A Survey of Tourism in West Malaysia and Some Socio-Economic Implications 9789814377621

Citation preview

The Institute of Southeast Asian Studies

The Institute of Southeast Asian Studies was established as an autonomous organization in May 1968. It is a regional research centre for scholars and other specialists concerned with modem Southeast Asia. The Institute's research interest is focused on the many-faceted problems of development and modernization, and political and social change in Southeast Asia. The Institute is governed by a twenty-four-member Board of Trustees on which are represented the University of Singapore and Nanyang University, appointees from the government, as well as representatives from a broad range of professional and civic organizations and groups. A ten-man Executive Committee oversees day-to-day operations; it is chaired by the Director, the Institute's chief academic and administrative officer.

The responsibility for facts and opinions expressed in this publication rests exclusively with the autho; and his interpretations do not necessqrily reflect the . . views or the policy of the Institute or its supporters.

"Copyright subsists in this publication under the United Kingdom Copyright Act, 1911, and the Singapore Copyright Act (Cap. 187). No person shall reproduce a copy of this publication, or extracts therefrom, without the, written permission of the Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, Singapore."

A SURVEY OF TOURISM IN WEST MALAYSIA AND SOME SOCIO-ECONOMIC IMPLICATIONS

by

Norbert Hofmann

Research Notes and Discussions Paper No. 13 Institute of Southeast Asian Studies 1979

CONTENTS Page I:

INTRODUCTION

1

II:

WEST MALAYSIA'S TOURIST ATTRACTIONS

2

III:

TRAYELLERS, VISITORS AND TOURISTS

6

IV:

ECONOMIC IMPLICATIONS OF TOURISM IN WEST MALAYSIA

10

V:

VISITOR STATISTICS

18

VI:

THE TOURIST DEVELOPMENT CORPORATION OF MALAYSIA

26

VII:

DOMESTIC TOURISM IN WEST MALAYSIA

29

VIII:

THE TOURISTS' EXPECTATIONS

30

IX:

SOCIAL IMPLICATIONS OF TOURISM IN WEST MALAYSIA

33

OUTLOOK

41

X:

BIBLIOGRAPHY

48

1:

INTRODUCTION

This paper focuses on some general traits of tourism in Peninsular Malaysia and, more specifically, on the economic and social aspects of tourism. The author and a colleague of the Department of Economics, Mainz University, Rudolf Haenlein, visited West Malaysia, especially the East Coast and Kuala Lumpur, for field research during a period of nearly three months between July and December 1978. Interviewees included members of the staff of the following organizations: the Tourist Development Corporation of Malaysia (TDC) in Kuala Lumpur, Frankfurt and Singapore (in Kuala Lumpur we spoke to the Research, Training and Marketing Division); the local Departments of Tourism in Kuantan, Kuala Trengganu, Kuala Lumpur, Johor Bahru and Penang; the State Economic Development Corporation (SEDC), Pahang, in Kuantan; the State Secretary's Offices in Kuala Trengganu and Kota Bahru; the Singapore Tourist Promotion Board (STPB) in Singapore; Singapore Airlines (SIA) in the Singapore headquarters; and the Federal Industrial Development Authority (FIDA) in Kuala Lumpur and Dtisseldorf. Further material was collected either directly or via correspondence from the Tourist Organization of Thailand (TOT) in Bangkok, Malaysian Airlines System (MAS, headquarters in Kuala Lumpur), the Studienkreis fUr Tourismus in Starnberg, the West German Federal Ministry of Economic Cooperation (Bundesministerium fUr Wirtschaftliche Zusammenarbeit (BMZ) in Bonn), the West Berlin Travel Trade Fair organizers (Internationale Tourismus-Borse (ITB) ), West German travel agencies, airlines and other official or private organizations dealing in tourism and trade. The field research for kampong tourism was carried out in the village of Cherating, Pahang, some thirty miles north of Kuantan.

2

Most of the collected material had somehow to deal with tourism's economic aspects which, up to now, have been studied far more intensively than the social ones. The final German edition of this research on tourism should be published by mid 1980. This paper, therefore, is to be seen as one part of the whole. Also, I should like to add that the results of the survey on kampong tourism are only of a preliminary nature. Many new ideas arose during a seminar I gave at the Institute of Southeast Asian Studies on 16 January 1979. Not all of these ideas have been explored in this paper, but I hope that this will be the case in some other research on tourism in Malaysia to be published by other teams. A comparative analysis of tourism in the ASEAN countries, for instance, would be very useful, since tourism in Malaysia is part of the tourism business in Southeast Asia. The tourism industry and organizations of Malaysia have to work closely with their counterparts in Singapore, Indonesia, Thailand and the Philippines since generally (as will be disclosed later) tourists do not come to this part of the world just to visit one place or country alone. I should like to thank Rudolf Haenlein for collecting many facts, ideas and material on the economic aspects of tourism in Malaysia. Many thanks are also due to the Institute of Southeast Asian Studies for having given me the opportunity to complete my research in Singapore. Without its help, this research would probably not have been published at this stage. The collection of data ended by January 19 79.

II:

WEST MALAYSIA'S TOURIST ATTRACTIONS

West Malaysia, geographically situated between Thailand and Singapore -- two of its biggest and most important rivals in the Southeast Asian tourist market -- has, in different parts of the country, various physical attractions including beaches, islands, hills, mountains, rivers, a National Park (Taman Negara), and a turtle season at the East Coast. The main tourist resorts are the two islands of Penang and Langkawi, d1e West Coast towns of Kuala Lumpur, Ipoh, Melaka and Port Dickson, the hill resorts (Genting Highlands with its casino, Cameron Highlands, Maxwell Hill, Fraser's hill), the East Coast states (especially the coastal areas of North Pahang, Trcngganu and

3

Kelantan), and finally the newly developed area of Southeast Johor (Desaru). 1 Sabah and Sarawak have not yet been fully opened to tourists or developed for tourism but, in 1978, the TDC began promoting potentially interesting parts of the two East Malaysian states, although in September 1978 it was announced that the Sabah tourism agency would be dissolved. 2 Peninsular Malaysia's West Coast is economically most developed for tourism, with Penang in particular always attracting a large number of foreign visitors, as well as Malaysian tourists. The East Coast and other parts of the country, like J ohor and Perak, are a close second in their development of tourism. Sales missions to countries in Europe, the U.S., Australia and J apan3 try to assure investors that Malaysia is a good place to invest in, although some of them refrain from starting new investments due to the New Economic Policy (NEP) in favour of the bumiputra (literally sons of the soil or indigenous) Malaysians. 4 The main attractions (and facilities) of West Malaysia may be categorized in the following way (1) recreation, (2) food, (3) excursions, (4) several races of Asia unified (Malays, Chinese, Indians) and ( 5) shopping. The islands and beaches offer a wide range of various recreational facilities. New hotels have been opened in Langkawi (the Country Club) and Penang (especially in the Batu Ferringhi area), while others are under construction or just very near to opening (for example, Holiday Inn in Penang, Club Mediterranee in Cherating, the Hyatt in Telok 1 Refer to the TDC's various brochures and pamphlets on tourist spots including the ones on Malacca, Historic City of Malaysia; East Coast Road Adventure; Kelantan; Penang, Western Gateway to Malaysia; Langkawi, Land of Legends; National Parks; Sabah, Land Below the Wind; Sarawak, Land of the Hornbill; Festivals Malaysia and the monthly issues of Kuala Lumpur This Month (recent publications in 1978). Malay language brochures include Pahang, Negri Alam Bertemasya. All these brochures do not have a place or date of publication, though most of them are believed to be printed in Kuala Lumpur. A two-page handout on the New Desaru Holiday Resort is being distributed freely at the TDC centres. See also TDC, Malaysisches Reisehandbuch (Kuala Lumpur, n.d., 19 75 or later); "Malaysia kurbelt Tourism us an," in Frankfurter Rundschau, 8 June 1972. Special Features "Tourism is here to stay" in The Economic Bulletin (Kuala Lumpur), Vol. 2, No. 4 (April 1976), pp. 3842; Clarence Gomez, "Malaysia VIII, Tourist Facilities and Development" in The Financial Times, 21 February 1972, p. 18.

2 See the abovementioned TDC brochures on Sabah and Sarawak. On the state of the Sabah tourist agency, see "Sports and tourism agencies to be dissolved," New Straits Times, 23 September 1978, p. 11. According to this article, the closing down of the agency would be on 1 January 1979, but I do not have any further information on this. 3 See "Have no fear, Dr. M. assures investors," in New Straits Times, 30 September 1978, p. 1 and 28; also "Nation offers attractive package to investors," New Straits Times, 31 August 1978, p. 36; and "Off to woo tourists," New Straits Times,16 September 1978, p. 13. 4 See FIDA, Malaysia, A Basic Guidebook for Potential Investors (Kuala Lumpur, 1978), pp. 118138 (on hotel incentives, p. 133); FIDA, Malaysia, Your Profit Centre in Asia (Kuala Lumpur, 1978), p. 14 (on hotel incentives); The Third Malaysia Plan 1976-1980 (Kuala Lumpur, 1976), pp. 30-34.

4

Chempedak/Kuantan, the proposed Desaru hotels). They offer swimming, diving and other watersports and sports facilities. The Club Mediterran~e -- the first of its kind in Asia -- will have the same facilities for its members as the other ones in Europe and Africa. Malaysia's beaches on the East and West coasts are generally clean and so is the water. Only recently have there been reports on ecological problems facing the tourist resorts, for example, the Batu Ferringhi area. 5 Eating out is another mam attraction for tourists. Malaysia, just like Singapore, offers a large choice of restaurants serving an extensive range of both Asian and European food. The setting up of open air foodstalls with relatively low prices add another point to this. 6 Usually TDC brochures and advertisements suggest the various possibilities of eating out. 7 Travel agencies offer vanous excursiOn tours departing from any major town m the country or from places like Haadyai, Bangkok and Singapore. There are many Singaporeans taking a day trip to J ohor Bahru, and visits to this town or to a nearby rubber plantation are usually included in the travel agents' programmes. 8 Another popular place to visit is the Tioman Islands, to which many Singaporean groups, including those from the university, travel frequently.9 Malaysia offers mosques, churches and temples, though not all are open to foreign visitors. 10 Other potential tourist attractions include gardens, parks, historical sites (Melaka, Penang), royal palaces amd museums( for example, in Pekan near Kuantan).

5 See "The ugly side of the tourism boom in Malaysia," New Straits Times, 19 September 1978, p. 6. 6 Refer, for example, to "Behutsame Expansionspolitik in Malaysia," Der Fremdenverkehr und das Reiseburo (Darmstadt: September 1977), p. 54. 7 See the TDC brochures mentioned in footnote 1 (above}. 8 See the brochures of West German tour o_perators such as Airtours, Die private Art in den Urlaub zu jliegen (Fernreisen, September '78 bis Oktober '79), Frankfurt/M. 1978, or Touropa, Die Urlaubsexperten 78/79, Spezial-]ournal (Hanover, 1978}. 9 Travels to Tioman Island are organized by the respective University of Singapore agents.

10 For instance, the prayer hall of the National Mosque (Masjid Negara}, in Kuala Lumpur is closed to non-Muslim visitors, although a mosque is not a sacrosanct institution in the sense that non-Muslims may not enter it; see "Masjid," Encyclopedie de l' Islam(first ed.), Vol. III, (Leiden, 191 7).

5

Many Malaysian attractions have not yet been fully or even partly exploited for tourism. There is, for instance, no quick access to Taman Negara, and there are no direct flights from Kuala Lumpur or Singapore to Langkawi or Tioman. Only in January 1979 was the capacity of airplanes from Penang to Langkawi 1 Accommodation enlarged: nine-seaters have been replaced by twentyone-seaters.1 is still inadequate in the Taman Negara, in Kelantan (where the SEDC has just recently bought up the Kesina Hotel for M$1.4 million),l2 Trengganu (where the 3 Tanjong Jara project is still incomplete), Perlis and Kedah.l Finally, shopping represents another important attraction for visitors, although international goods such as cameras or electronics are usually bought by foreign visitors in Singapore or Hong Kong. Nevertheless, local handicraft and other souvenir items such as batik, brocade, silvercraft, pewterware, screwpine mats and baskets, mini or medium sized kites, daggers, and recently made krises, wayang kulit puppets, jewelry and so on 14 are being sold in the handicraft centres all over Malaysia (including the Bukit Nanas Handicraft Centre in Kuala Lumpur) and in private souvenir shops. The Lembaga Kraftangan Malaysia (Malaysian Handicraft Board) is also represented in the Singapore Handicraft Centre; Kelantan silver crafting is demonstrated on the spot.15

11

See "More seats for Penang-Langkawi flights," New Straits Times, 15 January 1979, p. 9.

12

See "Kuantan SEDC buys up hotel," New Straits Times, 16 January 1979, p. 5.

13

Refer to RACNOM, "Section V: Evaluation and Development of Selected Areas," in Report of the Sub-Committee on Tourism (Kuala Lumpur, 1976), summary, pp. 2-4.

14

See the TDC brochures (footnote 1); Mubin Sheppard, Taman Indera: A Roryal Pleasure Ground, Malay Decorative Arts and Pastimes(Kuala Lumpur, 19 72), pp. 4 7-5 7 (musical instruments), pp. 68-81 (shadow play), pp. 124-139 (weapons), pp. 149-163 (metal work, pandan weaving and pottery), pp. 171-179 (kites).

