household Archaeology più interessato all’entanglement fra cose e persone 12. Ciononostante, Pompei, sebbene campione imperfetto, resta un campione possibile, e necessario, anche per questa linea di ricerca, a condizione che la comunità scientifica, in stretta collaborazione con gli enti per la tutela (ora, dal 2017, il Parco archeo logico di Pompei), investa tempo e risorse nel suo ampliamento e potenziamento, quantitativo e qualitativo, attraverso una sistematica campagna di analisi, studio ed edizione dei contesti tuttora nel limbo, in balìa dell’oblìo. Solo un’azione estensiva e capillare di recupero e valorizzazione dei “vecchi scavi”, non e pre-stratigrafici, potrà assicurare a Pompei quel ruolo di campione privilegiato che la letteratura scientifica gli ha da sempre concordemente assegnato e che tuttora tende a riconoscergli, nonostante le riserve avanzate da un numero sempre maggiore di “specialisti” 13. La carenza qualitativa dei singoli contesti, così come dell’intero campione, potrà essere corretta dall’estensione della base documentaria: la forza dei “grandi numeri” potrà almeno in parte compensare le distorsioni (rispetto alle attese dei ricercatori nei confronti del campione ideale) causate dai modi della formazione dei depositi in antico, dagli interventi successivi all’eruzione e dai modi della loro indagine 14. 12 Sulle relazioni fra uomini e cose, I. Hodder, Studies in Human-Thing Entanglement, 2016 : http://www.ian-hodder.com/books/studies-human-thingentanglement. 13 Su peculiarità e limiti del campione pompeiano, Allison, Artefact Assemblages; Ead., The Pompeian compromise; Ead., Pompeian Households. 14 A. Coralini, « Vecchi scavi e nuovi dati », in A. Coralini et alii, Pom pei IX 8. Vecchi e nuovi scavi (1879-), Bologna, Ante Q uem, 2017, p. 161-184, in particolare p. 165, e A. Coralini, « Archeologie alibi: metodo e strumenti. Il caso dell’insula IX 8 », ibid., p. 185-188. Sugli interventi post 79, J. A. Dickmann, « Crucial Contexts. A Closer Reading of the Household of the Casa del Menandro at Pompeii », in M. Müller (Hrsg.), Household Studies in Complex Societies. (Micro) Archaeological and Textual Approaches, Chicago 2015 (Oriental Institute Seminars 10), pp. 211-228, e S. Zanella, La Caccia Fu Buona. Pour une histoire des fouilles à Pompéi de Titus à l’Europe, Naples, Centre Jean Bérard, 2019.
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Come contributo a questo percorso integrativo e correttivo, il campione preso in esame in questo intervento è dunque quello pompeiano, con un caso di studio che da chi scrive e dall’équipe del Programma Vesuviana dell’Università di Bologna è già stato analizzato nel dettaglio, e in larga parte già nel dettaglio pubblicato, nell’ambito del Progetto “Pompei. Insula del Centenario (IX 8)”: l’insula IX 8, che deve la sua notorietà in letteratura al grande complesso a doppio atrio e peristilio che occupa la maggior parte della superficie riportata alla luce in questo lotto urbano 15. Q uelle ricerche e quelle pubblicazioni hanno offerto alla comunità scientifica una ricca base sulla quale tentare, per il caso specifico e a fini comparativi per altre situazioni, letture sociologiche e antropologiche. Fra le molte possibili, in questa sede propongo di concentrare l’attenzione su un aspetto specifico della lunga vita di questo complesso, ovvero il rapporto fra le funzioni abitative in senso stretto (residenziali e utilitarie) e quelle lucrative in senso lato, produttive e commerciali, di cui sembrano riconoscibili le tracce anche in questo contesto, l’insula IX 8 di Pompei. Per cercare di riconoscere tali indizi è indispensabile adottare un approccio integrato a tutto tondo: prendendo, cioè, in considerazione, non solo l’evidenza materiale oggi verificabile, ma anche i modi della sua formazione dal momento dello scavo in poi, al fine di discernere la componente antica (e “originale”) da quella moderna. Per raggiungere questo risultato, occorre partire dall’attento riesame della documentazione storica, attraverso un’accurata indagine stratigrafica sia dei legacy data sia della vulgata, ossia della sequenza di presentazioni e di interpretazioni che nella letteratura scientifica si sono sedimentate sul caso di studio in esame: in altri termini, del processo attraverso il quale l’insula IX 8 ha acquisito in letteratura una sua specifica identità 16. 15 S. Santoro (éd.), Pompei, Insula del Centenario (IX,8), I. Indagini diagnostiche geofisiche e analisi archeometriche, Bologna, Ante Q uem, 2007 (Studi e Scavi del Dipartimento di Archeologia, n.s., 16, Vesuviana, 1); A. Custodi, L. Sciortino (éd.), Rilievo, modellazione e restauro di murature antiche. Il caso dell’Insula del Centenario a Pompei. Atti della giornata di studio (Bologna, 16 settembre 2005), Terni, Thyrus, 2006; Coralini et alii, Pompei IX 8, 2017, con bibliografia di progetto (1998-2018). 16 Coralini, « Vecchi scavi e nuovi dati »; A. Coralini, « Vesuviana (1997-), un impegno a scala di insula », in Coralini et alii, Pompei IX 8, p. 1740, in particolare p. 35-37. Esemplare, in questa direzione, accanto ai molti con
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Secondo requisito indispensabile è un’altrettanto capillare e filologica azione di documentazione e analisi dell’evidenza materiale del caso in esame, dai contenitori (strutture e rivestimenti) ai contenuti (artefatti e ecofatti), in sé e nelle loro interrelazioni, con un’attenzione particolare per le situazioni di rinvenimento (gli artefact assemblages della letteratura anglofona), alla ricerca delle tracce delle attività degli antichi utenti, abitanti o saltuari fruitori che fossero. Nel caso dell’insula IX 8, interessata da più stagioni di scavo (1879-1880; 1902; 1992; 1999-2004) 17, di diversa estensione e natura, le situazioni di rinvenimento passibili di un’analisi volta a ricostruire seppur in parte gli antichi modi d’uso sono quelle riportate alla luce dagli sterri e dagli “scavi appositi” del tardo Ottocento e quelle solo intraviste dai saggi stratigrafici del lustro a cavallo fra Secondo e Terzo millennio. Q ueste ultime, sebbene molto ricche di dati di buona qualità, oltre ad essere relative alla storia dell’insula anteriore al 79 d.C., soffrono dei limiti in estensione imposti dalla ridotta superficie degli interventi di scavo 18. Le prime, invece, seppur estese all’intera superficie dell’insula sinora riportata alla luce, sono condizionate negativamente dai modi corsivi della “liberazione” degli spazi dai depositi eruttivi e, soprattutto, dall’attitudine selettiva del recupero dei reperti mobili: nella maggior parte dei casi, l’attenzione pressoché esclusiva per gli oggetti di pregio o “curiosi” e il disinteresse per classi di materiali “povere” (quali la ceramica in genere e in particolare quella comune) ha prodotto gruppi di manufatti costituiti perlopiù da vetri, bronzi e marmi. Sono queste situazioni, relative allo status quo dell’insula nel 79 d.C., a costituire l’oggetto di intetributi (di metodo e di merito) di P. M. Allison, fra cui « Dealing with Legacy Data. An introduction », in Dealing with Legacy Data, Internet Archaeology 24 (2008), http://intarch.ac.uk/journal/issue24/introduction.html. Si veda anche il l. lavoro di S. Ellis sugli impianti di ristoro a Pompei (S. Ellis, « Use and misuse of “legacy data” in identifying a typology of retail outlets at Pompeii », ibid., 2008: http://intarch.ac.uk/journal/issue24/ellis_index.html). 17 A. Coralini, « Sterri ordinari e scavi programmati (1879-1880; 1992) », in Coralini et alii, Pompei IX 8, p. 45-56; B. Sassi, « Nuovi scavi nell’insula IX 8: i dati stratigrafici », in Coralini et alii, Pompei IX 8, p. 495-508; L. Mazzeo, « Nuovi scavi nell’insula IX 8: i reperti », in Coralini et alii, Pompei IX 8, p. 509-526. 18 Sassi, « Nuovi scavi nell’insula IX 8 »; Mazzeo, « Nuovi scavi nell’in sula IX 8 ».
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resse delle pagine che seguono, che parlano di storie di cose e persone, dagli ultimi anni di vita di Pompei ad oggi. Nel percorso di ricerca, almeno bifocale, le vicende post-antiche hanno valore tanto quelle antiche, dato il loro ruolo attivo nella costituzione e caratterizzazione del caso di studio. Nel prenderlo in esame, l’approccio adottato sceglie una via intermedia fra quelle percorse, nell’analisi e nell’interpretazione degli artefact assemblages del campione pompeiano, dalle principali protagoniste di questa linea di ricerca: P. M. Allison, con la sua impostazione da processualista; J. Berry, più vicina alla Contextual Archaeology; R. Berg, con il suo peculiare interesse per i gendered spaces 19. Il mio intento è contribuire alla discussione in corso proponendo all’attenzione anche il dietro le quinte di un caso concreto, il lavoro sui vecchi scavi che ha interessato un intero isolato di Pompei, l’insula IX 8, cosiddetta, dal 1998, anno di avvio del progetto omonimo, “del Centenario” (Fig. 1). Q uesto lavoro ha fornito, grazie ad un paziente scavo stratigrafico negli archivi e nei depositi, nuovi dati sulle situazioni di rinvenimento dei primi sterri documentati (grosso modo, almeno) sul sito dell’insula in esame, fra 1879 e 1880, e quindi anche (con le cautele imposte, come già evidenziato supra, dai modi delle esplorazioni, e dei recuperi, di quell’epoca) sulle possibili situazioni d’uso, e d’abbandono, degli spazi del complesso nel 79 d.C., prima e durante l’eruzione. 19 Allison, Pompeian Households; Ead., The Insula of the Menander at Pompeii; Ead., Understanding Pompeian household practices; J. Berry, « The conditions of domestic life in Pompeii in A.D. 79. A case-study of houses 11 and 12, Insula 9, Region I », in PBSR 65 (1997), p. 103-125; Ead., « Household artefacts: towards a re-interpretation of Roman domestic space », in R. Laurence, A. Wallace-Hadrill (éd.), Domestic space in the Roman world: Pompeii and beyond, Portsmouth, Journal of Roman Archaeology, 1997 (JRA. Supplementary series 22), p. 183-195; R. Berg, « La casa come cassaforte. Riflessioni sulle zone di attività e zone di deposito nelle case pompeiane », in J. M. Alvarez Martinez, T. Nogales, I. Roda (éd.), Centro y periferia en el mundo clasico. Centre and periphery in the ancient world, Actas XVIII Congreso internacional de arqueologia clasica – Proceedings of the XVIII International Congress of Classical Archaeology (Mérida, 13-17 mayo, 2013), II, Mérida, Museo Nacional de Arte Romano, 2014, p. 1029-1032; Ead., « Dominae apothecarum. Gendering storage patterns in Roman houses », in R. Berg (éd.), Material Sides of Marriage, 2016, p. 175189. Al di fuori del campione pompeiano, posizioni simili a quelle di P. M. Allison sono riconoscibili nel lavoro di N. Cahill per Olinto e di B. Ault per Halieis, mentre più vicine a quelle di J. Berry e di R. Berg appaiono le scelte di metodo di Nevett, Domestic Space, che tuttavia è molto più interessata agli aspetti strutturali e decorativi che alla cultura materiale.
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A. CORALINI
Fig. 1. Pompei, IX 8. Gli scavi nell’insula (1879-), acta et agenda: in grigio scuro, i saggi stratigrafici degli anni 1999-2004: in grigio chiaro e a tratteggio i nuovi interventi, rispettivamente di verifica stratigrafica e di recupero del livello del 79 d.C., di cui nel 2017 si è proposta la realizzazione al Parco Archeologico di Pompei, a fini di completamento dello studio e dell’edizione scientifica dell’intero isolato (Programma Vesuviana, Progetto Pompei. Insula del Centenario, IX 8, planimetria realizzata sotto la direzione di A. Capra, G. Bitelli, 2000: rielaborazione a cura di A. Petrazzuolo per il Programma Vesuviana, 2017).
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STRATEGIE D’USO DEGLI SPAZI DOMESTICI NELL’ULTIMA POMPEI
Come vedremo, in contesti come quello dell’insula IX 8, i dati relativi ai gruppi di reperti al momento del rinvenimento e agli insiemi di oggetti in antico (i finds assemblages e gli artefacts assemblages della letteratura anglofona), hanno anche nel campione pompeiano, e vesuviano in genere, un valore informativo di qualità superiore rispetto all’evidenza materiale architettonica e decorativa, quasi sempre gravemente contaminata da una fitta, e spesso difficilmente definibile, stratificazione di interventi di conservazione e restauro, che hanno compromesso, e talora reso impossibile, la riconoscibilità delle parti originali, nel loro stato anteriore al momento di primo rinvenimento. 1.2. Scavi alibi: Pompei Come sanno coloro che lo conoscono, l’attenzione del Programma Vesuviana e dei suoi progetti va da sempre ai contesti, lato sensu, fisici e immateriali, e alle fonti primarie, dati e reperti. Da anni sostengo la necessità, sempre più urgente, di investire risorse ed energie sempre meno sugli scavi in situ, sul terreno, e sempre più sugli scavi alibi: gli scavi, non meno stratigrafici di quelli sul terreno, nei depositi, negli archivi e nelle biblioteche. Unica eccezione, per gli scavi in situ, sul terreno, gli scavi didattici, per il loro valore formativo nella preparazione degli archeologi del futuro prossimo e remoto, che dovranno almeno aver sperimentato come si “produce” l’evidenza materiale che saranno chiamati a studiare e comunicare, tutelare e valorizzare. All’interno del Programma Vesuviana, sin dalla fine degli anni Novanta abbiamo iniziato non solo a parlare di scavi alibi, ma anche a tradurli in pratica 20. I primi risultati hanno visto la luce nel 2009, negli atti del Convegno Vesuviana. Poi è stata la volta di Ercolano, con il primo volume dedicato al progetto DHER. Domus Herculanensis Rationes, edito nel 2011. Dal 2016, abbiamo aggiunto un terzo caso di studio, extraurbano, con il sito di Villa Sora a Torre del Greco. Nel 2017, infine, ha visto la luce il volume pompeiano che è per noi il risultato più completo, e più impegnativo, per questo approccio 21. 20 Coralini et alii, Domus Herculanensis Rationes; Coralini, Vesuviana. Lavorare per progetti. 21 A. Coralini (éd.), Vesuviana. Archeologie a confronto. Atti del Convegno Internazionale, Bologna, 14-16 gennaio 2008, Bologna, Ante Q uem, 2009;
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A. CORALINI
I dati e le riflessioni che qui propongo riguardano proprio questo caso di studio, oggetto di un esperimento che come Università di Bologna e Programma Vesuviana abbiamo deciso di estendere ad altre unità urbanistiche del sito Scavi di Pompei, le insulae IX 5 e IX 9 (dal 2017), che precedono e seguono l’insula IX 8 lungo Via di Nola e che con l’insula IX 8 condividono, almeno, l’epoca e le modalità della riscoperta, fra gli anni Settanta e Ottanta dell’Ottocento, e poi anche l’insula I 17 (dal 2018). Come sperimentato da molti, l’uso del campione pompeiano, e vesuviano in genere, è pesantemente condizionato non da una, ma da più Pompeii premises. La prima, la più nota, di cui ho già detto in questo articolo, è quella per cui, a Pompei, le situazioni di rinvenimento corrisponderebbero alle situazioni d’uso in antico. Ne esiste, però, anche un’altra, ancora più pericolosa, che consiste nel presumere che i dati che utilizziamo siano stati adeguatamente verificati, e, per usare un termine preso in prestito dalla Virtual Archaeology, validati, e che siano quindi sufficientemente affidabili. Nasce da questa errata presunzione l’equivoco pompeiano più temibile: che il campione così ampiamente, diffusamente e fiduciosamente utilizzato sia un campione sicuro. La validazione dei dati, primari e secondari, su cui si fondano gli studi di sintesi è invece la grande lacuna del campione pom peiano, e vesuviano in genere, tuttora e sempre di più. La principale criticità consiste nella prevalenza dei lavori di sintesi sugli studi di analisi e di verifica, non solo nella storia della letteratura scientifica ma anche nella situazione attuale. In questi tempi, in cui si sta scivolando all’indietro, in cui si dà grande evidenza alle cacce al tesoro, qualunque forma questo tesoro abbia – scheletro, pittura, bronzo, marmo, etc. –, non possiamo continuare ad utilizzare il campione pompeiano cercando di nascondere, a noi stessi e al nostro pubblico, la sua vera natura. Molto noto e molto utilizzato, ma poco studiato, soprattutto analiticamente, e perlopiù inedito: questo è lo specifico pom peiano. A. Coralini (éd.), DHER. Domus Herculanensis Rationes. Sito archivio museo, Bologna, Ante quem, 2011 (Studi e Scavi del Dipartimento di Archeologia, 30, Vesuviana, 3); Coralini et alii, Pompei IX 8.
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STRATEGIE D’USO DEGLI SPAZI DOMESTICI NELL’ULTIMA POMPEI
Indispensabile è rimettere mano agli archivi e ai lavori di chi ci ha preceduto, senza rinnegare l’eredità culturale sulla quale dobbiamo costruire il nostro percorso. Q uanto sia importante il contributo che il recupero dei vecchi scavi può dare alla nostra conoscenza della Pompei antica (al di là dell’ibrido frutto degli interventi moderni e contemporanei su quanto riportato alla luce almeno dal 1748 ad oggi) è stato già dimostrato da altri colleghi: su un campione omogeneo (30 case ad atrio), da P. M. Allison; a scala di insula, sempre da P. M. Allison, nella sua monografia sui reperti dell’insula I 10; con approccio trasversale, sulle tracce della presenza femminile nella scena domestica, da R. Berg, sia in prima persona, a partire dalla sua tesi di dottorato, tuttora purtroppo inedita nel suo insieme, seppure presentata in più sedi per excerpta tematici, sia come promotrice di occasioni di confronto sul tema, fra cui spicca il convegno del novembre 2013; da S. Ellis, nel suo lavoro sugli spazi del ristoro 22. Al modello offerto da P. M. Allison per l’insula I 10 il Progetto dell’Alma Mater ha aggiunto, per l’insula IX 8, la parte relativa ai Nuovi Scavi, stratigrafici, che nell’insula IX 8 erano stati realizzati (1999-2004) e che nell’insula I 10 non erano, invece, mai stati eseguiti 23.
2. Pompei, IX 8 L’insula IX 8 di Pompei ha più requisiti per essere un caso di studio significativo, se non addirittura emblematico: non solo per la sua consistenza in termini di evidenza primaria, archeologica, ma anche per la sua evidenza secondaria, museografica, quella prodotta dalle vicende della sua seconda vita, successiva al suo ritorno alla luce, seppur parziale. Oggetto di sterri ordinari e di scavi appositi, con l’esclusione del settore meridionale, fra 1879 e 1880, l’insula apparve costituita, nella sua parte più settentrionale, da un grande complesso a due atri e peristilio, che divenne subito una show-house, un complesso da esposizione, e tale rimase per quasi 22 Allison, Pompeian Households; Ead., The Insula of the Menander at Pompeii; Berg, « Material Sides of the Marriage »; Ellis, « Use and misuse of “legacy data” ». 23 Coralini et alii, Pompei IX 8.
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A. CORALINI
un secolo, fino ai primi anni Ottanta del Novecento. Q uesta sorte museografica ha fatto del grande complesso (poi ridenominato Casa del Centenario, per il suo essere stato oggetto di scavo nella ricorrenza del diciottesimo centenario dell’eruzione), dal 1879 ad oggi, il teatro di una fitta serie di interventi di conservazione e restauro, a carico (o a beneficio, secondo i punti di vista) delle strutture e delle decorazioni parietali e pavimentali, che ne hanno fatto un palinsesto ibrido, in cui la parte antica ha finito per soccombere alla parte moderna, più o meno in stile. Fra questi interventi, solo pochi sono riconoscibili e databili, grazie al capillare e rigoroso spoglio – che dobbiamo all’impegno di P. Rispoli, già funzionario architetto degli Scavi di Pompei, e di D. Esposito – dei documenti d’archivio e delle rarissime relazioni edite 24. Nel nostro caso, queste ultime sono costituite dai resoconti di A. Maiuri relativi alle attività del 1927-1928, che portarono nell’insula IX 8 all’anastilosi parziale del piano superiore del braccio nord del peristilio e alla regolarizzazione del settore corrispondente del braccio ovest, dove venne anche realizzata ex novo un’apertura (Fig. 2). L’intento, come per molti altri interventi di A. Maiuri, dopo le cautele di G. Fiorelli e la crescente attenzione di M. Ruggiero e di A. Sogliano per il restauro non solo protettivo ma anche comunicativo, era integrativo e il modo mimetico 25. Q uesti interventi più evidenti e più documentati sono stati preceduti, affiancati e seguiti da molti altri che troviamo solo genericamente registrati nei Giornali dei Soprastanti, quando questi accennano ai lavori di restauro che per mesi, fra l’autunno e l’inverno 1879-1880, portarono alla sospensione dei disterri ordinari e degli scavi appositi, e poi nei Giornali dei Lavori, e che sono più o meno direttamente documentati nelle Pratiche Estinte, cioè nella sezione storica dell’Archivio degli Scavi di Pompei, ed in piccola parte anche nell’Archivio Fotografico 26.
24 P. Rispoli, D. Esposito, « Momenti del restauro nella Casa del Centenario (IX 8, 3.6.a) », in Coralini et alii, Pompei IX 8, p. 101-140. 25 A. Maiuri, « Lavori di restauro della Soprintendenza alle antichità della Campania nel biennio 1927-1928 », in BdA 8, Suppl. 2, 9 (1928-1929), p. 512526. 26 Per i Giornali dei Lavori: Coralini et alii, Pompei IX 8, p. 411-437.
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STRATEGIE D’USO DEGLI SPAZI DOMESTICI NELL’ULTIMA POMPEI
Fig. 2. Pompei, IX 8. Casa del Centenario (IX 8, 3.6.a). Da ovest, il settore nord-occidentale del peristilio 9 dopo i restauri voluti da A. Maiuri e realizzati fra il 1927 e il 1928: restituzione parziale del loggiato e riproposizione del solaio nell’angolo nord-ovest del portico, con un vano aperto lungo la parete ovest, dove forse in antico giungeva la scala che dagli ambienti secondari sul lato ovest dell’atrio minore conduceva al piano superiore (Archivio Fotografico del Parco Archeologico di Pompei, invv. C/1574).
2.1. Scavi in situ: 1879-1880 Riportata alla luce, ma non integralmente, fra l’aprile 1879 e il settembre 1880, l’insula IX 8 di Pompei è stata interessata, come ho già accennato, da altri interventi sul terreno: nel 1902, nel 1992 e poi fra 1999 e 2004. Solo questi ultimi sono stati eseguiti con metodo stratigrafico (Fig. 1). Q uelli degli anni 1879-1880 furono, invece, scavi “del l’attenzione” 27, condotti ora come scavi ordinari, con i modi degli sterri di quell’epoca, ora nella forma di scavi appositi, eseguiti “d’ordine superiore”, talvolta alla presenza di ospiti illustri in visita al sito. 27 Per questa definizione, M. Barbanera, Storia dell’archeologia classica in Italia: Dal 1764 ai giorni nostri, Bari-Firenze, Laterza, 1998, p. 31.
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A. CORALINI
In alcuni casi, con queste visite coincidono “trovamenti” di particolare interesse. Così, accade, per esempio, in data 25 settembre 1879, quando, nella ricorrenza del diciottesimo Centenario dell’eruzione e in coincidenza con le relative Celebrazioni, proprio in due ambienti dell’ “insula ad oriente dall’isola quinta”, nel settore dei Nuovi Scavi su Via di Nola, si verificano rinvenimenti di grande interesse per quantità e qualità. Teatro dei “trovamenti” di quella giornata, secondo il Giornale dei Soprastanti, furono un piccolo ambiente, il cubicolo 12, affacciato sul peristilio (che restituì uno scheletro e una singolare decorazione pavimentale) e, soprattutto, un vano su via di Nola, il quarto da ovest, oggi corrispondente al civico IX 8, 4 28. Q ui lo scavo apposito riportò alla luce un tesoretto di quasi ottanta oggetti, per la maggior parte bronzi, di varia natura e tipologia, dalla lucerna all’applique 29 (Figg. 3-4). Un gruppo di reperti così eterogeneo sembra interpretabile come deposito intenzionale, con diverse possibili motivazioni e declinazioni:
Fig. 3. Pompei, IX 8. Botteghe lungo via di Nola. Scavi 1879-1880: in bianco, gli ambienti interessati da rinvenimenti (Programma Vesuviana, Progetto Pompei. Insula del Centenario, IX 8, planimetria realizzata sotto la direzione di A. Capra, G. Bitelli, 2000: rielaborazione a cura di A. Petrazzuolo, 2017). Coralini, « Sterri ordinari e scavi programmati », p. 48-49. Coralini, « Vecchi scavi e nuovi dati », p. 174.
28 29
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STRATEGIE D’USO DEGLI SPAZI DOMESTICI NELL’ULTIMA POMPEI
16 settembre 1879
Bronzo
Ramaiuolo col manico orizzontale, poco conservato. Lun. mill. 310
id.
id.
Altro, poco conservato. Lun. m. 320
id.
id.
Altro, poco conservato e col manico rotto. D.o m. 97
id.
id.
Altro, col manico spezzato. Lunghezza unita mill. 312
id.
id.
Altro poco conservato, col manico spezzato. Lung: unita m 293
id.
id.
Lucerna a due lumi, l’uno opposto all’altro, munita di turacciolo privo di catenella, e con due risalti presso i becchi per sostenere le catene di sospensione, che mancano. Lun. mill. 295
id.
id.
Altra lucerna ad un lume col manico a due rami che s’incurvano innanzi e reggono uno scudo a pelta. Manca il turacciolo. L. m. 120
id.
id.
Una tabelletta ansata con maglia superiore per sospenderla. Lun. m. 113
id.
id.
Caldaia. Diam.o della bocca mill. 350
id.
id.
Anforetta con iscrizione.
22 detto
Terracotta
Lucerna figurante un vecchio barbato con corte gambe, che in piedi protende le braccia, avendo un grandissimo fallo eretto e forato nella punta, come lo sono pure gli occhi, la bocca e le orecchie. Ha sul capo un anello con altro dentro per tenersi sospeso, ed un foro sulle spalle per immettervi l’olio. Al. mill. 206
25 detto
Canapa
Alcune semenze bruciate.
25 detto
Bronzo
Cavallino in corsa. Sulla sua groppa evvi un leoncino. È corroso e manca delle gambe anteriori. Poteva servire per ornamento di mobile. Lun. mill. 140
id.
id.
Vasetto di misura ad un manico e col becco. Alquanto corroso. Al. m. 195
id.
id.
Altro della stessa forma alquanto corroso. Al. m. 160
id.
id.
Altro della stessa forma. Alquanto corroso. Al. m. 126
id.
id.
Altro della stessa forma. Alquanto corroso. Al. m. 130
id.
id.
Altra misura a base piramidale, piccolo manico, e bocca circolare. Al. m. 103
id.
id.
Nasiterno col manico dissaldato, finiente in giù con una mascheretta. Al. m. 130
id.
id.
Imbuto molto sconservato. D.o m 110
id.
id.
Campanella a base quadrata col battente di ferro ossidato. Al. m. 60
id.
id.
Altra della stessa forma, sconservata. Al. m. 60
id.
id.
Altra della stessa forma col battente di ferro ossidato. Al.m. 59
id.
id.
Altra della stessa forma. Al. m. 50
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A. CORALINI
25 detto
Bronzo
Piccola aquila con anello superiore, servita forse per finimento di vaso. L. m. 50
id.
id.
Casseruola sconservata e rotta. L. m. 290
id.
id.
Vasetto ovale sconservato e rotto, senza manico. Al. m. 72
id.
id.
Patera sconservata e corrosa. L. m. 300
id.
id.
Calamaio cilindrico col coperchio aderente. Al. m. 50
id.
id.
Altro della stessa forma, alquanto rotto e privo di turacciolo. Al. m. 50
id.
id.
Altro calamaio a due cilindri, l’uno con coperchio privo di turacciolo, l’altro senza coperchio. Al. m. 61
id.
id.
Una cesta a petto di oca alquanto sconservata. I sostegni dei manichi sono dissaldati e contengono i manichi a nocca elastici. L. m. 250
id.
id.
Un grosso ramaiuolo col manico perpendicolare che manca. D.o m. 72
id.
id.
Altro grosso ramaiuolo col manico perpendicolare dissaldato. D.o m. 95
id.
id.
Lucerna a due lumi l’uno opposto all’altro, ha il turacciolo ed è priva delle catenelle. L. m. 175
id.
id.
Altra lucerna ad un lume col turacciolo e col manico che si eleva e finisce a nocca. L. m. 130
id.
id.
Altra lucerna a forma di un piede umano col sandalo. L. m. 80
id.
id.
Stadera con catene e uncini inamovibili per l’ossido. Il suo romano è a forma di grossa ghianda. L. m. 165
id.
id.
Strigile. L. di corda. m. 230
id.
id.
Altra strigile. Lun. di corda m. 210
id.
id.
Forma di pasticceria ellittica. L. m. 141
id.
id.
Una paletta di lamina rettangolare cogli orli rilevati in tre lati e cilindretto alla parte posteriore per reggere il manico che manca. L. m. 121
id.
id.
Tabelletta ansata con maglia sopra e sotto. L. m. 104
id.
id.
Pinzetta poco conservata. L. m. 90
id.
id.
Fibula col suo ardiglione per ornamento di cavallo. Lar. m. 85
id.
id.
Altra fibula coll’ardiglione. Lar. m. 65
id.
id.
Altra coll’ardiglione. Larga m. 55
id.
id.
Altra fibula coll’ardiglione. Larga m. 62
id.
id.
Anello per mobile con due maglie movibili. D.o m. 42
id.
id.
Altro simile. D.o m. 42
id.
id.
Piede di mobile angolare con zampa leonina. Larghezza della squadra m. 80
id.
id.
Altro simile.
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STRATEGIE D’USO DEGLI SPAZI DOMESTICI NELL’ULTIMA POMPEI
25 detto
Bronzo
Altro simile.
id.
id.
Un candelabro con bastone scanalato, spezzato e con la coppa e piastrina distaccata.
id.
id.
Due manichi di lagena di semplice lavoro.
id.
id.
Q uattro monete grandi.
id.
id.
Sedici monete medie.
id.
id.
Q uarantaquattro monete piccole. Due cardini per porta. Grossa cerniera per porta.
id.
id.
Q uarantaquattro monete piccole. Due cardini per porta. Grossa cerniera per porta.
id.
id.
Q uarantaquattro monete piccole. Due cardini per porta. Grossa cerniera per porta.
id.
Ferro
Un arnese da cucina con lungo manico terminato ad anello e nella punta finisce a granchio, cioè con cinque rebbi curvi e puntati. L. m. 400
id.
id.
Una chiave di porta. Lun. m. 150
id.
id.
Uno spiedo. L.m. 510
id.
id.
Ascia da legnaiuolo, molto ossidata. Al.m. 200
id.
id.
Piccola lama di coltello curvo. L. m. 85.
id.
id.
Pezzo quadrangolo-piramidale, terminato inferiormente a faretra per inserirsi nel manico. Da servire forse per lustrare i metalli. L. m. 125.
id.
id.
Grossa conca ossidata.
id.
id.
Coltellino poco conservato, col suo manico di avorio, anche sconservato. L. m. 126.
id.
Vetro
Bottiglia a pancia ovale. Al. m. 160.
id.
id.
Boccettina bislunga. L. m. 130
id.
Terracotta
N° quindici abbeveratoi di uccelli
id.
id.
Tre anfore
id.
id.
Q uattro anfore rotte con iscrizioni.
id.
Tessuto
Pochi avanzi di tessuto bruciato.
id.
Marmo
Piccolo peso nero.
id.
Monopodio a pilastrino ad erma Silenica colla protome di giallo antico.
id.
Legumi
Molte favucce bruciate.
id.
id.
Molti lenti bruciati.
Fig. 4. Pompei, IX 8. Bottega (?) al civico 4. Scavi 1879-1880: elenco dei rinvenimenti ivi effettuati in data 16 e 25 settembre (Isola ad oriente dell’isola 5a Reg.e 9a lato nord, 4o vano a contare dall’angolo nord-ovest, sull’ingresso).
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– un deposito antico, determinato da situazioni contingenti e non direttamente connesso alla destinazione d’uso dell’ambiente nell’ultima fase di vita sua e del complesso; – un deposito antico direttamente connesso, invece, all’ultima destinazione d’uso dell’ambiente di rinvenimento: in questa prospettiva il gruppo di oggetti potrebbe essere letto come l’indicatore della presenza di una attività commerciale (di un rigattiere, se non di un fabbro); – un deposito sì intenzionale, ma moderno, frutto delle esigenze di spettacolarizzazione che da sempre condizionano la vita di quel Teatro Stabile a cielo aperto che porta il nome di Scavi di Pompei. La ricchezza del tesoretto e la coincidenza del suo rinvenimento con le Celebrazioni del XVIII Centenario legittimano il dubbio sull’origine di questo trovamento: non possiamo escludere che oggetti di diversa provenienza (e anche non dalla medesima insula) fossero stati raccolti in quel punto, al fine di simulare un fortunatissimo “trovamento”, degno, appunto, della ricorrenza. Le circostanze, sospette, di rinvenimento indeboliscono, purtroppo, il nostro indicatore più ricco, sia quantitativamente che per qualità. 2.2. Spazi costruiti, ornati, vissuti Non mancano, però, per nostra fortuna, altri indicatori, anch’essi relativi ai lavori degli anni 1879-1880. In primo luogo, le relazioni dei Soprastanti, sin dalla prima scoperta (quella dei “salottini” del piccolo impianto termale del quartiere occidentale), avvenuta il 21 aprile 1879, registrano nel complesso situazioni di rinvenimento tali da far ritenere che alcuni ambienti non fossero in uso al momento dell’eruzione, o perché in corso di ristrutturazione, o perché in situazione di abbandono. 2.1.1. I contenitori: spazi e decorazioni
Indizi in questa direzione, di situazione di disuso nel 79, vennero evidenziati nel settore termale, nel calidario, e nel cubicolo, 12, con anticamera affacciato sul braccio meridionale del peristilio. In entrambi i casi, i sectilia pavimentali apparvero al momento del 72
STRATEGIE D’USO DEGLI SPAZI DOMESTICI NELL’ULTIMA POMPEI
recupero ottocentesco già spogliati 30, forse prima del 79, sebbene non si possa escludere un intervento successivo all’eruzione, ad opera di quegli “scavatori antichi” la cui attività avrebbe secondo alcuni lasciato tracce anche in altri ambienti del complesso 31: fra questi, il cubicolo, 43, a doppia alcova con figurae Veneris, noto in letteratura come cubicolo erotico, sulla cui parete meridionale si apre un varco irregolare, che già i primi scavatori e visitatori interpretarono come il segno del passaggio di fossores più o meno antichi. Nessuna traccia, peraltro, fu rilevata, in tutta l’insula IX 8, di lavori in corso negli ultimi anni di vita del complesso, quali cumuli di calce o materiali da costruzione in situazione di deposito temporaneo. Due decenni di attività di documentazione e studio in quest’insula ci hanno assicurato non solo una conoscenza capillare del suo assetto strutturale e decorativo nello status quo degli inizi degli anni Duemila, ma anche elementi per ipotizzare il suo assetto, sia strutturale e decorativo che funzionale, del 79. Di tale ipotesi di lavoro, che sarà presentata nel prossimo volume dedicato all’insula IX 8, in questa sede mi limiterò a riassumere i capisaldi. Agli inizi degli anni Duemila, così come ancora oggi, nel l’evidenza in situ dell’insula IX 8 erano riconoscibili tre unità edilizie: una di maggiori dimensioni, con doppio atrio, grande peristilio, balneum e venereum, e due di estensione minore, di cui l’una nota in letteratura, per via della scritta che le relazioni di scavo ci dicono nel 1879 ancora leggibile nel suo settore di ingresso, come Hospitium Hygini Firmi, e l’altra, esplorata solo in parte, consistente in un edificio, forse un’abitazione, con pseudoperistilio 32. Ad A. Mau, che visitò l’insula a più riprese sia durante gli scavi sia immediatamente dopo la loro conclusione, non era sfuggito l’intreccio di strutture e percorsi della zona di confine, o piuttosto di osmosi, fra le tre unità, nel settore meridionale del com Giornale dei Soprastanti, 1879, 21 aprile, per il calidario, 47. A. Mau, in BdI (1881), p. 174, per il cubicolo 27. Sugli scavi precedenti al 1748, S. Zanella, La caccia fu buona, p. 17-24. 32 A. Coralini, D. Scagliarini, « La decorazione “diacronica”: il caso della Domus del Centenario a Pompei », in J. Bonetto, M. S. Busana, A. R. Ghiotto, M. Salvadori, P. Zanovello (éd.), I mille volti del passato. Scritti in onore di Francesca Ghedini, Roma, Q uasar, 2016, p. 499-509. 30 31
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plesso maggiore, quasi subito ridenominato, come già detto, Casa del Centenario 33. Sin dall’inizio della seconda vita dell’insula la superiore importanza, dimensionale e decorativa, del complesso di maggiori dimensioni finì per relegare in secondo piano le due unità minori: l’insula IX 8 andò così incontro ad un processo metonimico, che portò tutte le attività, di ricerca così come di conservazione e di comunicazione, a concentrarsi sulla sola Casa del Centenario 34. La conoscenza dell’organismo architettonico antico, nella situazione del 79 e nelle sue fasi precedenti resta ampiamente lacunosa. L’assenza di documentazione diretta, grafica e fotografica, degli interventi degli anni 1879-1880 e la lunga serie di restauri interpretativi e mimetici ci hanno purtroppo sottratto la possibilità di lettura degli alzati e degli ornati nel loro status “originale”: sin dai primi disterri, le relazioni dei Soprastanti non mancano di rilevare come le mura fossero tutte “in uno stato di molta degradazione”, condizione confermata anche dal lungo periodo di tempo consacrato, fra 1879 e 1880, ai lavori di restauro 35, e i Giornali dei Lavori del secolo successivo sono fitti di note relativi a interventi di manutenzione e conservazione nella Casa del Centenario 36. Q ualche informazione in più viene fornita dall’analisi dia cronica degli apparati decorativi 37. Nella cosiddetta Casa del Centenario, il complesso di maggiori dimensioni, nella decorazione parietale del 79 coesistevano resti, e forse in alcuni casi, reliquiae, della fase di Terzo Stile, e ornati in Q uarto Stile, o integralmente realizzati ex novo, o parzialmente aggiornati 38. Fra i nuovi interventi, forse di poco precedenti il 79, si segnala l’esuberante viridarium pictum dell’ambiente con ninfeo a scaletta, 33, focus dell’asse A. Mau, in BdI (1881), p. 236. A. Coralini, « Pompei, IX 8: la fortuna di un’insula nella letteratura scientifica », in Coralini et alii, Pompei IX 8, p. 79-100. 35 Coralini, « Sterri ordinari e scavi programmati », p. 49. 36 Coralini et alii, Pompei insula IX 8, p. 411-436. 37 Coralini, Scagliarini, « La decorazione “diacronica” ». 38 W. Ehrhardt, Dekorations und Wohnkontext. Beseitigung, Restaurierung, Verschmelzung und Konservierung von Wandbemalungen in den kampanischen Antikstaetten, Roma, L. Reichert, 2012 (Palilia, 26), p. 17, 47, 52, 137, 178-180, 204, 215, 218, 221, 223. 33 34
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visivo dall’ingresso dell’atrio maggiore. A questo si affianca, nello stesso atrio maggiore, il cosiddetto cubicolo “egizio”, b, che deve il nome agli Aegyptiaca della sua decorazione parietale in Q uarto Stile e al rinvenimento al suo interno di un’applique in bronzo con testa d’Africa, e forse anche di un sistro nel medesimo materiale 39. Rientra in questo gruppo di ambienti in pieno Q uarto Stile, riferibile agli anni fra il 62 e il 79 d.C., anche la diade costituita dal venereum a doppia alcova, 43, e dalla sua anticamera, 42, così come l’ammodernamento parziale dell’adiacente triclinio nero, 41, dove tre quadri figurati di tema mitologico e qualità corsiva vennero inseriti nella precedente, e molto più raffinata, decorazione in Terzo Stile 40 (Fig. 5).
Fig. 5. Pompei, Casa del Centenario (IX 8, 3.6.a), “appartamento riservato”, triclinio (41), veduta dell’interno, dall’angolo sud-orientale: restauro virtuale (Programma Vesuviana, Progetto Pompei. Insula del Centenario, IX 8, M. Limoncelli, 2018, su restituzione grafica di I. Loschi).
39 Coralini, « Vecchi scavi e nuovi dati », p. 169. Da ultimo E. M. Moormann, « Ministers of Isiac Cult in Roman Wall-Painting » in V. Gasparini, R. Veymiers (éd.), Individuals and Materials in the Greco-Roman Cults of Isis. Agents, Images, and Practices, Leiden, Brill, 2018 (Religions in the Graeco-Roman World 187), p. 366-383 (in particolare, p. 372, 382), che nega per la Casa del Centenario la presenza in antico di attività cultuali (p. 382: “representations … have no cult relevance: the rooms adorned with them are not private shrines”). 40 Coralini, Scagliarini, « La decorazione “diacronica” », p. 503-504.
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Alla stessa fase di Q uarto Stile, che dal punto di vista stilistico potrebbe anche essersi articolata nell’arco di un quarto di secolo (anche se è parimenti probabile, nell’assenza di dati affidabili desumibili dall’analisi degli alzati, che gli interventi siano stati contemporanei e che alle differenze formali non corrisponda una diversa cronologia), appartengono anche le decorazioni degli oeci bianco e nero, 7 e 8, ai lati del tablino dell’atrio maggiore, oltre a quelle del braccio ovest del peristilio e di parte dei balnea (il frigidario, e, forse, il tepidario e il calidario). L’esame degli apparati decorativi strutturali ci dice, quindi, che nel 79 d.C. nel complesso maggiore dell’insula in un gruppo di ambienti questi erano stati rifatti, in toto o in parte, secondo la moda più recente, mentre in altri, forse non in uso al momento dell’eruzione, si conservavano quelli precedenti. Poco possono aggiungere gli ornati pavimentali, soprattutto in ragione della lunga durata di questo genere di manufatti, a causa sia della loro resistenza all’usura sia della continuità d’uso delle tecniche e dei repertori. Non superano le dita di una mano i casi in cui nell’insula IX 8 l’analisi formale, stilistica e tecnica sembra fornire un indizio cronologico: nel cubicolo “egizio”, b, il battuto di scaglie e ciottoli potrebbe anche essere attribuito ad una fase di Primo Stile, come già riteneva K. Pernice; nell’oecus bianco, 7, il pavimento in tecnica mista (campo centrale in sectile, fascia perimetrale in cementizio con seminato di scaglie marmoree) è stato autorevolmente assegnato alla prima età augustea; nel cubicolo “della Medusa”, 12, nell’angolo nord-ovest del peristilio, accanto al tablino del l’atrio minore, così come nel venereum e nella sua anticamera, 42 e 43, repertorio decorativo e tecnica dei tessellati sembrano essere quelli propri dell’età neroniano-flavia, alla quale potrebbe risalire anche il tessellato dell’atrio maggiore, 2, che già A. Mau riteneva “fatto negli ultimi tempi e posteriore all’intonaco delle pareti”; nell’atrio minore, 16, infine, il cementizio privo di sottofondo pare attribuibile ad un intervento degli ultimi anni di vita del complesso 41. 41 A. Mau, in BdI 1881, p. 123; A. Coralini, « I pavimenti della Casa del Centenario a Pompei (IX 8, 3.6.a). I temi figurativi », in A. Paribeni (éd.), Atti del VII Colloquio AISCOM (Pompei, 22-25 marzo 2000), Ravenna, Edizioni del Girasole, 2001, p. 45-60; A. Coralini, « I rivestimenti pavimentali della
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Di maggiore interesse, ma prima del progetto di ricerca del l’Alma Mater mai preso in considerazione per l’insula IX 8, è il contributo dei reperti mobili, ovvero dei resti di quella cultura materiale che – a differenza degli apparati decorativi, di frequente connessi alla funzione prevista, al momento della loro esecuzione, per l’ambiente di appartenenza, e quindi alla funzione progettata (ma non necessariamente attuata) – più e meglio ci parla della funzione effettiva e contingente, in essere nel 79 d.C., o poco prima, degli spazi in cui sono stati rinvenuti 42. Fra questi, accanto ai pochi resti dell’apparato decorativo non strutturale (uno sparuto gruppo in cui spicca il bronzetto di Satiro ebbro rinvenuto sul giro della vasca absidata, corredato di una pesante, e deturpante, fistula di piombo), il ruolo più importante è svolto dagli oggetti del quotidiano. 2.1.2. I contenuti: tracce del quotidiano?
Negli scavi 1879-1880 i “trovamenti” risultano 356, per una superficie esplorata pari a oltre 2000 mq: quasi quattrocento manufatti e, seppur con poche unità, anche ecofatti (sementi, resti di tessuto, …), registrati nei Giornali dei Soprastanti e nelle Librette degli Scavi di Pompei e poi perlopiù migrati al Museo Archeo logico Nazionale di Napoli, come documentato nei Notamenti delle Spedizioni, fra 1879 e 1904 43. Sulle modalità del recupero quasi nulla sappiamo dal Giornale dei Soprastanti, che si limita a indicare l’ambiente e il giorno di rinvenimento e a riportare l’elenco dei “trovamenti” e dei reperti, articolato in gruppi corrispondenti al materiale (bronzo, ferro, vetro, …). La scarsa presenza, quando non la totale assenza, in questi elenchi, di alcune Casa del Centenario a Pompei (IX 8, 3.6.a) », in A. Paribeni (éd.), Atti dell’VIII Colloquio AISCOM (Firenze, 21-23 febbraio 2001), Ravenna, Edizioni del Girasole, 2001, p. 639-654. 42 Sul l’ambiguità della funzione architettonica, per altri contesti geografici e orizzonti cronologici, ma sempre per la scena domestica, Th. L. McClellan, « Houses and households in North Syria during the Late Bronze Age », in C. Castel, M. Al-Maqdissi, F. Villeneuve (éd.), Les maisons dans la Syrie antique du iiie millénaire aux débuts de l’Islam. Pratiques et représentations de l’espace domestique, Beirut, Institut français du Proche-Orient, 1997 (BAH 150), p. 29-59. Per Pompei, Dickmann, « Crucial Contexts ». 43 Coralini, « Vecchi scavi e nuovi dati »; Coralini et alii, Pompei IX 8, p. 199-376.
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classi di materiali (in primis, la ceramica comune) fa ritenere verosimile che la prassi di recupero fosse molto selettiva, a vantaggio degli oggetti di maggior pregio o di maggior interesse. Se si guarda alla distribuzione dei “trovamenti”, il dato di maggior rilievo riguarda il grande complesso con doppio atrio e peristi lio (la Casa del Centenario): nonostante le sue grandi dimensioni, i rinvenimenti pertinenti la cultura materiale sono decisamente scarsi, sia in assoluto, sia in rapporto alle altre componenti del l’insula, quali le botteghe affacciate su via di Nola e le due unità edilizie minori ubicate nel settore meridionale della parte del l’insula riportata alla luce (Fig. 6). Fra i luoghi di rinvenimento di gruppi di oggetti, nel grande complesso si segnalano, nel settore settentrionale, l’atrio maggiore, 2, e alcuni ambienti affacciati su di esso (i cubicoli ai lati delle fauces e il tablino) e sull’atrio minore, 16 44; nel quartiere occidentale, il corridoio 39, che ha restituito uno scheletro (forse femminile) con piccolo corredo e gruzzolo di monete, oltre ad alcuni contenitori in vetro, e l’atrio di servizio, 49, con l’adiacente cucina 45; nel quartiere a est del viridario con ninfeo, alcuni ambienti, 36-38 e o’, che già il Mau riteneva spazi di servizio, in considerazione sia della loro ubicazione, molto appartata, sia della natura stessa dei reperti mobili venuti alla luce al loro interno 46. Molto più ricca, soprattutto se considerata in proporzione alla superficie, decisamente più ridotta, appare la situazione nelle due unità edilizie minori, il cosiddetto Hospitium Hygini Firmi e l’edificio retrostante, esplorato solo in parte, nelle quali molto superiori in quantità e significatività sono i “trovamenti” registrati nei Giornali dei Soprastanti. Aree di attività di cui, sulla base dei rinvenimenti di manufatti e ecofatti, possiamo presumere l’esistenza nel 79 d.C. e di cui possiamo tentare di ipotizzare la natura, sono riconoscibili solo in pochi ambienti, nel complesso maggiore, che almeno nel l’età augustea doveva essere stato una grande domus dotata di un doppio atrio, di un peristilio e di un balneum privato 47. 46 47 44 45
Coralini, « Vecchi scavi e nuovi dati », p. 167-169. Coralini, « Vecchi scavi e nuovi dati », p. 171. Coralini, « Vecchi scavi e nuovi dati », p. 171-172. Coralini, Scagliarini, « La decorazione “diacronica” ».
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Fig. 6. Pompei, IX 8. Scavi 1879-1880: evidenziati in grigio, gli ambienti interessati da rinvenimenti di reperti mobili (Programma Vesuviana, Progetto Pompei. Insula del Centenario, IX 8, planimetria realizzata sotto la direzione di A. Capra, G. Bitelli, 2000: rielaborazione a cura di A. Petrazzuolo, 2017).
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Nell’atrio maggiore, 2, nell’angolo alla destra dell’ingresso da Via di Nola è riconoscibile una situazione di deposito di contenitori in vetro e ceramica, comune e invetriata (Figg. 7-8). Q uesto gruppo di manufatti era forse nel 79 d.C. conservato all’interno di un arredo in legno (come fa ritenere il rinvenimento di elementi in bronzo, quali cerniere e maniglie: questo, forse una cassa, era collocato in posizione simmetrica rispetto all’arca che doveva trovarsi all’angolo opposto, come suggerisce anche la decorazione pavimentale. Gli ambienti affacciati sull’atrio mostravano al momento dello scavo evidenti tracce d’uso come vani di servizio, quali sulle pareti gli incavi destinati ad alloggiare i supporti di scansie e, nell’ala ovest, un elemento litico orizzontale funzionale alla sua trasformazione in armarium 48. Nel cubicolo “egizio”, b, dove alla decorazione pavimentale più antica si accompagnavano pitture parietali alla moda, in Q uarto
Fig. 7. Pompei, IX 8. Scavi 1879-1880: il settore dell’atrio maggiore, con localizzazione dei rinvenimenti (Programma Vesuviana, Progetto Pompei. Insula del Centenario, IX 8, planimetria realizzata sotto la direzione di A. Capra, G. Bitelli, 2000: rielaborazione a cura di A. Petrazzuolo, 2017).
48 Coralini, « Vecchi scavi e nuovi dati », p. 167-178. Sulla rifunzionalizzazione delle alae, anche in senso decisamente utilitario, E. Cova, « Stasis and change in Roman domestic space. The alae of Pompeii’s Regio VI », in AJA 119, (2015), p. 69-102.
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8 marzo 1880
Vetro
Vaso conico a bocca larga. Al. m. 193
id.
id.
Altro della stessa forma. Al. m. 200.
id.
id.
Altro. Al. m 120.
id.
id.
Altro. Al. m. 77.
id.
id.
Altro. Al. m. 70
id.
id.
Altro. Al m. 180
id.
Id.
Altro. Al. m. 64.
id.
id.
Vaso cilindrico a bocca larga. Al. m. 246
id.
id.
Bottiglione cilindrico con bocca stretta e manico. Al. m. 290
id.
id.
Altro della stessa forma.
id.
id.
Bottiglione a base quadrata e bocca larga. Al. m. 200.
id.
id.
Altra della stessa forma. Al. m. 150.
id.
id.
Altro della stessa forma. Al. m. 140.
id.
id.
Altro della stessa forma. Al. m. 110
id.
id.
Bottiglia a pancia quadrata, piccola bocca e manico. Al m. 220.
id.
id.
Altra della stessa forma. Al. m. 212
id.
id.
Altra della stessa forma. Al. m. 190.
id.
id.
Bottiglia a ventre ovale col collo. Al. m. 232.
id.
id.
Altra. Al. m. 170.
id.
id.
Altra. Al. m. 164.
id.
id.
Altra. Al. m. 140
id.
id.
Oleare col manico. Ha il collo rotto. Al. m. 135.
id.
id.
Anforetta con due manichi a bocca larga. Al. m. 235.
id.
id.
Bicchiere lavorato a righe diaconali con un pezzo rotto e molto screpolato.
id.
id.
Vasetto a bocca larga e ventre sferico. Al. m. 80
id.
id.
Tazzetta coll’orlo dentato. D.o m. 60
id.
id.
Boccettina. Al.m. 70
id.
Terracotta
Theca cilindrica col coperchio. Ha vernice rossa ed è rotta nel giro. Alta fino alla sommità del coperchio mill. 120.
id.
id.
Scodella col coperchio. D.o m. 160
id.
id.
Tazza. D.o m. 160
id.
id.
Tazzetta. D.o m. 85
id.
id.
Altra. D.o m. 75.
id.
id.
Altra. D.o m. 70.
id.
id.
Pignattino a due manichi. Al. m. 80
id.
id.
Piccolo oleare. Al. m. 85
id.
id.
Altro. Al. m. 85.
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8 marzo 1880
Terracotta egizia
Lagena a ventre gonfio e due manichi. Ha patina vitrea. Al. m. 162.
id.
id.
Vasetto ovale senza manichi con patina vitrea.
id.
Bronzo
Passabrodi con manico orizzontale. L. m. 275.
id.
id.
Una maniglia di cassa, fatta ad arco fermato su una placca rettangolare. L. m. 300.
id.
id.
Una piccola moneta.
Fig. 8. Pompei, IX 8. Casa del Centenario (IX 8, 3.6.a), atrio maggiore, 2. Scavi 1879-1880: elenco dei rinvenimenti ivi effettuati in data 8 marzo 1880 (“Isola ad oriente dell’isola 5a. Reg. e 9a Casa coll’ingresso sul Decumano maggiore. 6° vano lato nord a contare dall’angolo nord-ovest. Atrio”).
Stile, ai temi figurati di queste ultime, egizi nei soggetti e nelle forme, corrispondeva con interessante coincidenza il rinvenimento di una raffinata applique con testa d’Africa, cui si aggiungeva, nei pressi, anche quello di un sistro 49 (Figg. 9, 10, 11).
Fig. 9. Pompei, Casa del Centenario (IX 8, 3.6.a), cubicolo “egizio”, b, parete nord: rilievo fotogrammetrico, restituzione grafica, vignetta (disegno di A. Sikkard) (Programma Vesuviana, Progetto Pompei. Insula del Centenario, IX 8, I. Loschi). Coralini, « Vecchi scavi e nuovi dati », p. 169.
49
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Fig. 10. Pompei, IX 8. Scavi 1879-1880: dal cubicolo b, rinvenuto durante uno “scavo apposito”, la borchia di mobile con busto di Africa, o forse Alessandria (MANN, inv. 111495; Archivio Fotografico del Museo Archeologico Nazionale di Napoli).
Fig. 11. Pompei, IX 8. Scavi 1879-1880: dal cubicolo b, rinvenuto durante uno “scavo apposito”, sistro in bronzo (MANN, inv. 118250; Archivio Fotografico del Museo Archeologico Nazionale di Napoli).
2.1.3. Funzioni e fruizioni: indizi e interpretazioni
Più indizi convergono nel far ritenere che nel 79 d.C. la grande domus di età augustea non solo non fosse più in uso nel suo insieme, ma anche che avesse perso la funzione residenziale e 83
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che fosse invece diventata un complesso ibrido, in cui solo alcuni spazi erano effettivamente utilizzati, e soprattutto a fini lucrativi, piuttosto che abitativi: uno slittamento funzionale, dal residenziale al commerciale, ben attestato in tutta la Pompei antica soprattutto all’indomani del terremoto del 62. Nasce da qui il titolo del mio contributo, Lucrum facere, cioè dall’ipotesi di lavoro, verificata e affinata in anni di ricerche sull’insula IX 8: nel 79 d.C. quest’insula era forse diventata un complesso parzialmente messo a reddito, con spazi destinati a diverse attività (conviviali, termali, erotiche), ottenuti grazie alla rifunzionalizzazione di ambienti già esistenti e alla realizzazione ex novo di altri. Gli interventi di ristrutturazione e ridecorazione ci testimoniano della maggiore importanza attribuita, nell’ultimo periodo di vita dell’insula, al quartiere occidentale, atriolo di servizio compreso, e a quello del peristilio, dove viene realizzata la sontuosa quinta scenografica del viridarium pictum con paradeisos 50, mentre i “trovamenti” registrati nel Giornale dei Soprastanti ci parlano di attività (di vita quotidiana) in corso in altri spazi, che non sono quelli che ubicazione, forma e ornati concorrono a qualificare come di maggior pregio. Sono, invece, l’atrio maggiore, 2, col probabile sacello “egizio” ricavato in un cubicolo, b, e il tablino che introduceva al peristilio; il corridoio, 39, di accesso all’appartamento del cubicolo erotico, la cui riservatezza pare denunciata sia dalla posizione sia dal percorso, tortuoso, che vi conduceva 51; nel quartiere a est del viridario con ninfeo, l’ambiente, 38, in cui fu rinvenuto un gruppo eterogeneo di oggetti del quotidiano, forse anche in quel caso conservati all’interno di un arredo ligneo 52. Tracce della vita di ogni giorno sono riconoscibili anche nelle due unità minori, alle spalle del grande complesso, dove alcuni “trovamenti” sono riconducibili alla sfera del femmi-
Coralini, Scagliarini, « La decorazione “diacronica” ». Così anche A. Anguissola, Intimità a Pompei. Riservatezza, condivisione e prestigio negli ambienti ad alcova di Pompei, Berlin, De Gruyter, 2010, p. 102, 158-160, 231-234, 335-337, 340-334, e, con maggiori licenze interpretative, J. Pollini, « Lovemaking and voyeurism in Roman art and culture. The House of the Centenary at Pompeii », in RM 116 (2010), p. 289-319. 52 Così per A. Mau, in BdI 1881, p. 238; Coralini, « Vecchi scavi e nuovi dati », p. 172. 50 51
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nile e altri testimoniano attività connesse alla manutenzione del verde 53. L’importanza delle scelta figurativa della pittura di larario con Bacco e il Vesuvio e la collocazione stessa dell’immagine, che nel l’atriolo di servizio del complesso si trovava di fronte all’ingresso dal vicolo occidentale, nella posizione più e meglio visibile dal l’esterno (Fig. 12), porta a ritenere che nel 79 d.C. potesse essere questo l’ingresso principale, non solo del quartiere occidentale del grande complesso con doppio atrio e peristilio, ma anche del l’intero complesso: un complesso ricavato all’interno di quella che era stata una ricca domus, dove le funzioni residenziali erano diventate residuali, cedendo il passo a quelle commerciali. Nel nuovo assetto e con la nuova vocazione il complesso era forse accessibile anche ad ospiti paganti, con stanze in locazione per attività conviviali (gli oeci bianco e nero, 7 e 8, il triclinio nero, 41, il salone, 32, antistante il viridario con ninfeo), un impianto termale, 44-47, arricchito dopo l’età augustea, e forse dopo il 62, dall’addizione di una grande natatio e di una spaziosa anticamera, adibita ad apodyterium, e un venereum, 43, con pretese di eleganza (Fig. 13). Si tratta di una lettura non nuova, che già A. Mau aveva proposto, seppur dubitativamente 54, ma che il recupero dei “trovamenti” dei vecchi scavi, attraverso l’analisi dei singoli reperti e della distribuzione, anche se generica, dei rinvenimenti, integrato con lo studio degli alzati e degli apparati decorativi e con i dati delle indagini stratigrafiche degli anni 1999-2004, consentono oggi di riproporre su basi più solide. I risultati di questo approccio a più binari convergenti, sperimentato con successo sull’insula IX 8, confermano la validità e la necessità del sistematico recupero dei legacy data, lato sensu : è la valorizzazione dei vecchi scavi la via maestra per ottenere il necessario ampliamento del campione, insula per insula, e la base di dati, più ricca e solida, che ancora manca a Pompei.
Coralini, « Vecchi scavi e nuovi dati », p. 172-174. A. Mau, in BdI 1881, p. 236: “mi vien il sospetto che qui si esercitasse una caupona col dormitorio, e forse col bagno”; Coralini, « Vecchi scavi e nuovi dati », p. 166. 53 54
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Fig. 12. Pompei, Casa del Centenario (IX 8, 3.6.a), atriolo del settore di servizio, larario (49): ricostruzione prospettiva della veduta in antico, dall’ingresso dal vicolo occidentale, fra le insulae IX 5 e IX 8 (Programma Vesuviana, Progetto Pompei. Insula del Centenario, IX 8, P. Baronio, 2013).
Fig. 13. Pompei, Casa del Centenario (IX 8, 3.6.a), ambienti 43 e 42 (Programma Vesuviana, Progetto Pompei. Insula del Centenario, IX 8, M. Limoncelli, 2018, su restituzione grafica di I. Loschi).
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ROOMS WITH A VIEW: STATUS, SPATIAL HIERARCHY, AND SEASONALITY IN THE UPPER FLOORS OF HOUSES AT HERCULANEUM
Introduction The excavations at Pompeii and Herculaneum provide unique insights into Roman domestic space. However, we are all too frequently presented with an image of the Roman house as twodimensional, limited to a single floor at ground level 1. Consequently, our ability to reconstruct space and context and to discern patterns of behaviour in the Roman household is constrained. Roman literary sources provide little objective information about their appearance or character other than as to how they were viewed by the Roman elite 2. The archaeological evidence from Pompeii suggests that the usage of upper floors was distinctly multi-functional. This was borne out by the important artefactual study of elite Pompeian house contents by Penelope Allison, which concluded that the activities present on the upper floor 1 A. Wallace-Hadrill, Houses and society in Pompeii and Herculaneum, Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1994, p. 74-75. 2 The Latin word for an upper floor cenaculum initially referred to a dining room, then later an upper floor dining room, and eventually the upper floor or flats in general, with an increasingly pejorative nuance in certain sources. See I. M. Sutherland, Colonnaded Cenacula in Pompeian Domestic Architecture, Ph.D. diss., Duke University, 1989, p. 4-6; F. Pirson, « Rented accommodation at Pompeii: the evidence of the Insula Arriana Polliana VI.6 », in R. Laurence, A. Wallace-Hadrill (éd.), Domestic Space in the Roman World: Pompeii and Beyond, Portsmouth, Rhode Island, Journal of Roman Archaeology, 1997 (Journal of Roman Archaeology Supplementary Series 22), p. 165-181 (p. 169 in particular). See also more recently J. Suaudeau, « À propos du cenaculum dans Varron LL V 162: les cenacula à colonnade de la région vésuvienne: importance et signification », REL 90 (2012), p. 101-138.
Anthropology of Roman Housing, ed. by Alexandra Dardenay and Nicolas Laubry, Turnhout, 2020 (ASH, 5), pp. 87–114 © FHG DOI 10.1484/M.ASH-EB.5.119731
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could be wide-ranging, with evidence for similar activities to the ground floor and extensive evidence for storage, albeit with limited evidence for industrial activity, display, and entertainment 3. Yet this conclusion appears rather at odds with that of other studies which have sought to elucidate the status of upper floor rooms on predominantly architectural and decorative grounds. For example, Sutherland has highlighted the cultural significance of upper storey colonnades in Pompeian housing; these appeared during the second century bc as part of a wider trend of Hellenistic influence on Roman domestic architecture and were broadly employed to communicate status, but in many cases also to frame dining spaces 4. Decoration was frequently of a high quality and, as Domenico Esposito observes, upper floor wall paintings at Herculaneum often surpassed those of the ground floor 5. Similarly, Ling and Ling’s attempt to consider the spatial hierarchy of floor and wall decorations across a group of houses of differing size and wealth in insula I 10 illustrates that, despite limited evidence, rooms on the upper storey of at least two houses outranked those of the ground floor 6. The same pattern is echoed by several recent studies of Late Hellenistic housing on Delos that have also explored the evidence for spatial hierarchy across the whole house and have likewise shown that upper floors were typically betterdecorated than their ground floor counterparts. They frequently also reveal evidence for reception and display activity that was central to the representation of the household (see also Zarmakoupi in this volume), not simply serving as private quarters 7.
3 P. M. Allison, Pompeian households: an analysis of the material culture, Los Angeles, University of California Cotsen Institute of Archaeology, 2004 (Cotsen Institute of Archaeology Monograph 42), p. 117-120, 122. 4 Sutherland, Colonnaded Cenacula in Pompeian Domestic Architecture. 5 D. Esposito, La pittura di Ercolano, Rome, “L’Erma” di Bretschneider, 2014 (Studi della Soprintendenza archeologica di Pompei 33), p. 85. 6 R. Ling, L. Ling, The Insula of the Menander at Pompeii, Volume II: The Decorations, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2005, p. 128 (Casa degli Amanti), 145 (Casa del Fabbro). 7 R. C. Westgate, « Space and Decoration in Hellenistic Houses », ABSA 95 (2000), p. 391-426; M. Trümper, « Differentiation in the Hellenistic houses of Delos: the question of functional areas », in R. Westgate, N. Fisher, J. Whitley (éd.), Building Communities: House, Settlement and Society in the Aegean and Beyond, London, 2007 (British School at Athens Studies), p. 323-
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The social organisation of space and consequently the extent to which space was public or private, or, alternatively, the extent to which access and visibility were permitted to the visitor, were important concerns in Roman domestic architecture. Recent research has attempted to clarify this particular dichotomy, yet rarely do we consider the physical means in which these ideas were communicated 8. Staircases to upper floors are found throughout the houses of Pompeii in different locations. Some are located in areas of the house that are considered “public” in character while others are found in areas such as the peristyle to which only the invited guest was admitted. It remains unclear the extent to which the staircases in those places were to be accessed by different strata of the household, let alone visitors. Temporality and seasonality are also central to understanding household behaviour, although are often much-neglected. That seasonal usage was important in Roman domestic space is substantiated by several ancient writers; Vitruvius, for example, recommends the arrangement of seasonal rooms in the Roman house and there is no reason to suspect that his assertion did not extend to upper floors 9. Dickmann has raised questions about the applicability of Vitruvian guidelines concerning temporal factors with respect to the arrangement of certain rooms, concluding that they only played a “minor role” and citing a limited number of examples, where the overriding factor for their orientation is, ostensibly, their visibility from the street entrance. Yet this approach does not consider room aspect or natural variance in temperatures between the upper and ground floor; upper floor rooms would have received more light and warmth during the winter whilst ground floor rooms would have 334; M. Zarmakoupi, « La mobilité sociale à Délos: quelques remarques à partir de la culture matérielle et des documents épigraphiques », in A. Rizakis, F. Camia, S. Zoumbaki (éd.), Social Dynamics under Roman Rule: Mobility and Status Change in the Provinces of Achaia and Macedonia: proceedings of a conference held at the French School of Athens, 30-31 May 2014, Athens, National Hellenic Research Foundation, 2017, p. 133-157 (p. 5 in particular). 8 Wallace-Hadrill, Houses and society, chapter 3. On this theme see also papers in K. Tuori, L. Nissin (éd.), Public and Private in the Roman House and Society, Portsmouth, Rhode Island, Journal of Roman Archaeology, 2015 (Journal of Roman Archaeology Supplementary Series 102) and J. Berry, « Boundaries and control in the Roman house », JRA 26 (2016), p. 125-141. 9 Vitr. De arch. 6.4.1-2.
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been cooler in summer 10. Indeed, Plutarch, in his treatise on cold temperatures alludes to precisely this; that the upper floors of the Greek house, in the Roman period, were used during the winter and the ground floor rooms during the summer 11. The similarity in climatic conditions between Greece and the Italic peninsular might lead us to think that similar practices were adopted in Roman domestic space too. The aim here is to examine the evidence for spatial hierarchy, accessibility and visibility, and seasonality in upper floors across a group of houses at Herculaneum. I shall begin by broadly exploring the evidence for recognised identifiers of room function and status. I will then assess the order of upper floors in the overall spatial hierarchy in individual houses, considering the extent to which upper floors may have been intended to have been accessed by the invited guest or, conversely, how certain spaces may have been hidden from view. It will be argued that they often played an important role in the spatial and social functioning of the Roman domus and were frequently among the most prestigious rooms in the house, providing their owners significant opportunities to reinforce status but also creating a dynamic flexibility that meant that space could be used both temporally and seasonally.
1. Decoration and hierarchy Central to discussion of possible room status is extent and character of decoration which remains an important criterion in understanding the arrangement of space. As Andrew Wallace-Hadrill observes, the function of decoration is “to discriminate and to render the house fit for the pattern of activity within it” 12. Deco10 J.-A. Dickmann, Domus frequentata: anspruchsvolles Wohnen im pompejanischen Stadthaus, Munich, Dr Friedrich Pfeil, 1999 (Studien zur antiken Stadt 4), p. 287. 11 Plut., De prim. frig. 20. For further discussion, see also L. C. Nevett, House and society in the ancient Greek world, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1999, p. 36. Archaeological evidence suggests that Plutarch’s assertion may have only been partly true for Greek housing. At late Hellenistic Delos we find that the upper floors of peristyle houses were frequently entirely independent from the ground floor. See M. Trümper, « Differentiation in the Hellenistic houses of Delos: the question of functional areas », p. 332. 12 Wallace-Hadrill, Houses and society, p. 149.
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ration was used to structure spaces in the ancient house and establish hierarchies that would have been easily read by the observer 13. While we should be wary about the intended versus the actual use of decorated rooms, decoration, architecture and furniture remain vital indicators as to the social use of space 14. Other criteria might include size, height, access and visibility, and relation to other rooms 15. Evidence for different types of painting suggests that the decoration of upper floors was as stratified as that on the ground floors. From a sample of 78 upper floors at Herculaneum (across all property types in Insulae III-VI and Insula Orientalis II) only a quarter retain no evidence of decoration at all, likely the result of poor preservation, while remains of the most rudimentary plaster survive in more than half of upper floors, reflecting either the minimum quality of rendering or plasters that are too deteriorated to be of diagnostic value 16. Simple field paintings, consisting of monochrome fields delineated by vertical and horizontal bands, frequently with animals or tondi at the centre of the fields, are found in a quarter of the total upper floors. Such schemes are typical of secondary spaces in large houses or decorations in more modest housing 17. Fine quality paintings, with varying degrees of sophistication and mostly of the Fourth Pompeian Style, are often polychrome and typically include ornamental bands, architectural perspectives, mythological panels, and figural motifs; these are found in a fifth of all upper floors 18. However, panel and mythological paintings, which served to allude to Greek or Westgate, « Space and Decoration in Hellenistic Houses », p. 391. Allison, Pompeian households: an analysis of the material culture, p. 63. 15 Trümper, « Differentiation in the Hellenistic houses of Delos: the question of functional areas », p. 323. 16 J. N. Andrews, The use and development of upper floors in houses at Herculaneum, 3 vols, Ph.D. diss., University of Reading, 2006, vol. 1, p. 98-100. 17 Esposito, La pittura di Ercolano, p. 88. On this type of decoration see also V. M. Strocka, « Pompejanische Nebenzimmer », in B. Andreae, H. Kyrieleis (éd.), Neue Forschungen in Pompeji und den anderen vom Vesuvausbruch 79 n. Chr. Verschütteten Städten, Recklinghausen, Bongers, 1975, p. 101114; W. Ehrhardt, Dekorations- und Wohnkontext: Beseitigung, Restaurierung, Verschmelzung und Konservierung von Wandbemalungen in den kampanischen Antikenstätten, Wiesbaden, Ludwig Reichert, 2012 (Palilia 26). 18 On the principal indicators of hierarchy in Pompeian wall painting, see Wallace-Hadrill, Houses and society, p. 31-35; Ling, Ling, The Insula of the Menander, p. 167. 13 14
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Roman myth are rare with only 4% of upper floors contain paintings of this type. Their apparent absence is most likely due to their lack of survival on the appropriate part of the wall, rather than their non-presence on upper floors in antiquity 19. The same can be said of pavements, typically also poorly documented in the excavation records, and of which we have only a limited perception of the frequency of different types and the degree of sophistication; pavements (frequently cocciopesto) embellished with marble pieces or tesserae are documented in 8% of upper floors, while mosaics are only recorded in two upper floors in the sample 20. Thus, despite the limits of preservation, the evidence suggests that it was the norm for upper floors to be decorated, very frequently to a high standard. A common feature in smaller houses at Herculaneum are colonnaded upper floor rooms (Fig. 1) 21. Indeed, from Sutherland’s study at Pompeii, their wider overriding frequency in modestlysized houses is apparent 22. At Herculaneum, we find such rooms typically positioned above the tablinum range facing the atrium although one house, the Casa del Mobilio Carbonizzato, had a second adjacent colonnaded room overlooking its small garden. The colonnaded rooms seem to have served an important role in the social functioning of the house. In the Casa Sannitica the house had lost its peristyle in an earlier phase, yet the colonnaded room above the tablinum was retained; a separate upper floor overlooking the street was likely a rental unit with its own external street entrance 23. Apart from the atrium, this was the largest room in the house and was the only room with a mosaic pavement, although 19 It has been recently suggested that upper floors lacked the type of rooms in which we might expect to find such panel paintings. See M. Flohr, « Artisans and Markets: The Economics of Roman Domestic Decoration », AJA 123.1 (2019), p. 101‑125 (p. 115 in particular). 20 Pavements with inset coloured stone pieces are similarly well-attested in Pompeian upper floors. See Ling, Ling, The Insula of the Menander, p. 166. 21 Houses with upper floor colonnades: Casa Sannitica; Casa del Mobilio Carbonizzato; Casa del Sacello di Legno. 22 Sutherland, Colonnaded Cenacula. 23 On the upper floors of the Casa Sannitica, see A. Maiuri, Ercolano. I nuovi scavi (1927-1958), Rome, Libreria dello Stato, 1958, p. 198-200, 205206, figs 152-153, 157-159, pl. XVIII. For a detailed structural analysis, see T. Ganschow, Untersuchungen zur Baugeschichte in Herculaneum, Bonn, Habelt, 1989 (Antiquitas 3), p. 221-235, abb. 18-20.
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Fig. 1. Casa Sannitica (V, 1-2) view of atrium with colonnaded upper floor. Photograph by the author and published with the permission of the Parco Archeologico di Ercolano.
we know nothing of its wall decorations. The use of columns evoked the peristyle and consequently, Hellenistic culture, which it was otherwise impossible to realize at ground floor level given the limitations of space 24. Significantly, none of these internal colonnades reveal any evidence for shuttering, as we sometimes find for external upper colonnades at Pompeii, presumably closed during inclement weather, and so occupants were visible to the visitor arriving in the atrium. On entering the atria of these relatively diminutive residences the visitor must have been impressed by the colonnaded room towering above. That they can be attributed to different periods in the town’s history is not only testimony to their enduring popularity as an architectural form, but also their lasting ability to reinforce status. Alongside these colonnaded rooms it is also possible to identify rooms that appear to have served as dining rooms (triclinia); these can be identified by a combination of their size, decoration, the presence of beds or couches or nearby kitchens. Such rooms on the upper storey were often among the largest and most Wallace-Hadrill, Houses and society, p. 26.
24
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socially important in the house and can be identified in several houses 25. Further insight as to their importance can be gained by comparing the size of the respective rooms and decorations on the ground and first floors. The results of this analysis for the Casa del Mobilio Carbonizzato (V, 5), one of only a few houses where the plan of the upper storey can be entirely understood, are shown in Table 1 (see also Fig. 2).
Fig. 2. Casa del Mobilio Carbonizzato (V, 5), plan of ground floor and upper floor. Drawing by the author, after T. Ganschow, Untersuchungen zur Baugeschichte in Herculaneum, abb. 27-28. 25 Andrews, The use and development of upper floors in houses at Herculaneum, vol. 1, p. 130-131, 133, 135, 150.
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Table 1. Decorations and room size in the Casa del Mobilio Carbonizzato (V, 5). Room No 26
Room Type
Area (m²)
Decoration
11
Atrium
46.2
Fine
9
Garden
40.1
Fine
UF 20
Dining room
30.9
None
UF 15
25.2
None
UF 22
Dining room
24.7
Plain
8
Triclinium
21.0
Fine
1
16.5
Fine
4
Tablinum
13.1
Fine
2
13.0
Fine
UF 16
12.8
Rough Plaster
5
8.7
Fine
UF 17A/17B
Dry Store
8.4
Rough/hydraulic plaster
2A
8.0
Fine
13
Fauces
7.9
Simple Field Paintings
10
7.8
Simple Field Paintings
UF 19
6.8
Rough Plaster
6
6.8
Plain
3
Store-room
6.3
Plain
UF 18
6.2
Rough
7
6.1
Plain
UF 21
Kitchen
4.9
None
12
Staircase
3.7
Rough
14
Cubby-hole
1.0
Plain
UF denotes upper floor.
26
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The decorations on the ground floor are well-preserved and mostly of a high quality, belonging to either the Third or Fourth Styles, although the decorations on the floor above are poorly preserved. Unsurprisingly, the largest room in this modestly-sized house was the atrium (11), followed by the garden (9). However, if we exclude these spaces then two colonnaded upper floor rooms (20 and 22), which likely formed a suite, and another (15) to the west of the atrium were the largest in the house 27. Taken as a whole the average size of the upper floor rooms was also marginally greater than that of the ground floor; 15 m² average on the upper floor and 13.7 m² for the ground floor. The two colonnaded rooms were situated above well-decorated rooms below, which included a triclinium (8), decorated in elegant paintings of the Fourth Style and which contained the remains of a wooden couch. Moreover, their likely role as dining spaces is supported by the presence of a kitchen (21). That we find rooms of the same type suggests the need to distribute social activity between the ground floor and the first floor. The function of the rooms on the east (15-16) side is uncertain although those on the north side included a dry-store (17a-17b), common in upper floors at Herculaneum; this space appears to have contained roof tiles at the time of the eruption but it is unclear whether these were being stored here or had collapsed from the roof. In sum, in the Casa del Mobilio Carbonizzato, the upper floor not only provided additional space to the only service rooms on the ground floor (6 and possibly 7), but also additional social space, which in terms of its size and architectural arrangement at least, like the Casa Sannitica, outranked those of the ground floor. The apparent duplication of large, high-status upper storey rooms positioned above similar rooms on the ground floor can be observed in other houses at Herculaneum. The Casa del Colon nato Tuscanico (VI, 17.26), for example, had a large room above its tablinum, equipped with a cocciopesto pavement embellished
There remains no trace of the columns in room 22 although from an entry in the Giornale degli Scavi (GSE, Apr. 1933: “Descrizione della Casa nº 5, sul IV Cardine, lato Est. Ambiente Nº 8”) and section by Maiuri (Maiuri, Ercolano. I nuovi scavi, pl. XXIV) there appear to have originally been three brick columns on the room’s south side, partly closed by an inter-columnar wall. 27
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with white tesserae and pieces of coloured marble 28. Another large room also extended above the adjacent triclinium. The height of the floor of this room from that below, approximately 5.805.90 m, ensured that it towered above the roof of the first floor of the house’s peristyle on its south side and likely afforded the occupant with impressive views towards the sea, otherwise unattainable on the ground floor. That the same trend can be identified at Pompeii too implies a broad trend for housing arrangements and living practices on the Bay of Naples. Roger Ling’s restoration of such a room above the tablinum range in the Casa del Fab bro (I 10, 7) is a case in point, while others at Pompeii can, for example, be postulated above exedra G of the Casa degli Amorini Dorati (VI 16, 7.38) and above the large triclinium in the Casa del Sacerdos Amandus (I 7, 7) 29. An impressive room on the upper floor of the Casa del Moralista (III 4, 2-3), overlooking its garden, was similarly situated directly above a triclinium and was even uniquely equipped with a small opening in the room’s pavement, perhaps to allow the passing of objects or even food and wine between the two during activity therein 30. Like the room below, it was equipped with large openings ensuring the room could be well lit; these opened towards the east and north of which the latter may have made the room suitable for winter use, according to Vitruvian rules 31. The decorations included a cocciopesto pavement embellished with tesserae and frescoes with impressive paintings of the Third Style, featuring large mythological panels 32. Also striking is the contrast been the quality of décor of this upper sto28 The photograph was republished by G. Cerulli-Irelli, La Casa « del Colonnato Tuscanico » ad Ercolano, Naples, Gaetano Macchiaroli, 1974 (Memorie dell’Accademia di archeologia, lettere e belle arti di Napoli, N. S. 7), fig. 9. 29 On the Casa del Fabbro, see R. Ling, The Insula of the Menander at Pompeii, Volume I: The Structures, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1997, p. 158, 163; Ling, Ling, The Insula of the Menander, p. 138, 145. On the Casa degli Amo rini Dorati (VI.16.7/38), see F. Seiler, Casa degli Amorini Dorati (VI 16, 7.38), Munich, Hirmer, 1992 (Häuser in Pompeji 5), p. 73, 93. That in the Casa del Sacerdos Amandus is proposed by the present author. 30 V. Spinazzola, Pompei alla luce degli scavi nuovi di via dell’Abbondanza (anni 1910-1923), 3 vols, Rome, Libreria dello Stato, 1953, p. 727-728, 737-762, figs 713-730, 736-737. 31 Vitr., De arch. 6.3.8. 32 G. P. Carratelli, I. Baldassarre (éd.), Pompei: Pitture e mosaici, III, Rome, Istituto della Enciclopedia Italiana, 1991, p. 432-434.
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rey room with the simple Fourth Style field paintings of the triclinium immediately below, with their lines of Latin verse. Those of the floor above clearly outranked those on the floor below in both content and sophistication, which suggests the upper floor was more elevated in the overall spatial hierarchy.
2. Arrangement and access Evidence for the broader duplication of certain rooms across both floors can be observed in the Casa di Nettuno e Anfitrite (V, 6-7). The small house had two separate upper floors, extending the total living area by almost 100 m², with those above the western part of the house among the best-preserved at Herculaneum (Fig. 3) 33. This part of the upper floor (rooms 14-22) extended above the rooms to the south and west of the atrium and the street pavement by means of a balcony, while the second (rooms 23-24) extended above the rooms to the east of the atrium. The two did not communicate with one another and any connection was impossible given the height of the ceiling in the triclinium (7), which was situated at a higher level than the two upper storeys’ respective floor levels. The upper floor above the rooms to the west and south of the atrium was largely restored during the excavations but in such a way as to leave the rooms visible from the street in order to present the house to the public 34. These rooms were reached by a stair in the kitchen (11), accessed through a doorway in the southeast corner of the atrium. Three masonry steps survive, although the excavation diary indicates that the remaining wooden part of the stair, destroyed by a Bourbon tunnel, rose in an easterly direction along the south wall to the level of the 33 Maiuri, Ercolano. I nuovi scavi, p. 401-402, fig. 331, pl. VII. For recent reconstructions of some of the upper floor paintings, see also A. Dardenay, J. N. Andrews, H. Eristov, M.-L. Maraval, N. Monteix, « Herculaneum, architecture domestique et décor. Restitution graphique et virtuelle de la casa di Nettuno ed Anfitrite (V, 6-7). Campagne 2017 du programme ANR VESUVIA », Chronique des activités archéologiques de l’École française de Rome (En Ligne) (2018), http://journals.openedition.org/cefr/2119, p. 1-34. 34 D. Camardo, M. Notomista, Ercolano: 1927-1961. L’impresa archeologica di Amedeo Maiuri e l’esperimento della città museo, Rome, “L’Erma” di Bretschneider, 2017 (Studi e Ricerche del Parco Archeologico di Pompei 34), p. 53-55, fig. 62.
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Fig. 3. Casa di Nettuno e Anfitrite (V, 6-7), plan of ground floor and upper floor. Drawing of the ground floor by the author after Maiuri, Ercolano. I nuovi scavi, fig. 330. Drawing of upper floor by the author.
room above (21). The section over the western rooms comprised five rooms (14-16, latrine 18, kitchen 20) orientated towards the street; a passage on the balcony (17); and an access corridor (19) connecting the suite to two rooms (21-22) above rooms 11/5 and 6 respectively. The rooms were divided from one another by timber-framed partitions, so-called opus craticium, while large opus vittatum piers supported lintels extending along the façade and the roof, which has been restored (the upper floor rooms have a headroom of approximately 3.60 m). 99
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Despite the limited nature of the available space, the upper floor was carefully arranged with access to the various rooms facilitated by the corridor or balcony that also extended two of the rooms at either end (15 and 18) over the street. It is dominated by a large central room (16), evidently a triclinium, which was lavishly decorated in fine Fourth Style paintings in a red scheme (Fig. 4) 35. This was also the largest room on the upper floor (4.04 × 3.65 m) and, excluding the atrium, the second largest internal room in the house after the principal triclinium. Two small well-decorated rooms (15 and 22) of a similar red scheme replicate rooms on the ground floor, typically identified as cubicula. According to Riggsby, such rooms were multi-functional and equally accommodated private or public activity 36. This is borne out by a compa-
Fig. 4. Casa di Nettuno e Anfitrite (V, 6-7), upper floor dining room (16), east wall, Fourth Style paintings. Photograph by the author and published with the permission of the Parco Archeologico di Ercolano.
35 Esposito, La pittura di Ercolano, p. 89, notes the similarity between these paintings and those in two rooms in the upper floor apartment (V, 13-14) of the Casa del Bicentenario (V, 15-16), concluding that they were likely the work of the same workshop. 36 A. M. Riggsby, « “Public” and “private” in Roman culture: the case of the cubiculum », JRA 10 (1997), p. 36-56. On the problems of Latin nomenclature
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rable room on the upper storey of the nearby Casa del Sacello di Legno (V, 31), which appears to have served as a bedroom, storeroom and possibly also a study, given the finding of an archive of writing tablets in the room. Of the remaining rooms the decorative evidence is limited, although noteworthy are the remains of a panel painting in room 14, which was otherwise undecorated, and the painted remains of a lararium and aedicula in the kitchen (20). Finally, rather unusual is a small, square window in the east wall of the triclinium (Fig. 4). The amount of light this could have provided must have been restricted as it was positioned below the atrium roof on the other side of the wall and so perhaps served to view or communicate with arriving visitors below. The upper floor above the tablinum range appears to have served a distinct role, partly conditioned by the means of access to it. Divided into two rooms in the final phase, one was equipped with a wide opening the purpose of which appears to have been to facilitate access to the room by ladder from the small court to the east, which contained the house’s famous nymphaeum and wall mosaic depicting Neptune and Amphitrite. Although the point of access was largely hidden from the view of occupants of the tablinum (3) or triclinium (7) it would have been necessary to place a ladder against the west wall of the court, in front of the tablinum’s window. Access was likely infrequent and presumably undesirable when the adjacent rooms were accommodating guests. The upper floor decorations here are fragmentary but appear more austere than those in the western apartment comprising simple field paintings. In addition, graffiti found on plaster in one of the rooms attest to an interesting range of activities; one notes a date when a slave received wine from the master of the house, another an inventory of objects, and another a grammatical exercise 37. It thus appears that this difficult-to-reach part of the upper storey was primarily the domain of the servile members of the household, while that to the west served a diverse range
in the Roman house, see Allison, Pompeian households: an analysis of the material culture, chapter 7. 37 Dardenay et al., « Herculaneum, architecture domestique et décor », p. 22-23.
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of functions including some activities, such as food preparation and dining that also took place on the ground floor. The duplication of rooms raises the question of whether the upper floor served to accommodate a household that was larger than we might assume; Andrew Wallace-Hadrill has advanced the concept of “housefuls”, where the household comprised a “fluctuating assortment of dependants, freedmen, workers, friends and lodgers” 38. We can rule out the possibility that these rooms formed a rental unit, such as that above the western part of the Casa Sannitica, given access to the upper floor from the atrium and the absence of an external staircase 39. Alternatively, we should consider potential temporal usage, determined by social requirements, just as in other parts of the house 40 and to which the architecture of this house appears to have lent itself. Occupants using the enclosed suite of rooms accessed from the balcony could have moved from room to room without passing through a cold space or partly open space, as they would have on the ground floor, where all movement would have passed through the atrium. The lower ceiling and volume of the upper floor triclinium (53 m³ approx.) would also have been easier to heat in winter than its ground floor counterpart (115 m³ approx.). We might also question the extent to which the apartment above the western rooms was intended to be accessible to guests. Apparent is the rather indirect route of access, with visitors having to pass through the small kitchen, climb the stair and then turn a corner before passing along the corridor at the end of which they would have made a right-hand turn before reaching the entrance to the triclinium on the balcony. Further, the upper floor was also invisible to guests arriving in the atrium unless they were provided instructions as to how to get there, which might explain the purpose of the small window in the east wall of the triclinium. Wallace-Hadrill, Houses and society, p. 116. On the identification of such apartments, see Pirson, « Rented accommodation at Pompeii », p. 171, 175. 40 J. Berry, « Household artefacts: towards a re-interpretation of Roman domestic space », in R. Laurence, A. Wallace-Hadrill (éd.), Domestic space in the Roman world: Pompeii and beyond, Portsmouth, Rhode Island, Journal of Roman Archaeology, 1997 (Journal of Roman Archaeology Supplementary Series 22), p. 183-195 (p. 194 in particular). 38 39
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Juxtaposed with the limited accessibility to the upper floors in the Casa di Nettuno e Anfitrite is that of the neighbouring house to the north, the Casa del Bel Cortile (V, 8), which appears to have been consciously arranged so as to actively encourage guests upstairs (Fig. 5). This small but well-decorated house had at one time been part of the Casa del Bicentenario (V, 15-16) and its irregular and unconventional plan is the result of major rebuilding post-ad 62 and subsequent late adaptation and separation from its neighbour 41. The final layout was focussed on the tiny atrium that also served as a light well for the surrounding rooms. The upper floor, which extended over an area just over 120 m² (more than 40% of the total living space), was accessed by the staircase in the atrium that opened onto a balcony, with a masonry parapet wall, that extended around the atrium’s north
Fig. 5. Casa del Bel Cortile (V, 8), view of the atrium from South, showing staircase and upper floor balustrade. Photograph by the author and published with the permission of the Parco Archeologico di Ercolano.
Maiuri, Ercolano. I nuovi scavi, p. 387. On these grounds Andrew Wallace-Hadrill suggests that we should perhaps view the Casa del Bel Cortile as a collegium or meeting place rather than a domestic residence. See A. Wal lace-Hadrill, Herculaneum: past and future, London, Frances Lincoln, 2011, p. 260. 41
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and west sides. Supported by large column-like buttresses, the stair and balcony give the space a distinct character; a possibly unintended result of which are the rather claustrophobic conditions in the rooms around the atrium due to the low headroom. The balcony provided access to two plainly decorated rooms on its north side while a doorway on its western wing led to two expansive reception rooms that extended above the western half of the house and also a long external balcony that projected along the full width of the façade 42. The two rooms to the north of the balcony were poorly lit, despite one being provided with a window to the atrium, and were decorated with simple white field schemes. In contrast, the two reception rooms, one measuring approximately 3.90 × 11.20 m and the other 3.90 × 6.85 m, were well-decorated with mosaic floors and fine wall paintings of the Fourth Style 43. The two were connected via a wide doorway, with a white marble threshold, while three further doorways, also with marble thresholds, allowed access from the external balcony that also bears traces of fine quality Fourth Style decorations at its southern end. Also of importance is the finding in one of the rooms of the remains of a wooden couch and other items, including bronze candelabra, which suggest dining activity 44. The two rooms evidently had the potential to accommodate a number of guests additional to the large triclinium and other rooms on the ground floor. Access to them, from the staircase and balustrade in the atrium, was in the most visible part of the property to visitors and, through a clever use of architecture, allowed the visitor to visualise access to it or easily follow others. We can therefore conclude that that access to the upper floor by the visitor in the Casa del Bel Cortile was an intentional requirement of the design.
Maiuri, Ercolano. I nuovi scavi, p. 388, figs 316-319, pl. VII. On the decorations of the upper floor of the Casa del Bel Cortile, see Esposito, La pittura di Ercolano, p. 88. 44 GSE 16, 18 May 1933. These entries are cited in Mols’ catalogue of wooden furniture although the findspots are not identified as the Casa del Bel Cortile. See S. T. A. M. Mols, Wooden Furniture in Herculaneum. Form, Technique and Function, Amsterdam, J. C. Gieben, 1999 (Circumvesuviana 2), p. 250. 42 43
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3. Upper floors in large peristyle houses In Herculaneum’s larger houses we find a similar range of evidence for diverse functions on upper storeys that include general and food storage, religious activity, the keeping of legal documents, dining, and sleeping. In one room in the Casa dei Cervi we even find graffiti made by children 45. A characteristic of some of these houses is the extension of independent upper floor apartments or the upper floors of tabernae. In the Casa del Tramezzo di Legno almost the entire house had apartments, accessed by external staircases; these extended over an area of slightly less than 400 m². Such extensive apartments, which were often well-decorated, provide testimony to the adaptability of the house and the need to derive significant economic gain from urban property 46. However, where the upper floors remained part of the house, we can detect evidence for greater spatial specialization than in the more modestly sized houses and we find that they served a broadly distinct role from one another. This can best be observed in the Casa d’Argo (II, 2). Much of the upper floors were lost following their excavation in the late 1820s and early 1830s, although a reassessment of the original excavation records has made it possible to place many of the original findspots and certain features 47. 45 The evidence for graffiti-making in the Casa dei Cervi (IV, 21) is to be the subject of a forthcoming paper by the present writer. 46 Pirson, « Rented accommodation at Pompeii »; F. Pirson, Mietwohnungen in Pompeji und Herkulaneum. Untersuchungen zur Architektur, zum Wohnen und zur Sozial- und Wirtschaftsgeshichte der Vesuvstädte, Munich, Dr Friedrich Pfeil, 1999 (Studien zur antiken Stadt 5). 47 J. N. Andrews, « Revisiting the upper floors of the Casa d’Argo at Herculaneum », Anabases 117 (2017), p. 117-141. The original account of the upper floor of the Casa d’Argo was published by Carlo Bonucci and the records of his excavations later by Michele Ruggeiro: C. Bonucci, Le due Sicilie. Ercolano, Naples, Dalla stamperia e cartiera del Fibreno, 1835, p. 40-42; M. Ruggiero, Storia degli scavi di Ercolano ricomposta su’ documenti superstiti, Naples, Tipografia dell’Accademia reale delle scienze, 1885, p. 538-565. In addition to these are important illustrations and reconstructions by the architect Wilhelm Zahn: W. Zahn, Die schönsten Ornamente und merkwürdigsten Gemälde aus Pompeji, Herculanum und Stabiae nebst einigen Grundrissen und Ansichten nach den an Ort und Stelle gemachten Originalzeichnungen, Berlin, G. Reimer, 1844, vol. 2, taf. 39, 63-66, 69. A later synthesis of the upper floors was also published by Amedeo Maiuri: Maiuri, Ercolano. I nuovi scavi, p. 369-372, figs 302-303. Recent cleaning in one of the Bourbon tunnels along the western limit of the
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The upper storeys extended above almost all corners of the house (Figs. 6-7); that above the central part of the house was reached by a staircase located in the northwest corner of the still-unexcavated small peristyle and extended above the western side of the house, the small peristyle, the rooms around the atrium as well as the western wing of the large peristyle. A second staircase, located just inside the entrance from Cardo III on the eastern side of the house, provided access to another upper floor that extended above the east wing of the large peristyle and over the street façade by means of a long balcony, which was apparently unroofed for most of its length.
Fig. 6. Casa d’Argo (II, 2), plan of the ground floor of the Casa d’Argo by Bonucci (Bonucci, Le due Sicilie. Ercolano, fig. 11: “Casa d’Argo – Pian terreno”, © British Library Board 7708.ee.36). Plan orientated with south at top and north at bottom. excavations has also identified collapsed material from the upper floor above the north-eastern corner of the small peristyle. See D. Camardo, M. Notomista, « Nuovi dati archeologici dai lavori di pulizia dei cunicoli della Casa d’Argo ad Ercolano », RSP 28 (2017), p. 156-160.
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Fig. 7. Plan of the upper floors of the Casa d’Argo by Bonucci (Bonucci, Le due Sicilie. Ercolano, fig. 12: “Secondo piano della casa d’Argo. PIANTA”, © British Library Board 7708.ee.36). Plan orientated with north on right and south on left.
We have only limited information about the upper floor above the small peristyle and around the atrium but that above the western side of the large peristyle was markedly utilitarian. It contained a number of service rooms and lockable pantries, in which were extensive food remains, while most of the rooms were either whitewashed or decorated in simple field paintings. Access to this part of the upper floor appears to have been highly controlled, both for individual rooms, one equipped with a bifold door and another with a wooden portcullis, and for the entire wing, which was only possible to access through a narrow corridor from the upper floor gallery above the small peristyle. The need to provide separation from the main area may then imply something of the importance of the upper floor beyond. Moreover, we are likely 107
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observing a trend identified in elite Pompeian houses that sought to hide and marginalize service spaces 48. The construction of the upper floors in this part of the house, formed by closed galleries provided with windows, possibly also played a role in this respect (Fig. 8). Such galleries are found in other houses at Herculaneum and appear to reflect a localized architectural trend and living practices, given their comparative rarity at Pompeii 49. The walls of the galleries closed the upper level from the gaze of the invited guest in the peristyle, which might suggest that the upper floors in these houses also needed to be hidden from visitors 50. The extension of such upper floors above Herculaneum’s peristyles probably also resulted in a lack of light on the floor below, exacerbated by the limited size of their respective gardens, with many of the adjacent ground floor rooms thrown into shade even at midday, particularly during the winter. Indeed, attempts to alleviate this problem can be observed both in the frequent presence of additional large windows in adjacent ground floor rooms or even breaks in the upper floor gallery that allowed more light into important rooms. Such breaks can be observed, for example, in both the Casa del Salone Nero (VI, 11.13) and the Casa del Colonnato Tuscanico (VI, 17.26) and provide further testimony 48 Wallace-Hadrill, Houses and society, p. 39-44. For subsequent discussion on the marginalization and control of access to slave quarters in Pompeian housing, see also M. George, « Repopulating the Roman house », in B. Rawson, P. Weaver (éd.), The Roman family in Italy: status, sentiment, space, Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1997, p. 299-319; P. Kastenmeier, I luoghi del lavoro domestico nella casa pompeiana, Rome, “L’Erma” di Bretschneider, 2007 (Studi della Soprintendenza archeologica di Pompei 23), p. 78-84; S. R. Joshel, L. H. Petersen, The Material Life of Roman Slaves, New York, Cambridge University Press, 2014, p. 78-84. 49 Houses at Herculaneum with closed upper floor galleries above peristylia: Casa dell’Atrio a Mosaico (IV, 1-2); Casa del Tramezzo di Legno (III, 4-12), Casa del Bicentenario (V, 15-16), Casa del Salone Nero (VI, 11.13), Casa del Colonnato Tuscanico (VI, 17.26). 50 On the social function of the peristyle, see J.-A. Dickmann, « The peristyle and the transformation of domestic space in Hellenistic Pompeii », in R. Laurence, A. Wallace-Hadrill (éd.), Domestic space in the Roman world: Pompeii and beyond, Portsmouth, Rhode Island, Journal of Roman Archaeology, 1997 (Journal of Roman Archaeology Supplementary Series 22), p. 121-136; George, « Repopulating the Roman house », p. 310-311 in particular; E. W. Leach, « Oecus on Ibycus: investigating the vocabulary of the Roman house », in S. E. Bon, R. Jones (éd.), Sequence and space in Pompeii, Oxford, Oxbow Books, 1997, p. 50-72 (p. 59 in particular).
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Fig. 8. Section of the Casa d’Argo by Zahn (W. Zahn, Die schönsten Ornamente und merkwürdigsten Gemälde aus Pompeji, Herculanum und Stabiae nebst einigen Grundrissen und Ansichten nach den an Ort und Stelle gemachten Originalzeichnungen, taf. 65: “Durchschnitt der Casa d’Argo e d’Io in Herculanum, ausgegraben 1828-1838”, © British Library Board 1899.h.3).
to the predominance of certain ground floor rooms over upper floors that were fitted around them or modified where necessary. Similar issues of lighting, resulting from the presence of upper floors, have been identified in the two-storey Hellenistic period houses on Delos for which Löhr has suggested the ground floor rooms were dependent on light reflected off the walls of the upper floor; this appears to have been a wider feature of domes109
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tic architecture across the Greco-Roman world 51. Contrariwise, as the houses on Delos, the upper floor rooms of Herculaneum’s peristylia are more likely to have received more direct sunlight throughout the day and season 52. The functional character of the upper floor above the western wing of the large peristyle of the Casa d’Argo can be contrasted with that on the east side of the house. This was comprised of a series of small rooms opening off the balcony with two larger and exquisitely-decorated rooms at its north end. These were afforded lavish opus sectile and mosaic pavements (Fig. 9), while the larger of the two was, according to the excavator, also equipped with curtains. This was likely a dining room given its size, decorations
Fig. 9. Detail plan of the upper floor rooms of the Casa d’Argo above the street entrance by Carlo Bonucci (Bonucci, Le due Sicilie. Ercolano, fig. 13 (but un-numbered): “Musaici del secondo piano della Magione d’Argo”, © British Library Board 7708.ee.36). Plan orientated with north on right and south on left.
51 C. Löhr, « Griechische Häuser: Hof, Fenster, Türen nach 348 v. Chr. », in W.-D. Heilmeyer, W. Hoepfner (éd.), Licht und Architektur, Tübingen, E. Wasmuth, 1990, p. 10-19. 52 See Trümper, « Differentiation in the Hellenistic houses of Delos », p. 332, on the better lighting of upper floors of housing at Delos.
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and evidence for food storage in the adjacent rooms. Like the upper floor above the opposite peristyle, already noted, access to this upper floor appears highly controlled, albeit for different reasons. Access to the rooms at its northern end was facilitated by means of several marble steps from which the visitor proceeded left into an ante-room, paved in opus sectile and ornate mosaic thresholds, then right through a doorway into the dining room, whose floor is the most elaborate known from any upper floor at Pompeii or Herculaneum. The use of such threshold mosaics evidently served to emphasize the transition from the balcony to these more important spaces, a decorative role Joanne Berry has highlighted in Pompeian housing 53. Dining rooms can be identified on balconies in other houses at Herculaneum although, as this one appears to have been equipped with a low fence rather than a fully closed wall, it had a distinctly public character, with occupants potentially visible from the street 54. On this basis, Bonucci even suggested that the balcony served as a viewpoint for public processions 55. There is no evidence to support his assertion although in support of the broadly public character of this part of the upper floor are, firstly, its orientation, with the rooms opening onto the balcony, facing towards the street and fitted with only small windows looking onto the large peristyle. The north end of the balcony, too, supported by the columns flanking the entrance, projected the façade into the street thereby impressing the house on the public sphere, beyond its usual boundaries. Secondly, the location of the staircase, placed just inside the street entrance sited beneath the north end of the balcony, made it easily accessible to arriving visitors while at the same time being relatively far removed from the central areas of the house. Moreover, we should consider the possibility that the large peristyle was intended to be accessible to guests given the impressive wide street entrance flanked by columns and a similarly Berry, « Boundaries and control in the Roman house », p. 136. On upper floor balconies at Pompeii, see V. Spinazzola, Pompei alla luce degli scavi nuovi di via dell’Abbondanza (anni 1910-1923), p. 92-109. For balconies at Herculaneum, see Andrews, The use and development of upper floors in houses at Herculaneum, vol. 1, p. 75-85. 55 C. Bonucci, Le due Sicilie. Ercolano, p. 40 (“n. 17, 18”). 53 54
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large doorway that connected the entrance hall to the peristyle, all without passing through the atrium, situated in the western part of the house, as was typically the case 56. Remarkably the whole western area, which included the atrium and small peristyle, could be entirely closed from the large peristyle, thus implying a need to limit access. In any case, the atrium and western part of the house could be accessed via another entrance on the opposite street (Cardo II), also identified by Bonucci, or perhaps even along the house’s southern frontage where there extended a wide veranda. If the large peristyle was intended for guests arriving directly from Cardo III, then so too was the upper floor overlooking it. Thus far I have attempted to highlight the relative status of upper floors in the overall spatial hierarchy, which in some cases actually out-ranked the ground floor in quality of décor. However, it is apparent from several instances highlighted in this paper that upper floors often remained of secondary importance to the ground floor and were either built around socially important high-ceilinged rooms, broadly following Vitruvian principles, or were arranged in a way so as not to impact light levels or activity therein 57. The careful way in which the galleries above at least two houses’ peristyles were interrupted so as to maximise light infiltration into important reception rooms is one example. Second is the height of the ceiling of the triclinium of the Casa di Nettuno e Anfitrite that ruled out any possible connection between the house’s two apartments, leaving one accessible only by ladder due to the lack of available space for a fixed staircase. A further useful example can be observed in the Casa dei Cervi (IV, 21) 58. By far the most important spaces in this house are the two vast reception rooms that dominate the northern and southern ends of the 56 Pertinent here are Wallace-Hadrill, Houses and society, p. 20-23, 38-61, and the recent discussion by Simelius on evidence for public and private activities in the peristyle: S. Simelius, « Activities in Pompeii’s private peristyles: the place of the peristyle in the public/private dichotomy », in K. Tuori, L. Nissin (éd.), Public and Private in the Roman House and Society, Portsmouth, Rhode Island, Journal of Roman Archaeology, 2015 (Journal of Roman Archaeology Supplementary Series 102), p. 119-131. 57 Vitr., De arch. 6.3.8. 58 Wallace-Hadrill, Houses and society, p. 51-52; J. R. Clarke, The Houses of Roman Italy, 100 B.C. - A.D. 250: ritual, space, and decoration, Berkeley, University of California Press, 1991, p. 243-250.
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house. However, the upper rooms were carefully arranged so as to extend around their high ceilings; those adjacent to the northernmost room extend around its vertical extension on three sides 59. We can therefore infer that pressures on space and consequently the need for such extensive upper floors were tempered by, and in many cases remained secondary to, the architectural traditions and social requirements of high-status ground floor rooms.
Conclusion The upper storeys of Herculaneum’s houses provide a fascinating insight into daily life in the town and the Roman domestic environment. Their architecture, decoration, size and fittings suggest an intricate pattern of spatial use where they often served important social purposes. In the smaller atrium houses, upper floors were the most or among the most prestigious rooms in the house and we find extensive evidence for highly-decorated dining and reception spaces. This was partly imposed by the houses’ inability to expand at ground level and so their upper floors both compensated for the limitations of available space and provided significant opportunities to reinforce social status. Such rooms were also often afforded appropriate service spaces in adjacent rooms and dining could consequently have taken place independent of the ground floor. In Herculaneum’s largest houses the upper floors often formed extensive areas in their own right and could considerably extend the potential socio-economic capacity of the household. Visibility, accessibility and control are constant themes and some upper floors were, by means of physical and visual barriers, rendered invisible and inaccessible to the visitor; access to them was likely dependent on an individual’s position within the household. Conversely, in other cases these were areas to which the invited guest could be permitted admission. Staircases and points of access were clearly marked and served to guide visitors to the spaces above, which served a public role. However, the usage of upper floors was likely even more complex, if we consider temporal and seasonal uses of space to which many upper Maiuri, Ercolano. I nuovi scavi, pl. XXX.
59
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floors seem to have been well-suited, particularly where we find the duplication of rooms one above the other. During the winter, the upper floors avoided the dilemma faced by those rooms on the floor below, catching both sunlight and warmth; in the summer they afforded much-needed aeration while their elevated and often outward-facing aspect offered the inhabitants views over the town, possibly even to the sea. The upper floors of Herculaneum’s houses therefore provide further testimony to the careful but equally highly dynamic use of space in the Roman house.
Acknowledgements I would like to thank Dott.ssa Maria Paola Guidobaldi of the Ufficio Scavi di Ercolano (now Parco Archeologico di Ercolano) for allowing generous access to many of the closed buildings at Herculaneum. I would also like to extend thanks to Dott. Francesco Sirano of the Parco Archeologico di Ercolano and The British Library for kindly giving permission to reproduce archive images and photographs of the sites as well as colleagues and friends who commented on draft versions of this article.
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TRA DOMUS E VILLA. SPAZIO E SOCIETÀ NELLE ABITAZIONI LUNGO LE MURA DI POMPEI 1
L’organizzazione degli spazi appartiene a pieno titolo al sistema di comunicazione non verbale di un società. Prendendo le mosse da questo presupposto, in un saggio del 1982 tutt’oggi fondamentale, The Meaning of the Built Environment, l’architetto e storico dell’architettura Amos Rapoport raccoglieva una ricca messe di esempi allo scopo d’illustrare come la progettazione di qualsiasi edificio, in particolar modo di una casa, rispondesse all’esigenza d’incoraggiare comportamenti adeguati al contesto 2. In quest’ot tica le caratteristiche dell’ambiente (la sua environmental quality) costituirebbero, nel loro insieme prima ancora che nella loro specificità analitica, non solo gli indicatori di una determinata funzione e del suo ruolo nella gerarchia di valori di una società, bensì anche segnali in grado d’indirizzare le azioni, interazioni, scelte, contegno d’inquilini e visitatori. Nell’ambito domestico, i modi della comunicazione s’inquadrano nelle dimensioni che 1 Il presente contributo rielabora il mio intervento nel quadro dell’incontro Anthropology of Roman Housing presso l’École française de Rome, nonché parte del materiale presentato presso gli istituti di Archeologia Classica della PhilippsUniversität di Marburg e della Ruprecht-Karls-Universität di Heidelberg in occasione di conferenze nel gennaio 2018 e nel gennaio 2019. Ringrazio i colleghi con cui, in queste sedi, ho avuto modo di discutere le mie idee. Sono inoltre grata a Mario Grimaldi e a Sandra Zanella, che hanno condiviso con me i risultati delle proprie ricerche nell’Insula Occidentalis e nell’insula VIII.2 di Pompei. I riferimenti bibliografici di seguito citati non esauriscono la letteratura su argomenti tanto dibattuti, ma si limitano alle fonti principali, direttamente utilizzate nel testo. 2 A. Rapoport, The Meaning of the Built Environment. A Nonverbal Communications Approach, Tucson, The University of Arizona Press 19902, spec. p. 13, 60.
Anthropology of Roman Housing, ed. by Alexandra Dardenay and Nicolas Laubry, Turnhout, 2020 (ASH, 5), pp. 115–146 © FHG DOI 10.1484/M.ASH-EB.5.119732
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l’antropologo e archeologo mesoamericano Richard E. Blanton ha definito canonical e indexical 3. La comunicazione indessicale si riferisce alla capacità dello spazio domestico di trasmettere informazioni da parte dei suoi abitanti agli estranei, visualizzando dati relativi all’identità sociale, etnica, culturale, politica o al benessere economico. La comunicazione canonica, invece, coinvolge gli abitanti stessi della casa, dei quali inquadra, struttura e indirizza le interazioni. Conformandosi ai principi tassonomici caratteristici di una certa cultura, la casa ne riflette i valori, dando corpo a vincoli di parentela, vicinanza, sesso e rango, imponendo al contempo comportamenti adeguati a un tale sistema. L’edilizia domestica dei romani, soprattutto nella regione vesuviana, è stata a più riprese indagata in tale prospettiva, come strumento per stabilire e affermare gerarchie sociali e funzionali 4. Sulla scorta di queste osservazioni, sembra tuttavia possibile offrire nuovi spunti alla discussione nel tentativo di meglio definire, alla luce di un preciso problema storiografico e di un caso di studio concreto, how (and, of course, whether) – riprendendo le considerazioni di Rapoport – meanings can be encoded in things in such a way that they can be decoded by the intended users 5. Recenti ricerche nel settore sud-occidentale della città di Pompei, occupato da ambiziosi complessi residenziali su più piani digradanti verso la marina e la piana del Sarno, permettono infatti di approfondire e aggiornare l’indagine, ormai classica, di Paul Zanker sull’immaginario e i valori associati alla tipologia architettonica della villa e sulle forme della sua ripresa, citazione, allusione nei contesti urbani tra la tarda età repubblicana e il primo secolo dell’impero 6. Del pari, un’attenzione più puntuale agli elementi mobili dell’arredo e alla R. Blanton, Houses and Households. A Comparative Study, New York, Springer 1994, p. 8-13. A questo testo si rimanda anche per un’estesa bibliografia sulla dimensione “sociale” dello spazio domestico. 4 Come punto di partenza per affrontare la vastissima bibliografia dedicata alla casa romana quale strumento di autorappresentazione, rimando ad A. Anguissola, Intimità a Pompei. Riservatezza, condivisione e prestigio negli ambienti ad alcova di Pompei, Berlino-New York, De Gruyter 2010, p. 11-29, 314 (e note relative). 5 Rapoport, Built Environment, p. 19. 6 P. Zanker, « Die Villa als Vorbild des späten pompejanischen Wohngeschmacks », JDAI 94 (1979), p. 460-523; P. Zanker, Pompei. Società, immagini urbane e forme dell’abitare, Torino, Einaudi 1993, p. 136-189 (ed. inglese Pompeii. Public and Private Life, Cambridge MA, Harvard University Press 1998). 3
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dimensione effimera dell’allestimento consente di articolare, nel caso pompeiano, l’ipotesi di Rapoport secondo cui l’efficacia nella comunicazione interna a un edificio has to do with personalization 7.
1. L’ideologia degli spazi domestici Per comprendere come la manipolazione dello spazio domestico sia in grado di articolare messaggi distinti per diverse categorie d’individui, è necessario interrogarsi sulla rigidità prescrittiva dei modelli abitativi correnti in una data società ed epoca. L’immagine della domus romana tradizionale, che tuttora domina la letteratura scientifica e la manualistica archeologica, è frutto di una ricostruzione maturata verso la fine del diciannovesimo secolo, che combinava le informazioni fornite da Vitruvio ed elementi condivisi da diverse dimore di Pompei per postulare l’esistenza di una vera pianta ideale, riferimento comune per chi abitava e costruiva quelle case 8. Nonostante un presunto schema “tradizionale” – fondato sullo sviluppo assiale della struttura, il cui ingresso immette in un atrium compluviato, circondato da piccole stanze chiuse e concluso da un tablinum affiancato da alae, con un peristilio “alla greca” sul retro, dotato di ambienti di soggiorno – sia basato su caratteri frequentemente attestati a Pompei e in altri siti, il suo impiego pare tutt’altro che generalizzato. Al di là della difficoltà nel conciliare i dati desunti dalle fonti letterarie latine (che raramente descrivono edifici specifici e in genere si riferiscono al contesto urbano di Roma) e le testimonianze di Pompei, il tentativo di codificare la sfera domestica secondo una grammatica coerente di prescrizioni è ostacolato dalla natura in continuo mutamento delle abitazioni, la cui vita spesso secolare vedeva avvicendarsi numerosi proprietari, inquilini e restauri. Recentemente è tornata sul tema F. C. Tronchin, « Art, Nature, City, Country, and the Problem of Villa Imitation », RSP 21 (2010), p. 63-75. 7 Rapoport, Built Environment, p. 22. 8 Sulla domus vitruviana e la sua dimensione sociale cfr. A. Zaccaria Ruggiu, Spazio pubblico e spazio privato nella città romana, Roma, École Française de Rome 1995, p. 319-326. Per il caso pompeiano cfr. inoltre J.-P. Guilhembet, « Normes romaines et résidences pompéiennes: remarques historiographiques », in M.-O. Charles-Laforge (éd.), La norme à Pompéi, Ier siècle avant - Ier siècle après J.-C., Roma 2007, p. 93-107.
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Più di ogni altro spazio, cortili e aree di raccordo sono specchio dell’intento d’imprimere alla casa una precisa fisionomia. La presenza di atria imponenti, dall’aspetto venerando, e di ariosi peristylia dotati di fastose sale da banchetto creava l’adeguata cornice per gli impegni pubblici dei cittadini più in vista. Versioni epitomate di questi stessi allestimenti conferivano un certo tono ad abitazioni di rango meno elevato, alludendo a esclusivi rituali d’ospitalità. In effetti, numerose case pompeiane paiono rispettare un assetto simmetrico, prossimo al canone vitruviano, scandito dalla successione di fauces, atrium e tablinum lungo l’asse centrale e concluso da un portico colonnato 9. Nelle case di Pompei, l’importanza di un tale assetto emerge dall’evidente cura nel ricreare questa sequenza a beneficio di un osservatore fermo in prossimità della soglia. In mancanza di un’area adeguatamente ampia, l’atrio veniva trasformato in un semplice, vasto salone d’ingresso, sacrificando le stanze laterali e, con esse, la funzione stessa dell’atrio come corte di raccordo tra ambienti diversi (Fig. 1) 10. Del pari, la presenza di un tablino a cerniera tra atrio e peristilio poteva essere simulata, come nella Casa dei Vettii (VI 15, 1), dalla presenza di maestosi pilastri che ne riproducessero l’ingresso. Anche il peristilio poteva essere opportunamente ridotto, sostituito da poche colonne visibili dall’atrio. A inscenare effetti di simmetria e profondità contribuiva la collocazione, sul fondo della casa in asse con l’ingresso (ma non necessariamente al centro simmetrico della pianta), di elementi quali fontane, nicchie, elementi della decorazione dipinta o scultorea 11. Un esame più attento, tuttavia, mostra come le dimensioni di assialità e accessibilità rimanessero molto spesso un’illusione, prive di riscontro una volta che dall’ingresso ci si spostasse verso i pene9 Sedili in muratura addossati alla parete esterna, ai lati dell’ingresso, offrono spesso un punto di vista privilegiato attraverso l’intera dimora. J. Hartnett, « Si quis hic sederit: Streetside Benches and Urban Society in Pompeii », AJA 112 (2008), p. 91-119; J. Hartnett, The Roman Street. Urban Life and Society in Pompeii, Herculaneum, and Rome, Cambridge-New York 2017, p. 195-223. 10 Per le tipologie degli atria nelle case di Pompei cfr. E. Evans, « A Group of Atrium Houses without side Rooms in Pompeii », in T. W. Potter, D. B. Whitehouse (ed.), Papers in Italian Archaeology I, Oxford 1978, p. 175-191; R. Mar, « Las casas de atrio en Pompeya. Cuestiones de tipología », in ArchClass 47 (1995), p. 103-137. 11 Anguissola, Intimità a Pompei, p. 24-25 con note relative.
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Fig. 1. Pompei, Casa di Paquius Proculus (I 7, 1.20). All’assenza di vani su un lato dell’atrio si decise di supplire allestendo una serie di nicchie nella parete, a imitazione di porte su altrettanti vani.
trali della casa. Se, ad esempio, la Casa del Menandro (I 10, 4) era in grado di offrire fin dalle fauces al visitatore una visione del giardino colonnato e delle nicchie sul fondo, all’occorrenza la traiettoria in profondità poteva essere bloccata da un parapetto tra l’atrio e il tablino (Fig. 2) 12. Talora, anche gli intercolumni del peristilio erano chiusi da basse transenne che, pur consentendo di ammirare il viridarium e i suoi arredi, garantivano l’indipendenza di ciascun ambulacro e degli ambienti che su esso si affacciavano 13. 12 R. A. Ling, « Thresholds and Doorways », in Id., The Insula of the Menander at Pompeii, vol. I, Oxford 1997, p. 336-341, spec. p. 268. Nella domus di Obellius Firmus (IX 14, 4) si sono conservate nello stipite orientale del tablino due borchie in bronzo per il tendaggio che nascondeva la porzione inferiore del locale (V. Sampaolo in Pompei. Pitture e Mosaici, vol. X, p. 362, 387 n. 43). Per l’aspetto dei divisori utilizzati per schermare tablino o alae cfr. gli esempi della Casa del Tramezzo di Legno (III 4-12) e della Casa del Bicentenario (V 15-16) di Ercolano; cfr. M. P. Guidobaldi, « Abitare a Ercolano », in F. Pesando, M. P. Guidobaldi, Gli ‘ozi’ di Ercole. Residenze di lusso a Pompei ed Ercolano, Roma 2006, p. 179-270, spec. p. 186-187, 203. 13 Si veda l’esempio della Casa degli Amanti (I 10, 10-11), che peraltro ha restituito, su due colonne nel portico settentrionale, ganci in bronzo, forse per fissare tendaggi a ulteriore separazione tra i settori (Ling, Thresholds, p. 302).
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Fig. 2. Pompei, Casa del Menandro (I 10, 4), passaggio dall’atrio al tablino, lato destro. Incassi per l’alloggiamento di un tramezzo.
Una progettazione sapiente dava vita a strutture le cui caratteristiche si dispiegassero gradualmente a quanti fossero ammessi nelle zone più riservate della casa 14. Dall’ingresso, la Casa della Fontana Piccola (VI 8, 23.24) esibiva un elegante peristilio e, addossata alla parete di fondo, una pregevole fontana ornata da mosaico in pasta vitrea, pomice e conchiglie. Superato il tablino, però, l’asse prospettico centrale perdeva importanza, rivelando uno sviluppo incompleto del peristilio e una pregevole decorazione ad affresco, con elaborati paesaggi idillico-sacrali e marittimi (Fig. 3) 15. 14 Anche in edifici dall’apparente sviluppo assiale, i quartieri più lussuosi rimanevano spesso celati in posizione periferica. Cfr. Anguissola, Intimità a Pompei, p. 28-35; A. Anguissola, « Dynamics of Seclusion: The Houses of the Labyrinth and of the Gilded Cupids », in Ead. (ed.), Privata Luxuria: Towards an Archaeology of Intimacy, München 2012, p. 31-47. 15 T. Fröhlich, « Die Wanddekorationen des Peristyls der Casa della Fon tana Piccola in Pompeji », in E. Moormann (ed.), Functional and Spatial Analysis of Wall Painting, Leiden 1993, p. 72-81.
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Fig. 3. Pompei, Casa della Fontana Piccola (VI 8, 23.24), veduta del cortile con fontana.
2. Schemi e immaginario della “vita in villa” La critica ha messo in luce come alcuni elementi planimetrici e architettonici caratteristici delle ville dell’aristocrazia romana fossero entrati a pieno titolo nel repertorio delle abitazioni urbane 16. In una fondamentale analisi di questi processi di assimilazione, Paul Zanker ha individuato una serie di strutture e schemi che avrebbero goduto di particolare fortuna nelle abitazioni della classe media pompeiana. Tali soluzioni sono volte, nel loro insieme, a suggerire un’abbondanza e varietà di spazi per il soggiorno, una piena integrazione tra i corpi di fabbrica e il paesaggio naturale e, infine, l’esercizio di un’ospitalità all’insegna di abbondanza 16 Cfr. Zanker, Pompei, p. 139-145. Per un’introduzione alla storia e alle caratteristiche regionali delle ville nel bacino mediterraneo si rimanda alla raccolta di A. Marzano, G. P. R. Métraux (ed.), The Roman Villa in the Mediterranean Basin. Late Republic to Late Antiquity, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press 2018. Gli elementi legati al vocabolario planimetrico e architettonico del lusso e dell’otium sono esaminati in M. Zarmakoupi, Designing for Luxury on the Bay of Naples. Villas and Landscapes (c. 100 bce - 79 ce), Oxford, Oxford University Press 2014. Sull’immaginario delle ville romane si vedano inoltre J. W. Mayer, Imus ad villam. Villeggiatur und otium-Kultur in der römischen Gesellschaft der späten Republik und frühen Kaiserzeit, Stuttgart, Steiner 2005, p. 25-41, 149-163.
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e sofisticazione intellettuale. La Casa detta di Octavius Q uartio o di Loreius Tiburtinus (II 2, 2), per esempio, combinava in uno spazio relativamente modesto diversi ambienti per il soggiorno e il convivio (tra cui un triclinio all’aperto), un elegante sacellum, un ampio giardino percorso da viali, popolato da statue e animato da vivaci giochi d’acqua, a imitazione degli analoghi apprestamenti tipici delle ville in campagna 17. Una fontana analoga a quella collocata al centro dell’euripo della Casa di Octavius Q uartio, con una costruzione piramidale a scalini rivestita in marmo e ornata da piccole sculture, era stata costruita nella medesima epoca, negli ultimi anni di Pompei, nella Casa di Apollo (VI 7, 23) 18. Anche in questo caso la fontana, addossata a una parete nella corte retrostante il tablino, occupava quasi interamente lo spazio disponibile ostacolando tanto la visione del retrostante triclinio, quanto la circolazione interna alla dimora. L’abbondanza d’acqua, affreschi con paesaggi mitologici, un ambizioso biclinio organizzato secondo un gusto antiquario e decorato a mo’ di frontescena teatrale, sculture distribuite nel verde ed eleganti spazi per il soggiorno all’aperto articolavano il riferimento all’otium intellettuale saldamente associato, nell’immaginario romano, alla vita in villa (Fig. 4) 19. A questi elementi sembra possibile aggiungere alcuni altri schemi legati al medesimo sistema di riferimenti. La stessa Casa di Apollo articolava la sintesi tra costruzioni e natura secondo forme ancor più vicine a quelle sviluppate nelle coeve ville suburbane. Il cubiculum per due letti allestito nell’angolo nord-occidentale del lotto acquisiva, grazie alla struttura degli spazi adiacenti (aperti e coperti da un pergolato), il carattere di una domuncula a sé stante – impressione oggi accentuata dalla perdita delle coperture sui locali vicini. Uno schema dispositivo simile è attestato, 17 Zanker, Pompei, p. 149-156. Un allestimento analogo (ma con il triclinio collocato in un ambiente a sé), è nel vicino complesso dei Praedia di Iulia Felix (II 4), su cui cfr. R. Olivito, Il foro nell’atrio: immagini di architetture, scene di vita e di mercato nel fregio dai Praedia di Iulia Felix, Bari, Edipuglia 2013. 18 Zanker, Pompei, p. 154, 156-158. Sulla Casa di Apollo cfr. A. Anguissola, « Per una semantica della tradizione architettonica: il biclinio nella Casa di Apollo a Pompei », Prospettiva 146 (2012), p. 2-21 (con bibliografia precedente e spec. p. 5-6 per la fontana piramidale); sulla decorazione scultorea della casa cfr. inoltre il più recente L. Di Franco, « Un “nuovo” rilievo con Asclepio in trono dalla Casa di Apollo a Pompei », RIA 71 (2016), p. 51-74. 19 Anguissola, Intimità a Pompei, p. 155-158 ed Ead., Semantica, p. 8-11.
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Fig. 4. Pompei, Casa di Apollo (VI 7, 23), veduta del giardino con il biclinio 25.
sempre nella sesta Regio di Pompei, nel viridarium della Casa di Sallustio (VI 2, 4) 20. Negli stessi anni in cui la Casa di Apollo fu trasformata in un’ambiziosa quanto eccentrica residenza, anche nella Casa di Sallustio l’hortus sul lembo meridionale dell’insula divenne un pretenzioso quartierino d’otium, con un peristilio abbreviato intorno a un giardinetto, ai cui lati era disposta una coppia simmetrica di piccoli padiglioni 21. Allestimenti di questo tipo costituiscono versioni semplificate delle soluzioni adottate, nei medesimi anni, per le grandi ville fuori città. In età augustea, la loggia panoramica nella Villa dei Misteri era stata interrotta, lungo il braccio occidentale, da una veranda centrale a emiciclo e da una coppia di salette di belvedere, 20 F. Pesando, “Domus”. Edilizia privata e società pompeiana fra III e I secolo a.C., Roma, L’Erma di Bretschneider 1997, p. 183-190; Id., « Abitare a Pompei », in F. Pesando, M. P. Guidobaldi, Gli ‘ozi’ di Ercole. Residenze di lusso a Pompei ed Ercolano, Roma, L’Erma di Bretschneider 2006, p. 11-175, spec. p. 79-82. 21 In assenza di una vera apertura sul paesaggio, la parete di fondo alimentava l’illusione di una natura mitologica, grazie all’affresco che metteva in scena l’incontro tra Diana e Atteone come al di là di una finestra (F. Mazois, Les Ruines de Pompei: Seconde Partie, Paris, Firmin Didot 1824, tav. 39, 1; F. Niccolini, Le case ed i monumenti di Pompei, vol. III, Napoli [s.e.] 1890, s.v. e tav. III. Cfr. Zanker, Pompei, p. 162-163).
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con ampie finestre, sui lati 22. Ancor più sontuosa è la sistemazione di età claudia della Villa San Marco a Stabia, quando il complesso fu dotato di un giardino porticato e di un’ampia piscina desinente in una falsa facciata di ninfeo. Agli opposti lati del giardino trovava posto una coppia di appartamenti (diaetae) distinti da studiate differenze nel sistema di accessi, elevati su una sorta di podio e accessibili attraverso pochi gradini, in maniera analoga al biclinio nella Casa di Apollo 23. La scelta, poi, di rivestire quasi interamente il quartiere da soggiorno al limitare settentrionale della Casa di Apollo di materiali naturali quali pomice e conchiglie, impreziosendo l’accesso al biclinio con mosaici in pasta vitrea, conferiva un’ulteriore dimensione al settore e alle attività che vi si svolgevano – tramutando quegli spazi in un vero musaeum, un luogo appartato per conversazioni dotte circondato dall’acqua e impreziosito da grotte artificiali 24. L’uso di materie quali pomici, conchiglie, pasta vitrea, costituisce un tratto tutt’altro che isolato e sembra rispondere all’esigenza di ricreare gli effetti sensoriali di un’immersione diretta nella natura. Difficilmente riproducibili, nelle più modeste e compatte case urbane, erano altre caratteristiche planimetriche e architettoniche tipiche delle ville, come l’impiego di lunghi ambulacri per connettere settori diversi, o ancora l’alternanza tra spazi coperti e ipetrali a creare sequenze di ambienti distinti per qualità della luce e dell’aria 25. Non trova ad esempio riscontro nelle domus 22 Si tratta dei vani 9 e 10, per cui cfr. Anguissola, Intimità a Pompei, p. 128, 218-219. La datazione è suggerita sulla base dei rivestimenti a mosaico: M. P. Guidobaldi, C. Cicirelli, Pavimenti e mosaici nella Villa dei Misteri di Pompei, Napoli, Electa 2000, p. 22, 30. 23 R. Förtsch, Archäologischer Kommentar zu den Villenbriefen des jüngeren Plinius, Mainz am Rhein, von Zabern 1993, p. 151 n. III.4/5; P. Gros, L’architecture romaine du début du iiie siècle av.J.-C. à la fin du Haut-Empire, vol. II, Paris, Picard 2001, p. 296 (che interpreta le due suite come i quartieri privati del dominus e della sua sposa). Per la Villa e il suo ornato cfr. A. Barbet, P. Miniero (a cura di), La Villa San Marco a Stabia, Roma-Napoli, École Française de RomeCentre Jean Berard 1999. 24 Anguissola, Semantica, p. 4, 7, 14-15. Sull’immaginario della grotta nel mondo romano cfr. H. Lavagne, Operosa antra. Recherches sur la grotte à Rome de Sylla à Hadrien, Roma, École Française de Rome 1988. 25 Zarmakoupi, Designing, p. 75-102 ed Ead., « Porticus and cryproporticus in Roman Luxury Villa Architecture », in E. Poehler, M. Flohr, K. Cole (ed.), Pompeii. Art, Industry and Infrastructure, Oxford 2011, p. 50-61 forniscono eccellenti sintesi sulle tipologie, usi e significato di portici e criptoportici nell’architettura delle ville.