15

See the Singapore Handicraft Centre folder Where you can talk to craftsmen from all over Asia (Singapore, not dated), which is distributed freely at the STPB premises.

6

III:

TRAVELLERS, VISITORS AND TOURISTS

In the previous chapter, the terms "visitors" and "tourists" have been used frequendy. As both notions occur in different contexts, it is necessary to give clear definitions for the analysis of statistical data published by both the World Tourism Organization (WT0) 16 and the TDC. 17 The United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) proposed in 19 71 the following distinctions which have been adopted by the WTO and the TDC. The overall notion is the one of the "travellers"; it includes permanent and temporary immigrants, residents returning after a stay abroad not exceeding one year, foreign diplomatic, consular and military personnel and, finally, visitors. Both tourists and excursionists make out the visitors. A tourist is one who stays at least twenty-four hours in the country visited, which is not his own country of permanent residence. An excursionist does not stay overnight abroad. This is important for the Thai and Singapore tourist markets which provides a large proportion of day excursionists (including working people) to Peninsular Malaysia crossing the border either at J ohor Bahru or at Ran tau Panjang (Kelantan). Local "tourists" are not included in these destinations, since they do not go abroad. 18 16

The World Tourism Organization, with its headquarters in Madrid, came into existence on 2 January 1975 as the successor of IUOTO established at an earlier date. It is an intergovernmental agency, bringing together the departments and ministries of tourism of all member countries. The WTO Commission of the Pacific and East Asia is based in Manila. Promotion, development of and further research on tourism are among the main objectives of the WTO and the regional Commission. On the WTO, refer to WTO, Tourism Compendium (Madrid, 1977); WTO, World Travel Statistics (Madrid, 1976 and 1977). Malaysia is not only a member of the WTO, but also of many other international tourism organizations such as the Pacific Area Travel Association (PATA; membership since 1959), the Sub-Committee on Tourism of the Committee on Trade and Tourism of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations which replaced the Permanent Committee on Tourism, the Association of ASEAN Tours and Travel Agents (ASEANTTA based in Jakarta), and the South East Asian Promotion Centre for Trade Investment and Tourism (SEAPCENTRE); refer to Yayasan Binatera Directorate-General of Tourism, Indonesia (and) the ASEAN National Secretariat of Indonesia, Travel, Trade and Development in ASEAN Qakarta, 1977); IUOTO/WTO, The Impact of International Tourism on the Economic Development of the Developing Countries (Geneva, 19 7 5). Other information was collected directly from the Research and Training Department of the TDC in Kuala Lumpur.

17

On the TDC, see Chapter Six. Statistics published by TDC includes the monthly reports of statistics of incoming visitors to Peninsular Malaysia, Sabah and Sarawak; the Visitor Survey 1977; the Hotel Occupancy Surveys, 1973-1976 (in 1973 named Hotel Guest Survey). For comparative data, the Tourist Organization of Thailand publishes sta-tistical reports of visitors to Thailand, while the STPB issues monthly and annual statistical reports and, annually, Surveys of Overseas Visitors to Singapore; for details, refer to bibliography.

18

On the-definition of local tourists, refer to TDC, Research Notes, Preliminary Report on Domestic Tourism (Kuala Lumpur, 1977), p. 1.

7

Table 1:

Distinction between Travellers, Visitors and Tourists

1. Immigrants

(a) permanent (b) temporary

2. Residents, that is, nationals or aliens returning after a stay abroad not exceeding one year

J

3. Foreign diplomatic and military personnel

I

VISITORS

Source: UNCTAD, UNCTAD Guidelines for Tourism Statistics (New York, 1971), p. 9. definitions or differentiatio ns are possible, for example, jurisprudentia lly. Note:

*

Other

includes local visitors (tourists/excu rsionists).

Both the tourist and the excursionis t travel out of various motives. Theoretical ly speaking, we may differentiat e between the passive (recreationa l) and active holidaymak ers. Passive holidaymak ers usually long for sun, sand, sea and 1 (often enough) for a tropical variant of sex. 9 They enjoy the evenings in bars and local restaurants with a special make-up for tourists, sunbathe, relax, swim, do nothing and so on. On the other hand, the active holidaymak ers prefer to visit cultural or other potentially interesting sites such as ruins, temples, mosques, museums, 19

Refer Bundesminist erium fUr Wirtschaftlich e Zusammenarb eit, Referat lffentlichkeit sarbeit, Entwicklungs politik, Materialien Nr. 54 (Bonn, 1976), pp. 7-9; on the attitudes of German tourists, refer ibid., pp. 40-62 (Armin Vielhaber, Entwicklungs politische Llfentlichkei tsarbeit im Bereich Tourismus); "Oldest profession begins spoiling Bali's youngsters" in The Indonesian Observer U"akarta), 5 September 1974, p. 1; Studienkreis fur Tourismus, Thailand besser verstehen (Starnberg, 1977), and its review in Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 10 November 1977, p. Rl. Some general information on this topic is also provided in Erentraud Homberg, Tourismus: Funktionen, Strukturen, Kommunikati onskaniile (Miinchcn, 1977); refer also to New Straits Times, 19 September 1978, p. 6.

8

local markets, fishing villages, and to educate themselves thereby. 20 Usually they have read some books on the country which they are visiting, have some general information about manners, customs, religions, languages and so on, which the passive holidaymakers possibly do not have. 2 1 Others keep themselves fit by wandering through woods, jungles or by climbing mountains (the alpine type of tourist): in Malaysia these activities cover taking the journey by boat to the Taman Negara, walking on planks through the Niah Park (in the Fourth Division of Sarawak) or by climbing onto the top of Mount Kinabalu in Sabah). 22 They take part in all kinds of sports, like tennis or golf. For Club Mediterran~e members, an exclusive offer of sports and other entertainment facilities is made by the management. Depending largely on the social status of the tourist, he will invariably stick to those sporting facilities which fit well into his class. Therefore, organized diving or golf courses are only for the well-to-do tourists, which mirrors approximately the same social standards at the tourists' place of residence. Practically speaking, it is not always easy to differentiate between the two abovementioned types of tourists, because often enough many combine leisure with any kind of action in the sense just described.23 Vielhaber (1976) proposed the following distinctions which can be partly applied to West Malaysia: (1)

Strandurlauber-Typ (beach tourist): sunbathing, swimming, social contacts with other tourists (usually from the same country), social gatherings in the evenings, day excursions feature among the activities of this type of tourist;.

(2)

Besichtigungsurlauber (tourist visiting the country's attractions): sightseeing, especially of popular tourist attractions like the railway station in Kuala Lumpur or the Snake Temple in Penang, but also of cultural exhibitions and so on;

20

Refer to TDC, Survey of Foreign Air Visitors to Malaysia 1976 {Kuala Lumpur, 1977), p. 3 (no. 10), 20-21, Appendices 26, 27, 53, 54; TDC, Visitor Survey 1977 {Kuala Lumpur, 1978), pp. 8-9 (nos. 33-35), charts 32-34.

21

See STPB "Sources of information and motivation," in Survey of Overseas Visitors to Singapore 1976 {Singapore, 1978), p. 9. Also tables 4A and 4B, pp. 65-66.

22

See the TDC brochure, National Parks {Kuala Lumpur, n.d.).

23

See "Massentourismus: Geflihrliche Auswirkungen bei den Menschen der Dritten Welt/.J etzt sind sie noch armer," in Deutsches Allgemeine Sonntagsblatt, 25 August 1978, as quoted in BMZ, Entwicklungspolitik, Spiegel der Presse, No. 32/1978, 29 August 1978, p. 1000.

9

(3)

Strand- und Bes£cht(f?ungsurlauber (beach tourist who is also attracted to visit the culturally interesting sites): a combination of types (I) and (2);

(4)

Sozial und pol£t£sch interess£erte Urlauber (the tourists interested in social and political problems of the country visited): in Malaysia, these are often young, travelling overland by taxi, bus or by hitchhiking, staying in cheap hotels or in the karnpongs, 2 4 trying to identify themselves with the local peoples, although many problems a,rise from the different social and cultural backwounds, including language barriers, since the Trengganu and Kelantan variants of Bahasa Malaysia are not understandable for most tourists, not even those familiar with Malay in general;

(5)

Hobbyurlauber (hobby tourist): the type of tourist sticking to the same hobby he favours at home -- but this time he does it abroad, often enough in a group of "fellow-hobbyists". 25

In West

Malaysia, all these five types of tourists exist, but it rs the third type who dominates. An indication for this is the growing number of Malaysian travel agencies and tours offered within the country. 26 The catalogues of large tour operators who handle those tourists longing for sun include mostly Penang's, Langkawi's and Tioman's beaches and the cultural sites of Penang, Melaka and Kuala Lumpur. Up to now, Malaysia's image is usually that of "the pearl of the Orient", that is, Penang (refer, for instance, to the touristic offers of German tour operators like Neckermann (NUR), Touristik Union International (TUI), ADAC Reisen and so on).

24

On kampong tourism, see pp. 39-41.

25

Armin Vielhaber, "Entwicklungspolitische Offentlichkeitsarbeit in Bereich Tourismus," in Bundesministerium fur Wirtschaftliche Zusammenarbeit, Referat Offentlichkeitsarbeit, Entwicklungspolitik, Materialien Nr. 54 (Bonn, 1976), pp. 52-54.

26

Refer to TDC, "Penang's Experience," in Lapuran seminar mengenai beberapa aspek penggalakan pelancungan [Proceedings of the Seminar on Various Aspects of Tourist Promotion] (Kuala Lumpur, 1974), pp. 54-61; TDC, Penyertaan Bumiputra dalam perusahaan pelancungan, Pesta Pembangunan Peringkat Kebangsaan Kuala Lumpur 20-27 fun 1974 (Kuala Lumpur, 1974?), pp. 4-13; "Call for more tourist projects in Kuala Lumpur," New Straits Times, 4 September 1978, p. 7, and "Tourist boom helped us tide over recession: Goh," New Straits Times, 20 August 1978, p. 5.

10

IV:

sense.

ECONOMIC IMPLICATIONS OF TOURISM IN WEST MALAYSIA

Tourism is usually considered to develop a nation's economy in a positive The three main reasons for the rapid growth of the tourist industry are: ( 1)

mcome and social changes in industrialized countries, including Japan;

(2)

lower trends m air fares, especially the nonscheduled charter flights; 27 • 28

(3)

improved management of the tourist industry. 29

Tourists' expenditure and inflows of capital for developing the tourist industry contribute to national income and are a tool for regional development:30 ( 1)

receipt of income as salaries or wages by employees and suppliers of the hotel, motel and government reshouse branches, or collection of payments made for special items, such as food, supplied to bars or restaurants; a service charge (usually 10%) is asked from all tourist hotel visitors.

(2)

the tourists' purchases of items, such as souvemrs made in Malaysia, 31 and expenditures on services, including tipping, also provide income to suppliers;

27

Refer to various information on the new Penang airport in the New Straits Times (3 July 1978, 2 August 1978, 11 August 1978). In Singapore, exempt charters were withdrawn after April 19 76, when the scheduled airlines including Singapore Airlines asked the Singapore Department of Civil Aviation to phase them out, "arguing that they served to dilute their traffic." See "National Report No. 35: Singapore," in International Tourism Quarterly, 4/1976 (London, 1976), p. 43.

28

On the discussion on the new low air fares which Australia plans to introduce on 1 February 1979, see "IATA-OAA will decide who does what -- and when" in Far Eastern Economic Review (FEER), 19 January 1979, and "Australia: Dreaming up a whole new air transport technique," ibid., pp. 42-45.

29

Refer to IUOTO/WTO, The Impact of International Tourism on the Economic Development of the Developing Countries (Geneva, 1975), p. 2.

30

For a different conceptual approach, see C.E. Gearing, W.W. Swart and T. Var, "The Economic and Sociological Impacts of International Tourism" in Planning for Tourism Development, Quantitative Approaches (New York: 1976), pp. 27-42.

31

See above, p. 5.

11

(3)

capital expenditure on building hotels, etc., reflected in payments to and income from suppliers of material and persons engaged in the constructing industry. 32 The number of new hotels in West Malaysia has risen heavily recently. 33

Whenever these expenditures occur, they will have a multiplier effect creating additional rounds of expenditures. 34 The abovementioned income effects are reduced by foreign exchange leakages, for example, if imported food is preferred to local food (especially in first-class international restaurants) or if foreign managers lead the hotel business {in the case of the Club Mediterrariee project, the management will be the responsibility of the French organization, although it is a joint venture in which TDC and the SEDC, Pahang have their respective shares). 35 Tourist arrivals in Asia and the Pacific region rose by 350% from 1962-72 and visitor arrivals in Peninsular Malaysia, from approximately 726,000 in 1972 to nearly 1.3 million in 19 77.36 Singapore is proud of calling itself the most popular tourist destination "east of Europe and west of Hawaii,"3 7 after having reached the score of the two millionth visitor by the end of December 19 78.38 In Malaysia, the tourist receipts amounted to M$265 million in 1972 and rose to M$379 million in 1975 (an annual growth rate of 14%). 3 9 In Singapore, visitors spent S$315 million

32

IUOTO/WTO, The Impact of International Tourism on the Economic Development of the Developing Countries (Geneva, 1975), p. 9.