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del tessuto urbano di Pompei la formula che, sulla base di una descrizione fornita da Vitruvio, prende il nome convenzionale di oecus ciziceno (VI 3, 10): ariosi saloni affacciati sul verde, circondati da un camminamento e dotati di ampie finestre a battenti su entrambi i lati, così da favorire l’immersione nel paesaggio 26. Nelle ville, oeci lussuosi dalle ampie finestre potevano essere efficacemente isolati grazie a pozzi di luce laterali che ne favorissero aerazione e luminosità, oppure con un dislocamento sfalsato degli spazi, in modo tale che il vasto ambiente centrale sembrasse staccarsi dal corpo di fabbrica della villa, proiettato nella natura circostante 27. Così, la fronte settentrionale della Villa A di Oplontis presentava una monumentale cenatio aggettante sull’ambulacro porticato con un avancorpo scandito da colonne; ai lati, una coppia di passaggi simmetrici conducevano agli opposti bracci del corridoio e di lì a due eleganti cubicula, che altrettanti corridoi separavano dal salone (Fig. 5) 28. Sul retro del salone – e da questo visibile attraverso un’amplissima finestra – era collocato un piccolo viridarium cinto da pareti decorate con pitture di giardino 29. In questo modo, la cenatio acquisiva un duplice affaccio sulla natura, offrendo una veduta in profondità in cui si alternavano le luci e le ombre create dalla successione di spazi chiusi e ipetrali. L’uso di piccoli vani scoperti ma inaccessibili, dall’unica funzione di pozzi di luce, pare un tratto caratteristico dell’architettura delle ville fuori città 30. Nella stessa Villa di Oplontis, questa strategia è alla base dell’allestimento del sontuoso quartiere affacciato sulla piscina, composto da locali intercomunicanti intorno al salone distilo 69, con finestre su tutti i lati come un oecus ciziceno. Una 26 Anguissola, Intimità a Pompei, p. 226-229. Sulla tipologia dell’oecus cyzicenus cfr. Förtsch, Archäologischer Kommentar, p. 103-104, 110, 175-178 cat. n. IX.61-73 e tav. 84-85. 27 Anguissola, Intimità a Pompei, p. 226-231. 28 La collocazione di un salone su uno dei bracci avanzati di una porticus triplex ricorda un accenno di Plinio il Giovane (Lettere V 6, 19), nella cui villa toscana a capite porticus triclinium excurrit; cfr. F. Rakob, « Ambivalente Apsiden. Zur Zeichensprache der römischen Architektur », MDAI(R) 94 (1987) p. 1-28, spec. p. 17. 29 Förtsch, Archäologischer Kommentar, tav. 82 fig. 3, nonché p. 158 cat. n. VI.5 e 172 cat. n. IX.20. Per i giardini della villa di Oplontis, cfr. W. F. Jashemski, The Gardens of Pompeii, Herculaneum and the Villas destroyed by Vesuvius, New Rochelle-New York, Caratzas 1979, p. 290-314. 30 Anguissola, Intimità a Pompei, p. 235 e p. 481 nota 444 con bibliografia.
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serie di aperture lievemente sfalsate permetteva di attraversare con lo sguardo l’intero insieme, scandito da locali coperti e vani ipetrali privi di passaggi, anch’essi decorati con pitture di giardino (Fig. 6a-b). Planimetria, architettura, ornato creano complessi giochi di prospettive e volumi, resi ancor più raffinati dalla possibilità di aprire o chiudere le finestre tra un ambiente e l’altro 31. Schemi di questo tipo rimanevano fuori dalla portata delle domus urbane, che in rari casi potevano al più dotarsi di un unico, piccolo giardino inaccessibile sul retro di locali da soggiorno, utile all’illuminazione e all’aerazione 32.
Fig. 5. Torre Annunziata, Villa A di Oplontis, veduta del fronte nord.
Fig. 6a. Torre Annunziata, Villa A di Oplontis, planimetria del settore a ovest della piscina (da Förtsch, Archäologischer Kommentar).
31 Per questo settore, risalente al periodo neroniano anteriore al terremoto del 62 d.C., cfr. Anguissola, Intimità a Pompei, p. 230-231; Förtsch, Archäologischer Kommentar, p. 176 cat. n. IX.64 e tav. 29 fig. 1-2. Sugli effetti di luce cfr. M. Zarmakoupi, « Light Design Concepts in Roman Luxury Villa Architecture », in P. I. Schneider, U. Wulf-Rheidt (Hrsg.), Licht – Konzepte in der vormodernen Architektur, Regensburg 2011, p. 158-169, spec. p. 165-168. 32 Ad es. nella Casa degli Amorini Dorati (VI 16, 7.38, sul retro del vano Q )
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Fig. 6b. Torre Annunziata, Villa A di Oplontis, settore a ovest della piscina, veduta dall’ambiente 65 verso nord.
3. Le “ville urbane” di Pompei È possibile approfondire queste considerazioni attraverso l’esame di uno studio di caso in grado d’illustrare come, oltre all’uso di determinati schemi planimetrici e architettonici e al tono del programma decorativo, la stessa manipolazione di percorsi e punti di accesso – fisico e sensoriale – permettesse di distinguere l’espe rienza dell’edificio per diverse categorie d’individui. Nella letteratura archeologica sono noti come “case panoramiche”, “case a terrazze”, “ville ridotte”, “ville a schiera” o “ville urbane” gli edifici costruiti lungo le pendici sud-occidentali di Pompei, su una fascia che s’estende da Porta Ercolano verso sud fino a Porta Marina (insulae VI 17 e VII 16) e di lì verso est fino al Foro Triangolare (insula VIII 2) 33. In particolare, lo stretto isolato compreso e nella Casa del Centenario (IX 8, 6, dietro la cenatio sul peristilio). Cfr. Anguissola, Intimità a Pompei, p. 231-239. 33 Per una lettura d’insieme cfr. R. A. Tybout, « Rooms with a View: Residences Built on Terraces along the Edge of Pompeii (Regions VI, VII, VIII) », in J. J. Dobbins, P. W. Foss (ed.), The World of Pompeii, London-New York 2007, p. 407-420. Analisi sistematiche dell’Insula VIII 2 furono intraprese negli
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tra Porta Ercolano e Porta Marina è noto con il nome di Insula Occidentalis. Sfruttando le massicce sostruzioni delle mura urbiche, questi edifici si erano dotati di terrazze al di sotto del livello accessibile dalla strada, da cui dominavano la linea di costa o la piana del fiume Sarno. L’occupazione privata delle fortificazioni sembra essere iniziata verso la fine del secondo secolo a.C., quando le prime strutture private vennero addossate alla cinta senza tuttavia comprometterne la funzione difensiva 34. Le case lungo le mura conservavano, a quell’epoca, il carattere di abitazioni di media taglia e rango, lontane dalla sontuosità delle grandi residenze della Pompei sannitica. Solo quando la fine della Guerra Sociale, seguita dalla deduzione della Colonia Cornelia Veneria Pompeianorum, rese obsoleto l’apparato difensivo, le pendici fortificate dell’altopiano lavico furono rese pienamente disponibili per lo sfruttamento privato. È stato suggerito d’individuare in quest’area una delle zone in cui si sarebbero insediati i veterani dell’esercito sillano, che per le proprie dimore avrebbero scelto un quartiere distinto da quelli abitati dall’aristocrazia sannitica ma prossimo sia al Foro, sia al tempio di Venere, nuova protettrice della città 35. Nei decenni che seguirono, i lotti lungo le mura furono interessati da una febbrile anni Venti del Novecento da Ferdinand Noack e proseguite da Karl LehmannHartleben: le loro Baugeschichtliche Untersuchungen am Stadtrand von Pompeji (Berlin-Leipzig 1936) sono il primo esame coerente di un’intera insula pom peiana; cfr. F. Seiler, « Karl Lehmann-Hartleben e la nuova ricerca su Pompei », in P. G. Guzzo (a cura di), Pompei. Scienza e Società, Milano 2001, p. 63-71. In anni recenti, questo settore è stato ripreso in considerazione da Sandra Zanella, cfr. infra. La conoscenza dell’Insula Occidentalis ha seguito tempi più lunghi, a partire dalle schede di Valeria Sampaolo e Irene Bragantini nel repertorio Pompei. Pitture e Mosaici (vol. VI, p. 1-145 e vol. VII, p. 840-1125). I riferimenti bibliografici essenziali sono: M. Aoyagi, U. Pappalardo (a cura di), Pompei (Regiones VI-VII). Insula Occidentalis, Napoli, Valtrend 2006; M. Grimaldi (a cura di), Pompei. La Casa di Marco Fabio Rufo, Napoli, Valtrend 2014. 34 Sulle fortificazioni di Pompei si rimanda a I. van der Graaf, The Fortifications of Pompeii and Ancient Italy, London-New York, Routledge 2019, p. 10-173. 35 Zanker, Pompeii (ed. inglese), p. 73-74; Tybout, Rooms with a View, p. 417. Un’indagine della collocazione topografica delle residenze dei veterani sillani è in F. Zevi, « Pompei. Dalla città sannitica alla colonia sillana. Per una interpretazione dei dati archeologici », in M. Cébeillac-Gervasoni (éd.), Les élites municipales de l’Italie péninsulaire dès Gracques à Néron, Napoli-Roma 1996, p. 125-138; F. Pesando, « Le residenze dell’aristocrazia sillana a Pompei: alcune considerazioni », Ostraka 15 (2006), p. 75-96.
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attività edilizia: in alcuni casi, il volume delle abitazioni esistenti fu più che duplicato. Il lavoro di costruzione, ammodernamento, abbellimento, soprattutto nei settori panoramici, proseguì fino all’eruzione, in una costante opera di aggiornamento che non lascia dubbi circa il livello e l’appetibilità di queste residenze 36. L’organizzazione di questi edifici sembra determinarne la permeabilità sociale in forme nuove per il contesto di Pompei, con un’assimilazione degli schemi dispositivi e architettonici delle ville di campagna altrimenti inedita. Come le ville, queste dimore articolate su più livelli apparivano immerse nel paesaggio; come le domus cittadine, godevano delle infrastrutture dell’abitato e della vicinanza alle zone della vita pubblica; allo stesso tempo, erano immerse nella natura come ville suburbane, su diversi livelli collegati da terrazze, corridoi e scalinate. Per sfruttare appieno questo potenziale, tuttavia, la progettazione doveva risolvere i problemi d’illuminazione ed aerazione legati allo sviluppo verticale a ridosso dell’altopiano. Nel rapporto con il tessuto urbano emerge la prima novità di questi edifici. Priva di botteghe affacciate sulla strada e di ampi portali affiancati da panche dai quali fosse possibile ammirare – in determinati momenti – lo sviluppo in profondità dall’atrio al peristilio, la “villa urbana” è “completamente separata dalla città” 37. Se lungo la strada si susseguivano facciate chiuse e monotone, il lato opposto si affacciava sul paesaggio con ampie finestre, terrazze, loggiati. Non di rado, inoltre, queste costruzioni disponevano di un passaggio privato che conduceva al di fuori dell’antica cinta urbana 38, permettendo così agli inquilini di lasciare la 36 Per questioni legate alla cronologia e ai caratteri della decorazione si veda A. Anguissola, « Living in Pompeii’s Urban Villas. Movement in the Houses along the Edge of Pompeii », in D. Kurapkat, P. I. Schneider, U. WulfRheidt (Hrsg.), Architektur des Weges, Regensburg 2014, p. 392-408, con bibliografia precedente. 37 Zanker, Pompei, p. 91. 38 Cfr. R. Cassetta, C. Costantino, « Vivere sulle mura: il caso dell’insula occidentalis di Pompei », in P. G. Guzzo, M. P. Guidobaldi (a cura di), Nuove ricerche archeologiche nell’area vesuviana (scavi 2003-2006), Roma 2008, p. 197-208, spec. p. 200 sulla Casa VII 16, 12-14; si vedano anche le osservazioni sul complesso dei Mosaici Geometrici (VIII 2, 14-16) in S. Zanella, « De l’ambiguïté des formes. Entre la maison “privée” et la maison “publique” ? Un cas d’étude à Pompéi », in A. Bourrouilh, N. H. Vela, P.-E. Paris (éd.),
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città e raggiungere il porto fluviale di Pompei senza attraversare le porte urbiche (Fig. 7) 39. In certa misura, dunque, gli abitanti godevano di un contatto con la natura e di un’autonomia paragonabili a quanto offerto dalle ville di campagna, isolate all’interno di vasti possedimenti. Ciononostante, l’isolamento è solo apparente, giacché, per la maggior parte, questi edifici erano provvisti di passaggi che collegavano direttamente alla strada anche i livelli inferiori 40.
Fig. 7. Pompei, Casa di Marco Fabio Rufo (VII 16, 22), corridoio di collegamento verso l’esterno della città. Sulla sinistra dell’immagine è visibile il secondo livello sottostante della Casa del Bracciale d’Oro (VI 17, 42). Appréhension et qualification des espaces au sein du site archéologique, Paris 2016, p. 11-28. Nella Casa di Marco Fabio Rufo (VII 16, 22), una lunga scalinata collegava il settore nord del primo livello sotterraneo sia al giardino, sia allo spazio pubblico fuori dalla città; cfr. le ricostruzioni di M. Notomista in Aoyagi, Pappalardo, Insula Occidentalis, p. 261 tav. 6 e p. 267 tav. 7 (nelle piante a p. 271, le scale sono identificate con i nn. 43, 45). 39 Sul porto di Pompei cfr. E. Curti, « Il tempio di Venere Fisica e il porto di Pompei », in Guzzo, Guidobaldi, Nuove ricerche, p. 47-60; Id., « Le aree portuali di Pompei: ipotesi di lavoro », Ostraka 12 (2003), p. 263-272. 40 P. Bonini, « Gli ambienti di soggiorno. Pompei ed Ercolano », in Basso, Ghedini, Subterraneae, p. 167-190, spec. p. 176-178, 229.
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Nel caso in cui ai piani sotterranei fossero ubicati quartieri di servizio, questa soluzione corrispondeva ad un accorgimento frequente nel panorama domestico pompeiano, dove le case ad atrio disponevano spesso di un ingresso posteriore a uso di stalle, cucine o apprestamenti produttivi 41. Rispetto a questa pratica, tuttavia, l’assetto delle “ville urbane” prevedeva una significativa differenza, dal momento che ad essere resi accessibili dalla strada non erano solo gli spazi del lavoro domestico o quelli che richiedessero una manutenzione onerosa, ma anche i quartieri residenziali. L’estrema varietà nell’organizzazione planimetrica sembra dipendere dalla storia di ciascun edificio, spesso risultato della fusione di più unità indipendenti. Per gli appartamenti sotterranei furono messi a punto sistemi distributivi intesi a combinare funzionalità ed esposizione al panorama. Allorché due case ad atrium furono fuse nel complesso VIII 2, 29-30 intorno alla metà del primo secolo a.C., ciascuna delle due domus venne ampliata con un livello inferiore 42. Piccole terme domestiche e una cucina occupavano il livello inferiore della casa al civico 29, mentre gli ambienti più prestigiosi erano concentrati al di sotto di quella al civico 30: tre ampi triclinia erano affacciati sulla veranda, mentre uno stretto corridoio conduceva a stanze più riparate, invisibili dalla terrazza e dalle sale da ricevimento (Fig. 8). In genere i vani nei livelli sotterranei sono allineati in lunghe sequenze paratattiche, una soluzione che risponde alla topografia dell’area e costituisce una forma di adattamento alle caratteristiche del lotto edificabile. Pur creando alcune difficoltà dal punto di vista della circolazione, questa strategia permetteva di sfruttare appieno la veduta panoramica e replicava un noto topos planimetrico delle ville di lusso suburbane, dove i quartieri di ricevimento erano organizzati come lunghe sequenze di sale, accessibili l’una dall’altra, intorno a giardini, piscine, portici. Più raramente, gli
41 Sui quartieri di servizio nell’edilizia domestica pompeiana cfr. P. Kastenmeier, I luoghi del lavoro domestico nella casa pompeiana, Roma, L’Erma di Bretschneider 2007 (p. 133-140 per le case dell’insula VIII 2). Per il collegamento tra la strada e i settori termali sotto il pianterreno, cfr. Anguissola, Urban Villas, p. 395. 42 V. Sampaolo in Pompei. Pitture e Mosaici, vol. VIII, p. 241-243; Noack, Lehmann-Hartleben, Untersuchungen, p. 55-70.
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Fig. 8. Pompei, Casa VIII 2, 29-30, planimetria del livello inferiore (da Noack, Lehmann-Hartleben, Untersuchungen). In alto (a ovest) il quartiere di servizio sotto la Casa al civico 29, in basso (a est) le sale da soggiorno sotto la Casa al civico 30.
spazi erano sistemati in piccole diaetae interconnesse, in genere attorno ad una luminosa exedra 43. La circolazione nei piani inferiori era articolata per mezzo di corridoi che correvano in genere a ridosso del pendio, dietro i quartieri con vista panoramica. Q uesta strategia garantiva la quiete dei settori residenziali, liberi dalla circolazione ordinaria, creando altresì un’intercapedine isolante tra la parete rocciosa e gli spazi abitati 44. I vantaggi organizzativi e climatici di un tale allestimento furono abilmente sfruttati nella Casa detta Anguissola, Urban Villas, p. 396-400. All’esigenza di liberare dalla circolazione i settori destinati al soggiorno, pur garantendo efficienti servizio e mobilità, rispondono diverse soluzioni dispositive, tra cui si segnala per raffinatezza quella progettata per le sale sul fondo del peristilio nella Casa del Labrinto: J.-A. Dickmann, Domus frequentata. Anspruchsvolles Wohnen im pompejanischen Stadthaus, München, Pfeil 1999, p. 161-165, 231-234. 43 44
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di Giuseppe II (VIII 2, 39) 45. Uno stretto ambulacro separava gli ambienti residenziali dai locali di servizio e conduceva ad alcuni vani su un mezzanino, forse adibito a magazzino, nonché a cucine e terme al piano inferiore (Fig. 9) 46. L’appartamento, il cui nucleo centrale assume la fisionomia di un Dreiraumgruppe 47, è organizzato intorno ad un arioso disimpegno sulla terrazza.
Fig. 9. Pompei, Casa di Giuseppe II (VIII 2, 39), planimetria del livello inferiore (rielaborazione da Noack, Lehmann-Hartleben, Untersuchungen). 45 Noack, Lehmann-Hartleben, Untersuchungen, p. 18-30 e tav. 3-4; V. Sampaolo in Pompei. Pitture e Mosaici, vol. VIII, p. 308-311. Cfr. anche Tybout, Rooms with a View, p. 413-417. 46 Kastenmeier, Luoghi del lavoro, p. 142-144. 47 Sui quartieri da soggiorno organizzati come Dreiraumgruppen cfr. Dickmann, Domus frequentata, p. 322-331; Anguissola, Intimità a Pompei, p. 208214, 226-235.
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Sebbene residenze panoramiche addossate alle mura urbiche siano attestate anche in altri luoghi, le case lungo le pendici sudoccidentali di Pompei non sembrano trovare veri confronti nelle forme del loro sviluppo verticale 48. Le lussuose abitazioni a ridosso delle mura di Ercolano, che occupavano lotti dal formato convenzionale e non prevedevano un’estensione su diversi livelli sottostanti, rivelano tuttavia un impiego altrettanto innovativo del vocabolario planimetrico e architettonico della domus romana, abdicando alla disposizione degli ambienti lungo una sequenza assiale a favore di un incremento dell’area dedicata al giardino e della riproposizione di schemi propri delle ville 49. Le tre case allineate lungo le mura, la Casa della Gemma (Insula Orientalis I 1), la Casa dell’Atrio a Mosaico (IV 2; 1 posticum) e la Casa dei Cervi (IV 21) condividono un medesimo assetto del settore panoramico, con una coppia di vani dotati di ampie finestre alle opposte estremità di un loggiato (Fig. 10). Se nelle abitazioni urbane di Pompei trovavano posto solo versioni semplificate di questo schema dispositivo, le dimore lungo le mura di Ercolano erano in grado di replicare con precisione l’allestimento delle ville suburbane dell’élite. Nella Casa dei Cervi, il settore più ampio e curato è rappresentato da un lungo criptoportico che, nell’assetto prodotto dall’ultima redazione dell’edificio, raccordava il giardino, un quartiere da soggiorno intorno ad un salone proteso nel verde con ampie aperture (alla maniera degli oeci ciziceni) e infine la terrazza, ripartita in due tratti dalla pergola centrale 50. La possibilità di disporre di un affaccio panoramico e di un contatto diretto con il paesaggio sembra aver innescato l’esplorazione di soluzioni tanto ardite quanto inconsuete e la ricerca di forme più vicine a quelle delle ville. 48 Tybout, Rooms with a View, p. 411; Noack, Lehmann-Hartleben, Untersuchungen, p. 168, 188-236. 49 Le case della Gemma, dell’Atrio a Mosaico e dei Cervi sono presentate in dettaglio, con una discussione della cronologia, in Anguissola, Intimità a Pompei, p. 223-227. Sulla tipologia di queste residenze si rimanda alla classificazione in R. De Kind, « A New Tipology for the Houses in Herculaneum », MNIR 51-52 (1992-1993), p. 62-75, spec. p. 71 (tipo 7); Id., Houses in Herculaneum: a New View of the Town Planning and the Building of Insulae 3. and 4., Amsterdam, Gieben 1998, p. 191 (tipo 3). 50 Tran Tam Tinh, La Casa dei Cervi a Herculanum, Roma, Bretschneider 1988.
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Fig. 10. Ercolano, veduta delle Case dell’Atrio a Mosaico (IV 2; 1 posticum) e dei Cervi (IV 21).
4. Movimento e comunicazione Se la distribuzione dei quartieri di soggiorno in sequenze con affaccio panoramico costituisce un denominatore comune per le “ville urbane” di Pompei, questa soluzione raggiunge effetti di straordinaria complessità nel più vasto palazzo dell’Insula Occidentalis, la Casa di Marco Fabio Rufo (VII 16, 22) 51. L’edificio, organizzato su quattro livelli, è il frutto della fusione di tre case indipendenti nella seconda metà del primo secolo a.C. Lungo tutta la sua storia, la casa conobbe diverse fasi edilizie e decorative, volte a ripristinare i settori di maggior pregio in conformità con il gusto corrente. Le differenze rispetto alla planimetria considerata “tipica” per una domus romana sono evidenti: la casa manca di fauces o vestibolo e di un tablinum in asse con l’ingresso, lo stesso atrium è privo di uno sviluppo laterale; nessun peristilio, inoltre, è visibile sul retro (Fig. 11a-b). Di contro, l’ampia finestra nella sala 10 sul versante meridionale dell’atrium rivela l’inusuale svi Per la storia edilizia della Casa di Marco Fabio Rufo cfr. le sintesi di M. Grimaldi in Aoyagi, Pappalardo, Insula Occidentalis, p. 259-270 e in Grimaldi, Casa di Marco Fabio Rufo, p. 17-43. Cfr. anche Id., « Charting the Urban Development of the Insula Occidentalis and the Casa di Marcus Fabius Rufus », in S. J. Ellis (éd.), The Making of Pompeii, JRA Suppl. 85 (2011), p. 138-157; Id., « La Casa di Marco Fabio Rufo a Pompei », in B. Perrier (éd.), Villas, maisons, sanctuaires et tombeaux tardo-républicains, Roma 2007, p. 133-155. 51
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luppo nel senso della larghezza, offrendo l’affaccio sul giardinetto inaccessibile 22, incastonato tra eleganti ambienti di rappresentanza (Fig. 12). L’articolazione consueta della casa ad atrio sembra essere stata abbandonata senza detrimento per funzionalità
Fig. 11a. Pompei, Casa di Marco Fabio Rufo (VII 16, 22), planimetria del pianterreno (da Aoyagi, Pappalardo, Insula Occidentalis, p. 270 tav. 8, planimetria di M. Notomista, E. Piccirilli).
Fig. 11b. Pompei, Casa di Marco Fabio Rufo (VII 16, 22), planimetria del primo livello sottostante (rielaborazione da Aoyagi, Pappalardo, Insula Occidentalis, p. 271 tav. 9, planimetria di M. Notomista, E. Piccirilli).
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Fig. 12. Pompei, Casa di Marco Fabio Rufo (VII 16, 22), veduta dall’alto del giardino chiuso 22 (da Aoyagi, Pappalardo, Insula Occidentalis, p. 285).
e rappresentatività, sostituita da moduli tipici delle grandi ville suburbane, quali l’alternanza tra spazi chiusi e pozzi di luce 52. Intorno alla metà del primo secolo d.C., il complesso venne sottoposto a estesi restauri, che riguardarono in particolare il primo livello inferiore, riorganizzato in tre settori, ciascuno dei quali dotato di un proprio collegamento con il pianterreno 53. L’area centrale a carattere rappresentativo è articolata intorno all’oecus 62, la cui fisionomia desinente in un’esedra semicircolare trova confronti puntuali nell’architettura delle ville – si pensi alla veranda a emiciclo al centro del fronte panoramico nella Villa dei Misteri e, in generale, alla predilezione nelle ville per linee curve, spezzate e per pareti interrotte da ampie finestre 54. Se il triclinio 21 al piano superiore si apriva sulla marina per l’intera 52 Oltre allo spazio 22, anche il n. 23 era un cortile, che cingeva quindi dal lato opposto il triclinio 21 al centro del pianterreno; M. Grimaldi in Aoyagi, Pappalardo, Insula Occidentalis, p. 284-285. 53 Il settore nord del primo livello sotterraneo era collegato al pianterreno dal vano scala 40, la zona centrale dai passaggi 54 e 60/61, quella meridionale dalle scale n. 76. Dal settore nord si poteva proseguire verso il parco sottostante e l’esterno della città, mentre quello sud conduceva a piccoli vani da servizio. Cfr. le piante in Aoyagi, Pappalardo, Insula Occidentalis, p. 271. 54 M. Grimaldi in Aoyagi, Pappalardo, Insula Occidentalis, p. 376-390.
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ampiezza del prospetto occidentale, il sottostante oecus 62 offriva una veduta scandita da un doppio registro di tre finestroni curvi. La terrazza a giardino con una vasca in marmo in corrispondenza delle finestre dell’oecus, componeva, insieme al vasto parco al livello inferiore, questa prospettiva, permettendo di abbracciare in un unico sguardo sia l’abbondanza di acqua e verde di cui l’edificio disponeva, sia il paesaggio circostante (Fig. 13).
Fig. 13. Pompei, Casa di Marco Fabio Rufo (VII 16, 22), veduta del prospetto occidentale del complesso. Al centro è visibile l’oecus 62.
Q uest’area era accessibile da una doppia rampa di scale, che si dipartiva dal quartiere residenziale al centro del pianterreno e dall’ingresso secondario al civico 21 sul Vicolo del Farmacista 55. Mentre la prima rampa permetteva il collegamento diretto tra le principali aree di ricevimento, la seconda consentiva di sfruttare al massimo il potenziale sociale della casa, giacché gli ospiti potevano essere condotti nei luoghi dove sarebbero stati intrattenuti senza attraversare altri settori. Al contempo, una tale soluzione contribuiva all’efficienza nel servizio e nella manutenzione, anche grazie ai lunghi corridoi sul retro e ai lati del salone 56.
55 Cfr. le piante di M. Notomista ed E. Piccirilli in Aoyagi, Pappalardo, Insula Occidentalis, p. 270-271. 56 Nelle piante in Aoyagi, Pappalardo, Insula Occidentalis i corridoi sono indicati con i nn. 59, 60, 61, 63, 66 (per il n. 63 cfr. M. Grimaldi, Ibidem, p. 377, 391-392; non stupisce che in questo pur stretto corridoio contiguo al principale ambiente da ricevimento fosse stata in parte conservata la decorazione parie tale precedente e che una soglia a mosaico fosse stata approntata per l’accesso all’oecus).
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Il settore meridionale del primo livello sotterraneo, nelle fasi precedenti occupato da locali ad alcova elegantemente decorati, fu marginalizzato trasformandolo in una zona di servizio, come del resto i vani ancora sottostanti e da lì direttamente raggiungibili 57. Al contrario, si lavorò con impegno all’abbellimento dell’opposto settore nord, come dimostra la ricca decorazione pittorica di Q uarto Stile. La sala panoramica 53, che domina il viridarium e la linea di costa da un’ampia finestra, era dotata di una profonda alcova in muratura e ornata da quadretti con vedute paesaggistiche e nature morte, sintesi efficace dell’orizzonte di riferimenti cui il programma decorativo della casa partecipava 58. La posizione accanto al grandioso oecus centrale, l’accessibilità dal pianterreno, la luce abbondante, il soggetto della decorazione, facevano di questa stanza un confortevole cubiculum diurnum adatto all’intrattenimento di pochissimi ospiti durante il giorno o con la bella stagione – non diversamente dal cubiculum grande vel modica cenatio nel Laurentinum di Plinio il Giovane (Fig. 14) 59. Una soluzione alternativa per il riposo notturno o gli incontri riservati nei mesi più rigidi era offerta, poco distante, da un secondo vano ad alcova in posizione riparata, il cubiculum a fondo bianco 49, al quale la camera gialla 47 fornisce l’unica sorgente di luce 60. Sembra che a ciascuna revisione dell’edificio abbia corrisposto un ripensamento delle aree destinate alla convivialità e al riposo, in una calibrata gestione dei passaggi, degli assi visivi e delle qualità ambientali. Le potenzialità di cui le “ville urbane” disponevano per distribuire in maniera efficiente persone e attività divengono ancor più evidenti alla luce del confronto con l’attigua Casa del Bracciale
Per i cubicula 67-68 e 71 cfr. Anguissola, Intimità a Pompei, p. 350-352. In allestimenti su più piani è ragionevole supporre una coincidenza di funzione tra due vani in diretto collegamento (Kastenmeier, Luoghi del lavoro, p. 43). 58 M. Grimaldi in Aoyagi, Pappalardo, Insula Occidentalis, p. 356-364; I. Bragantini in Pompei. Pitture e Mosaici, vol. VII, p. 1051-1061; cfr. anche Anguissola, Intimità a Pompei, p. 94-95, 329. 59 Lettere II 17, 10. Per la funzione di questo locale si rimanda anche al testo di Ria Berg nel presente volume che, sulla base del ritrovamento di uno specchio in argento, ipotizza la destinazione alla toeletta femminile. 60 M. Grimaldi in Aoyagi, Pappalardo, Insula Occidentalis, p. 320-325, 342-355; Anguissola, Intimità a Pompei, p. 110-111, 255-256. 57
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Fig. 14. Pompei, Casa di Marco Fabio Rufo (VII 16, 22), veduta dal vano 53 verso sud.
d’Oro (VI 17, 42) 61. Al pianterreno, l’abitazione conserva un assetto convenzionale, con un atrio dotato di ambienti su un unico versante, in grado di alloggiare i visitatori che si desiderasse trattenere a breve distanza dall’ingresso. Per l’incontro con gli ospiti più graditi o di particolare riguardo era a disposizione un nucleo panoramico al secondo piano sotterraneo, allestito nella sua forma definitiva durante il primo secolo d.C. (Fig. 15). Q uesto settore era occupato da un lussuoso triclinium estivo, dotato di banconi in muratura e ravvivato dall’acqua che, sgorgando dall’edicola di un ninfeo in mosaico di pasta vitrea e conchiglie, si raccoglieva nel bacino foderato di marmo tra i letti; sulle pareti gli affreschi ricreavano l’ambientazione di una pergola. Anche le pareti della saletta ad alcova accanto al triclinio erano dipinte come un giardino affollato di piante, fiori, uccelli, bacini d’acqua e sculture, che s’immagina visibile per l’intera ampiezza del vano 62. 61 La storia edilizia della casa è riassunta da R. Ciardiello in Aoyagi, Pappalardo, Insula Occidentalis, p. 71-77. 62 R. Ciardiello in Aoyagi, Pappalardo, Insula Occidentalis, 162-186 (triclinio 31), 187-221 (sala ad alcova 32). Anche in questo caso, un confronto è offerto dall’allestimento di uno spazio da banchetto nella villa in Tuscis di Plinio il Giovane (Lettere V 6, 38-40).
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Fig. 15. Pompei, Casa del Bracciale d’Oro (VI 17, 42), veduta del giardino e del quartiere panoramico, con il triclinio 31 al centro e il cubicolo 32 sulla sinistra (da Aoyagi, Pappalardo, Insula Occidentalis, p. 254).
Insieme, il pianterreno e il secondo livello sotterraneo potevano articolare gli opposti poli nella vita sociale della dimora. Il primo funzionava come cerniera, fisica e funzionale, tra casa e città, offrendo una serie di ambienti semplici ma confortevoli per il disbrigo delle faccende quotidiane. L’appartamento al secondo livello era concepito come la sede di ricevimenti esclusivi in un ambiente dominato dalla natura – immaginata sulle pareti dipinte, direttamente percepita negli spruzzi e nel gorgoglio provenienti dal ninfeo, dalla vasca del triclinio e dalla fontana al centro del viridarium, infine visibile oltre la terrazza nella linea di costa 63. Tra questi poli, il piano intermedio è organizzato secondo uno schema tripartito, in maniera concettualmente analoga alla Casa 63 Per la fontana e l’allestimento del viridario, cfr. R. Ciardiello in Aoyagi, Pappalardo, Insula Occidentalis, p. 74.
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di Marco Fabio Rufo, rispetto alla quale la conformazione del lotto disponibile, lungo e stretto, aveva reso necessario raggruppare gli ambienti su tre file (Fig. 16). Il registro esterno, direttamente esposto alla luce del sole, era occupato da un piccolo impianto termale e da una sala di passaggio verso la terrazza. Come un ampio vestibolo, questo vano comunicava aria e luce naturale all’elegante triclinium 20, ornato con pitture parietali di Q uarto Stile su fondo nero. A sua volta, il triclinium nero garantiva una modesta illuminazione a una sala più piccola, comprensibilmente dipinta di bianco, secondo una scansione che trova confronto nella Casa di Marco Fabio Rufo 64. Sull’opposto lato del corridoio era allestito un cubiculum ad alcova, dove si conservò la decorazione parietale risalente agli anni di transizione tra Secondo e Terzo Stile, con restauri integrativi eseguiti dopo il sisma del 62 d.C. 65. L’unica sorgente di luce per il vano è costituita da una finestra sul tepidarium dei balnea, in asse con l’apertura sulla terrazza.
Fig. 16. Pompei, Casa del Bracciale d’Oro (VI 17, 42), planimetria (rielaborazione da Aoyagi, Pappalardo, Insula Occidentalis, p. 78-80 tav. 3-5, planimetrie di M. Notomista, E. Piccirilli).
Ibidem, p. 102-119 (triclinio bianco 19) e p. 120-142 (triclinio nero 20). R. Ciardiello in Aoyagi, Pappalardo, Insula Occidentalis, p. 151-156; Anguissola, Intimità a Pompei, p. 260-261. 64 65
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La scelta di sistemare sale da ricevimento e riposo dietro una serie di altre stanze può forse dipendere dal desiderio di distinguere settori complementari secondo l’uso stagionale: mentre gli ambienti al livello sottostante si prestavano all’utilizzo nella stagione mite, quelli al primo livello sotterraneo potevano alloggiare una nutrita compagnia in ogni periodo dell’anno, anche in virtù della prossimità all’impianto termale 66. Non pare improprio rammentare, a questo proposito, come nuclei dalla fisionomia simile siano ricordato da Plinio il Giovane nelle lettere in cui descrive le amenità delle proprie tenute toscana e laurentina, entrambe dotate di stanze per il riposo in prossimità delle terme, così da assicurarne la temperatura costante e la salubritas 67. Un esame dei sistemi di circolazione, tuttavia, suggerisce la possibilità che un’ulteriore, sottile distinzione condizionasse l’uso dei diversi livelli. Il nucleo al secondo piano era accessibile dal l’atrium, grazie a una rampa di scale che escludeva il livello intermedio, di cui, lungo il tragitto, rimaneva celata la stessa visione. È forse possibile immaginare che il primo livello sotterraneo rimanesse assegnato alla vita quotidiana della familia, che includeva il riposo e l’intrattenimento di pochi intimi. A seconda del rango e dell’occasione, quanti non fossero ammessi alla sfera più riservata della famiglia potevano rimanere confinati all’atrium o, se ospiti di prestigio, essere accolti nel lussuoso appartamento estivo, senza che il loro movimento interferisse con la vita quotidiana.
Conclusioni Sia il vasto complesso di Marco Fabio Rufo, sia la più piccola ma non meno ambiziosa Casa del Bracciale d’Oro rivelano una sapiente gestione dei percorsi al fine di organizzare la vita domestica secondo il principio essenziale dell’isolamento, entro una successione di settori collegati eppure autonomi. Il pianterreno era riservato all’atrium e ai suoi annessi, notevolmente ridotti rispetto 66 Sebbene sia difficile identificare nelle strutture archeologicamente documentate gli hibernacula di cui parlano gli autori antichi, le fonti non lasciano dubbio sul fatto che, laddove possibile, fosse prevista una migrazione stagionale a seconda delle caratteristiche climatiche di ciascuna stanza. 67 Plinio, Lettere II 17, 9-11 e 23; V 6, 10-11 e 25.
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a quelli delle domus cittadine di Pompei e altrettanto significativamente alterati nella disposizione 68. Il primo o il secondo livello inferiore era allestito come un vero e proprio “piano nobile”, dotato di eleganti spazi d’abitazione e ricevimento. Le zone di servizio, anch’esse di norma situate al di sotto del pianterreno, erano tuttavia relegate nei punti meno luminosi ed arieggiati. Comune ai quartieri residenziali e di servizio, oltre alla dislocazione nei livelli inferiori, è l’agevole raggiungibilità dall’ingresso quando non direttamente dalla strada. In linea generale, la permeabilità sociale di un’abitazione romana di medio o alto livello era organizzata intorno a due momenti: il primo era rappresentato dalle visite di un pubblico più ampio, sia nel quadro di cerimoniali consolidati quali la salutatio, sia nell’ambito degli scambi professionali e commerciali quotidiani; il secondo era legato all’intrattenimento prolungato di ospiti più graditi o importanti. Tali momenti d’incontro articolavano la sfera della comunicazione non verbale che si è definita indessicale. Entrambe le circostanze, infatti, prevedevano l’ammissione di estranei, imponendo l’allestimento di spazi adeguati a ciascuna categoria di visitatori e alle relative attività. Tra questi due poli, era necessario riservare spazio alla famiglia e alle sue necessità, in risposta ad esigenze di comunicazione canonica nei confronti degli inquilini stessi (tanto la famiglia padronale quanto il personale di servizio residente nella casa). Non sorprende che criteri organizzativi analoghi siano stati utilizzati per abitazioni vicine tanto nell’Insula Occidentalis di Pompei, quando nell’analogo settore lungo le mura di Ercolano. È noto come l’edilizia privata nelle cittadine vesuviane si sia conformata, più che a tipologie astratte, a modelli condivisi entro le singole unità topografiche 69. Del resto, la possibilità di ammirare le soluzioni adottate dai vicini nelle terrazze digradanti 68 Talora lo schema della domus ad atrio rimane in uso senza apparenti innovazioni, come nelle case sull’angolo tra il Vicolo di Championnet e la Via delle Scuole, ma il contesto nel suo insieme rivela anomalie funzionali, che coinvolgono il rapporto tra i corpi di fabbrica e l’accessibilità (cfr. Zanella, Ambiguïté). Un altro elemento di difformità rispetto ai precetti delle fonti letterarie antiche riguarda l’orientamento dei vani per i quali, a causa della fisionomia dei lotti cinti dalla parete rocciosa, non era in genere possibile seguire criteri di varietà. 69 Cfr. Anguissola, Intimità a Pompei, p. 20.
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verso il mare o verso la campagna doveva costituire un’importante aspetto del fascino di queste dimore. Le Lettere di Plinio il Giovane, ad esempio, non lasciano dubbi sul fatto che, tra gli elementi più gradevoli del paesaggio intorno a una villa, si annoverassero le strutture della stessa e i fabbricati circostanti, immersi nel verde 70. Le “ville urbane” di Pompei forniscono un caso di studio particolarmente felice per indagare le aspettative e i criteri sottesi all’organizzazione degli spazi domestici nel mondo romano. Poiché fornivano, rispetto alle tradizionali domus del centro urbano, sistemi più efficienti per isolare ciascuna funzione, le “ville urbane” permettevano altresì una più duttile interazione tra le dimensioni pubblica e privata o, più correttamente, tra le numerose sfumature dell’esperienza sociale ed intima. Le intersezioni di una prospettiva quantitativa e qualitativa consentono di approfondire la trama complessa di architettura e movimento ormai da lungo tempo riconosciuta dalla critica, aggiungendo un tassello al pur valido modello concettuale elaborato da Andrew Wallace-Hadrill, basato sull’intersezione tra due coppie di dimensioni antitetiche, grand / humble e social / intimate, alle quali può collegarsi un’ulteriore distinzione nel segno del rapporto comunicativo canonico o indessicale (interni / esterni) 71. Una tale distinzione permette di recuperare, almeno in parte, aspetti dell’esistenza solo in minima parte intellegibili sulla base delle testimonianze letterarie; alle esigenze legate alla vita sociale del dominus diviene così possibile sovrapporne altre, in ombra nelle fonti scritte ma non meno influenti al momento di pianificare la forma della casa.
70 Lettere II 17, 27. Altrove, Plinio elogia la vista di cui si gode dalle finestre delle proprie dimore di campagna, aperte sul paesaggio oltre che su strutture della villa stessa (Lettere II 17, 5; II 17, 15; V 6, 23). In Lettere V 6, 28, da una camera all’estremità del criptoportico è visibile l’intera gamma delle piacevolezze di cui la villa dispone, in una gradazione sapientemente studiata che include l’ippodromo, le vigne e i monti, come altrettanti simboli del paesaggio costruito, della natura antropizzata e generosa di frutti, della natura selvaggia. A questo stesso gusto deve ricondursi la fortuna delle raffigurazioni di ville in pittura, cfr. X. Lafon, Villa maritima. Recherches sur les villas littorals de l’Italie Romaine, Roma, École Française de Rome 2001, p. 276-290. 71 A. Wallace-Hadrill, Houses and Society in Pompeii and Herculaneum, Princeton, Princeton University Press 1994, p. 11; cfr. anche Id., « The Social Structure of the Roman House », PBSR 56 (1988), p. 43-97.
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Le “ville urbane” lungo le pendici di Pompei combinavano la duplice natura della domus e della villa, sfruttando appieno il potenziale sociale di entrambe. Laddove le domus costruite o aggiornate entro il fitto tessuto urbano desumevano, spesso banalizzandoli, singoli elementi del vocabolario architettonico delle ville, nelle dimore lungo le antiche mura era possibile adottare l’intera sintassi degli spazi associata alla villa in campagna – l’organizzazione in aree funzionali distinte, la possibilità di creare corpi di fabbrica scanditi da un’alternanza di zone chiuse e ipetrali, il tessuto connettivo di portici, corridoi e scalinate 72. Allo stesso tempo, queste residenze conservavano i fondamentali vantaggi topografici della casa in città, adattandone gli elementi essenziali ai nuovi criteri di distribuzione. Il risultato di una tale fusione di modelli architettonici e di riferimenti ideologici era un ambiente più duttile e funzionale per il lavoro e l’intimità domestica, oltre che come luogo d’interazione sociale.
72 Zarmakoupi, Designing, p. 220-240 fa riferimento all’assenza di core, al perforated architectural body e all’attenzione per il connettive tissue come elementi progettuali caratteristici delle ville romane, nel segno di una architecture of the senses. Non è escluso che palazzi dotati di vasti giardini come la Casa di Marco Fabio Rufo disponessero di veri e propri orti in grado di emulare l’abbondanza di frutta e ortaggi che l’immaginario voleva tipica delle grandi ville di campagna (le schede in Grimaldi, Casa di Marco Fabio Rufo, relative ai Saggi 1-4 mostrano come nell’ultima fase di vita della villa il vasto giardino fosse in parte trasformato in hortus, soppiantando un’organizzazione a parco probabilmente rimasta in fase progettuale, p. 61).
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WITH ALL MOD CONS? LATRINES IN DOMESTIC SETTINGS
Latrines were not peculiar to Greek and Roman civilization. They first appeared long before then. They were to be found in Mesopotamia from the onset of the third millennium bc 1. In Egypt at Tell-el-Amarna under the eighteenth dynasty, in the reign of Amenhotep IV-Akhenaten (fourteenth century bc), they were akin to a commode 2. They featured in certain dwellings of the Greek world as early as the sixth to fifth centuries in the form of quadrangular pits, as at Athens 3 or a sort of open drain hole as at Olynthus 4. They really developed in Hellenistic times, in Greek settings, but with a strong Roman presence or influence. The most emblematic example was Delos with no fewer than 88 facilities 5 most dated from the second half of the second century 1 A. Wilson, « Drainage and sanitation », in O. Wikander (éd.) Handbook of Ancient Water Technology, Leiden, Brill, p. 153. 2 I. Franco, « Le palais, la cour, la famille royale », in C. Ziegler, Pharaon, exposition présentée à l’Institut du Monde Arabe, Paris, 15 octobre 2004-2010 avril 2005, Paris, p. 213-249; A. Grätzer, « Latrines domestiques d’époque pharaonique : tentative de reconstitution des dispositifs et des pratiques », in G. C. M. Jansen, A. O. Koloski-Ostrow, E. M. Moormann (éd.), Roman Toilets, Their Archaeology and Cultural History, Leuven-Paris-Walpole, Peeters, 2011, p. 21-24. 3 E. Owens, « Documentary Sources for Latrines, Waste and Waste Removal in the Greek World », in G. C. M. Jansen, A. O. Koloski-Ostrow, E. M. Moormann (éd.), Roman Toilets, Their Archaeology and Cultural History, Leuven-Paris-Walpole, Peeters, 2011, p. 30. 4 Grätzer, Documentary Sources, p. 31. 5 The latrines of Delos were summarized in a few pages in M. Trümper, Wohnen in Delos, Eine baugeschichtliche Untersuchung zum Wandel der Wohnkultur in hellenistischer Zeit, Rahden, M. Leidorf, 1998 (Internationale Archäologie 46),
Anthropology of Roman Housing, ed. by Alexandra Dardenay and Nicolas Laubry, Turnhout, 2020 (ASH, 5), pp. 147–163 © FHG DOI 10.1484/M.ASH-EB.5.119733
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and first half of the first century bc, the vast majority of which consisted in a lateral sewer, i.e. a sewer running along a wall. M. Trümper considers such latrines were to be found in the third century bc in Sicily 6. I have examined in the field all the examples mentioned. I am not convinced they were toilets 7. As for the magnificently conserved latrines of the gymnasium of Mina on Amorgos (Greece) which, in their general appearance are somewhat reminiscent of structures of the imperial period, I am very dubious, like many before 8, about dating them to the same period as the gymnasium, namely the late fourth century bc 9. In any event, ancient lavatories took on different appearances, from the simple cesspit to facilities with lateral sewers.
p. 63-68. From 2012 to 2016 I directed a project entitled DELAT : aux origines de l’hygiène publique, les latrines de Délos, financed by the Commission des fouilles du Ministère des Affaires Etrangères, the École française d’Athènes, the TRACES research centre (CNRS-UMR 5608) and the Institut Ausonius (UMR 5607), to study all the latrines of the island. They were sufficient in number to provide a clear picture of their distribution in a city, while being a manageable number in the context of a research programme lasting just a few years. The programme covered the architectural and archaeological study of all the structures (A. Bouet, E. Fournié), together with allied studies of palaeoparasitology (K. Roche), archaeoichthyology (B. Ephrem), pollens (J. Argant), coins (V. Geneviève), and fauna (I. Rodet-Belarbi) that can be made of the concretions and sediments found in the sewage channels. This multi-disciplinary study involved going on for a dozen researchers. It was extended by a LabEx Sciences archéologiques de Bordeaux (LaScArBx ANR-10-LABX-52) project, and the ALHYEN : ALimentation, HYgiène et ENvironnement en Grèce ancienne : approches pluridisciplinaires (2016-2019) project designed to study hygiene and cleanliness in Ancient Greece among other things and extending its scope. The project involves a one-year post-doctoral contract for archaeo-ichthyology attributed to B. Ephrem and a three-year doctoral contract for palaeoparastiological analyses attributed to K. Roche (as joint director with O. Dutour, Pacea research centre, UMR 5199). 6 M. Trümper, « Sanitary Installations in Hellenistic Houses of Sicily. A Critical Reassessment », in A. Haug, D. Steuernagel (éd.), Hellenistische Häuser und ihre Funktionen, Internationale Tagung Kiel, 4. bis 6. April 2013, Bonn, Verlag Dr Rudolf Habelt GmbH, 2014, p. 87-102. 7 The arguments for this will be developed in the monograph under preparation on the latrines of Delos. 8 R. Neudecker, Die Pracht der Latrine, Zum Wandel öffentlicher Bedürfnisanstalten in der kaiserzeitlichen Stadt, München, 1994 (Studien zur antiken Stadt 1), p. 16 n. 36. 9 M. Trümper, « Hellenistic Latrines », in G. C. M. Jansen, A. O. KoloskiOstrow, E. M. Moormann (éd.), Roman Toilets, Their Archaeology and Cultural History, Leuven-Paris-Walpole, Peeters, 2011, p. 34.
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1. The organization of latrines in domestic settings There were several types of latrines in domestic settings. The latrines with lateral sewers that are the most familiar were only a small part of the range. The most numerous structures were straightforward pits with no frills (Fig. 1) 10. Their volume varied widely, for Gaul, from less than 1 m³ to 8.24 m³. The bottoms of the pits were generally flat and sometimes reached the bedrock. These unlined cesspits were early features, essentially from the first century bc and first century ad. There were also pits lined with timber or stone (Fig. 2) 11. They came in various shapes – circular, oval, square, quadrangular or trapezoid – and most measured less than 7 m³. Then there were lined pits with outlets and/or inlets (Fig. 3) 12. In this case they could be emptied via a sewer. Pits with no outlets had to be emptied once full or abandoned. Where discharge was possible, excrement and urine were carried (well) away with buckets. These pits were apparently isolated. The structures above them must have been made of perishable material because they have disappeared entirely. The presence of a pit did not necessarily mean there were individual latrines. Depending on their dimensions, they could accommodate benches for two, three, four five, and up to six users, although that was rarer. The most emblematic example was unearthed in the excavation of rue Hannong in Strasbourg (Bas-Rhin, France) (Fig. 4) 13. A hut, marked out by post holes, had a simple pit in the centre, the sides of which were maintained by planks. A bench with six holes bored in it for as many people back to back can be reconstructed. Latrines with lateral sewers were a more elaborate design corresponding more closely to the commonly held idea of Roman latrines 14. They had a sewer running along one or more walls of the room topped by a wooden or stone bench bored with holes
10 A. Bouet, Les latrines dans les provinces gauloises, germaniques et alpines, Paris, 2009 (59ème supplément à Gallia), p. 21-26. 11 Bouet, Latrines, p. 26-33. 12 Bouet, Latrines, p. 33-39. 13 Bouet, Latrines, p. 100 and 365. 14 Bouet, Latrines, p. 44-56.
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Fig. 1. A few examples of plain cesspits (Bouet, Latrines, p. 23 and 25).
Fig. 2. A few examples of timber- or stone-lined cesspits (Bouet, Latrines, p. 31).
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Fig. 3. A few examples of cesspits with water inlets (a-b), and drain outlets (c-d), and with both (e) (Bouet, Latrines, p. 34, 35, 36 and 39).
Fig. 4. Plan and reconstruction of the latrines of rue Hannong in Strasbourg (Bouet, Latrines, p. 32 and 100).
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(Fig. 5). They might be capacious or modest. The more modest had a sewer running along one or two sides, the largest along three or all four sides. The water that flushed the sewer might be from several sources. It might be from the baths, which made much use of water, whether public or private. Alternatively, it might be rainwater that fell in the peristyle or courtyard, as visible on Delos. In many cases, the sewer was restricted to the room alone and did not extend down-line. It could only have been cleaned out by using buckets. Unlike the traditional picture, the bench was not necessarily closed at the front (Fig. 6). In many instances there was no front board; there was therefore direct access to the sewer beneath the bench that rested on cross-members alone 15. Buckets of water could therefore be poured straight into the sewer.
Fig. 5. The bench with holes in the latrines near the baths of the villa del Casale in Piazza Armerina (photo A. B.).
Domestic latrines, like public latrines, were well separated from their surroundings, differing again in that from the usual picture. Romans did not defecate in public, then, but in the company of others doing likewise, which is obviously something very different. A series of contraptions was meant to conceal the inside of the room 16. The rooms very seldom had door sills with gudg Bouet, Latrines, p. 95. Bouet, Latrines, p. 88-92.
15 16
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Fig. 6. Reconstruction of the toilet bench of the Wrestlers’ Baths at Saint-Romain-en-Gal presented at the exhibition Aqua – L’invention des Romains (8 November 2017-2013 May 2018) at the Gallo-Roman Museum in Lyon. The absence of a front board allowed direct access to the sewer.
eons proving the presence of a door leaf. Often, there was just a smooth slab: the opening would have been closed by a hanging. Proof of this comes from the public baths of Sergilla (Syria) where the latrines communicated directly with the frigidarium. The uprights of the 1 m-wide door are remarkably well conserved and the emplacement for the curtain rail is still apparent 17. The door might also be positioned so that there was no direct line of sight into the room from the outside. This was the case, for example, in House B of the House of Masks insula on Delos (Fig. 7). In the same city, it might be thought this was not so in the House of the Tritons where the latrines opened onto the corridor leading to the baths. In cleaning these remains again, I realized there was a difference in the paving between the corridor and the latrines and that the negative of a (wooden) door sill appeared in the northern wall of the room (Fig. 8). These two features made it possible to imagine a partition made of perishable material (clay and wood), that has totally disappeared, separating the two spaces. In other instances, a hallway was built in front of the latrine with offset 17 G. Charpentier, « Les bains de Sergilla », Syria, 71 (1994), p. 128; Bouet, Latrines, p. 97.
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Fig. 7. The entrance to the latrines (right) in House B of the insula of the Masks on Delos (photo A. B.).
Fig. 8. View from the south of the latrines of the House of the Tritons on Delos. On the north wall, you can see the negative of a wooden sill that belonged to a now vanished partition at the edge of the floor slabs (photo A. B.).
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doors to mask the line of sight from outside. On Delos, such layouts are only found in public or semi-public latrines. In some examples, on Delos as at Pompeii, toilets were laid out in hallways or kitchens with no visible or restorable (and therefore built) protection. It is hard to imagine that in the vast majority of cases latrines were clearly separated from the outside and that in a few scarce instances they were largely open to areas where there was a great deal of coming and going. I think it has to be imagined there were separations that left no trace such as wooden partitions, screens, or hangings.
2. Domestic latrines: a social discriminator? Some of the largest residences on Delos had no latrines (for example the House of the Trident) while many other smaller ones did. Their presence was not an important feature in the house and so not related to social standing. Latrines were not to be found everywhere because chamber pots were commonplace. These were very commonly used in all likelihood and came in various shapes for diverse uses. Archaeologists have only recently learnt to recognize and identify them and discoveries have increased since then. Chamber pots were diverse as there are three Latin words for them: matella, scaphium, and lasanum. They corresponded to three very different functions and forms. The matella was a closed vase to contain water 18. The term also designated a chamber pot. At Pompeii, inscription CIL, IV, 4957 reads: “We peed in the bed. I confess it, we made a mistake, my host. If you should ask, ‘why [did you do it]?’ – there wasn’t a chamber pot (matella)” 19; The shape of the matella 20 was that of a pitcher or jug that men also used for urinating (Fig. 9). In excavations it is impossible to tell apart pitchers that were for serving wine or water from those used as urinals. The backfill of some latrines have yielded pitchers that might have been urinals. In tombs also some jugs might have been meant for this purpose. Bouet, Latrines, p. 66-67. K. Milnor, Graffiti and the Literary Landscape in Roman Pompeii, Oxford University Press, 2014, p. 27. 20 This was what the Greeks referred to as amis or ouranê. 18
19
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Fig. 9. A few examples of amis and matellae (?) (Bouet, Latrines, p. 66).
The scaphium was a hollow oblong object that served various functions 21. It was a boat-shaped drinking vessel, but Martial (Epigrams, XI, 11, 5) found another use for it: “To his Slave. ‘It becomes you, Sardanaplaus, to drink out of jewelled cups, you who would convert a master-piece of Mentor into a convenience (scaphium) for your mistress.” 22 It was a urinal for women, the equivalent of the bourdalous of the modern period. In the current state of research, no archaeological evidence of this form is known. Bouet, Latrines, p. 68-75. Martial, Epigrams, Book 11, Bohn’s Classical Library, 1897.
21 22
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There is no literary testimony as to the shape of the lasanum 23. Trimalcion, urinates in public in a matella (Satiricon, XXVII, 5), gets up in the midst of the feast to get on his lasanum (Satiricon, XLI, 9), and later there is mention of the lasana made available to his guests that they might relieve themselves (Satiricon, XLVII, 5). These were chamber pots the form of which might readily be imagined as oval with a broad rim (Fig. 10). This was the only vessel with just a single use. Archaeological discoveries are revealing them ever more frequently 24. They are found from the first century bc to the sixth century ad, made of earthenware, but also bronze or even more valuable materials. The lasanum might be set under certain commodes, such as those of the Vatican, used in the Middle Ages in papal enthronement ceremonies, and the Louvre 25. Mention should also be made, although marginally to our subject, of the amphorae at street corners for collecting urine for fulling 26.
Bouet, Latrines, p. 66-67. The form long went unidentified, which explains why the chamber pot appeared only rarely in publications (see the discoveries of Carnuntum in S. Radbauer, B. Petznek, « Chamberpots from the Civil Town of Carnuntum. Excavations at the ‘Weststrasse’ », in G. C. M. Jansen, A. O. Koloski-Ostrow, E. M. Moormann (éd.), Roman Toilets, Their Archaeology and Cultural History, Leuven-Paris-Walpole, Peeters, 2011, p. 97-98). At Pompeii, 37 bronze ellipseshaped vessels with removable handles and lids have been interpreted as being for hygiene purposes (S. Tassinari, Il vasellame bronzo di Pompei, 2 vol., Rome, «L’Erma» di Bretschneider, 1993 (Cataloghi, 5), p. 233). Given their resemblance to earthenware chamber pots, I surmise they served an identical function (Bouet, Latrines, p. 73). On Delos, a single vessel of this type has been identified in the excavation of the oil-maker’s of insula III in the Theatre Q uarter (J.-P. Brun, M. Brunet, « Une huilerie du premier siècle avant J.-C. dans le Q uartier du théâtre à Délos», BCH, 121/2 (1997), p. 595-597). It is probably no chance matter that the item is in a recent excavation for which all the archaeological material has been published. Such items must have been common but formerly went unheeded in major excavations. In Serbia, lasana were seemingly unknown. Yet, I managed to identify two, one made of earthenware in the National Museum of Požarevac, and one made of bronze in the Archaeological Museum of Sremska Mitrovica/Sirmium, which had been interpreted as a horse’s drinking trough. F. Tassaux reports two other earthenware examples Kladovo Museum. 25 A. Bouet, F. Saragoza, « Hygiène et thérapeutique dans l’Antiquité romaine, réflexions sur quelques sièges de latrines », Monuments Piot, 86 (2007), p. 31-56. 26 Bouet, Latrines, p. 75-78. 23 24
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Fig. 10. A few examples of lasana (Bouet, Latrines, p. 69, 70, 71 and 74).
3. Domestic latrines and the management of human waste Q uestions must be asked of the impact of latrines on household hygiene. Did more of them mean improved hygiene? The answer must needs be contrasted. Draining excrement away underground meant it was not thrown into the streets, and so the streets were cleaner 27. But inside dwellings, proximity or even promiscuity with excrement was not amenable to better hygiene, as when latrines were located in kitchens. The use of water might also be very limited. There was not necessarily any running water; in many cases, simple buckets were used. Bouet, Latrines, p. 184.
27
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Ancient sources 28 mention the use of a shared sponge, either hand-held or fixed to the end of a stick, for wiping oneself. It might be rinsed in a trickle of water running at the foot of the bench (Fig. 11), but it was not always the case. In the latrines already mentioned in rue Hannong in Strasbourg, a bronze cauldron 30 cm in diameter and 12 cm deep was discovered at the corner of the pit. It could have been filled with water for wetting the sponge 29. On Delos, a whitish deposit was found in many latrines, both at the end of the sewer and on the floor of the room, or even outside the room (Fig. 12). Its nature needed to be ascertained: was it whitewash or natural concretions? A fragment was analysed by the CIRAM laboratory of Pessac (France). It revealed that the surface layer was composed of calcium phosphate over a limestone substrate. It was observed that the phosphorous had diffused
Fig. 11. The latrines of the villa of Lamarque at Castelculier (Lot-et-Garonne). A gutter runs along the foot of the bench (photo A. B.). 28 All the literary references can be found in Bouet, Latrines, p. 172-173. Aristophanes mentions sponges several times. The most famous anecdote is related by Seneca of a German, who having to fight one morning in the amphitheatre in a hunt, preferred to commit suicide in the unsupervised latrines by stuffing the stick and sponge down his throat (Letters to Lucilius, 70, 20). 29 Bouet, Latrines, p. 126.
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Fig. 12. Whitish deposit outside the door of the latrines of house E on “East Street” on Delos (photo A. B.).
within the material. The outer layer was created by recrystallization. The high phosphorous content probably derived from the activity that went on in the room. The fact is that urine contains high levels of phosphorus and is thought to have been the source of the neo-formed crystals. This attests to the state of squalor the latrines must have been left in. A final point needs to be evoked: the importance of domestic latrines in the management of human waste in cities. On Delos, for instance, toilets could be found in houses, and so reserved for the inhabitants, while others were located in public or semi-public buildings reserved for certain categories of people (building of the Poseidoniasts of Berytos, palaestrum, etc.). There were no great public latrines open to everyone. Yet, because of its economic importance and the reputation of the sanctuary of Apollo, the island must have seen many visitors. The authorities had therefore not made allowance for managing this type of waste. It is probable that the lack of interest of the public authorities was offset by private interests. Some latrines in houses were open to the pub160
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lic (perhaps against payment). They might have been a potential source of income. In Gaul, consideration of the phenomenon by the public authorities dates from the Flavian era 30. Lack of data means the same cannot be ascertained for Delos, but evidence of change is perceptible through the great latrine of the fourth century ad located back from the Bouleuterion and the Prytaneion, at a time when these monuments no longer served their original functions. Access for all was via the 0.70 m gap between the two buildings. The room covers a relatively large area and a sewer runs along two sides of it. At Pompeii there were ten latrines open to the public (Fig. 13) 31. Many of them were within public buildings (baths, campus, theatre), and so reserved for those attending. The same locations can be found as on Delos. The latrines of the baths of the forum built in the second quarter of the first century bc were on the frontage with direct access from the street 32. The same goes for the Central Baths under construction at the time Vesuvius erupted 33. As for the latrines of the forum, they opened directly under the western portico of the square, on the side of the Capitol, via an intermediary vestibule. They were built after the earthquake of 62 ad and unfinished at the time of the eruption 34. The same phenomenon is therefore found in the Pompeii of 79 ad 35 as in Gaul of the same time. From then on, there was a development of large latrines accessible to all from the street. Bouet, Latrines, p. 157-159. G. C. M. Jansen, Water in de Romeinse stad, Pompeji – Herculaneum – Ostia, Leuven, Peeters, 2002. p. 59-62. 32 A. and M. De Vos, Pompei, Ercolano, Stabia, Roma-Bari, 1988 (Guide archeologiche Laterza), p. 49-52. No architectural modification is mentioned in this zone. 33 P. Bargellini, « Le terme centrali di Pompei », in Les thermes romains, Actes de la table ronde organisée par l’École française de Rome (Rome, 11-12 novembre 1988), Rome, 1991 (collection de l’EFR 142), p. 117. 34 De Vos, Pompei, p. 47. A. O. Koloski-Ostrow dates them from Augustan times based on the appearance of the sewer, but the room was reportedly completely redone in the final Pompeian phase (A. O. Koloski-Ostrow, The Archaeology of Sanitation in Roman Italy, Toilets, Sewers, and Water Systems, Chapel Hill, The University of North Carolina Press, 2015, p. 9). I am not convinced by this more complex history of the monument. 35 The baths of the Forum would certainly be worth close architectural study. 30 31
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Fig. 13. Plan of distribution of latrines at Pompeii. Private latrines in black, latrines open to the public in black ringed in white (Jansen, Water, p. 59).