33

See, for example, Malaysia 1976 Official Year Book, Vol. 16 (Kuala Lumpur, 1978), p. 223; "Development plans based on new economic policy," New Straits Times, 31 August 1978, p. 34.

34

Refer to IUOTO/WTO, op.cit., p. 9.

35

See SEDC, Pahang, SEDC -- Investment in Pahang, Kuantan (Kuala Lumpur, January-December 1977).

36

See ibid., p. 2; TDC, Monthly Report of Statistics of Incoming Visitors to Peninsular Mnlaysia (Kuala Lumpur, January-December 1977).

37

As seen on stickers used by STPB in early 1979 and as used in the official publication of the STPB, Singapore Travel News Oanuary 1979).

38

Refer to "The 2 millionth visitor," Straits Times, 23 December 1978, p. 1, 38; "How was the 2 millionth visitor chosen?" Straits Times, 24 December 1978, p. 8.

39

See "Tourism: bridging the bottomless pit," in The Economic Bulletin (Kuala Lumpur), Vol. 2, No. 8 (August 1977), pp. 4145. In 1976, tourism ranks seventh amongst other export earners (rubber, tin, palm oil, saw logs, sawn timber, petroleum), refer ibid.

12 m 1971 and an estimated S$786 million in 1977,40 but according to the STPB statistics there has never been any drop in the tourists' spending amounts which 41 may be compared to the drop of receipts from tourism in West Malaysia in 1976. One of the most important aims of the Third Malaysia Plan (TMP) is the earning of foreign exchange. 4 2 Since independence, Malaysia's balance of payments position has been favourable~3 Therefore, in this case, contribution of net foreign exchanges by tourism is not essential for the positive balance of payments of Malaysia. But, due to the following reasons, tourism in Malaysia has to be considered as a source of foreign exchange that helps to diversify the economy, away from reliance on fluctuating commodity earnings. First, the national economy 45 and it has depends on a limited range of exports, especially raw materials, experienced some extreme fluctuations in revenue from year to year in line with 4 price and volume changes brought about by changing demand in export markets. 6 Tourism, too, has tended not to show such sudden changes in demand and market prospects. 4 7 As tourism can be influenced heavily, for instance, by political events (for example, in Cyprus, Greece, Lebanon, or the official Swedish boycott of Spain

40

See STPB, Annual Statistical Report on Visitor Arrivals Singapore 1972 (Singapore, 1973), p. 35; 1973 ed., p. 35; 1974 ed., p. 35; 1975 ed., p. 31; 1976 ed., p. 31; 1977 ed., p. 31.

41

See "Tourism: bridging the bottomless pit," in The Economic Bulletin (Kuala Lumpur), Vol. 2, No. 2 (August 1977), pp. 43-45.

42

See Third Malaysia Plan 1976-1980 (Kuala Lumpur, 1976), pp. 37-50.

43

See FIDA, Malaysia, A Basic Guidebook for Potential Investors (Kuala Lumpur, 1977), p. 110; Alan Chew Fook Yew, The Malaysian Balance of Payments 1960-1970 (Kuala Lumpur, 1975); Department of Statistics, Siaran perangkaan tahunan, Annual Statistical Bulletin 19 76 (Kuala Lumpur, 1977).

44

Refer to IUOTO/WTO, The Impact of International Tourism on the Economic Development of the Developing Countries (Geneva, 1975),pp. 9-10.

45

On Malaysia's primary industries, refer to Malaysia 1976 Official Year Book, Vol. 16 (Kuala · Lumpur, 1978), pp. 177-194.

46

Ibid.

47

Refer to "1.9m visitors expected by 1979," in Malaysian Digest, Vol. 8, No. 11 (Kuala Lumpur: 31 July 1976), p. 8.

13

during the last two years of Franco's dictatorial r~gime), political stability necessary for continuing growth in the tourism industries.48

IS

It is argued that the tourist industry is labour-intensive and the principle type of labour needed is semiskilled and unskilled, which is in abundant supply. in many developing countries, and also in Malaysia. 4 9 Here, employment rose more than twofold from 5,200 in 1970 to 13,870 in 1974 in the hotel sector alone, while related industries created a total of 28,000 jobs in 1974, according to the TMP. 50 It is very difficult to verify these figures, but the trend is obvious. Take the following example. In 1971 the Government of Malaysia and the State of Johor published the regional master plan for the development of the South East J ohor area (not excluding tourism development). 5l Rates of employment created by the tourist industry vary between estimated 3,400 (high) and 1,800 (low) after 10, and 27,800 (high) and 11,600 (low) after 30 years of operation.52 The M$5 million Merlin Inn (a joint venture project with Faber Merlin)53 is expected to open in 1981. In Pahang, 50,000 tourists are expected in 1980 and the State hopes to earn M$20 million annually. 54 The money earned from some resorts will be reinvested in other projects, for example, in Southeast J ohor, in other Kejora projects (a 7,000 acre beef-cattle scheme in Sisek, and a 7,000 acre plan for growing pellet grass as animal feed in Penggeli Kecil). 55

48

It is not known to the author whether the 1969 disturbances caused any harm to tourism. But in that year, visitor figures for Malaysia were on a low level. Another example was during the Konfrontasi (Confrontation) period 1963-65. There were nearly no visitors (tourists) from Indonesia coming to Malaysia or Singapore, while in 1977, Indonesia was again the leRding tourist-generating market. Refer to STPB, Annual Statistical Report an Visitor Arrivals Singapore 1972 (Singapore, 1973), p. 2 and Table 2, p. 3.

49

On Malaysia's labour force, refer to FIDA, Malaysia, A Basic Guidebook for Potential Investors (Kuala Lumpur, 1977), pp. 50-54.

50

Refer to Third Malaysia Plan 1976-1980 (Kuala Lumpur, 1976), p. 429.

51

Government of Malaysia and the State of Pahang, Supplement Vol. 7, Tourism, Johor Tengah and Tanjong Penggerang Regional Master Plan, n.p., 1971, pp. 3 seq.

52

Ibid.

53

Refer to "More tourists visit Desaru Beach Resort," New Straits Times, 27 December 1978; "Desaru to get two hotels and golf course," New Straits Times, 10 January 1979, p. 11.

54

See "Pahang all set for big tourist boom," New Straits Times, 29 November 1978, p. 7; see also "Letter to the editor," New Straits Times, 15 December 1978, p. 16.

55

Refer to New Straits Times, 27 December 1978, p. 20 (see also footnote 52).

14

To judge the advantages of tourism for the national employment market, it is necessary to compare the employment generation from tourism with alternative development options, thus making a comparative market growth analysis. The actual impact of expenditures in the tourist industries on income and employment is mainly a question of the form and degree of the linkages existing in the economy that supply these industries and meet the demands created by income generated from it. 5 6 Every government, including the Malaysian one, profits from the developing tourist market in its country. Revenue to the government from the tourist sector comes principally in the form of taxation. Taxes and duties may be levied on goods and services used and imported for the sector and its suppliers. All tourist hotels and restaurants in Malaysia charge a 5% government tax on services (in Singapore, it is 3% in all tourist, that is, gazetted hotels, which goes to the funds of the STPB). 57 The airport tax amounts to M$4 per person per flight to Singapore, M$2 for domestic air flights and M$ 7 for other international flights 58 (in Singapore, it is S$4 to Malaysia and Brunei, S$10 to all other destinations). 59 The main expenditure categories incurred by the Malaysian Government are: ( 1)

development expenditure on research, planning, publicity and training which is undertaken by TDC, PERNAS, Urban Development Authority (UDA), MARA Institute of Technology (Institiut Teknoloji MARA, ITM) and the SEDCs; expenditure on government supervision of the tourist industries;

(2)

infrastructural costs, including utilities, It includes maintammg the airports, ports, roads, electricity, water supply, public health, etc. Some prominent and recent West Malaysian examples are the expansion of Penang and J ohor Bahru airports, 60 the extension works on the new

56

Refer to IUOTO/WTO, The Impact of International Tourism on the Economic Development of the Developing Countries (Geneva, 1975), p. 22.

57

Refer to "National .Report No. 35, Singapore," in International Tourism QJtarterly (London, 1976), No. 4, p. 44; The Statutes of the Republic of Singapore, Revised Edition of Acts, Vol. VI, Ch. 205, Tourist Promotion Board Act, Section 11 and Schedule (Rate of cess), pp. 754, 758, Singapore 1970; Malaysia 1976 Official Year Book, Vol. 16 (Kuala Lumpur), pp. 173-174.

58

Refer to TDC, Kuala Lumpur This Month (December 1978), p. 46.

59

See the information in the various editions of the STPB's Singapore Guide booklet.

60

Refer to "New airport 'ready in three months.," New Straits Times, 11 August 1978, p. 10.

15

road to Penang airport,6 1 the construction of a West-East highway in the North, infrastructural costs for all new hotels especially those in more remote areas like the Club Mediterranee project, the Southeast J ohor projects. 6 2 On special days of the year, extra trains are being used, 63 sometimes also additional flights. 64 Of course, it is not only the tourist industries which benefit from these investments, but also other sectors of the Malaysian economy;65 (3)

direct involvement in running tourist facilities, including the Malayan Railways, Malaysian Airline System and Telecommunications. Other countries like Thailand and Turkey have a special Tourist Police which deals mainly with criminal cases in which tourists have somehow been involved; in Malaysia there are so far no plans of introducing such a police force, since the number of these crimes is lower than the ones m the two mentioned countries;

(4)

incentives and aid to different sectors of the industry, for example, the various types of hotel incentives offered by the Malaysian Government. These incentives are offered .for "the establishment of new hotels and also for the expansion and modernization of existing units. The types of incentives offered and the extent of such incentives depend on the locations of the approved hotels. 66 (See Table 2)

61

Refer to "$35 million to widen road to Penang .airport," New Straits Times, 6 January 1979, p. 9; other road projects include the Kuala Lumpur ring road; refer to "$110m ring road to ease traffic," New Straits Times, 11 August 1978, p. 1.

62

See footnote 52 above.

63

Refer to "Extra trains for New Year crowd," New Straits Times, 10 January 1979, p. 24.

64

See "These flights are fully booked," New Straits Times, 7 January 1979, p. 1.

65

Refer to IUOTO/WTO, The Impact of International Tourism on the Economic Development of the Developing Countries (Geneva, 1975), p. 27. However, there is no reference to Malaysia in this publication.

66

FIDA, Malaysia, A Basic Guidebook for Pote.ntial Investors (Kuala Lumpur, 1977), p. 133.

16

Table 2:

Hotel Incentives

"Approved hotels located in the areas specified below will be granted the following incentives: Area A (Kuala Lumpur district and Penang Island)

B (Selangor, Perak, Negri Sembilan, Melaka, J ohor and Kota Kinabalu)

C (Pahang, Trengganu, Kedah, Kelantan, Perlis, E. Malaysia, except Kota Kinabalu)

D (Islands, Hill resorts and other designated areas)

Incentives (i) pioneer status; or (ii)

abatement of Income Tax on 15% of chargeable income for a period of 12 years and accelerated depreciation allowance; the above only applies to hotels that are completed and open for business between the periods 1st January 1968 and 1st January 1974.

(i)

pioneer status; or

(ii)

abatement of Income Tax on 20% of chargeable income for a period of 12 years and accelerated depreciation allowance;

(iii)

industrial building allowance.

(i) (ii)

pioneer status; or

(iii)

industrial building allowance.

(i)

pioneer status; or

(ii)

abatement of In(;ome Tax on 30% of chargeable income for a period of 12 years and accelerated depreciation allowance;

(iii)

industrial building allowance.

abatement of Income Tax on 25% of chargeable income for a period of 12 years and accelerated depreciation allowance;

The granting and the continued operation of the above incentives will be conditioned upon the government being satisfied inter alia, of the following: (a)

the standard of management and service in the approved hotels and also the maintenance of the standards specified for luxury, first and medium class hotels; and

(b)

the rates for rooms and other services charged in these hotels.

The tax relief period for companies which are granted pioneer status will be effective from the date of commencement of the new business or in the case of expansion or modernization of an existing hotel from the date of completion of such expansion or modernization. For hotels which are granted abatement of chargeable income, the abatement will apply from the year of assessment following the date of commencement of the new business, or in the case of expansion or modernization of an existing hotel, from the year of assessment following the date of completion of such expansion or modernization."

Source: FIDA, Malaysia, A Basic Guidebook for Potential Investors (Kuala Lumpur, 1977), p. 171 (Appendix 6). Also refer to FIDA "Special provisions relating to the hotel industry," in In~·estment Incentives Act, 1968, Incorporating the Amendments in the "Investment Incentives (Amendment) Acts 1969, 1971, 1973 and 1974 (Kuala Lumpur, 1975), pp. 35-42.

17

Hotel Investment Incentives -- Langkawi

Table 3:

"In a development area {such as Langkawi), the. investment incentives for hotel projects relate to income tax exemptions, income tax abatements, and investment tax credits, as discussed below:

1.

Income tax exemption provides for the total relief of income taxes {40% of net income) and development taxes (5% of net income) for a period of two to eight years if the investment qualifies as a pioneer status. According to the Investment Incentive Act, a hotel development on Langkawi would qualify as a pioneer status investment and would enjoy an eight-year relief of income and development taxes, if elected.

2.

Income tax abatements provide for the partial relief of income taxes for a period of 12 years for those projects not electing pioneer status. A hotel project on Langkawi could elect to have 30% of its net income exempt from the income and development taxes.

3.

Investment tax credits are provided to those companies not enjoying a pioneer status and provide for a tax credit representing 25% of the total capital expenditure incurred by the project.

In addition to the above incentives, the Investment Incentives Act allows for all losses or tax credits to be carried forward to offset future income. The Act also allows for accelerated depr-eciation and increased capital allowances which allow qualifying companies to depreciate fixed assets over a four-year period rather than a 20-year period."

Source:

TDC, Langkawi Visitor Destination Plan, Summary Report {Kuala Lumpur, n.d., 1977?), p. 33.

Apart from these micro-economic aspects of tourism, the Malaysian Government promotes the participation of bumiputras in the hotel and other tourist industries. 6 7 Bumiputra projects are defined as projects having 51% or more of the proposed called-up capital reserved for bumiputra participation. 68 ThCJ TMP states that by 1990, at least 30% of commercial and industrial activities should be owned and managed by bumiputras.69 In 1975, according to the TMP, there were 67

Refer to TDC, Lapuran tahunan dan penyata kira-kira 1974 [Annual Report and Statement of Accounts 1974] {Kuala Lumpur, n.d.), pp. 16-18.

68

Refer to FIDA, Annual Report 1976 {Kuala Lumpur, 1977), p. 170.

69

See Third Malaysia Plan 1976-1980 (Kuala Lumpur, 1976), p. 30.

18

twenty-eight hotels wholly-owned by bumiputras (compared to fourteen in 1972),7° while in 1976 five projects were approved in this industry. 71 Also, Malay-owned travel and tour agencies increased by 173% (from 42 in 1972 to 115 in 1975). 72

V:

VISITOR STATISTICS

The number of foreign visitors to West Malaysia nearly doubled since 1972, nsmg from a base of approximately 726,000 to 1.3 million in 1977. 73 The average annual growth rate is approximately 11% although, prior to the world recession in 1975, the growth rates were much higher. 74 The figures for the first ten months of 1978 show an increase of 9.8% over the same period in 1977, which indicates that the tourism industries in West Malaysia have recovered well from this brief setback. 75 In 1977, visitors from the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) countries led by 54.8% out of which Thais rank first (30. 7%), followed by Singaporeans (20.1%) and Indonesians (3.5%).7 6 Figures for January to October 1978 show nearly the same percentages, although the peak tourist month of

70

Refer to Third Malaysia Plan 1976-1980 (Kuala Lumpur, 1976), pp. 429-430.

71

See FIDA, Annual Report 1976 (Kuala Lumpur, 1977), p. 172.

72

Refer to Third .Malaysia Plan, op,cit., p. 429; TDC, Lapuran tahunan dan penyata kira-kira 1974 [Annual Re.portand St~tenient of Accou~ts 1974) (Kuala Lumpur, n.d.), p. 16; "Malaysia Agc:ni:s: The Blooming Bumis," in Asia Travel Trade (Hong Kong, July 1978), p. 27; Jiirgen Dauth, "M;ilaysia's •New l;.conomic Policy', Annut ist eine Rassenfrage," in E + Z {Entwick(ung und Zusammenarb.eit], Beitriige zur Entwicklungspolitik (Bonn), Vol. 19, July 1978, pp. 8-10. Hereafter, the publication is cited as E + Z.

73

TDC, Monthly Report of Statistics of Incoming Visitors to Peninsular Malaysia (Kuala Lumpur, January-December 1977).

74

For the detailed figures, see the monthly TDC reports, for the years 1972-75.

75

TDC, Monthly Report of Statistics of Incoming Visitors to Peninsular Malaysia (Kuala Lumpur, January-October 1978).

76

Ibid., January-December ·1977.

19

December is still excluded: Thais 30. 7%, Singaporeans 19.3%, Indonesians 3.9% (ASEAN 54.5%). 77 Road arrivals from Singapore via the Johor Bahru Causeway amounted to approximately 2. 7 million in 1977 and are not included in these statistics because many Singaporeans must be defined as day-visitors (excursionists) and not as tourists. 78 On the average, between 200,000 and 250,000 Singaporeans crossed the Causeway every month in 1978 (up to October). 79 Since these statistics count every visitor by head and not otherwise, a visitor entering Malaysia as many as fifty times a year will be counted as fifty visitors, thus making the TDC statistics not very reliable. From 19 79 onwards, TDC plans a new system of data collection by introducing a visitor's embarkation card to be completed on departure as an addition to the visitor's disembarkation card which has to be completed by every visitor upon his arrival, whether by air, sea, rail or road, including the J ohor Bahru Causeway. 80 A study compiled by TDC 81 shows that approximately 41% of all visitors to Peninsular Malaysia can be defined as tourists, including the Singaporeans crossing the border at the Causeway. 82 According to the same study, only 3 7% of all Singaporeans and 27% of all Thais arriving at any Malaysian border checkpoint are tourists, while the corresponding figures for, say, Indonesians or Continental Europeans would be 79% and 88%, respectively. 8 3 This means that the day visitors from Singapore and Thailand are among the main insecurity factors when analysing the statistics.

77

TDC, Monthly Report of Statistics of Incoming Visitors to Peninsular Malaysia (Kuala Lumpur, January-October 1978).

78

Ibid., January-December 1977. Table 4b ("Distribution of Visitor Arrivals from ASEAN Countries by Points of Entry").

79

Ibid., January-October 1978.

80

This information was given to the research team by the TDC in Kuala Lumpur in August 1978. At the time of the writing-up of the material Uanuary/ February 1979), the new data collecting scheme had not been introduced at the Malaysian borders. This was also pointed out in an interview with the Director (Overseas) of the Singapore office of TDC, Miss Chiew Mei Lin, in January 1979.

81

Refer to TDC, Statistical Report on Tourist Arrivals to Peninsular Malaysia (Kuala Lumpur, 1977).

82

Ibid.

83

Ibid.

20

Table 4:

Distribution of Visitor Arrivals to Peninsular Malaysia by Percentage of Market, January-Dcceml~!:___]977 and .January-Octob er 1978

January-Decemb er 1977

January-October 1978

%

%

Thailand

395,449

30.7

354,173

30.7

Singapore

259,020

20.1

222,670

19.3

Indonesia

45,539

3.5

44,435

3.9

Philippines

6,759

0.5

7,376

0.6

ASEAN

706,767

54.8

628,654

54.5

Continental Europe*

72,765

5.6

67,769

5.9

India

38,977

3.0

42,446

3.7

Japan

111,012

8.6

100,278

8.7

Australia/New Zealand 124,555

9.7

105,119

9.1

UK/Ireland

83,500

6.5

75,144

6.5

USA

76,055

5.9

64,047

5.6

Canada

16,379

1.3

13,451

1.2

Others

58,985

4.6

55,796

4.8

1,288,995

100.0

1,152,587

Total

100.0

Source: TDC, Monthly Report of Stati!itics of Incoming Visitors to Peninsular Malaysia, January 1977~0ctober 1978 (Kuala Lumpur, 1977-78). * No differentiation is made between the individual West European countries.

21

Distribution of Visitor Arrivals to the Republic of Singapore

Table 5:

E.y Percentage of Market, 1977

1977

%

Thailand

36,716

2.4

Malaysia

128,433

8.5

Indonesia

300,367

19.9

Philippines

27,159

1.8

492,675

32.7

West Germany

39,909

2.6

France

31,031

2.1

Netherlands

29,581

2.0

Scandinavia

16,853

1.1

Switzerland

14,588

1.0

Others

39,887

2.6

171,849

11.4

India

24,501

1.6

Japan

188,921

12.6

Australia/New Zealand

259,631

17.2

78,198

5.2

118,076

7.8

Canada

16,383

1.1

Others

156,454

10.4

ASEAN

Continental Europe

UK USA

Total

1,506,688

100.0

Source: STPB, Annual Statistical Report on Visitor Arrivals Singapore 1977 (Singapore, 1978), p. 3, Table 2.

22

Table 6:

Distribution of Visitor Arrivals to Peninsular Malaysia by Percentage of Market, 1972/1976

1972

1973

1974

1975

1976

Thailand'~

16.2

13.3

14.0

32.5

35.2

Singapore**

21.8

23.1

21.1

19.0

18.9

Indonesia

4.1

3.8

3.1

2.8

2.9

Philippines

1.0

0.4

0.4

0.4

0.4

43.1

40.6

38.6

54.7

57.4

12.2

10.4

7.7

6.4

0.9

1.0

ASEAN

Australia/New Zealand*** UK/Ireland***

17.8

22.8

21.3

Canada*** USA

9.6

8.3

5.9

5.7

5.6

India

7.7

5.6

4.3

3.8

3.1

Japan

5.0

7.0

5.9

5.2

6.3

Continental Europe

7.0

7.3

5.9

5.3

5.4

Others*

9.8

8.4

18.3

4.6

4.4

Source:

TDC, Report of Statistics of Incoming Visitors to Peninsular Malaysia (Kuala Lumpur, 1972-78).

*

From 1972-74, "others" include all Thais arriving to Malaysia via Rantau Panjang/Sungei Golok as day visitors.

**

Not included are the Singaporeans crossing at the border checkpoint of the Johor Bahru Causeway.

***

No differentiated •figures from 1972-74 for these Commonwealth countries. New Zealandanders and Australians are counted as one unit, and so are the British and Irish.

23

Malaysia has a common problem with other ASEAN tourist destinations; the foreign visitors do not stay very long, although slightly longer than those in Singapore (for the minimum average intended length of stay it is 5.2 nights in 1977 as compared to 5.0 days in Singapore). Canadians, Indians and Australians/ New Zealanders usually intend to stay for a longer period (6-8 night~), 84 while Japanese rush out of the country quite quickly (4.2 nights). 85 Those visiting friends and relatives intended to stay up to 7.5 nights in West Malaysia, while the intended average length of stay of those who stated business as their visiting purpose was 4.6 nights. 8 6 The actual length of stay is usually shorter than the intended one. In Singapore, for instance, it was 3.3 days in 1975. 87 No material on the actual length of stay in Malaysia is available yet, and probably only the introduction of the new data collection system will provide valuable material. The stated purpose of visit to Malaysia may not be the principal reason for the tourists' trip; for example, those having done business in Hong Kong or Singapore may want to have a break in Penang or Langkawi, and vice versa. It is important to note that the norm is two to three other destinations in Asia and the Pacific visited during the trip, besides Malaysia. 88 About 15.1% of those visiting Singapore also stay in Kuala Lumpur, 37.4% in Bangkok.89 In 1976, Bali and Penang were the two Southeast Asian places most visited by the respondents of a STPB research in the course of their trip from or to Singapore. The respondents visited an average of 3.6 Asian cities before or after Singapore. 90 Tourism in Malaysia will only grow if the interested parties, including the official tourism authorities and organizations of the ASEAN countries, work closely together, so that the tourists are attracted to more than just one place. It is unlikely that the visitors plan only to stay in Malaysia for their holidays and hurry back home afterwards; this applies mainly to international tourists. In fact, the co-operation between Singapore and

84

Refer to TDC, Visitor Survey 1977 (Kuala Lumpur, 1978), p. 5; STPB, Annual Statistical Report on Visitor Arrivals Singapore 1977 (Singapore, 1978), p. 18 (Table 13), Introduction

2.9. 85

See TDC, Visitor Survey 1977, op.cit., p. 5.

86

Ibid.

87

Refer to footnote 84.

88

See "National Report No. 35, Singapore," in International Tourism Quarterly (London, 1976), No. 4, p. 41.

89

Ibid.

90

Ibid.

24

Malaysia is quite close. The STPB, which promotes Singapore as the starting point to Asia, 91 publishes a brochure indicating the various possibilities of travelling by land, air or sea to Malaysia or Indonesia. 92 The Good wood Park Hotel group issues a regular feature on Malaysia in its complimentary The Singapore Visitor magazine, headlined "Singapore is the centre of a fascinating region ... and one of our most interesting neighbours is Malaysia". 93 A full range of travel agencies offer excursiOns of any size, length and price to Malaysia. 94 In the course of the year 19 77, 56% of all visitors travelled in Malaysia for pleasure, 27% solely for business purposes.9 5 They were predominantly males, and the Japanese ranked first (91% males).96 Most (89%) of all visitors stayed in hotels, motels or government resthouses. 9 7 There is a slightly higher proportion of citizens of the United Kingdom and Singapore who stayed at the residences of friends or relatives, 98 but the statistics do not indicate whether these "British subjects" were mainly from Britain or from another British area like Hong Kong. About one half of the visitors travel alone; those from Japan, although using a package tour (51%), preferred not taking friends, family members or the spouse on the trip (68%). 99 The Federal Republic of Germany is among the European growth markets, and Penang is now being offered on quite a number of West German lTC programmes.100 Those charter flights are usually operated from Bangkok. The travel businesses and agencies offer subpackages, for example, to Penang, Singapore, Bali or Hong Kong.