Conclusion A distinction should be drawn between cleanliness and hygiene. A house or a city could be clean without being hygienic. Cesspits contaminated ground water. When they were designed to be watertight, they had to be emptied at regular intervals. But clearing out a cesspit, even when done carefully, necessarily involved some spillage during transport; and stirring faecal matter that had long been accumulating was particularly favourable to the propagation of typhoid fever. The multiplication of latrines with peripheral sewers may have improved cleanliness here and there but at the same time the use of a sponge was unhygienic. Rinsing it in a gutter with clean running water was more hygienic than doing so in a container of stagnant water. But the use of a collective sponge was generally less hygienic than the use of small scraps of single-use papyrus or cloth. Systematic palaeoparasitological analysis shows that parasitism was endemic on Delos 36. At best it can be said that the Roman houses and cities of the second century ad, with the multiplication of latrines, baths, and large fountains with continually renewed water, looked a little K. Roche’s current PhD at Université Bordeaux Montaigne.
36
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cleaner than those of the first or third centuries. For latrines, while excrement was no longer directly visible, there was no improvement underground in ecological terms. Cities, like the countryside, were still purveyors of disease 37. This is related to a simple enough phenomenon: the Romans knew nothing of microbes and viruses. It was not until the second half of the ninenteenth century that more discoveries were made, awareness grew, and measures were drawn up to combat disease 38. Roman houses and cities alike were perhaps done out in marble, bronze, or precious metals; but they were also and perhaps primarily places of excrement, urine, and parasites.
Bouet, Latrines, p. 184. P. D. Mitchell, « Chapter 12, A Better Understanding of Sanitation and Health in the Past », in P. D. Mitchell (éd.), Sanitation, Latrines and Intestinal Parasites in Past Populations, London, Ashgate, 2015, p. 233. 37 38
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SANCTUAIRES ET MARGES DE L’HABITAT : PERCEPTION ET DÉLIMITATION DE L’ESPACE DOMESTIQ UE
En 1994, A. Wallace-Hadrill préconisait d’approfondir l’étude des cultes domestiques pour définir ce qu’ils pourraient nous apprendre sur le mode d’habiter dans le monde romain 1. En effet, à cette époque plusieurs corpus de laraires avaient été réalisés pour les cités vésuviennes 2, mais il manquait des synthèses pour interpréter ces données. Depuis, cette lacune a été comblée par plusieurs travaux qui ont mis en lumière le fonctionnement et l’organisation des cultes domestiques, notamment au sein des demeures pompéiennes 3. L’objectif principal de ces recherches était de comprendre comment la famille intègre la pratique religieuse dans son quotidien et les structures de culte dans la maison. Ces études ont permis de mieux percevoir les enjeux de la dynamique cultuelle au sein de la maison. Toutefois, il serait 1 A. Wallace-Hadrill, Houses and Society in Pompeii and Herculanum, Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1994, p. 110. 2 Voir notamment : G. K. Boyce, Corpus of the Lararia of Pompeii, Rome, American Academy in Rome, 1937 ; D.-G. Orr, « Roman Domestic Religion : The evidence of the Household Shrines », ANRW II, 16.2, Berlin-New York, De Gruyter, 1978, p. 1557-1591 ; Th. Frölich, Lararien und Fassadenbilder in den Vesuvstädten. Untersuchungen zur “volkstümlichen” pompejanischen Malerei, Mayence, Philipp von Zabern, 1991. 3 Cf. entre autres : A. Krzyszowska, Les cultes privés à Pompéi, Wroclaw, Uniwersytetu Wrocławskiego, 2002 ; M. Bassani, Sacraria, ambienti e piccoli edifici per il culto domestico in area vesuviana, Padova, Q uasar, 2008 ; F. Giacobello, Larari Pompeiani : iconografia e culto dei Lari in ambito domestico, Milan, LED, 2008 ; M.-O. Charles-Laforge, La religion privée à Pompéi, Naples, Centre Jean Bérard, 2009 ; W. Van Andringa, Q uotidien des dieux et des hommes : la vie religieuse dans les cités du Vésuve à l’époque romaine, Rome, EFR, 2009.
Anthropology of Roman Housing, ed. by Alexandra Dardenay and Nicolas Laubry, Turnhout, 2020 (ASH, 5), pp. 165–192 © FHG DOI 10.1484/M.ASH-EB.5.119734
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intéressant de voir si la démarche inverse peut être proposée, qui consisterait à utiliser les cultes domestiques pour appréhender la perception que les Romains avaient de leur espace de vie. L’enjeu ne serait plus de préciser les limites de l’habitation pour définir si les vestiges cultuels qui s’y trouvent sont liés à la pratique religieuse domestique, mais plutôt de mettre en avant le rôle structurant des sanctuaires domestiques dans la délimitation de la demeure. Nous souhaiterions donc examiner au cours de cette contribution l’outil heuristique que peut représenter le culte domestique dans la construction d’une anthropologie de l’habitat romain.
1. Du chien aux Lares : délimitation et protection de l’espace domestique La définition de l’espace domestique est une notion essentielle dans la construction de notre réflexion. Comment les Romains concevaient-ils, percevaient-ils, délimitaient-ils cet espace ? Bien que les murs extérieurs de la maison présentent une limite physique évidente de la zone habitable, les marges posent toujours question. Nous pouvons illustrer cette interrogation par un phénomène actuel : l’emplacement ambigu du paillasson. En raison de sa fonction, le paillasson prend place en marge de la zone de vie. Doit-il alors être perçu comme une extension de l’espace domestique sur le secteur commun ou, par son rejet hors du foyer, comme un élément fonctionnel de l’espace collectif ? Ce dilemme, que bien évidemment personne ne conceptualise face à une porte d’entrée, peut toutefois trouver des réponses dans des choix inconscients des habitants de chaque appartement. En effet, la volonté d’une individualisation par le choix d’un motif original, d’un message de bienvenue, ou la conservation du paillasson de l’ancien locataire sont autant d’indices sur la perception que chacun a de son espace domestique. Ainsi, l’objectif est d’approcher cette perception consciente ou non que les Romains avaient de leur espace de vie grâce aux marqueurs de sa délimitation. À la période romaine, l’espace domestique est clairement pensé et défini. On accède à la maison par la porte principale, symboliquement gardée dans certains cas par une représentation de chien. 166
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L’image canine, dans cette configuration précise, joue alors le rôle de borne de l’espace domestique. Dans le Satyricon, la réaction du narrateur à la vue d’un molosse peint à l’entrée de la maison de Trimalcion marque, par un ressort comique, le passage de la rue à la demeure, et c’est à nouveau un chien, réel cette fois, qui lui bloque la sortie 4. Parmi les domus pompéiennes, certaines affichent sur une mosaïque placée dans le couloir d’entrée un chien de garde 5. La représentation la plus évocatrice est certainement la mosaïque de la maison du poète tragique qui avertit par l’inscription cave canem 6 du rôle de praesidium attribué au chien domestique 7. La protection de la famille et de la domus est donc symbolisée par la surveillance du chien aux limites de l’espace domestique, comme l’indique l’ornementation du compluuium de la maison samnite à Herculanum (V, 1), où des gargouilles canines préservent d’une intrusion par le toit. Cette protection iconographique, doublée dans l’œuvre de Pétrone par une présence réelle du chien, est également renforcée dans la scénographie domestique par une surveillance divine des Lares, qui jouent un rôle similaire à l’animal de garde. On observe alors une délimitation de l’espace domestique construite autour d’un axe longitudinal qui s’ouvre avec le chien et se ferme avec les Lares 8. Les Lares sont par essence des divinités du territoire 9, et sont ancrés dans l’espace. Ainsi, lorsqu’ils sont honorés dans la maison, ils prennent possession du lieu et participent à sa définition. La conception polythéiste nécessite en effet une délimitation de l’espace pour y placer les puissances divines. L’absence notable pour la majorité des chapelles domestiques d’une limite physique séparant le sacré du profane incite à étendre le sanctuaire à l’ensemble de la demeure, comme le remarque Cicéron dans son Pétrone, Satyricon, 29. Voir les maisons : I, 7, 1 ; V, 1, 26 ; VI, 8, 5 ; VI, 14, 20. 6 CIL X, 877. Le même texte est mentionné sur la peinture de la maison de Trimalcion (Pétr., Sat., 29). 7 La chienne de Trimalcion, Scylax, a le titre de praesidium domus familiaeque (Pétr., Sat., 64). Columelle rappelle d’ailleurs que le chien doit protéger la villa et la famille (Col., Agr., VII, 12, 1). 8 Notamment les maisons du poète tragique (VI, 8, 5) et de L. Caecilius Iucundus (V, 1, 26). 9 G. Wissowa, Religion und Kultus der Römer, Munich, C. H. Beck, 1902, p. 148-153. 4 5
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plaidoyer pro domo sua 10. Dans ce système, le champ d’action des Lares familiares s’étend à toute la sphère domestique. L’emplacement des sanctuaires et leur complémentarité dans certaines domus pompéiennes sont pensés pour offrir aux Lares une « couverture visuelle » 11 de toute la demeure. Cette organisation spécifique de l’espace est bien connue à Pompéi pour la maison du prince de Naples 12 et celle des Amours dorés 13. La présence des Lares dans la maison est si liée à la pensée de l’espace domestique, du moins dans la péninsule italique, qu’ils en deviennent sa représentation. Dans la littérature latine, les Lares sont le symbole de la sphère domestique. Par une métonymie, ils sont devenus, pour les auteurs anciens, plus que les gardiens de la maison : ils représentent la demeure à part entière. Cette personnification de l’espace habité se retrouve également sur les peintures murales, où les dieux jumeaux bornent la scène. Les Lares encadrent une image cultuelle et précisent par leur seule présence la nature du rite représenté. Malgré leur allure dansante, ils marquent leur emprise territoriale en gardant toujours au moins un pied sur le sol. Ils symbolisent l’espace domestique quand leur action est affectée à la maison ; le quartier quand ils sont placés aux carrefours 14. La fonction territoriale des Lares familiares assimile leur champ d’action à l’espace domestique. Partant de ce constat, les limites de leur protection sont identiques à celles de la maison. Ainsi, la scénographie précédemment observée le long de l’axe principal de la demeure définit à la fois l’étendue de la propriété et la zone sous la surveillance des Lares 15. À ce titre, Ovide, dans les Fastes, nous propose une limite à leur action par une indication Cicéron, de domo sua, 41. V. Huet, S. Wyler, « Associations de dieux en images dans les laraires de Pompéi », in S. Estienne et alii, Figures de dieux. Construire le divin en images, Rennes, PUR, 2014, p. 195-221. 12 V. M. Strocka, « Casa del principe de di Napoli », in Pompei, Pitture e Mosaici, V, Rome, Istituto della Enciclopedia Italiana, 1994, p. 677. 13 Huet, Wyler, « Associations », p. 195-213. 14 H. I. Flower, The Dancing Lares and the Serpent in the Garden. Religion at the Roman Street Corner, Princeton-Oxford, Princeton University Press, 2017. 15 Cette mise en scène peut être étendue à l’ensemble des maisons où un sanctuaire domestique clôt la perspective axiale, comme par exemple la maison des Dioscures (VI, 9, 6). 10 11
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détournée. Dans son chant à Janus, il précise que le regard du Lare domestique bute sur la face interne de la porte d’entrée 16. Elle représente la limite de son action 17. La face extérieure de la porte n’appartient déjà plus à l’espace domestique. La protection de cet espace n’est pas soumise à la surveillance des Lares familiaux, mais à celle des Lares du carrefour. En effet, Macrobe lie la pratique d’accrocher des effigies Maniae à la porte (face extérieure) de chaque maison et la célébration en l’honneur de la déesse aux compita 18. Les façades des demeures appartiennent au territoire gardé par les Lares compitales, tous les aménagements extérieurs, comme les bancs, les peintures, les édicules, sont alors pensés hors de la sphère domestique. S’il est besoin d’ajouter une preuve à cette délimitation des espaces à partir des limites religieuses, rappelons la variété des rites liés au seuil de la maison ou à son franchissement, marquant le passage d’une sphère de protection à une autre 19. Il semble donc que le présupposé de notre démarche, à savoir utiliser les cultes pour appréhender les limites de l’espace domestique, soit acceptable. Les Lares, par leur ancrage spatial, structurent la sphère domestique. Les vestiges de leurs sanctuaires permettent d’appréhender la construction d’une scénographie dans les grandes domus vésuviennes, qui traduit la perception que le propriétaire avait de son espace de vie. Cependant, l’axialité de la maison, qui dévoile l’apparat domestique, ne donne pas d’indices sur le statut des espaces qui gravitent autour de la maison, tantôt intégrés à elle, tantôt rejetés. Par conséquent, sans les codes de la mise en scène voulue par les riches propriétaires, comment les cultes domestiques peuvent-ils nous aider à percevoir les marges de l’habitat ?
Ovide, Fastes, I, 135-139. Pour pousser la réflexion, on peut ajouter le commentaire de Jérôme de Stridon qui place les Lares domestiques post fores domorum (Jérôme, Commentaire sur Isaïe, 57, 7, 8). 18 Macrobe, Saturnales, I, 7, 34. 19 Pour des exemples : O. de Cazanove, « Naissance et petite enfance dans le monde romain », in ThesCRA, 6, Los Angeles, J. P. Getty Museum, 2012, p. 11-16 ; P. Moreau, A. Dardenay, « Mariage dans le monde romain », in ThesCRA, 6, Los Angeles, J. P. Getty Museum, 2012, p. 101-106. 16 17
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2. « Laraires » et marges de l’habitat : essai de lecture des peintures pompéiennes La mise en scène de la domus romaine fixe implicitement les limites de l’espace domestique. Toutefois, les nombreuses structures qui gravitent autour des demeures posent, par leur présence aux marges de l’habitat, la question de leur appartenance à la sphère familiale. Les boutiques ou ateliers sont, par leur nature, rejetés systématiquement hors de la sphère domestique. Cependant, cette délimitation formelle des activités est-elle induite par notre vision moderne de séparation des espaces domestiques et commerciaux ou répond-elle effectivement à une logique romaine ? L’exemple d’un graffito incisé sur le podium de vente de la boutique pompéienne IX, 11, 2 entretient la confusion 20. En effet, le graveur précise qu’un « bon dieu habite ici dans la demeure d’Actus ». Ce texte, qui offre plusieurs lectures en fonction des intentions prêtées au graveur, associe l’espace domestique et commercial. Cette ambiguïté est perceptible dès les origines de la maison romaine, où certaines pièces de vie comme l’atrium mêlaient aussi bien les activités familiales qu’artisanales. L’extension de la maison romaine a cependant induit une spécialisation des espaces, plaçant en marge les activités commerciales et artisanales. Q uel impact ce développement a-t-il eu sur la perméabilité entre la sphère domestique et professionnelle ? Comment a-t-il modifié la perception que les Romains avaient de leur espace de vie ? À travers le rôle structurant que nous venons de reconnaître aux sanctuaires domestiques, nous chercherons à définir la relation conçue entre la demeure, ses boutiques et ses ateliers. Dans la démarche anthropologique que nous tentons de développer, la donnée factuelle doit être dépassée au profit d’éléments porteurs de sens. L’importance reconnue aux Lares dans l’organisation de l’espace offre certes une piste de recherche pour réfléchir à la répartition des chapelles au sein de la maison, mais elle constitue surtout une approche originale pour percevoir l’image que le sanctuaire renvoie de l’espace qu’il structure. À ce titre, les
CIL IV, 8417 : Bonus diius (sic) / hic abitat in do/mo / Act(i).
20
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peintures conservées à Pompéi fournissent un ensemble cohérent d’indices pour interroger les marges de l’habitat. La représentation picturale d’une divinité au sein d’un laraire est généralement interprétée comme une attestation du culte qui lui est rendu dans le cadre des dévotions domestiques. Ainsi l’image peinte se substitue aux statuettes qui peuplent les édicules. Cependant, la complexité des constructions iconographiques au sein des chapelles invite à dépasser la lecture d’une simple évocation des divinités en présence. L’organisation volontaire des dieux au sein des laraires est un phénomène visible même au sein des groupes statuaires. Dans plusieurs édicules, la présence de degrés permet de hiérarchiser la place des statuettes en fonction du statut des divinités représentées 21. L’axe de la composition varie alors des schémas picturaux linéaires pour ordonner les images divines par une superposition des registres. Malgré une structuration verticale de l’espace, la lecture horizontale persiste par les jeux de symétrie des images répétées. L’importance de la scénographie au sein de la chapelle s’observe dès la confection des statuettes, notamment par la représentation en miroir des Lares 22. Dans l’organisation visuelle du laraire, les dieux jumeaux constituent des pendants à la pondération inversée, ce qui renforce la structure centripète de la composition. La volonté d’une différenciation des statuettes d’après un axe de symétrie fait écho au schéma pictural d’encadrement des Lares. Dès lors, la répétition volontaire de modèles structurant l’espace semble porteuse de sens. Les peintures des sanctuaires domestiques offrent donc une image plus complexe qu’une énumération du panthéon familial. Il convient alors de rechercher le sens donné à la structuration hiérarchique du groupe divin et à sa logique combinatoire. Les Lares sont des divinités à la fonction territoriale qui, dans leur représentation picturale, définissent l’espace dans lequel la scène centrale se développe. Ainsi, lorsque la peinture est placée
21 Pour les édicules à un degré : I, 10, 4 ; I, 16, 3 ; I, 16, 4 ; IX, 1, 22 ; IX, 14, 4. Pour les édicules à deux degrés : V, 1, 26 ; VI, 16, 7. Pour les édicules à 3 degrés : VII, 2, 28. 22 A. Kaufmann-Heinimann, « Statuettes de laraire et religion domestique à Pompéi », in M.-O. Charles-Laforge, La norme à Pompéi. Contributi di archeologia vesuviana. III, Roma, L’Erma di Bretschneider, 2007, p. 153.
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dans une maison, ils incarnent l’espace domestique, comme l’illustre la majorité des scènes de sacrifice, notamment la fresque de la domus I, 13, 2-3. La scène peinte sur le mur est de la cuisine présente dans l’espace défini par les Lares un sacrifice lors d’une fête familiale 23. Cependant, dans la composition simplifiée de ces peintures, dans laquelle les Lares encadrent un genius, l’aspect générique de la représentation crée une ambivalence dans la lecture (Fig. 1). Seule la considération du lieu d’exposition permet une identification du génie, celui du pater familias dans la maison, ou celui de l’empereur au carrefour. Toutefois, cette fixation sémantique n’est qu’en partie valide, car sa lecture est relative. En effet, la représentation domestique du genius d’un individu flanqué des Lares prend un sens différent en fonction du spectateur. Un esclave verra dans la scène le génie de son maître, affranchis et clients, le génie de leur patron, les enfants, le génie de leur père et la femme celui de son mari. Cette variation implique donc une identification nominale du génie à l’instar de la dédicace de l’édicule découvert dans la domus d’Epidius Rufus et offert « au génie de notre Marcus et aux Lares, [par] les deux Diadu-
Fig. 1. Exemple de scène de libation (MANN Inv. 8905) – Cliché M. Mauger.
Fröhlich, Lararien, L29, p. 261.
23
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meni, ses affranchis » 24. Les génies figurés sont donc incarnés par des individus et non par un statut, qui s’avère nécessairement relatif. Ainsi, même si l’image est polysémique, la parole en fixe le sens. Finalement, la construction de l’image donne à voir à son lecteur la représentation divinisée du propriétaire de l’espace symboliquement représenté par les Lares. Dans cette configuration précise, les Lares figurés sont donc ceux du propriétaire des lieux. Deux possibilités de lecture découlent de ce constat : soit les Lares définissent la propriété dont le dieu central est le maître, soit ils symbolisent – et peu importe le personnage qu’ils encadrent – un espace dont le génie a la possession. Toutefois, ces deux lectures ne sont pas nécessairement exclusives l’une de l’autre. Ainsi, lorsqu’une divinité, autre que le genius, est placée au centre de l’espace délimité par les Lares, on constate que la pièce où est peint le laraire possède une fonction spécifique en lien avec la capacité d’action de la divinité représentée. Cette dernière patronne alors l’activité qui s’y déroule et se présente comme la tutelle du lieu. Par exemple, dans la boulangerie VII, 1, 36, les Lares encadrent Vesta 25, présentée comme la déesse privilégiée des boulangers 26. Cependant, dans cette configuration, la divinité ne semble pas être en possession de l’espace, elle en est seulement la garante, comme le suggèrent les représentations associant le génie du propriétaire et la divinité tutélaire. En effet, dans la boulangerie VII, 2, 3, les Lares encadrent Vesta et un genius qui réalisent une libation au-dessus d’un autel 27. L’association de Vesta et du génie correspond au double enjeu de protection et possession du lieu identifié par les Lares. Dans cette mise en scène iconographique, les Lares délimitent un lieu soumis à une tutelle divine, dont le propriétaire est un humain symbolisé par son génie. Les Lares s’attachent donc à définir un espace privé sous la domination de leur foyer originel, celui de la maison à laquelle ils sont liés.
CIL X, 861. Boyce, Corpus, n° 240, p. 60-61 – Aucune image présentée. 26 Sur les représentations de Vesta à Pompéi voir H. Jordan, Vesta und die Laren auf einem pompejanischen Wandgemälde, Berlin, Gedruckt auf Kosten der Archäologischen Gesellschaft, 1865. 27 Boyce, Corpus, n° 247, p. 61 – Aucune image présentée. 24 25
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La peinture du mur ouest de la boulangerie VI, 11, 9 permet d’approfondir la réflexion (Fig. 2). La scène présente Vesta accompagnée d’un âne, évocation de sa capacité meunière, caché derrière l’autel sur lequel elle réalise une libation 28. De part et d’autre, elle est encadrée d’un Lare accoudé à un pilier. Dans cette scène la fonction de bornage des Lares est renforcée par la matérialisation de la limite 29. À l’extérieur de cet espace, sur la gauche, Venus Pompeiana et Eros incarnent la sphère civique. Au registre inférieur, une image de Sarno, dieu topique, divinité du fleuve et de sa source, est séparée de la scène principale par un serpent, représentation du genius loci. Cette peinture, souvent interprétée sous un angle politique 30, offre assurément plusieurs degrés de lecture. Pour notre réflexion, nous retiendrons l’importance dans la scène de l’ancrage topographique induit par les divinités. Ainsi, la délimitation marquée des espaces renforce l’opposition entre la divinité tutélaire de la cité, Vénus, et celle du lieu, Vesta,
Fig. 2. Peinture de la boulangerie (VI, 11, 9) – DAIB 81.2.302. Boyce, Corpus, n° 185, p. 51 ; Fröhlich, Lararien, L67, p. 278. D’autres peintures présentent des piliers sur lesquels s’appuient les Lares VII, 3, 11/12 ; IX, 12, 7. 30 Van Andringa, Q uotidien, p. 300-302. 28 29
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entre la sphère publique et la sphère privée. Les Lares personnifient donc l’espace spécifique dans lequel évolue Vesta. À ce titre, il convient de rappeler que la boulangerie est associée structurellement à la maison du Labyrinthe (VI, 11, 10). Cette intégration de la boulangerie à la domus incite à identifier les Lares de cette peinture aux marqueurs d’un espace domestique. Les boulangeries VII, 1, 36 ou VII, 2, 6, précédemment mentionnées pour leur peinture présentant Vesta entourée des Lares, sont également en lien direct avec un espace domestique 31. Finalement, la majorité des peintures où Vesta est encadrée par les Lares se retrouvent dans les boulangeries de type B, d’après la typologie de N. Monteix 32, c’est-à-dire des espaces qui ne sont pas autonomes et dépendent souvent d’une maison. La position des Lares marque donc une extension de l’espace domestique dans lequel est intégrée la divinité. La production de pain est alors comprise dans ces cas précis comme une activité domestique et la divinité est intégrée au panthéon familial. Dans les peintures mentionnées, les Lares sont des marqueurs de l’espace domestique. Ils lient la boulangerie à la demeure par l’extension de leur champ d’action. Néanmoins, leur intégration dans le sanctuaire ne définit pas leur prédominance sur le lieu de culte. Contrairement à ce que laisse entendre le terme lararium, la présence des Lares dans les sanctuaires domestiques n’a pas vocation à définir le destinataire du culte, mais davantage à localiser la divinité dans un espace précis. Ainsi, dans le cas des boulangeries, leur présence est assurément secondaire. La fonction de la pièce et l’organisation de l’image confirment la consécration du sanctuaire à Vesta. Les Lares précisent simplement que le sanctuaire est situé dans un espace sous leur sphère d’action. La lecture d’une association entre une divinité et les Lares oblige à considérer aussi bien la hiérarchie iconographique que l’organisation spécifique du lieu où l’image est présentée. 31 On peut également évoquer le cas incertain de la boulangerie de la maison VI, 3, 3. La peinture disparue présente une divinité indéterminée entre les Lares. À partir d’une archive, Th. Fröhlich y reconnaît Vesta Fröhlich, Lararien, L59, p. 275), tandis que W. Van Andringa, identifie un genius (Van Andringa, Q uotidien, p. 297). 32 N. Monteix, Les lieux de métier : boutiques et ateliers d’Herculanum, Rome, EFR, 2010, p. 166.
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Si on reconnaît une logique dans cette composition, la variation dans l’organisation des divinités induit alors un changement de sens. Dans le sanctuaire de la boulangerie VII, 12, 7, la composition picturale diffère du modèle observé. Vesta n’est plus au centre de l’image, mais est rejetée à gauche, à l’extérieur du groupe formé par les Lares et le Genius 33. À leur droite, Mercure, également exclu de l’espace central, renforce la construction symétrique de la peinture. Comme dans la peinture de la boulangerie VI, 11, 19, les Lares n’incluent pas l’ensemble des divinités en présence dans l’espace qu’ils délimitent. Cependant, malgré leur exclusion, Vesta et Mercure participent à la prospérité des lieux. La mise en regard de la composition picturale avec l’organisation structurelle de la boulangerie peut expliquer la variation du modèle iconographique. En effet, la boulangerie n’a pas de lien direct avec une demeure. L’établissement est pourvu en façade d’une boutique qui le rend autonome dans la fabrication et la vente du pain. L’activité prend une dimension commerciale, qui dépasse les besoins familiaux. Ainsi, la boulangerie est rejetée hors de la sphère domestique, symbolisée par le groupe associant les Lares et le génie. Vesta et Mercure n’apparaissent pas comme des divinités domestiques, mais les dieux protecteurs d’une activité professionnelle. Une même lecture peut être proposée pour la peinture de la boulangerie VII, 12, 13. L’autonomie de la boulangerie en tant qu’espace de fabrication et de vente du pain se traduit à nouveau par le rejet de Vesta hors de la zone délimitée par les Lares 34. Dans la caupona I, 8, 8, une peinture de sanctuaire (Fig. 3) présente une organisation similaire 35. Le centre de l’image est occupé par le génie d’un individu flanqué de chaque côté d’un Lare dansant. La figuration en miroir des dieux jumeaux induit, par la composition symétrique, un caractère centripète, qui fixe le point focal sur le genius. Ce groupe est encadré par deux divinités, Mercure à gauche, dos tourné, fuyant la scène et Bacchus à droite. Ces présences divines rompent le rythme de la composition pour ouvrir les marges dans une dynamique centrifuge, renfor Boyce, Corpus, n° 313, p. 70 – Aucune image présentée. Boyce, Corpus, n° 318, p. 71 – Aucune image présentée. 35 Fröhlich, Lararien, L8, p. 252-253. 33 34
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Fig. 3. Peinture de la caupona I, 8, 8 – Cliché M. Mauger.
cée par le regard des Lares orientés vers l’extérieur de la scène. Une nouvelle fois, la structure de l’image inciterait à proposer un rejet de la caupona hors de l’espace domestique, sur le modèle de l’exclusion de Bacchus et Mercure, liés à la prospérité du lieu, mais placés hors de la zone délimitée par les Lares. Cependant, comme nous l’avons remarqué, l’interprétation des images doit se faire en lien avec l’organisation structurelle des lieux. Or, la caupona est en réalité intégrée structurellement à la demeure I, 8, 9. En effet, le mur sud comporte une ouverture, à droite du sanctuaire, qui donne accès à l’atrium de la domus. Dans ce contexte, comment comprendre le rejet des divinités tutélaires du lieu hors de la sphère domestique représentée par l’association des Lares et du genius ? Comme nous l’avons observé dans les boulangeries, l’activité commerciale ne semble pas compatible avec la sphère domestique. À ce titre, dans les peintures, Mercure est systématiquement exclu de l’encadrement des Lares 36. Les boutiques sont donc pensées en marge de l’espace domestique On pensera par exemple aux peintures V, 4 et IX, 13.
36
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tout en lui étant subordonnées, comme le suggère la représentation des Lares qui étendent leur champ de surveillance en limite de l’habitat. Finalement, la réflexion menée laisse entrevoir la transcription picturale de la présence divine dans l’espace domestique. Bien que la lecture proposée n’ait pas une portée universelle 37, l’exercice met en avant le rôle structurant des sanctuaires domestiques. Ainsi, une variation apparaît dans la perception des activités artisanales et commerciales. Les stratégies de protection divine de ces espaces permettent de supposer une intégration partielle des premières à la sphère domestique tandis que les secondes sont clairement rejetées. Les ateliers et les boutiques gravitent donc autour de l’espace domestique et lui sont en partie subordonnés. Toutefois, cette distinction affirmée de l’espace commercial et domestique vaut dans son rapport aux riches domus. La perception de l’espace domestique diffère en fonction du rang social des individus. Les réalités de la stratégie domestique varient sensiblement entre les riches propriétaires qui peuvent exprimer leur possession par une scénographie des sanctuaires au sein de l’habitation et les citoyens les plus pauvres qui vont mettre en place des solutions plus pragmatiques pour intégrer le sacré dans leur espace de vie.
3. Partager l’espace de vie : limites cultuelles et domestiques des habitations modestes Dès l’introduction d’une divinité dans le panthéon familial, une sphère d’action lui est attribuée, ce qui revient à préciser sa fonction et à délimiter son espace de contrôle. Ce territoire divin s’étend, au moins pour les Lares familiaux, à l’ensemble de la demeure et suppose une protection des individus présents dans cet espace. Toutefois, cette organisation des sanctuaires domestiques, observée dans le contexte des domus pompéiennes, pose des difficultés dans son application aux logis ordinaires. L’impératif pragmatique qui préside à la structuration du logement des 37 On pensera notamment à la peinture de la boulangerie VII, 12, 11. Les Lares encadrent Vesta alors qu’aucun habitat ne semble en lien avec la boulangerie (Fröhlich, Lararien, L91, p. 288-289). Toutefois, l’escalier supposé de la pièce 5 pourrait donner accès à un étage correspondant à la demeure du boulanger.
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humbles citoyens impose de varier les approches pour percevoir les limites de l’espace domestique. Si de nos jours, un locataire conçoit son logement comme un espace domestique personnel, distinct de celui du propriétaire, en était-il de même pour les Romains ? L’indépendance supposée des habitations issues de la segmentation d’une domus est-elle une réalité ou une transposition d’un schéma actuel ? Un même questionnement peut être proposé pour les immeubles de type insula : où fixait-on la limite domestique de chaque appartement ? La variété des formes prises par les habitations modestes impose d’élargir le champ d’étude, et de sortir du seul exemple pompéien. En effet, les outils précédemment développés pour étudier les rapports entre perception de l’habitat et cultes domestiques valent par la conservation exceptionnelle des sources iconographiques en contexte. Néanmoins, dans les structures plus ordinaires d’habitat, la rareté des décors contraint à développer une nouvelle démarche pour comprendre les limites de l’espace domestique. La construction de notre réflexion autour de la notion d’habitat modeste s’avère, comme le remarque P. Gros 38, périlleuse, car les structures domestiques ne permettent généralement pas de déterminer le statut social des individus qui y résident. La mise en rapport des vestiges archéologiques avec la réalité sociale romaine incite, en l’absence d’une théorisation globale de l’économie, à définir les modèles domestiques médians ou populaires en fonction d’un idéal construit par les riches domus. De plus, les écrits juridiques, qui offrent une image théorique du contexte social, ne peuvent que rarement être appliqués aux structures conservées. Ainsi, faute d’indice permettant le développement d’une approche émique de l’habitat modeste, nous avons choisi de centrer notre attention sur les logements situés à l’étage et les formes d’habitation collective. Dans cette démarche, le corpus constitué par les logements à étage d’Herculanum offre un support stimulant pour développer les axes de notre questionnement. En effet, la conservation de plusieurs appartements à l’étage de petites domus ou de boutiques permet d’approcher les solutions développées dans ces espaces de 38 P. Gros, L’architecture romaine : du début du iiie siècle av. J.-C. à la fin du Haut-Empire, 2, Paris, Picard, 20062, p. 82.
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vie restreints pour intégrer les sanctuaires domestiques. De plus, la proximité géographique et chronologique des vestiges herculanéens avec le corpus pompéien précédemment observé assure une cohérence du langage iconographique, de la perception de l’espace domestique et des fonctions des divinités, notamment celles des Lares. Le cas le plus explicite est certainement fourni par la Casa a graticcio (Fig. 4). Ce complexe allie au niveau principal un local commercial, un lieu de stockage lié à une activité artisanale et des pièces probablement utilisées comme habitat rudimentaire. Les espaces domestiques les plus évocateurs sont conservés à l’étage. Le niveau supérieur est divisé en deux appartements, l’un accessible depuis une cour intérieure, l’autre directement depuis la rue. Lors des fouilles de la Casa a graticcio, entre 1927 et 1929, un ensemble de 11 statuettes en bronze a été découvert à l’étage, dans l’appartement en façade 39. Ce groupe sculpté était conservé dans la pièce au nord-ouest (n° 3) 40, mitoyenne du second appartement, au sein d’une armoire en bois. Ces images divines constituent au moins en partie le panthéon domestique des résidents, toutefois leur étude doit être soumise à une remarque préalable. En effet, le contexte de découverte dans une armoire interdit de préciser, si les divinités étaient actives dans la protection de la famille, ou si elles étaient momentanément remisées en attendant de les ajouter, pour les fêtes ou suivant les besoins, dans les sanctuaires domestiques. Malgré cette restriction, la présence parmi les statuettes d’une paire de Lares invite à réfléchir au statut de l’espace sous leur protection. L’ancrage spatial intrinsèque à leur fonction divine suppose dans le cas présent soit l’assimilation de l’appartement à un espace domestique autonome sous leur possessio 41, soit l’extension de leur sphère de protection en lien avec le 39 L’ensemble de statuettes se compose de deux Lares, Isis Fortuna, une divinité féminine indéterminée, Harpocrate, Jupiter, une divinité masculine indéterminée, Isis-Panthée, Diane, Minerve et Mars. 40 Monteix, Les lieux de métier, p. 30. 41 M. Bettini montre le choix de Plaute (Aulularia, 0, 3) d’utiliser le verbe possidere pour définir l’ancrage du Lare dans l’espace domestique. Ainsi, ce dernier possède le lieu, par une possession « qui se manifeste sous la forme d’un usus. », (M. Bettini, « Entre “émique” et “étique”. Un exercice sur le Lar familiaris », dans P. Payen, E. Scheid-Tissinier, Anthropologie de l’Antiquité. Anciens objets, nouvelles approches, Brepols, Turnhout, 2012, p. 177).
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foyer originel d’une autre demeure 42. La mise au jour d’une table de cuisson dans un renfoncement de la pièce 8 peut alors plaider en faveur d’une indépendance domestique. Dans cette logique, le focus devient certes l’instrument d’une autonomie alimentaire pour la famille, mais il joue également le rôle du sanctuaire primordial des Lares. Ainsi, sans offrir d’indice sur la nature juridique de la résidence, propriété ou location, la présence des Lares en lien direct avec un foyer incite à reconnaître une indépendance de l’appartement. L’individu jouit d’un espace de vie propre et forme avec les autres personnes peuplant l’espace, une communauté familiale autonome 43, un foyer à part entière. D’un point de vue structurel, l’accès direct par un escalier donnant sur la rue renforce l’autonomie de l’habitation.
Fig. 4. Plan de la Casa a Graticcio (III, 13-15) d’après Monteix, Le lieux de métier, DAO M. Mauger.
42 Comme nous avons pu l’observer dans le cas de certaines boulangeries pompéiennes. 43 À ce titre, il faut noter la présence d’un lit d’enfant, qui pourrait indiquer la présence d’une famille nucléaire au sein de l’habitation ou du moins d’un groupe familial restreint.
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D’autres appartements de dimensions plus modestes présentent des caractéristiques qui plaident également en faveur d’une autonomie de l’espace domestique. C’est le cas notamment de l’appartement V, 18 (Fig. 5). Situé à l’étage d’une ancienne boutique transformée en appartement, il possède plusieurs similarités avec l’exemple précédent, malgré l’absence d’une attestation iconographique des Lares. L’habitation est équipée d’une table de cuisson, mentionnée par les fouilles anciennes 44, auprès de laquelle est conservée une niche rectangulaire d’où proviendrait, selon J. Andrews 45, une statuette féminine en marbre rouge. En plus du foyer, un édicule en bois a été découvert dans la pièce d’à côté. La répartition des sanctuaires domestiques au sein de la maison reprend la logique, observée dans les demeures pompéiennes, de diffusion des puissances divines dans l’espace domestique. Ainsi, même sans un témoignage assuré de la présence des Lares, il paraît cohérent d’admettre, comme pour l’habitation précédente, une autonomie des cultes et de l’espace domestique. Cette proposition est appuyée également par l’équipement de l’appartement composé d’une cuisine, de latrines, et d’un accès indépendant par un escalier donnant sur la rue. Toutefois, à côté de ces exemples idéaux pour construire un modèle d’autonomie des appartements, d’autres habitations présentent une lecture plus ambiguë. C’est le cas notamment de l’appartement V, 6-7, à l’étage de la Casa di Nettuno e Anfitrite (Fig. 6). L’habitation se développe à l’étage, principalement en façade de la demeure, et offre des caractéristiques qui vont dans le sens des interprétations précédentes. Ainsi, la pièce au nord-ouest est réservée à la cuisine qui a conservé sur le mur, à côté de la table de cuisson, une peinture figurant deux Lares affrontés. En plus de ce sanctuaire, un autre espace devait accueillir des divinités, comme le laissent supposer les statuettes découvertes dans l’appartement 46. On retrouve donc une répartition des sanctuaires 44 Pour une analyse critique des journaux de fouilles de la Casa a graticcio voir Monteix, Les lieux de métier, p. 26-35. 45 J. N. Andrews, The Use and Developpement of Upper Floors in Houses at Herculaneum, Thesis submitted for the Degree of Ph. D., Department of Archaeology, vol. 1, University of Reading, 2006, p. 114. 46 É. Munos, Les laraires à Herculanum, mémoire de master 1, Université de Toulouse, 2017, cat. 28.b-d, p. 55-57.
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Fig. 5. Plan de la Casa del bicentenario (V, 13-16) et des appartements V, 17 et 18 – d’après Monteix 2010 et Andrews 2006, DAO M. Mauger.
au sein de l’habitation, qui structure un espace domestique cohérent. Cependant, la définition d’une autonomie ne s’accorde pas avec l’organisation structurelle de l’habitat. En effet, contrairement aux exemples précédents, qui bénéficiaient d’un accès ex publico, l’escalier menant à l’appartement est situé cette fois dans la maison à l’arrière de la boutique V, 6. Certes, une porte, attestée par les négatifs visibles sur le seuil, permet de restreindre l’accès à l’atrium, et, dans le même temps, de limiter la fonction de la pièce à une cage d’escalier accessible depuis la boutique. Néanmoins l’existence d’un lien entre la demeure et l’appartement reste effective et le possesseur de la clé, qui a la capacité de limiter la circulation entre les deux espaces, prend un rôle domi183
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Fig. 6. Plan de la Casa de Nettuno e Anfitrite (V, 6-7) – d’après Monteix 2010 et Andrews 2006, DAO M. Mauger.
nant face à celui qui subit la restriction. On peut donc s’interroger sur la valeur des critères définis pour établir l’autonomie d’une habitation. Même si deux communautés familiales distinctes habitent dans ces espaces domestiques supposément indépendants, le lien structurel qui les unit incite nécessairement à réfléchir à la notion de cohabitation. 184
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Enfin un dernier exemple confirme le rapport ambigu qu’entretiennent certains appartements avec la demeure du niveau inférieur. L’appartement en façade de la Casa del bicentenario (V, 14) présente dans son état de conservation actuel une variation des modèles précédemment observés (Fig. 5). Malgré la découverte d’un sanctuaire domestique peint, aucune table de cuisson ou d’espace réservé à la cuisine n’a été mis au jour. Cette absence, s’il ne s’agit pas d’un effet de conservation, pose la question de l’autonomie de l’appartement. De plus, l’habitation n’est pas directement accessible par la rue. L’escalier d’accès est placé dans une boutique qui communique également avec la demeure du niveau principal. Dans ce contexte, l’absence d’une cuisine (si elle est avérée) et d’un accès autonome à l’appartement impose une remarque sur la nature des Lares qui sont représentés sur la peinture murale de la pièce 44. En effet, sans un focus de référence et sans une indépendance d’accès de l’appartement, peut-on concevoir une autonomie totale de l’habitation ? Finalement, la sphère de protection des Lares se limite-t-elle à l’appartement, en tant qu’espace domestique à part entière, ou s’étend-elle à l’ensemble du bâtiment, trouvant son origine dans le sedes du niveau inférieur, l’une des deux niches encadrant le foyer culinaire (n° 13) ? La variété des solutions développées par les habitants d’Herculanum pour protéger l’espace de vie permet d’approcher les rapports structurels entre les sanctuaires domestiques et les limites de l’habitat. L’état de conservation des étages et la rareté des données matérielles rendent malaisée une définition systématique d’habitations autonomes. Cependant, un premier constat peut être proposé : dans le cas des appartements isolés ou regroupés, les attestations cultuelles et les équipements domestiques plaident en faveur d’une autonomie de l’habitation, tandis que les logements issus de la segmentation d’une domus semblent conserver le souvenir d’un bâtiment commun et d’une limite domestique moins stricte. Pour poursuivre cette réflexion sur la perception de l’espace domestique en contexte d’habitat collectif, il semble attendu de faire un détour par Ostie. Les stratégies urbanistiques mises en place pour répondre au manque de logement et de terrain ont poussé au développement vertical de l’habitat. Les nombreux 185
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immeubles de type insula conservés, parfois sur plusieurs niveaux, permettent d’observer le découpage d’un même bâtiment en différents espaces domestiques dont on suppose généralement l’autonomie 47. Ce phénomène offre la possibilité de prolonger la réflexion amorcée à Herculanum sur la perception du vivre ensemble. Cependant, malgré la densité de vestiges liés à des formes d’habitat collectif, aucune attestation cultuelle domestique n’est conservée dans ce contexte. J. T. Bakker, dans son ouvrage sur les cultes privés à Ostie 48, n’a relevé aucun matériel cultuel au sein des appartements à l’étage des immeubles. Il va de soi que ce constat traduit bien plus un effet de source, dû à la mauvaise conservation des étages et à l’ancienneté des fouilles, qu’une réelle absence du sacré dans les logements d’Ostie. En effet, les structures religieuses préservées dans les domus témoignent la pérennité des dévotions domestiques parmi les élites de la cité. Toutefois cette absence de vestiges cultuels dans les appartements contraste avec les nombreux sanctuaires découverts dans les parties communes de ces immeubles. Q uel rôle attribuer à ces lieux de culte dans la structuration de l’espace commun ? Q uelle est la limite de leur sphère d’action et quel impact ont-ils sur la définition de l’espace domestique ? Pour tenter d’approcher la fonction de ces sanctuaires, il semble tout d’abord nécessaire de se référer aux attestations épigraphiques religieuses en lien avec un contexte d’habitation collective. Un premier groupe de trois inscriptions, mises au jour en 1744, à Rome dans le Trastevere, mentionne le don et la restauration d’un sanctuaire voué à Bona Dea. Dans l’une des dédicaces, la déesse est présentée comme la divinité tutélaire de l’insula Bolani 49. Ainsi, les habitants ont choisi de placer la protection de l’insula sous une surveillance divine. Une autre inscription 47 Pour notre réflexion initiale sur l’habitat modeste, il est nécessaire de rappeler que les habitants des insulae ne sont pas de pauvres citoyens, mais qu’ils appartiennent davantage à une population aisée : J. T. Bakker, Living and Working with the Gods, Amsterdam, J. C. Gieben, 1994, p. 51-52 ; J. Dubouloz, La propriété immobilière à Rome et en Italie, ier-ve s. : organisation et transmission des praedia urbana, Rome, EFR, 2011, p. 5-6. 48 Bakker, ibid. 49 CIL VI, 65 ; 66 ; 67.
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de Rome découverte en 1872 lors de la construction de la gare de Termini peut également être interprétée en ce sens. Le texte évoque la dédicace d’un autel et d’une chapelle à plusieurs divinités en charge de la tutelle du lieu 50. Cette dévotion est réalisée par un groupe de quatre individus qui se définissent comme possessores 51. Le contexte de découverte identifié à un habitat collectif 52 et le statut des dédicants, propriétaires des logements, voire peut-être résidents, invitent à reconnaître la création d’un sanctuaire collectif pour la protection du bâtiment et de ses habitants. Finalement, on peut rapprocher ces inscriptions d’un passage de Jérôme de Stridon qui mentionne le culte rendu à Tutela dans les insulae pour la protection du lieu 53. Ces divers témoignages attestent l’existence d’un lieu de culte au sein des habitats collectifs réservé à une divinité en charge de la surveillance de l’immeuble et des résidents, qui forment alors une communauté religieuse spécifique. À Ostie, les sanctuaires conservés dans les parties communes des habitations collectives répondent certainement à une fonction similaire de protection du bâtiment. Une niche ou un édicule, placé au niveau inférieur, dans une position centrale, accueille la divinité qui a la tutelle des lieux. Ainsi, l’organisation spatiale du Caseggiato del Larario incite à développer cette lecture des vestiges (Fig. 7). Au centre d’une cour entourée de petites boutiques et pourvue d’escaliers pour rejoindre les logements à l’étage, une grande niche en brique polychrome est placée dans l’axe du vestibule. L’orientation du sanctuaire vers l’entrée du bâtiment incite à attribuer un rôle de gardien à la divinité qui y était honorée. On retrouve également une niche dans le vestibule du Caseggiato dell’Ercole. Au Caseggiato degli Aurighi, le sanctuaire prend la forme d’un pseudo-édicule qui proviendrait d’une pièce commune de l’étage. Dans l’Insula dei Dipinti, l’édicule est placé au fond du jardin commun. Pour d’autres immeubles, comme le Caseggiato del Serapide, une pièce est réservée au culte et peut être placée, comme pour le cas du Caseggiato del Bar, en sous-sol. CIL VI, 3697 = CIL VI 30940. Dubouloz, La propriété, p. 364-365. 52 Ibid. 53 Jérôme, Commentaire sur Isaïe, 57, 7, 8. 50 51
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Fig. 7. Plan et photo du Caseggiato del Larario – d’après le relevé de G. Funaro et L. Scocca, cliché Bakker, DAO M. Mauger.
Tous ces exemples plaident en faveur du partage d’un culte entre les différents résidents certainement pour la protection de leur espace de vie commun. S’il est encore besoin de renforcer l’argumentation, la Casa delle Volte Dipinte 54 fournit certainement l’exemple le plus probant (Fig. 8). Le rez-de-chaussée était réservé comme dans la majorité des bâtiments communautaires, à des espaces commerciaux. Les logements sont situés aux niveaux supérieurs accessibles depuis la rue par une cage d’escalier. Dans l’axe de cette entrée indépendante, un autel maçonné est conservé dans une alcôve de l’inter-palier. La position de l’autel, face à l’entrée, confirme la fonction protectrice de la divinité honorée, suivant le modèle des exemples précédents. Cependant, dans ce cas précis, le sanctuaire n’est pas construit dans un espace mixte de logements et de boutiques. La cage d’escalier, isolée du niveau inférieur, donne un accès direct aux appartements. Ainsi seuls les résidents ont accès au sanctuaire. Les habitants de cet immeuble, malgré l’indépendance de leur espace domestique, conçoivent 54 Nous suivons la proposition de P. Gros (Gros, L’architecture, p. 131-132) qui reconnaît dans la Casa delle Volte Dipinte un immeuble de rapport, avec un appartement par étage, plutôt qu’un hospitium comme le propose J. T. Bakker (Bakker, Living, p. 90).
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Fig. 8. Plan de la Casa delle Volte Dipinte – d’après F. Maj, 1960, DAO M. Mauger.
donc une situation de cohabitation en plaçant un lieu de culte dans les parties communes. Cette communauté cultuelle des résidents place l’immeuble dans une sphère de protection divine. Elle s’ajoute à la tutelle des divinités familiales, qui gardent la 189
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prédominance sur l’espace domestique. Par le culte commun, les résidents expriment leur conscience de partager leur espace de vie. À ce titre, la mise en scène de cette surveillance divine reprend les codes domestiques en construisant une axialité entre l’entrée et l’autel, limitant une nouvelle fois l’espace protégé au seuil de la porte.
Conclusion Au terme de cette réflexion, il convient de reconnaître que les sanctuaires familiaux structurent l’espace domestique et que leur organisation au sein de la maison permet d’approcher la perception que les habitants avaient de leur espace de vie. En effet, l’emplacement des chapelles au sein de la maison suit une logique topographique en relation avec la fonction des pièces et la nécessité d’une tutelle divine de ces lieux. L’idée véhiculée par le « laraire » a eu tendance à faire oublier que la demeure du citoyen est un espace structuré par une multitude de divinités. Les dieux ont un ancrage territorial dans la cité et la délimitation de leur sphère d’action est un impératif pour leur coexistence avec les hommes. La maison n’échappe évidemment pas à cette règle. Ses différentes parties sont donc hiérarchisées par leur rapport au divin, comme le prouve la mise en scène volontaire d’une relation entre l’espace domestique et ses marges. Une stèle funéraire découverte en Narbonnaise (Fig. 9) illustre bien le lien perçu entre ces différents espaces 55. Au-dessus d’une épitaphe, deux images, séparées par une démarcation verticale, montrent à gauche un cheval activant une meule et à droite un chien devant un autel. La scène de gauche renvoie au métier du défunt qui était d’après la restitution possible de l’épitaphe, pistor, boulanger. La scène de droite en revanche reprend les codes observés à Pompéi pour définir l’espace domestique. L’étendue de la maison se développe le long d’un axe ouvert par le chien et clôt par l’autel domestique. La construction d’une relation entre les deux scènes est soumise, comme dans les exemples étu Carte archéologique de la Gaule 11.1, n° 230*, fig. 555 = ILGN 583 = E. Espérandieu, Recueil des bas-reliefs, statues et bustes de la Gaule romaine, IX, 6903. 55
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Fig. 9. Stèle funéraire d’un boulanger (Espérandieu, Recueil, IX, 6903) – Base NEsp. : NAR 166
diés, à une ambivalence de la lecture. Une première interprétation incite à séparer formellement les deux espaces qui correspondent à des réalités distinctes de la vie du défunt. La seconde, empreinte des réflexions sur les boulangeries pompéiennes, reconnaît dans la construction de l’image un lien structurel entre les espaces artisanaux et domestiques. Cette hypothèse est induite par l’affrontement des deux protagonistes de la scène : le cheval, qui s’affaire à son activité, et le chien, qui surveille aux côtés des divinités domestiques la maison et les activités liées à la famille. Malgré une accumulation d’indices permettant d’approcher la perception de l’habitat et de ses marges, la construction idéale que nous avons proposée doit toutefois être nuancée. Si nous avons pu observer la perception que les classes supérieures et moyennes avaient de leur demeure à travers leur rapport au sacré, une enquête similaire dans les milieux les plus humbles s’est avérée impossible. Dans ces habitations rarement reconnues par 191
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l’archéologie, aucun vestige ne permet de définir la nature des dévotions. Dans les immeubles, l’émergence de cultes privés dépassant le cadre domestique incite à réfléchir à des solutions alternatives pour comprendre la piété des plus pauvres. En effet, si comme le remarque P. Gros 56, le logement des humbles citoyens est réduit dans sa forme rudimentaire à un espace de refuge, doit-on nécessairement penser qu’une sphère de protection divine est attachée à ce lieu ? Ainsi, l’expérience religieuse de ces individus est certainement à rechercher au cœur de groupes plus étendus que la famille, comme la communauté vicinale, ou du moins dans des rapports de voisinage, palliant alors les carences du modèle domestique et familial traditionnel.
Gros, L’architecture, p. 85-86.
56
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LOCATING THE USE AND STORAGE OF FEMALE TOILETRY ITEMS IN POMPEIAN HOUSES
1. Introduction The main questions asked in this essay are simple: Where were female toiletry objects located in Roman houses? What does their location tell us about the activities and movements of their users and owners, the Roman women, in relation with the lived, architectural environment? The answers to these questions, using mobile finds as main evidence, cannot be either straightforward or simple. The first caveat concerns the difficulties in attributing female identities to objects that may have had multiple functions and gendered associations of variable strengths. The second is the (in)completeness of Pompeian 79 ad find contexts and their documentation, and the third regards the exceptional living conditions of the last months and days of Pompeii, which may have altered practices and routines of domestic activities and storage 1. The present study is linked to a long scholarly search for female spaces in Roman houses, comparable to their Greek counterparts, the gynaeceum or gynaeconitis 2. In Pompeii, there have been 1 Summarized in P. M. Allison, Pompeian Households. An Analysis of the Material Culture, Los Angeles, Cotsen Institute of Archaeology, 2004, p. 15-24, 30-32. 2 Roman authors that explicitly use this expression do not specify any room of the house, Nepos, Vitae, pr. 7; Plaut., Most., 755, 759, 908; Ter., Phorm. 862; Cic., Phil., 2, 95; Plut., Caes., 9.3.2; Vitr., 6.7.2-5. For discussion, see J.-A. Dickmann, Domus frequentata. Anspruchsvolles Wohnen im pompejanischen Stadthaus, Munich, F. Pfeil, 1999 (Studien zur antiken Stadt 4/1), p. 33; A. Zaccaria Ruggiu, Spazio privato e spazio pubblico nella casa romana, Roma, École française de Rome, 1995, p. 296-303.
Anthropology of Roman Housing, ed. by Alexandra Dardenay and Nicolas Laubry, Turnhout, 2020 (ASH, 5), pp. 193–217 © FHG DOI 10.1484/M.ASH-EB.5.119735
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many proposals to recognize female spaces on the basis of architectural or pictorial remains, mainly in three different categories of rooms: 1) separate apartment complexes 3, 2) specific cubicula 4, 3) triclinia, diaetae or oeci reserved to women 5. By and large, this search has had a negative outcome, resulting in a widespread consensus that women were not confined to any reserved rooms, but were present in all the spaces of the domus, in variable degrees depending on the time of the day 6. Lisa Nevett has written about this kind of fluidity of gendered spaces even in Greek houses, concluding that “women were present throughout the house as their activities required, and that there was no need for a specific room to be set aside for them”, and Andrew Wallace-Hadrill has likewise affirmed that “the characteristic of the Roman household was, rather than separation, an interpenetration of areas and activities” 7.
3 A. Maiuri, « Gineceo ed ‘hospitium’ nella casa pompeiana », in MemAccLinc 8 (1954), p. 449-467, identifies women’s quarters in five Pompeian houses: Casa di Sallustio, Casa del Centauro, Casa dei Vettii, Casa dell’Efebo and Casa del Citarista. V. M. Strocka, Casa del Labirinto (VI 11, 8-10), München, Hirmer, 1991 (Häuser in Pompei 4), p. 85, n. 156, proposes seeing the secondary atrium of the House of the Labyrinth as family/women’s quarters. 4 A. Gallo, La casa di Lucio Elvio Severo a Pompei, Naples, Arte tipografica, 1994, p. 62, has proposed identifying the cubiculum (8) as that of the domina. Allison, Pompeian Households, p. 156, has found in her material the gendered toiletry items predominantly placed in cubicula opening to the atrium or peristyle. 5 For example, Strocka, Casa del Labirinto, p. 92-93, fig. 44; 323, has recognized a space as a female oecus-cubiculum in rooms 45-46 (Damenzimmer) of the House of the Labyrinth. L. Richardson Jr., Pompeii: An Architectural History, Baltimore-London, John Hopkins University Press, 1988, p. 156-157; 165 has suggested identifying a “dining room for ladies” in the House of the Silver Wedding. Contra L. Nevett, « Perceptions of Domestic Space », in B. Rawson, P. Weaver (éd.), The Roman Family in Italy: Status, Sentiment, Space, Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1997, p. 281-298, esp. 284-285. 6 Zaccaria Ruggiu, Spazio, p. 293-310; Dickmann, Domus frequentata, p. 20, 28, n. 55, Allison, Pompeian Households, p. 156-157. 7 L. Nevett, House and Society in the Ancient Greek world, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1999, p. 71; A. Wallace-Hadrill, « Engendering the Roman House », in D. E. E. Kleiner, S. B. Matheson (éd.), I, Claudia. Women in Ancient Rome, New Haven, Yale University Art Gallery, 1996, p. 104115, esp. 106-107; V. Jolivet, « Uno spazio per la donna nella casa etrusca e romana (VI-I sec. A.C.)? », Journal of History of Medicine 23 (2011), p. 57-80; P. Lohmann, « Tracing the Activities of Female Household Members within the Roman domus? A Methodological Discussion of Artefact Distribution in Pompeii », The Material Sides of Marriage. Women and Domestic Economies in
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My initial quest to locate the rooms in which female grooming activities took place, in Pompeii, was frustrated by the discovery that mundus muliebris assemblages were mostly found in storage, mixed with other utensils 8. Whether in cupboards along the atrium or peristyle walls, or in small, dark, undecorated cubicula near the entrance, the find spots of toiletry assemblages were scarcely places where we could expect the lady of the house to settle down for her daily toiletry routines. My general conclusion, based on these findings, is that Romans habitually kept their utensils, including female toiletries, locked up in closable rooms or cupboards, whence they were taken out, into the activity areas of the house, only for the short instance of their use 9. Accordingly, the majority of the material evidence in Pompeian houses points to patterns of storage, not to patterns of activities, male or female, thus confirming the idea of the flexible nature of room designations and activity areas. Can anything, then, be said about the areas of use of female toiletries in Pompeian houses? This article examines a series of exceptional houses, in which two nuclei of toiletries have been found, one in storage and one in its representative living-quarters. It is plausible that the latter might represent actual places of use, at the moment of the eruption. Antiquity, Rome, Q uasar, 2016 (Acta Instituti Romani Finlandiae 43), p. 191201. 8 R. Berg, Il mundus muliebris nelle fonti letterarie e nei contesti delle case pompeiane, Dissertazione di dottorato di ricerca, University of Helsinki, 2010. The thesis considered the find contexts of all the Pompeian mirrors in the Archaeological storerooms of Pompeii (Casa Bacco). 9 R. Berg, « La casa come cassaforte. Riflessioni sulle zone di attività e zone di deposito nelle case pompeiane », in J. M. Álvarez Martínez, T. Nogales Basarrete, I. Rodà de Llanza, (éd.), Centre and Periphery in the Ancient World. Proceedings of the XVIII International Congress of Classical Archaeology, Mèrida 2013, vol. II, Mèrida, Museo Nacional de Arte Romano, 2014, p. 10291032; R. Berg « Dominae apothecarum. Gendering Storage Patterns in Roman Houses », in R. Berg (éd.), The Material Sides of Marriage. Women and Domestic Economies in Antiquity, Rome, Q uasar, 2016 (Acta Instituti Romani Finlandiae 43), p. 175-189; R. Berg, « Distribution Patterns », in R. Berg, I. Kuivalainen (éd.), Domus pompeiana M. Lucreti. The Inscriptions, Works of Art and Finds from the Old and New Excavations, Vantaa, Societas Scientiarum Fennica, 2019, p. 54-67, esp. p. 55, 60-62. Among ancient authors, Apuleius in particular, describes specific locked storage rooms (horreum) for the valuables, inside habitations, met. 3.28, 4.18, 5.2.
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The numerous variables of each and every Pompeian house – the social status, the quantitative and qualitative relationships between the toiletries and the other finds of the house – make a statistical approach difficult. In this paper, therefore, I shall discuss a series of house-contents as micro-historical case studies, and as methodological examples of the problems encountered in such research. I have selected as case studies seven Pompeian houses, each of which has at least two assemblages of female goods.
2. Case studies: Seven houses with female toiletries, in storage and in use 2.1. House of Fabius Rufus VII 16, 22 The House of Fabius Rufus, in Insula Occidentalis, belongs to the panoramic, wealthy and large elite houses cresting the west wall of Pompeii 10. This complex of houses has been explored in various phases since the eighteenth century, but the final unearthing of this habitation was done during the campaigns led by Amedeo Maiuri in 1960s 11. Two mirrors accompanied by other toiletries were found in the house. One of these is a simple, bronze disc 12 that was found on 30 June 1967 in a small room beneath the stairs (1). In the same deposit, besides numerous bronze vessels for ablutions, only one other toiletry item was found: a cup-like bronze case for a pumice stone, used in depilation 13. The room is situated next to the main 10 M. Aoyagi, U. Pappalardo (éd.), Pompei (Regiones VI-VII). Insula Occidentalis, Napoli, 2006, p. 17-20; M. Grimaldi, « VII 16, Insula Occidentalis 22 », ibid., p. 257-418; G. Cerulli Irelli, « Le case di M. Fabio Rufo e di C. Giulio Polibio », in Pompei 1748-1980. I tempi della documentazione (Mostra Roma-Pompei, luglio-ottobre 1981), Roma, Multigrafica, 1981, p. 22-33. As for the finds distribution, this research is based on inventory books, the so-called Librette inventoriali, preserved at Casa Bacco, and their notes of the provenience of the objects; no capillary analysis of the ensemble of all the finds of the house will be attempted here. 11 For the phases of the excavation see Grimaldi, « VII 16, Insula Occidentalis », p. 260. 12 Bronze disc mirror, inv. 14063, d. 17.1, th. 0.2, decorated by two circular incised lines along the border of the reflecting, convex side. Type B of G. LloydMorgan, The Mirrors. Description of the Collection in the Rijksmuseum G. M. Kam at Nijmegen, Nijmegen, Ministry of Culture, Recreation and Social Welfare, 1981. 13 Pumice stone case in bronze, inv. 14065, type L1132 of S. Tassinari,
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entrance of the house, in the N-E corner of the atrium (2), and is recognizable as a storage space by its position and lack of decorations. It was possibly the cell of the ostiarius – certainly not an ideal location for grooming or cosmetic practices. The second mirror was found on 21 September 1962 in cubicu lum (53). The silver mirror is provided with a handle, and its disc is surrounded by a decorative frame of rays, offering a sort of Venerean aureola for the reflection of its user (Fig. 1) 14. The female connotation of this mirror is thus far stronger than that of the other, plain mirror. No other cosmetic items were found in the same room, but three bronze vessels, two shell-shaped dishes of Tassinari type N and a jug of Tassinari type B, formed a plausible minimum set for ablutions 15.
Fig. 1. House of Fabius Rufus. Silver mirror, inv. 13519. Drawing: author, plan: Aoyagi, Pappalardo, Insula Occidentalis. Il vasellame bronzeo di Pompei, Roma, “L’Erma” di Bretschneider, 1993, I, p. 187; II, p. 503; bronze amphora, inv. 14060, type A3220 of Tassinari, I, p. 187, II, p. 503; bronze jug, inv. 14061, type E5311 of Tassinari, I, p. 187, II, p. 503; bronze lamp, inv. 14062; bronze funnel, inv. 14064, type R1220, Tassinari, I, p. 187, II, p. 503; two bronze amphorae, inv. 14066-67, type A3220 of Tassinari, I, p. 187, II, p. 503; bronze jug, inv. 14068, type B2300 of Tassinari, I, p. 187, II, p. 503. 14 Silver mirror, inv. 13519, d. 13.4, l. 22.4, Lloyd-Morgan, Mirrors, type L. Published in M. Beretta, G. Di Pasq uale (éd.), Vitrum. Il vetro fra arte e scienza nel mondo romano, Firenze-Milano, Electa, 2004, p. 284, cat. 3.8. 15 Shell-shaped dish, inv. 13520, l. 21.0; bronze jug, inv. 13521, type B1222, h. 13.0, Tassinari, Il vasellame, I, p. 186, II, p. 500; three coins, inv. 13522; shell-shaped dish, inv. 13523, l. 16.5.