91

Refer to the eight-page STPB brochure, It all starts in Singapore, A Whole New Asia, By Land, By Sea, By Air {Singapore, 1977).

92

Ibid.

93

Refer to Creations & Communications {Pte.} Ltd., Goodwork Park Hotel, The Singapore Visitor, issued every two weeks ... ; see, for instance, the issue dated 23 December 1978-5 January 1979, pp. 17-20.

94

See for instance; STPB, Travel Agents Manual {Singapore, 1978).

95

Refer to TDC,. Visitor Survey 1977 {Kuala Lumpur, 1978}, p. 3.

96

Ibid., p. 2.

97

Ibid., pp. 3-4.

98

Ibid.

99

Ibid., p. 4. See also "Why and how Foreigners spend their time in Malaysia," New Straits Times, 24 September 1978, p. 17.

100

Refer to, for example, the programmes of Airtours, Franktour, Terramar, Kuoni, Touropa and others.

25

As Pattaya gets more and more Americanized and even Geqnanized, it is probable that a number of Germans would prefer to go to another destination outside Thailand which is not as spoilt as the Bangkok-Pattaya tourist resort area. Also, it will add another point to the social prestige of the Germans once they are back home. Movement of visitors (arriving by air through Penang or Kuala Lumpur airports) within West Malaysia was mostly along the West Coast: 80% Kuala Lumpur 41% Penang 7% Genting Highlands 5% Ipoh 3% Melaka Source:

Kuantan Kuala Trengganu National Park

2% 1% 0.2%

Refer to TDC, Visitor Survey 1977 (Kuala Lumpur, 1978), p, 6 and Chart no. 25.

The East Coast, especially the states of Kelantan and Trengganu, is virtually untouched by international tourism. Kelantan only gets a proportionally higher amount of visitors from Thailand but these are not among the heavy spenders. The infrastructure in these parts of West Malaysia is still poor when compared to the facilities on the West Coast. These deficiencies include relatively few air connections from Kuala Lumpur to Kota Bahru, Kuala Trengganu and Kuantan; the inconvenience of flooded roads during the monsoon period; the absence of rail connections (except to Kota Bahru). Up to the end of 1978, there were no international first class hotels in operation in any of the three East Coast states, with the exception of the Merlin Hotel in Kuantan, although an improvement is expected for 1979: 1 the opening of the Club Mediterranee in Cherating in 1980·; 01 the reopening of the Kesina Hotel which the Kelantan SEDC bought up for M$1.4 million;1 02 the openings of Tanjong J ara and Ran tau Panjang projects m Trengganu;103 101

Refer to Travelnews Malaysia, Vol. 1, No. 2 (Kuala Lumpur, 1978), p. 5.

102

See "Kelantan SEDC buys up hotel," New Straits Times, 16 January 1979, p. 5.

103

Refer to Special Features, "Tourism is here to stay," in The Economic Bulletin (Kuala Lumpur), Vol. 2, No. 4 (April 1976), p. 40.

26

the opening of the Hyatt Hotel m Telok Chempedak/Kuantan (in 1979). In 1976, the VISitor spend an average of M$413 -- an increase of 12% over 1976. No data are available for 1978 yet.104 Approximately, 34% were spent on accommodation, 25% on food and beverages, 20% on shopping and 21% on other expenses, including local transportation and entertainment.105 Visitors from Continental Europe spent the highest amount, Singaporeans the least -- M$552 and M$328 respectively.1° 6 Many of the day visitors from Singapore to Johor Bahru, Mersing or Desaru manage not to spend a large amount of money, since they come up in their own cars, bring their own food (picnic baskets) and even fuel up their cars in Singapore. It is probable that there was a business setback for Pahang beach hotels for the last quarter of 1978, although the hotel income and revenue figures are not

known to the author. There were 10-55% less visitors for this area, according to the Kuantan Merlin Hotel manager. The Vietnamese refugees to Malaysia might be partly responsible for this economic setback, 1 0 7 but it should be added that the rainy season brought along heavy floods, especially in early December 1978.

VI:

THE TOURIST DEVELOPMENT CORPORATION OF MALAYSIA

The Tourist Development Corporation of Malaysia {TDC) with its headquarters m Kuala Lumpur came into being on 10 August 1972. 10 8 Prior to this date, the

104

Refer to TDC, Visitor Survey 1977 (Kuala Lumpur, 1978), p. 6 and Chart no. 28.

105

Ibid.

106

Ibid.

107

Refer to "Business setback for Pahang beach hotels," New Straits Times, 11 January 1979, p. 11.

108

Most information on TDC were either collected through its headquarters or via the following publications: Special Features: "Tourism is here to stay," in The Economic Bulletin (Kuala Lumpur), Vol. 2, No. 4 (April 1976), pp. 38-42; "Behutsame Expansionspolitik in Malaysia," in Der Fremdenverkehr und das Reiseburo (Darmstadt: September 1977),p. 54; TDC, Malaysisches Reisehandbuch (Kuala Lumpur, n.d., 1975?); TDC, Lapuran tahunan dan penyata kira-kira 1974 [Annual Report and Statement of Accounts 1974) (Kuala Lumpur, n.d.); TDC, Proceedings of the Seminar on Various Aspects of Tourism Promotion (Kuala Lumpur, n.d., 1974?).

27

conduct of planning and development of tourism was under the charge of the Department of Tourism (DOT) in the Ministry of Trade and Industry, Kuala Lumpur. Its functions and powers are spelled out in the TDC Act, 1972.1°9 The TDC is headed by a Chairman assisted by two Deputy Chairmen. The organization comprises the following divisions: 1.

2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Marketing; International Relations and Conventions; Enforcement and Facilitations; Development and Project Management; Research and Training; Finance, Administration and General Services.

TDC has seven overseas offices (Singapore, Bangkok, Hong Kong, Tokyo, Frankfurt, London, San Francisco). Their main role ·is tourism promotion, that is, to "sell" Malaysia to the countries they cover. TDC organized several sales. mission abroad, the latest one left for the U.S. and Canada in September 1978. 110 According to the Malaysia Tourism Development Plan which was issued in 1975, the country has been divided into eight regions each represented by a Regional Coordinating Committee: 1.

2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Penang, Langkawi, Kedah and Perl is; Perak; Federal Territory, Selangor, Melaka, Negri Scmbilan; Johor; Pahang. Kelantan and Trengganu; Sabah; Sarawak. 111

The mam role of these Committees is to advise the state governments on the various policies and methods relating to tourism to be adopted. For instance, the

109

Refer also to the Singapore Tourist I>romotion Board Act.

110

Refer to "Off to woo .tourists," New Straits Times, 16 September 1978, p. 13.

Ill

Refer to Special Features: "Tourism is here to stay," in The Economic Bulletin (Kuala Lumpur), p. 39.

28

already mentioned Club Mediterranee project is a joint venture between TDC, the French Club itself and the Pahang SEDC.112 On the side of public relations, several promotional films produced by TDC were distributed to the overseas offices. The film "Malaysia Indah" shown on television in 1976 had an average of 330,000 viewers throughout West Malaysia. 11 3 This film was meant to promote local tourism. Besides advertising in the local mass media, TDC participates in international trade fairs, like the ITB. A number of brochures, folders and booklets have been published in English, Malay and German, including a new map guide of Kuala Lumpur and Petaling J aya.114 Some of these brochures, mainly those dealing with the East Coast have been criticized heavily. 11 5 Some information is outdated, maps are unreliable and not detailed enough, the stories accompanying the pictures are vague.ll6 Improvement came in 1978 with the publishing of new so-called guides of specific Malaysian regions.1 1 7 Here, the quality of printing and of the slides is better. The various overseas offices of TDC are usmg the promotional materials in various ways including sending them to travel agencies, tour operators, the trade press and other media. The TDC offices organize special Malaysia promotions usually in co-operation with the national carrier (MAS), a tour operator or a hotel chain. Through advertisements in the various media, TDC is also presenting Malaysia as a "vacation land", and most of the consumers' promotions are handled through these advertisements. The impact and success is, of course, not always as planned and subject to various factors in the host country, including general economic and political factors. It will have to be seen how the Vietnamese boat people will influence (supposedly negatively) the incoming tourist flux to Malaysia. 112 See Special Features: "Tourism is here to stay," in The Economic Bulletin (Kuala Lumpur), p. 39; Travelnews Malaysia, Vol. 1, No. 2, p. 5; Malaysia Year Book 1975 .(Kuala Lumpur, 1976), p. 241. 113

Refer to "Tourism: bridging the bottomless pit!!," in The Economic Bulletin (Kuala Lumf)Ur), Vol. 2, No. 8 (August 1977), p. 43.

114

Published in 1978.

115

See "Improve travel brochures, TDC is urged," New Straits Times, 18 September 1978, p. 14.

116

Ibid.

117

Up to January 1979, the following new brochures were published by TDC: Vacationland Malaysia, General Guide (Kuala Lumpur, n.d.); Vacationland Malaysia, Kuala LumpurMalacca Guide (Kuala Lumpur, n.d.); Vacationland Malaysia, Penang-Langkawi Guide (Kuala Lumpur, n.d.). Similar guides for the East Coast and Sabah/ Sarawak are being prepared for publication.

29

VII:

DOMESTIC TOURISM IN WEST MALAYSIA

Research on domestic tourism m Peninsular Malaysia, that is, the study of the travel habits of the Malaysians within their own country, has yet to be carried out on a scholarly basis. Nevertheless, an important step in this direction 1 was made by the issue of a six-page preliminary report from the TDC last year. 18 It covers the first quarter of 1977 and the survey used the multiphase probability sample method in the selection of more than 6,500 Malaysian respondents, aged 15 and above. According to this paper, more than half of the local tourists (52%) came from the rural areas -- most of them from Perak, while the urban area travellers usually came from Kuala Lumpur. 119 Since the report does not indicate where the sample survey was made, that is, in which Malaysian states, it can be assumed that not all tourist areas were covered. Malaysians have an old established custom of visiting friends and relatives, 1 2° and thus it is not surprising that this is the most important purpose of travelling, ranking far ahead of any other purpose (53.5%, as compared to 19.4% holidaying, 12.9% social reasons, 9% business). The factors which TDC accounts for this pattern arc: 1 21 ( 1)

rapid urbanization and employment opportunities in the big towns, especially Kuala Lumpur; 1 22 nevertheless, during any big festiv.e season, be it a Muslim, Chinese or Indian festival, or any other kind of social gathering like weddings, migrants from rural areas return to their home kampungs for the time of the festival;

(2)

social ties within a large family are still most important to Malays and Chinese who come from the countryside.

118

Refer to TDC, TDC Research Notes, Preliminary Report on Domestic Tourism (Kuala Lumpur, 1978?).

119

Ibid., p. 2.

120 See N.J. Ryan, The Cultural Heritage of Malaya (Kuala Lumpur/Singapore, 1971), pp. 48-73. 121

Refer to TDC, TDC Research Notes, Preliminary Report on Domestic Tourism, op.cit., p. 3.

122

See Manjit Singh Sidhu, Kuala Lumpur and its Population(Kuala Lumpur, 1978), pp. 55-62 ("one out of every third inhabitant of Kuala Lumpur district in 1970 was a migrant from outside," p. 62; "often, during school holidays and religious festivals a large proportion of the migrants move out of Kuala Lumpur," p. 63); refer also to Dorothy Z. Fernandez, Amos H. Hawley and Silvia Predaza, 1974 World Population Year, The Population of Malaysia, Committee for International Co-ordination on National Research in Demography (CICRED) Series, ed. by R. Changer, n.p. 1975, pp. 37-54.

30

The hotel industry does not profit a lot from local tourism, smce most Malaysians find accommodation at their friends' homes without difficulty. It would actually be offending the visitor if accommodation was not offered. Nevertheless, during the school holidays, for example, those in August, many hotels are fully booked, especially those in beach areas. Those travellers who do not book in advance are stranded if they have no family members or friends to accommodate them. 1 2 3 Budget consciousness is also important, if not as important, to many travelling Malaysians, who prefer to spend money on food, drinks and entertainment rather than on expensive accommodation. As already mentioned earlier, 1 24 the promotion of local tourism is done by TDC and the travel agencies. It is a fairly recent phenomenon. Besides the "Malaysia Indah" TV series, TDC "sells" the country through advertisements m the mass media. In an advertisement in the New Straits Times which was published on Christmas Eve, the Malaysian reader was invited to explore his country by air, road or rail. 1 25 The Malayan Railways offers group concessions; a journey going beyond a distance of 200 kilometres may be interrupted at any point without surcharge. The "Sunday Rail Excursion Special" aims at day visitors from Kuala Lumpur to Port Dickson. 1 26 It is very probable that the hotel industry does not profit from this special offer, as most visitors will return home on the same day.

VIII:

THE TOURISTS' EXPECTATIONS

Why do tourists come to Malaysia? What are the most important attractions of the country? A TDC survey found the following frequency distribution of favourable comments:

123

Refer to NJ. Ryan, The Cultural Heritage of Malaya (Kuala Lumpur/Singapore, 1971); TDC, TDC Research Notes, Preliminary Report on Domestic Tourism (Kuala Lumpur, 1978?).

124

See the chapter on the Tourist Development Corporation.

125

Refer to New Straits Times, 24 December 1978, p. 4.

126

Ibid.

31

warm and friendly people

33%

beautiful scenery /countryside

21%

beautiful buildings/places of interest

20%

restful/relaxing atmosphere

16%

good food/restaurant services and

10% 9%127

pleasant climate

Of course, visitor arrivals are related to weather conditions and public, school or industrial holidays.l28 Therefore, during the rainy season, Langkawi or the East 9 Coast, for instance, would attract far less visitors than during the dry months, 1 2 although Malaysia is not, generally speaking, a country which is really dependent on climatic conditions where the tourism influx is concerned. The abovementioned survey may be criticized for not differentiating enough between the various items mentioned. There are many tourists who were enthusiastic about the "beautiful places of interest", the good food and the rest alike, while others may have special preferences not listed on the questionnaire. The item "warm and friendly people" at the top of the list 130 does not necessarily reflect the tourist's wish to meet Malaysians in Malaysia for the answer given might be a precautionary act, a courteous reply. If the fact is taken into accomi.t that many tourists do not stay very long in Malaysia and thus do not have enough time to get into close contact \vith individual Malaysians (other than on a superficial basis), this answer given to the TDC interviewers is not very solid for a possible analysis of the to.urist's motives to travel to Malaysia. So what does the tourist expect m Malaysia? Generally speaking, he wants to satisfy his adventurous of even romantic tendencies, to increase. his own prestige at home, to. satisfy his wish to experience amusem~nt, entertainment, recreation away from home in more independent surroundings, without being controlled by his usual social environment -- his family, for instance. These expectations are known

127

Refer to TDC, Visitor Survey 1977 (Kuala Lumpur, 1978), pp. 8-9 and Charts no. 32-34; see also TDC, Survey of Foreign Visitors by Air to Peninsular Malaysia (Kuala Lumpur, 1977), pp. 20-21 and Charts no. 53-54.

128

See, for example, TDC, Langkawi Visitor Destination Plan, Summary Report (Kuala Lumpur, 1977?), pp. 2-4.

129

Ibid.

130

Refer to footnote 127.

32

to the TDC. Therefore, for instance, Penang is the "Pearl of the Orient", 131 Northern Malaysia a "leisurely tropical paradise with an old world charm", 13 2 Langkawi is "mysterious" and "abounding in myths and legends", 13 3 Kuala Lumpur an "exotic city of gardens", 134 the Batu Caves are a "wonderful attraction", 135 while on the East Coast, the Malays live "unison with the sea, the jungle, the elements ... creating vibrant works of art". 13 6 Waving palm trees, blue waters, glorious beaches, scenic splendour, and so on and so forth; the examples are multiple and are found in many TDC, MAS or other travel agency brochures, folders or advertisements. As night life facilities in Kuala Lumpur cannot be compared to those in Taipei, Manila, Hong Kong or Bangkok, we can assume the average tourist visits Malaysia not because of such entertainment. 13 7 Probably, the natural resources of Malaysia are its biggest tourism potential; social and cultural resources rank second. 138 The introduction of the Club Mediterran'ee will provide an exclusive atmosphere that has nothing to do with Malaysia, since the Club members will remain among themselves most of the time and Malaysian entertainers (dancers and singers) will perform only occasionally and exclusively for them. This would, of course, not reflect the true spirit of the Malaysian culture(s). Therefore, TDC and travel agents usually offer Malaysia in terms of "beautiful" and cheap. Thus, during the cold winter of 1978/79, large billboards in some German towns sold Malaysia and its sun for cheap fares. Malaysia is being advertised in many of the German mass media. 139 In one instance, it was reported that a German travel 131

Refer to instance, to the TDC brochure Vacationland Malaysia, Penang-Langkawi Guide (Kuala Lumpur, 1978?).

132

Ibid.

133

Ibid.

134

See TDC, Vacationland Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur-Malacca Guide (Kuala Lumpur, 1978?).

135

Ibid.

136

Refer to TDC:, Vacationland Malaysia, General Guide (Kuala Lumpur, 1978?).

137

Refer to Special Features "Tourism in Malaysia: Problems and Prospects," in The Economic Bulletin (Kuala Lumpur), Vol. 2, No. 4, pp. 45-53.

138

Ibid.; for Langkawi, refer to TDC, Langkawi Visitor Destination Plan, Summary Report (Kuala Lumpur, 1977?}, pp. 2-4, 40.

139

See for instance, the TDC advertisements in Die Welt (Hamburg), 22 December 1977, p. III; Der Stern (Hamburg), No. 41/1978, p. 171; Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung (Frankfurt), 3 November 1978, p. R3; or the MAS advertisements launching the new service to Frankfurt in Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 20, 25, 26 October, 3 and 4 November 1978.

33

charter company also advertised the charm of Penang's girls, a step which was criticized by the local Consumers' Association of Penang (CAP).140 To sum it up, tourism publicity covering Malaysia reflects all maJor expectations of long-distance tourists; furthermore, it propagates improvement of the quality of life of the tourists, rarity values, novelty conventions and natural or artificial so-called tourist attractions. Often enough, these advertisements reflect the "beautiful" Malaysia image, thus neglecting the realities of the social, economic and political aspects of Malaysian daily life. It can be .argued that potentjal visitors would consider another destination than Malaysia if they are confronted visibly with disturbances or unpleasantries of any kind. Therefore, the public relations advertisements and campaigns emphasize ( 1)

natural resources;

(2)

entertainment and recreation;

(3)

shopping possibilities; and eating out.1 41

(4)

IX:

SOCIAL IMPLICATIONS OF TOURISM IN WEST MALAYSIA

Tourism is. an interactional system. A recent hypothesis that tourism contributes very little to intercultural communication has been articulated by Homberg.142 Generally speaking, this communication only takes place if the tourists have cognitive expectations, that is, the willingness of changing their own possibly negative or neutral attitudes towards, say, manners and customs of the peoples of the host 140

Refer to "The ugly side of the tourist boom in Malaysia," New Straits Times, 19 September 1978, p. 6.

141

See the three Vacationland Malaysia brochures mentioned in footnotes 131, 134 and 136.

142

Refer to Erentraud Homberg, Tourismus -- Funktioncn, Strukturen,. Kommunikationskan'rile (Mlinchen, 1977).

34

country. It is argued that stereotypes (which date back from high school days oi which have been raised or even increased by friends' tales, the mass media or the contents of modern advertisements) are barriers to communication.l 43 As has been mentioned before, 144 the average length of stay of visitors to West Malaysia is 5.2 nights {1977). This period of time is much too brief to enable tourists (possibly excluding those from Singapore, Thailand, India and Indonesia) to communicate intensively with the Malaysians, since the roles and interests of both do not coincide. 1 45 A tourist, travelling to Malaysia mainly out of recreatiortal purposes or because the country is just a stopover between Bangkok and Singapore, is generally not willing to change his conception of the world, and, more concretely, his ideas on Asian societies. As Hamberg puts it, citizens of richer countries travel to poorer nations, and they attribute specific differences between the two to the so-called "lower" stages of development and education of the developing country. 14 6 The tourist's conception of Malaysia, especially if he comes from Continental Europe, Japan or the U.S., is either very minimal (Malaysia is then always connected with Penang) 14 7 or already stereotyped. The possibilities of changing the tourists' ideas on the visited country, that is, Malaysia, are limited, especially if they arrive in groups and stay at closed-up hotel ghettos. The TDC and the travel agencies contribute to this situation in a way by regarding the tourist as a milk cow who is expected to come again to Malaysia and spend even more. Therefore the question is posed, why change the tourists' expectation of a tropic paradise? It is very difficult to root out old prejudices in the tourists' mind, but much easier to strengthen them. Since the knowledge of Malaysia is fairly limited in Europe and the U.S. (the preference is for news concentration on the Vietnamese refugees and other natural catastrophes), the publicity is based on zero-knowledge, thus introducing 143

Erentraud Romberg, Tourismus -- Funktionen, Strukturen, Kommunikationskaniile (Miinchen, 1977); and Detlef Fornfeist, and Karl-Riidiger Schmidt, "Forschungsthemen und Untersuchungsansatze zum Thema Ferntourismus," in Bundesministerium fiir Wirtschaftliche Zusammenarbeit, Entwicklungspolitik Materialien Nr. 54 (Bonn, 1976), pp. 97-99.

144 See above p. 23. 145

Refer to Jacques Bugnicourt, "Ein neuer Kolonialismus," in Forum Vereinte Nationen (Geneva: United Nations, August-September 1977), Vol. 4, No. 6, p. 8.

146

See Erentraud Homberg, op.cit., p. 213.

147

Refer to, for example, Tengku Idaura Askandar, "Tourism Promotion: Penang's Experience," in TDC, Lapuran seminar mengenai beberapa aspek penggalakan pelancungan [Proceedings of the Seminar on Various Aspects of Tourism Promotion] (Kuala Lumpur, 1974), pp. 54-61 (English part); "Behutsame Expansionspolitik in Malaysia," in Der Fremdenverkehr und das Reiseburo (Darmstadt : September 19 77), p. 54.

35

new cliches to potential visitors. 148 It relieves the visitor from his duty of getting objective and first-hand informati on: "Malaysia -- brilliant and fascinating contrasts" . The real contrasts -- between men -- are deliberate ly omitted from publicity. 14 9 In the social effects peculiar to tourism, the chief factor is the very presence of foreign visitors to West Malaysia. Nearly 1.2 million visitors were recorded in the first ten months of 1978, 150 and Malaysia received a tourist influx, of the proportio n of 13% of its total populatio n, 151 although we have to consider a geographical concentra tion of the tourist destinatio ns mainly along the West Coast, including Kuala Lumpur. Communi cation is not impossibl e for most visitors -- the Japanese possibly being the most prominen t exception -- since English is widely understoo d. But, on the other hand, tourists tend to isolate themselves easily in their hotel palaces, and after the opening of such resorts like the Penang Hyatt, Penang Holiday Inn or the Club Mediterra nee, we may assume that they will do likewise there, since all facilities are included in the hotel resorts. 15 2 Next to this idolation trend which is observed in many tourist destinatio ns (in countries like Kenya, Tunisia, the Ivory Coast, the Bahamas or Bali), 153 but not in all (like in Guatemal a), 154 we have to consider the demonstr ation effect which may set standards for desirable change, but also which may initiate more or less undesirab le 148

Refer to example to "Massentou rismus: Gefahrliche Auswirkung en bei den Menschen der Dritten Welt, J etzt sind sie noch armer," in Deutsches Allgemeine s Sonntagsbl att, 25 August 1978, as quoted in BMZ, Entwicklun gspolitik, Spiegel der Presse, 29 August 1978 (No. 32/ 1978), p. 1000.

149

Refer to Erentraud Homberg, Tourismus -- Funktionen , Strukturen, Kommunik ationskana le · (Miinchen, 1977).

150

See above P- 20.

151

Refer to Departmen t of Statistics, Annual Statistical Bulletin Malaysia 1976 (Kuala Lumpur, 1977), p. 1, Table LL

152

See Penang Developme nt Corporatio n, Penang Travelnews, July-Septem ber 1978, pp. 6, 7, 11, 13; TDC, Travelnews Malaysia, Vol. 1, No. 2, p. 5-

153

Refer to Wolfgang Meyer, Fcmtourism us, Vorstellungen uber Ceylon, Kenia, Tansania, Tunesien (Starnberg, 1975); Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung (Frankfurt) , 2 November 1978, Rl; Lothar Nettekoven , Massentour ismus in Tunesien (Starnberg, 1972); Armin Vielhaber, Entwicklun gspolitisch e "'jfentlichk eitsarbeit im Bereich Tourismus in BMZ, Entwicklun gspolitik Materialien Nr. 54 (Bonn, 1976), PP- 28-79, spec. pp. 31-33, 37-38.

154 See R. Schawinsky , Die sozio-okono mischen Faktoren des Fremdenve rkehrs in Entwicklun gsfandem: Der Fall Guatemala (Bern/Stutt gart, 1973), St. Galler Beitrage zum Fremdenve rkehr des Instituts ftir Fremdenve rkehrs- und Verkehrswi rtschaft an der Hochschule St. Gallen.

36

patterns of behaviour (as seen by the ruling 'elites). The conspicuous consumption of many tourists is seen by many especially young people, as an example that must be followed. 155 Thus, according to a paper presented by a Research Officer of the CAP, 156 tourism competes with the needs of the local population in the use of scarce resources. Tourists easily get better public utilities, transport, shelter and recreational facilities, especially in Batu Ferringhi, Georgetown, Kuala Lumpur and on the East Coast. For example, in Cherating many kampung houses do not have electricity or tap water yet (the one and only well is open to all), while these are basic to the Club Mediterranee project. But it should not be forgotten that some of these undesirable changes are produced even in the absence of tourism, since inappropriate patterns of behaviour and expenditure are introduced through the mass media, especially through the television networks and Western films in the cinemas. 157 Some patterns of behaviour said to have been introduced by "hippy tourists", 158 such as long hair, have been taken over by the young Malaysians either from them or from the media (in imitation of favourite Western male singers) or from both. These copy effects 159 are universal. But Malaysia is in a far better position to resist than most developing countries since Islam as the national religion is able to withhold negative foreign influences from its (Malay) culture, of course not on all levels, but on many important ones. This can be demonstrated best with Islamic festivals 160 which in Malaysia generally do not suffer any large tourist influence, because not many tourists are interested in the Hari Raya Puasa, Israk-Mikraj or Hari Raya Haji ceremonies. 161 155

Refer to "The ugly side the tourist boom in Malaysia," New Straits Times, 19 September 1978, p. 6; TDC, RACNOM Report of the Sub-Committee on Tourism (Kuala Lumpur, 1976), p. 3 (on the resettlement of local Batu Ferringhi residents); TDC, Lapuran seminar mengenai beberapa aspek penggalakan pelancungan [Proceedings of the Seminar on Various Aspects of Tourism Promotion] (Kuala Lumpur), p. 99.