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The room in which these objects were found is a setting that might well be associated with grooming practices: a representative cubiculum, proved to be such by the alcove niche, close by but separated from the large representative triclinia 16. That the room was part of the owners’ living areas is shown by wall paintings with central vignettes on a yellow background 17. The room can function as a thoroughfare, but is also completely closable with doors, and it has a large panoramic window opening towards the sea. It has, thus, the three fundamental requisites for grooming activities: residential character, privacy and a source of natural light. The context could be interpreted as a room used, at certain times of the day, for female grooming activities. 2.2. House of Maius Castricius VII 16, 17 The next case comes from the house that is the next-door neighbour of the previous one, in the Insula Occidentalis, the House of Maius Castricius 18. This terrace house has a less clearly evident elite association, although it was furnished with various luxury elements: rich wall-paintings and a private bath complex. Two separate sets of female toiletries were found in the house during the excavations in 1962. The first assemblage is clearly in storage: the objects found on 4-6 October 1961 were contained in a cupboard in the small porticus (14) near the secondary, servile entrance to the house, making it an area of frequent passage 19. The cupboard contained a mixture of various objects with different functions (fragmented bronze utensils for ablutions, a marble mortar, lamps, glass cups, and a bronze statuette) 20, but it also contained 16 A. Anguissola, Intimità a Pompei, riservatezza, condivisione e prestigio negli ambienti ad alcova di Pompei, Berlin-New York, De Gruyter, 2011, p. 94-95. 17 Grimaldi, « VII 16, Insula Occidentalis », p. 356-364. 18 I. Varriale, « VII 16, Insula Occidentalis 17. Casa di Maius Castricius », in Aoyagi, Pappalardo, Pompei, p. 419-503. 19 The findspot is described as “ambiente a portichetto a sinistra della fauce servile”. The servile fauces (h) leads to the house as entrance n. 18 from the Vicolo dei Soprastanti. 20 Vessels for ablutions: Handles of a bronze amphora, inv. 13535 A, type A3220 of Tassinari, Il vasellame, I, p. 186; handles of a bronze amphora, inv. 13541A, type A3220 of Tassinari, I, p. 186, II, p. 500; handles of a basin, inv. 13541B, type S4000. Other: fragments of two bronze casseruole, inv. 13532 A-B; six beads in glass paste, inv. 13538; elements of a bronze lock, inv. 13535;
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seven items classifiable as toiletries: a bronze disc mirror 21, four glass unguentaria 22, a rare amphoriskos made of white glass paste 23, a spoon 24 and a seashell 25. The other context was found on 5 April 1967 in room (8), which does not have the characteristics of a storage area: it is a spacious oecus decorated with wall-paintings, and it did not contain mixed materials 26. The nucleus of six toiletries found in the room was distinctly female in association: a decorated grip mirror 27, a simple mirror disc 28, four glass unguentaria of different shapes 29, a bone pyxis 30, which is decorated with a painted leaf pattern, suitable for cosmetic substances (Fig. 2). To complete the array, there is a small bone lock 31 of the type used to close small, portable boxes. marble mortar, inv. 13540, d. 24, h. 5.5; four bronze coins, inv. 13531; bronze lamp, inv. 13530; pendant, inv. 13535; small base, inv. 13535; two glass cups, inv. 13536; two terracotta lamps, inv. 13537, 13542; bronze statuette representing a female figure, inv. 13543. 21 Disc mirror in bronze, inv. 13532 B, in three non-joining fragments, estimated d. 10.0, th. 0.2, Lloyd-Morgan, Mirrors, type B. 22 Four glass unguentaria, inv. 13544 A-D, type 46 of L. A. Scatozza Höricht, I vetri romani di Ercolano, Roma, “L’Erma” di Bretschneider, 1986, all deformed, probably by fire. 23 Amphoriskos, inv. 13534, h. 4.5, shape of a miniature amphora, rim and handles missing. Recomposed from several fragments. 24 Bone spoon, inv. 13539, preserved l. h. 6. Oval dish (fragmented), handle with circular section, broken. 25 Shell, inv. 13533. According to the Inventory, Triton nodipherum. 26 In the Inventory, the position is described as “ambiente dietro la volta centrale del cortile con ingresso dal Vico dei Soprastanti” and “ambiente alle spalle della volta centrale”. 27 Grip mirror in bronze, inv. 13988, h. 13.0, d. 11.0, th. 0.1, with baluster handle. The mirror disc has a row of perforated holes along the margin and concentric circles at the rear, Lloyd-Morgan, Mirrors, type K. 28 Bronze mirror, inv. 13989, d. 14.8, th. 0.2, Whole disc, recomposed of two fragments, Lloyd-Morgan, Mirrors, type B. 29 Four glass unguentaria: with ovoid body, inv. 13992A, h. 6.5, type 46 of Scatozza, Vetri; cylindrical body with out-turned wide rim, inv. 13992B, h. 7.3; with tubular body, inv. 13992C, h. 12.0, type 47 of Scatozza, Vetri; with wide sagging body and narrow neck, inv. 13992D: near to type 23 of G. De Tommaso, Ampullae vitreae. Contenitori in vetro di unguenti e sostanze aromatiche dell’Italia romana (I sec. a.C. - III sec. d.C.), Roma, Giorgio Bretschneider, 1990. 30 Bone pyxis, inv. 13994A, h. 4.7, d. rim 3.1. About half of the cylindrical vessel is conserved, the lid is missing. Decorated on the outside with painting, dark dots along the base, couples of leaves (dark and golden) at the center. 31 Q uadrangular bone lock with two moving parts, joined by a bronze nail, inv. 13993, l. 3.7, w. 2.5, th. 3.7.
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Fig. 2. House of Maius Castricius, room (8), toiletries in use: 1. Mirror, inv. 13989, 2. Grip mirror 13988, 3. Unguent bottles, 13992 A, 4. 13992B, 5. 13992C, 6. 13992D, 7. Pyxis, 13994A, 8. Lock mechanism, 13993. Drawings: author, Plan: Aoyagi, Pappalardo, Insula Occidentalis.
The antechamber (7) and the inner room (8) are both windowless and barrel-vaulted, accessed from the central peristyle court that substitutes the atrium as the central court of the house. Of these, the antechamber (7) has more elaborate decorations. Notably, above the entrance to the room (8) there is a painted medallion bust of a richly bejewelled Venus. The room itself has simple decorations on a white background and receives light only through the door and a small window above. The other objects found in the room were not numerous, so that it is not likely that this space would have been used for storage. Three lamps served to illuminate this rather dark space, and the two spindles are also strongly associated with female labour or pastimes 32. Thus, this is another possible case of a temporary female use of space.
32 A bronze statuette of Lar, inv. 13987; a marble statuette, female figure, inv. 13990; a group of bronze elements, inv. 13991; two bone spindles (13994 B-C); nine bronze coins, inv. 13995; a silver coin, inv. 13996; two terracotta lamps, inv. 13997-98; an iron lamp, inv. 13999.
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2.3. House of Ti. Crassius Crescens I 13, 1 The house of Tiberius Crassius Crescens is more modest than the previous ones (263 m²), with few wall paintings 33. It does not have a regular atrium, although this name is used of the room at the N-E angle of the small pseudo-peristyle garden. The excavation led by Maiuri reached the top layers of the peristyle in May-June 1953, and the final unearthing was made in 1955, very speedily and with scarce documentation. In this case too, the proveniences of objects come from the Inventario. The house was not particularly rich in finds, which were found mostly in the so-called atrium (5), the principal storage area of the house 34. On 18-19 August 1955, in the North-East angle of the atrium, a large collection of objects came to light, evidently contained in a cupboard 35. The contents of the cupboard included a significant assemblage of eleven toiletry items. The bronze mirror 36 is modest, but there are numerous containers for unguents, including three larger piriform unguent bottles, six small glass ampullae 37 and a spherical one in dark brown glass 38 (Fig. 3). One of the unguent bottles contained a dark, possibly cosmetic substance 39, and one terracotta cup contained greyish L. Eschebach, Gebäudeverzeichnis und Stadtplan der antiken Stadt Pompeji, Köln, 1993, Böhlau, p. 67. 34 For the bronze vessels, only five in number, see Tassinari, Il vasellame, I, p. 152; II, p. 424; for glassware, Scatozza, L’instrumentum 2012, p. 136139. 35 Two door hinges and nine rings of variable sizes in bronze, inv. 11340; glass cup, 11346; three glass cups: C. Isings, Roman Glass from Dated Finds, Groningen, Djakarta, J. B. Wolters, 1957, type 42, inv. 11332-34; blue glass plate Isings 43, inv. 11334. Scatozza, Linstrumentum, p. 136-137. 36 Bronze mirror, inv. 11337, d. 12.8, th. 0.2, simple, slightly convex disc, very corroded on the surface. 37 Nine glass unguentaria: Three are larger pear-shaped bottles of Scatozza, Vetri, type 49/Isings type 26/28 a, inv. 11335, h. 15.2; 11341 A-B, h. 16.3, h. 15.8; two small tubular Scatozza, Vetri, type 47c, inv. 11342 A-B, h. 13, h. 8.6; two ovoid Scatozza type 46, inv. 11342 C-D, h. 7.5, h. 9; a tubular Scatozza, Vetri, type 47c/De Tommaso 70 11342 E, inv. 11344. 38 Glass aryballos, inv. 11343, h. 4, diam. max. 4.5, Isings 19/De Tommaso 6. Very dark brown glass, neck missing. 39 Glass unguentarium, inv. 11344, h. 9.8, “unguentario piriforme a lungo collo rotto in due, contiene materia nera raggrumata (atramentun?)”, now in the Antiquarium of Boscoreale. 33
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Fig. 3. House of Ti. Crassius Crescens, toiletries in storage, atrium-peristyle (5): 1. Mirror, inv. 11337, 2. Bronze (cosmetic?) box lid, 11339, 3. Unguent bottles, 11342A, 4. 11342B, 5. 11342 C, 6. 11342D, 7. 11342E), 8. Glass aryballos, 11343, 9. Unguent bottles, 11335, 10. 11341A, 11. 11341B.
matter of a soapy nature 40. Furthermore, other objects relative to female adornment were found: a woven gold band and a small decorated bronze box 41. As this collection of toiletry items was deposited in the major and principal storage area of the house, this cannot be taken as evidence for female grooming activities in the atrium court, a semi-public area of frequent passage. Rather, we should consider for this function the other context of toiletries that was found in the house, according to the Inventory, “nel primo ambiente dopo il tablino” – a very vague definition in a house that does not have a traditional atrium-tablinum
40 Terracotta cup, inv. 11345: “coppetta quasi emisferica a basso piede a tondino circolare e orlo espansa contiene avanzi di materia grigia bruna stemperata e raggrumat”. 41 Woven gold band, inv. 11336, l. 24.0; a bronze box cover with perforated net pattern on top, inv. 11339, l. 10.5, h. 2.8.
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sequence 42. If the room of passage (7) at the central axis of the house is defined as a tablinum, the find spot might be the adjoining oecus (6), which is the largest room in the house, with traces of simple wall paintings, and may have functioned as triclinium. However, we can’t exclude the possibility that the toiletries were found in the servile rooms behind the tablinum (room 9 or 10). In any case, whatever the exact location of the context, it was certainly found in the series of rooms close to the tablinum at the back of the atrium/peristylum area. In this assemblage, there are some toiletry items with a strong female association: an alabaster alabastron 43, and a small alabaster mortar and miniature pestle in blue glass paste (Fig. 4) 44, a vase in glass paste and ten glass unguentaria 45, two ear-scoop probes 46, a coral piece and seven amulets in glass paste 47, a shell 48, and several bone elements that may have decorated a small box 49. This seems to be an important, detached part of the female objects of the house. It was found, and possibly used, in the area adjoining the tablinum. For the architectural structure of the house, see A. Gallo, « Saggi di scavo nella Domus I, 13, 1 », RSP 2 (1989), p. 154-184. 43 Alabastron, inv. 11498, published in in R. Asskamp, M. Brouwer, J. Christiansen, H. Kenzler, L. Wamser (éd.), Luxus und Decadenz. Römisches Leben am Golf von Neapel, Mainz, editore, 2007, p. 281, cat. 8.32. A. M. Sodo, « Alabastron in alabastro », in Moda, costume e bellezza a Pompei e dintorni, Catalogo della mostra, Antiquarium di Boscoreale, 12 marzo - 30 maggio 2004, Ercolano, Soprintendenza archeologica Pompei, 2004, p. 58. 44 Mortar and pestle, inv. 11499, h. 2.5, d. 4.5, pestle l. 4.3. 45 Olla-shaped unguentarium in glass paste, inv. 11503. Ten glass unguentaria, including: a bright blue bottle Isings 104, inv. 11503, h. 10.5; a pear shaped bottle, Scatozza, Vetri, type 49, inv. 11504, h. 12.7; three tubular unguentaria Scatozza, Vetri, type 47, 11506 A: h. 10.6, C: h. 11.5, D: h. 11.3; five unguentaria with ovoid body Scatozza, Vetri, type 46, inv. 11506 B: h. 9.8, E: h. 6.5, F: h. 6.5, G: h. 6, H: h. 4.5. There is also a small cup, probably the lower part of an unguentarium, inv. 11505. For this group of bottles, see Scatozza, L’instrumentum, p. 138, tav. XXXVIII. 46 Two bone probes, inv. 11507 A and B. 47 A coral piece, inv. 11497; eight amulets in glass paste, inv. 11501: a disc, seven amulet beads (fig, animal tooth, frog, duck, etc.). 48 One valve of a shell, inv. 11508. 49 Triangular element in bone, and a janiform head, inv. 11492 A and B; two rectangular bone plates, joined by a bronze nail at the centre, with traces of gilding, inv. 11493, l. 24, w. 1.5; a bone statuette with a female figure, inv. 11495, h. 3.5. Besides this, the assemblage included an inscribed bone tessera inv. 11493, two knives with bone handles, inv. 11496, terracotta askos, inv. 11502. 42
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Fig. 4. House of Ti. Crassius Crescens, mortar in alabaster and pestle in glass paste, inv. 11499.
2.4. The House of Venus in Bikini I 11, 6.7 The House of Venus in Bikini is a medium sized (186 m²) atrium house, richly decorated with wall-paintings, situated along the Via dell’Abbondanza 50. It has a canonical fauces-atrium-tablinum sequence, with a very small viridarium at the rear without colonnades. The house resembles the previous one in its basic storage pattern: the principal storage facilities were two cupboards in the N-E and N-W corners of the atrium, found on 30 April 1954 51. These contained the majority of all the finds of the whole house, including bronze vases and valuables, such as gold coins and two golden bracelets 52. They also contained the major assemblage of toiletries in the house, composed of twenty-one items: a decorated grip mirror 53, thirteen unguent bottles 54, two twee50 Eschebach, Pompeji, 1993, p. 59; Tassinari, Il vasellame, I, p. 146-147; M. C. Mileti, « La casa I, 11, 6-7 a Pompei. Un esempio di edilizia privata minore », in RSP 11 (2000), p. 101-116. 51 Mileti, « La casa », in part. for the finds p. 109-110; a synoptic table of all the finds, p. 115-116. 52 Two gold bracelets composed of hemispherical elements, inv. 10759 A-B, A. D’Ambrosio, E. De Carolis, I monili dall’area Vesuviana, Roma, “L’Erma” di Bretschneider, 1997, p. 36, no. 47. 53 Bronze mirror, inv. 10790, with a baluster handle and holes around the rim, of small diameter (d. 9), Lloyd-Morgan, Mirrors, type K. 54 13 unguentaria in glass: one is pear-shaped Scatozza, Vetri, type 49,
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zers 55, four bone spatulae of various shapes 56 and a pumice-stone case 57 form a well-functional and large array of cosmetic utensils (Fig. 5, 1-19). These objects can be considered to be in their place of habitual storage.
Fig. 5. House of Venus in Bikini. Toiletries in storage: atrium (2): 1. Mirror, inv. 10790, 2. Tweezer, 10793A, 3. Tweezer, 10793B, 4. Pumice stone case, 10796, 5. Bone spatula, 10801C, 6. Bone spatula, 10801D, 7. Bone knife-spatula, 10801E, 8. Bone probe, 10801F, 9. Glass unguent bottles, 10763, 10. 10794A, 11. 10794B, 12. 10794D, 13. 10794E, 14. 10794G, 15. 10794H, 16. 10794 I, 17. 10794L, 18. Glass olla, 10761, 19. 10762. Toiletries in use, tablinum (8), 20. Bronze pyxis, 10444, 21. Two iron strigils, 10463, 22. Dove-shaped glass unguent bottle, 10455. Drawings: author.
inv. 10763, h. 13.2; eight are variants of tubular Scatozza, Vetri, type 47: two of conical form (inv. 10794 A: h. 7.4, B: h. 7.9) and six drop-formed (D: h. 10.3; E: h. 10.2; G: h. 10.2; H: h. 10.7; I: h. 9.3; L: h. 6.3, rim missing), two could not be found for study (inv. 10794 C, F). Two are bulbous jars Scatozza, Vetri, type 58 (inv. 10761, 9.1, d. rim7.3; inv. 10762: h. 6.3, d. rim 5.5). For the find complex, see Scatozza, L’instrumentum, p. 120-122. A small pitcher in blue glass paste (inv. 10760), could also have served for toilet purposes. 55 Two bronze tweezers, inv 10793A: with stepped arms, l. 8; 10793B: simple bent metal band, broken in two pieces, corroded iron attached, l. 9,8. 56 Four bone instruments: a flat elongated spatula ending in an engraved thumb form, inv. 10801C, l. 13.1, w. max 1.7; a triangular spatula with one rounded and one rectangular end, inv. 10801D, l. 9.5, w. max 2.2; a thick pin, round in section, with strong signs of wear from use, inv. 10801E, l. 10.5, d. 1; a blade in bone, sharp at one edge, handle missing, inv. 10801F, l. 8.8, w. max 2.5. 57 A cup-like bronze pumice stone case, inv. 10796, a mobile ring at top, h. 3, with ring 5.2, d. max. 6.3.
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A minor assemblage containing toiletries was found in the tablinum (7). In this room, near its entrance, the famous marble statuette of Venus wearing golden body jewelry, flanked by a statuette of Cupid, was found, and in the middle of the room, a statuette of Hermaphroditus 58. Together with them, more toiletries emerged (Fig. 5, 20-22): two iron strigils 59 and a bone spoon 60, with two objects with particularly strong female associations: a bird (dove)-shaped unguent bottle 61 and a bronze lid of a pyxis divided internally into four compartments with iron walls 62. Furthermore, a gem in glass paste came to light 63. M. C. Mileti, who has studied the house, suggests that the statues were originally placed on the pedestals of the atrium, and sees the grouping of all the finds, in general, as a reflection of disturbances relative to the on-going renovation works in the house, when the goods were “packed away” in a few rooms. However, a storage area in the atrium corner and a use-context of toiletries in the tablinum area might not a priori be out of context, but reflect a genuine storageuse pattern of the female toiletry implements. 2.5. House of Paquius Proculus I 7, 1.20 The domus of Paquius Proculus, along the Via dell’Abbondanza 64, is a large house (783 m²) distinguished by the elaborate and animate mosaic floor of the atrium. Behind the tablinum (6) and beyond the oecus (8), there is a large peristyle garden with four colonnades, with representative triclinia opening on to it. The Mileti, « La casa », p. 106-110, fig. 22. Two corroded iron strigils, in a bronze suspension ring, inv. 10463, h. strigils 20, with ring 28.5, d. ring 10.5. 60 Bone spoon, inv. 10457, now in the Antiquarium of Boscoreale. 61 Unguentarium in bird shape, inv. 10455, recomposed of fragments, tail missing, h. 7.5, preserved l. 7, see Scatozza, L’instrumentum, p. 119. 62 Upper rim and lid of a bronze pyxis. The lid has a high central handle end in in a circular knob. On the interior, four metal walls are divided into four compartments, inv. 10444. The body of the vase is missing, and must have been made of wood. Along the rim and the lid, there are four suspension rings for chains, which are missing, h. lid 3.3, d. lid 8.7, d. rim 9, preserved h. of the vase 5.8. 63 Gem, inv. 10456. 64 NSc 1927, plan p. 4; NSc 1929, p. 386-391; Eschebach, Pompeji, p. 38-39; Tassinari, Il vasellame, I, p. 129, (pianta p. 130), II, p. 363. 58 59
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house presents notable paintings in I, II and IV styles 65. The major excavation phase took place between December 1922 and January 1924 66, and the complex of all the mobile finds of the house has been studied in the dissertation of Bernhard Sigges 67. At the moment of the eruption, the house was undergoing relatively extensive renovation works, and there was also post-eruption disturbance 68. However, the large number of finds spread in most of the rooms of the house makes it probable that it was inhabited and well furnished. The principal storage areas of the instrumentum domesticum of the house were two cupboards in the atrium, and a third one in the peristyle colonnade E. The main deposit of toiletries was in the peristyle context 69. It was found on 14-15 May 1923, and the Inventario lists among the toiletry items the following (Fig. 6, 7-15): a bronze grip mirror, decorated with holes along the border 70, two glass unguent bottles 71, a tweezer 72, a spoon 73, and a bronze cylinder with three compartments that could have contained cosmetic substances 74. A thin-walled cup contained 37 short bone pins, ending in a knob 75. Several fragmentary objects may be elements of a small container box 76. This assemblage, which Sigges sees as the collec65 E. W. Ehrhardt, Casa di Paquius Proculus (I 7,1.20) (Häuser in Pompei 9), München, Hirmer, 1998. 66 For the excavation, see Ehrhardt, Casa, p. 17-19. For the period of the excavation, there are gaps in the diaries, Sigges, Vita cognita. Die Ausstattung pompejanischer Wohnhäuser mit Gefässen und Geräten untersucht an ausgewählten Beispielen, Diss. Univ. Köln 2001, p. 148. 67 Sigges, Vita, p. 147. 68 Sigges, Vita, p. 168-169. 69 Cf. Ehrhardt, Casa, p. 66-68. 70 Bronze mirror, inv. 3197, d. 9.0, l. 19.0. The baluster handle is too large for the disc, which may mean that originally there were two separate mirrors. The disc has concentric circles and circular perforations along the edge, Lloyd-Morgan, Mirrors, type L. 71 Both destroyed during the World War II; one was a small ampulla, inv. 3190, and the other a larger pear-shaped bottle Scatozza, Vetri, type 49, inv. 3189. 72 Bronze tweezer, inv. 3195, l. 10.3, Sigges, Vita, p. 192, pl. 40. 73 Spoon, inv. 3192, l. 9.9, Sigges, Vita, pl. 192, pl. 40. 74 Bronze cylinder, inv. 3200, h. 5.5. 75 Cup with 37 pins, inv. 3187, Sigges, Vita, p. 191, nn. 164-165, pl. 39. 76 Sigges, Vita, p. 198. Four bone knobs are the feet of the box, inv. 3196; bolt of a lock, inv. 3199, a lock plate, inv. 3196. A flat, perforated bone stick may
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tion of toiletries owned by a female member of the household, was clearly in storage together with other, mixed materials; furthermore, a thoroughfare like the ambulacrum of a peristyle garden cannot be judged to be an ideal place for grooming activities. Another, smaller, and very essential collection of toiletries was found on 23 July 1923 in oecus (8). Since this room, between tablinum and peristyle, forms the only thoroughfare between the anterior and posterior parts of the house, it too does not seem to be a space intimate or private enough for grooming. However, it might conceivably have been isolated by doors or curtains for some periods of the day. Among the toiletries found (Fig. 6, 3-6) were a mirror in the form of a simple bronze plate 77, two glass unguentaria 78, and a bone probe 79. Also, a female bronze fibula was found
Fig. 6. House of Paquius Proculus. Toiletries in storage, atrium (3): 1. Razorblade, inv. 3079, 2. Mirror, 3081. Toiletries in oecus (8), 3. Mirror, 3238, 4. Bone probe, 3241, 5. Glass unguent bottle, 3242, 6. 3243. Toiletries in storage, in peristyle: 7. Mirror, 3197, 8. Tweezer, 3195, 9. Spoon, 3192, 10. Spatula/box element? 3201, 11. Cup in thin walled-pottery, with 37 bone (hair?) pins, 3187, 12. Lock bolt, 3092, 13. Bolt, 3199, 14. For feet of a box, bone, 3196, 15. Bronze decoration, lion-head, 3198. Drawings: author. have been part of the structure of decoration of a box, inv. 3201, and a bronze lion head, a decorative element. 77 Bronze mirror, inv. 3238, in five fragments. 7.0 × 9.0, th. 0.1. Sigges, Vita, p. 180, n. 126, pl. 32. 78 Two unguentaria: inv. 3242. Spherical bottle, the high neck is broken and the rim missing, h. 13. Sigges, Vita, p. 181, n. 130, pl. 32: Isings type 70. A tubular unguentarium, inv. 3243, broken at rim, h. 7.5, Sigges, Vita, p. 181, n. 131, pl. 32; Isings 8/Scatozza, Vetri, type 47a. 79 Bone probe, pointed at one end, the other end enlarged, inv. 3241, l. 10.3, Sigges, Vita, p. 180, n. 129, pl. 32.
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there 80. The relatively rich furniture of the room includes a candelabrum 81, two feet of a chair 82, and hinges of a cupboard 83. A third mirror 84 was found in the N-E corner of the atrium, on 4 February 1923, in the remains of a cupboard. Among the numerous, mixed finds, only one toiletry item, a razorblade, obviously with a clear male association, was found (Fig. 6, 1-2) 85. 2.6. House of the Hunt of Bulls VI 16, 28 The next case, the House of the Hunt of Bulls, is a small atrium house (155 m²) 86. Some interesting traits make it central to the present study. Toiletries were contained in three different rooms of the house, none of which emerges clearly as superior to the others in the quantity or quality of its materials, making it difficult to identify the principal storage area of the household. The smallest of the toiletry assemblages was clearly in storage, in the small undecorated deposit room (E) under the stairs. It was excavated on 12-13 October 1908. The following objects associated with female toiletries and ablutions were found: a bronze basin, two unguentaria and a bone spindle stem, and four beads in glass paste. The large cubiculum (D) was decorated with simple wall-paintings and provided with a shallow niche for a bed, and furnished with a marble table with a bronze jug positioned on top of it. The few toiletries it contained include one unguent bottle, tweezers, and two shell-shaped dishes for ablutions 87. This room might, 80 Bronze fibula, inv. 3239. Sigges, Vita, p. 180, n. 127. Sigges suggests that this type of fibula, ‘Omega-Fibel’, is connected with female dress in the provinces, d. 3.6, l. 4.9. 81 Candelabrum in bronze, inv. 3244. Sigges, Vita, p. 181, n. 133. 82 Two legs of a bronze chair, inv. 3236-3237, Sigges, Vita, p. 179-180, e nn. 125-126, pl. 31. 83 Nine bone hinges, inv. 3240 A-B, Sigges, Vita, p. 180, n. 128, pl. 32. 84 Rectangular bronze mirror, inv. 3081, 12.0 × 16.2, sp. 0.2, Lloyd-Morgan, Mirrors, type A; Sigges, Vita, p. 159-160, pl. 25. 85 Bronze razor blade, inv. 3079. Preserved l. 12.3, traces of a wooden handle, Sigges, Vita, p. 159, pl. 24. Eight knife blades were also found in the closet. 86 NSc 1908, p. 271-279 (Sogliano); Eschebach, Pompeji, p. 230; Tassinari, Il vasellame, I, p. 181-182, II p. 492. 87 NSc 1918, p. 271. On 4 and 7 October 1904: bronze dishes of d. 12 and 18. N2100, inv. 3437, inv. 3442. Also a jug, inv 3472, type E5210, see Tassinari,
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given its decoration and position, actually be functional as a private space for ablutions and grooming. However, the main assemblage of toiletries and female objects came to light on 6 October 1908 in the room (F) defined as a tablinum, which is presumed to also have functioned as a tricli nium 88. The finds of the tablinum-triclinium room are not particularly rich, but their female connotation is reinforced by the presence of several spindles and spindle whorls 89 in the room. The rectangular mirror is very modest 90, and besides this, eight glass unguent bottles 91, and a base of unguent bottle, cut to be reused as a small cup 92, a small oval bronze vase 93, and a pointed bone probe 94 came to light (Fig. 7). A thin-walled cup contained a soapy substance 95. Further objects with a possible female connotation were a woven gold band, and two statuettes in amber and alabaster 96. The excavator Antonio Sogliano suggested that the plan of the house be read as an archaic style pre-peristyle phase domus: the fireplace was, in fact, in the atrium, as in the oldest Roman houses, Il vasellame, I, p. 182, a tweezer, and an unguentarium of type Scatozza, Vetri, 46, h. 5. 88 NSc 1908, p. 276-277. 89 A complete spindle inv. 55981 = 3462A, h. 21.6, d. 4; spindle stems 55982 = 3462B, h. 17.4, bronken at tip; 55984 = 3462D, h. 19, spindle whorls inv. 55978 = 3460E, 55979 = 3460D. 90 Rectangular bronze plate, inv. 55962 = 3449, 9.7 × 8.5, th. 0.1, recomposed of three fragments, one angle missing, Lloyd-Morgan, Mirrors, type A. 91 Three larger pear-shaped bottles, Scatozza, Vetri, type 49, inv. 3455 A: h. 16, in the Antiquarium of Boscoreale, containing a dark substance, B: h. 18, C: h. 19. Four glass unguentaria, type Scatozza, Vetri, type 46, inv. 3456 A = 55970: h. 9.5, B = 55971: h. 10.3, C = 55972: h. 11.8, D = 55973: h. 7.2, rim missing; an unguentarium base cut as a cup, with a dark substance, 3456 E = 55974; aryballos in blue glass, with white spiral stripes, inv. 3459. [sent to MANN in October 1910]. 92 Glass cup, cut from an ungentarium, inv. 55974 = 3456E, h. 2.5, d. 3.5. 93 Elliptical bronze vase, inv. 55965, h. 2, d. max. 6.5, Tassinari, Il vasellame, type O2000. 94 Bone stick pointed at both ends, a spindle or a probe, inv. 55983 = 3462C, l. 25.1. 95 Thin-walled cup, inv. 55987 = 3467, h. 4.8, d. rim 7. “Tazza contenente una sostanza come sapone (diam. m. 0.07)”. 96 Gold fibre, inv. 3452, “piccola porzione di una matassina di oro”, statuette in amber, inv. 3463 = 55985, statuette of cupid in alabaster, inv. 3464, “torso di una statuina rappresentante un puttino”.
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Fig. 7. House of the Hunt of the Bulls, objects in tablinum (F): 1. Mirror, inv. 55962 2. Thin-walled cup, 55987, 3. Oval bronze dish, 55965, 4. Spindle whorl, 55979, 5. 55978, 6. Spindle, 55981, 7. 55982, 8. 55984, 9. Probe/spindle, 10. Unguent bottle, 55970, 11. 55971, 12. 55972, 13. 55973, 14. Unguent bottle cut as a cup, 55974. Drawings: author.
and, at least in the first phases, the tablinum would also have served as a triclinium 97. The finds distribution map could indicate storage of female items in room (E) and use in two places: cubiculum (D) and tablinum-triclinium (F), possibly converted in different uses in different times of the day. 2.7. House of the Origins of Rome V 4, 13 The so-called House of the Origins of Rome is a relatively spacious habitation (295 m²) of a somewhat uncanonical form, with a transversal atrium, no impluvium, and modest wall paintings 98. The excavation in 1902-1903 revealed that the house was copiously furnished with instrumentum domesticum, and there were signs of recent use in the kitchen. We have reason to believe that the living conditions were normal. In this house, the principal storage area can be easily located in room (Q ), a small passageway between the main triclinium (R) and the small garden (P),
NSc 1908, p. 276-277. NSc 1902, p. 275; NSc 1905, p. 85-97, in part. p. 92-93 (Sogliano); Eschebach, Pompeji, p. 143; Tassinari, Il vasellame, I, p. 171-172, II, p. 475. 97 98
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paved with opus signinum floor and with undecorated walls 99. The remains of a cupboard were found there on 4-6 April 1903. Among the female toiletries, there is a simple disc mirror 100, four pear-shaped glass bottles and four smaller ampullae 101, four tweezers 102, two pumice stone cases 103, a miniaturistic strigil 104, and a glass wand with a spiral form 105 (Fig. 8, 1-15). Furthermore, a group of non-specified instruments in iron and bronze, “arnesi di ferro e bronzo”, contained in a terracotta mug 106, may have included probes for cosmetic uses. The small ovoid bronze dish 107, possibly used for detergents, may be functional in grooming. Some elements must have belonged to a smaller container box: a yellow, ornamented glass paste square and a bronze lock bolt 108. NSc 1905, p. 92. For the complex of the finds of the house, see Berg, Dominae. 100 A medium sized bronze mirror disc, inv. 55359 (ex 2919), d. 14, th. 0.1, integrally recomposed from two fragments, Lloyd-Morgan, Mirrors, type B. 101 Four larger glass bottles of type Scatozza, Vetri, 49, inv. 55370 = 2926 A, bluish glass, h. 16.5; 55371 = 2926B, h. 16.5, 55372 = 2926C, h. 14, containing a dark oily substance; 55373 = 2926D, mouth missing, pres. h.12.5. Two further larger possible unguentaria were destroyed in the World War II (inv. 2927, h. 18; inv. 2928, cubic form). Two smaller unguentaria: A spheroidal unguentarium with a long neck, inv. 55374 = 2929A, h. 7.1, d. body 5.2, De Tommaso type 8/ Isings 6, Scatozza, L’instrumentum, 207; an ampulla of ovoid shape, Scatozza, Vetri, type 46, inv. 55375 = 2929B, h. 9, fragmented, base missing. 102 Four bronze tweezers, all of the type with a stepped shoulder. With inturned, pointed tips, deformed at top, inv. 55360 = 2920A, l. 10.8; with slightly inturned tips, inv. 55361 = 2920B, l. 11.5; with straight tips, inv. 55362 = 2920C, l. 9; with inturned tips, inv. 55363 = 2920D, l. 10.5. 103 Two bronze cases for pumice, complete with stones but lacking the top suspension rings. Ca. half of one is preserved, inv. 55394 = 2941A, d. 5.6; the other is integrally preserved, inv. 55395 = 2941B, d. 5.7. 104 Miniature bronze strigil, inv. 55365 = 2921B, l. 9.5. 105 Bluish glass rod, spiral form, inv. 2930 = 55376, in two pieces, one end is missing, the other flaked, preserved l. 21, Isings type 79, Scatozza, L’instru mentum, p. 207. 106 Inv. 2937. 107 Ovoid bronze dish, inv. 55358 = 2918, Tassinari, Il vasellame, I, p. 172, type O2000, h. 6.3, max. d. 18. 108 The small glass paste plate, inv. 2940, was sent to MANN [spedizione a Napoli, n. 256], but is described in the inventory: “Piastrella rettangolare giallo ornata nelle due facce di un grazioso disegno in vetro, mm. 24 × 24”. It is similar to ornaments found in the house II 1, 3, “intarsiate a mosaico traforato con sottilissimi motivi floreali e geometrici in color nero su fondo giallo’ dai lati 2.5 cm, e spessore 5 mm” (inv. 10237). Bronze lock bolt, inv. 55355 = 2915C, h. 8.4, w. 1.7. 99
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Fig. 8. House of the Origins of Rome. Room Q : 1. Mirror, inv. 55359, 2. Strigil, 55365, 3. Tweezer, 55360, 4. 55361, 5. 55362, 6. 55363, 7. Glass rod, 55376, 8. Unguent bottle, 55370, 9. 55371, 10. 55372, 11. 55373, 12. 55375, 13. 55374, 14. Pumice stone case, 55395, 15. 55394, Room S, 16. Tweezer, 55542, 17. Hair-pin, 55546. Drawings: author.
Once again, we have to turn to the small, secondary context in order to propose an area where the toiletries may have been used in this house. The room (S), between the triclinium and the atrium court, was decorated with vignettes, such as a griffon and a peacock, on white background 109. On 23 May 1903, a few objects pertaining to the category of mundus muliebris were found there (Fig. 8, 16-17): a tweezer 110, a hair-pin with a sculpted finial in the form of Venus anadyomene 111, and a large terracotta basin, possibly a basin for ablutions 112. Interestingly, there were found also forty pyramidal lead weights in the room, indicating indicate that a loom was probably set up there. On the western wall, there is a low depression for a bed. Again, the room in question is situated on the further side of the atrium, next to the tablinum, at the right. NSc 1905, p. 96-97. A bronze tweezer with a ring-shaped turning, enlarged, inward turned tips, inv. 55542 = 3042, l. 8.6. 111 A bone hair-pin, at top, a Venus anadyomene, lower body draped, head and arms missing, the tip of the pin missing, inv. 55546 = 3048, l. 9.7. 112 NSc 1905, p. 97: “una conca ellittica”, inv. 3044. The other rather mixed finds also include: a fibula (horse harness?), a signet ring with text M. Fabi Secundi, 13 coins, four rectangular glass bottles; lock plate, jugs, lamps. 109 110
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3. Conclusions The seven houses examined in this paper all have two mundus muliebris assemblages, one in a storage area, and the other in a living area. The first group, stored toiletries, were the majority of the material, and would have been used in a room flexibly chosen according to various factors, such as season, temperature, lighting conditions, and other on-going activities of the house. The second, minor group found in the living quarters may plausibly have been in use at the moment of the eruption, and is thus more significant for mapping female activities in the house. Although research started with the a priori idea that reserved and representative cubicula in the inner or posterior part of the house might figure clearly among the find spots, such a condition was, in fact, encountered only in one case, the spacious and luxurious House of Fabius Rufus. The find spot of a silver mirror suggests that one of the panoramic rooms with an alcove, a cubiculum diurnum (53), may have served as a comfortable retreat for female grooming activities. Instead, the six other houses produced an identical result: the toiletry contexts found in storage areas all came from oeci next to the tablinum or tablinum itself. In the House of the Origins of Rome, the find spot of the minor toiletries assemblage was beyond the transversal atrium, in an oecus-type room (S) on the right side of the tablinum. In the houses of Crassius Crescens and Maius Castricius (oecus 8), lacking a proper atrium, the secondary toiletries assemblages were found in rooms immediately beyond the central court, opposite, but not on the axis with the main entrance. In the House of Paquius Proculus the secondary context came from oecus (8), attached to the tablinum at the back, and continuing it towards the peristyle. Finally, in the House of Venus in Bikini (room 7), and the House of the Hunt of Bulls (room F), the secondary mundus muliebris context was found in the tablinum itself. In the scholarly tradition, the tablinum has been considered almost as the most masculine area of the house, the dominus’ study containing the family archives, dedicated to his morning salutationes. However, this idea must be confronted with two counterarguments. Firstly, the salutations did not take place in all houses, nor did they last all day. Secondly, in the archaic house, the master 214
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bedroom with the lectus adversus or lectus genialis may have been situated in the tablinum 113. This would have associated the early tablinum as a space not only of the paterfamilias but also of the materfamilias, and this should have been the most archaic location of her grooming practices. Cornelius Nepos describes the contrast between Greek women, confined to a domestic gynaikeion, and Roman women, who moved in the middle of the house, where the mater familias holds the “first place” of the building, primum locum tenet aedium 114. Also, the chaste Lucretia, in Livy’s words, wove on her looms in the middle of the building, in medio aedium 115. Normally this has been interpreted as the atrium, but the middle of the aedes could also mean the area of the tablinum. A series of studies suggest that the early Italic domus may have had two open and symmetrical oeci at the sides of the tablinum, one reserved as a female space and the other, as a male space (triclinium). Andrea Carandini has proposed that in the House (5) on the N-E slope of the Palatine Hill, dated to the sixth century bce, one of the three open rooms at the back of the atrium would be reserved for the materfamilias. In the case of pre-Roman Pompeii (first half of the third century), Filippo Coarelli and Fabrizio Pesando have interpreted an oecus on the right side of the tablinum of the proto-House of Centaur (VI 9, 3-5) as a female space, calling it a “loom-room” or storeroom, tamieion/histeon 116. Vincent Jolivet, studying Etruscan and Roman houses dating from between the sixth and the first centuries bce, has convincingly proposed that in several cases, a female space should indeed Prop., 4, 11, 85; Gell., 16, 9, 4; Hor., Ep., 1, 1, 87. For further references and discussion, see C. Fayer, La familia romana: Aspetti giuridici ed antiquari, Rome, “L’Erma” di Bretschneider, 1994, p. 550, n. 872-876; Jolivet, « Uno spazio », p. 66. 114 Nepos, Vitae, pr. 7. Othewise, the Latin texts that mention the gynaiceion refer either to the Greek world or ot the social (not spatial) context of the women in the house. These texts include Plaut., Most., 755, 759, 908; Ter., Phorm., 862; Cic., Phil., 2.95. On this, see further Dickmann, Domus, p. 33; Zaccaria Ruggiu, Spazio, p. 296-303. 115 Liv., 1, 57.9. 116 A. Carandini, in M. Cristofani (éd.), La grande Roma dei Tarquini. Cat. della mostra, Roma, “L’Erma” di Bretscheneider, 1990, p. 18-19: room A636, on the right side of the atrium, is interpreted as the room of materfamilias. F. Coa relli, F. Pesando et alii, « Il progetto Regio VI. Campagna di scavo 2004 », RSP 16 (2005), p. 166-171, esp. p. 168-169. 113
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be recognized in an oecus at a side of the tablinum 117. He starts his examination from archaic Etruscan houses on the site of Musarna and coeval house-shaped tombs that have evidence for the existence of symmetrical female and male spaces. Jolivet has also analysed later Pompeian pictorial and architectonic, and concludes that in several houses, paintings in oeci at one side of the tablinum may be seen as subjects involving mostly women, featuring most famously the oecus (5) of the Villa of the Mysteries 118. On the basis of material evidence, I suggest that in Roman houses, even in the Imperial period, some kind of association between the materfamilias and the tablinum area might have been preserved. In smaller and less articulated houses, the tablinum may have continued to function as a shared male-female space. In wealthier houses, an oecus side by side with the tablinum may have duplicated such a locus of status display of the domina. For the lady of the house, this might also have been, at least on some occasions, a place for grooming, with the privacy needed being created by the use of folding doors or curtains as temporary closures. This could also have been the place to set the cathedra, as a thronelike chair for grooming and status display 119. As for the possible Latin name of such a room, instead of the Greek tamieion/histeon, nominatives derived from the chair of the domina could be considered: Phaedrus mentions the mirror set in cathedra matris, Martial uses the expression inter femineas … cathedras to describe a female space, and in Petronius’ Satyricon, Fortunata’s room is called a sessorium 120. In the material I have examined, there are also traces of wool-working in such a room, in three of the houses:
I thank Dr Vincent Jolivet for useful comments during the conference at EFR, and for drawing my attention to his research on these earlier phases of the Roman house, esp. Jolivet, « Uno spazio », p. 65-66, 68-69. 118 Casa dei Dioscuri (VI 9, 6), oecus 43, at the right side of the tablinum; Casa dei Capitelli colorati (VII 4, 31.51), oecus 17, at the right side of the tabli num; Casa delle Colombe a mosaico (VIII 2, 34-35), triclinium n, at the left side of the tablinum; Casa IX 5, 11.13, room i, at the left side of the tablinum; Casa del Centenario (IX 8, 3,7), triclinium 8 at the left side of the tablinum. 119 For discussion and comments, see Jolivet, « Uno spazio », p. 64-65. 120 Phaedr., 3, 8, 4; Mart., Ep., 3, 63, 7; cf. 10, 14, 1 cathedralicios … ministros. Petr., 77. Sessorianum was also the name of the palace of Helen, mother of Constantine the Great. Varro mentions, besides cubiculum and cenaculum, also sediculum, without female associations: Ling., 8, 54. 117
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spindles in the House of Maius Castricius and the House of the Hunt of the Bulls, and the forty loom-weights in the house of the Origins of Rome. These oeci, open to the atrium court with a wide door, would make the wool-work well visible from the atrium and also give the matron a good position to supervise the movements of persons and things in the house 121. The evidence collected in this paper points to a certain degree of continuity with the earlier Italic houses, with a tablinum-like oecus opening on to the atrium reserved for the female activities of grooming, textile-working, surveillance of the domestic activities and status display.
Allison, Households, p. 80-82, reports among the tablinum finds in her sample a significant number of beds, and also some evidence for toiletries, weaving and needlework. She also records that in the oecus opening on to the atrium in house VI 16, 26 items concerned with toilet, gaming, needlework, and dress were found. 121
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WHERE ARE THE WOMEN? APPROACHING DOMESTIC SPACE THROUGH GRAFFITI 1
If, some hundred or thousand years from now, an archaeologist should look at the material remains of my current living quarters in the same way we investigate Pompeian houses today, he or she would find a seven-room unit in the first floor of a five-storey building consisting of ten such units of equal size and with the same room-layout. The fact that each of the units can be locked and is directly accessible from the entrance door of the building via a staircase would suggest a separate organisation or occupation. Within the separate units, rooms are arranged around one square distributor room (1) and possess doors with simple, less secure locks than the entrance doors to the units. Analysis of the room layout (Fig. 1) would suggest that the smallest room, measuring not quite 1 m³ (2), could only have served as a storage room; the slightly larger space next to it (3), equipped with three porcelain tubs or basins of different size and height, would be likely to have been a bathroom. The three largest rooms (4, 5, 6) are of relatively similar size, each reachable from the entrance door of the unit via the distributor room. All feature the same type of wallpaper, painted in white, as do the distributor room and room nos 2 and 3. In the latter, however, tiling on one side of the room provides an indication for the use of water I would like to thank Alexandra Dardenay and Nicolas Laubry for stimulating new approaches, and for inviting me to participate in the conference as well as the current volume. My thoughts on gender habits in graffiti, as presented here, have profited, among other things, from discussions at the Institute of Classical Archaeology of the University of Tübingen. I would also like to express my gratitude to Emrys Schlatter for proofreading my English. All remaining mistakes are, of course, my own. 1
Anthropology of Roman Housing, ed. by Alexandra Dardenay and Nicolas Laubry, Turnhout, 2020 (ASH, 5), pp. 219–236 © FHG DOI 10.1484/M.ASH-EB.5.119736
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Fig. 1. Floor plan of the author’s flat, with built structures and furniture indicated (by author).
and suggests the presence of relatively high humidity, thus supporting the interpretation of the room as a bathroom. The same kinds of tiles are to be found on one spot in room no 4. The functions of rooms 5 and 6 could not be distinguished further at this stage, although it could be said that room 5 seems more stately as it is connected with room 4 through a half-open space (7) which, through a large window in room 5, provides a view onto a garden area on a lower level. The distributor room (1), the supposed storage room (2), the bathroom (3), and room no 4 all have the same kind of white tiled floor which must have been laid in one go, whereas rooms 5 and 6 both feature wooden floors. The ceiling is the same height in all of the rooms, and is wallpapered and painted white like the walls. Images attached to the walls consist of three slightly erotic paintings of women (room 1); a photograph of a New York skyscraper (3); three graphic prints of a coffee machine, a map of Rome, and a bird’s feather (4); photographs of various persons and groups of persons (5); a large number of differently sized photographs of buildings and places in Iran, Morocco, and Italy (6). What could archaeologists tell about the user(s) of this space based on the architecture, wall decoration, and floor decoration? They could tell that one or more persons could have been living and/or working there. The homogeneity of the separate units in the building might indicate owners or inhabitants of similar social 220
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status, a type of hotel or short-term rentable space, or a communist housing concept. In the unit analysed, no consistent Bildprogramm would be recognisable, although the different images might suggest the individual interests and tastes of the users or inhabitants, e.g. for coffee (or cooking, or machines), birds (or animals in general, or writing), women (or gender issues, or concepts of beauty), and travelling (or specific places, buildings, or building types) – or for certain imaging techniques or even for the artists/ producers of the images. Persons shown in photographs could represent users of the space themselves, their family members, friends, colleagues, or random other individuals, but would not be identifiable without additional information. Regarding non-organic finds likely to have survived, room 4 would reveal food containers, glass bottles, a large variety of glass and ceramic equipment, as well as electronic devices for food preparation and consumption. Rooms 5 and 6 each contain a computer. In light of this evidence, room 4 could, in combination with the tiles indicating the use of water, securely be identified as a kitchen. Room 5 and 6 would seem to have functioned as working spaces, possibly suggesting an office for two persons that was equipped with a kitchen and a bathroom. Other finds would include a men’s bicycle in room 1, two mirrors and a range of cosmetic utensils in the bathroom (3), a central heating system und diverse handiwork tools in room 2 which would support the interpretation of the space as a storage room, and lamps and lighting equipment of diverse sorts in all the rooms. Adding (non-organic) movable, daily-life objects to the evidence could thereby clarify the function of single spaces. If the survival of organic material were then to be considered, the archaeologist would document one large wardrobe containing clothes and a smaller cupboard containing shoes in the distributor room (1); a small cabinet containing the aforementioned tools in the storage room (2); a cupboard for cosmetics and towels in the bathroom (3); a series of cabinets providing storage space for food as well as utensils for cooking, baking, serving, eating and drinking (4); a large bookshelf, a desk, a chair, a couch, a coffee table, and a double bed in room 5; a large book shelf, a desk, a chair, two arm chairs, a coffee table, and a sofa (double) bed in room 6; a table and two armchairs in room 7. For rooms 2, 3, and 4, the listed organic material would probably support the already existing sug221
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gestions. Room 1 would acquire a new functional attribution as a dressing room, which might cause surprise considering its high accessibility and therefore visibility, or seem fitting with respect to the paintings of women – as a woman’s space, in whatever private or non-private way. Room 7 would maybe appear as a summer dining room, with a view onto the green. The new evidence in rooms 5 and 6 would allow them to be understood as two similarly equipped sleeping and working spaces, which in turn would suggest that two individuals of equal status lived and worked there (and shared the kitchen and bathroom) – or perhaps just one person, who leased the second room out? And if this was the case, how often, when, and for how long would someone have stayed there? Again, the use of space has become somewhat clearer. But what could the archaeologists learn about the former inhabitants based on the organic material? The answer: nothing specific. It would be probable that two persons had shared this architectural unit, but it might also have been just one – or, when one considers the sleeping places available, as many as four. Was the space owned by the person(s) inhabiting it, or rented, or rented and sublet? Who were the persons living or staying there – what age, gender, and social status or profession were they? Scholars might note a mix of IKEA furniture (very common in that society) and antiques (representing family history, or simply revealing an affinity with old fashioned design). They might also observe, on the basis of the books found, an interest in history and archaeology, and a certain preference for novels with desperate middle-aged male protagonists. Thinking in traditional gender roles, the men’s bicycle, the novels, and the slightly erotic paintings of women might suggest the presence of at least one man, while the cosmetics and clothes suggest the presence of one or more women. When one considers the increasingly fluent gender boundaries, everything would be possible. Would my space look different if a man lived in it? Not necessarily. The future archaeologists would probably not come very far with their research about the inhabitants based on these material remains. In this imaginary example, we applied the interpretative methods used for ancient housing to contemporary housing. With the growing interest in domestic architecture as a social space that began the late 1980s 2, a (then) new juxtaposition of ancient and A. Wallace-Hadrill, « The Social Structure of the Roman House »,
2
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contemporary housing was made, based on the contrast between the multifunctional use of rooms in Roman residences and the explicit function of every room in contemporary houses and apartments. Nowadays, however, I would argue that our living habits, at least in the city, no longer fully correspond to the heritage of nineteenth and twentieth century bourgeoise concepts of living 3 with divided spaces, but instead represent a more flexible use of space resulting from spatial (and financial) limitations in urban areas, flexible work schedules and locations due to digitalisation/ the internet, changing concepts of living communities and family structure 4. Needless to say, ideas of functionalising, sharing and dividing space, of public and private, as well as the effects of daytime and season on the use of space differ between ancient and contemporary housing and society – and also differ amongst different societies today 5. This introduction, however, can serve as a very general example of the way in which we are limited in our understanding of ancient domestic life, even if Pompeii does offer exceptionally rich material evidence. The present paper therefore does not represent another tentative or speculative attempt to identify women’s rooms, but is rather meant to complement a previous study on “Tracing the activities of female household members within the Roman domus” 6. Both articles aim to find PBSR 56 (1988), p. 43-97. A. Wallace-Hadrill, Houses and Society in Pompeii and Herculaneum, Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1994. 3 For changes in living habits between the eighteenth and twentieth century as a reflection of socio-economic changes, see, for example, H. Zinn, « Entstehung und Wandel bürgerlicher Wohngewohnheiten und Wohnstrukturen », in L. Niethammer (éd.), Wohnen im Wandel. Beiträge zur Geschichte des Alltags in der bürgerlichen Gesellschaft, Wuppertal, Hammer, 1979, p. 12-27. 4 Cf. A.W Busch, J. Griesbach, J. Lipps, « Die Stadt als Selbstverwirklichung », in A. W. Busch, J. Griesbach, J. Lipps (éd.), Urbanitas – urbane Q ualitäten. Die antike Stadt als kulturelle Selbstverwirklichung. Kolloquium 19.-21. Dezember 2012 in München, Mainz, Verlag des Römisch-Germanischen Zentralmuseums, 2017 (RGZM-Tagungen 32), p. 1-14, esp. p. 1. 5 The circumstances under which our own material surroundings might survive are, of course, also different. Given the relative political and environmental (climatic) stability in modern central Europe and the material durability (and, often, even indestructability) of many objects which we use, our material remains are, in theory, likely to survive. In practice, however, dense settlement and the need for urban living space normally lead to the re-use of spaces, which might eliminate all our individual traces. 6 P. Lohmann, « Tracing the Activities of Female Household Members within the Roman domus. A Methodological Discussion of Artefact Distribution
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(material) evidence of female household members. Whereas the first article concentrated on evidence in the form of movable artefacts and small-finds, the present paper focusses on the informal epigraphic record 7. Graffiti, as objects of study, have two advantages: like movable artefacts (but unlike static features such as architecture and architectural decoration), they were dynamic, i.e. they were the result of small-scale and short-term, i.e. daily-life, activities and social practices within the household 8. At the same time, unlike movable artefacts (but like static features), they were found in situ and have therefore not been affected by disturbances to the archaeological record. Graffiti are therefore especially useful for tracing shortterm activities, but are not fraught with the same methodological problems as artefacts. We do not, however, know how short “shortterm” may have been: the graffiti may date from up to 16/17 or more years before the eruption of Mount Vesuvius; even if they did document moments of daily life, we are not able to date them more precisely within a smaller time-frame. They are, at any rate, younger than both the “long-term” static component of architecture as well as the wall-decorations on which they were scratched and which therefore can only serve as a terminus post quem for the graffiti. The central questions of the present paper are how and where we can identify women in Pompeian graffiti, and what this can tell us about the presence of women both in Pompeii and within Analysis in Pompeii », in R. Berg (éd.), The Material Sides of Marriage. Women and Domestic Economies in Antiquity, Rome, Institutum Romanum Finlandiae, 2016 (Acta Instituti Romani Finlandiae 43), p. 191-201. For a more comprehensive study on women’s activities within the house(hold), see P. Lohmann, « Idealbild und Lebenswirklichkeit. Literarische, epigrafische, archäologische Q uellen und Befunde zu den Handlungsräumen der Frau im römischen Wohnhaus », Thetis 21 (2015), p. 63-108. 7 For graffiti as “informal” and “unofficial” inscriptions, see P. Lohmann, Graffiti als Interaktionsform. Geritzte Inschriften in den Wohnhäusern Pompejis, Materiale Textkulturen 16, Berlin-Boston, De Gruyter, 2017 (openaccess: https://www.degruyter.com/viewbooktoc/product/488442 [accessed 02.11.2018]), p. 16-19; P. Lohmann, « Private Inscriptions in Public Spaces? The Ambiguous Nature of Graffiti from Pompeian Houses », in R. Cascino, F. De Stefano, A. Lepone, C. M. Marchetti (éd.), Proceedings of the 26th Theoretical Roman Archaeology Conference, Rome, Edizioni Q uasar, 2017, p. 67-84, esp. 67-68. 8 For the small-scale and short-term character of artefacts, see L. Nevett, Domestic Space in Classical Antiquity, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2010, p. 96.
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the social life of the house. Our basis of evidence for the study consists of approximately 5600 graffiti edited in the CIL IV 9. Of the nearly 4000 persons named in this epigraphic record, only 612 are women 10; 142 cases in which the gender of the person named is unclear (either because the graffiti are corrupted or because the names are communia) have been excluded 11. The fact that female names form only about 16% of the total number of names is a significant result: it shows that women were not as involved or integrated in graffiti-writing as men, be it as authors or addressees. Among the graffiti which consist exclusively of single names, and which persons apparently left as personal identifiers (or “tags”, as they are called today), female names make up a mere 10% 12 (We here assume that single names were written by the name-bearers, i.e. that individuals left behind their own names as tags and did not write other persons’ names on the wall. This assumption is based on the “empiric” evidence of tags from other historical periods and contexts and cannot otherwise be proven 13). The proportion of female names in greetings and messages, however, is significantly higher (26%) – interestingly, women appear most often as the addressees in such texts, and only very rarely as their authors. A salutem-graffito from a certain Optata to her Secundus 14 from the façade of insula V 5 and an unusually long message from Hirtia Psacas to Caius Hostilius and others are two of the few examples of greetings by women 15. Another message, a greeting from Prima to Secundus, forms part 9 For the total number (and different possible counting modes), see Lohmann, Interaktionsform, p. 118 with n. 478. 10 Cf. Lohmann, Interaktionsform, p. 344. 11 On Latin communia, see I. Kajanto, The Latin Cognomina, Helsinki, Societas Scientiarum Fennica, 1965 (Commentationes humanarum litterarum 36,2), p. 23-26. 12 Lohmann, Interaktionsform, p. 344; an article on this (« Tagging in Antiquity. Pompeian Graffiti between Individuality and Convention ») will be published as part of the Proceedings of the “Tag Conference: Name Writing in Public Space”, edited by Edward Birzin. 13 On this methodological problem, see S. Levin-Richardson, « Fututa sum hic: Female Subjectivity and Agency in Pompeian Sexual Graffiti », CJ 108 (2013), p. 319-345, esp. 325-326. 14 CIL IV 6755: Optata Secundo suo salutem. Another is CIL IV 4639: Spendusa Sperato plu(rimam salutem). 15 CIL IV 3905: Hirtia Psacas C. Hostilio coniugi suo […] salutem semper ubique […].
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of a kind of dialogue between the two on the façade of the insula 10 of Region I 16. There is a comparatively large number of Greek names (cognomina) among the female names: 39%, in contrast to 30% of the total onomastic material from Pompeian graffiti. Most of the female names in Pompeian graffiti are names that are also, but not exclusively, recorded as slave names from Rome 17. These statistics suggest that a larger number of lower-class women were among those named in graffiti; the same holds true for the men represented in Pompeian graffiti. The percentage of Greek female names is especially high in the brothel of Pompeii (VII 12, 18-20) 18. No significant differences in the spatial distribution, however, can be observed, except that Greek female names are more commonly found in the graffiti inside residential buildings than Latin or other non-Greek female names 19; in contrast, Greek names were found in public buildings and on façades somewhat less frequently than their non-Greek counterparts. Compared to male names, female names are, in general, more often found in graffiti on outside walls than within private or public buildings; since most of the graffiti in Pompeii that we have, however, are located inside of residential units, so are the graffiti containing female names 20. The number of women epigraphically represented in individual houses is very small (Fig. 2). Taking Region I as a sample, an 16 CIL IV 8270: Prima Secu(n)do salute(m) plurima(m). Proper Roman names in combination Prima and Secundus admittedly seem a bit odd; the combination could either be a kind of game with fake names or a mere coincidence. 17 H. Solin, Die stadtrömischen Sklavennamen. Ein Namenbuch, 3 vol., Stuttgart, Steiner Verlag, 1996 (Forschungen zur antiken Sklaverei, Beiheft 2). 18 For the figures from the brothel, see H. Mouritsen, « New Pompeian Graffiti and the Limits of Roman Literacy », in S. Faust, M. Seifert, L. Ziemer (éd.), Antike. Kultur. Geschichte, Festschrift für Inge Nielsen zum 65. Geburtstag, Aachen, Shaker Verlag, 2015, p. 201-214, esp. 210. Cf. also S. Levin-Richardson, « Facilis hic futuit: Graffiti and Masculinity in Pompeii’s Purpose-Built Brothel », Helios 38 (2011), p. 49-78, esp., 61; A. Varone, « Nella Pompei a luci rosse: Castrensis e l’organizzazione della prostituzione e dei suoi spazi », RSP 16 (2005), p. 93-109, esp. 95. 19 49% vs. 39%. “Other names” here refers to non-Latin and non-Greek, and to names of uncertain origin or whose reading is disputed. 20 For statistics on the distribution of Pompeian graffiti, see Lohmann, Interaktionsform, p. 128-140.
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I 2,4 I 2,6 I 2,7-8 I 2,20 I 2,24 I 2,28 I 3,1 I 3,3.31 I 3,14 I 3,20 I 3,30 I 4,5. 25.28 I 6,2.16 I 6,4 I 6,7 I 6,11 I 6,15 I 7,1.20 I 7,2-3 I 7,7 I 7,10-12.19 I 7,11 I 7,15.17 I 7,16 I 7,18 I 8,1 I 8,5 I 8,9 I 8,10 I 8,13 I 8,14 I 8,15-16 I 8,17.11 I 9,3 I 9,5 I 9,8 I 9,11 I 9,13-14 I 10,1 I 10,2 I 10,2-3 I 10,4 I 10,7 I 10,8 I 10,10-11 I 11,5.8 I 11,6 I 11,14 I 11,15.9 I 13,1 I 13,2 I 13,3 I 13,5 I 13,6 I 13,9 I 13,14 I 15,3 I 17,3 I 19,2 I 20,1 SUMME
Male 1 10 8 17 8 5 6 25 2 2 1 19 1 5 2 2 12 29 9 6 1 1 5 3 1 2
4 1 5 3 9 1 2 6 2 5 1 51 1 11 9 3 4 3 2 3 2 1 1 1 3 1 4 1 3 1 113
Female 2 3 1 1 3
3
1 1 1 1
1 1 2 2 1 2
17 2
2 8 2 3
1 1 1
18
Fig. 2. Absolute number of male and female names attested per house in Region I (graph by author).
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average of 6,5 names 21 were scratched into the inner walls of nonpublic buildings as single name tags or in greetings, messages, stories, and other kinds of graffiti. This sample is based on all graffiti known from the area which have been published in the CIL IV; there may have been more buildings containing graffiti, more graffiti within certain buildings which were not found at the time of the excavation (and have vanished since then), or more graffiti which were simply not recorded or published. In terms of the number and locations 22 of graffiti within specific buildings, however, the CIL IV has proven to be quite reliable in cases where one is still able to compare surviving epigraphic material (i.e., when the building has been well preserved). Only buildings for which the CIL does not record any inscriptions at all – and whose walls, and wall-paintings (including graffiti possibly incised) have been heavily damaged by weathering, thus rendering it impossible to identify graffiti – have not been considered in the sample used here 23. Women make up 22% of the persons named in graffiti in small shops (type 1), 10% in shops and workshops (type 2), 26% in large residential units (with an atrium, type 4), and 11% in very large (atrium-peristyle) residences (type 4) (Fig. 3) 24. These figures do not convey any pattern or consistency regarding the size or function of the buildings from which women are attested in graffiti, but female names appear with greater frequency in residences (type 3 and 4) than in smaller, usually commercial units (type 1 and 2). In total, female names make up 16% of all names in the non-public buildings of Region I, which means that the sample perfectly reflects the overall statistics cited above 25. In more than 21 Repetitions of the same name included, since we usually do not know if the same name refers to the same individual or to different persons of the same name (see below). 22 But not always in terms of readings. 23 On the reliability of the CIL IV with regard to the study of graffiti, see Lohmann, Interaktionsform, p. 117-128. 24 For the categorisation of the buildings, see Wallace-Hadrill, Structure, p. 81-83 (and subsequently Lohmann, Interaktionsform, p. 65 tab. 1). Sample: Type 1: 12 small one or two-room units/shops; type 2: 13 larger shops/ workshops; type 3: 15 houses; type 4: 20 large houses. 25 Region I constitutes 22% of all non-public buildings in Pompeii containing graffiti which feature names. Since the regions of Pompeii are (artificial) modern subdivisions, the number of graffiti recorded differs from region to region. The largest part of Region I was excavated relatively late, in the twentieth
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half of the buildings, women are not attested at all epigraphically. Very rarely do we find more than one to three women named in single buildings; an exception is the Casa del Menandro (I 10, 4), one of the largest domus of Pompeii, which contains a comparatively large number of graffiti in general 26. Featuring the highest number of graffiti from Region I within one building, the house (not surprisingly) also offers a comparatively large number of females named in graffiti, according to the CIL. Among the seven women recorded are Chloe and Eutychia, mentioned in a graffito on a peristyle column whose reading is debated 27, and a certain Severa in an erotic graffito (the reading of which is also disputed) 28 on the northern wall of the same peristyle, interpretated by Matteo della Corte as: “Ssevera, you suuuuck” 29. In the part of the house which perhaps formed a separate household within the household, and has therefore been named Casa del Procuratore (I 10, 16) 30, a certain Novellia Primigenia appears who might – or might not – be the same woman mentioned in CIL IV, 10241 from the necropolis at the Porta Nocera 31. Nowhere else in the entire house – not in the fauces, atrium, or the kitchen area where significant numbers of graffiti were found – do women appear in the epigraphic record, at least as far as we know. century, while large parts of Regions III, IV, and parts of Regions V and IX, still remain unexcavated. For the changing archaeological and epigraphic standards affecting the records of the CIL, see Lohmann, Interaktionsform, p. 117-128. 26 Cf. H. Mouritsen, « Die Inschriften aus der insula I 10 in Pompeji », in H. Meller, J.-A. Dickmann (éd.), Pompeji Nola Herculaneum. Katastrophen am Vesuv. Exhibition Halle, Munich, Hirmer, 2011, p. 277-283; P. Lohmann, « Some Thoughts on the Habits of Graffiti-Writing. Visual Aspects of Scratched Inscriptions within the Roman House », Archaeological Review from Cambridge 30.1 (2015), p. 70-76. 27 CIL IV, 8321a. 28 CIL IV, 8329. 29 Critically on della Corte’s readings, see, amongst others: H. Solin, « Rezension von Corpus inscriptionum Latinarum, voluminis quarti supplementi pars tertia, Lieferung 3-4 (Berlin 1963-1970) », Gnomon 45 (1973), p. 258-277, esp. 277; H. Mouritsen, Elections, Magistrates and Municipal Elite. Studies in Pompeian Epigraphy, Rome, L’Erma di Bretschneider, 1988 (ARID Suppl. 15), p. 13-27. 30 See F. Opdenhoff, « Der Haushalt im Haushalt. Das Verwalterhaus », in H. Meller, J.-A. Dickmann (éd.), Pompeji Nola Herculaneum. Katastrophen am Vesuv. Exhibition Halle, Munich, Hirmer, 2011, p. 256-265. 31 CIL IV, 8356. Cf. A. Varone, Erotica Pompeiana. Iscrizioni d’amore sui muri di Pompei, Rome, L’Erma di Bretschneider, 1994 (Studia Archaeologica 71), p. 151.