156

See New Straits Times, 19 September 1978, p. 6 (footnote 155).

157

Refer to Robert Lanquar, Le tourisme international (Paris:

158

Refer to Asian Youth Seminar, "Tourism and its Impact on Youth" (Penang, 1976), pp. 19-20.

159

Ibid., IUOTO/WTO, The Impact of International Tourism on the Economic Development of Developing Countries (Geneva, 1975), pp. 33-34.

P.U.F., 1977), pp. 117-119.

160 See TDC brochure, Festivals Malaysia (Kuala Lumpur, 1977, 1978). 161

Refer to Norbert Hofmann, Der islamische Festkalender in java und Sumatra (Bad Honnef: Bock und Herchen, 1978), pp. 190-191.

37

These festivals are not colourful enough, with the possible exception of the Maulud procession at the Merdeka Stadium in Kuala Lumpur.162 Festivals of other ethnic sources or religions like Chinese New Year, Deepavali, Thaipusam appear to be of more interest to tourists' photographic eyes. Only a few mosque such as Masjid Negara in Kuala Lumpur are visited by a large number of foreign non-Muslim tourists, and the Malays expect these tourists there and are ready to block any disturbing activities that might be caused by indecent tourist behaviour (on the promotion of Islamic culture, monuments, etc., see Table 7). On the other hand traditional Malay folklore and handicrafts which are not or have not been directly influenced by Islam, such as the wayang kulit (puppet shadow play), dances, games, music, handicraft products, experience a revival with the influx and thus lose much of their original meaning and importance.163 From Kuantan to Kota Bahru, many souvenir shops have been opened to cater to the tourists. Those especially in the smaller kampungs do not fulfil their original purpose because the tourists do not stop at each and every shop. The one in Cherating is quite neglected (unfinished screwpine mats and baskets of pelupoh (plaited bamboo) -- were to be seen lying around the floor). During the writer's field research there was not one single visitor from outside (the kampung tourists occasionally had a look at the crafts, but they did not seem to be willing to buy). Often enough the handicraft products do not preserve the ancient honoured crafts of the country. This is best demonstrated by the Kelantan silver and songket weaving industries which die slowly, according to a lengthy report in the Sunday Mait. 164 One of the greatest shortcomings facing these industries which one catered for royal ceremonies is the lack of price control. Tourists are the main buyers, but the number of international tourists to Kelantan, Trengganu and Pahang has always been relatively low, compared to that of the West Coast. 1 6 5 Nowadays, East Coast handicraft products can be obtained elsewhere, in Kuala Lumpur, Penang, Singapore, 166 and the East Coast loses some of its attractions in this way. '·

162

Refer to "40,000 for Prophet's Rally," New Straits Times, 24 January 1979, p. 6.

163

Refer to the analysis of Irish handicrafts and the production of tourist souvenirs in the Republic of Ireland: Albrecht R. Steinecke, Der Tourismus als Faktor wirtschaftliche Entwicklung und sozialen Wandels von Regionen -- untersucht am Beispiel der Republik Irland (Kiel, 1976), 2 vols, Ch. 5, pp. 457-574.

164 Sunday Mail, 13 August 1978, pp. 16-17. 165

See TDC, Visitor Survey 1977 (Kuala Lumpur, 1978), p. 6, and Chart no. 25.

166

For instance, at the Handicraft Centre, Tanglin Road, ,Singapore 1024.

38

Table 7:

Promotion of Islam and Malay Culture in TDC Brochures and Advertisements

(Only the English-language publications have been analysed) NOT MENTIONED

( 1)

Significance of Islam (in general terms) (syahadah, Islamic prayer, fasting, zakat, pilgrimage to Mecca)

(2)

History of Islam in West Malaysia (advent, spread, Islamic and non-Islamic areas of the country)

(3)

Islam -- the national religion and its significance for Malaysia

(4)

The Dakwah movement and its significance

( 5)

Minor Muslim festivals (Asyura, last Wednesday of the month of Safar, Mikraj, Awal Muharram, Awal Ramadhan, Lailat al-Qadr)

MENTIONED

(1)

"Beautiful mosques" with "Moorish minarets" (especially National Mosque in Kuala Lumpur, Tranquerah Mosque/Melaka, Kapitan Kling Mosque and Mosque in Acheen Street/Georgetown, Penang, Zahir Mosque in Alor Star, Ubudiah Mosque/Kuala Kangsar, Langkawi Mosque). No description of the mosques (usually outside picture only); no information of the role of mosque (daily prayers, reunion halls, Qur'an reading competitions, etc.); usually no information on the history of the mosques.

(2)

Islamic festivals (Hari Raya Puasa, Hari Raya Usually the festivals are only the fasting month, only very remains doubtful whether he

Haji, Maulud) mentioned; with the exception of the festival at the end of brief explanations are given. It is assumable that the visitor should participate or not -- at least as an observer.

(3)

Dances (zapin, rodat, makyong -- Kelantan/East Coast)

(4)

Games (of Malay origin) (main gasing, kites, competition of singing birds/Kota Bahru)

(5)

Music (rebana kercing, berdikir barat, rebana, kertok)

(6)

Other folklore (silat, main pantai/Trengganu, Sultans' birthdays festivals, mandi safar/Melaka, Bachok festival/ Kelantan)

(7)

Malay handicrafts

Detailteri description of items 3-7 especially in the "Kelantan" folder.

39

It should not be forgotten that shortage of labour also accounts for the drop of handmade tourist handicraft products in Kelantan: the number of skilled craftsmen is quite limited. 1 6 7 Some of the enterprises (centred in Jalan Sultanah Zainab in Kota Bahru), however, can survive as long as national and international demand for batik products, including East Coast batik, will not end, on the condition that these enterprises readjust themselves to the tourist market. The local Kelantan authorities interested in tourist affairs (in Bangunan Setiausaha Negri, Kota Bahru) will have to follow the example of the Kuantan Department of Tourism which sponsors local handicrafts and controls the prices. It offers a large number of various items in its own premises in the Pahang capital city. Thus, on the negative side, the Department of Tourism creates an interdependence between itself and the handicraft producing kampungs, taking away from them the opportunity of attracting more international tourists. The kampungs will have to rely more and more on their natural resources, like the beaches or, in the Rantau Abang case, the turtles.

A new trend in Malaysian tourism is the so-called kampung tourism which 1s promoted solely by the Pahang Department of Tourism. It invites especially the adventurous type of tourists to stay at one of a few selected kampungs north of Kuantan; it arranges some accommodation for the tourists usually at a fixed price (M$10 per person per night including three meals daily and afternoon tea or coffee, either with or without other members of the host family). This kind of tourism is not yet being promoted on a large scale or in any of the TDC brochures; it has also not earned sufficient publicity yet -- deliberately so, since the authorities do not wish to overcrowd the kampungs with foreigners; The ambiguity is clear: while TDC prefers attracting wealthy tourists and promoting joint ventures like the Club Mediterra:rlee project, the Pahang authorities wish at present to attract those tourists who renounce luxurious accommodation and Western food while they travel through Malaysia. Generally, it may be assumed that one contact between the kampung dwellers and the mentioned visitors is not restricted to daily necessaries such as food and drink supply, the washing of clothes and so on. The research 1 6 8 found out that intensive discussions took place between Malay speaking tourists and the villagers. Those not being able to speak Malay asked some youths to help translate. Topics of discussion

167

Refer to Sunday Mail, 13 August 1978, pp. 16-17.

168

Publication of longer article on kampung tourism is planned in the future.

40

ranged from Malay traditions, customs and religion to recent politics, including the question of Indochina refugees to the East Coast. The Kuantan Department of Tourism remains concerned about those tourists who do not respect local alcohol, clothing and sexual taboos. 169 In one case, visitors were asked to leave a house in Cherating where they had been living for a few days, when the landlord was shocked about their habit of walking around naked in his house. Another risk to the promotion of this kind of tourism is the introduction of venereal diseases, a problem that is quite common in other Asian tourist beach centres, like those in Bali.l 70 The average length of stay of visitors to Cherating kampungs is not much longer than those of other visitors to Malaysia because of the limited attractions and facilities. But it must be added that, although they do not stay long in Cherating, they do not rush out of the country quickly, as they want to visit other villages, towns and beaches in the country. The peak season of the Cherating kampung tourism was, in 19 78, the period of the Kemaman Main Paintai and the Rantau Abang turtles -- all kampung houses were "fully booked" then. The daily programme of the kampung tourists included getting up early (usually not much later than the host family because of the noise), washing oneself in Cf>mmon at the public well, washing of clothes whenever necessary (if this duty was not taken over by a girl of one of the families), breakfast, reading and/or going to the beach, lunch, afternoon break, afternoon tea, chatting with the neighbours, dinner. Excursions by bus with or without family members (such as one to Kemaman, Trengganu) were made whenever necessary or usefuL In some cases, fishermen agreed to take along the visitors during their fishing excursions at night. At this stage, it cannot be said whether this kind of tourism will be successful in promoting Malay life to foreigners; it does not seem to be very profitable, although the villagers welcomed the new influx of money provided by the visitors. One house was being enlarged and renovated for the sake of the visitors, providing work for several weeks for the village carpenter.

On the other

169

Refer to Klaus Kreiser, Werner Diem and Hans-Georg Majer (editors), Lexikon der Islamischen Welt (Stuttgart/Berlin/Koln/Mainz, 1974), 3 vols., Vol. 3, in the section "Tourismus".

170

Refer to "Oldest Profession begins spoiling Bali's youngsters" in The Indonesian Obseroer Uakarta), 5 September 1974, p. 1.

41

hand, additional beds, amounts of food and drinks, bedsheets and be bought in town. Also, the psychological effects (including the kampung tourism on both the villagers and the tourists cannot be since intensive questionnaires would have to be distributed to the

pillows have to ill effects) of described here, two groups.

X: UUTLOOK

"Human tourism" is a formula adopted by some other tourist offices, like 171 Could this be a solution the Ivory Coast one, in countries of the Third World. to the forthcoming social and economic problems of international tourism in these countries? By this concept, it is understood that, in the very first instance, Malaysians should be informed of and educated in the significance of tourism which is not just as an income generator. For example, it is tourism that helps conserve or revive crafts, though possibly in the proces changing their original meaning. Tourists, on the other hand, must be enlightened on the religious, political, and economic situation of Malaysia before and while they travel, for example, through objective information in guidebooks. To the author, it seems that explaining the role and significance of Islam in Malaysia would help to create a better atmosphere of understanding when tourists meet, for instance, veiled Malay women in the streets. To increase the tourist business, many resorts only need a little more encouragement by local, Singaporean and Thai visitors/tourists. Then, places like Langkawi Island can take off as tourist resorts. The question whether non-Asian tourists are really necessary at all (since the economic contribution of such tourists is not among the big exports earners in Malaysia's economy and since social, ecological and infrastructural problems are created), a question that has been raised in Hong Kong's Legislative Council in 1978, 17 2 cannot be answered here. One thing is certain-Malaysia will continue to promote tourism on a large scale and it expects 1.9 million tourists by 1980 (a figure given in the Third Malaysia Plan).173 At the time of

171

Refer to Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung (Frankfurt), 2 November 1978, p. Rl.

172 See FEER (Hong Kong), 19 January 1979, p. 52. 173

Refer to Third Malaysia Plan 1976-1980 (Kuala Lumpur, 1976), p. 430.

42

finalizing this report, the outcome of Australia's new civil aviation policy on Malaysia's tourist markets 1 74 was still a matter of mere speculation. It is also doubtful whether there will be an influx of Taiwanese tourists, as tourist passports have been issued to Taiwanese citizens since 1 January 1979. 175 Malaysian regulations do not ease the visits of Taiwanese. It remains to be seen whether TDC and other interested groups can mobilize Malaysian tourists to travel more intensively within the country to the benefit of the hotel and associated industries.

174

Refer to FEER (Hong Kong), 19 january 1979, pp. 42-45.

175 Ibid., p. 53.

43

BIBLIOGRAPHY

A.

Newspapers and Magazines

Around Malaysia (Kuala Lumpur:

Tourist Development Corporation).

Asia Travel Trade (Hong Kong) Asiaweek (Hong Kong) Business Times (Kuala Lumpur) Der Fremdenverkehr und das Reisebilro (Darmstadt) Die Welt (Hamburg) Economic Bulletin (Kuala Lumpur) Entwichlungspolitik im Spiegel der Presse (Bonn:

BMZ)

Far Eastern Economic Review (Hong Kong) Financial Times (London) Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung (Frankfurt) Frankfurter Rundschau (Frankfurt) Malaysia Travelnews (Kuala Lumpur:

Tourist Development Corporation).