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Male
Female
Type 1
28
Type 2
47
8 5
Type 3
87
30
Type 4
165
20
Fig. 3. Absolute numbers of names mentioned in graffiti from Region I, organised by gender (n = 390; graph by author).
An extraordinary case is offered by the Casa dei Q uattro Stili (I 8, 17.11). Here, Rebecca Benefiel has recorded and commented on an unusual cluster of graffiti addressing several women 32: on the walls of the tablinum (9), Anthis, Nicopolis and Q uartilla were greeted several times with “vale” 33; another woman, Q uartilla, is named both in this room and in the entrance area, appearing six times within this same house (Fig. 4) 34. The graffiti in the tablinum are located comparatively low (80-93 cm from the floor), thus raising the possibility that they were left by people lying on a couch whilst dining, as Benefiel suggests. She argues that the graffiti were a lively exchange of greetings between the women
Fig. 4. CIL IV, 8212b: “Q uartil(l)a” (line-drawing by author). 32 R. R. Benefiel, « Dialogues of Graffiti in the House of the Four Styles at Pompeii (Casa dei Q uattro Stili, I.8.17,11) », in J. A. Baird, C. Taylor (éd.), Ancient Graffiti in Context, London, Routledge, 2011 (Routledge Studies in Ancient History 2), p. 20-48. 33 CIL IV, 8218-8219. 34 CIL IV, 8212. Cf. Benefiel, Dialogues, p. 25.
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named, since names of men are not present in the room at all. The apparently unpractised handwriting, which suggests authors who were not used to writing, but could execute simple and repetitive texts, would support this argument. Regardless who their authors were, however, these graffiti are addressed to women and thus attest the presence of women in the house who were able to read 35. Only in exceptional cases can we be sure, based on grammatical evidence, that women also acted as graffiti authors. This is the case in an incised inscription from the brothel (VII 12, 18-20): fututa sum hic (“I was fucked here”) 36. But even if women in Pompeii seem to have rarely been responsible for writing graffiti, they were – at least sometimes – addressed, which implies that they were also expected to able to read 37. The brothel is one of the very few buildings whose walls bear a significantly large number of female names – a fact connected to the function of this establishment 38. The high number of women represented goes hand in hand with the higher percentage of female names mentioned in erotic graffiti in Pompeii in general 39. Another cluster of female names is given by a list of spinners in the viridarium/peristyle of house VI 13, 6 40. These exceptional cases represent women in very specific circumstances, and overrepresent women of certain professions. In most of the other cases, the graffiti do not reveal any additional information (e.g. profession or social status) about the name bearers. Like their male counterparts, most of the female names mentioned in Pompeian graffiti are isolated cognomina; the total of 612 names is reduced to only 289 individual names if we omit those mentioned several times as referring to the same person or to different persons of the same name 41. Since women usu Benefiel, Dialogues, p. 28. On this text, see Levin-Richardson, Subjectivity, p. 333. Cf. also CIL IV, 5296 (ibid., p. 333). 37 On this subject, and with a more optimistic approach to graffiti-writing women, see Levin-Richardson, Subjectivity, p. 324. 38 For these graffiti, see Varone, Castrensis; Levin-Richardson, Masculinity, esp. p. 59-62 for an overview. 39 Cf. Lohmann, Interaktionsform, p. 344-345. 40 CIL IV, 1507. 41 For the most frequent cognomina recorded from Pompeii, see Kajanto, 35 36
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ally bore no first name (praenomen) 42, it is even more difficult to distinguish individual women than men by names. Only in a few cases do we find a combination of family name (gentilicium) and personal name (cognomen), like Vibia Ameia 43, Magonia Ampliata 44, Flavia Asella 45, Alficia Compse 46, Sergia Compse 47, Sa turnia Grata 48, Cornelia Helena 49, Vibia Iucunda 50, Vettia Iusta (?) 51, Caecilia Maxima 52, Pithia Prima 53, Novellia Primigenia 54, Hirtia Psacas 55, Fuficia Q uartilla 56, Sulpicia Sabina 57, Caesia Cognomina, p. 29-30; for the most frequently used female cognomina in Pompeian graffiti, see Lohmann, Interaktionsform, p. 335 tab. 5. 42 Cf. O. Salomies, Die römischen Vornamen. Studien zur römischen Namengebung, Helsinki, Societas Scientiarum Fennica, 1987 (Commentationes huma narum litterarum 82), p. 151. Nonetheless, female praenomina are attested from Republican times onwards (M. Kajava, Roman Female Praenomina. Studies in the Nomenclature of Roman Women, Rome, Institutum Romanum Finlandiae, 1995 (Acta Instituti Romani Finlandiae 14), p. 11); for a comprehensive study of women’s praenomina, see ibid. 43 L. Savunen, Women in the Urban Texture of Pompeii, Helsinki, PhD. diss., 1997, p. 177; P. Castrén, Ordo populusque Pompeianus: Polity and Society in Roman Pompeii, Rome, Bardi, 1975 (Acta Instituti Romani Finlandiae 8), cat. no. 457,4. Perhaps Vibia Am(m)ia (id.)? Cf. for this cognomen also H. Solin, Die griechischen Personennamen in Rom. Ein Namenbuch, 3 vols, Berlin, De Gruyter 2003, 2nd ed., esp. vol. 2, p. 1027. Ammia is attested in Rome predominantly for slaves and freedwomen (ibid.). 44 Savunen, Women, p. 170; Castrén, Ordo, cat. no. 234, 1. 45 Savunen, Women, p. 168; Castrén, Ordo, cat. no. 168, 5. 46 Savunen, Women, p. 163; Castrén, Ordo, cat. no. 20, 1. Cf. also Solin, Personennamen, vol. 2, p. 761: The Greek cognomen Compse is attested in Rome predominantly for slaves and freedwomen. 47 Savunen, Women, p. 174; Castrén, Ordo, cat. no. 368, 1. Cf. also Solin, Personennamen, vol. 2, p. 761. 48 Savunen, Women, p. 174; Castrén, Ordo, cat. no. 357, 1. 49 Savunen, Women, p. 166; Castrén, Ordo, cat. no. 129, 23. For the cognomen, very popular for slaves and freedwomen from Rome, see Solin, Personennamen, vol. 1, p. 586. 50 Savunen, Women, p. 177; Castrén, Ordo, cat. no. 457, 11. 51 Savunen, Women, p. 177. 52 Savunen, Women, p. 165; Castrén, Ordo, cat. no. 81, 19. 53 Savunen, Women, p. 172; Castrén, Ordo, cat. no. 311, 2. 54 Savunen, Women, p. 171; Castrén, Ordo, cat. no. 275; cf. above. 55 Savunen, Women, p. 169; Castrén, Ordo, cat. no. 195, 5; cf. note 15. For the cognomen, which is only twice attested in Rome, see Solin, Personennamen, vol. 3, p. 1216. 56 Savunen, Women, p. 168; Castrén, Ordo, cat. no. 173, 4. 57 Savunen, Women, p. 175; Castrén, Ordo, cat. no. 397, 4.
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Secunda 58, Apronia Secundina 59, Curvia (?) Severa 60, Aufidia Successa 61, Verria Vitalis 62. A small group of family names with a feminine ending, but without any cognomen added, are mentioned, such as Aelia, Aemilia, Apronia, Arria, Caesia, Calpurnia, Cestilia, Claudia, Clodia, Cosseia, Cossinia, Fabia, Flavia, Iulia, Livia, Memmia, Octavia, Oppia, Q uintilia, Petronia, Poppaea, Roscia, Sabidia, Salvia, Satria, Seppia, Siccia, Sittia, Umbricia, Urvia, Valeria, Veneria, Vestia, Vettia, Viccia, Vinia 63. When the same name is featured in multiple graffiti within a small radius, it is possible that it may refer to the same person. This could be the case, for example, with a certain Myrine who is named on a façade twice (I 17, 3) 64, a Serena who is greeted three times on the outside of the building I 2, 19-20 65, and a Firmilla in the peristyle of house I 3, 3.31 66. The handwriting of at least two of the six graffiti addressing a certain Chloe in the palae stra at Pompeii suggest that they were made by different authors, but their proximity to one another makes it plausible that the same Chloe was meant 67. Close by, Lucilius greeted “his Lucidia everywhere” four times 68. An infamous dialogue from the façade of block I, 10 centres around the slave girl Iris, and the texts makes explicit that it is the same Iris over whom two men wrote and fought: “The weaver Successus loves Iris, the slave of the innkeeper, who doesn’t care about him. A rival wrote this. Bye.” Savunen, Women, p. 165; Castrén, Ordo, cat. no. 85, 13. Savunen, Women, p. 164; Castrén, Ordo, cat. no. 37, 1. 60 Savunen, Women, p. 166; Castrén, Ordo, cat. no.142, 2 for Curia Severa. 61 Savunen, Women, p. 164; Castrén, Ordo, cat. no. 59, 5. 62 Savunen, Women, p. 176; Castrén, Ordo, cat. no. 447. The Cornelia Orestina named in one graffito (CIL IV, 6812) may refer to Caligula’s wife (Castrén, Ordo, cat. no. 129). 63 See Castrén, Ordo for a collection of all attested Pompeian (family) names. 64 CIL IV, 10033b-c. 65 CIL IV, 3928-3929. 66 CIL IV, 3971; 3973. 67 The CIL offers line-drawings for only two of the graffiti, which is why the handwriting cannot be compared for all of them (CIL IV, 8618b-c; 8626 a-d). 68 CIL IV, 8627b; 8676b; 8708; 8717a. 58 59
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“Jealous guy! You’re bursting and begrudge the one who is more handsome. Successus.” “I said it, I wrote it: You love Iris who does not love you back. Severus.” 69
Rarely given attributes provided in graffiti include the house-born slaves (vernae) Optata, Successa, Felicula, Logas and Euche 70, another Successa who is nicknamed pistilla (“little mortar”), the so-called “queen of the Pompeians” (regina Pompeianorum) Cestilia, and a number of women described as fellatrices (“suckers”), but not, as one might expect, on the walls of the lupanare 71. In a cubiculum of the house IX 3, 25, the names of a certain L. Clodius Varus and his wife (?) (coniu(n)x) Pelagia had been incised into the wall plaster near the alcove 72. We can only assume that the two might have lived here, but there is no other evidence to add to the graffito as support.
Conclusion The conference from which this volume arose had the goal of developing new approaches to the Roman house which would go beyond the now nearly “traditional” scope(s) of the past 30 years. Studying the “Anthropology of Roman housing” therefore means not only analysing different (and non-elite) types of housing, but also finding ways to look behind the built structures. This article has argued that both small-finds and graffiti have, in theory, the potential to reveal activities which are more smallscale and short-term than the time-spans reflected by different building phases or layers of decoration. Small finds, or “movable CIL IV, 8258-8259. Successus textor amat coponiaes ancilla(m) / nomine Hiredem, quae illum non curat […]. / Scribit rivalis. Vale. – Invidiose, quia rumperes sedare noli formonsiorem / […]. Successus. – Dixi, scripsi. Amas Hiredem quae te non curat […]. / Severus. Cf. also above for a certain “Prima” reappearing together with a certain “Secundus” in graffiti on the same façade. 70 CIL IV, 5105; 4025; 4023; 5203; 5345; 5094; 2413h; 1382a; 1388; 4192. 71 For an overview of attributes given in graffiti, see Lohmann, Interaktionsform, p. 347 tab. 7. 72 CIL IV, 2321. See Varone, Erotica, p. 150; A. Anguissola, Intimità a Pompei. Riservatezza, condivisione e prestigio negli ambienti ad alcova di Pompei, Berlin-New York, De Gruyter, 2010 (Image and Context 8), p. 269. 69
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artefacts”, which have been the focus of an earlier study, have, however, turned out to be rather problematic because of different disturbances in the Pompeian archaeological record. Graffiti found in situ are, in contrast, free from this methodological difficulty. The aim of this article was to gather epigraphical evidence for women in Pompeii and within individual households. Distinguishing women from men in this particular context is possible only with the help of personal names – and even then, we will never be able to be completely certain about the identity of an individual behind a name or text. Apart from the names, only explicit wording – i.e. grammatical forms – can reveal the gender of a graffito writer. Analysing the persons named in Pompeian graffiti has shown that women appear relatively rarely in graffiti – and when they are named, they are less often the authors, and more commonly the addressees of messages or the “objects” to write about. Men are attested much more frequently in graffiti both inside and outside of the household. A sample of houses from Region I revealed that, in many cases, not a single woman is attested for a house. This result prompts the question of why women are so underrepresented in the general epigraphic record – and why they are overrepresented in exceptional contexts like the lupanare. One reason could, of course, be their restricted access to an education and literacy, but this would not explain the large number of named women in the brothel. Another possibility is that the habit of graffiti-writing was primarily a male one, and a habit that seems to have been adopted – even if this is just a tendency of the material record – by slaves and workmen rather than aristocratic men (and women) 73. With a maximum of one to three women attested in graffiti, female household members remain invisible in many Pompeian residences. This result is very similar to the outcome of the study of movable objects: Like slaves and children, women remain a social group largely hidden for archaeologists. Even if the scholarly interest, the questions posed, and the methodological approaches have changed, the material record still does not – and can not – reveal everything to us. Such studies make clear Cf. Lohmann, Interaktionsform, p. 340, 346.
73
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once again that the material record is not as straightforward as we would like it to be – just as future archaeologists will likely not be able to determine the gender of the people who lived in our houses or even in certain rooms on the basis of material remains, so, too, does the material record of the past sometimes allow us a narrower view of Roman society than we hope.
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BETWEEN PUBLIC AND PRIVATE: THE ITALIAN HOUSES OF LATE HELLENISTIC / ROMAN DELOS 1
1
Delos underwent a rapid economic and urban development after 167 bce, when Romans put the island under Athenian dominion and turned it into a commercial base connecting the eastern and western Mediterranean 2. During this period the island is charac This research has been generously supported by the Marie Curie IntraEuropean Fellowship Scheme (FP7-PEOPLE-2012-IEF, Project Title: UrbaNetworks, Grant Agreement n° PIEF-GA-2012-331969). I am grateful to Panagiotis Hatzidakis for granting permission to conduct my study on Delos. I would also like to thank the French School at Athens for facilitating my research on the site. I am indebted to Véronique Chankowski, director of the French School at Athens, for inviting me to participate in her research project on storage facilities on Delos (funded by the Agence National de la Recherche) and for her continuous support. I must also thank Jean-Charles Moretti, director of the French excavations on Delos, for sharing his knowledge about the architecture of Delos. 2 J. Hatzfeld, « Les Italiens résident à Délos », BCH 36 (1912), p. 5-218; N. N. Zalesskij, « Les Romains à Délos (de l’histoire du capital commercial et du capital usuraire romain) », in F. Coarelli, D. Musti, and H. Solin (éd.), Delo e l’Italia, Rome, Bardi, 1982 (Opuscula Instituti Romani Finlandiae 2), p. 21-49; G. Reger, Regionalism and Change in the Economy of Independent Delos, 314167 B.C., Berkeley, 1994 (Hellenistic culture and society 14). The growing commercial importance of the island of Delos was not only a consequence of the grant of ἀτέλεια in 167 bce, but also of other equally important developments such as the Roman destruction of Carthage and Corinth, the rapid collapse of the Seleucid empire in the latter half of the century and the creation of the Roman province of Asia in 129 bce. For a summary of the events see: B. McGing, « Subjection and resistance: To the death of Mithradates », in A. Erskine (éd.), A Companion to the Hellenistic World, Oxford, 2003, p. 83-84. Strabo says that the merchants changed their place of business from Corinth to Delos following the destruction of the former in 146 bce for two reasons: they were attracted first by τῆς ἀτελείας τοῦ ἱεροῦ and second by the good location of the harbor, “as it is on the sea-route from Italy and Greece to Asia” (Strabo X, 5, 4). To quote Hatzfeld, 1
Anthropology of Roman Housing, ed. by Alexandra Dardenay and Nicolas Laubry, Turnhout, 2020 (ASH, 5), pp. 237–257 © FHG DOI 10.1484/M.ASH-EB.5.119737
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terized by its cosmopolitan character. The majority of the new residents of the island were from the eastern Mediterranean and the Italian peninsula, while some merchants came from places further abroad, such as Alexandria, and from more exotic points still further east, such as Gerra on the Persian Gulf. The largest ethnic contingent of the island was, however, Roman-Italian 3. This paper focuses on the houses of the Roman-Italian community on Delos to address the notions of private and public in their design and decoration. By examining the architectural design of the houses together with the inscriptions and graffiti featuring in them as well as liturgical paintings adorning the walls and altars of their entrances, this paper will examine the ways in which Italians appropriated the private and public spheres of their houses in order to distinguish and reinforce their ethnic identity in the cityscape of Delos. The notions of private and public existed in antiquity but were distinct from our own – the studies of Wallace-Hadrill, among others, have shown this very well 4. “because Delos was a shrine, it had become an international town; because it was an international town, it became a place of commerce”. J. Hatzfeld, Les trafiquants italiens dans l’Orient hellénique, Paris, 1919, p. 34, 36. See also discussion in: P. Kay, Rome’s economic revolution, Oxford, 2014 (Oxford Studies on the Roman Economy), p. 197-206. 3 From a population of about 1500 to 2000 in the period of the independence, it gained an estimated amount of 20,000 to 30,000 at its peak, during the period of the second Athenian dominion. See: N. K. Rauh, The Sacred bonds of commerce: Religion, economy, and trade society at Hellenistic Roman Delos, 166-187 B.C., Amsterdam, 1993, p. 27. However, there is no firm evidence – inscriptions give evidence for 1200 citizens and a population of about 6000 at the beginning of the first century bce. Tréheux gives 68 ethnics from Antioch, 64 from Berytos, 2 from Laodicea in Phoenicia, 47 from Alexandria, 35 from Laodicea in Syria, 32 from Hieropolis, 31 from Tyre, 23 from Sidon, 16 from Ascalon and 12 from Salamis: J. Tréheux, Inscriptions de Délos, I. Les étrangers, à l’exclusion des Athéniens de la Clérouchie et des Romains, Paris, 1992. The largest ethnic contingent of the island was, however, Roman-Italian. Hatzfeld estimated that of 231 Romaioi recorded on the island, 88 were freeborn, 95 were liberti, and 48 were slaves. Rauh’s survey in 1993 of inscriptions published since 1919 contains an additional 300 Romaioi whose names can be split, in similar proportions to those found by Hatzfeld, between freeborn (118 or 40%) and slave-born (freedmen and slaves combined, 182 or 60%): Rauh, Sacred bonds of commerce, p. 30-32. 4 On the notions of private and public in the Roman house see: A. Wallace-Hadrill, Houses and society in Pompeii and Herculaneum, Princeton, 1994, p. 17-37; J. A. Dickmann, Domus frequentata: anspruchvolles Wohnen im pompejanischen Stadthaus, München, Pfeil, 1999, p. 41-48; K. Tuori and
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By analyzing the architecture of the Delian houses and I will tackle the ways in which their facades, interior design and decoration blur the boundaries between public and private.
1. The Delian houses Despite the diversity of the inhabitants of Delos, the architecture of their houses is quite uniform, attesting to what has been termed an architectural koine 5. Here foreigners adopted the local archiL. Nissin, Public and private in the Roman house and society (JRA Supplementary Series 102), Portsmouth R.I., 2015. See also discussion in A. WallaceHadrill, « Inschriften in Privaten Raum: Introduction », in W. Eck, P. Funke et al. (éd.), Öffentlichkeit – Monument – Text: XIV congressus internationalis epigraphiae Graecae et Latinae, 27.-31. Augusti MMXII, Akten, Berlin/Boston, De Gruyter, 2014 (Corpus inscriptionum Latinarum, Auctarium s.n. 4), p. 481482. For a discussion of these notions in Delian houses see: M. Trümper, « Material and social environment of Greco-Roman households in the east: The case of Hellenistic Delos », in D. L. Balch, and C. Osiek (éd.), Early Christian families in context: An interdisciplinary dialogue, Grand Rapids Michigan-Cambridge, UK, William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2003, p. 19-43. 5 The studies of the French School in Athens have been published in the series Exploration archéologique de Délos. The volumes dealing with the architecture of the residential neighborhoods) are vol. 8 (Theatre District), vol. 27 (North District, L’Îlot de la Maison des Comédiens) vol. 38 (North District, L’Îlot des Bijoux, l’Îlot des Bronzes, la Maison des Sceaux). Recent studies in domestic architecture: M. Trümper, Wohnen in Delos: Eine baugeschichtliche Untersuchung zum Wandel der Wohnkulture in hellenistischer Zeit, Rahden, Verlag Marie Leidorf, 1998 (Internationale Archäologie 46); M. Trümper, « Modest housing in late Hellenistic Delos », in B. A. Ault and L. C. Nevett (éd.), Ancient Greek houses and households: Chronological, regional, and social diversity, Philadelphia, University of Pennsylvania Press, 2005, p. 119-139; M. Trümper, « Differentiation in the Hellenistic houses of Delos: The question of functional areas », in R. Westgate, N. Fisher and J. Whitley (éd.), Building communities: House, settlement and society in the Aegean and beyond. Proceedings of a conference held at Cardiff University, 17-21 April 2001, London, The British School at Athens, 2007 (British School at Athens Studies 15), p. 323-334; M. Trümper, « Η κατοικία στην υστεροελληνιστική Δήλο (Houses in Late Hellenistic Delos) », Αρχαιολογία και Τέχνες (Archaeology and the Arts) 114 (2010), p. 16-27; B. Tang, Delos, Carthage, Ampurias: The housing of three Mediterranean trading centres, Rome, L’Erma di Bretschneider, 2005; L. C. Nevett, Domestic space in classical antiquity, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2010, p. 63-88 (« Housing and Cultural Identity: Delos, between Greece and Rome »). For an overview of the scholarship see: M. Zarmakoupi, « The city of late Hellenistic Delos and the integration of economic activities in the domestic sphere », CHS Research Bulletin 1.2 (2013), “The study
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tectural language and arranged their houses and religious club associations around a courtyard, while details in the decoration, such as statues and wall paintings, as well as inscriptions indicate their distinct identity. For instance, the House of Kleopatra that is occupied by an Athenian couple is not different from the house of Q uintus Tullius and his freedmen (or house IC) in the Stadion District (Fig. 1) – in both cases, the identity of the owners is attested by the inscriptions 6. Only in a few cases (House of Diadoumenos, House of the Dolphins, and House of the Trident) the spatial arrangements of the house remind visual strategies of self-representation familiar from the slightly later houses in Campania. In these houses the alignment of the entrance corridor, whose floor featured an impressive emblema, with the peristyle and the façade of the oecus maior created a visual impact on the house’s interior to a passer-by, which owners could employ to enhance their personal status. The majority of the houses, however, follow the more traditional layout of the Greek house with rooms around a courtyard accessed by an ante-room, pastas or colonnade. This layout was in some cases appropriated in order to accommodate the owners’ wish of self-representation; for example, the viewing angle from the vestibule allowed passers-by to see the interior of the house 7.
2. Italian houses: outside Although the architecture of the Delian houses does not reflect the origin of their occupants, Italian houses are distinguished more clearly than any other group, through the altars to the Lares Compitales featuring liturgical paintings that marked their
of the Delian houses”; M. Zarmakoupi, « Les maisons des négociants italiens à Délos: structuration de l’espace domestique dans une société en movement », Cahiers “Mondes Anciens” 7 (2015): http://journals.openedition.org/mondesanciens/1588. 6 For an overview of inscriptions in the Delian houses, see M. Zarmakoupi, « The spatial environment of inscriptions and graffiti in domestic spaces: The case of Delos », in R. Benefiel and P. Keegan (éd.), Inscriptions in private spaces, Leiden-Boston, Brill, 2016, p. 50-79. 7 See Nevett, Domestic space, p. 63-88 (ch. 4).
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Fig. 1. Stadion District, house of Q uintus Tullius (or house IC; east) and house ID (west), plan.
entrances (Fig. 2) 8. The people who are represented in the liturgical paintings of the Lares Compitales are clearly Italians: they wear togas and calcei at their feet, and they sacrifice ritu romano, with veiled head. The names inscribed below these representations indicate that they are slaves and freedmen, mainly from the eastern Mediterranean. The most plausible interpretation is that 8 Among the excavated houses on Delos, 31 houses have altars to the Lares Compitales, featuring the so-called liturgical paintings; Hasenohr’s catalogue (C. Hasenohr, « Les Compitalia à Délos », BCH 127.1 (2003), p. 219-223) presents these houses. Bulard’s catalogue (1926) presents 54 houses with altars, out of which in 37 cases the wall paintings are not preserved. Eight new houses with altars have been discovered (U. Bezerra de Meneses and H. Sarian, « Nouvelles peintures liturgiques de Délos », Études déliennes publiées à l’occasion du centième anniversaire des fouilles de l’École française d’Athènes à Délos, Paris, 1973 (BCH Supplément 1), p. 77-109) after Bulard’s catalogue. In her categorization Hasenohr considers the ones for which the placement of the iconography allows to relate them to the Lares Compitales.
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Fig. 2. Stadion District, house of Q uintus Tullius (or house IC), altar to the right of the entrance to the house (source: Plassart, « Fouilles de Délos », p. 44).
they were slaves and freedmen of Italian families, and some of those liberti must have managed the affairs of their patrons on Delos 9. The epigraphic record from this period reveals that most Italians on Delos came from Rome, Latium and Campania, and some came from the Greek cities of southern Italy. Although their geographic origin seems coherent, their legal status is not: Roman 9 See discussion in C. Hasenohr, « Les Italiens à Délos : entre romanité et hellénisme », Pallas 73 (2007), p. 228-229. On the nature and archaeological evidence of the cult of the Lares Compitales, see the discussion in T. D. Stek, « A Roman cult in the Italian countryside? The Compitalia and the shrines of the Lares Compitales », BABesch 83 (2008), p. 111-132; T. D. Stek, Cult places and cultural change in Republican Italy: A contextual approach to religious aspects of rural society after the Roman conquest, Amsterdam, Amsterdam University Press, 2009 (Amsterdam Archaeological Series 14), p. 187-212; H. I. Flower, The dancing lares and the serpent in the garden: Religion at the Roman street corner, Princeton, Princeton University Press, 2017, p. 175-191; P. Ernst, Recherches sur les pratiques culturelles des Italiens à Délos aux iie et ier siècles a.C., Bordeaux, Ausonius éditions (Scripta Antiqua 115), ch. 1.
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citizens mingled with Italians and allies. From the way that Italians and Romans are mentioned in the inscriptions, it seems that the term Ῥωμαῖος had a very broad sense 10. In some inscriptions Ῥωμαῖος could designate a Roman citizen but in others it was applied to anyone who came from Italy. Some Italians called themselves Ῥωμαῖοι because it was an easier identification. It seems that professional interests united Romans and Italians on Delos under the label “Romans,” not as Roman citizens but as an ethnic group. This ethnic group was distinguished through its common geographical origin, Italy, and its identity was defined in contact and juxtaposition with the other ethnic groups of merchants on Delos with distinct geographic origins – for example, from Berytos. Considered as Ῥωμαῖοι by the other inhabitants of the island, Italians used a notion of Romanism, which was useful to them 11. It seems that the Roman rite of Compitalia was celebrated by the Italians that first settled on Delos, because it allowed the meeting of this socially heterogeneous group – that also comprised slaves and freedmen of Greek and Eastern origin representing their masters that remained in Italy. The adoption of the cult of the Lares Compitales, that made reference to Rome, enabled the integration of this socially mixed group into an Italian ethnic group and thus served as a means of its self-affirmation 12. The Compitalia were celebrated in honor of the protective deities of the streets and intersections, strengthening neighborhood ties. They were celebrated both on a private level, with sacrifices at the altars next to the house entrances, and on a public level, The use of ethnic Ῥωμαῖος appears on Delos only in Greek inscriptions. The Latin synonym Romanus is never found in Latin inscriptions on Delos; see Adams, « Bilingualism at Delos », p. 109. Two adjectives are used: Ῥωμαῖος and Ἰταλικός in Greek, Italicus in Latin; H. Solin, « Appunti sull’onomastica romana a Delo », in F. Coarelli, D. Musti, and H. Solin (éd.), Delo e l’Italia, Rome, Bardi, 1982 (Opuscula. Instituti Romani Finlandiae 2), p. 113117; M.-T. Le Dinahet, « Les Italiens de Délos: compléments onomastiques et prosopographiques », REA 103(1-2), p. 103-123; Adams, « Bilingualism at Delos »; Adams, Bilingualism, p. 651-658; C. Hasenohr, « Le bilinguisme dans les inscriptions des Magistri de Délos », in F. Biville, J.-C. Decourt, and G. Rougemont (éd.), Bilinguisme gréco-latin et épigraphie. Actes du colloque organisé à l’Université Lumière-Lyon 2 (17-19 mai 2004), Lyon, Maison de l’Orient et de la Méditerranée – Jean Pouilloux, 2008, p. 55-70. 11 See discussion in Hasenohr, « Les Italiens à Délos ». 12 Hasenohr, « Les Italiens à Délos », p. 228-229. 10
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with a common sacrifice of the Italici at the temple of the Lares in the Agora of the Competaliastes (Fig. 3) 13. The liturgical paintings of the Lares Compitales, that adorned the walls and altars at the house entrances, not only rendered omnipresent this ethnic group in the cityscape of Delos but also blurred the notions of private and public.
Fig. 3. View of the Agora of the Competaliastes from the east.
3. Inside the Italian houses: architectural design And while the facades of the houses of Italian merchants reinforced the identity of the ethnic group by referring to the public worship of the Lares Compitales, the interiors of their homes were shaped to meet their economic needs. The ground floor of the houses accommodated the economic activities of the owners – such as workshops and shops – thus blurring the boundary between public and private, while the upper floor housed the luxurious residence of the owner. This type of arrangement seems to have occurred at a second phase. Examples include the House of the Seals in the Northern Q uarter (Fig. 4) and House ID in the 13 Hasenohr, « Les Compitalia à Délos », p. 194-211, 219-223; Hasenohr, « Les Italiens à Délos »; Flower, The dancing lares, p. 175-191.
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Fig. 4. Northern District, House of the Seals, plan.
Stadion District (Fig. 1). While the rearrangement of the ground floor accommodated the economic activities of the owner, the combination of economic activities with a luxurious residence served to satisfy the social aspirations of the owners 14. By placing luxurious living and reception rooms above a ground floor that served the needs of their growing economic activities, Italian merchants accomplished two things: they made profit and at the same time demonstrated their profit to their customers. The combination of profit with luxury is a well-known Roman architectural strategy, attested in houses and villas in Italy – dating slightly later, roughly after the middle of the first century bce 15. 14 See discussion in Zarmakoupi, « The city of late Hellenistic Delos » and Zarmakoupi, « Les maisons des négociants italiens ». 15 See M. Zarmakoupi, Designing for luxury on the bay of Naples: Villas and landscapes (c. 100 bce-79 ce), Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2014, p. 3-8; M. Zarmakoupi, « Private villas: Italy and the provinces », in R. B. Ulrich and C. K. Q uenemoen (éd.), A Companion to Roman Architecture, MaldenOxford, Wiley-Blackwell, 2014, p. 364-370.
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In Roman villas, for example, luxurious spaces were combined with economic concerns of the land. To quote Nicholas Purcell, agriculture and elegance served as “alternative forms of display” 16. It is in this context that we must understand the organization of the houses of the Italian merchants on Delos. While the activities on the ground floor accommodated their economic needs, the luxurious residence on the upper floor satisfied their social aspirations. In this way, the houses of Italian merchants at Delos provide an early example for the combination of elegance with economic activities, with which we are familiar from slightly later examples in Italy. Italians blurred the boundaries between public and private in the architectural organization of their houses and in so doing spatially shaped their ethnic identity. For Italians, who identified themselves as Ῥωμαῖοι in order to conduct their business on Delos in an easier way, the construction of social status in relation to their economic activities was very important. The new layout of the houses underlined the economic ties of the ethnic group and thus associated their social status with their professional interests. By employing the notion of Romanism that was useful to them, Italians and Romans generated profit through the dynamic economy of Delos and at the same time articulated their identity, which largely depended on their economic activities. The paintings related to the Cult of the Lares Compitales did not only make reference to the veneration of the cult at the Agora of the Competaliastes, but also to fighting games, the ludi compitalici, that were organized once a year in association with the veneration of the cult. The paintings feature combatants participating in the games and made reference to this yearly event, which must have taken place at a large open space, such as the Agora of the Competaliastes, but perhaps more likely the Agora of the Italians, as Republican ludi in Rome did (Fig. 5). In the Republican period, the architectural form of the amphitheater had not been yet established and spectacles where held N. Purcell, « The Roman Villa and the Landscape of Production », in T. J. Cornell and K. Lomas (éd.), Urban Society in Roman Italy, New York, St Martin’s Press, 1995, p. 152. 16
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Fig. 5. Plan of the sanctuary of Apollo on Delos and its surrounding edifices, including the Agora of the Italians, the Agora of the Competaliastes and House E (at the east of the peribolos of the sanctuary).
in the forum in Rome. The plural form of the term maenianum (maeniana) became the standard word for the grandstand of an amphitheater. The word maenianum originally designated a kind of cantilevered wooden balcony projecting from buildings around the Forum of Rome for the purpose of viewing spectacula (Vitruvius, De architectura 5.1.1-2) 17. The Agora of the Competaliastes featured an upper floor at its south side from the end of the first 17 For the origin of the term see: J.-C. Golvin, L’amphithéâtre romain: essai sur la théorisation de sa forme et de ses fonctions, Paris, de Boccard, 1988, p. 19; K. Welch, The Roman amphitheatre: From its origins to the Colosseum. New YorkCambridge (MA), Cambridge University Press, 2007, p. 32-35.
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century bce and could have accommodated such a spectacle 18. Yet again, the location of the temples in the middle of the Agora might have prevented the development of the spectacle. The Agora of the Italians on Delos (c. 120 bce) that featured an upper floor is indeed the prime location for serving such a purpose 19. In fact, an inscription from one of the exedras of the Agora of the Italians mentions that the Hermaistai, Apolloniastai and Poseidoniastai funded ludi, along with part of the construction of the baths (ID, 1756). Although not explicitly referring to the ludi compitalici, it would be only natural to assume that they would have taken place here as well – at the decidedly Italian building on Delos. This would not necessarily mean that the Agora was an arena but rather that it would occasionally serve for such occasions as the Republican Forum in Rome did. The paintings of the Lares Compitales permeating the urban landscape of Delos made reference, therefore, to cultic observances that were celebrated at the heart of the social and economic C. Hasenohr, « L’agora des Compétaliastes et ses abords à Délos: topographie et histoire d’un secteur occupé de l’époque archaïque aux temps byzantins », REA 104 (2002), p. 98-99. 19 On the Agora of the Italians: E. Lapalus, L’Agora des Italiens, Paris, de Boccard, 1939 (Exploration Archéologique de Délos 19); M. Trümper, Die ‘Agora des Italiens’ in Delos: Baugeschichte, Architektur, Ausstattung und Funktion einer späthellenistischen Porticus-Anlage, Rahden, Verlag Marie Leidorf, 2008, (Internationale Archäologie 104). For the use of the Agora in gladiatorial shows: N. K. Rauh, « Was the Agora of the Italians an établissement de sport? », BCH 116 (1992), p. 293-333, esp. 317; Rauh, Sacred bonds of commerce, p. 81-83, 289338; see also: J. Hatzfeld and P. Roussel, « Fouilles de Délos exécutées aux frais de M. le Duc de Loubat. Décrets, dédicaces et inscriptions funéraires (19051908) II », BCH 34.1 (1910), p. 355-423, 403-405, no. 54; contra: P. Bruneau, « Deliaca (X) », BCH 119 (1995), p. 45-54. See also: A. Mastino, « Il dibattito sull’agorà degli Italici a Delo: Un bilancio retrospettivo fra ideologia e urbanistica », in S. Angiolillo, S. Boldrini, and P. Braconi (éd.), Il perle e il filo: a Mario Torelli, Venosa, Osanna, 2008, p. 237-238; Trümper, Die ‘Agora des Italiens’, p. 7-8, 96-98. Filippo Coarelli has interpreted the Agora as the locus of the slave trade on Delos: F. Coarelli, « L’‘Agora des Italiens’ a Delo: il mercato degli schiavi? », in F. Coarelli, D. Musti, and H. Solin (éd.), Delo e l’Italia, Rome, Bardi, 1982 (Opuscula Instituti Romani Finlandiae 2), p. 119145; F. Coarelli, « L’‘Agora des Italiens’ a Delo: lo statarion di Delo ? », JRA 18 (2005), p. 196-212; F. Coarelli, I mercanti nel tempio: Delo: culto, politica, commercio, Athens, Scuola Archeologica Italiana di Atene, 2016 (Tripodes 16), ch. 3. Summary of the arguments against this interpretation: M.-C. Hellmann, C. Hasenohr and F. Q ueyrel, « Review of F. Coarelli, I mercanti nel tempio », RA 64 (2017), p. 391-395. 18
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network of the Italian merchant community. Both the public worship of the collegium of the Lares Compitales as well as the ludi compitalici took place at two of the strongholds of the Italian merchant community: the former at the Agora of the Competaliastes, at the heart of the Delian emporium, and the latter at the playground for self-representation of the Italians on Delos, the so-called Agora of the Italians. In this way, the Italian merchant community employed the religious paintings in order to fuse their social and economic networks and brand their corporate identity on Delos.
4. Inside the Italian houses: inscriptions and graffiti The last type of material evidence that I will employ in my examination of the Italian houses on Delos is writing. I will examine two types of writing: stone inscriptions and graffiti. Stone inscriptions, which by their nature are formal, underline the public character of some areas of the house 20. As a less formal use of writing, graffiti, on the other hand, indicate the more interactive use of inscriptions and point to both public and private uses of domestic space. Here I will focus on the graffiti that point to the public nature of the spaces. The first inscription I will examine comes from House IC in the Stadion District (Fig. 1). The inscription is bilingual, in Greek and Latin, and records a dedication of a statue by three freedmen, Heracleon, Alexandros and Aristarchos, to their patron (Q . Tullius Q . f.) 21. The inscription reads as follows: For an introduction to domestic writing culture, see: M. Corbier, « Présentation. L’écrit dans l’espace domestique », M. Corbier and J.-P. Guilhembet (éd.), L’écriture dans la maison romaine, Paris, De Boccard 2012, p. 7-46. On the notions of public and private in ancient Greece see F. de Polignac and P. Schmitt-Pantel, « Public et privé en Grèce ancienne : lieux, conduites, pratiques. Introduction », Ktema 23 (1998), p. 5-13. Also, other articles of the same volume of Ktema (1998). For the relationship between writing and public space, see A. D. Rizakis, « Writing, public space and publicity in Greek and Roman cities », in W. Eck, P. Funke and al. (éd.), Öffentlichkeit – Monument – Text: XIV Congressus internationalis epigraphiae Graecae et Latinae, 27.-31. Augusti MMXII, Akten, Berlin and Boston, De Gruyter, 2014 (Corpus inscriptionum Latinarum; Auctarium s n. 4), p. 77-89. 21 SEG 32 (1982) 812. A. Plassart, « Fouilles de Délos, exécutées aux frais de M. le Duc de Loubat (1912-1913). Q uartier des habitations privées à l’est du 20
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[Κοίντον Τύλλιον - - - -]π ̣ον Κ̣οίντου υἱὸν [Κοίντος Τύλ]λ ̣ιο̣ ̣ς ̣ [Ἡρα]κ ̣λέων καὶ Κοίντος Τύλλιος Ἀλέξανδρος καὶ Κοίντος Τύλλιος Ἀρίσταρχος οἱ Κοίντου τὸν ἑαυτῶν πάτρωνα ἀρετῆς ἕνεκεν κ ̣αὶ καλοκαγαθίας ̣ τῆς εἰς ἐαυτούς. [Q . Tullium Q . f - - - pum] Q . Tullius Q . l. A[ristarchus] Q . Tullius Q . l. Ale[xander] Q . Tullius Q . l. He[racle]o [p]atrọ[nem] suom honoris et be[nef]ịci cau[sa.]
In Greek: “[To Q uintus Tullius - - -]pus son of Q uintus, Q uintus Tullius Heracleon and Q uintus Tullius Alexandros and Q uintus Tullius Aristarchos; to their patron, honoring his virtue and benefaction toward them.” In Latin: “To Q uintus Tullius son of Q uintus, Q uintus Tullius Aristarchos and Q uintus Tullius Alexander and Q uintus Tullius Heracleon; to their patron, for his virtue and benefaction” 22. The Greek freedmen of Q uintus Tullius dedicated the statue with inscriptions in both Greek and Latin. Studies of the language used in dedicatory inscriptions to Italians or Romans have shown that the use of Greek answered the wishes of the Italian community to integrate linguistically in Delian society 23. The use Stade (Pl. V-VII) », BCH 40 (1916), p. 145-256, 205-207; P. Bruneau, « Les Israélites de Délos et la juiverie délienne », BCH 106 (1982), p. 465-504, 503, n. 90; Rauh, Sacred bonds of commerce, p. 198-200; M. Kreeb, Untersuchungen zur figürlichen Ausstattung delischer Privathäuser, Chicago, Ares Publishers Inc., 1988, p. 169-170; J.-L. Ferrary, C. Hasenohr et al., « Liste des italiens de Délos », in C. Müller and C. Hasenohr (éd.), Les Italiens dans le monde grec: iie siècle av. J.-C. - ier siècle apr. J.-C. : Circulation, activités, intégration: Actes de la table ronde, École normale supérieure, Paris, 14-16 mai 1998, Paris, de Boccard, 2002 (BCH Supplément 41), p. 218, nos 4-7. 22 Plassart, « Fouilles de Délos », 207; ID 1802, Inv. E 775. 23 J. Touloumakos, « Bilingue [Griechisch-Lateinische] Weihinschriften der römischen Zeit », Tekmeria 1 (1995), p. 79-129, 119-120, 125; J. N. Adams, “Bilingualism at Delos”, in J. N. Adams, M. Janse, and S. Swain (éd.), Bilingualism in ancient society: Language contact and the written text, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2002, p. 103-127; J. N. Adams, Bilingualism and the Latin Language, New York, Cambridge University Press, 2003, p. 642-662; Hasenohr, « Les Italiens à Délos ». The analysis of the use of Latin by Romans or Italians has shown that it was used as a means of underlining the specificity of their ethnic group. Italian magistri used Latin in their dedicatory inscriptions during their appointment in order to underline the official character of the dedications while
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of Greek by the freedmen may also indicate their desire to emphasize their own, Greek, identity. Bilingual inscriptions seem to have served as a means to project some sort of collective corporate identity of the Italian negotiatores at Delos 24. The freedmen of Q uintus Tullius, who conducted business on behalf of their patron on Delos – probably on the ground floor of the house 25, wished to underline this aspect of their identity, which largely depended on their economic activities. The inscription came from the upper floor of the house, probably from the north balcony around the courtyard (c), as it was found in the upper layers of the rubble in room (g) close to its south wall 26. The text, as well as the accompanying statue, which is missing, would have been visible to visitors of the house, as the reception rooms were located on this floor 27. Access to the upper floor was granted through vestibule (a), at the south part of the courtyard. The reception rooms were located at the north area of the upper floor, beyond the north balcony where the inscription and statue were probably set up. Arriving at the south balcony around the courtyard, a visitor would have seen the inscription and statue base set at the north balcony across the opening of the courtyard below.
the bilingualism of the inscriptions points to particular occasions. However, the former magistri used Greek only in their dedicatory inscriptions. After leaving office, they conform to the local language and expressions. The only exception to this is the Agora of the Italians, where it seems that there was a desire to underline the official character of this place of reunion, even if the building was privately funded. See Hasenohr, « Les Italiens à Délos” ». 24 Adams, « Bilingualism at Delos ». See also Hasenohr, « Les Italiens à Délos » and « Le bilinguisme ». 25 For the ways in which the ground floor of this house accommodated the economic activities of the owners see Zarmakoupi, « The city of late Hellenistic Delos » and « Les maisons des négociants italiens ». 26 Kreeb, Untersuchungen zur figürlichen Ausstattung, p. 169. 27 The second floor was added at a later phase of the house, at which time the rooms to the north of the courtyard, which must have been used as reception rooms at the first phase, were used for storage. By the construction of the second floor the lighting and ventilation of these rooms were reduced and the upper floor now offered more attractive alternatives for such reception rooms. M. Zarmakoupi, « The Q uartier du Stade on late Hellenistic Delos: A case study of rapid urbanization (Fieldwork Seasons 2009-2010) », ISAW Papers 6 (2013).
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Fig. 6. View of the entrance to House E, at the east of the peribolos of the sanctuary of Apollo. The niche where the inscription of Spurius Stertinius was placed can be seen on the left wall as one enters the vestibule of the house.
The second inscription comes from House E, which was accessed from the street at the east of the Peribolos of the sanctuary of Apollo (Figs 5 and 6). The inscription featured on a stone that formed the basis of a niche located in the vestibule of the house and on which a statuette was fixed with a dowel – again the statuette is missing. It reads: Σπόριος Στερτένιος Ἀρτέμιδι Σωτείραι. Spurius Stertinius to Artemis Soteira.
The house must have belonged to Spurius Stertinius, who dedicated the statuette to the goddess Artemis Soteira 28. The gens Ster P. Roussel and L. Bizard, « Fouilles de Délos, exécutées aux frais de M. le Duc de Loubat (1904). Inscriptions (suite) », BCH 31 (1907), p. 421-470, 459, fig. 16; L. Bizard, « Descriptions des ruines (Pl. XIV) », BCH 31 (1907), p. 496; P. Bruneau, Recherches sur les cultes de Délos à l’époque hellénistique et à époque impériale, Paris, De Boccard, 1970 (Bibliothèque des Écoles françaises 28
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tinia is known from several inscriptions and Spurius Stertinius dedicates votive offerings to several deities 29. His worship of Artemis Soteira is also documented on a votive relief found in the temple of Aphrodite, which was not too far from the house 30. In both inscriptions Spurius Stertinius uses the local Greek language, but in the inscription on the votive offering found in the temple of Aphrodite he identifies himself as Ῥωμαῖος. The use of ethnic Ῥωμαῖος appears on Delos only in Greek inscriptions 31, and the public display of the votive offering in the temple of Aphrodite can be the explanation for the inclusion of the adjective Ῥωμαῖος in the inscription 32. It is interesting nonetheless that Spurius Stertinius uses the Greek language in the private context of his house. The inscription, however, did not feature in a secluded area of the house. Located in the vestibule, on the left-hand side upon entering the house, at a distance of 2.10 m from the entrance, and at a height of 1.30 m, the inscription was in the most accessible and frequented area of the house, and thus highly visible. d’Athènes et de Rome 217), p. 204; Kreeb, Untersuchungen zur figürlichen Ausstattung, p. 196-197. See also discussion on the dedications of Stertinius on Delos in T. D. McClain and N. K. Rauh, « Signs of a woman’s influence? The dedications of the Stertinian familia at Delos », Aevum 70 (1996), p. 47-68. 29 On Spurius Sertinus see Hatzfeld, « Les Italiens résident à Délos », p. 81, Stertinii, no. 5; F. Courby, Le Portique d’Antigone ou du Nord-Est et les constructions voisines, Paris, de Boccard, 1912 (Exploration Archéologique de Délos 5), p. 114-115; Ferrary, Hasenohr et al., « Liste des italiens », p. 216, Stertinii, nos. 5 and 6. On Spurii, with previous bibliography, see: K. Buraselis, « Stray notes on Roman names in Greek documents », in A. D. Rizakis (éd.), Roman onomastics in the Greek East: Social and political aspects. Proceedings of the International Colloquium on Roman Onomastics, Athens, 7-9 September 1993, Athens, Research Centre for Greek and Roman Antiquity, National Hellenic Research Foundation and De Boccard, 1996, p. 55-59. 30 J. Marcadé, Au musée de Délos. Étude sur la sculpture hellénistique en ronde bosse découverte dans l’île, Paris, De Boccard, 1969 (Bibliothèque des Écoles françaises d’Athènes et de Rome 215), p. 214-215, pl. 40. See E. Rathmayr, « The significance of sculptures with associated inscriptions in private houses in Ephesos, Pergamon and beyond », in R. Benefiel and P. Keegan (éd.), Inscriptions in private spaces, Leiden-Boston, Brill, 2016, p. 146-179, text no. 10. 31 The Latin synonym Romanus is never found in Latin inscriptions at Delos. See Adams, « Bilingualism at Delos », p. 109. Two adjectives are used: Ῥωμαῖος and Ἰταλικός in Greek, Italicus in Latin. See: Solin, « Appunti sull’onomastica », p. 113-117; Le Dinahet, « Les Italiens de Délos »; Adams, Bilingualism, p. 651-658. 32 See Rathmayr, « The significance of sculptures with associated inscriptions ».
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We notice that in both cases, the inscriptions (and accompanying statue / statuette) were placed in areas dedicated for passage within the most public areas of the house. The inscription and statue / statuette, were set in such a way so as to be immediately visible upon entering the space that they were set. The monument of Q uintus Tullius was visible from the south balcony, from where one gained access to the upper floor, and the niche in the vestibule of the house of Spurius Stertinius was immediately visible upon entering the house. In both cases, the statue / statuette, and inscription underscored the owners’ actions and respectable statuses. In the case of the house of Q uintus Tullius, the bilingual inscription set up by his freedmen emphasized the collective identity of negotiatores on Delos, which largely depended on their economic activities. In the case of the house of Spurius Stertinius, the dedication to Artemis Soteira reminded to visitors the votive offering that the house owner made to the same goddess in the sanctuary of Aphrodite, which was not too far from the house, while the use of Greek for the language of the dedication underlined his adoption of the local language. As a less formal use of writing, graffiti point to the ways in which the spaces that they feature were used. Unlike modern graffiti, which for us denote an abuse of space 33, the ancient graffiti 33 M. Langner, Antike Graffitizeichnungen: Motive, Gestaltung und Bedeutung, Wiesbaden, L. Reichert, 2012, p. 19-20. Recent studies address the literary value of graffiti. See, for example, the study of graffiti poetry found in Pompeii by Kristina Milnor (K. Milnor, Graffiti and the literary landscape in Roman Pompeii, Oxford-New York, Oxford University Press, 2014, p. 45-96). The graffiti found in the Delian houses were numerous, but they were often not documented fully before they were weather-beaten and deteriorated beyond conservation or recovery. They were originally published in excavation reports and only the representations of ships were treated in more detailed publications. See brief account in: P. Bruneau, Les lampes, Paris, 1965 (Exploration archéologique de Délos 26), p. 108, n. 3; P. Bruneau, « Deliaca », BCH 99 (1975), p. 286-287; and P. Bruneau, « Deliaca (II) », BCH 102 (1978), p. 109-171, 147. On graffiti representing ships: L. Basch, « Graffites navals à Délos », Études déliennes publiées à l’occasion du centième anniversaire des fouilles de l’École française d’Athènes à Délos, Paris, 1973 (BCH Supplément 1), p. 65-76; L. Basch, Le musée imaginaire de la marine antique, Athens, Institut Hellenique pour la préservation de la tradition nautique, 1987; and L. Basch, « Les Graffiti de Délos », in H. E. Tzalas (éd.), Tropisi: Proceedings of the 1st International Symposium on Ship Construction in Antiquity. Piraeus, 30 August – 1 September 1985, Athens, Hellenic Institute for the Preservation of Nautical Tradition, 1989, p. 17-23. The recent study of ancient graffiti by Langner compiled a catalogue of the published graffiti,
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were perceived as a flexible means of communication and clustered in the most “public” areas of the house 34. In the House ID in the Stadion District, for instance, graffiti were concentrated in vestibule (a) and in staircase room (c) that led to the upper floor. Upon entering the house, to the right from the entrance, in front of the latrines, appeared a graffito of a transport-ship with 36 oarsmen 35. Next to the ship were written a large number of names, including greetings in both Greek and Latin and presenting different letter heights, a fact that suggests different authors 36. One name is ΗΛΙΟΦΩΝ. That same name appears in Latin just outside this house, where it is inscribed on the altar of the Lares Compitales, just to the right of the entrance 37. The concentration of the names and greetings, as well as the repetition of the name of Ἡλιοφῶν, suggests a continuing conversation among the different authors/ visitors, similar to that found in the House of the Four Styles in Pompeii 38. In the staircase room (c), graffiti of ships appeared on the north wall, opposite the staircase that led to the upper floor 39. which is almost complete (accompanying CD in: Langner, Antike Graffitizeichnungen). Langner documents graffiti in twenty-three houses, and this number can be amended to twenty-four. A graffito in room (h) of House IC in the Stadion District (now lost) was omitted (documented in Plassart, « Fouilles de Délos », p. 201). For a recent assessment of graffiti in Delian houses see Zarmakoupi, « The spatial environment ». 34 See, for example, R. Benefiel, « Dialogues of graffiti in the House of Maius Castricius at Pompeii », AJA 114 (2010), p. 59-101; R. Benefiel, « Dialogues of graffiti in the House of the Four Styles at Pompeii (Casa dei Q uattro Stili, I.8.17,11) », in J. A. Baird and C. Taylor (éd.), Ancient graffiti in context, New York-London, Routledge, 2011, p. 104-199. 35 Langner, Antike Graffitizeichnungen, no. 1906; Plassart, « Fouilles de Délos », p. 224. 36 Plassart, « Fouilles de Délos », p. 224, n. 1. 37 Plassart, « Fouilles de Délos », p. 211. The graffito features under one of the persons represented on the south elevation of the altar (final state): HELIOFO, CIL I2, 2652. Plassart speculated that it may also read HELIODO(RUS) but favored the first interpretation because of the graffito documenting the name ΗΛΙΟΦΩΝ inside the house. The Greek form of this name (Ἡλιοφῶν) appears only in this case on Delos. It occurs in 6 more cases, see LGPN vols I, IIIa, IV, and Va (http://clas-lgpn2.classics.ox.ac.uk/cgi-bin/lgpn_search.cgi?name= ῾Ηλιοφῶν). On Ἡλιόδωρος see LGPN, s.v. (http://clas-lgpn2.classics.ox.ac.uk/ cgi-bin/lgpn_search.cgi?name=῾Ηλιόδωρος). 38 Benefiel, « Dialogues of graffiti in the House of the Four Styles », p. 20-48. 39 Langner, Antike Graffitizeichnungen, nos. 1915, 1984, 2081, 2082. On the north wall of room (c): graffito no. 1915 of a sailing ship to the right
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This house was modified at a second phase: the reception rooms of the house to the north of the courtyard were broken down into smaller rooms to form two groups of rooms that served as storage and guest rooms 40. The clustering of the graffiti in the area of the entrance and the staircase suggests that these spaces were the most frequented areas of the house. Is the clustering of the graffiti associated with the change of the function of the rooms at the north of the courtyard? It is possible that when the rooms to the north of the courtyard changed function, reception rooms were created on the upper floor – to which members of the household as well visitors were going, leaving their marks in the vestibule and the staircase. The study of graffiti in the Delian houses shows that graffiti were concentrated in areas of the house dedicated for passage, as well as spaces where people had access frequently and gathered as the case of the graffiti in the houses of Pompeii and villas around the bay of Naples. Similar to the honorary and dedicatory inscriptions discussed earlier – but surely not sharing the monumental character of the inscriptions with their accompanying statues / statuettes – graffiti and especially clusters of graffiti featured in areas of the house where they could be seen by members of the household as well as visitors. The majority of the attested graffiti were, in fact, in the most frequented and accessible parts of the house: on the walls of the vestibule (e.g., House of ID in the Stadion Q uarter, House of Dionysos in the Theater Q uarter), of the courtyard (e.g., House IIA in the Stadion Q uarter, House of the Tritons in the Insula of the Tragic Actors) or of rooms opening onto the courtyard (e.g., House of the Lake, House III K in the Theater District). Whereas the textual graffiti with their greetings and playful messages promoted communications among the people passing through and gathering in the most frequented areas of the house, the graffiti of ships probably formed part of a popat a height of 1.20 m; graffito no. 1984 of a sailing ship at a height of c. 1.80 m; graffito no. 2081 of a sailing ship at a height of c. 1.20 m; graffito no. 2082 of a sailing ship at a height of c. 1.20 m (graffiti nos. 2081-2082 are together, one on top of the other); graffito no. 2161 of a sailing ship at a height of c. 1.20 m. 40 While the north-west group of rooms was possibly used for storage, the rooms of the north-east one, which were smaller and featured niches, were possibly rented out as guest rooms. Zarmakoupi, « The Q uartier du Stade ».
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ular imagery that made reference to the world of commerce on which the port-city of Delos and its Italian merchant population depended 41. While the graffiti in the Delian houses communicated informal messages that shed light on the personal sensibilities and in some cases religious affiliations of the house occupants and their guests, the inscriptions present us with public language use. They both, however, point to the public function of the houses. In the house of Q uintus Tullius, for example, the bilingual inscription set on the upper floor of the courtyard underscored the economic activities of the owner. The language and content of the inscriptions in the Delian houses emphasized the public actions, respectable statuses as well as the identity of the owners. Thus the bilingual inscription in the House of Q . Tullius made reference to the collective corporate identity of the Italian negotiatores at Delos. Featuring in the public areas of the house, such as the vestibule and courtyard, inscriptions were immediately visible upon entering the house and formed part of the social staging of the house owner. To this end, the placement of inscriptions in the public areas of the house is paradigmatic of the visual strategies employed to promote the identity of the house owner in the domestic sphere on late Hellenistic / Roman Delos, and can be compared to similar strategies in Pompeii, Ephesos and Pergamon 42.
See discussion in Zarmakoupi, « The spatial environment ». See Rathmayr, « The significance of sculptures with associated inscriptions ». 41
42
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HOUSE FORM AND HOUSEHOLD STRUCTURE: THE SOCIAL ANALYSIS OF URBAN DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE IN ROMAN CELTIBERIA
1. Introduction The relationship between house morphology and the social function of the home within a given cultural or historical context has a long tradition of study 1. The first author to explicitly examine this relationship may have been Norbert Elias in his seminal essay on The Court Society 2. In the third chapter 3 of this work, insightfully titled “The structure of dwelling as an indicator of social structure,” Elias explains how the spatial configuration of houses and, more specifically, the internal relationships between rooms, can be interpreted as a representation of the social hierarchies existing between the inhabitants. To illustrate this notion Elias introduced the example of the French Château as the normative housing model of the aristocratic court of the Modern Age. In the case of the Roman domestic architecture, a similar analytic proposal was not made before the eighties decade. The excel1 A. Rapoport, House Form and Culture, Michigan, Prentice-Hall, 1969; A. Rapoport, The Meaning of the Built Environment: A Nonverbal Communication Approach, London, Sage, 1982. S. Kent, Domestic Architecture and the Use of Space: An Interdisciplinary Cross-Cultural Study, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1990; I. Hodder, « From Diffusion to Structural Transformation: The Changing Roles of Neolithic House in the Middle East, Turkey, and Europe », in D. Hofmann and J. Smith (éd.), Tracking the Neolithic House in Europe, New York, Springer, p. 342-362; S. R. Steadman, The Archaeology of Domestic Architecture and the Human Use of Space, London, Routledge, 2016. 2 N. Elias, Die höfische Gesellschaft. Untersuchungen zur Soziologie des Königtums und der höfischen Aristokratie, Frankfurt am Main, Suhrkamp, 1969 (Based on his Habilitation redacted in 1933). 3 Elias, Die höfische Gesellschaft, p. 68-101.
Anthropology of Roman Housing, ed. by Alexandra Dardenay and Nicolas Laubry, Turnhout, 2020 (ASH, 5), pp. 259–292 © FHG DOI 10.1484/M.ASH-EB.5.119738
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lent article by Andrew Wallace-Hadrill 4 can be cited as the first methodological model for a social analysis of the spatial configuration of the Roman domus. His proposal, which is best summarized in his famous chart 5 with two main axes of social articulation and representation within the Roman house, was inspired by the structuralist models developed by sociologists like that proposed by P. Bourdieu for the social reading of the Kabyle 6 houses in the Maghreb. Until then, the investigation of Roman domestic architecture had been focused on merely typological issues, through the publication of several catalogues of houses and rooms whose functions were established on the basis of similarities with the normative model encoded by Vitruvius. The ideal representation of this normative model of the “Roman domus” – defined in singular – was traditionally identified with the Pompeian dwellings that were also used by Andrew Wallace-Hadrill as the main study cases 7 in his analytic proposal. Notwithstanding the undeniable success of Wallace-Hadrill model, that can be considered dominant in the larger part of the current scholarship 8, it has certain limitations 9, especially with A. Wallace-Hadrill, « The Social Structure of Roman House », PBSR 56 (1988), p. 43-97. 5 Wallace-Hadrill, « The Social Structure », fig. 3. 6 P. Bourdieu, « La maison kabyle ou le monde renversé », in J. Pouillon and P. Maranda (éd.), Échanges et communication. Mélanges offerts à Claude Lévi-Strauss, II, Paris, Mouton, 1970, p. 739-758. 7 A. Wallace-Hadrill, Houses and Society in Pompeii and Herculaneum, New Jersey, Princeton University Press, 1996; A. Wallace-Hadrill, « Rethinking the Roman Atrium House », in R. Laurence and A. Wallace-Hadrill (éd.), Domestic Space in the Roman World: Pompeii and Beyond, Portsmouth, RI, 1997 (JRA Supplement 22), p. 219-240; A. Wallace-Hadrill, « The development of the Campanian house », in J. J. Dobbins and P. W. Foss (éd.), The World of Pompeii, London-New York, Routledge, 2007, p. 279-291. 8 Some relevant monographs that must be cited are M. George, The Roman Domestic Architecture of Northern Italy, Oxford, Archaeopress, 1997 (BAR International Series 670); J. A. Dickmann, Domus Frequentata. Anspruchsvolles Wohnen im pompejanischen Stadthaus, München, Pfeil Verlag, 1999; S. Ellis, Roman Housing, London, Duckworth, 2000; P. Gros, L’architecture romaine : du début du iiie siècle av. J.-C. à la fin du Haut-Empire, 2, Paris, Picard, 2002; S. Hales, The Roman House and Social Identity, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2003. An alternative perspective in V. Jolivet, Tristes portiques. Sur le plan canonique de la maison étrusque et romaine des origines au principat d’Auguste, Rome, EFR, 2011 (BÉFAR 342). 9 These limits are explicitly acknowledged by Wallace-Hadrill, The Social Structure, note 1. 4
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regard to the social analysis of housing in Roman provincial settings. The most important of these limitations is the normative nature of this paradigm. The Wallace-Hadrill model, in accordance with Vitruvius, is based on the conventional idea of the social structure of the Roman domus. This conceptualization is biased by an approach to the social articulation of the Roman house as conceived in terms of the needs of the paterfamilias (as the paradigm of Italic-adult-citizen-male members of Roman society 10). That is, in the words of Wallace-Hadrill 11 himself, his model can only be used to ascertain how Roman a “Roman house” is. But what about those houses that do not conform to this kind of normative paradigms? How can one perform a social analysis of other types of houses of the Roman period? These questions, which constitute the main focus of this chapter, are especially relevant for two main reasons. The first is the successive excavation, within the framework of provincial archaeology 12, of a progressively larger corpus of dwellings that depart from the normative or canonical models of Roman dwellings. The second is that, a growing body of research clearly shows that Roman dwellings were subject to the same diversity and variation that has been observed in the many varied and alternative models of household composition in contemporary society. This heterogeneity is not exclusively Modern; it can be clearly documented in the vast majority of past societies 13. With the aim of performing a social analysis of the domestic architecture in a provincial setting from a non-normative perspec10 K. Milnor, Gender, Domesticity, and the Age of Augustus: Inventing Private Life, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2008, p. 94-139. 11 A. Wallace-Hadrill, « What makes a Roman house a “Roman house”? », in K. Tuori and L. Nissin (éd.), Public and Private in the Roman House and Society, Portsmouth, RI, 2015 (JRA Supplement 102), p. 177-186. 12 For the Iberian case see V. H. Correia, A Arquitectura Doméstica de Conimbriga e as Estruturas Económicas e Sociais da Cidade Romana, Coimbra, 2013 (Anexos de Conimbriga 5); A. Cortés, L’Arquitectura domèstica d’època tardorepublicana i altimperial a les ciutats romanes de Catalunya, Union Académique Internationale. Institut d’Estudis Catalans, Publicacions generals Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 2014; P. Uribe, La arquitectura doméstica urbana romana en el valle medio del Ebro (siglos II a.C. - III p.C.), Bordeaux, 2016 (Suppléments Aquitania 35); A. Corrales, La Arquitectura doméstica de Augusta Emerita, Madrid, CSIC, 2016 (Anejos de AEspA 76). 13 S. R. Huebner and G. Nathan (éd.), Mediterranean Families in Antiquity: Households, Extended Families, and Domestic Space, Oxford, Wiley, 2016.
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tive, we will compare the data obtained through the application of several Space Syntax tools with what we actually know about the different forms of household structure documented in the Celtiberian region. This methodological approach allows us to identify potentially hidden patterns of relationship between the spatial configuration of the urban dwellings documented in this provincial region and the diversity in the household structures of their inhabitants.