New Straits Times (Kuala Lumpur) New Sunday Times (Kuala Lumpur) Penang Travelnews (Penang:

Penang Development Corporation)

Straits Times (Singapore) Sunday Mail (Kuala Lumpur).

B.

Books and Articles

ASEAN Tours and Travel Agency. Report of the Second Annual Convention of the ASEAN Tours and Travel Association, May 28-30 1974. Kuala Lumpur: ASEANTTA, 1974. Asia Travel Trade.

"Market Probe Malaysia."

Hong Kong: June 1978, pp. 3-18.

44

Bottjer, U. "Soziookonomische und soziokulturelle Auswirkungen des Massentourismus auf Entwicklungsgescllschaften." Ph.D. dissertation, University of Gottingen, 1977. Bugnicourt, Jacques. "Ein neuer Kolonialismus?" In Forum Vere£nte Nat£onen. Vol. 4, No. 6, Aug.-Sept. 1977, p. 8. Bundesministerium ftir Wirtschaftlichc Zusammenarbeit. Entw£cklungspoHtik Materialien Nr. 54, Tourismus und Entwicklungspol£tik. Bonn: 1976. Chew, Alan Fook Yew. The Malaysian Balance of Payments 1960-1970. Penerbit Universiti Malaya, 1975. Clement, Harry G. The Future of Tourism in the Pacifi:c and Far East. D.C.: U.S. Department of Commerce, 1961.

Kuala Lumpur:

Washington,

Dauth, Jlirgen. "Malaysia's 'New Economic Policy', Armut ist eine Rassenfrage." In E + Z (Entwicklung und Zusammenarbeit), Vol. 19, July 1978, pp. 8-10. Department of Statistics. S£aran Perangkaan Tahunan 1976 {Annual Statistical Bulletin 19 76J. Kuala Lumpur: 19 77.

----------. Perangkaan Ketibaan Pelawat-Pelawat [Visitor Am·val Stati'st£cs]. Sabah: 1975. Kota Kinabalu: 1976. ---------- Perangkaan Ketibaan Pelawat-Pelawat [Vis£tor Am·val Statistics]. Sarawak: 1975. Kuching: 1976. Edelmann, Klaus M.F. "Limits to Tourism Growth in LDCs." In Intereconom£cs 3/1975, pp. 77 seq.

Encyclopedic de /'Islam.

1ere edition.

Leiden:

1917.

Far Eastern Econom£c Rev£ew Asia Year Book 1978.

Hong Kong:

1977.

Far Eastern Economic Review Asia Year Book 1979.

Hong Kong:

1978.

FIDA. Malaysia Your Profi:t Centre in Asia.

2nd edition. Kuala Lumpur:

1978.

45

FIDA. Investment Incentives Act 1968.

4th edition.

Kuala Lumpur:

---------. AnnWll Report 1976 [Lapuran Tahunan 1976]. 1977.

19 75.

Kuala Lumpur:

---------.- Malaysia, A Basic Guidebook for Potential Investors. 1978.

Kuala Lumpur:

Frentrup, Klaus. Die "Okonomische Bedeutung des internatz"onalen Fremdenverkehrs fur die Entwicltlungslltnder. Hamburg: 1969. Gearing, C.E., Swart, W.W., and Var, T. "The Economic and Sociological Impact of International Tourism." In Planning for Tourist Development, Quantitative Approaches. New York: 1976. Gleichmann, P. Zur Soziologie des Fremdenverkehrs, Sonderdruck aus Wissenschaftliche Aspekte des Fremdenverkehrs. Hanover: 1969. Government of Malaysia and the State of J ohor. Tourism, ]ohor Tengah and Tanjong Penggerang Regional Master Plan. Supp. Vol. 7, n.p., 1971. GUntersperger, S. "Internationaler Tourismus -- die Kulturbegegnung findet nicht statt." In Informationsdienst Dritte Welt, No. 8. Bonn: 1973. Hofmann, Norbert. Der islamische Festkalender auf Java und Sumatra. dis.sertation, University of Mainz. Bad Honnef: 1978.

Ph.D.

Romberg, Erentraud. Tourismus -- Funktionen, Strukturen, Kommunikationskanale. Mlinchen: 1977. IUOTO/WTO. The Impact of International Tourism on the Economic Development of the Developing Countries. Geneva: 1975. Kreiser, K., W. Diem and RG. Majer. Lexikon der lslami'schen Welt. Stuttgart/Berlin/Koln/Mainz: 1974. Lanquar, Robert.

Le tourisme internatio1llll.

Paris:

1976.

Malaysia Official Year Book 1975.

Kuala Lumpur:

1976.

Malaysia Official Year Book 1976.

Kuala Lumpur:

1977.

3 vols.

Meyer, Wolfgang. Ferntouri'smus -- Vorstellungen uber Ceylon, Kenia, Tansania, Tunesien. Starnberg: 1975.

46

Ministry of Finance, Malaysia.

Econom£c Report 1976/77.

Kuala Lumpur:

----------

Economic Report 1977/78.

Kuala Lumpur:

1977.

----------

Economic Report 1978/79.

Kuala Lumpur:

1978.

1976.

"National Report No. 35, Singapore." In lnternat£onal Tourism Quarterly. London, No. 4/1976. Nettekoven, Lothar. Massentourismus in Tunes£en. O'Grady, Ron, ed. Tourism the Asian Dilemma. of Asia, 1975. Ryan, N.J.

The Cultural Heritage of Malaya.

Starnberg: Singapore:

Kuala Lumpur:

Sandhu, Kernial Singh, ed. A Decade of ASEAN. Educational Publications Bureau, 19 78.

1972. Christian Conference

Longman, 1971.

Radio Talk Series 20.

Sidhu, Manjit Singh. Kuala Lumpur and its Population. Publications, 1978.

Kuala Lumpur:

Singapore:

Surinder

Schawinsky, R. D£e soziookonomische n Faktoren des Fremdenverkehrs in Entw£cklungsUindern, Der Fall Guatemala. Bern/Stuttgart: 1973. Sheppard, Mubin. Taman lndera. A Royal Pleasure Ground: Malay Decorative Arts and Pastimes. Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press, 1972. Singapore Tourist Promotion Board. Annual Statistical Report on Visitor Arrivals Singapore 1972. Singapore: 1973.

---------- Annual Statistical Report on Visitor Arrivals Singapore 1973. Singapore: 1974. ---------- Annual Statistical Report on Visitor Arrivals Singapore 1974. Singapore: 1975. ---------- Annual Statistical Report on Visitor Arrivals Singapore 1975. Singapore: 1976. ---------- Annual Statistical Report on Visitor Arrivals Singapore 1976. Singapore: 1977. ---------- Annual Statistical Report on Visitor Arrivals Singapore 1977. Singapore: 1978.

47

Singapore Tourist Promotion Board. Singapore: 19 77.

Survey of Overseas Visitors to Singapore 1975.

----------. Survey of Overseas Visitors to Singapore 1976. ----------

Singapore Travelnews.

Singapore:

1978.

Various issues.

State Economic Development Corporation (Pahang). Kuantan: n.d. {1976?}

SEDC Investments in Pahang.

Steinecke, Albrecht. Tourismus als Faktor Wirtschaftlicher Entwicklung und sozialen Wandes -- Untersuchung am Berspiel der Republik Irland. 2 vols. Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Kiel, 1976. Studienkreis ftir Tourismus. Ferntourismus -- ein Mittel der Entwicklungshilfe und Volkervesfdndigung? Bericht uber eine Tagung des Studienkreises fur Tourismus vom 7.-8.5. 1973 in Bensheim in Verbindung mit dem Bundesministerium fur Wirtschaftliche Zusammenarbeit. Stamberg: 1974.

Third Malaysia Plan 1976-1980. Kuala Lumpur:

1976.

Tanjung Penggerang, Tourism Study, State of ]ohor, West Malaysia, Detailed Plan Report June 1973. n.p., n.d. "Tourisme et Tiers Monde." In jeune Afrique. and 4 January 1978.

Nos. 886-887, 28 December 1977

Tourist Development Corporation of Malaysia. Monthly Report of Statistics of Incoming Visitors to Peninsular Malaysia. Kuala Lumpur: 1972-1978.

----------. TDC Research Notes, Preliminary Report on Domestic Tourism Survey. Kuala Lumpur: 1977. ----------. Proceedings of the Seminar on Various Aspects of Tourist Promotion. Kuala Lumpur: 1974. ----------. Lapuran Tahunan dan Penyata Kira-Kira [Annual Report and Statement of Accounts 1974]. Kuala Lumpur: 1975. ----------. Statistical Report on Tourist Arrivals to Peninsular Malaysia. Kuala Lumpur: 19 77. ----------

Hotel Guest Survey 1973.

----------

Hotel Occupancy Survey 1974.

Kuala Lumpur:

n.d. (1974?)

Kuala Lumpur:

1975.

48

Tourist Development Corporation of Malaysia. Hotel Occupancy Suroey 1975. Kuala Lumpur: 1976.

----------

Hotel Occupancy Suroey 1976.

----------

Visitor Suroey 1977.

----------

Malaysisches Rez"sehandbuch.

Kuala Lumpur:

Kuala Lumpur:

1977.

1978.

Kuala Lumpur:

n.d. (1975?)

---------- Survey of Foreign Vz"sitors by Air to Peninsular Malaysia 1976. Kuala Lumpur: 19 77. ----------. Penyertaan Bumiputra dalam Perusahaan Pelancungan, Pesta Pembangunan Peringkat Kebangsaan Kuala Lumpur 20-27hb. fun 1974. Kuala Lumpur: n.d. (1974?) ----------. Langkawz· Visitor Destination Plan, Summary Report. n.d. ( 19 77?)

Kuala Lumpur:

----------. RACNOM Report of the Sub-Committee on Tourism. 1976.

Kuala Lumpur:

Tourist Organization of Thailand. Statzstical Report of Visitors to Thailand, januaryDecember 1975. Bangkok: 1976.

---------- Visitors to Thailand by Nationalz"ty and Month of Arrival, januaryJune 1978. Bangkok: 1978. UNCTAD.

Guidelines for Tourism Statz"stics.

UNESCO.

Les effets du tourisme sur les valeurs sodo-culturelles.

World Tourism Organization.

New York:

World Travel Statistics 1976.

World Travel Statistics 1977. ----------

Tourism Compendium.

Madrid:

Madrid:

1971. Paris:

Madrid:

1975.

1977.

1978.

1977.

Yayasan Binatera Directorate-General of Tourism Indonesia (and)· the ASEAN National Secretariat of Indonesia. Travel, Trade and Development in ASEAN. Jakarta: 19 77.

INSTITUTE OF SOUTHEAST ASIAN STUDIES LIST OF PUBLICATIONS IN THE RESEARCH NOTES AND DISCUSSIONS PAPERS SERIES 1

M. Mainguy, Economic Problems Related to Oil and Gas Exploration, 1976. 39pp. S$6.00

2

R. William Liddle, Cultural and Class Politics in New Order Indonesia, 1977. 21pp. S$4.00 {Out of print)

3

Raja Segaran Arumugam, State and Oil in Burma, 1977.

4

Hilman Adil, Australia's Policy Towards Indonesia Dur-ing Confrontation, 1962-66, 1977. 90pp. S$8.00 (Out of print)

5

Albert D. Moscotti, Burma's Const-itution and Elections of 1974: A Source Book, 1977. 184pp. S$13.00

6

Thamsook Numnonda, Thailand and the Japanese Presence, 1941-45, 1977. 142pp. S$13.00

7

Nguyen The Anh, The Withering Days of the Nguyen Dynasty, 1978. 33pp. S$4.00

8

M. Rajaretnam, Thailand's Kra Canal:

9

R.O. Whyte and Pauline Whyte, Rural Asian Women: 1978. 34pp. S$4.00

10

Ismail Kassim, The Politics of Accommodation: An Analysis of the 1978 Malaysian General Election, 1978. llOpp. S$11.00

11

Leo Suryadinata, The "Overseas Chinese" in Southeast Asia and China's Foreign Policy: An Interpretative Essay, 1978. 45pp. S$5.00

12

Y. Mansoor Marican, Public Personnel Administration in Malaysia, 1979. 21pp. S$4.00

13

Norbert Hofmann, A Survey of Tourism in West Malaysia and Some SocioEconomic Implications, 1979. 48pp. S$5.00

36pp.

Some Issues, 1978.

S$5.00

82pp.

S$8.00

Status and Environment,

Publications Review Committee Kernial S. Sandhu (Chairman) Sharon Siddique (Co-ordinator) Huynh Kim Khanh Vichitvong na Pombhejara P. Lim Pui Huen Christine Tan

THE AUTHOR Norbert Hofmann is currently Acting Regional Director of the Singapore Tourist Promotion Board (STPB) in Frankfurt/Germany. His doctoral dissertation is entitled "Islamic Festivals in Java and Sumatra". In the period June 1978 to Ffbruary 1979, he was Visiting Fellow at the Institute of Southeast Asian Stud1es. He has published several book reviews as well as "Der Islam in der Welt" in al-Islam, Vol. 5 (1978).