2. Sampling the urban domestic architecture in Roman Celtiberia Ancient Celtiberia was presented by some Roman authors 14 within a relatively well defined territory between the Southwest bank of the Ebro River and the upper interfluvial valleys of the Duero and Tajo Rivers. Situated in the interior of the Iberian Peninsula, ancient Celtiberia can be described as a mountainous region with a certain variety of landscapes generated by the foothills of the Sistema Ibérico (Fig. 1). It is an area characterized by harsh winds and cold winters, contrasting with the tropical image some ancient authors evoked for other regions of Roman Spain 15. The Roman conquest of this region was only accomplished after a series of military campaigns 16 whose climax was the wellknown conquest of Numantia by Scipio Aemilianus in 133 bc. From that time, the territory was ascribed first to the Provin14 For a corpus of literary evidence (translated into Spanish) on Celtiberia, see A. Capalvo, Celtiberia. Un estudio de las fuentes antiguas, Zaragoza, Institución Fernando el Católico, 1996, p. 207-239. 15 E. H. Haley, Baetica Felix: People and Prosperity in Southern Spain from Caesar to Septimius Severus, Austin, University of Texas Press, 2003. 16 Appian, Iber. 42-80; Polyb. 3.35.2. M. Salinas de Frías, Conquista y romanización de la Celtiberia, Salamanca, Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca, 1986; M. Salinas de Frías, « Las guerras celtibéricas y la conquista romana del valle del Duero », in M. Navarro et al. (éd.), Villes et territoires dans le bassin du Douro à l’époque romaine. Actes de la table ronde internationale, Bordeaux, Ausonius, 2007, p. 27-44; L. Curchin, Roman Spain: Conquest and Assimilation, London, Routledge, 1991; F. Cadiou, Hibera in terra miles. Les armées romaines et la conquête de l’Hispanie sous la République (218-245 av. J.-C.), Madrid, Casa de Velázquez, 2008 (Bibliothèque de la Casa de Velázquez 38), p. 44-54.
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Fig. 1. Map of the Celtiberian cities indicating the location of the houses analyzed (CAD: Fernando Moreno).
cia Hispania Citerior during the Republican period and then to the Tarraconense province 17 after the Augustan administrative reforms. Although previous scholarship has traditionally considered this region to be less densely urbanized 18 than other territories of Roman Spain, such as the Baetica province 19, we have documented a relatively high number of cities with municipal status 20 in it. In many cases, these cities were previously pre-Roman Celtiberian oppida promoted to municipia 21 from the Augustan period and more generally during the Flavian period, coinciding with a phase of intense municipalization in many areas of 17 P. Le Roux, « Les provinces ibériques dans les politiques romaines (70 av. J.-C.-73 apr. J.‑C.) », Pallas 96 (2014), p. 145-166. 18 P. Le Roux, Romains d’Espagne : Cités et politique dans les provinces e siècle av. J.-C. - iiie siècle apr. J.-C., Paris, Armand Colin, 1995, p. 122-128. ii 19 Haley, Baetica Felix, p. 70-81. 20 J. M. Abascal Palazón, « Los tres viajes de Augusto a Hispania y su relación con la promoción jurídica de ciudades », Iberia 9 (2006), p. 63-78. 21 L. Curchin, The Romanization of Central Spain. Complexity, Diversity and Change in a Provincial Hinterland, London, Routledge, 2004, p. 69-95.
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Roman Spain 22. Within these cities we must highlight the cases of Termes (Montejo de Tiermes, Soria), Uxama Argaela (El Burgo de Osma, Soria), Numantia (Garay, Soria), Arcobriga (Monreal de Ariza, Zaragoza), Iuliobriga (Retortillo, Cantabria), Ercavica (Cañaveruelas, Cuenca), La Caridad (Caminreal, Teruel), and Valeria (Las Valeras, Cuenca), where the houses included in our study are located (Fig. 1). We will introduce a brief description of the previous scholarship on the domus encompassed in our sample. In this respect, we must note that the publication of some previous syntheses 23 makes this task easier. The selection of the cases included in our sample is based on one main criterion: the extensive excavation of their entire area. There are many other examples that have been documented in the region but the use of Space Syntax methodology, especially the tools applied in this study, requires that entire buildings be known in extension. Using this class of tools for the social analysis of isolated parts of buildings carries a high risk of introducing distortions through the data obtained. Termes was a pre-Roman oppidum promoted to the status of municipium during the Julio-Claudian period 24. We include two examples from this site in the present study. The first is the Domus del Acueducto 25 (Fig. 2: 1), an exceptional example of the typical rock-carved architecture characteristic of this Celtiberian Roman site 26. The house was excavated in successive campaigns 22 J. Andreu, Edictum, municipium y lex: Hispania en época Flavia (6996 d.C.), Oxford, Archaeopress, 2004 (BAR International Series 1293). 23 La Casa Urbana Hispanorromana, Zaragoza, Institución Fernando el Católico, 1991; Uribe, La arquitectura doméstica, p. 187-365; J. Bermejo Tirado, Arqueología de los espacios domésticos romanos: condiciones de vida y sociedad en la Meseta nordeste durante el período imperial, Soria, Diputación Provincial de Soria, 2014 (Colección Temas sorianos 59), p. 79-141. 24 S. Martínez Caballero, El proceso de urbanización de la Meseta Norte en la Protohistoria y la Antigüedad: la ciudad celtibérica y romana de Termes (s. VI a.C. - 193 p.C.), Unpublished PhD, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, 2016, p. 267-343. 25 J. L. Argente and A. Díaz Díaz, Tiermes IV. La casa del acueducto (domus altoimperial de la ciudad de Tiermes): campañas 1979-1986, Madrid, Ministerio de Cultura, 1994 (EAE 167). 26 J. L. Argente, « Tiermes la roca como base para la vivienda doméstica de época romana », in La Casa Urbana Hispanorromana, Zaragoza, Institución Fernando el Católico, 1991, p. 213-232.
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Fig. 2. 1) Domus del Acueducto (Termes), after Argente, Díaz Díaz, Tiermes IV.2) Casa Barrio Foro-Insula II (Termes), after Martínez Caballero, El proceso de urbanización. 3) Domus de los Plintos (Uxama), after García Merino et al., « Cultura material ». 4) Domus de las Vigas quemadas (Numantia), after Jimeno, « Espacio doméstico ». 5) Domus Sector Sur (Numantia), after Jimeno, « Espacio doméstico ». 6) Domus Sector Sur II, after Jimeno, « Las ciudades celtibéricas ». 7) Domus del Pretorio (Arcobriga), after Caballero, « Reinterpretación arquitectónica del Pretorio de Arcobriga (Monreal de Ariza, Zaragoza) ». 8) Domus de los Morillos (Iuliobriga), after Fernandez Vega, Arquitectura y urbanística en la ciudad romana de Juliobriga. 9) Domus de la Llanuca II, after Fernandez Vega, Arquitectura y urbanística en la ciudad romana de Juliobriga. 10) Domus del Médico (Ercavica), after Osuna, « Ercavica ». 11) Domus 3 (Ercavica), after Rubio, Valero, « Intervenciones arqueológicas en Ercavica ». 12) Domus 4 (Ercavica), after Rubio, Valero, « Intervenciones arqueológicas en Ercavica ». (CAD Fernando Moreno & Jesús Bermejo).
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Fig. 3. 1) Domus de Likine (La Caridad). 2) Domus I-2 (La Caridad). 3) Domus I-3 (La Caridad). 4) Domus I-4 (La Caridad). 5) Domus I-5 (La Caridad). 6) Domus I-6 (La Caridad). 7) Domus V-1 (La Caridad). 8) Domus V-2 (La Caridad). 9) Domus V-3 (La Caridad). 10) Domus V-4 (La Caridad). 11) Domus V-6 (La Caridad), after Ezq uerra « La ciudad romana de “La Caridad” (Caminreal, Teruel) ». 12) Domus de los Adobes (Valeria), after Fuentes « Urbanismo privado y casas en Valeria » (CAD: Fernando Moreno & Jesús Bermejo).
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from 1979 to 1986 under the direction of José Luis Argente. Later excavations on this city, focused in the foral sector of the site 27, documented another example of domestic architecture that belongs to the Late Republican phase of this sector. These dwelling structures (Fig. 2: 2), linked to the Insula II of the so-called Forum quarter 28, were removed by the Julio-Claudian monumentalization of this part of the city 29. The so-called Domus de los Plintos 30 (Fig. 2: 3) is the only Roman house in the city of Uxama Argaela whose complete layout is known. The excavations performed in this complex, under the direction of Carmen García Merino and Margarita Sánchez Simón, allowed for the documentation of a layer of destruction 31 in one of the rooms that sealed an extraordinary material context dating from the third century ad. Given the historiographical importance of Numantia as the epicenter of Celtiberian resistance to Roman conquest 32, this site is the most extensively excavated pre-Roman oppidum on the Iberian Peninsula. Recent research on this site has also focused on the examination of urban development during the Roman period 33, especially with regard to the layout of the settlement 34 and the construction of public infrastructure during the Early Roman period. Unfortunately, there are only a few examples of Roman houses that have been fully excavated with modern standards of archaeological documentation. Here we include two Martínez Caballero, El proceso de urbanización, p. 381-414. Martínez Caballero, El proceso de urbanización, p. 435-437. 29 Martínez Caballero, El proceso de urbanización, p. 385-387. 30 C. García Merino, « La Casa urbana en Uxama Argaela », in La Casa Urbana Hispanorromana, Zaragoza, 1991, Institución Fernando el Católico, p. 233-259. 31 C. García Merino, M. Sánchez Simón and M. Burón Álvarez, « Cultura material del siglo III en un ambiente doméstico de la Meseta: el conjunto cerrado de la Casa de los Plintos de Uxama », AEspA 82 (2009), p. 221-253. 32 F. Cadiou, Hibera in terra miles, p. 44-55. A. Jimeno and J. I. De La Torre, Numancia. Símbolo e historia, Madrid, Akal, 2005. 33 A. Jimeno, R. Liceras and A. Chain, « La Numancia romana », Anejos de Segovia Histórica 2 (2017), p. 39-50. 34 A. Jimeno, R. Liceras and A. Chain, « Unraveling Numantia: Celtiberian and Roman Settlement (Soria, North-Central Spain) », in J. C. Santre et al. (éd.), Archaeology in the River Duero Valley, Newcastle upon Tyne, Cambridge Scholar Publishing, 2018, p. 199-220. 27
28
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houses from the southern sector 35 (Fig. 2: 5 and 6) of the site and the so-called Domus de las Vigas Q uemadas 36 (Fig. 2: 4), an example of local domestic architecture during the Roman period that employed masonry and wood-beam roofs as main building techniques. From Arcobriga and Iuliobriga we have selected three houses that are almost completely documented. The so-called Domus del Pretorio 37 (Fig. 2: 7) is an atrium house excavated at the beginning of the twentieth century by E. de Aguilera y Gamboa, Marquess of Cerralbo 38. The house is constructed on two levels, an architectural problem solved by the construction of two raised rooms on both sides of the main entrance. The examples from Iuliobriga 39 belong to the Augustan phase of the city: the Domus de los Morillos 40 (Fig. 2: 8), so called for the metal andirons (Spanish: morillos) documented in its archaeological record and the Domus de la Llanuca II 41 (Fig. 2: 9), located close to a similar house that is only partially excavated. We have selected three other houses from the Roman municipium of Ercavica. The so-called Domus del Médico 42 (Fig. 2: 10) is an atrium house excavated in the 1970s, under the direction of Manuel Osuna. The name of this house derives, as in the case A. Jimeno, « Espacio doméstico y sociedad en la Celtiberia Ulterior », in M. C. Belarte (éd.), L’espai domèstic i l’organització de la societat a la protohistoria de la Mediterrània occidental (1er millenni a.C.), Barcelona, 2009 (Arqueo Mediterránea 11), p. 189-211; A. Jimeno, « Las ciudades celtibéricas de la Meseta Oriental », Complutum 22 (2011), p. 223-276. 36 A. Jimeno et al., « Incendio en Numancia: una experimentación no pensada », in M. L. Ramos et al. (éd.), Arqueología experimental en la Península Ibérica: Investigación didáctica y patrimonio, Santander, 2007, Asociación Española de Arqueología Experimental, p. 245-253. 37 C. Caballero, « Reinterpretación arquitectónica del Pretorio de Arcobriga (Monreal de Ariza, Zaragoza) », Boletín del Museo Arqueológico Nacional 17 (1999), p. 97-113. 38 E. Aguilera y Gamboa, Arcobriga, Zaragoza, 1987. 39 J. M. Iglesias (éd.), Arqueología en Iuliobriga (Retortillo, Campoo de Enme dio, Cantabria), Santander, Universidad de Cantabria, 2002. 40 P. A. Fernández Vega, Arquitectura y urbanística en la ciudad romana de Juliobriga, Torrelavega, Universidad de Cantabria, 1993, p. 68-93. 41 Fernández Vega, Arquitectura y urbanística, p. 109-132. 42 M. Osuna, « Ercavica », in Ciudades romanas en la provincia de Cuenca. Homenaje a Francisco Suay Martínez, Arqueología Conquense 14 (1997), p. 169208. 35
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of many other domus with similar names across the territory of Roman Spain, from the documentation of some metal instruments that were interpreted as part of a medical kit. Two more houses, Domus 3 and 4 43, were documented during later excavations performed in recent decades (Fig. 2: 11 and 12). These houses were configured around square peristyles. The case of La Caridad (Caminreal, Teruel), a Roman settlement whose Latin name is still unknown, is particularly interesting. Excavations at this site conducted since 1984 under the direction of the Museo de Teruel have revealed an urban sector with an orthogonal layout. These excavations uncovered the remains of at least three different insulae that were inhabited during a short period of time from 120-171 bc 44. These urban and chronological characteristics make this settlement an exceptional example for the study of Roman domestic architecture of the Late Republican period in the Celtiberian region 45. Excavations have documented at least 11 complete houses of diverse morphology. The largest of these is the so-called Domus de Likine 46 (Fig. 3: 1) so named after the Iberian inscription 47 documented in one of the opera signina pavements that decorated this dwelling. The remaining, smaller houses documented in this sector of the settlement (insulae I and V) (Fig. 3: 2-11) have not been the matter of detailed publication and we are therefore not able to discuss their archaeological data here. 43 R. Rubio and M. A. Valero, « Intervenciones arqueológicas en Ercavica. Campañas 2003-2005 », in Actas I Jornadas Arqueología de Castilla-La Mancha, Cuenca, 2007, p. 431-444. 44 B. Ezq uerra, « La ciudad romana de “La Caridad” (Caminreal, Teruel) », in A. Chain and J. I. De La Torre (éd.), Celtíberos. Tras la estela de Numancia, Soria, Diputación Provincia de Soria, 2005, p. 205-212. 45 J. Vicente, et al., « La Caridad (Caminereal, Teruel) », in La Casa Urbana Hispanorromana, Zaragoza, Institución Fernando el Católico, 1991, p. 183187. 46 J. Vicente, et al., La ciudad celtibérica de “La Caridad” (Caminreal, Teruel), Teruel, Museo de Teruel, 1986; J. Vicente, B. Ezq uerra and M. P. Punter, « La ciudad romana de La Caridad (Caminreal, Teruel). Síntesis de 32 años de intervención arqueológica », Actas I Congreso Arqueología Patrimonio Aragonés, Zaragoza, 2016, p. 243-253. 47 J. Vicente et al., « Un pavimento de opus signinum con epígrafe ibérico », in Mosaicos romanos. In memoriam Manuel Fernández Galiano, Madrid, 1989, p. 11-42.
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A final example included in our sample is the Domus de los Adobes 48 from Valeria (Cuenca), a Late Roman house built near the forum of this municipium. The name of this domus refers to the use of mud brick as the primary construction material. Table 1. Summary of the houses included in this study. City
House
Current Province
Chronology
Bibliography
Termes
Domus del Acueducto
Soria
I-III ad
Argente & Díaz 1994
Casa Insula II Foro
Soria
I bc
Martínez Caballero 2016
Uxama
Domus de los Plintos
Soria
III ad
García Merino et al. 2009
Numantia
Domus Sector Sur
Soria
I-II ad
Jimeno 2009
Domus de las Vigas quemadas
Soria
II bc - I ad
Jimeno 2009
Domus Sector Sur II
Soria
I-II ad
Jimeno 2011
Arcobriga
Domus del Pretorio
Zaragoza
I-II ad
Caballero 1999
Iuliobriga
Domus de los Morillos
Cantabria
I-II ad
Fernández 1993
Domus de la Llanuca 2
Cantabria
I-II ad
Fernández 1993
La Caridad
Domus de Likine
Teruel
II-I bc
Ezquerra 2005
Domus I-2
Teruel
II-I bc
Ezquerra 2005
Domus I-3
Teruel
II-I bc
Ezquerra 2005
Domus I-4
Teruel
II-I bc
Ezquerra 2005
Domus I-5
Teruel
II-I bc
Ezquerra 2005
Domus I-6
Teruel
II-I bc
Ezquerra 2005
Domus V-1
Teruel
II-I bc
Ezquerra 2005
Domus V-2
Teruel
II-I bc
Ezquerra 2005
Domus V-3
Teruel
II-I bc
Ezquerra 2005
Domus V-4
Teruel
II-I bc
Ezquerra 2005
Domus V-6
Teruel
II-I bc
Ezquerra 2005
Ercavica
Domus 3
Cuenca
I ad
Rubio & Valero 2007
Domus 4
Cuenca
I ad
Rubio & Valero 2007
Casa del Médico
Cuenca
II-IV ad
Osuna 1997
Valeria
Domus de los Adobes
Cuenca
II-IV ad
Fuentes 1991
48 A. Fuentes, « Urbanismo privado y casas en Valeria », in La Casa Urbana Hispanorromana, p. 265-270.
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3. Kinship diversity and household structure: the record of Celtiberian onomastics The main objective of this study is the analysis of the relationship between the spatial configuration of dwellings and household structure in Roman Celtiberia. But what do we actually know about the household structures of the ancient inhabitants of this provincial region of Roman Spain? The short answer to this question is plain: very little. There is a gap in local previous scholarship regarding this concrete issue 49. We consider the current study of kinship relations, which has been a relatively frequent matter of discussion in recent scholarship 50, to be an ideal angle from which to approach the topic. Of course, we cannot establish a direct correlation between kinship and household structure 51. 49 I can only quote two publications that explicitly introduced this topic: H. Gallego Franco, « Familia nuclear y romanización onomástica en la epigrafía del territorio castellano-leonés », Hispania Antiqva 35 (2011), p. 185-215; J. Bermejo Tirado, « Houses and Society in Roman Celtiberia », Mouseion Series III, 15 (2018) p. 173-218. 50 M. L. Albertos Firmat, « Organizaciones suprafamiliares en la Hispania Antigua », BSEAA 40-41 (1975), p. 5-66; F. J. Lomas Salmonte, « Estructuras de parentesco en la sociedad indígena del norte peninsular hispánico », RHA 1 (1994), p. 117-137; E. Sánchez-Moreno, « A propósito de las gentilitates: los grupos familiares del área vetona y su adecuación para la interpretación de la organización social prerromana », Veleia 13 (1996), p. 115-142; M. C. González Rodríguez, Las unidades organizativas indígenas en el área indoeuropea, EHU-UPV, Vitoria, 1986. M. C. González Rodríguez, « Las unidades organizativas indígenas II: Addenda et corrigenda », Veleia 11 (1994), p. 169-175; M. C. González Rodríguez, « Las estructuras sociales indígenas entre los pueblos del norte », in J. F. Rodríguez Neila and F. J. Navarro Santana (éd.), Los pueblos prerromanos del norte de Hispania. Una transición cultural como debate histórico, Pamplona, Universidad de Navarra, p. 325-347; M. C. González Rodríguez and M. Ramírez Sánchez, « Unidades organizativas indígenas del área indoeuropea de Hispania III: addenda », Veleia 28 (2011), p. 253-267. 51 K. Wrightson, « Household and kinship in sixteenth-century England », History Workshop Journal 12, 1, 1 (1981), p. 151-158; P. Laslett, « Family and household as work group and kin group: areas of traditional Europe compared », in R. Wall, J. Robin and P. Laslett (éd.), Family Forms in Historic Europe, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1983, p. 513-563; P. Sacchi and P. Viazzo, « Family and household », in P. Horden and S. Kinoshita (éd.), A Companion to Mediterranean History, Oxford, Wiley‐Blackwell, 2014, p. 234-249. For the specific critical review of the Roman period S. R. Huebner, « Household and family in the Roman East and West », in B. Rawson (éd.), A Companion to Families in the Greek and Roman World, Oxford, Wiley‐Blackwell, 2010, p. 73-91.
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As can be clearly seen in current industrial societies, kinship and other forms of familial relationship are not necessarily reflected in the ways in which people organize their daily lives in domestic or co-residential groups. However, in the case of ancient societies with state regulation of private law, where the transmission of citizenship 52 (and the rights accorded with it: property, inheritance, magistracy, etc.) is hereditary and transferred within the framework of legally recognized marriages 53, the relationship between kinship structure and household articulation tends to be closer than in the case of industrial societies 54. Roman historians have traditionally approached the systematic analysis of these sorts of social structures through quantitative epigraphic comparison 55. Some authors have recorded family relationships shown in funerary inscriptions 56 as a way to 52 F. Engels, Origin of the Family, Private Property, and the State, Marx/ Engels Internet Archive, 2000 [1884], p. 17-44, for his analysis of the Roman case see 66-72. For a more recent review of the problem see also D. I. Kertzer, « Household history and sociological theory », Annual Review of Sociology, 17 (1991), p. 155-179. 53 B. Rawson, « ‘The Family’ in the Ancient Mediterranean: Past, Present, Future », ZPE 117 (1997), p. 294-296; S. R. Huebner, « A Mediterranean Family? A Comparative Approach to the Ancient World », in S. R. Huebner and G. Nathan (éd.), Mediterranean Families in Antiquity: Households, Extended Families, and Domestic Space, Oxford, Wiley, p. 3-26; Roman Egypt has been an essential case study to illustrate diversity in ancient household structures: see R. S. Bagnall and B. W. Frier, The Demography of Roman Egypt, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1994, p. 53-74; S. R. Huebner, The Family in Roman Egypt. A Comparative Approach to Intergenerational Solidarity and Conflict, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2013, p. 31-57. 54 R. P. Saller and B. D. Shaw, « Close-kin Marriage in Roman Society? », Man 19 (1984), p. 432-444; D. I. Kertzer and R. P. Saller (éd.), The Family in Italy from Antiquity to the Present, New Haven, Yale University Press, 1991; R. P. Saller, Patriarchy, Property and Death in the Roman Family, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1994. For an alternative perspective see S. R. Huebner, « Brother-sister marriage in Roman Egypt: a curiosity of humankind or a widespread family strategy? », JRS 97 (2007), p. 21-49. 55 For an excellent introduction to this question see J. Edmondson, « Roman Family History », in C. Bruun and J. Edmondson (éd.), The Oxford Handbook of Roman Epigraphy, Oxford, Oxford University Press, p. 559-581. 56 R. P. Saller and B. D. Shaw, « Tombstones and Roman family relations in the Principate: civilians, soldiers and slaves », JRS 74 (1984), p. 124-156; B. D. Shaw, « Latin Funerary Epigraphy and Family Relationships in the Later Empire », Historia 33 (1984), p. 457-497; B. D. Shaw, « The Age of Roman Girls at Marriage: Some Reconsiderations », JRS 77 (1987), p. 30-46; B. D. Shaw, « The Family in Late Antiquity », Past and Present 115 (1987), p. 3-51. There
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infer trends in kinship articulation within the Roman world 57. To assess the introduction of Roman models of kinship articulation in provincial territories, other authors have analyzed this type of epigraphic source from a purely philological view, interpreting the progressive Latinization of individual names as a sign of the progressive adoption of Roman normative models 58. But this exclusively linguistic approach of the question can eclipse other important reasons for the adoption or maintenance of different models of kinship and household structure. Following the line of some recent studies 59, we believe that the comparison of onomastic structure, independent of the linguistic origin of the anthroponyms recorded, is a more accurate way to approach this question 60. In the specific context of the Roman Celtiberia, the research of local onomastics is especially relevant because it can reveal multiple aspects about the citizenship status
are some authors that who have criticized Saller and Shaw’s methodological approaches with reasonable arguments i.e. J. U. Krause, « Familien- und Haushaltsstrukturen in spätantiken Gallien », Klio 72 (1991), p. 537-562; D. B. Martin, « The Construction of the Ancient Family: Methodological Considerations », JRS 86 (1996), p. 40-60. See also Huebner, « Household and family ». 57 Introducing methodological refinements to the Saller and Shaw’s model i.e. J. Edmondson, « Family Relations in Roman Lusitania: Social Change in a Roman Province? », in M. George (éd.), The Roman Family in the Empire: Rome, Italy, and Beyond, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2005, p. 186-233. 58 J. M. Abascal Palazón, « Los cognomina de parentesco en la Península Ibérica. A propósito del influjo romanizador en la onomástica », Lucentum 3 (1984), p. 219-259. For the case of central Roman Spain see Gallego Franco, « Familia nuclear », p. 195-206. 59 J. Gorrochategui, M. Navarro and J. M. Vallejo Ruiz, « Reflexiones sobre la historia social del valle del Duero: las denominaciones personales », in M. Navarro and J. J. Palao (éd.), Villes et territoires dans le Bassin du Douro à l’époque romaine, Actes de la table-ronde internationale, Bordeaux, p. 287-339. M. Navarro, J. Gorrochategui and J. M. Vallejo Ruiz, « L’onomastique des Celtibères : de la dénomination indigène à la dénomination romaine », in M. Dondin-Payre (éd.), Les noms de personnes dans l’Empire romain, Bordeaux, Ausonius, 2011, p. 89-174. 60 A. Chastagnol, « L’onomastique de type pérégrin dans les cités de la Gaule Narbonnaise », MEFRA 102 (1990), p. 573-593; A. Chastagnol, « La condition des enfants issus de mariages inégaux entre citoyens romains et pérégrins dans les cités provinciales de droit latin », in Epigrafia romana in area adriatica, Macerata, 1998, p. 249-262; M. Navarro and J. P. Bost, « Estatuto social y onomástica », in Atlas antroponímico de la Lusitania romana, MéridaBurdeos, Fundación de Estudios Romanos/Ausonius, 2003, p. 413-417.
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and kinship structure of the ancient inhabitants of this region 61. The study of local epigraphy has allowed the documentation of a series of onomastic formulations that reflects a certain level of diversity in kinship structures among the inhabitants of the cities in Roman Celtiberia 62. Although we cannot offer a detailed quantitative analysis of these different onomastic formulations, we can provide representative examples extracted from previous studies to illustrate the diverse models of kinship structure documented in the epigraphy of Roman Celtiberia (Table 2). The first model of onomastic formulation is associated with the name of peregrini and is documented mainly in the Late Republican period with some examples in the Early Imperial period 63. This kind of onomastic formulation is characterized by a simple combination of a personal name and a cognatio (Table 2: 1st row). These cognationes can be interpreted as a fossilized version of the forms of extended kinship that characterized these Celtiberian communities in the Late Iron Age 64. The total absence of filiation in these inscriptions combined with the preeminence of the cognationes documented can be interpreted as an indication that 61 Navarro, Gorrochategui and Vallejo Ruiz, « L’onomastique des Celtibères »; M. Ramírez Sánchez, « Epigrafía latina y relaciones de parentesco en la región celtibérica. Nuevas propuestas », in S. Armani et al. (éd.), Epigrafía y sociedad en Hispania durante el Alto Imperio: estructuras y relaciones sociales, Alcalá de Henares, 2003, p. 13-31; M. Ramírez Sánchez, « La visibilidad de los grupos de parentesco en la epigrafía de la Hispania indoeuropea: soportes y textos », in J. M. Iglesias Gil and A. Ruiz Gutiérrez (éd.), Paisajes epigráficos de la Hispania romana: monumentos, contextos, topografía, Rome, “L’Erma” di Bretschneider, 2013, p. 159-183. 62 Navarro, Gorrochategui and Vallejo ruiz, « L’onomastique des Celtibères ». 63 Navarro, Gorrochategui and Vallejo Ruiz, « L’onomastique des Celtibères », p. 101-109, tab. 1. 64 M. L. Albertos Firmat, « Onomastique personnelle indigène de la péninsule ibérique sous la domination romaine », ANRW II, 29, 2 (1983), p. 853892; J. Velaza, « Balance actual de la onomástica personal celtibérica », in F. Villar and F. Beltrán (éd.), Pueblos, lenguas y escrituras en la Hispania prerromana. Actas del VII Coloquio sobre lenguas y culturas paleohispánicas, Salamanca, 2002, p. 663-683; J. M. Vallejo Ruiz, « Los celtas y la onomástica. El caso hispano », Paleohispanica 10 (2010), p. 629-664. In the Classical Roman legal tradition these cognomina have been defined as groups of individuals linked together by a common origin or born from the same ancestor (Digest, 38. 8, 1, 1). A key study still interesting is I. Kajanto, « The significance of non-latin cognomina », Latomus 27 (1968), p. 517-539.
274
275
praenomen + nomen + L(ucio) Terentio Paterno cognomen + cognatio + Eburanco Titi f (ilio) filiation [name of the Q uirina father + f (ilius)] + tribus
L(ucio) Valerio Nasonis f (ilio) / Q uir(ina tribu)
Cougio Visico
personal name + cognatio
praenomen + nomen + filiation [name of the father + f (ilius)] + tribus
Inscription Example
Onomastic Formulation
Numantia (Soria)
Termes (Soria)
Find Spot
Lucius Terentius Uxama Argaela Paternus, belonging (Soria) to the Eburanci, son of Titus, enrolled in the voting tribe Q uirina
Lucius Valerius, son of Naso, enrolled in the voting tribe Q urina
Cougio, belonging to the Visics
Translation
???
Cives romanorum
Peregrini
Citizenship
Household Structure
CIL, II, 2828 = Epigrafía Romana de Soria, 94
CIL II, 5796 = Epigrafía Romana de Soria 56 = Hispania Epigráfica 5, 741
Mixed
Nuclear
Monumenta Linguarum Extended Hispanicarum (Supranuclear) Vol. IV: K.11.2 = Hispania Epigráfica, 9.531
References
Table 2. Resume of the onomastic models documented in the local epigraphy.
I-IV ad
I-III ad
II-I bc
Chronology
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J. BERMEJO TIRADO
little importance was placed on nuclear family structures in the articulation of the households of these individuals 65. A second model of onomastic formulation, well represented in the local epigraphic record, is linked to the normative model of the tria nomina. These inscriptions belong to Roman cives from among the local elites, including informative references to the voting tribe (Table 2: 2nd row). All the cases can be ascribed to an Early Imperial chronology 66. Filiation and familial relationships are predominant in this class of onomastic formulations, emphasizing the importance of nuclear family units in the articulation of household structures of these individuals 67. The third and final group of onomastic formulations can be described as mixed 68. It includes the documentation of references to kinship forms that belong to the Roman normative model of citizen names and other references that can be identified as Celtiberian cognationes (Table 2: 3rd row). The chronological range of these inscriptions includes both periods of Roman Empire, from the first to the fourth century ad. In the case of these groups, it is extremely difficult to link this model of onomastic formulation to a specific variant of household structure or composition. A preliminary review of the onomastic record of local epigraphy supports two primary conclusions. The first is the apparent importance of the relationship of citizen status, kinship models, and household structure in the social context of the cities of Roman Celtiberia. The second is that local epigraphy reflects diverse forms of kinship structure that coexist under different configurations and social implications across several centuries of the Roman period in the region, rather than a simple substitution of one (local or Celtiberian) model of kinship for another (Roman). Navarro, Gorrochategui and Vallejo Ruiz, « L’onomastique des Celtibères », p. 109. 66 Navarro, Gorrochategui and Vallejo Ruiz, « L’onomastique des Celtibères », tab. 2. 67 Gallego Franco, « Familia nuclear ». 68 M. Ramírez Sánchez, Epigrafía y organización social en la región celtibérica: los grupos de parentesco, Unpublished PhD Universidad de las Palmas de Gran Canarias, 1999, p. 208-210; M. C. González Rodríguez and J. Gorrochategui, « Nuevas lecturas de tres inscripciones de Clunia (Hispania Citerior) con repercusión sobre la expresión de algunas agrupaciones familiares celtibéricas », Veleia 28 (2011), p. 269-280. 65
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4. The Space Syntax of the domus from Roman Celtiberia In our social analysis of the spatial oragnization of domestic architecture beyond the normative paradigms of the VitruvianPompeian models, we have applied a Space Syntax methodological approach. Space Syntax can be briefly defined as a group of indexes and methods of representation (alternatives to traditional 2D plans) employed for the analysis of the social dynamics that underlie the spatial organization of built environments 69. Contrary to the normative approaches that have traditionally characterized architectural theory from Vitruvius to Le Corbusier, Space Syntax is an analytic theory 70 that, inspired by discrete geometry and network theory, translates the spatial characteristics of built environments into a series of alternative graphic representations. This translation allows us to establish a detailed quantitative analysis 71 of the hidden links between the components of a building or urban settlement and the several networks of circulation and/or social interaction that they offer to the human beings that inhabit or simply pass through them. 4.1. A brief introduction to the Space Syntax tools applied A detailed explanation of the Space Syntax methodology exceeds the scope of the current paper. We direct the interested reader to a specific bibliography 72 that provides not only an account of its general theoretical and methodological foundations 73 but 69 For an introduction on the use of this sort of tools in archaeological contexts see J. Bermejo Tirado, « Leyendo los espacios: una aproximación crítica a la sintaxis espacial como herramienta de análisis arqueológico », Arqueología de la Arquitectura, 6 (2009), p. 47-62. 70 B. Hillier, Space is the Machine, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1996, p. 15-53. 71 K. Al Hayed et al., Space Syntax Methodology, London, Bartlett School of Architecture, UCL, 2014. 72 B. Hillier and J. Hanson, The Social Logic of Space, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1984; Hillier, Space is the Machine; J. Hanson, Decoding Homes and Houses, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1999. For a group of alternative indexes specifically designed for the analysis of houses R. E. Blanton, Houses and Households. A Comparative Study, NY and London, Plenum Press, 1994. 73 For a conceptual introduction to the theoretical and methodological components of Space Syntax see J. S. Saphiro, A Space syntax analysis of Arroyo Hondo
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also of the progressively larger scope of its archaeological applications 74. Nonetheless, a succinct introduction of some specific Space Syntax indexes is provided below to contextualize the approach here advocated. The procedures applied in this work are based on the Gamma analysis 75 approach defined by Bill Hillier and Julienne Hanson as a set of procedures associated with the syntactic analysis of individual buildings. More specifically, our analysis is mainly based on the comparison of the results of three quantitative indexes: Depth, Relative Asymmetry, and Control Value. In order to obtain the specific value of these indexes for each individual room – or spatial unit, in Space Syntax terminology – we must start by composing an access graph of each house. An access graph is a network graph in which the nodes (usually represented by circles) symbolize every room or convex space within a given building and in which the links (usually represented by lines) symbolize the doorways Pueblo, New Mexico. Community formation in the Northern Rio Grande, Santa Fe, School of American Research Press, 2005, p. 39-58. 74 It is impossible to reproduce here an exhaustive corpus. For a review of some current trends see J. Bermejo Tirado (éd.), Aplicaciones de Sintaxis Espacial en Arqueología, Madrid-Vitoria, EHU-UPV, CSIC, 2015 (Arqueología de la Arquitectura, Research Monograph 12). In the specific context of Roman Archaeology: M. Grahame, Reading Space: Social Interaction and Identity in the Houses of Roman Pompeii, Archaeopress, Oxford, 2000 (BAR International Series 886); R. Laurence, Roman Pompeii: Space and Society, London, Routledge, 2007 [2nd ed.]; A. Kaiser, The Urban Dialogue: An Analysis of the Use of Space in the Roman City of Empuries, Spain, Archaeopress, Oxford, 2000 (BAR International Series 901); A. Kaiser, Roman Urban Street Networks, London, Routledge, 2011 (Routledge Studies in Archaeology 2); H. Stöger, Rethinking Ostia: A Spatial Enquiry into the Urban Society of Rome’s Imperial Port-Town, Leiden, Leiden University Press, 2011 Archaeological Studies Leiden University 24); A. Van Nes, « Indicating street vitality in excavated towns. Spatial configurative analyses applied to Pompeii », in E. Paliou, U. Lieberwirth and S. Polla (éd.), Spatial Analysis and Social Spaces. Interdisciplinary Approaches to the Interpretation of Prehistoric and Historic Built Environments, Berlin, De Gruyter, 2014 (Topoi Berlin Studies of the Ancient World 18), p. 277-297; J. Bermejo Tirado, Arqueología biopolítica: la sintaxis espacial de la arquitectura doméstica romana en la Meseta oriental, Madrid, Ediciones La Ergástula, 2014 (Serie Arqueología y Patrimonio 6); Bermejo Tirado, Houses and Society; J. Hilder, « Inner space: the integration of domestic space at Volubilis in the 3rd c. ad », in K. Tuori and L. Nissin (éd.), Public and Private in the Roman House and Society, Portsmouth, RI, 2015 (JRA Supplement 102), p. 161-176; J. Molina Vidal et al., « Housing slaves on estates: a proposed ergastulum at the Villa of Rufio (Giano dell’Umbria) », JRA 30 (2017), p. 387-406. 75 Hillier and Hanson, The Social Logic, p. 143-149.
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THE SOCIAL ANALYSIS OF URBAN DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE IN ROMAN CELTIBERIA
or connections between all the rooms or convex spaces of that building (Fig. 4). Normally, these access graphs appear justified, with different levels of rooms ordered by function of the minimum number of doorways that must be crossed to reach each level from the outdoor or undifferentiated space (usually represented by a colored or crossed circle at the bottom of the access graph). This minimal number of connections or doorways is what we call Depth in Space Syntax terms. In general terms, we can state that a higher Depth rank of a given building indicates greater potenital for segregated spaces within that building.
Fig. 4. Examples of justified access graphs generated from apparently similar houses.
To assess the level of integration-segregation of a room in a given building more precisely, we must calculate its Relative Asymmetry (RA) 76. RA compares how deep the system is from a particular point with how deep and how shallow it theoretically could be – the least Depth 77 is calculated with all spaces directly connected to the undifferentiated space, in theory, and the greatest Depth is calculated with all spaces arranged in a unilinear sequence leading away from the original space. The more con76 Hillier and Hanson, The Social Logic, p. 108-109. Both authors introduced the notion of Real Relative Asymmetry (RRA) to refine its application for the comparison of several types of buildings; cf. Hillier and Hanson, The Social Logic, p. 111-113. 77 Hillier and Hanson, The Social Logic, p. 108.
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nected a spatial unit is with the exterior or undifferentiated space and with other convex spaces or rooms, the more spatially symmetrical (or integrated) it will be. To obtain the RA of a spatial unit we need first to calculate its Mean Depth (MD) 78 dividing the Depth of each room by the total number of rooms and subtracting 1. Once we have these values, we can find the RA of each room by applying this formula: RA = 2(MD-1) / (k-2). In this equation (k) is the total number of spatial units or nodes represented in the access graph. 2 is subtracted from the total number of spatial units so that the resulting values will fall into a range between zero and one. Rooms with values closer to 1 are more segregated and those with values closer to 0 are more integrated. One of the greatest advantages of this index is that the domestic architecture can thus be read in terms of spatial cohabitation. In other words, independent of the type of social relationship between members of the household, we can characterize the way in which all spaces were potentially shared in daily life 79. The second Space Syntax tool applied in this paper is Control Value (CV) 80. This topological index is used to measure the capacity of a spatial unit or room to control circulation within a given building. It provides a quantitative index for the classification of rooms within a building based on their accessibility to adjacent spaces. Using a justified accessibility graph as the basis for the calculations, the CV is obtained by counting the number of rooms directly connected with each spatial unit. Each spatial unit gives to each neighbouring room a value of 1/n of its “control”, where (n) is the number of direct connections to each specific spatial unit. The control value of any given spatial unit is calculated by adding up all the fractional values of all of its neighbouring rooms 81. For example, inside a house with 6 rooms or spatial units, the CV of Room A – a spatial unit with 5 connected neighbours and without any exterior access, each of which has only one direct connection – will be 5 (Fig. 5: left). The CV of Room B – a room with a single connected neighbour (Room A) – will be 0.2; that is, it receives just 1/5 of the direct connections of the 80 81 78 79
Ibid. Al Sayed, Space Syntax Methodology, p. 113-115. Hillier and Hanson, The Social Logic, p. 109. Ibid.
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THE SOCIAL ANALYSIS OF URBAN DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE IN ROMAN CELTIBERIA
Room A (Fig. 5: right). Spatial units with a higher CV are “controller” rooms and those with lower values are “controlled”.
Fig. 5. Ideal representation of a house showing the control relationships of two different rooms (A & B).
4.2. Domestic models of spatial production and household structure We cannot offer a detailed discussion of all of the values obtained through the application of the above-mentioned Space Syntax indexes. Combined with other characteristics, the systematic, house-by-house comparison of the results produced by these tools can be used to identify certain patterns of spatial configuration documented within these domus. Specifically, we will compare the access graphs in typological terms (linear, symmetric, or irregular) (Fig. 6), the maximum levels of Depth documented in each house, the average RA, and the number of controller spaces, along with other spatial characteristics of the houses such as total area or number of rooms. As the result of this comparison (Table 3) we confirm that each of these houses can be ascribed to one of three modes of spatial production 82 inferred in our previous studies 83 on Space Syntax applications for the social analysis of the domestic architecture in Roman Spain: 1) vernacular model, 2) paterfamilias model and 3) local non-traditional model. 82 We are using the concept of “spatial production” in a similar way that was established in the work of H. Lefebvre, as the spatial configuration of built environments in relation to the social and economic context in which have been constructed. H. Lefebvre, La production de l’espace, Paris, Éditions Anthropos, 1974. 83 Bermejo Tirado, Houses and Society, p. 203-206; Bermejo Tirado, Arqueología biopolítica, p. 112-120.
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Table 3. Comparison of the Space Syntax characteristics of the houses analyzed. Type of Access Graph
Max. Depth
RA Average
# Controller Spaces
Domestic Model of Spatial Production
3
Linear
2
0,22
0
Vernacular
84
8
Linear
4
0,35
0
Vernacular
Domus Sector Sur II
115
7
Linear
3
0,47
0
Vernacular
Domus de las Vigas Q uemadas
100
6
Linear
3
0,39
0
Vernacular
Total Area Excavated (m2)
Municipium
House
Termes
Casa Insula II Foro
70
Numantia
Domus Sector Sur
Numantia Numantia
# Spatial Units
La Caridad
Domus I-2
243
8
Linear
3
0,38
0
Vernacular
La Caridad
Domus I-3
243
11
Linear
3
0,31
0
Vernacular
La Caridad
Domus I-4
194
9
Linear
3
0,51
0
Vernacular
La Caridad
Domus I-5
380
10
Linear
3
0,5
0
Vernacular
La Caridad
Domus I-6
174
5
Linear
3
0,42
0
Vernacular
La Caridad
Domus V-1
186
8
Linear
4
0,43
0
Vernacular
La Caridad
Domus V-2
390
9
Linear
3
0,46
0
Vernacular
La Caridad
Domus V-3
360
11
Linear
3
0,42
0
Vernacular
La Caridad
Domus V-4
188
12
Linear
3
0,31
0
Vernacular
La Caridad
Domus V-6
195
6
Linear
3
0,26
0
Vernacular
Valeria
Domus de los Adobes
80
4
Linear
3
0,49
0
Vernacular
Arcobriga
Domus del Pretorio
732
12
Symmetric
4
0,25
1
Paterfamilias
Iuliobriga
Domus de los Morillos
890
23
Symmetric
5
0,17
1
Paterfamilias
Iuliobriga
Domus de la Llanuca 2
1400
32
Symmetric
5
0,11
1
Paterfamilias
La Caridad
Domus de Likine
915
22
Symmetric
4
0,12
1
Paterfamilias
Termes
Domus del Acueducto
1700
31
Irregular
6
0,2
3
Local nontraditional
Uxama Argaela
Domus de los Plintos
620
20
Irregular
5
0,23
3
Local nontraditional
Ercavica
Domus 3
416
12
Irregular
4
0,32
4
Local nontraditional
Ercavica
Domus 4
390
10
Irregular
5
0,36
2
Local nontraditional
Ercavica
Domus del Médico
545
14
Symmetric
5
0,38
2
Local nontraditional
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The rest of this section will be devoted to explaining how these different domestic modes of spatial production can be related to the specific social needs of the different forms of household structure inferred from our previous discussion of the onomastic formulations as evidenced in the local epigraphy. Table 4. Summary of the main Space-Syntax characteristics of each mode of domestic spatial production Area
Room number
Access graph type
Levels of Depth
Paterfamilias model
Large
High
Symmetrical
Low
High
One
Vernacular model
Small
Low
Linear
Low
Low
Absence
Local non-traditional model
Large
High
Irregular
High
Medium
Various
RA Controller differences spaces
The first domestic mode of spatial production documented in the sample analyzed is the Paterfamilias model, as in the following examples: the Domus del Pretorio (Arcobriga), the Domus de los Morillos (Iuliobriga), the Domus de la Llanuca II (Iuliobriga), and the Domus de Likine (La Caridad), that can be more clearly linked to Vitruvian normative models of Roman domestic architecture. Houses that belong to this mode of spatial production are characterized by larger areas, larger numbers of rooms, symmetrical access graphs (Fig. 6: 2), lower levels of Depth, and low ratios of RA (Table 4). They are also characterized by the presence of a unique controller space, in the form of a central peristyle, with a much higher CV than the rest of the spatial units in the house. We call this model “paterfamilias” because it represents a type of spatial configuration that fits perfectly with the social constraints of the ideal household of the Roman cives 84, like those represented by the onomastic model of the Lucius Valerius inscription (see Table 2). This class of elite households is structured around the nuclear family of the paterfamilias but is also comprised of a larger number of members, including domestic Milnor, Gender, Domesticity, and the Age of Augustus, p. 36-90; B. Severy, Augustus and the Family at the birth of Empire, London-New York, Routledge, 2003. 84
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servants, workers, and dependents and guests of various types 85. Such a household structure requires larger areas and several types of rooms with diverse, specialized functions for the simultaneous development of multiple domestic activities (convivial, reception, religious, productive, servile, etc.) under the same roof. At the same time, the lower levels of Depth and segregation represented by the RA results of these houses show a pattern of narrow cohabitation by these diverse members of the household structure. The Space Syntax value obtained for these houses can be interpreted as proof of the close cohabitation among the paterfamilias and his nuclear family, and the rest of the members of the household, continuously sharing the same spaces 86. The convergence of such spatial characteristics with the gender restrictions of this type of kinship structure regulated by the norms encoded by Roman private law can be evoked to explain the presence of a unique, well-differentiated controller room within this mode of domestic spatial production. These controller rooms, the largest in each house of this mode, present CVs up to 10 times higher than those of the rest of the spatial units. The implicit gendered restrictions placed on female members of the paterfamilias’ nuclear family to ensure the correct transmission of citizenship combined with close cohabitation with many other members of various ranks and roles inside elite households explain the need for the inclusion of these controller spaces 87 as a way to restrict the possibilities of transgression of the social norms promoted by Roman private law 88 for the purpose of controlling sexual reproduction.
J. Edmondson, « Slavery and the Roman Family »n in K. Bradley and P. Cartledge (éd.), The Cambridge History of World Slavery. Volume 1: The Ancient Mediterranean, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2011, p. 337361; Huebner, « A Mediterranean family? », p. 15-16. 86 For a detailed portrait of this social context K. Cooper, « Closely Watched Households: Visibility, Exposure and Private Power in the Roman Domus », Past and Present 197 (2007), p. 3-33. 87 A similar perspective on privacy and social control within the Roman house in J. Berry, « Boundaries and Control in the Roman House », JRA 29 (2016), p. 125-141. 88 K. Galinsky, « Augustus’ Legislation on Morals and Marriage », Philologus 125 (1981), p. 126-144. A. Wallace-Hadrill, « Family and Inheritance in the Augustan Marriage Laws », Cambridge Philological Society 27 (1981), p. 58-80. 85
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Fig. 6. Examples of the main types of justified access graphs generated from the simple analyzed. 1) Domus Sector Sur (Numantia): Lineal access graph. 2) Domus de Likine (La Caridad): Symmetrical access graph. 3) Domus del Acueducto (Tiermes): Irregular access graph.
A second domestic mode of spatial production is the Vernacular model, thus named for its similitude with the syntactic characteristics documented in most examples of Celtiberian domestic architecture of the Late Iron Age 89. This group is formed by relatively humble dwellings such as the houses from Numantia and La Caridad (Teruel), with the Domus de Likine as the only exception. This mode of spatial configuration corresponds with the needs of those peregrini households represented by the example of the Cougio of the Visics inscription (see Table 2). These dwellings have small areas, low numbers of rooms, and linear access graphs (Fig. 6: 1). They are also characterized by lower levels
Jimeno, « Espacio doméstico y sociedad »; Jimeno, « Las ciudades celtibéricas ». X. M. Ayán, « Household Archaeology in Mediterranean Spain: Family forms from Iberia to Hispania », in S. R. Huebner and G. Nathan (éd.), Mediterranean Families in Antiquity: Households, Extended Families, and Domestic Space, Oxford, Wiley, 2016, p. 137-153. 89
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of Depth, larger RA differences with low segregation, and a total absence of clearly recognizeable controller spaces. This model of spatial configuration is associated with the households of commoners, without slaves or dependents, in which the importance of extended or supra-nuclear kinship moves most of the social activity to collective areas, removing the need of great functional diversity or specialization within the house. Unlike the household structure of the Roman cives, we have no direct sources of information about property rights within the local tradition, but it is probable that, as in the case of other Iron Age Indo-European communities 90, the maintenance and reproduction of such rights were mostly tied to extended kinship networks (multiplefamily households?) more than legally-sanctioned marriages or the nuclear family. This social model is reflected in the onomastic formulation of Cougio’s inscription (Table 2) where the absence of filiation and the preponderance of Celtiberian cogantio in these naming conventions match perfectly with the hypothesis presented above. In addition, the lack of controller spaces can be also connected to the absence of the sexual proscriptions introduced by Roman private law in the Celtiberian region. A last domestic mode of spatial production inferred is the Local non-traditional model. It is characterized by houses that present some features similar to the Vitruvian custom but with Space Syntax properties that are totally different than both the Vernacular and the Paterfamilias models. This is the case for the Domus del Acueducto (Termes), the Domus de los Plintos (Uxama), and all of the houses documented at Ercavica. These dwellings have large areas with irregular access graphs (Fig. 6: 3), higher levels of Depth, and higher differences of RA and segregation within the rooms. At present, we have not been able to establish a direct correlation between the syntactic characteristics of these houses and the social demands of any spcific type of household structure. What seems to be clear is that these dwellings would have been inhabited by households with complex and hierarchical structures. Perhaps a reflection of this complexity could be found in the discussion of onomastic formulations similar to the model of the Lucius Terentius Paternus inscrip Ayán, « Household Archaeology in Mediterranean Spain », p. 144-148.
90
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tion (see Table 2), where the use of Roman normative onomastic formulations linked to the rights of a Roman cives coincides with the maintenance of Celtiberian cognationes (as the case of the Eburanci) and the related social implications in the local sphere. A vivid image of this complexity can be found in the works of Martial, a master Latin poet with Celtiberian origins. In his Epigrams 91, he makes an explicit defense of the “harsh and rustic” nature of Celtiberian names as a manifestation of the pride of his provincial origins and the social capital of these traditions.
5. Final discussion: the evolution of household diversity in the cities of Roman Celtiberia One initial result of this approach is an assessment of the correspondence between the diversity of household structures presented in the discussion of local onomastics and the variety of spatial configuration models recorded through the systematic comparison of syntactic indexes. Beyond the mere verification of this relationship, the chronological comparison of all occupation phases recorded in all of the sampled domus (Fig. 7) reveals clear trends in the evolution of household structure diversity during the Roman period.
Fig. 7. Chronological evolution of the domestic modes of production documented in all occupation phases of all houses sampled.
Martial, Ep., IV, 55.
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Firstly, we have documented an intriguing pattern of coincidence in the chronological trends in the historical distribution of onomastic formulations (see Chronology column on Table 2 & Fig. 7) and in successive phases of popularity of specific domestic modes of spatial production in Roman Celtiberia. Another point of interest is that houses of all modes of spatial production are documented during all periods of Roman domination, with only one exception: the total decline of houses of the Paterfamilias model during the Late Roman Empire (Fig. 7). In addition, we can describe some specific patterns related to each stage of Roman rule. The Late Republican period (cent. II-I bc) is clearly marked by the primacy of the Vernacular model (Fig. 7), which can be also explained in terms of sample composition. The exceptional case of La Caridad (Teruel) distorts the quantitative sample from this period. The popularity of the Vernacular model in the Late Republican period can be easily understood as a logical continuity of the architectural customs of the Late Iron Age. This pattern changed radically during the Augustan period; during the first century ad the Paterfamilias model became the dominant mode. There is a strong decline in the number of houses of the Vernacular model during this period, though it remains the second most represented group. The next relevant chronological pattern took place at the beginning of the Late Roman period with the rise of the Local non-traditional model (Fig. 7). This group becomes quantitatively most important during the third century ad, at the same time that we observe the above-mentioned absence of the Paterfamilias model from the local sample. If we assume that these different modes of spatial production are related to the social needs of diverse household structures, how we can explain these patterns of chronological change in historical terms? More than a cultural process of adoption of normative behaviours – linked to the idealization of the Romanitas as a kind of “Roman way of life” – this chronological comparison seems to reflect more materialistic or legal factors, especially those related with the impact of citizenship status and kinship forms. The rise in importance of the Paterfamilias model during the Early Roman Empire can be related to the development of the 288
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municipalization process in Roman Celtiberia during the JulioClaudian, and, especially, the Flavian Period. However, in this specific regional context, the main factor driving this process may not have been a substantial increase in the number of people promoted to the rank of Roman cives, but the generalization of the legal norms for the maintenance and transmission of citizenship in the framework of the household reproduction. This could explain the significant growth in houses spatially adapted to fit the social needs of the cives Romani (explicitly mentioned in the Vitruvian text 92) represented by the Paterfamilias model. This situation changed with the promulgation of the constitutio Antoniniana in 212 ad 93. Although it caused a probable increase in the number of Roman citizens in the region 94, it also produced a certain laxity 95 in the legal requisites for the transmission of citizenship and hence a decrease in the importance of the behavioural norms imposed by Early Imperial social policies. These changes could explain the cited decline of houses from the Paterfamilias model during the third century ad. The primacy of the Local non-traditional model at the beginning of the third century ad is much more difficult to account for. The only clear pattern is the coincidence of the increase in this model’s popularity and the dramatic disappearance of houses of the Paterfamilias model. More than a simple substitution, this pattern is a reflection of the changing social needs of local elites during the Late Roman Empire. If during the Early Roman period the maintenance of the status of Roman cives by provincials necessitated the regulation of a new set of kinship rules and household
Vitruvius, De arch., VI, 5, 2-3. P. Van Minnen, « Three Edicts of Caracalla? A New Reading of P. Giss. I 40 », Chiron 46 (2016), p. 205-221; A. Imrie, The Antonine Constitution: An Edict for the Caracallan Empire, Boston, Brill, 2018. 94 M. Lavan, « The Spread of Roman Citizenship, 14-212 ce: Q uantification in the Face of High Uncertainty », Past & Present 230 (2016) p. 3-46. 95 The fate of local legal traditions after the promulgation of the Constitutio Antoniana have provoked controversies, for a review on this scholarship K. Tuori, « Legal Pluralism and the Roman Empires », in J. W. Cairns and P. J. Du Plessis (éd.), Beyond Dogmatics: Law and Society in the Roman World, Edinburgh, Edinburgh University Press, 2007, p. 39-52. 92 93
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structures 96, the promulgation of the Constitutio Antoniniana decoupled the transmission of citizenship from the maintenance of a normative model of household structure 97. This new (and more complex) context of social needs translated into the emergence of innovative modes of domestic architecture, like those represented by the Local non-traditional model. To conclude, we would emphasize the need for further comparative studies in provincial contexts in order to test some of the hypothesis advocated above. The discovery and description of diversity and regional patterns in household structuration across different spatial and cultural traditions within in the Roman Empire is currently one of the most important horizons of research. In approaching this horizon of study, we should go beyond the traditional methodologies that are deeply biased by normative codifications like the Vitruvian texts. In this regard, the use of more comparative analytic perspectives combined with the detailed study of less normative sources of textual information, such as local epigraphy, could provide alternative explanations based on the social implications of the design and occupation of all types of Roman dwellings in provincial areas.
96 Best exemplified in the Augustan promulgation of laws on marriage favoring the sexual reproduction of citizens. 97 For a general perspective on this issue K. Czajkowski and B. Eckhardt, « Law, Status and Agency in the Roman Provinces », Past & Present 241 (2018), p. 3-31.
290
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32
0,11 0,17 0,23 0,25 0,19 0,31 0,24 0,24 0,18 0,12 0,17 0,21 0,16 0,19 0,22 0,18 0,22 0,17 0,14 0,21 0,2 0,26 0,32 0,26 0,19 0,23 0,24 0,21 0,21 0,11 0,15
# Domus del Spatial Acueducto Unit
0 0,33 0,33
Casa Insula II Foro
0,13 0,26 0,17 0,24 0,33 0,33 0,21 0,3 0,26 0,18 0,32 0,28 0,26 0,22 0,16 0,23 0,26 0,29 0,2 0,14 0,22 0,22 0,23
Domus de los Plintos
0,14 0,39 0,39 0,19 0,39 0,3 0,6 0,42
Domus Sector Sur 1
0,6 0,26 0,4 0,73 0,2 0,6 0,53
Domus Sector Sur 2
0,45 0,4 0,33 0,6 0,33 0,26
Domus de las Vigas Q uemadas
0,19 0,33 0,33 0,07 0,18 0,34 0,34 0,24 0,24 0,24 0,37 0,21
Domus del Pretor
0,15 0,05 0,16 0,16 0,16 0,16 0,24 0,16 0,25 0,13 0,25 0,16 0,16 0,16 0,12 0,22 0,34
Domus de los Morillos
0,09 0,03 0,09 0,09 0,09 0,09 0,15 0,08 0,14 0,14 0,14 0,2 0,09 0,15 0,09 0,09 0,15 0,09 0,09 0,09 0,09 0,09 0,14 0,08 0,13 0,19 0,25 0,15 0,09 0,15 0,09 0,09
Domus de la Llanuca 2
0,11 0,12 0,02 0,12 0,21 0,12 0,11 0,12 0,12 0,12 0,2 0,2 0,1 0,12 0,11 0,12 0,12 0,21 0,11 0,12
Domus de Likine
0,21 0,46 0,46 0,17 0,42 0,28 0,53 0,53
Domus I-2
0,16 0,34 0,34 0,34 0,14 0,32 0,25 0,27 0,34 0,4 0,58
Domus I-3
0,25 0,47 0,47 0,36 0,52 0,75 0,41 0,58 0,8
Domus I-4
0,26 0,33 0,44 0,6 0,8 0,46 0,33 0,44 0,6 0,8
Domus I-5
0,1 0,5 0,5 0,3 0,7
Domus I-6
0,21 0,46 0,25 0,35 0,6 0,39 0,64 0,6
Domus V-1
Annex 1 Resume of RA Values in the houses sampled.
0,22 0,38 0,61 0,38 0,61 0,38 0,61 0,38 0,61
Domus V-2
0,4 0,41 0,58 0,2 0,38 0,34 0,52 0,27 0,38 0,52 0,7
Domus V-3
0,15 0,31 0,31 0,28 0,45 0,31 0,16 0,27 0,34 0,24 0,51 0,4
Domus V-4
0 0,33 0,26 0,2 0,26 0,33
Domus V-6
0,33 0,19 0,15 0,36 0,36 0,25 0,22 0,39 0,39 0,39 0,42 0,42
Domus 3
0,24 0,35 0,46 0,4 0,28 0,17 0,37 0,28 0,44 0,64
Domus 4
0,19 0,23 0,32 0,47 0,47 0,35 0,49 0,34 0,34 0,25 0,32 0,42 0,54 0,69
Domus del Médico
0,16 0,66 0,33 0,83
Domus de los Adobes
THE SOCIAL ANALYSIS OF URBAN DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE IN ROMAN CELTIBERIA
291
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32
1,28 1,25 0,5 1,5 0,83 0,5 0,33 0,33 2,2 2,33 0,7 0,25 2,7 0,2 0,25 0,75 0,25 0,75 2,25 0,25 0,75 1,5 0,5 0,33 1,75 0,83 1 1 0,25 1,08 2,58
# Domus Spatial del Unit Acueducto
2 0,83 0,83
Casa Insula II Foro
1,28 0,33 1,58 2,33 0,33 0,33 1,25 0,5 0,33 1,58 0,33 0,83 1 0,83 1,25 0,83 1 1 0,7 3 0,2 0,2 1,83
Domus de los Plintos
4,33 0,2 0,2 1,7 0,2 1,33 0,55 0,33
Domus Sector Sur
0,33 2,33 1,33 0,5 1,83 0,33 0,33
Domus Sector Sur II
1 1 0,84 0,33 2 0,83
Domus de las Vigas Q uemadas
0,39 0,25 0,25 4,58 2,14 0,33 0,33 0,14 0,14 0,14 0,5 1,14
Domus del Pretor
1,09 9,16 0,33 0,09 0,09 0,09 1,59 1,33 0,09 0,33 0,33 0,5 0,09 2,09 0,09 0,09 0,09
Domus de los Morillos
1,05 14,58 0,25 0,05 0,05 1,05 0,83 2,55 0,33 0,25 1,25 0,5 1,05 0,5 0,05 0,5 0,05 0,05 0,05 0,05 0,05 0,05 0,5 1,55 1,05 1,5 0,5 0,33 2,05 0,33 0,05 0,05
Domus de la Llanuca 2
0,56 0,06 12,33 0,06 0,5 0,06 1,06 0,06 0,06 0,06 0,33 0,33 2,06 0,06 0,56 0,06 0,06 0,5 1,06 0,06
Domus de Likine
3,33 0,25 0,25 1,58 0,33 2,33 0,33 0,33
Domus I-2
3,75 0,2 0,2 0,2 2,2 0,25 0,75 0,75 1 1,5 0,5
Domus I-3
3 0,25 0,25 0,75 1,5 0,5 1 1,5 0,5
Domus I-4
3 0,75 1 1,5 0,5 0,25 0,75 1 1,5 0,5
Domus I-5
3,5 0,25 0,25 1,25 0,5
Domus I-6
3 0,25 0,58 2,5 0,33 1,25 0,5 0,33
Domus V-1
Annex 2: Resume of CV values in all houses analyzed.
1,33 1,33 0,5 1,33 0,5 1,33 0,5 1,33 0,5
Domus V-2
1,83 0,66 0,33 2,33 0,25 1,25 0,5 0,75 1 1,5 0,5
Domus V-3
4,83 0,16 0,16 1,16 0,5 0,16 1 0,66 1,83 1,66 0,33 0,33
Domus V-4
4,33 0,16 0,5 1,16 0,5 0,16
Domus V-6
1,25 2,83 0,83 0,25 0,25 2,33 3,33 0,25 0,25 0,25 0,33 0,33
Domus 3
1,75 0,83 1 1 0,75 2,33 0,25 0,75 1,5 0,5
Domus 4
3,83 1,03 2,33 0,33 0,33 1,33 0,5 0,2 0,2 0,7 1 1 1,5 0,5
Domus del Médico
2,5 0,33 1,33 0,5
Domus de los Adobes
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NATHALIE BAILLS-BARRÉ & MÉLISSA TIREL 1
DES MORTS CHEZ LES VIVANTS ? LES ENFANTS EN BAS ÂGE INHUMÉS DANS LES ESPACES DOMESTIQ UES DE GAULE ROMAINE
Introduction En Gaule romaine, la mort des tout-petits donne lieu, comme celle des adultes et des enfants plus âgés, à des pratiques extrêmement diversifiées. Toutefois, ce groupe se différencie de toutes les autres classes d’âge par des rites funéraires particuliers, notamment dans la localisation de leur sépulture. Bien qu’on les retrouve dans les nécropoles classiques, sans recrutement préférentiel, les tout-petits se distinguent du reste des défunts par leur déposition hors de ces ensembles funéraires. On les rencontre ainsi dans des lieux de vie comme les ateliers, les bâtiments publics ou cultuels ainsi que dans les espaces domestiques. Ces localisations différentielles qui concernent des individus infantiles, majoritairement de moins de six mois, voire parfois décédés plus tardivement, pourraient expliquer le déficit des enfants en bas âge que l’on constate dans de très nombreuses nécropoles. Dans les populations pré-jennériennes, c’est-à-dire avant 1796, date de la mise au point du vaccin antivariolique par Jenner, 25% des enfants mouraient avant l’âge d’un an, 25% avant cinq ans. Par conséquent, ils devraient être très fortement représentés dans les aires funéraires traditionnelles : pourtant ce n’est pas le cas. Les tout-petits enfants retrouvés 1 Nathalie Baills-Barré, Chargée d’études documentaires, Département des Recherches Archéologiques Subaquatiques et Sous-Marines (Commission de Récolement des Dépôts d’Œuvre d’Art), Ministère de la Culture. Mélissa Tirel, Univ Rennes, CNRS, Ministère de la culture et de la communication, CReAAH (Centre de Recherche en Archéologie, Archéosciences, Histoire) – UMR 6566, F-35000 Rennes, France.
Anthropology of Roman Housing, ed. by Alexandra Dardenay and Nicolas Laubry, Turnhout, 2020 (ASH, 5), pp. 293–317 © FHG DOI 10.1484/M.ASH-EB.5.119739
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dans des lieux de vie, notamment dans les unités domestiques qui constituent la localisation prédominante de ces sépultures hors contexte funéraire, pourraient-ils expliquer une partie de ce déficit ? De quelle manière ces inhumations se traduisent-elles au sein de ces espaces ? Peut-on trouver un parallèle, en particulier dans le regroupement de tombes infantiles dans et en dehors de ces structures bâties, avec les rites pratiqués dans les nécropoles communautaires ? Enfin, l’âge au décès de ces jeunes défunts – qui à peine nés passent de vie à trépas – pourrait-il expliquer leur présence aux environs des unités domestiques, espace protecteur, familial et maternel ? Cet article, qui repose sur un corpus de 200 sites et de 866 sujets sur l’ensemble du territoire gallo-romain, se propose de faire le point sur un fait archéologique bien connu dans l’Antiquité, mais peu étudié dans sa globalité : les inhumations des tout-petits enfants dans les contextes domestiques de l’ensemble de la Gaule romaine.
1. Les contextes d’inhumation : généralités Sur les 200 sites du corpus 2, 95 appartiennent à un contexte domestique (soit 47,5%) (Fig. 1). Cette représentation s’avère probablement bien plus importante puisque sur les 35 sites se rapportant à un contexte mixte 3, 28 sites témoignent d’une occupa2 Corpus de 200 sites inventoriés dans le cadre d’une thèse de doctorat intitulée : Les pratiques funéraires destinées aux enfants en bas âge retrouvés à l’extérieur des ensembles funéraires communautaires de Gaule romaine, ier siècle av. J.-C. ve siècle apr. J.-C., sous la direction de Fabien Colleoni et Mario Denti, Université Rennes 2. Ces 200 sites, répartis sur l’ensemble du territoire gallo-romain, comptabilisent un total de 866 sujets mis au jour en dehors des ensembles funéraires traditionnels. Ces informations s’appuient sur un ensemble de données issues de diverses opérations archéologiques : fouilles préventives, fouilles programmées, diagnostics archéologiques, etc. 3 Les exemples qui appartiennent à un contexte « mixte » réunissent soit les sites où l’occupation est de nature multiple (domestique et artisanat/atelier), soit les sites dont la fonction n’a pu être déterminée avec précision (domestique et/ou artisanat/atelier) ou soit les sites où tous les défunts découverts n’appartiennent pas au même contexte (une tombe sera liée à un bâtiment artisanal tandis que deux autres seront associées à un habitat abandonné). À Clermont-Ferrand, « Scène nationale » (Puy-de-Dôme, Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes), 3 tout-petits ont été ensevelis dans ce qui semble avoir été un contexte domestique tandis qu’une sépulture, isolée dans un autre secteur, a été retrouvée dans une zone d’abandon située en marge des bâtiments. J. Ollivier (éd.), Ancienne gare routière, projet
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Fig. 1. Répartition des sites du corpus selon les contextes de découverte.
tion domestique avérée ou supposée. Pour 11 sites, la distinction entre le contexte domestique et le contexte artisanal n’a pu être établie par les fouilles archéologiques. En effet, dans l’Antiquité, la démarcation entre espace de vie et espace de travail demeure parfois très ténue, voire inexistante. Nous pouvons donc affirmer que dans plus de la moitié des cas, les sépultures d’enfants en bas âge sont mises au jour dans un contexte domestique. Ensuite, les contextes de découvertes se répartissent de manière relativement égale entre les lieux d’artisanat, les structures abandonnées 4 et les zones de rejet ou d’extraction 5. Nous noterons que très peu de tout-petits ont été inhumés dans des lieux publics ou cultuels. En ce qui concerne les « ilots urbains », ils intègrent des sépultures liées aux structures urbaines dont la nature et la fonction n’ont pas été déterminées (ils pourraient tout aussi bien s’agir d’unités domestiques, de zones de rejet ou d’extraction, voire de zones publiques ou artisanales). Q uelques défunts ont été mis au jour dans de scène nationale, Clermont-Ferrand, Puy-de-Dôme, rapport final d’opération, Hadès, SRA Clermont-Ferrand, 2016, vol. I, p. 156-157, 219-221, 372-381. 4 La fouille archéologique a pu établir que l’installation des sépultures avait eu lieu après l’abandon de la zone. 5 Les sépultures ont été mises au jour dans des dépotoirs, des décharges ou d’anciennes carrières d’extraction. Souvent péri-urbains, ces lieux ne semblent pas liés à un contexte particulier mais probablement à plusieurs.
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un contexte « d’activités agricoles » sans qu’aucune structure (villa, établissement rural) n’ait été découverte. Par exemple au « Perrou » 1 à Maillé (Indre-et-Loire, Centre-Val de Loire) 6, une sépulture périnatale a été découverte liée à un parcellaire fossoyé. Le diagnostic archéologique puis la fouille préventive, réalisés préalablement à la construction de la LGC SEA, n’ont pas permis d’identifier un établissement agricole, mais son existence est très fortement suspectée. Enfin, il n’a pas été possible de préciser l’environnement de découverte pour 2 sites de notre inventaire. Il s’agit du site de la « Côte d’Orgeval » à Sommesous (Marne, Grand Est) 7 qui réunit 21 sujets infantiles datés du Haut-Empire inhumés à l’intérieur d’un enclos fossoyé. Aucun ensemble associé n’a été mis au jour mais, à 400 m de celui-ci, un enclos comparable au sanctuaire de Villeneuve-au-Châtelot (Aube) et une villa gallo-romaine sont suspectés. Sur le site du « 48 rue du 8 mai 1945 » à Feurs (Loire, Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes) 8, la sépulture infantile a été découverte à proximité d’un bâtiment péri-urbain dont la fonction demeure non définie. Le type d’intervention (diagnostic archéologique) n’a pas permis de préciser le contexte de découverte. 1.1. Les sépultures de tout-petits découvertes en contexte domestique Nous pouvons observer que toutes les formes de l’habitat sont ici représentées 9 (Fig. 2) ; les termes « habitat, zone d’habitats » ne permettent pas toutefois de préciser la nature exacte de celles-ci, que ce soit en contexte urbain ou rural. Il peut aussi exister sur 6 P. Salé (éd.), LGV SEA – De multiples occupations successives : Maillé (Indreet-Loire), Le Perrou 1, rapport de fouille, Inrap, SRA Orléans, 2016, vol. I, p. 251258. J.-P. Baguenier (éd.), LGV SEA 2 – Phase 40, PK 34,9-PK 40,5 : Maillé, Draché, La Celle-Saint-Avant : Indre-et-Loire, section Tours-Angoulême, rapport de diagnostic, Inrap, SRA Orléans, 2011, p. 132-133. 7 G. Guillier, « Une nécropole d’enfants d’époque gallo-romaine à Sommesous (Marne) », Revue archéologique Sites 52 (1992), p. 16-29. 8 E. Ferber (éd.), 48 rue du 8 mai 1945, Feurs, Loire, rapport de diagnostic archéologique, Inrap, SRA Lyon, 2004, vol. I, p. 5, 6, 9. 9 Les sites en contexte mixte présentant une occupation domestique ne sont pas intégrés ici.
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Fig. 2. Répartition en % de la nature de l’occupation domestique.
un même site, une occupation domestique différente. Par exemple, au « Bas de Vieux » à Aregenua (Vieux, Calvados, Normandie) 10, une première sépulture périnatale reposait dans un espace très étroit existant entre le mur de la salle chauffée et la clôture sud d’une domus tandis que la seconde était située dans un quartier d’habitat modeste localisé à un autre endroit de la ville. 38 sites ont été mis au jour dans un contexte rural et 57 sites dans un contexte urbain. La répartition des sites selon l’environnement de découverte ne paraît pas significative, mais cette observation reste à nuancer. Cet écart pourrait-il s’expliquer par un dynamisme différentiel d’une région à l’autre ? Ou existait-il une réelle différence dans les pratiques funéraires destinées aux tout-petits ? Enfin, nous noterons que sur les 57 sites découverts en milieu urbain, 4 ont pu être définis en péri-urbains. L’inhumation des jeunes enfants en contexte domestique semble donc avoir été réalisée dans toutes les formes de l’habitat, allant du plus modeste au plus riche, que celui-ci soit rural ou urbain. 1.2. Les localisations au sein de l’espace domestique Les différentes études sur les sépultures de nouveau-nés et de nourrissons trouvées en dehors des espaces funéraires commu Informations du responsable de l’opération, Pascal Vipard.
10
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nautaires renvoient souvent à des inhumations pratiquées à l’intérieur même de l’habitation. En effet, ces dernières marquent davantage les esprits et interrogent sur la cohabitation des défunts et des vivants à l’intérieur d’un espace de vie toujours fonctionnel. Toutefois, d’après le corpus, seuls 18,5% des défunts ont été enterrés à l’intérieur de l’habitation, contre 76,5% à l’extérieur (5% des défunts concernent des localisations indéterminées). 1.2.1. À l’intérieur de l’habitat
69 défunts ont été inhumés à l’intérieur de l’habitat. Parmi ceux-ci, 64% se localisent à proximité d’un mur ou dans l’angle d’une pièce. Ensuite, 12% des sujets ont été ensevelis dans un couloir, 5% près d’un seuil et 3% dans la fondation d’un mur ou d’une cloison. La localisation n’a pu être précisée pour 17% des sujets mis au jour à l’intérieur de l’habitat. Cette localisation « près d’un mur », très fréquente 11, renvoie à un espace choisi par les vivants, en retrait des zones de circulation ; traduit-elle une volonté de la part des occupants de ne pas altérer les sépultures par des passages fréquents ou un désir de se souvenir de la localisation de la tombe ? Nous pouvons en effet envisager que ces structures bâties aient servi de « repères » aux habitants et permis de localiser plus facilement la ou les tombes, soit pour en conserver le souvenir, soit pour déposer plus tard d’autres inhumations. Il est souvent difficile d’établir avec précision la nature ou la fonction d’une pièce de l’habitat. Dans notre corpus, seuls 30% des sujets inhumés à l’intérieur ont été localisés dans une pièce dont la nature ou la fonction a pu être précisée ou du moins supposée (Fig. 3). Sur un même site, la fonction des pièces dans lesquelles ont été mis au jour les défunts peut différer. Par exemple, dans la ville portuaire de Lattara (Hérault, Occitanie) 12, 3 tout-petits ont été 11 Cette localisation privilégiée est également observée pour les sépultures découvertes à l’extérieur. Elle se vérifie également dans les nécropoles où les inuhmations apparaissent près des murs de clôture. Nous y reviendrons un peu plus loin. 12 B. Dedet, Les enfants dans la société protohistorique : l’exemple du sud de la France, Rome, École française de Rome, 2008, p. 107-112.
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Fig. 3. Fonction/nature des espaces d’inhumation d’enfants installées en contexte domestique.
ensevelis dans des pièces interprétées comme des cuisines et une sépulture a été découverte dans une salle de repos. Par conséquent, le site se retrouve dans plusieurs catégories. Nous avons le même cas de figure dans la villa des « Prés-Bas » à Loupian (Hérault, Occitanie) 13 où une des deux sépultures se situe à la fois dans les communs, mais aussi dans un couloir. Ces données (Fig. 3) doivent être appréhendées avec prudence. En effet, nous devons garder en tête que sur certains sites, plusieurs sépultures ont été découvertes dans un même espace. Sur le site du « Calvaire » à Poitiers (Vienne, Nouvelle-Aquitaine), ce sont 7 sépultures d’enfants qui ont été mises au jour dans un des couloirs d’accès de la domus 14. Sur le site des « Béziaux » à Langeais (Indre-et-Loire, Centre-Val de Loire), 12 des 18 sépultures ont été identifiées à l’intérieur d’un bâtiment à vocation mixte (domestique/activités agricoles) 15. Par conséquent, les données ne sont pas représentatives d’une réelle répartition. Cependant, un début d’observation peut être réalisé : en effet, nous observons dans notre corpus une récurrence (7 sites) des espaces interprétés comme de possibles cuisine, pièce annexe ou de stockage. Au « 7-9 rue du Général Rampont » à Brumath (Bas-Rhin, Grand13 C. Pellecuer, La villa des Prés-Bas (Loupian, Hérault) dans son environnement. Contribution à l’étude de la villa et de l’économie domaniale en Narbonnaise, thèse de doctorat, Aix-en-Provence, 2000, p. 104, 146. 14 K. Robin (éd.), Parking le Calvaire, fouille d’un quartier résidentiel de l’époque gallo-romaine à la période médiévale, rapport final d’opération, Afan, SRA Poitiers, 1998, vol. I, p. 39-41. 15 T. Guiot, F. Couvin, P. Blanchard, « Le site antique (ier-iiie s.) des Béziaux à Langeais (Indre-et-Loire) », Revue archéologique du Centre de la France, 42 (2003), p. 75-119 en part. p. 99-108.
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Est), un sujet périnatal a été trouvé dans le comblement d’une fosse, sous les dalles d’un foyer. Sur le site de la « Chappe » à Biot (Alpes-Maritimes, PACA), ce sont les restes d’un sujet plus âgé, décédé aux environs de 5-6 ans qui avaient été ensevelis à l’intérieur de la cuisine, sous les dalles ayant servi à cuire 16. Au « Petit Vau Bourdin » à Bussy-Lettré (Marne, Grand Est), c’est un nourrisson d’environ 10-11 mois qui a lui aussi été découvert à proximité d’un foyer 17. Ce sont ensuite 3 très jeunes sujets qui ont été inhumés dans des pièces également identifiées comme des cuisines ou des réserves, dans la ville antique de Lattara (Lattes, Hérault, Occitanie) 18. Enfin, sur les sites de « l’Îlot des Cordeliers » à Poitiers (Vienne, Nouvelle-Aquitaine) 19, du « Garage Palace » à Vichy (Allier, Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes) 20 et de la rue « Saint-Symphorien » à Reims (Marne, Grand Est) 21, ce sont 3 sépultures isolées qui ont été découvertes dans une pièce de stockage ou de service. Notons que des exemples de ce type ont été également observés pour la Gaule protohistorique 22. Les 70% restants se localisent donc simplement à l’intérieur de l’habitat. Ce manque de précision n’apparaît que peu surprenant. En effet, nous pouvons considérer que les différentes fonc-
16 J.-P. Violino (éd.), Biot, la Chappe, document final de synthèse de sauvetage urgent, 1992, SRA Aix-en-Provence, p. 11-13. 17 J.-M. Violot (éd.), Bussy-Lettrée « Le Petit Vau Bourdin » (Europort de Vatry), document final de synthèse, Afan, SRA Châlons-en-Champagne, 20012002, vol. I, p. 95-96. C. Paresys, I. Le Goff (éd.), La société antique : paysages et pratiques funéraires en Champagne-Ardenne, Bulletin de la société archéologique champenoise, Reims, Société archéologique champenoise, 2-106 (2013), p. 66. 18 Dedet, Les enfants dans la société protohistorique, p. 107-112. 19 A.-M. Jouq uand (éd.), La fouille de l’îlot des Cordeliers à Poitiers (Vienne), document final de synthèse, Afan, SRA Poitiers, 2000, p. 225-229. 20 K. Chuniaud (éd.), « Garage Palace », un quartier de Vichy antique, rapport final d’opération, Inrap, SRA Clermont-Ferrand, 2010, p. 103-104. 21 S. Sindonino (éd.), Reims, (Marne), Rue Saint-Symphorien, document final de synthèse, Inrap, SRA Châlons-en-Champagne, 2016, vol. I, p. 96, vol. III, p. 801. 22 Pour plus de précisons, voir le chapitre 16.3.2 « L’enfant sacré, l’enfant magique » dans N. Baills, Sentiment de l’enfance et reconnaissance sociale : la place des enfants en bas âge (0-4 ans) dans les Trois Gaules (ier av. J.-C. - ve apr. J.-C.). Étude des comportements au travers des sources littéraires, iconographiques, anthropologiques, archéologiques et ethnologiques, thèse de doctorat, Université de Paris I-Panthéon Sorbonne, 2012, p. 339.
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tionnalités des espaces sont archéologiquement plus observables dans des habitats importants de type domus, villa et établissement rural. Dans notre corpus, 7 des 11 sites où la nature des pièces a pu être établie appartiennent à ces 3 catégories d’habitation. Dans le cadre d’un habitat plus modeste, la division des espaces s’avère plus ténue. De même, nous devons garder à l’esprit qu’il est possible qu’un même espace ait connu, au fil du temps, plusieurs vocations. Enfin, nous noterons qu’à l’intérieur de l’habitat, les occupants semblent avoir privilégié l’inhumation unique (dans 36,5% des cas). Toutefois, lorsque des regroupements sont observés, ils sont essentiellement composés de 2 (23% des cas) ou 3 (10% des cas) individus. Les regroupements constatés de plus de 4 individus demeurent rares. En effet, dans notre corpus, nous n’avons noté que 3 exemples de regroupements de plus de 4 sépultures. Sur le site de la rue des « Boissières » à Rom (Deux-Sèvres, Nouvelle-Aquitaine) 23, 7 sépultures périnatales ont été mises au jour. Cinq d’entre elles avaient été alignées le long d’un solin, à l’intérieur d’une pièce interprétée comme un habitat léger. Une sixième sépulture se trouvait dans la cour liée au bâtiment tandis que la dernière était isolée dans la cour d’un autre habitat voisin. Les deux autres cas enregistrés, celui du site du « Calvaire » à Poitiers et celui des « Béziaux » à Langeais ont été illustrés plus haut. 1.2.2. À l’extérieur immédiat de l’habitat : une localisation privilégiée
76,5% des sujets ont été découverts à l’extérieur des habitations. Des précisions ont pu être apportées sur leur localisation précise puisque 31,5% des défunts ont été trouvés dans l’extérieur « immédiat » de l’habitat ; 55,5% dans son extérieur « lointain » (à partir d’une distance de plus de 20 m des structures) et 13% à l’extérieur, sans plus de précision. Les vivants semblent avoir privilégié les alentours immédiats de l’habitat (Fig. 4) pour l’inhumation des tout-petits puisque près de 70% des défunts ont été ensevelis soit contre le bâtiment P. Poirier (dir.), Poitou-Charentes, Deux-Sèvres, Rom, Rue des Boissières, Étude de deux îlots des quartiers septentrionaux de Rauranum, rapport final d’opération archéologique, Inrap, SRA Poitiers, 2018, p. 235-238. 23
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Fig. 4. Localisations des sépultures à l’extérieur immédiat de l’habitat.
(56% des cas) soit à quelques mètres de l’habitat (11% des cas). Cette localisation fait écho aux écrits de Fulgence, auteur de l’Antiquité tardive, qui observe que « les enfants de moins de 40 jours étaient inhumés sous les avant-toits (suggrunda) des maisons » 24. Le jardin ou la cour, environnement relativement proche des structures, mais relativement éloigné du va-et-vient de la maisonnée, a également été choisi dans 26% des cas pour l’inhumation des enfants en bas âge. Autour de l’environnement immédiat de l’habitat, les regroupements observés ne réunissent le plus souvent qu’un très petit nombre de défunts. En effet, le nombre d’individus identifiés est, dans 80% des cas, compris entre 1 à 4, dont 27,5% consistent en une sépulture isolée. Il n’existe pas de groupes composés de 5 à 6 sujets. Ensuite, 17,5% des sites réunissent entre 7 et 10 sujets ensevelis près de la maisonnée. Sur ces 7 sites, 6 d’entre eux montrent des regroupements totaux ou partiels 25 et un seul présente des sépultures disséminées autour de l’habitat. Enfin, un seul exemple illustre l’existence de regroupements de plus de 10 sépultures Fulgence, Expositio Sermonum Antiquorum, 7. Sur les sites à « regroupements totaux », tous les sujets mis au jour sont rassemblés dans un même espace ou une même zone. Sur les sites à « regroupements partiels », toutes les sépultures découvertes ne sont pas réunies dans un même lieu, mais au moins un regroupement total a été observé. Sur le site de la « ZA de Layat » à Riom (Puy-de-Dôme, Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes, fig. 5), les jeunes défunts ont fait l’objet d’un regroupement partiel. Nous pouvons observer que 3 sépultures ont été réunies contre l’un des bâtiments tandis que les 4 autres sont disséminées à différents endroits du site, à proximité des bâtiments de l’établissement rural. M. Segard (éd.), Riom, « ZA de Layat » (Puy-de-Dôme, Auvergne), rapport final d’opération d’archéologie préventive, Archeodunum, SRA Clermont-Ferrand, 2010, vol. I, p. 181-194. 24 25
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dans l’environnement immédiat. Il s’agit du site des « Béziaux » à Langeais (Indre-et-Loire, Centre-Val de Loire), où sur un total de 18 individus, 6 se trouvent situés contre les murs extérieurs de la villa, tandis que les 12 autres sont déposés à l’intérieur même de l’habitat 26.
Fig. 5. Localisation des sépultures infantiles du site de la ZA de Layat à Riom (Puy-de-Dôme, Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes) (Segard, Riom, pl. 30, © Archeodunum). Sur les 7 sépultures, 6 ont été localisées à l’extérieur, à proximité immédiate des bâtiments de l’établissement rural. Un individu a été mis au jour à l’intérieur d’un bâtiment.
Guiot, Couvin, Blanchard, « Le site antique (ier-iiie s.) des Béziaux », p. 99-108. N. Baills-Talbi, P. Blanchard, « Sépultures de nouveau-nés et de nourrissons du 1er âge du Fer au haut Moyen Âge découvertes hors des contextes funéraires traditionnels sur les territoires carnute, turon et biturige cube : inventaire, synthèse et interprétations » in Ensembles funéraires gallo-romains de la région Centre, vol. I, Tours, 2006, p. 157-205 en part. p. 169, 172, 175, 183-185, 189-190, 193, 197-198. 26
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1.2.3. À l’extérieur non immédiat de l’habitat
55,5% des défunts trouvés à l’extérieur de l’habitat sont localisés dans son environnement non immédiat (à une distance d’au moins 20 m des structures). Le tableau ci-dessous nous donne la répartition de ces localisations (Fig. 6). Aucune localisation particulière ne semble avoir été privilégiée lorsque les sépultures sont ensevelies dans l’environnement non immédiat des bâtiments. Toutefois, nous noterons que 40,5% des sujets se trouvent à proximité (intérieur, extérieur, dans le comblement du fossé) d’un élément de démarcation de l’habitat. Dans 76% des cas, les sépultures sont placées du côté extérieur de cette limite, et non du côté de l’espace occupé (Fig. 7). Pour plus de justesse, il nous a paru pertinent d’effectuer ces mêmes observations en soustrayant l’effectif des sujets du site de « Champ Madame » à Beaumont (Puy-de-Dôme, Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes, 29 défunts).
Fig. 6. Localisations des sujets à l’extérieur non immédiat de l’habitat.
Fig. 7. Localisations des sujets par rapport aux limites matérialisées de l’habitat.
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Le pourcentage apparait moins important, mais reste significatif : 52% des défunts prennent place à l’extérieur des limites, lorsque celles-ci sont matérialisées par un mur ou un fossé. Dans l’environnement éloigné de l’habitat, les habitants ont également réuni des petits groupes d’individus, à l’image de ceux identifiés à proximité des bâtiments. Le nombre de sépultures varie entre 1 et 4 dans 76% de sites. Dans 12% des cas, on dénombre 6 à 10 individus. Différence notable, les exemples présentant plus de 10 sujets défunts sont au nombre de 4 : 29 sujets à « Champ Madame » à Beaumont (Puy-de-Dôme, AuvergneRhône-Alpes) 27, 25 sur le Site « L » à Bezannes (Marne, Grand Est) 28, 14 à la « ZAC des Feuillates » à Rosières-Près-Troyes (Aube, Grand Est) 29 et 15 au « 42 rue Grande » à Tavant (Indreet-Loire, Centre-Val de Loire) 30. Nous sommes ici en présence de véritables ensembles funéraires ruraux réservés aux enfants en bas âge, à l’image des nécropoles rurales familiales. Il semblerait que les vivants aient, en contexte urbain comme en contexte rural, privilégié l’inhumation à l’extérieur de l’habitat. En contexte urbain, 57% des petits défunts se trouvent ensevelis à l’extérieur des structures bâties. Ce choix de localisation demeure encore plus net en milieu rural où 88% des défunts prennent place à l’extérieur. Les localisations en milieu urbain se révèlent toutefois plus variées puisque 35% des inhumations prennent place à l’intérieur des structures bâties, 57% à l’extérieur et 8% restent indéterminées. En contexte urbain, l’intérieur G. Alfonso, F. Blaizot (éd.), La villa gallo-romaine de Champ Madame à Beaumont (Puy-de-Dôme), Lyon, Documents d’Archéologie en Rhône-Alpes et Auvergne, 2004. 28 N. Achard-Corompt (éd.), Bezannes (Marne), ZAC 1, Site K et L, phase Tramway : 2 nécropoles antiques et un habitat antique en périphérie de Durocortorum, rapport final d’opération, Inrap, SRA Châlons-en-Champagne, 2011, vol. I, p. 54-71, vol. II, p. 141-208. 29 M. Kasprzyk (éd.), Rosières-Près-Troyes (Aube) : ZAC des Feuillates : L’occupation de La Vallée du Triffoire du Néolithique à l’époque Moderne, document final de synthèse, Inrap, SRA Châlons-en-Champagne, 2013, vol. I, p. 116125, vol. II, p. 350-446. 30 S. Riq uier, P. Salé (éd.), Tavant (Indre-et-Loire), 42 rue Grande, document final de synthèse de sauvetage urgent, Afan, SRA Orléans, 1997, 56 p. ; S. Riq uier, P. Salé, « La nécropole du Haut-Empire de Tavant (Indre-etLoire) » in Ensembles funéraires gallo-romains de la région Centre, vol. I, Tours, 2006, p. 7-108 ; Baills-Talbi, Blanchard, « Sépultures de nouveau-nés et de nourrissons », p. 169. 27
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et l’extérieur immédiat s’avèrent des localisations privilégiées (7% des défunts seulement sont ensevelis dans un environnement non immédiat). Ce constat peut s’expliquer par le fait qu’en milieu urbain, les limites de l’habitat, plus restreintes, obligeaient les occupants à pratiquer des ensevelissements dans l’environnement immédiat de la maisonnée, à l’instar des établissements ruraux qui possédaient de plus grands espaces. En contexte urbain, pour ceux qui ne pouvaient ou ne voulaient pas inhumer dans les limites de l’habitation, d’autres solutions existaient : l’inhumation dans des zones accessibles, à l’intérieur d’une structure (plutôt dans des contextes d’artisanat ou d’atelier et de zones ou de bâtiments abandonnés, surtout durant l’Antiquité tardive) ou à la limite de la ville (les zones de rejet ou d’extraction en milieu urbain sont presque toutes situées à la limite ou juste en dehors de la ville 31). En milieu urbain, les contextes domestiques représentent 32%, contre 70,5% dans les campagnes, traduisant ainsi une plus grande multitude de choix pour les lieux d’inhumation en ville.
2. Fréquence et regroupements des tombes d’enfants en bas âge Comme nous l’avons évoqué auparavant, la fréquence des inhumations en contexte domestique (Fig. 8) varie essentiellement entre 1 à 4 individus (81% des sites dont 44% possèdent une seule sépulture). Les groupes réunissant plus de 11 sujets sont peu nombreux, mais existent : il s’agit dans ces quelques cas de véritables ensembles funéraires 32. Lorsque nous nous intéressons aux sites 31 En août 2018, une fouille préventive Inrap (dirigée par R. Pellé, DFS non publié) réalisée au pied du rempart de Nîmes (Occitanie), sur la colline de Montaury a mis au jour une trentaine de sépultures d’enfants en bas âge datées du Haut-Empire. L’opération menée sur la ZAC du Parc à Louvres (Val-d’Oise, Île-de-France) a permis de dégager, dans une ancienne carrière d’extraction située juste en dehors de la ville et près d’un axe de circulation, près de 132 individus sujets de moins de 4 ans. 17 sujets adultes masculins contemporains ou légèrement postérieurs ont été installés autour de la carrière, contre les parois. A.-S. Vigot, M. Coussirat (éd.), La fouille de la ZAC du Parc, Louvres (95) : Une importante nécropole antique, Éveha, DRAC Île-de-France, 2014, vol. I, p. 88-92, 133156. 32 À l’exception des 27 sujets décédés durant la phase périnatale retrouvés dans le comblement d’un puits de la domus au Grand Triclinium à Narbonne (Aude, Occitanie). Les squelettes d’enfants, relativement complets, étaient
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Fig. 8. Fréquence et regroupements des sujets en contexte domestique.
où au minimum 2 sépultures ont été identifiées, nous remarquons que dans 87% des cas, les défunts ont fait l’objet d’un regroupement total (57%) ou partiel (32%). Ces regroupements de sépultures infantiles en un même lieu endroit induisent plusieurs constatations. Tout d’abord, l’existence connue d’un ou de plusieurs emplacements pour l’ensevelissement des tout-petits. Les fouilles archéologiques mettent souvent en évidence des inhumations non synchrones et pourtant dans la plupart des cas, aucun recoupement des tombes n’est observé. On peut donc imaginer que ces emplacements pouvaient servir de quelques mois à quelques années, voire décennies (dans des cas exceptionnels, ces emplacements sont utilisés pendant plusieurs siècles). Sur le site de la « ZAC d’Ozans » à Etrechet (Indre, Centre-Val de Loire), un phénomène tout à fait étonnant a été observé. Au ier siècle apr. J.-C., une sépulture d’un individu post-néonatal (2-8 mois) a été installée à environ 40 m d’un établissement rural. Le défunt, inhumé à l’intérieur d’un coffre ou d’un coffrage avait reçu des dépôts dont 4 céramiques et un fond mêlés à des restes de natures diverses : faune, céramique, etc. L’auteur note une séquence d’utilisation du puits comme dépotoir relativement courte (environ 10 ans). V. Forest, V. Fabre, « Vestiges anthropologiques et zoologiques » in R. Sabrié, M. Sabrié (éd.), La maison au grand Triclinium du Clos de la Lombarde à Narbonne, Montagnac, Monique Mergoil, 2011, p. 308. I. Seguy, « La part des anges : évaluation quantitative de la mortalité des premiers jours dans les populations préindustrielles », in M.-C. Coste (éd.), Le Corps des anges. Journée d’étude sur les pratiques funéraires autour de l’enfant mort au Moyen Âge, Milan, Silvana Editoriale, Melun, Conseil Général de Seine-et-Marne, 2001, p. 124-131.
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annulaire de vase en Terra Nigra, découpé et percé en son centre (possible amulette ?). Au même endroit, 750 ans plus tard, 6 nouvelles sépultures d’enfants sont implantées. Grâce à la datation C14, 2 d’entre elles sont assurément médiévales. Les 4 autres, par l’orientation et la position des sujets semblent également dater de cette période. Elles renfermaient quant à elles des défunts plus âgés (4-9 ans). Selon l’auteur, « le hasard de l’emplacement des fosses sépulcrales ne semble pas constituer une hypothèse sérieuse, pas plus que le souvenir des tombes, tant matériel (par un entretien des sépultures), que dans la mémoire collective. Seul un élément marquant dans le paysage, comme une stèle funéraire, aurait peut-être pu traverser les siècles et permettre aux populations alto-médiévales de reconnaître ce secteur comme lieu d’inhumation pour des enfants 33 ? ». Si le cas de la « ZAC d’Ozans » apparait remarquable par son exceptionnelle longévité, beaucoup de regroupements d’enfants observés dans le corpus ont accueilli des sépultures non synchrones, installées sur un temps plus ou moins long, allant de quelques jours, à des décennies, voire plusieurs siècles. On peut alors se demander comment l’existence de ces lieux demeurait connue ? L’information se transmettait-elle uniquement de manière orale ? Ou bien, à l’image des espaces funéraires communautaires, ces lieux faisaient-ils l’objet de marquages, plus ou moins pérennes ? Malheureusement pour nous, ces éléments de signalisation potentiels des tombes, laissés à l’air libre, ne survivent que très rarement, même en contexte funéraire. En dehors des nécropoles, ces éléments à la fois ponctuels et inattendus ont pu être détruits lors du décapage à la pelle mécanique ou bien échapper à la vigilance du fouilleur. Ces éléments de marquage ont pu par ailleurs employer des structures déjà existantes dans le paysage (murs, palissades, poteaux, fosses ou fossés, etc.) ou crées au moment de l’inhumation. Dans notre corpus, une dizaine de sépultures retrouvées en contexte domestique possédaient un élément de signalisation avéré ou supposé (pierre, tuiles, céramique, etc.). Rue du « Docteur Pouillot »
N. Fouillet, J. Mortreau (éd.), Etrechet, Indre, ZAC d’Ozans, Fêts de Renier : Occupations antiques et médiévales, document final de synthèse, Inrap, SRA Orléans, 2013, vol. I, p. 208-209, 238, 320-342. 33
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à Dammarie-Les-Lys (Seine-et-Marne, Île-de-France) 34, un gros bloc calcaire s’était effondré sur le fragment d’amphorette retourné sur le corps d’un sujet périnatal (Fig. 9). Au « 14 quai d’Alsace » à Narbonne (Aude, Occitanie) 35, l’amphore dans laquelle reposait l’un des deux défunts, inhumés dans un contexte mixte d’activités artisanales et d’habitat (probable domus) de l’Antiquité tardive, était surmontée d’un gros bloc de pierre équarri (Fig. 10).
Figs 9-10. Blocs de pierre disposés au-dessus des sépultures périnatales (du 10 Docteur Pouillot à Dammarie-les-Lys, HOPPAN 1996, Ph. 11, © Afan et du 14 quai d’Alsace à Narbonne, Ginouvez 2013, Fig. 62, © Inrap). Ce type de dispositif pourrait témoigner d’un système de marquage. 34 J.-M. Hoppan, Le site archéologique de la future Maison de l’Eau et de l’Environnement de la Seine-et-Marne, Dammarie-lès-Lys, document final de synthèse de sauvetage urgent, Afan, DRAC Ile-de-France, 1996, vol. I, p. 28-30. 35 O. Ginouvez (éd.), 14 quai d’Alsace à Narbonne (Aude, Languedoc-Roussillon), rapport final d’opération archéologique, Inrap, SRA Montpellier, 2013, documentation fournie par l’auteur.
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Sur l’ensemble des sites du corpus (tous contextes), des éléments de marquage avérés ou supposés ont été observés pour 50 sépultures (environ 6% des défunts). Nous pouvons également nous demander si les éléments dits de « couverture » recouvrant les fosses ou les corps (tegulae, pierres, fragments d’amphore, etc.) n’étaient pas destinés à protéger mais aussi à marquer la tombe. De même, il est fort probable que des éléments en matériaux périssables (bois, branchages, peau, etc.) aient servi à indiquer les inhumations. Comme nous l’avons évoqué plus haut, les éléments structurants du paysage (mur, fossés, fours, etc.) devaient également participer au processus de signalement des sépultures. Enfin, ne peut-on pas penser, pour les sépultures déposées en lien avec les habitations, à l’existence de marquages muraux (inscription, graffiti, dessin), ou au recours d’éléments caractéristiques et visibles de la maisonnée (laraires, foyers, etc.) 36 comme éléments de signalisation ? Malheureusement, ces hypothèses demeurent, pour la Gaule romaine, impossibles à prouver. Il serait intéressant de voir si de tels marquages ont pu être conservés dans des villes partiellement préservées comme Pompéi ou Herculanum même s’il n’existe, à notre connaissance, aucun cas de figure connu. D’autres observations, relativement minces, peuvent être apportées pour tenter de déceler des éléments de marquage des tombes : un espacement régulier entre les sépultures, la présence d’un enclos, une même orientation des corps, un alignement net (autour d’une structure disparue), etc. Par exemple, sur le site de la « ZA de Layat » à Riom (Puy-de-Dôme, Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes), l’écartement régulier entre 3 sépultures observant la même orientation (tête au sud) pourrait peut-être indiquer un système de marquage. Dans la rue des « Boissières » à Rom (Deux-Sèvres, Nouvelle-Aquitaine), 5 des 7 sépultures du site (des sujets périnatals) ont été installées le long d’un solin à l’intérieur d’un bâtiment interprété comme un habitat léger. Les défunts ont tous la même orientation (4 avec tête à l’ouest et 1 avec la tête à l’est). Les fosses, séparées uniquement de quelques centimètres, ne se recoupent pas. Sur le site de « Saint-Hilaire » à Monflauquin
36 Des exemples de sépultures d’enfants mis au jour à proximité immédiate ou sous les plaques de foyers sont connus pour la période antique mais aussi pour l’Âge de Fer (baills, Sentiment de l’enfance et reconnaissance sociale, p. 433-434).
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(Lot-et-Garonne, Nouvelle-Aquitaine) 37, une première sépulture périnatale en amphore est installée à l’extérieur, contre le mur d’un bâtiment d’une villa. Peu de temps après, un deuxième sujet (0-2 mois), inhumé dans un coffre en bois, est déposé contre la première sépulture, sans que celle-ci ne la recoupe. L’amphore est partiellement mise au jour lors de l’installation du coffrage, car le calage de tuiles installé au pied du contenant de bois déborde légèrement du creusement, jouxtant ainsi le pied de l’amphore. Une couverture en tuile, aménagée au-dessus de la deuxième sépulture, vient en partie recouvrir la première inhumation. Existait-il un système de marquage encore visible pour la sépulture en amphore ? Ou bien le souvenir de l’emplacement de la première sépulture demeurait encore présent au moment du second enfouissement ?
3. Les tout-petits et leurs modes d’ensevelissement Q uel que soit le contexte des sépultures découvertes, les défunts sont toujours inhumés, même lorsque la pratique de la crémation prédomine. Les sources écrites antiques corroborent d’ailleurs le recours à l’inhumation comme mode d’ensevelissement pour les très jeunes défunts. Selon Pline l’Ancien, « l’usage général veut qu’on n’incinère pas un être humain qui est mort avant la venue de ses dents 38 ». Cette coutume est confirmée par Juvénal qui évoque l’enterrement d’un infans : « trop jeune encore pour le bûcher » 39. Enfin, selon un passage déjà cité de Fulgence, auteur plus tardif, « autrefois, les Anciens appelaient suggrundaria les sépultures de nourrissons qui n’avaient pas encore vécu 40 jours, parce qu’on ne pouvait pas les nommer busta, puisqu’il n’y avait pas encore d’os qui puissent être brûlés, et que la taille de leur cadavre n’était pas suffisamment grande pour former un monticule de terre » 40. Ces auteurs antiques, en plus de nous informer sur les pratiques funéraires destinées aux tout-petits, nous donnent également des indications sur l’âge des sujets concernés par ce traitement particu37 N. Moreau (éd.), Aquitaine, Lot-et-Garonne, Monflanquin, Saint-Hilaire (47) : Les abords de l’église Saint-Hilaire à Monflanquin : Sépultures et établissement de l’antiquité tardive, espace funéraire du Haut Moyen Âge, document final de synthèse, Inrap, 2016, SRA Bordeaux, p. 72-79, 115-117, 190, 194, 254. 38 Pline l’Ancien, Histoire naturelle, VII, 72. 39 Juvénal, Satires, VII, 135-140. 40 Fulgence, loc. cit., 7.
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Fig. 11. Répartition des sujets en contexte domestique selon l’âge au décès.
lier : il s’agit de défunts « âgés de moins de 40 jours » et de sujets dont la mort est intervenue « avant la venue de [leurs] dents », soit généralement vers cinq-six mois. Cette spécificité est corroborée par les découvertes archéologiques puisque 87% des sujets de notre corpus (Fig. 11) inhumés dans un contexte domestique appartiennent à des individus infantiles 41 et, plus précisément, pour près de la moitié, à des sujets périnatals 42 (49%). De manière générale, nous retiendrons qu’au moins 80% des tout-petits ont moins de 6 mois. Les sujets périnatals s’avèrent probablement plus importants mais, souvent, la représentation du squelette et la conservation osseuse ne permettent pas d’établir une estimation de l’âge au décès très précise. De même, environ 8% des sujets de notre corpus n’ont pas fait l’objet d’une étude anthropologique. Par conséquent, ils ont été intégrés à des catégories plus larges : « infantile », « enfant », « jeune enfant », « immature », selon les précisions apportées par le rapport de fouille. Plus rarement, des
Sujets de moins d’un an. Entre le septième mois fœtal et 28 jours après la naissance. De manière globale, il s’agit des individus décédés autour de la naissance (nés ou mort-nés). 41 42
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défunts de plus d’un an 43 sont également mis au jour en lien avec un contexte d’habitat. Ces découvertes, bien que très ponctuelles, doivent être signalées dans la mesure où l’une des hypothèses les plus souvent avancées pour expliquer la localisation marginale de ces défunts est celle de l’absence de statut social. En effet, ces tout-petits, qui vivaient quelques heures, jours ou bien semaines, intégraient la communauté des vivants par un ensemble de rites de passage (premier bain, attribution du nom, etc.). On peut alors s’interroger sur la présence de sujets de plus d’un an, probablement déjà bien intégrés à la cellule familiale et pour certains à la communauté. Globalement, les défunts inhumés en dehors des espaces funéraires communautaires appartiennent majoritairement à la catégorie des infantiles et plus largement à la catégorie des 0-4 ans, soit celle qui devrait être la plus fortement représentée dans les nécropoles, mais qui y apparaît pourtant de manière déficitaire.
Conclusion La pratique de l’inhumation en contexte domestique concerne sans surprise des sujets infantiles et plus particulièrement des individus périnatals, ce que corroborent les sources antiques. Ces tout-petits se retrouvent associés à toutes les formes de l’habitat, que celui-ci soit urbain ou rural, modeste ou luxueux. Dans notre corpus, des exemples apparaissent dès le ier siècle av. J.-C. et perdurent jusqu’à la fin du ve siècle, ceci dans toutes les régions des Gaules romaines. Des exemples plus anciens sont connus dans le sud des Gaules 44 et des cas plus tardifs persistent même si la pratique semble évoluer avec l’implantation du christianisme 45. 43 Dans notre corpus, les sujets de plus d’un an représentent 9% des sujets en contexte domestique et environ 7% des sujets du corpus. 85% des sujets de plus d’un an découverts en lien à l’habitat ont moins de 5 ans. Encore une fois, ces données doivent être appréhendées avec prudence, car 14 défunts sur les 33 sont réunis sur un même site (ZAC des Feuillates à Rosières-Près-Troyes dans l’Aube, Grand Est). 44 Voir notamment les travaux de B. Dedet sur les sépultures d’enfants protohistoriques. 45 Entre le viiie et le xie siècle, sur le site des « Cosserons » à Tagnon (Ardennes, Grand Est) une sépulture de nouveau-né (0-2 mois) en cercueil est
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À l’inverse de certains chercheurs anglo-saxons qui perçoivent le regroupement de plusieurs sépultures en contexte domestique comme une pratique de l’infanticide ou de rejet 46, nous aurions plutôt tendance à voir dans le caractère isolé de certaines sépultures – encore faut-il que la tombe ait été réellement isolée (fouille non exhaustive ou squelettes disparus) – les marques d’un statut social encore incertain. Le caractère isolé ou particulier d’une sépulture couplé à un contexte de découverte qui peut sembler peu attrayant (nous pensons à des tombes mises au jour dans des latrines, des dépotoirs ou des fosses) ne suffisent pas en effet à déterminer l’existence d’une sépulture de rejet. Des indices dans le traitement funéraire, comme l’absence de contenant ou de protection du corps, de mobilier doivent être observés. Ainsi, il semblerait que les habitants de la Gaule romaine aient, à l’échelle de la maisonnée, reproduit ce qu’on observait dans les espaces funéraires communautaires. En effet, ils paraissent avoir privilégié un ensevelissement à l’extérieur de structures bâties. Comme nous l’avons vu, dans 87% des sites qui comportent au moins deux sépultures, un regroupement total ou partiel a été observé, induisant une volonté de la part des vivants de réunir les défunts en un même emplacement. Ces regroupements ne réunissent que très rarement plus de 4 sépultures, mais des exemples existent, venant renforcer l’idée qu’il existait bien de véritables ensembles funéraires destinés aux plus petits. Comment expliquer qu’à certains endroits les sépultures aient été totalement regrou-
déposée dans un contexte domestique rural, dans l’espace occupé par les bâtiments 1 à 3. Plus tardivement, au xive siècle, c’est lors de la fouille d’une maison privée au pied et à l’intérieur du rempart de Mont-de-Marsan (Landes, Nouvelle-Aquitaine) que l’on découvre une inhumation de nouveau-né déposé face contre terre dans le sol de la demeure. 46 A.-H. Cocks, « A romano-British homestead in the Hambleden valley, Bucks », Archaeologia, 71, 1921, p. 141-198. J. Collis, « Owslebury (Hants) and the problem of burials on rural settlements » in R. Reece (éd.), Burial in the Roman World. London : Council for British Archaeology, 1977, p. 26-34. T. Molleson, « The Archaeology of the neonate : a review of « Sallèles d’Aude : nouveau-nés et nourrissons gallo-romains », Bulletin et mémoire de la Société d’anthropologie de Paris, 7, 3-4, 1995, p. 191-196. J.-D. Watts, « Infant burials and Romano-British Christianity », The Archaeological Journal, 146, 1989, p. 372-383. P. Smith, G. Kahila, « Identification of infanticide in archaeological sites: a case study from late Roman-early Byzantine periods at Ashkelon, Israel », Journal of Archaeological Science, 19 (1992), p. 667-675.
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pées tandis qu’à d’autres, les défunts aient été répartis en petits noyaux avec parfois des sépultures isolées ? Les regroupements partiels sont-ils la conséquence de petits ensembles succincts dans le temps ? Sont-ils rattachés à une maisonnée en particulier ? Ou bien demeurent-ils liés à l’existence de différentes catégories sociales sur un même lieu? Ces trois hypothèses se révèlent très fortement probables, mais restent difficiles à démontrer : la datation des sépultures d’enfants retrouvées en dehors des contextes funéraires s’avère souvent imprécise et couvre une période relativement large. La temporalité des différents noyaux demeure donc difficile à établir. Toutefois, sur le site de la « Foulerie » à Bazoches-sur-Vesle (Aisne, Hauts-de-France) 47, les différents lieux d’inhumation correspondent à des temporalités différentes. En effet, une première sépulture périnatale en vase funéraire est installée à la Tène finale dans le fossé d’enclos d’une petite exploitation rurale. Au Haut-Empire, un sujet de moins de 6 mois est déposé sous un fragment de vase à un autre endroit, mais toujours en lien avec le fossé d’enclos de l’établissement. Enfin, dans l’Antiquité tardive, 3 sépultures (4 sujets de moins de 2 mois) s’installent, les unes à côté des autres, près du fossé d’enclos, dans un espace différent des deux premières. L’inhumation des jeunes enfants semble donc avoir été pratiquée sur près de 4 ou 5 siècles par les occupants des lieux. Les sépultures de la Tène finale et du Haut-Empire sont isolées, mais en lien avec ce fossé d’enclos. Pouvons-nous imaginer, au vu des nouveaux lieux d’inhumation choisis, que l’emplacement exact de la sépulture la plus ancienne ait été perdu ? Toutefois, la déposition à proximité du fossé d’enclos n’est pas un hasard et ce choix de localisation semble avoir été privilégié par les habitants, et cela dans les différentes périodes chronologiques. Encore plus étonnant, le recours à une céramique comme vase funéraire ou comme couverture du corps est commun à toutes les sépultures du site. Enfin, les sépultures de l’Antiquité tardive ont fait l’objet d’un regroupement total (distantes
G. Auxiette, S. Desenne, C. Pommepuy, « Bazoches-sur-Vesle : la Foulerie », Les fouilles protohistoriques dans la vallée de l’Aisne 23 (1995), p. 133190 en part. p. 160, 162 ; M. Baillieu, C colas, B. Robert, « Bazochessur-Vesle : la Foulerie », Les fouilles protohistoriques dans la vallée de l’Aisne 22 (1994), p. 253-270 en part. p. 255-256. 47
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de 5 à 10 m). Ont-elles bénéficié d’un élément de signalisation où bien le lieu d’inhumation était-il connu des habitants ? Q uelques différences avec les pratiques funéraires observées pour les espaces funéraires communautaires sont à noter. Tout d’abord, les enfants en contexte domestique font l’objet d’un recrutement puisque 87% des défunts inhumés en contexte domestique appartiennent à des individus infantiles (dont au moins la moitié se rapporte à des sujets décédés durant la phase périnatale). Ces observations viennent renforcer l’idée que les plus petits reçoivent un traitement funéraire différent du reste de la population décédée. Certains verront pour ces jeunes défunts, une exclusion des espaces funéraires communautaires, d’autres une « autorisation » à rester dans des espaces où les autres morts ne sont pas tolérés. Ainsi l’inhumation des plus petits au sein de l’espace domestique, domaine féminin et maternel, donc protecteur, n’engendrait-elle pas de pollution, au contraire de certains adultes inhumés en limite de la ville, dans des zones souvent liées à des activités artisanales. Notons que l’installation des sépultures dans des fosses d’extraction, des dépotoirs, des fossés, voire dans des habitats abandonnés permettait de profiter de structures déjà existantes. Il n’y avait donc pas à creuser de fosses ni à parcourir un long chemin pour déposer les petits corps. Les funérailles, a minima, mais pas toujours, n’exprimaient pas pour autant un manque de considération pour le petit être qu’il avait été. Partis beaucoup trop tôt, comme certainement d’autres petits enfants de la famille, ces êtres qui n’étaient pas encore intégrés dans la communauté par des rites de passage, trouvaient toute leur place au milieu de leurs proches, tout près du giron protecteur de leur mère. L’absence de statut social pour les tout-petits demeure l’hypothèse la plus plausible pour expliquer cette exclusion, cependant il faut observer que près de 10% des sujets trouvés en contexte domestique ont plus d’un an au moment de leur décès – mais en général moins de cinq ans. Ces individus n’avaient probablement pas effectué les rites de passage nécessaires pour intégrer pleinement leur communauté 48. Ces sujets immatures demeurent tou48 N. Baills, « Le statut et la place de l’enfant dans la société romaine » in D. Gourevitch, A. Moirin, N. Rouq uet (éd.), Maternité et petite enfance
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tefois majoritairement inhumés en contexte rural (77% des cas), renvoyant ainsi à une différence dans la gestion de la mort en milieu rural et urbain. Un peu plus intégrés dans la communauté que leurs cadets, ces enfants plus âgés engendraient, par leur mort, une souillure, certes moins importante que celle de leurs aînés, mais dont il fallait se prémunir à l’intérieur de la ville. Cette perception s’avérait peut-être moins prégnante à la campagne. Si la sous-représentation des enfants en bas âge dans les nécropoles peut en partie s’expliquer par la déposition hors des ensembles funéraires communautaires et en particulier dans les espaces domestiques, elle n’explique pas totalement ce déficit puisque les sujets découverts dans l’habitat ne sont pas assez nombreux et surtout ne se retrouvent pas dans tous les contextes domestiques. En Bourgogne-Franche-Comté, de tels exemples demeurent extrêmement rares. Cette absence révèle-t-elle un fait archéologique (ils n’ont jamais existé dans ces habitats-là) ou un problème de méthode (squelettes trop dégradés, passés inaperçus, happés par une pelleteuse, une main trop pressée ou par l’impossibilité de fouiller tout le secteur) ? Soulignons que dans les nécropoles communautaires, le déficit concerne également la classe 1-4 ans, or, ils sont peu présents dans les contextes domestiques. L’hypothèse d’une déposition hors contexte funéraire, dans des habitats, ne s’explique donc pas pour cette catégorie d’individus, ni totalement pour les sujets infantiles.
dans l’Antiquité romaine : exposition du Musée du Malgré-Tout, Treignes (Belgique), 11 juin au 18 déc. 2005, Treignes, CEDARC, 2005, p. 60-66. Baills, Sentiment de l’enfance et reconnaissance sociale, p. 20-49, p. 30-40. Baills-Talbi, Blanchard, « Sépultures de nouveau-nés et de nourrissons », p. 178-180. V. Dasen, « Iconographie et Archéologie des rites de passage de la petite enfance dans le monde Romain. Q uestions Méthodologiques » in A. Mouton, J. Patrier, Life, death, and coming of age in Antiquity: individual rites of passage in the ancient Near East and adjacent regions – Vivre, grandir et mourir dans l’Antiquité : rites de passage individuels au Proche-Orient ancien et ses environs, Leiden, Nederlands Instituut voor het Nabije Oosten, 2014, p. 231-252. V. Dasen, Le sourire d’Omphale : maternité et petite enfance dans l’Antiquité, Rennes, Presses Universitaires de Rennes, 2015.
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PLACE INDEX
PLACE INDEX
Agora of the Italians 244, 248249 Bouleuterion 161 Building of Poseidoniasts of Bery tus 160 House B (House of Masks Insula) 153 House ID (Stadion District) 244, 255-256 House IIA (Stadion Q uarter) 256 House IIIK (Theater District) 256 House of Cleopatra 240 House of Diadoumenos 240 House of Dionysos 256 House of Q uintus Tullius (IC) 240, 249-251, 254, 257 House of Spurius Tertinius (House E) 252-253 House of the Dolphins 240 House of the Lake 256 House of the Seals 244 House of the Trident 155, 240 House of the Trident 240 House of the Tritons 153, 256 Delos, Insula III, quartier du théâtre 157 n. 24 Prytaneion 161
Alexandria 238 Antioch 238 n. 3 Aragenua : see « Vieux » Arcobriga (Monreal de Ariza, Zara goza) 264 Domus del Pretorio 268, 282283, 291-292 Ascalon 238 n. 3 Athens 147 Bazoches-sur-Vesle (Aisne), La Fou lerie 315 Beaumont (Puy-de-Dôme), Champ Madame 304-305 Berytos 238 n. 3, 243 Bezannes (Marne), Site « L » 305 Biot (Alpes Maritimes), La Chappe 300 Brumath (Bas-Rhin), Site du « 7-9 rue du Général Rampont » 299300 Bussy-Lettré (Marne), Le « Petit Vau Bourdin » 300 Carthage 237 n. 2 Corinth 237 n. 2 Dammarie-les-Lys (Seine-et-Marne), Rue du Docteur Pouillot 309 Delos 88, 109-110, 147, 152-153, 155, 159, 162 Agora of the Competaliastes 244, 246-247, 249
Ephesos 257 Ercavica (Cañaveruelas, Cuenca) 264 Domus 3 269, 282, 291-292
319
PLACE INDEX
Domus 4 269, 282, 291-292 Domus del Médico 268, 282, 291-292 Etrechet (Indre), ZAC d’Ozans 307-308
Domus del Llanuca II 268, 282283, 291-292
Feurs (Loire), site du « 48 rue du 8 mai 1945 » 296 Gerra 238 Herculaneum Apartment V, 14 185 Apartment V, 18 182 Casa d’Argo (II, 2) 105-111 Casa dell’Atrio a Mosaico (IV, 2, 1) 108, 134 Casa del Bel Cortile (V, 8) 103 Casa del Bicentenario (V, 1516) 103-104, 108 n. 49, 119 n. 12 Casa dei Cervi (IV, 21) 105, 112, 134 Casa del Colonnato tuscanico (VI, 17, 26) 96, 108 Casa della Gemma (Or., I, 1) 134 Casa a Graticcio (III, 14, 13, 15) 180-181 Casa del Mobilio carbonizzato (V, 5) 92, 94-96 Casa di Nettuno e Anfitrite (V, 6-7) 98-102, 112, 182 Casa del Sacello di Legno (V, 31) 92 n. 21, 101 Casa del Salone Nero (VI, 13, 11) 108 Casa Sannitica (V, 1-2) 92, 96, 102, 167 Casa del Tramezzo di Legno (III, 11; 4-6; 8-9) 105, 108 n. 49, 119 n. 12 Hieropolis 238 n. 3 Iuliobriga (Retortillo, Cantabria) 264 Domus de los Morillos 268, 282-283, 291-292
La Caridad (Caminreal, Teruel) 264, 269, 288 Domus de Likine 269, 282-283, 285, 291-292 Domus Insula I 269, 282, 285, 291-292 Domus Insula V 269, 282, 285, 291-292 Langeais (Indre-et-Loire), Les Bézi aux 299, 301, 303 Laodicea (Phoenicia) 238 n. 3 Laodicea (Syria) 238 n. 3 Lattara : see « Lattes » Lattes (Hérault) 298, 300 Loupian (Hérault), villa des « PrésBas » 299 Louvres (Val-d’Oise), ZAC du Parc 306 n. 31 Maillé (Indre-et-Loire), Le Perrou 296 Mina (Amorgos) 148 Monflauquin (Lot-et-Garonne), SaintHilaire 311 Musarna 216 Narbonne (Aude) Domus au Grand Triclinium 306 n. 32 Site du « 14 quai d’Alsace » 309 Numantia (Garay, Soria) 262, 264, 267, 275 Domus de las Vigas Quema das 268, 282, 285, 291-292 Domus Sector Sur 268, 282, 285, 291-292 Domus Sector Sur II 268, 282, 291-292 Olynthus 147 Oplontis, Villa A 125 Ostia Casa delle Volte Dipinte (III, v, 1) 188
320
PLACE INDEX
Caseggiato degli Aurighi (III, x, 1) 187 Caseggiato del Termopolio (I, ii, 5) 187 Caseggiato del Larario (I, ix, 3) 187-188 Caseggiato del Serapide (III, x, 3) 187 Caseggiato dell’Ercole (IV, ii, 2-4) 187 Insula dei Dipinti 187 Pergamon 257 Poitiers (Vienne) Îlot des Cordeliers 300 Le Calvaire 299, 301 Pompeii Hospitium of Hyginius Firmus (IX, 8, b) 78 Bakery VI, 11, 9 174, 176 Bakery VII, 1, 36 173, 175 Bakery VII, 2, 3.6 173, 175 Bakery VII, 12, 7 176 Bakery VII, 12, 11 178 n. 37 Bakery VII, 12, 13 176 Brothel VII, 12, 18-20 226, 231 Casa degli Amanti (I, 10, 1011) 119 n. 13 Casa degli Amorini dorati (VI, 16, 7.38) 97, 126 n. 32, 168 Casa di Apollo (VI, 7, 23) 122 Casa del Bracciale d’Oro (VI, 17, 42) 140-143 Casa della Caccia di Tori (VI, 16, 28) 209-211, 214, 217 Casa dei Capitelli colorati (VII, 4, 31, 51) 216 n. 118 Casa dei Casti Amanti (IX, 12, 6-8) 57 Casa del Centauro (VI, 9, 3-5) 215 Casa del Centenario (IX, 8, 6.3a) 66-86 Casa delle Colombe a mosaico (VIII, 2, 34-35) 216 n. 118 Casa dei Dioscuri (VI, 9, 6) 168 n. 15, 216 n. 118
321
Casa del Fabbro (I, 10, 7) 97 Casa del Fauno (VI, 12, 2.5) 28, 45 n. 57 Casa della Fontana Piccola (VI, 8, 23-24) 120 Casa di Giuseppe II (VIII, 2, 39) 133 Casa del Labirinto (VI, 11, 10) 175 Casa di Loreius Tiburtinus (II, 2, 2) 122 Casa di Lucius Caecilius Iucun dus (V, 1, 26) 167 n. 8 Casa di Maius Castricius (VII, 15, 1.2.15) 198-200, 214, 217 Casa di Marcus Fabius Rufus (VII, 16, 22) 130, 135-139, 142, 196-198, 214 Casa del Menandro (I, 10, 4) 26 n. 8, 119, 229 Casa del Moralista (III, 4, 2.3) 97 Casa di Octavius Q uartio (II, 2, 2) 122 Casa delle Origini di Roma (V, 4, 13) 211-214, 217 Casa di Paquius Proculus (I, 7, 1.20) 206-209, 214 Casa del Poeta tragico (VI, 8, 5) 167 Casa del Principe di Napoli (VI, 15, 8) 35, 168 Casa del Procuratore (I, 10, 16) 229 Casa dei Q uattro Stili (I, 8, 17.11) 230 Casa del sacerdos Amandus (I, 7, 7) 97 Casa di Sallustio (VI, 2, 4) 123 Casa di Tiberius Crassius Cres cens (I, 13, 1) 201-203, 214 Casa della Venere in Bikini (I, 11, 6.7) 204-206, 214 Casa dei Vettii (VI, 15, 1) 118 Caupona I, 8, 8 176-177 Caupona I, 2, 19-20 233
PLACE INDEX
Central Baths 161 Forum 23, 161 Forum Baths 161 House I, 3, 3.31 233 House I, 13, 2-3 172 House I, 17, 3 233 House VI, 13, 6 231 House VIII, 2, 29-30 131-132 House IX, 3, 25 234 House IX, 5, 11.13 216 n. 118 Insula I, 10 65, 88, 226, 233 Insula I, 17 64 Insula V, 5 225 Insula VI, 17 127 Insula VII, 16 127 Insula VIII, 2 127 Insula Occidentalis 128 Insula del Centenario (IX, 8, 6) 59-86, 127 n. 32, 216 n. 118 Shop IX, 8, 4 68-71 Shop IX, 11, 2 170 Villa dei Misteri 123, 137, 216 Reims (Marne), rue Saint-Sympho rien 300 Riom (Puy-de-Dôme), ZA de Layat 302 n. 25, 310 Rom (Deux-Sèvres), Les Boissières 301, 310 Rome 242 Insula Bolani 186-187 Rosières-près-Troyes (Aube), ZAC des Feuillates 305, 313 n. 43
Salamis 238 n. 3 Sergilla (Syria) 153 Sidon 238 n. 3 Sommesous (Marne), Côte d’Orge val 296 Stabia, Villa San Marco 124 Strasbourg (Bas-Rhin), site de rue Hannon 149, 159 Tagnon (Ardennes), Cosserons 313 n. 45 Tell-el-Amarna 147 Termes (Montejo de Tiermes, So ria) 264, 275 Casa Insula II Foro 264, 282, 291-292 Domus del Acueducto 264, 285, 291-292 Tyre 238 n. 3 Uxama Argaela (El Burgo de Osma, Soria) 264, 275 Domus de los Plintos 267 Valeria (Las Valeras, Cuenca) 264 Domus de los Adobes 270, 285, 291-292 Vichy (Allier), site « Garage Palace » 300 Vieux (Calvados), Bas de Vieux 296 Villeneuve-au-Châtelot (Aube) 296
322
SOURCE INDEX
SOURCE INDEX
1. Literary Sources Appian Hisp., 42-80 262 n. 16 Apuleius Met., 3, 28 195 n. 9 Met., 4, 18 195 n. 9 Met., 5, 2 195 n. 9
Jerome In Is., 57, 7, 8 169, 187 Juvenal Sat., 7, 135-145 311
Petronius 27, 5 157 29 167 41, 9 157 47, 5 157 64 167 n. 7 77 216 Phaedrus 3, 8, 4 216 Plautius Aul., 3 180 Mos., 755 193 n. 2, 215 n. 114 Mos., 759 193 n. 2, 215 n. 114 Mos., 908 193 n. 2, 215 n. 114 Pliny the Elder 7, 72 311 Pliny the Younger 2, 17 139, 143, 145 5, 6 140 n. 62, 143, 145 n. 70 Plutarch Caes., 9, 3, 2 193 n. 2 De prim. frig., 20 90 Polybius 3, 35, 2 262 Propertius 4, 11, 85 215 n. 113
Livius 1, 57, 9 215
Strabo 10, 5, 4 237 n. 2
Macrobius Sat., 1, 7, 3a
Terentius Ph., 862 193 n. 2, 215 n. 114
Ovid Fast., 1, 135-139 168-169
Varro L., 8, 54 216 n. 120
Cicero Dom., 41 168 Phil., 2, 95 193 n. 2, 215 n. 114 Columella 7, 12, 1 167 n. 7 Cornelius Nepos Praef., 7 193 n. 2 ; 215 n. 114 Fulgentius Serm. Ant., 7 302, 311 Gellius 16, 9, 4 215 n. 113 Horace Ep., 1, 1, 87 215 n. 113
323
SOURCE INDEX
Vitruvius 5, 1, 1-2 247 6, 3, 8 97, 112 6, 3, 10 125
6, 4, 1-2 89 6, 5, 2-3 289 6, 7, 2-5 193 n. 2
2. Inscriptions CIL: Corpus Incriptionum Latinarum, Berlin, 1863– I2, 2652 255 n. 37 II, 2828 275 II, 5796 275 IV, 1382a 234 IV, 1388 234 IV, 1507 231 IV, 2321 234 IV, 2413h 234 IV, 3905 225 IV, 3928 233 IV, 3929 233 IV, 3971 233 IV, 3973 233 IV, 4023 234 IV, 4025 234 IV, 4192 234 IV, 4639 225 n. 14 IV, 4957 155 IV, 5094 234 IV, 5105 234 IV, 5203 234 IV, 5296 231 IV, 5345 234 IV, 6755 225 IV, 8212 230 IV, 8218 230 IV, 8219 230 IV, 8258 234 IV, 8259 234 IV, 8321a 229 IV, 8329 229 IV, 8356 229 IV, 8417 170 IV, 8618b-c 233 IV, 8626a-d 233 IV, 8627b 233 IV, 8676b 233 IV, 8708 233 IV, 8717a 233
IV, 8720 226 IV, 10033b-c 233 IV, 10241 229 VI, 65 186 VI, 66 186 VI, 67 186 VI, 3697 187 VI, 30940 187 X, 861 172-173 X, 877 167 Hispania Epigráfica 5, 741 275 ID: Inscriptions de Délos, Paris, 19261972 1756 248 1802 249-250 ILGN: Inscriptions latines de la Gaule (Narbonnaise), ed. E. Espéran dieu, Paris, 1929 583 190-191 M. Langner, Antike Graffitizeichnungen: Motive, Gestaltung und Bedeutung, Wiesbaden, 2001 1906 255 1915 255 1984 255 2081 255 2082 255 Monumenta Linguarum Hispanicarum, éd. J. Untermann, Wiesbaden, 1975– IV, K. 11.2 275 SEG: Supplementum epigraphicum Graecum 32 (1982), 812 249-250
324